h 1~ j 2 4 ø 0 -- WORLD BANK GROUP The gendered division of labour, as well as gender In June 2019, the Association of Southeast Asian stereotypes of what women and men 'should do', Nations (ASEAN) Member States committed to impact who in the home and the community is in improving the management of marine plastic by charge of, and must contribute to, plastic waste signing the Bangkok Declaration on Combating management.vii However, evidence also suggests that Marine Debris in the ASEAN region. livelihood options, access to resources, and differing levels of knowledge and information are influencing ASEAN also established the 2021 ASEAN Regional factors for who works in plastic production, and how Action Plan for Combating Marine Debris in the women and men use, dispose of and recycle plastic ASEAN Member States.ix National policies and as part of solid waste management.viii Women and strategies are expected to follow but are still in the men also contribute to and are impacted by marine early phases of development and it is unknown yet plastic pollution differently. Due to their different how the gender dimensions of the plastic value chain roles and occupations for example in fisheries and will inform policy and programme development. tourism, marine plastic pollution impacts livelihoods and lives in differentiated ways. The purpose of this knowledge brief is to explore the gender dimensions of four stages of the marine plastic management value chain; production, consumption, solid waste management and marine plastic debris (see Figure 1). The brief draws out key findings from a six-country study including Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam and contributes to the emerging evidence base on the role of gender in marine plastic management. The brief targets practitioners and policy makers working to promote gender responsive marine plastic management policies, strategies and programmes in East Asia and the Pacific. RECYCLE PLASTIC MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION , TE 4.7 TO - ENERGY OCEAN, RIVER AND WATERWAYS LANDFILL WASTE MARKETS, RESTAURANTS END USER COLLECTION AND OTHER SECTORS SOLID WASTE P T MANAGEMENT UNCOLLECTED CONSUMPTION MAREPLASTIC WASTE MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 2 WORLD BANK GROUP While women make up 30-40% of science, Plastic production is a significant industry in some technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) Asian economies and demand continues to grow!x In graduates in Lao PDR, the Philippines, Thailand, and 2017, Thailand's plastic production was 8.5 million Vietnam, few are retained in research jobs in the plastics industry,"" especially in polymer science.l tons and consumption was pegged at 4.4 million y, e cy i y tons.xi Coinciding with the increasing demand for Sex segregation is apparent in employment within plastic products in the country and the region, plastic production factories and those industries Thailand's petrochemical industry has become the that use plastic as a raw material; women tend to second largest producing in Southeast Asia.xii In be in lower skilled roles and with lower pay 2018, Thailand produced 11.8 million tons of compared to men. Gender differentiated patterns of petrochemical products, including plastic resins, and employment vary across Asian countries. In the the plastics industry contributed 1,100 billion Thai Philippines men dominate plastic production,xxv while baht (US$36.9 billion) to the national economy, in Viet Nam women dominate.m As for employees in representing 6.71 percent of Thailand's GDP " the rubber and plastics sector in Myanmar, female In the Philippines, plastics were the fifth largest workers make up almost half the workforce (48.1 import and as of March 2019, worth US$235.04 percent).-i Among the industries that use plastic as million, an increase of 14.2 percent over the previous a raw material in Myanmar, the manufacturing of year.xiv Total plastic production in 2019 in the automobile parts is male dominated, while the Philippines was estimated at 2,592,000 tons.xv In manufacturing of toys and other electronics, 2019 in Myanmar there were about 6,000 plastic garments, plastic furniture, and plastic fashion factoriesxv and the plastics market is expected to accessories is female dominatedxxvi Women tend to register a compounded annual growth rate of 6.25% dominate industries that involve repetitive tasks for during the period 2020-2025 with greater demand what is seen as "nimble fingers"xxix,and work on specifically from packaging and medical sectors.xv assembly lines. All of which often pay less. A study Despite the significant increase in demand and on gender in the plastic production sector in production of plastic, emerging evidence notes that Viet Nam from 2003 showed that women in plastic in Asia, women own fewer and smaller plastic production are paid as low as 68% of what men are paid."~' Further studies are needed to understand production enterprises than men. For example, in wat exiting skil deeent trainingstare terms of business ownership of plastic enterprises avait n in pl proutionan hwt in Manmr, 2% o manfacurin enerprsesare available to women in plastic production and how to in Myanmar, 22% of manufacturing enterprises are aXvii support women's vertical movement into managerial female-owned, and 6% are managed by women.xvdlaeshprlsinpatcprdcin When broken up by firm size, we see that women's ownership decreases as firm size increases. Women . Health implications of plastic production are own 23% of micro firms, 21% of small companies, significant, affect women and men differently, and and 13% of medium and large enterprises.xix However, requires further investigation. The nature of the reverse is true for women in management occupational exposure in the plastics industry places positions: 3% of micro, 10% of small, and 28% of both male and female workers at high risk. A review medium and large companies are managed by of the literature on toxicology, industrial hygiene, and women in Myanmar.m~ More evidence is needed to epidemiology explores the occupational hazards explain why women own fewer and smaller plastic associated with plastics for male and female production companies. workers,xxx with findings noting that workers are Gender gaps also exist in plastic production exposed to mammary carcinogens and endocrine workplaces, with fewer women in technical roles in disrupting chemicals, as well as a work environment plastic production than men. Women tend to hold that is contaminated by dust and fumes. lower skilled jobs than men, which is similar to other manufacturing industries in the region. In the private sector in Thailand, almost all positions requiring a chemical engineer or polymer scientists are occupied by menxxi, and human resource departments reported being unable to find qualified women for such positions.-i MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 3 WORLD BANK GROUP The body burden (accumulation of synthetic chemicals stored in the human body at detectable Box 1: Plastic consumption: Cambodia's levels) of such workers far exceeds that found in the caf6 culture general public.xi Although both women and men are Cambodia's caf6 culture is a ubiquitous user of at risk, the ways in which they are exposed to plastic plastic due to the immense volume of coffee and their occupational hazards differ. Women and consumed across the country. From street vendors men work in different positions and sectors in the to local caf6 chains, the plastic used and waste plastics industry, where women are concentrated in generated is staggering. A popular local coffee lower paid positions and are more likely to be in chain uses 8,000 plastic cups/day, while an hazardous work environments then male international chain uses an estimated 44,000 counterparts.m"' cups every day in Cambodia alone. Street vendors also account for a large portion of plastic consumption in Cambodia, given their accessibility and cheaper prices. Small businesses in Cambodia cannot always afford suitable alternatives, and plastic products are often cheaper. Source: Vantha and Himel 2020. Gendered household responsibilities influence plastic consumption in the home. Retail activities (both consumer and wholesale) have been identified as the largest source of low value plastic waste generated by households in the region. An average urban resident in Cambodia is estimated to use 2,000 plastic bags per year, with 10 million plastic Half of the world's plastic packaging is food bags consumed in Phnom Penh every day.xI An packaging (bottles, jars, etc.).xiv Food packaged in estimated annual household plastic packaging plastic is not only easier to carry, but also has a consumption of the Philippines is 1,281,000 tons, longer shelf life and is easier to transport.xxv Sachets, with a per capita rate of 12.40 kg.xI" While gendered which are not recyclable, are among the most plastic consumption patterns have not been common pieces of plastic waste in developing explored, existing research has shown women make nations. Single use plastics, such as cutlery for 85 percent of family shopping decisions."i An serving and eating food, are also very popular in average of 2,700 bags a year are consumed by a Asia; half of plastic waste in Myanmar is comprised Cambodian housewife shopping for her family at wet of single-use plastic.xxxv" This contributes significantly markets alone.xliv to marine plastic pollution. In concert with this, research from Viet Nam notes Consumption of plastic food packaging is gendered. that it is women in the home that initiate and actively Women dominate wet markets as vendors, and work participate in plastic reduction activities. This in caf6s and eateries where large volumes of plastic includes changing shopping habits, using are consumed.-i Women also make up a large share environmentally friendly bags instead of plastic bags, of food and street vendors in Asia. In Cambodia, mobilizing children and relatives to practice 76.9% of street vendors are women my'" while micro collecting, classifying, and reusing waste at the businesses with one to two staff account for 93.3% source; this has led to reducing the amount of plastic of the total number of street businesses.xix The use waste discharged into the environment as well as the of plastic for food packaging has eased workloads burden of collecting, classifying, and disposing of and reduced costs for food and street vendors. plastic waste in the next stages of the waste chain.x1v Single-use plastic in particular has made it more An example of a women-led initiative from Laos PDR hygienic and easier for both buyers and sellers of in Box 2 demonstrates the influential role women can food (see Box 1),x allowing the high share of women play in supporting changing plastic consumption vendors to benefit. patterns. MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 4 WORLD BANK GROUP Box 2 - Women-led social enterprise to reduce the consumption of plastic straws Arounothay Khoungkhakoune, working with the ethnic Khmu people, developed a way to use the local bamboo to make reusable straws (World Bank 2019a). Bamboo Lao is a social enterprise founded in 2017 that aims to offer reusable and environmentally-friendly bamboo straws in all hospitality businesses in Lao PDR to radically decrease the consumption of single-use plastic straws. Using resources available in rural areas, including minimal electricity, old and broken barrels, as well as locally available bamboo, this project supports disadvantaged groups to develop new livelihoods. Villagers, mostly women, are trained in processing bamboo to produce re-usable straws, as well as how to market these straws through social media and during exhibitions. As of early 2021, the enterprise has produced more than 80,000 reusable bamboo straws displacing an estimated 5 million single-use plastic straws. It has conducted training free of cost and purchased bamboo straws for sale in the city. It has also developed other bamboo utensils for sale using indigenous bamboo varieties and a proprietary natural treatment process. Ms. Arounothay Khoungkhakoune identified several options for increasing future growth: * Conduct research into other species of bamboo and other natural products * Invest in raising awareness about sustainable harvesting of bamboo * Reduce cost and paperwork associated with export of such produce to other countries * Raise awareness about the importance of environmentally friendly products * Raise awareness among users about the hygiene and safety of recyclable materials compared to plastic * Support small village-based training and investment in the production of eco-friendly products * Support large investments in the marketing of eco-friendly products Source: Meet the Innovators Battling Plastic Waste in Laos: Arounothay Khoungkhakoune [online]. Feature Story, World Bank, May 31, 2019. The burden of household waste management can be Solid waste management (SWM) in Asia is an even heavier for poor women in parts of Asia, where increasing priority, with rapidly growing urban centres waste removal fees are incurred. For example, in Lao and population growth. An estimated 55-60% of PDR, research has shown that the way waste global plastic waste leakage comes from five collection fees are gathered has a large impact in developing economies: China, Indonesia, the terms of who has access to waste management Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam.xv Governments services'; that is, poor women and men who cannot across the region are developing SWM policies and afford waste management services must shoulder programmes, including the popular 3Rs program - the work themselves. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle -particularly as plastic pollution continues to grow. SWM is also of critical Sex segregation exists in employment in solid waste importance to mitigating marine plastic debris as management at the municipal or district level. For households contribute significantly to waste leakage example, in the formal sphere of waste collection in into waterways and oceans. Yangon and Mandalay City in Myanmar, men are employed in jobs with monthly salaries and job At the household level, women are dominant plastic security, while women are employed in large numbers waste managers. In the home, women often manage as casual laborers with lower wages. Men are household waste as part of their unpaid domestic employed as truck drivers and helpers to load work, as it is seen as an extension of their care garbage into trucks, women are employed as responsibilities.xlvii Therefore, SWM programs and sweepers.' Specifically, in January 2021 in the policies have to date targeted women. This has Mandalay City Development Committee for waste included 3R programs in Da Nang, Viet Namxviii as well management women comprised around 63% and as sorting household waste initiatives in Yangon men 37%, where men are paid the minimum wage of Myanmar,xix both with mixed results. MMK 150,000 (US$102) per month as truck drivers and women workers are paid around MMK 4,000-6,000 (US$2.7-4.1) per day as street sweepers." MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 5 WORLD BANK GROUP Similar patterns of employment can be found in the Yangon's recycling industry has approximately 6,000 Philippines.""ii Gender stereotypes and social norms workers, including garbage collectors, small junk influencing the appropriate type of work for women shop owners, large junk shops, pre-processors, and and men are contributing factors to the sex segrega- recyclers."i Of these businesses, 78 percent are tion in SWM jobs."v However, in some instances owned by men, while almost 70 percent of the daily discriminatory laws prevent women from accessing wage workers are women.1xii certain jobs in waste management. In Thailand, a law stipulates the maximum load that women and men However, in Viet Nam, with currently more than 2,000 can carry at one time-for women this is 25 kg, while small-scale enterprises and a high industrial growth for men it is 55 kg- resulting in women hired mainly rate, plastic recycling constitutes a very promising for sweeping and cleaning positions.1v A key concern industry and a number of programmes are underway with this is the lack of access to decent and equal to empower women as entrepreneurs in plastic waste wages and renumeration for work of the same value management (See Box 3). It is estimated that the for women in the SWM sector." recycled plastics industry in Viet Nam will grow at an annual rate of 8.7 percent between 2019-2024, Informal waste management is often dominated by which is higher than the GDP growth rate of 7.1%.xiv women in Asia, where low wages and perilous Regarding household solid waste, most Vietnamese conditions and safety are a concern. In Viet Nam, families have a habit of segregating recyclable 65% of informal waste collectors are women."" In one garbage such as plastics, paper, and metal to sell to southern Thailand municipality however, a study of informal garbage collectors, called scarp collectors. temporary waste pickers showed that around 75% Scrap collectors collect and buy plastic waste as well are men and 25% are women.'"! The study found that as recyclable materials from households and streets, these temporary waste pickers earn very low wages, before this waste is collected by an environmental at THB 7,500 (US$241) per month on average, which service company and sell the scrap to recycling is below the minimum wage. In the capital of Laos facilities. In the early 2000s, in Hanoi alone, there PDR, informal waste collectors tend to be mostly were about 6,000 scrap collectors, more than 90% older women who are unable to find other sources of of whom were women, mostly non-residents aged livelihood and collect trash using a push-cart; the 25-40 years.xy income of these women is dwindling because of changes in the structure of the recycling business as Research notes that recycling has gendered well as intense competition.'xi Often women work as implications, including working conditions and waste collectors either by themselves or with family gender-based segregation of women employed in members, including children in Laos PDR, therefore recycling businesses (for example junk shops, scrap adequate working conditions, health and safety buyers, recycling factories) where working conditions concerns and other social safety nets are not readily are poor or non-existent, and women tend to be available to them. COVID-19 and the increase in concentrated in work that is exposed directly to hospital and medical waste is further exacerbating waste.1x"i This research also found that in the risks for these vulnerable workers across the region. household, recycling programmes can increase in Improper disposal of PPE, including masks, puts women's unpaid workload in order to segregate and waste collectors at risk as they usually lack manage community-based recycling. Solid waste protective equipment while sorting and collecting management as a whole presents significant recyclables from mixed garbage.Ix opportunities in the region for increasing women's access to formal employment and narrowing existing Asian countries are at different phases of gender gaps in recycling. The process of developing establishing a recycling industry. Myanmar's plastic and implementing solid waste management policies recycling industry is still in its infancy, however since and programmes can also create a platform for China banned the import of plastic waste in January increasing women's voice, participation and role in 2018, Myanmar's plastic waste has to be processed decision making on waste management. within the country or sold to new destinations.Ixi MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 6 WORLD BANK GROUP Box 3: Women as solid waste entrepreneurs in Viet Nam Empowering women as solid waste management entrepreneurs and protecting women workers is one of the keys to success in plastic waste management. A report by the Center for Environment and Community Research (CECR 2019), Women Empowerment in Plastic Waste Management, presented the results of a field survey on women's roles in waste management and their contribution to plastic waste management in Da Nang, analyzing the relationship between plastic waste and gender roles in Vietnam. The report recommended that although Vietnam needs to strengthen its legislative and implementation frameworks to reduce and manage its plastic waste, empowering women is one of the keys to success. The report recommends developing financial tools such as a revolving fund for working capital or loans to encourage women's participation in the waste management chain, leveraging extended producer responsibility (EPR) to support women's entrepreneurship and young women's start- ups, as well as to help waste collectors and sorters to improve their income and living conditions. The report also recommends the implementation of rights-based social protection policies to ensure access to information, good working conditions, and health and social insurance for informal street collectors, pickers, and landfill scavengers. In Asia, the fishing and tourism industries are Marine plastic debris is an increasing concern significant economic engines that provide livelihoods globally. The economic value of the adverse impact and food security to millions of people. The economic of marine plastics on fisheries, tourism, and impact to coastal communities in particular is biodiversity around the world has been estimated at concerning and immediate policy action is needed. US$13 billion a year.1xviii Table 1 presents the top 10 marine plastic waste items across six Asian countries. Cambodia Laos PDR Myanmar Philippines Thailand Viet Nam Plastic lidsa Food containers Small plastic Food wrappers Other plastic bags Plastic fragments including fast food bags and packages (mainly from plastic containers bags) (LDPE) Plastic forks Straws and stirrers Crisps and sweet/ Cigarette butts Plastic beverage Fishing gear 1: rope, candy wrappers/ bottles net pieces, lures, packages lines, hard plastic floats Cigarette buds Bottles String and cord Plastic bottle caps Food wrappers Fishing gear 2: (less than 1cm) (candy, chips, etc.) expanded polystyrene buoys, floats Plastic bottle caps Bags and shopping Styrofoam (food Plastic beverage Plastic grocery bags Plastic bag size 1 bags including and other) bottles (0-5kg) 5. Styrofoam pieces food containers 6. Hard plastic fragments (HDPE) Food wrappers Cups and cup lids Plastic pieces Straws, stirrers Plastic bottle caps Styrofoam food (candy, chips, etc.) <50 cm containers 6. Hard plastic fragments (HDPE) Plastic grocery Cleaner bottles Straw cutlery, trays Other plastic bags Plastic takeaway Hard plastic bags and containers containers fragments (HDPE) Plastic cups, plates Crates and Medical waste Plastic takeaway Straws, stirrers Straws containers/ baskets containers Straws, stirrers Strings and cords Caps/lids Plastic grocery bags Plastic cups, plates Other food wrappers (less than 1 cm diameter) Other plastic bags Foam packaging/ Furnishings Plastic lids Cigarette butts Other plastics insulation/polyur ethane Plastic beverage Covers/ packaging Fertilizer bags Plastic cups, plates Plastic lids Crisp/sweet bottles packages Source: Ocean Conservancy 2019; World Bank 2020, 2021; Osaka Blue Ocean Vision, 2021; Ocean Conservancy 2020 MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 7 WORLD BANK GROUP Similar to plastic production, consumption and SWM, Considerable research into the gender-based division marine plastic debris management is gendered. of labour in fishing communities' note men more Examining two industries highly impacted by marine often engage in commercial off-shore fishing, while plastics, fisheries and tourism, can provide insights women usually engage in small- scale, near-shore r on how gender equality issues can influence and are on-shore fishing (see Box 4).'x' Women also dominate impacted by marine plastic debris. activities that support fishing for example in Thailand, such as mending and repairing fishing equipment, The gendered impact of marine plastics on fisheries sorting fish landed by fishing boats, and processing Asia Pacific Economic Commission estimated that and marketing fish."xxi In many countries in Asia, marine debris costs the fishing and aquaculture women may fish informally for profit, and subsistence industry in the region US$1.47 billion in 2015.1xix fishing and food security for the family also contribute Although only 10% of marine plastics come from to their workload. fishery-related activities (including lost and discarded fishing nets and traps), fisheries are greatly affected by marine plastic debris, as are coastal communities.lx The impact of marine debris is different for women and men as they have distinct roles in fisheries. Box 4. Gender roles in fisheries in the Philippines Both women and men are involved in fisheries in the Philippines, with more than 60 percent of the population living along the coastline and fisheries sector employing about 1.95 million workers (BFAR 2020). Fishing households are among the poorest communities in the Philippines, and women-headed households are among the most marginalized (UNEP and GWA 2019). Women have long been involved in subsistence fishing, especially reef gleaning, while men are more involved in gear-based activities. However, women's contribution to securing food and nutrition for coastal communities tends to be undocumented, undervalued, and even ignored (De Guzman 2019). Plastic pollution is one of the causes of degradation of coastal ecosystems, which impoverishes fishing communities. Other issues, such as the depletion of fish stock due to water pollution and overfishing, high population densities in coastal areas, and climate-change related problems also affect the income of fisherfolk, but plastic pollution definitely exacerbates the situation (UNEP and GWA 2019). Near-shore habitats including beaches, mangroves, Different roles and spaces result in differing impacts estuaries, and intertidal zones are used largely by of marine plastic debris for women and men, and women in fishing communities,"'-" and marine plastic more research is needed to understand how the litter in such spaces creates major problems for increase in marine plastic pollution is threatening the women's income, as it harms the seafood by causing livelihoods of women and men employed in the disease, reduces their catch, and causes economic fisheries sector and the impacts on food security, loss.lxxiv The build-up of plastic debris in coastal often a role which falls to women. Dependency and zones is often more extreme and different in growth of the fisheries sector in the Asian region also character from open-sea plastic pollution and has a means marine coastal management is increasingly more intense impact on near-shore fishing.lxxv becoming a priority for governments. Evidence from However, men who tend to fish in deep waters, have marine fisheries notes that policies, projects and also faced decreases in fish catches and consequent initiatives that have successfully integrated a gender decreases in income due to marine plastic debris. perspective in a wide range of contexts have led to The impact of men's reduction in fish catches can more effective ocean management.lxxvil More impact financial resources at the household level, research and affirmative action is needed to ensure which evidence suggests puts additional pressure on gender perspectives and gender equality issues are women to increase their income and seek other considered in coastal management initiatives. forms of income generation." MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 8 WORLD BANK GROUP Tourism and the gendered impact of marine plastic Evidence on the role women and men play in the waste Another sector that contributes to and is plastic waste value chain is increasing, and women significantly affected by marine plastic debris is the are being seen are key stakeholders' marine plastic tourism industry. Tourism has been reported to management. A recent report by UNEP points out the increase the amount of waste by up to one-third potential role that women can play as champions to during peak seasons in some regions around the address marine plastic litter and recommends that world.lxxviii In terms of the impact of marine litter on governments and businesses use human rights tourism, reports from Bali in Indonesia note a instruments to mitigate the impact of plastic waste, decrease in the number of tourists due to an while also empowering women to take a leading increase in marine plastic debris.1xix In South Korea, role.xvi In another paper, Walschot uses a feminist lost tourism revenue due to marine debris flowing perspective to analyze the growing environmental from the Nakdong River to Geoje Island in July 2011 insecurity caused by marine plastic pollution and was estimated to be around US$29-37 million.lx recommends that in order to strengthen international legal and policy frameworks regarding the reduction The tourism sector is an important source of of plastic waste, it is important to recognize that both employment in Asia, particularly for women."x In men and women have an active role to play in the Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam, solutions implemented.mx the proportion of women employed in tourism is higher than men.l' This includes airlines, hotels, travel agencies, and transport companies. In Myanmar, the tourism sector provides 5.9% of the women's total employment and 4.7% of men's total Tackling marine plastic pollution in Asia requires a employment."' Whereas in the Philippines, tourism holistic approach including both public and private accounts for 6.4% of the total female employment sectors, investors, communities and individuals. This and there are twice as many women as men in this brief presents evidence of how gender roles and sector.lmiv More than half of the tourism businesses responsibilities, the gender division of labour and in Thailand and the Philippines are operated by gender inequalities in women's access to decent women.' In addition to such formal businesses, a work and resources influence and are impacted by large number of women also make a living through the plastic value chain. Gender responsive marine retail trade connected to the tourism sector, often in plastic management has the potential to challenge the form of micro-enterprises, for example selling gender stereotypes and provide opportunities for traditional handicrafts and others to tourists. formalising women's work in waste management and promoting women into decision making and Tourism is also a significant source of informal leadership roles in the fight to reverse marine plastic employment for women, which also likely to be pollution. However, in order to realise these results, affected if tourism flows change due to marine a number of overarching themes need to be pollution. Around 70% of women in the tourism sector addresses across the value chain. in Viet Nam are in informal jobs which lack employment benefits and social security.luv There There is a need to improve the evidence base of the are more women entrepreneurs in tourism than in linkages between gender and marine plastic other sectors of the economy, mainly due to lower management. This means the collection, use and entry barriers, although women's enterprises are analysis of sex and age disaggregated data and generally small or micro in size. Changes to tourism gender assessments of the four phases of the plastic flows have significant impacts on both women's value chain should be prioritised. For example, informal and formal employment; this has as seen understanding how gender and gender inequality by the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and travel impacts women and men's involvement in plastic restrictions on tourism businesses.lxxxvii These production and their consumption patterns can changing tourism flows are likely to continue, as the support informed decision-making, for example on world moves through and beyond the COVID-19 strategies for reducing single use plastic. pandemic and as medical waste, including millions of masks, become a more common feature of marine pollution. MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 9 WORLD BANK GROUP Secondly, women's participation and representation Gender inclusive consultations and gender in decision-making need to be addressed in all areas responsive product designs are also needed to of plastic waste management. SWM is an important ensure plastic alternatives are designed to meet the area for the Asian region, where household waste demands of both sellers (in the case of the Asia leakage must be curbed and where women already region, particularly food and street vendors) do and can be further supported to take on and buyers' needs and priorities. leadership roles. Disaggregated data of existing household waste management practices, women and Solid Waste Management To ensure those most men's access to waste management services as well involved in and impacted by solid waste management as opportunities and barriers for women and men's have a voice in the design and implementation of employment in solid waste management is needed. policies and programmes, gender inclusive design processes should be promoted. This means Thirdly, women's access to formal employment and recognising women's role in solid waste management skill development in waste management should be at household and community level and designing prioritised. Existing informal jobs in waste programmes which meet the needs of women and management for women in unequal and can result in men, and which can challenge gender stereotypes unsafe working conditions for women and sometimes about women's responsibility for waste children. Women are also often in lower management. This also means promoting women's skilled/unskilled jobs, with little opportunity for skills equal access to solid waste management development or to move up to managerial roles. The employment opportunities and ensuring equal pay adoption of decent work conditions and equal pay for for work of equal value and opportunities for skill work of equal value as well as offering trainings and development and access to leadership roles in the incentives for skill development should be prioritised sector. across the plastic value chain. Marine Plastic Debris Leveraging women's role in The following entry points according to the value tourism jobs and promoting women as agents of chain have been developed and recommended change can support the increased awareness of the below. These require contextualisation into local impacts of plastic pollution on the tourism industry contexts. and identify strategies to reduce tourism plastic waste impacts on the environment. Given the Plastic Production Equal employment opportunities interlinkages between fisheries and tourism in for women and men in safe workplaces in the growing marine coastal management and the critical role plastic production sector should be prioritised. This marine ecosystems play in food security and includes access to finance for start-ups for women, livelihoods for women and communities, policies, increased attention to safe working conditions in programmes and initiatives can be a catalyst for manufacturing and incentives for women and men to mutually beneficial solutions for marine plastic move towards more sustainable plastic production management and promoting gender equality. enterprises. Initiatives to increase the participation of women in STEM and research and development in the plastics sector is another way to address existing inequalities in women's access to decision making and senior and technical roles in plastic production. Plastic Consumption Promoting gender analysis of plastic consumption patterns across multiple sectors can generate context relevant information. This can be used to inform campaigns aimed to curb consumption and steer buyers towards more sustainable options. MARINE PLASTIC MANAGEMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONS 10 WORLD BANK GROUP Schmidt, C., Krauth, T, and Wagner, S. 2017. Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea. Environmental Science and Technology 51 (21): 12246-12253. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7bO2368. Jambeck, J.R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T.R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., and Law, K.L. 2015. Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean. Science 347 (6223): 768-771. McIlgorm, A., Raubenheimer, K., and McIlgorm, D.E. 2020. Update of 2009 APEC Report on Economic Costs of Marine Debris toAPEC Economies. 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