Toward More and Better Jobs for Women in Energy An assessment undertaken to guide the new Regional Network in Energy for Women—RENEW Elisabeth Maier, Samantha Constant, and Ali Ahmad RENEW MENA Toward More and Better Jobs for Women in Energy An assessment undertaken to guide the new Regional Network in Energy for Women—RENEW Elisabeth Maier, Samantha Constant, and Ali Ahmad Copyright © 2022 by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Cover design: Sarah Alameddine 2 Acknowledgments This report was prepared by Elisabeth Maier (Senior Operations Officer, Infrastructure Practice Group), Samantha Constant (Senior Gender Consultant), and Ali Ahmad (Climate Change Specialist) as part of the World Bank’s Middle East and North Africa Energy and Gender (MENAGEN) program. Husam Beides (Practice Manager, Energy and Extractives Global Practice) guided the preparation of the report. Data were collected by consultants Afef Tlili, Lina Khraisee, Salam Jabbar, Nwaf Al-Khodair, and Gayatri Sabharwal. Field work by the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) and KHADRA for Consultancies and Sustainable Solutions contributed to the results. The team thanks peer reviewers Nathyeli Castillo (Gender Specialist, Energy Sector Management Assistance Program), Jonna Lundvall (Senior Social Scientist, Poverty Global Practice), Tu Chi Nguyen (Senior Energy Specialist, Energy and Extractives Global Practice), Gunjan Gautam (Energy Specialist, Energy and Extractives Global Practice), and Amira El Bidawi (Junior Professional Officer, Equitable Growth, Finance and Institutions) for their valuable comments. The team further would like to thank copy editor Steven B. Kennedy (Consultant, World Bank) and graphic designer Sarah Alameddine (Consultant, World Bank). The financial support provided by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is also gratefully acknowledged. ESMAP—a global knowledge and technical assistance partnership administered by the World Bank and sponsored by official bilateral donors—assists low- and middle-income countries in providing modern energy services for poverty reduction and environmentally sustainable economic development. ESMAP is governed and funded by a consultative group comprising official bilateral donors and multilateral institutions representing Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the World Bank Group. 3 4 Acronyms and Abbreviations DISCO distribution company EDL Lebanon’s power utility (Electricité du Liban) GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GDP gross domestic product ICT information and communication technology IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification ILO International Labour Organization LFS labor force survey LFPR labor force participation rate MENA Middle East and North Africa NEEN Nordic Energy Equality Network NEPCO National Electric Power Company OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PENRA Palestinian Energy and Natural Resources Authority PV photovoltaic RENEW Regional Network in Energy for Women STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WDI World Development Indicators  5 Table of Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations 5 Executive Summary 8 1 Overview 10 1.1 Gender Equality in the Middle East and North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2 Women in the Regional Labor Market 14 2.1 Labor Force Participation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2 Unemployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3 Entrepreneurship and Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3. Transitioning from Education to Work 19 3.1 Gender and Education in the Middle East and North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.2 Factors behind Gender Gaps.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.3 Labor Market Transformations and the Energy Transition .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4. The Gendered Energy Landscape in MENA 25 4.1 Women in Power Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.2 Gender and Renewable Energy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 5. Lessons Learned 32 6. Next Steps 35 References 40 Appendix A. Methodology 44 A.1. Desk Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 A.2. Primary Data Collection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Appendix B. Gender in Energy: Country Profiles 47 Figures Figure 1.1 Relevant gender gaps in MENA, compared with other regions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 2.1 Labor force participation rate by gender and region.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 2.2 Labor force participation rates of skilled women and men in MENA . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 2.3 Unemployment across MENA by gender and age group .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 2.4 Share of female managers (all occupations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 2.5 Impact of female ownership of firms, by gender of top managers and employees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 3.1 Key work-related indicators for select MENA countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 3.2 Share of female university graduates, by STEM field, in MENA and OECD countries, 2017. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 3.3 Share of workers in STEM occupations in select MENA countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 3.4 Economic benefits of gender equality in MENA’s Labor Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Figure 4.1 Women’s share in the workforce of key energy-related sectors in select MENA countries.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Figure 4.2 Gender distribution in two power utilities: Lebanon’s EDL and Jordan’s NEPCO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 4.3 Gender distribution in SONATRACH, Algeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 4.4 Gender distribution in West Bank and Gaza utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 4.5 Distribution of employees in Kuwait’s oil companies by gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 4.6 Distribution of Egyptian women workers across three major job categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Figure 4.7 Share of women in renewables in select MENA countries compared to the global average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 6.1 RENEW’s mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Tables Table 6.1 An example monitoring framework for RENEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Table A.1 Details on primary data collection, by country.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Boxes Box 6.1 The South Asia WePOWER Network: A success story. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Box 6.2 The power of networks:Examples from Sweden and the Nordic region.. . . . . . . . . 38 Executive Summary This regional assessment provides a cross-country market outcomes and limited entrepreneurship snapshot of the status of women in the energy among women in the region: sector of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). It reviews the constraints and opportunities · Women’s lack of access to education and equal women face in access to energy jobs, career opportunities for skills development. decision-making, and professional development. The assessment was prepared for a wide audience · Limited guidance for young women in the of stakeholders that includes public and private public education system, which hampers agencies, utilities, energy companies, academic their transition from education in the science, institutions, nongovernmental organizations, technology, engineering, and mathematics associations, and civil society networks focused (STEM) fields to work opportunities. on advancing gender equality and diversity in the energy workforce. It aims to provide an · A lack of jobs and a skills mismatch attributed analytical reference to underpin the call to boost to the disconnect between what is taught and women’s status in the sector. Next steps toward what employers need. collaboration and collective action are proposed. · Recruitment opportunities that are largely The assessment is based on the following: (1) a centralized and do not target women. desk review of secondary sources, to shed light on the status of women and gendered realities · Lack of role models and access to career advice in the countries under study; (2) a quantitative in the workforce. analysis of key employment data from labor force surveys in selected countries, depending · Legal restrictions that reinforce gender on availability, with data disaggregated whenever stereotypes in the sector and occupational possible by type of position and category of work; segregation. (3) focus group discussions with educators and gender champions in the Arab Republic of Egypt; · Difficulties in women’s advancement owing to and (4) semi-structured interviews with selected biases, inequitable workplace conditions, and gender champions working in the sector, private pervasive wage inequality. sector players, and civil society organizations. The economies assessed were Algeria, Bahrain, · Concerns surrounding safe mobility for women, Djibouti, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, particularly while traveling for on-site work. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab · Social and normative constraints that women Emirates, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen. face because of deeply entrenched patriarchal belief systems that hinder their success in the In many MENA countries women’s representation sector. in the energy sector is below 15 percent—much lower than the global average of 22 percent. The dynamic transition toward renewable energy However, findings reveal variations by country. A in many MENA countries offers an opportunity combination of factors contributes to poor labor for more women to be employed in sustainable 8 and highly productive jobs that will change the experience in South Asia, the goal of RENEW- face of the region. Some MENA countries are MENA is to boost women’s representation and among the most highly dependent on oil and status in the energy sector across the region. gas in the world. For example, in most member countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, oil The main objectives of RENEW-MENA are to: and gas accounts for more than 20 percent of gross domestic product and at least 50 percent · Increase women’s economic participation of state revenues (World Bank 2019; IMF 2016). across the energy sector value chain, specifically Therefore, the energy transition poses significant in jobs related to the clean energy transition. macroeconomic risks that will percolate into labor markets and household welfare. · Encourage better workplace conditions for women in both the private and public sectors. This reality has led regional governments to place greater emphasis on economic · Combat widespread gender stereotypes about diversification. The energy sector occupies a women’s role in STEM fields and increase their central role in these diversification plans because visibility in the energy sector. of its multidimensional connections to local development, the region’s vast natural resource Achieving those objectives will require potential, and the need to sustainably meet the partnerships with the private sector, engagement growing demand for energy. Diversifying the with utilities, innovative programming and energy sector’s value chain in MENA opens the capacity building for individual and institutional door to leveraging this structural transformation members, and knowledge sharing at the country to address the severe underrepresentation of and regional levels. In collaboration with similar women in the energy workforce. However, there is networks from around the world, RENEW- a need to first understand the status of women’s MENA will engage with government utilities and employment in the sector, the obstacles that agencies, private firms, development partners and women face in entering and advancing in it, and donors, academic institutions, and community- how existing policy affects their participation in based organizations to meet objectives through the sector. innovative analytical work, direct support for operations and client engagement, and Learning from similar networks that support capacity building. In this way, methods that have women in energy around the world, a coalition of successfully advanced women’s participation local, regional and international partners, among in the energy sector globally can be adapted to them the World Bank, plan to establish RENEW- countries of the Middle East and North Africa. MENA. Drawing from the Bank’s WePOWER 9 1 Overview 1.1 GENDER EQUALITY IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA Gender inequality in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is a pressing challenge constraining the region’s human, social, and economic development. Despite the significant progress made in closing the gender gap in the areas of education (especially university enrollment) and health, stark disparities remain in women’s access to economic opportunities (such as employment and entrepreneurship), 10 Figure 1.1 Relevant gender gaps in MENA, compared with other regions UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT LABOR FORCE UNEMPLOYMENT SHARE OF FIRMS SHARE OF FIRMS PARTICIPATION WITH FEMALE TOP WITH FEMALE MANAGERS PARTICIPATION IN 83 OWNERSHIP 81 82 80 79 77 74 70 50 66 47 63 64 62 58 55 47 47 33 34 43 39 28 20 27 25 25 18 18 19 16 21 19 11 11 12 7 8 8 8 8 9 6 7 7 4 Latin America and Caribbean Europe and Central Asia East Asia and the Pacific Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia Middle East and North Africa Source: World Development Indicators (WDI), latest available data (accessed March 2022). Note: Men’s labor force participation rates are unequivocally higher than women’s across all regions, with women’s unemployment rates being higher or close to men’s rates in all regions except East Asia and the Pacific. On the contrary, women show higher university enrollment rates than men across all regions but Sub-Saharan Africa. and in their voice and agency (World Bank 2017). gross domestic product (GDP) by more than 20 According to global indicators, the region’s key percent (Dabla-Norris and Kochhar 2019), mainly labor market and enterprise metrics show the driven by the addition of female workers to the widest gender gaps (figure 1.1), and its performance labor force and the impact of gender diversity on on economic indicators lags far behind that of productivity. Among several published studies, most regions (except for South Asia on some the Organisation for Economic Co-operation metrics). and Development (OECD 2017) estimated that the exclusion of women costs the region around Addressing gender inequalities in MENA’s labor US$575 billion per year. Along the same lines, a markets could boost the region’s economic McKinsey analysis stated that if all MENA countries welfare and growth outlook. According to followed a realistic “best-in-region” scenario, the research from the International Monetary Fund, region could add as much as US$400 billion to its the region, given its wide gender disparities, could GDP by 2025, equivalent to a 10 percent increase benefit greatly from bridging gender gaps in the (McKinsey & Company 2019). labor market. This would increase the region’s 11 The energy transition and green solutions are pertaining to the energy sector, as well as, more drivers of job growth; in MENA, it is imperative broadly, in the science, technology, engineering, that they include women and youth across and mathematics (STEM) fields. It also analyzes different population groups to promote the structural and normative constraints, based on equality and maximize impact. The clean energy an extensive literature review validated through transition is “instrumental for green growth field consultations and interviews. The fourth across MENA that would allow countries to meet chapter dives deep into women’s employment the region’s growing energy demand, diversify the and economic participation in power utilities energy mix, promote equitable socio-economic (the traditional sector) and renewables (key to development, build climate change resilience, and the clean energy transition), based on new data create much-needed jobs for the region” (World generated through this assessment or existing Bank 2021a). Using the Clean Energy Employment data in secondary sources (if data could not Assessment Tool to evaluate the impact of the be collected from primary sources or were not development of the five technology pathways, available). The fifth chapter discusses lessons a recent study determined that from the lowest learned, with key observations on overcoming to the highest scenarios, net jobs would increase obstacles to women’s labor force participation. by 1.4 to 3.8 million, respectively, in Egypt alone The final chapter is forward looking and concludes over the period 2020–50 (World Bank 2021).1 with recommendations on tactical next steps to However, these estimations do not provide a boost women’s economic participation in the gender lens. If we assume a scenario where the energy sector. participation of women in these jobs is equivalent to that of the latest (2020) female labor force participation rate (LFPR) of around 15 percent, 1.2 METHODOLOGY the number of women that can join Egypt’s clean energy transition would range between 0.21 and 0.57 million.2 This regional assessment aims to (1) better understand women’s different roles and To close gender-related knowledge gaps and participation in the energy sector as well as support actions to promote the inclusion of their transition from school to the workplace; women, this assessment provides a data- (2) contribute to the availability of empirical driven backdrop of women’s status in the evidence on the status of women’s employment sector. The first chapter introduces gender in the energy sector; and (3) underpin inequality and presents the methodology, with recommendations and actions proposed to be additional details available in Appendix A. The implemented by the Regional Network in Energy second chapter presents a broad overview of for Women (RENEW).3 Specifically, its aims to women in the labor market, including gender provide a regional snapshot of the underlying differentials that put women at a disadvantage constraints and new opportunities that women in labor force participation, employment, and face in terms of career decision-making, skill- entrepreneurship. The third chapter discusses building opportunities, access to energy jobs, trends in education-to-work transitions and professional development in the workplace. 1 Technology pathways in energy transitions include the following development areas: solar photovoltaic, wind energy, hydropower, solar heating/cooling, and concentrated solar-thermal power. 2 All job numbers cited in this report are direct jobs, unless mentioned otherwise. These jobs are distributed across the entire value chain of the subsectors considered (renewables, oil and gas, etc.). For details about specific numbers, please refer to the references. 3 RENEW is described in detail in chapter 4. 12 Net jobs would increase by 1.4 to 3.8 million, respectively, in Egypt alone over the period 2020–50. The findings will not only help to quantify gender Throughout this report, technical, nontechnical, disparities in the regional energy space but also and managerial roles are categorized separately. inform possible interventions to address them. Since the definitions of these roles may differ from one sector to another, it is important to Data were collected using mixed methods (see understand what each category means in the Appendix A) and limited to certain countries. context of the energy sector: The assessment covers microdata analysis of labor force surveys combined with interviews and · Technical roles refer to jobs that require focus group discussions with the government, the technical education or skills (often in a STEM private sector, academia, and nongovernmental field such as engineering or computer science). agencies working in the field. While data on Examples include electrical and mechanical general education and the labor market cover engineers, geophysicists, and energy the entire region, country-level data related to efficiency technicians. the energy sector are limited to Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Lebanon, Qatar, Saudi · Nontechnical roles refer to jobs that do Arabia, and West Bank and Gaza.4 not necessarily require technical experience or education. Examples include jobs in Given wide variations in the availability corporate administration, human resources, of statistics and the feasibility of working and communications. in-country, the methodology used in this assessment to collect and present sector- · Managerial or leadership roles span specific data varies considerably and does not both technical and nontechnical jobs and purport to be exhaustive.5 More details about the departments. The roles include overseeing report’s methodology can be found in Appendix other workers and often being responsible A, and country profiles with data on related for a specific function within the firm. indicators are available in appendix B. Examples include plant engineering or business development managers. 4 Data collection for Algeria is underway as of this writing. For West Bank and Gaza, though consultations in the field have taken place, there have been delays due to COVID-19. 5 In general, reasons for limitations include lack of accessible data, COVID-19, and a country’s fragility that has restricted access to stakeholders. Further, there is widespread sensitivity when it comes to addressing the subject of gender equality and women’s participation in the energy infrastructure sector. 13 2 Women in the Regional Labor Market the United Arab Emirates, which has the smallest 2.1 LABOR FORCE male-female LFPR differential in the region, at PARTICIPATION around 41 percentage points. On the other hand, Yemen has the widest LFPR differential, at around 66 percentage points. At the country level, rural Among the most persistent gender gaps, that areas seem to exhibit wider gender gaps in of participation in the labor force is perhaps the economic participation (World Bank 2017). For most telling. With only one out of five women example, in Lebanon, 37  percent of women in in MENA employed or seeking employment, Beirut are economically active compared to 15 the region has the world’s lowest LFPR among percent in Akkar, in the rural north (World Bank and women (less than half the global average) (figure UN Women 2021). Such cross-country differences 2.1).6 However, this figure masks wider disparities may be explained by the very diverse contexts and among different countries, and even within each multiple fragility drivers that continue to persist country.7 Some countries have made significant across the region.8 leaps toward achieving gender equality, such as 6 This does not account for unpaid care work (including domestic responsibilities and caring for children and the elderly), of which women’s share is fivefold that of paid work (ILO 2018). 7 Chapter 4 in this assessment discusses these trends as they pertain to the energy landscape in the region. 8 Fragility drivers include conflict-related risks; economic, institutional, and social challenges; and climate-related vulnerabilities. For example, the conflict in Yemen has created the world’s largest humanitarian crisis, with 24 million Yemenis in need of assistance (World Bank 2021b); volatile conditions in West Bank and Gaza have worsened what was already a protracted conflict in perpetual gridlock; the world’s largest refugee crisis has forced 6.6 million refugees to leave Syria since 2011 and internally displaced another 6.7 million (UNHCR 2021); and the economic and financial crisis in Lebanon ranks among the top three most severe crises since the mid-1900s. Furthermore, 60 percent of people in MENA live in areas with high or extremely high surface water stress, compared to the global average of 35 percent (World Bank 2021b). 14 2.2 UNEMPLOYMENT bridge the gender gap in employment. As figure 2.2 shows, the unemployment rate among skilled women in MENA is still higher than that for In MENA, skilled women are participating more men, with a gap as high as 31 percentage points in the labor market than women overall but are in West Bank and Gaza. The lowest differential, much more likely to be unemployed, showing of 2 percentage points, is observed in Qatar.10 notable gender gaps across countries. As shown in figure 2.2, across all countries, the LFPR of The disproportionate levels of unemployment women with advanced degrees is higher than in the MENA region are largely among women that of the national female LFPR, while the LFPR and youth. Despite wide variations between differential between men and women is as little countries, youth unemployment is notably higher as 11 percentage points in Tunisia and as much as than overall unemployment across the board. 36 percentage points in Qatar and Saudi Arabia.9 Young women between the ages of 15 and 24 These numbers are clearly better than the overall are far more likely to be unemployed than older LFP differentials reported in figure 2.1. However, female cohorts (figure 2.3). Over 60 percent of having university degrees does not suffice to young women seeking work are unemployed Figure 2.1 Labor force participation rate by gender and region LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE MALE-FEMALE LFPR DIFFERENTIAL (%) (PARENTAGE POINT) Yemen: 65.7 81 80 79 78 77 Iraq: 64.4 63 Saudi Arabia: 57.4 58 MENA Average: 56 53 Egypt, Arab Rep.: 55.2 37 Algeria: 54.9 Jordan: 51.7 21 Lebanon: 50.7 United Arab Emirates: 41 UPPER MIDDLE LOW INCOME WORLD AVERAGE LOWER MIDDLE MIDDLE EAST & INCOME COUNTRIES INCOME NORTH AFRICA COUNTRIES COUNTRIES Male Female Source: World Bank data (2019). Note: LFPR = labor force participation rate; MENA = Middle East and North Africa. 9 Data from countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) include nationals and nonnationals. 10 In most countries in MENA, women with advanced degrees are more likely to be unemployed than women with lower levels of education. Studies point to longer periods of unemployment among women compared to men, likely because educated women may have specific or higher expectations about work and are therefore more willing to wait for a job (World Bank and UN Women 2021; Hillis, Alaref, and Takkenberg 2018). 15 Figure 2.2 Labor force participation rates of skilled women and men in MENA 100 50 90 80 40 70 60 30 PERCENT (%) PERCENT (%) 50 40 20 30 20 10 10 0 0 Djibouti Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Qatar Saudi Tunisia West Bank Yemen MNA Arabia & Gaza Overall LFP of workers with advanced degrees Female LFP of workers with advanced degrees Male Unemployment of workers with advanced degrees Female Unemployment of workers with advanced degrees Male Source: WDI, where data are available (accessed January 2022). Note: LFP = labor force participation; MNA = Middle East and North Africa. Figure 2.3 Unemployment across MENA by gender and age group 90 80 70 60 50 PE R CE N T (% ) 40 30 20 10 0 Algeria Bahrain Djibouti Egypt, Arab Rep. Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libya Morocco Oman Qatar Saudi Syria Tunisia United Arab Emirates West Bank and Gaza Yemen Youth Unemployment, female Youth Unemployment, male Female Unemployment Male Unemployment Source: WDI 2019 (accessed January 2022). 16 in Iraq, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and West Bank and given for this discouragement is that respondents Gaza. The lowest levels of unemployment and “do not know how or where to seek work”; among youth unemployment are in Qatar, Kuwait, the other countries the top reason reported is “no Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. jobs available in the area/district” (ILO 2016). While gender gaps in labor force participation and employment are also lower in these countries, Most women who work do so for the public these mask stark differences when disaggregated sector. While public sector recruitment is by nationality. For example, Qatari women are declining overall in MENA, the share of women almost twice as likely to be unemployed than Qatari taking up government jobs is increasing in most men, whereas the gender gap in unemployment countries across the region (Assaad and Barsoum among nonnationals is much smaller (Qatar 2019). In Egypt, for example, women represented Planning and Statistics Authority 2020). 31 percent of public sector employment in 2017 compared to 25 percent in 2001, and in Jordan, Young women also compose a large share of this share grew from 17 to 21 percent between discouraged workers, “defined as those who are 2005 and 2014 (Assaad and Barsoum 2019). This not working and who have expressed a desire increase is partly due to the rising share of female to work but are not seeking work for a range graduates as well their preference for public sector of reasons” (ILO 2016). A study shows that of all employment, which offers more job security and a discouraged youth, women represent 78 percent more flexible schedule to accommodate women’s in Egypt, 59 percent in Jordan, 59  percent in responsibilities at home as opposed to the long Lebanon, 62 percent in West Bank and Gaza, and working hours in the private sector (Assaad and 68 percent in Tunisia. In Egypt, the top reason Barsoum 2019). Figure 2.4 Share of female managers (all occupations) 30 100 25 80 S HA R E O F M A N A GE R S ( %) S HAR E O F W O RK E RS ( %) 20 60 15 40 10 20 5 0 0 Algeria Bahrain Djbouti Egypt Iraq Jordan Kuwait Morocco Lebanon Libya Palestine Qatar Tunisia Saudi Arabia Syria UAE Yemen Female workers across all economic actiity (%) Male workers across all economic activity (%) Share of managers (% of total employed among women) Share of managers (% of total employed among men) Source: ILOSTAT 2019 (accessed January 2022); original calculation based on the ILO indicator, “Employed by sex and occupation, thousands (annual).” 17 2.3 ENTREPRENEURSHIP Gaps in female entrepreneurship also persist. Despite reports showing that companies with AND LEADERSHIP gender diversity demonstrate higher productivity, less than 2 percent of women who are employed in MENA (overall) are employers and only 4 As in most parts of the world, women in the percent of firms represent majority ownership by MENA region are largely absent in the board a woman—lower than in any other region (World room. The share of female managers among Bank 2019; Enterprise Survey 2021).12 Studies point employed women is very low at less than 10 to the fact that firms owned by women tend to hire percent in all MENA countries (figure 2.4). The more women, including to the top management gender gap in management is prominent across positions (figure 2.5). For example, a survey of the region, with the largest observed in Libya 532 firms in Lebanon revealed that companies and in Djibouti (figure 2.5). This is also consistent led by women employed a larger proportion of with studies conducted across select companies female permanent full-time workers (49 percent) in MENA that show the average share of women compared to firms led by men (22 percent) (World in private firms at 7 percent, is less than half the Bank and UN Women 2021, based on Enterprise global average of 18 percent (Enterprise Survey, Survey 2019). latest available data).11 Figure 2.5 Impact of female ownership of firms, by gender of top managers and employees (A) SHARE OF FIRMS WITH FEMALE MAJORITY OWNERSHIP (B) FIRMS WITH SHARE OF PERMANENT FULL-TIME NON-PRODUCTION WORKERS 80 70 70 60 60 PE R C E N T ( %) 50 P E RC E N T (% ) 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Djibouti Egypt, Jordan Lebanon Morocco Tunisia Djibouti Egypt, Jordan Lebanon Morocco Tunisia Arab Rep. Arab Rep. Female top manager Male top manager Female top manager Male top manager Source: Enterprise Survey, latest available data. 11 The Enterprise Survey is a firm-level survey of a representative sample of an economy’s private sector and covers 150 countries. In the MENA region, the survey covers Djibouti (2013), Egypt (2020), Iraq (2011), Jordan (2019), Lebanon (2019), Morocco (2019), Syria (2009), Tunisia (2020), West Bank and Gaza (2019), and Yemen (2019). 12 According to reports by the International Finance Corporation, companies where women serve on boards and executive committees have a 47 percent higher return on equity and 55 percent more gross income (World Bank and UN Women 2021). 18 3. Transitioning from Education to Work 3.1 GENDER AND EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA There is a clear mismatch between the improvements in women’s access to tertiary education in the MENA region and their lagging access to the job market. The share of women enrolled in tertiary education in MENA is comparable to the global average of 43 percent (WDI, accessed January 2022). A divergence can be seen in the STEM-related fields, where women’s presence is notably higher in MENA than in other middle- and high-income countries as well as above the world average. In Lebanon, for example, women’s enrollment in STEM-related jobs is at 61 percent (Ahmad et al. 2019). Despite this impressive trend, the MENA region lags on almost every labor market indicator (figure 3.1), and women suffer a wide gender gap in access to professional and technical jobs as well as leadership positions. Figure 3.1 Key work-related indicators for select MENA countries LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE 1 0.8 0.6 LEADERSHIP 0.4 FORMAL POSITIONS EMPLOYMENT 0.2 0 UNPAID CARE PROFESSIONAL AND WORK TECHNICAL JOBS Source: Adapted from McKinsey & Company (2019, 11). Note: Only Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia are represented. All numbers are expressed as a female-male ratio. Unpaid care work refers to hours worked by women compared to hours worked by men in care work at home. 19 Figure 3.2 Share of female university graduates, by STEM field, in MENA and OECD countries, 2017 100 80 60 40 20 0 Algeria Bahrain Egypt, Arab Rep. Jordan Morocco Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia Syria Tunisia United Arab Emirates West Bank and Gaza MNA Average Select OECD Countries Engineering Natural Sciences ICTs Source: Adapted from UNESCO (2021, 12–13). Note: Select OECD countries include Canada, Denmark, Finland, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Sweden, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. ICTs = information and communication technologies; MNA = Middle East and North Africa; OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In many MENA countries, women are the educational curriculums, leaving critical gaps in majority in tertiary education and in STEM skills development for youth competing in future fields.13 According to the 2021 United Nations markets. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Global Science Study, women’s average Despite women’s achievements, there are few share of degrees in engineering, natural sciences, women in STEM occupations. In many MENA and information and communication technology countries, women represent less than 20 percent (ICT) in select MENA countries is 53  percent of the workers in STEM-related occupations, compared to an average of 35 percent in OECD specifically in science, engineering, and ICT (figure countries (figure 3.2). These findings match 3.3). In Egypt, on average, women represent earlier reports showing women’s share among 43 percent of STEM graduates; however, they STEM graduates ranging from 34 to 57 percent, represent less than 10 percent of the share a level comparable or even above the 35 percent working in science and engineering occupations. global average (UNESCO 2017). However, these A notable gap is evident in the United Arab fields of study are often theoretical and/or Emirates, where female representation is even related to more traditional types of occupations, lower, at 7 percent, even though women are such as in medicine, engineering, and research. approximately 60 percent of graduates in STEM- Anecdotal evidence indicates that early education related fields. Trends are the same in ICT, with and training in newer areas of technology men dominating the field (UNESCO 2021 based on are nascent and not necessarily integrated in 2017 data; ILOSTAT, latest available data). 13 According to UNESCO, “STEM as a field covers traditional disciplines such as Medicine, Engineering, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics and Statistics, as well as the more specialized disciplines such as Astrophysics, Biochemistry and Genetic Engineering [….] There are huge range of STEM occupations, including computer, scientists, network and computer systems administrators, database administrators, nuclear technicians, engineers, material scientists, microbiologists, biochemists, and many others”; UNESCO glossary: https://unevoc.unesco.org/home/TVETipedia+Glossary/filt=all/id=640. 20 Figure 3.3 Share of workers in STEM occupations in select MENA countries SHARE OF STEM WORKERS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING SHARE OF STEM WORKERS IN INFORMATION AND BY GENDER AND SELECT COUNTRIES COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES, BY GENDER AND SELECT COUNTRIES Egypt, Arab Rep. Iraq United Arab Emirates Jordan West Bank and Gaza Lebanon MALE MALE Tunisa Lebanon United Arab Emirates Jordan West Bank and Gaza Yemen Iraq Egypt, Arab Rep. Iraq United Arab Emirates Jordan West Bank and Gaza FEMALES Lebanon FEMALE Tunisa Lebanon United Arab Emirates Jordan West Bank and Gaza Yemen Iraq 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: ILOSTAT, latest available data (accessed in January 2022). 3.2 FACTORS BEHIND COVID estimates, the central government wage bill in MENA represents 10 percent of GDP, compared GENDER GAPS to a global average of 5.4 percent (Saliola 2019). The changing landscape of jobs being created A combination of factors contributes to in high-skilled areas is often undermined by poor labor market outcomes and limited inadequate skills and shortage of talent due entrepreneurship among women in the region. to a lack of educational opportunities and Demand- and supply-side constraints, such as a traditional curriculums that are in need of lack of jobs and a skills mismatch—attributed to reform (World Bank 2018). Most MENA countries the overall disconnect between what is taught that participated in the Trends in Mathematics at schools and what is needed on the job—are and Science Study (2019) performed below the important factors. Other drivers of gender disparity international average in math and science for the include social or normative constraints that eighth grade (Mullis et al., 2020). While results women face due to deeply entrenched patriarchal over time show girls in MENA outperforming belief systems, legal restrictions that reinforce boys in both subjects, they still lag behind the gender stereotypes and occupation segregation, global average. Their  higher performance also and pervasive wage inequality.14 Public sector does not translate into labor market outcomes. employment across the region is still oversized Consultations in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and (despite declining trends) and the government West Bank and Gaza show that girls’ career remains the major employer: according to pre- choices are highly influenced by family and social 14 Despite improvements over time, the MENA region is recorded as having the highest number of gender-based restrictions in laws, which affect women’s access to work compared to other regions (World Bank 2022). With an average regional score of 53 out of 100, compared to the global average of 76.5, it is important to note that there is a significant variation across countries. These countries are measured against eight core indicators: mobility, workplace, pay, marriage, parenthood, entrepreneurship, assets, and pensions (World Bank 2022). 21 “In my first job, expectations regarding what is deemed appropriate for women—in terms of the workplace environment, working hours, or daily tasks. my manager was One employer interviewed stated, “Personally, I am not against a woman, she women in the energy sectors but sometimes the role is not suitable was very strong for the woman. Sometimes it’s physical reasons and sometimes it’s the culture itself. I usually assign on-site installations to the men and very smart. because they can carry very heavy equipment and it needs their From the first day, physical strength. Sometimes the owners of the house, they refuse I wasn’t treated that women engineers go and install the PV itself” (stakeholder interview in Jordan, 2021). differently than my male colleagues, Furthermore, societal norms regarding a woman’s role at home and a lack of affordable and quality childcare are major challenges, I also had to go and further exacerbated by COVID-19. Women face specific barriers to visit sites. But when the job market based on their expected roles in society and their I work with solar families (World Bank 2020). Data from across the region show that women are likely to spend two to three times more time in childcare PV installation activities than men (see appendix B). A survey of attitudes on gender companies, I can equality carried out in Egypt, Morocco, and West Bank and Gaza see that the found that the majority of men (87, 72, and 80 percent, respectively) agreed to the statement: “A woman’s most important role is to care technicians are for the home and cook for the family.” More than 77 percent of rarely ever women women in Egypt also agreed with that statement, while the share and women don’t was much lower in Morocco (49 percent) and in the West Bank (59 percent)—yet still remarkably high (El Feki, Barker, and Heilman go into the field.” 2017). Such attitudes are set against a backdrop of few alternatives when it comes to care giving. For example, in Jordan only 3 percent – Stakeholder of children below the age of five benefit from childcare services, and interview in Lebanon, this is likely the case in other MENA countries (Ait Ali Slimane 2020). 2021 Other studies show that there is a correlation between a woman’s labor force participation and her marital as well as child status. In Lebanon, married women aged 24–35 are 81 percent less likely to be in the labor force than unmarried women, and for every child a university educated woman has, the LFPR drops from 60 percent (no children) to 15 percent (3+ children) (World Bank and UN Women 2021). Furthermore, the impact of COVID-19 and subsequent lockdowns and school closures have increased care responsibilities among women, as they tend to be the first to give up their jobs: based on United Nations and International Labour Organization reporting, job losses among women stand at 5 percent compared to 3.9 percent for men due to the pandemic. In a region and sector where women are already underrepresented, such declines can reverse progress made to date (UN 2021). Lack of adequate and safe transportation is an additional barrier to women’s access to work. In Jordan, 47 percent of women have refused a job offer because of lack of transportation (Aloul, Naffa, 22 and Mansour 2018); and in a survey of five cities 3.3 LABOR MARKET (Algiers, Amman, Beirut, Casablanca, and Muscat), 41 percent of women—alongside the 47 percent of TRANSFORMATIONS AND women who do not use public transportation— state it is because they do not feel secure (or safe), THE ENERGY TRANSITION relative to using their own car or a taxi (Delatte et al 2018). Labor markets are undergoing radical transformation with the diffusion of Importantly, women face constraints when it digitalization and automation, and there is comes to networking and accessing information a greater need today to fast-track women’s about job opportunities or internships where access to sustainable jobs (figure 3.4). The they can get practical experience. A study using increasingly prominent role of data and access LinkedIn data shows that, globally, women are 14– to digital services are both a threat and an 38 percent less likely than men to have a strong opportunity for men and women alike in the professional network and 26 percent less likely MENA region. However, due to their lower levels to ask for a referral (Lewis 2020). This is in line of professional development and digital inclusion, with a growing body of evidence showing that women are more likely to be impacted by the women and men network differently, due to the labor market transformation. A recent analysis specific hurdles that women face, particularly as by the World Wide Web Foundation—based on they advance in their career—such as balancing data and models developed by the International responsibilities and building confidence Telecommunication Union from 32 countries, (Uzzi 2019; Elsesser 2019). Women also miss out including Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia— on networking opportunities early on in their found a significant gender gap in access to career because of childcare constraints. According internet services, with men being 50 percent more to a survey carried out across Egypt, Saudi Arabia, likely to be online than women (WWWF 2021).16 and the United Arab Emirates, the second-most Furthermore, advanced ICT skills are notably low reported reason why women do not join or stay in the MENA region. While there are increasing in the workforce is a lack of mentorship and opportunities to develop skills, these will require role models (McKinsey & Company 2020). There a degree of access and connectivity that may be are also issues related to mobility and norms, challenging in contexts characterized by fragility, particularly in contexts marked by fragility and conflict, and violence and for women due to the conflict, which may make it difficult for young aforementioned norms and constraints. women to get their foot in the door, especially in nontraditional jobs. This is the case in Gaza, The dynamic energy transition in MENA offers where field discussions revealed that the first job an opportunity to attract more women toward often required one to physically present one’s sustainable and highly productive jobs that qualifications to businesses.15 will change the face of the region. Some MENA 15 Anecdotal evidence from consultations with the ASPIRE (Advancing Sustainability in Performance, Infrastructure, and Reliability of the Energy Sector in West Bank and Gaza) project implementation unit staff in 2019. 16 Internet use varies considerably by country in MENA, with almost universal access among women and men in the GCC countries compared to only a third of women (34 percent) and 64 percent of men in Iraq (latest available data from 2017; https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Dashboards/Pages/Digital-Development.aspx). That said, the low share of overall connectivity is due to overarching issues of poor infrastructure, high costs, and few options to choose from, as seen in many contexts (Alsabah et al. 2021). Also, the situation is rapidly changing with more and more people getting connected. For example, in Egypt, only 41 percent of the female population were using the internet in 2018 compared to 71 percent in 2020 (42 percent compared to 73 percent among males). 23 countries are among the most highly dependent development, the region’s vast potential for on oil and gas in the world. For example, in most natural resources, and the need to sustainably GCC countries, oil and gas accounts for more meet growing demand for energy. Diversifying the than 20 percent of GDP and at least 50 percent energy sector’s value chain in MENA opens the of state revenues (World Bank 2019; IMF 2016). door to leveraging this structural transformation The global climate action agenda and energy to address the severe underrepresentation transition pose significant macroeconomic risks, of women in the energy workforce. However, which will percolate down to labor markets and there is a need first to understand the status of households. This  likelihood has led regional women’s employment in the sector, the obstacles governments to place greater emphasis on that women face in entering or staying in it, and economic diversification. The energy sector takes the existing policy space and how it is affecting a central role in these diversification plans due women’s participation in the sector. to its multidimensional connections to local “Seeing is believing, we need female students to see successful examples of women in Energy.” – Focus group discussant in Egypt, 2021 Figure 3.4 Economic benefits of gender equality in MENA’s Labor Market Increase in GDP growth Higher income per capita due to higher levels of productivity Enhanced social and economic resilience through women’s’ empowerment Source: Analysis of multiple sources. See References section. Note: MENA = Middle East and North Africa. 24 4. The Gendered Energy Landscape in MENA Diversification of the energy sector will likely easier for women to access, further investigation is create more and different types of jobs—a needed, given the diverse trends of the renewable majority of them in the renewable market. The tech industry.18 global energy market is estimated to grow 44 percent by 2050 with 80 percent of the jobs being In many MENA countries where data are in renewables as compared to 11 percent in fossil available, women’s average representation rate fuels and 5 percent in nuclear energy (Lewis and in the energy sector is well below the global Collins 2021). A 2021 analysis by the International average of 22 percent (IRENA 2019). Based on Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) indicated that the latest available labor force surveys in Egypt, global renewable energy jobs had increased by 71 Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia, women’s percent—from 7.3 million in 2012 to 12 million jobs participation in the energy sector is below in 2020—faring well even during the COVID-19 10 percent on average (figure 4.1). In Algeria the pandemic.17 Trends in the MENA region reveal range is larger, with the bottom figure coming similar opportunities for employment growth, from a state-owned utility and the top, a sample of with over US$100 billion invested in renewables private sector companies (primarily renewables), projects in 2021 alone (MEED 2021). While some half of which are internationally owned. Further job profiles will likely remain the same (that analysis shows that the average share of women of marketing and administrative personnel, in international companies was 29 percent engineers, professional experts, technicians, and compared to only 4 percent in local companies. unskilled workers), the trades in greatest demand Data from West Bank and Gaza paints a slightly are likely to change. For example, jobs in the oil and better picture, at 10 to 15 percent. The  major gas sector are dominated by tradespeople such as outlier is Tunisia with a 27  percent share of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters or steamfitters, women in the energy workforce, though a closer and construction equipment operators, while examination reveals that these are concentrated positions in renewables are dominated by solar in clerical work or in low-skill services.19 PV installers, wireman, roofers, and electricians (IRENA 2021a). There will be a growth in demand While representation of women in the sector for skills in telecommunications, computer seems limited, existing analysis from other science, and artificial intelligence as the sector MENA countries shows variation with notable diversifies and modernizes (IRENA 2021a). While levels of female participation in the GCC most evidence indicates that future positions in countries. A desk review of available data from the sector, especially in renewables, are likely to be Qatar, Kuwait, and Oman reveals that the share 17 These include direct and indirect jobs. Technologies covered in this field are solar PV, bioenergy, hydropower (direct only), wind energy, solar heating/cooling, and others (including geothermal energy, concentrated solar power, heat pumps [ground based], municipal and industrial waste, and ocean energy)Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. (IRENA 2021b). 18 This is also manifested in the higher number of women in renewables as compared to oil and gas: 32 percent compared to 22 percent, respectively (IRENA 2021a). 19 IRENA does not provide regional data figures, with very limited data on the MENA region. Also, it should be noted that the IRENA (2019) study has some limitations including biased sampling from Europe and North America. Similarly, the MENA numbers cited in the report are heavily biased by sampling from the United Arab Emirates. 25 Figure 4.1 Women’s share in the workforce of key energy-related sectors in select MENA countries 27% 10-15% 5% 6% 6% Tunisia WB&G Lebanon Jordan 16-20% Iraq 8% 5-6% Algeria Egypt, Arab Rep. KSA Sources: Algeria—this range represents different data sets, including state-owned oil company SONATRACH (2018) and online survey respondents from 18 private sector companies primarily focused on renewables, 10 of which are international (March 2022); Egypt, Arab Rep. —women’s share in the total energy sector workforce based on the 2019 LFS; Iraq—women’s share in non-renewables and renewables based on the 2012 LFS; Jordan—women’s share in the total energy sector workforce based on the 2016 LFS; Lebanon—share of women in electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning, based on the 2018/2019 LFS; Saudi Arabia (KSA)—average share of women in (1) mining and quarrying and (2) electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply, based on the 2021 LFS; Tunisia—women’s share in the energy sector workforce based on the 2014 LFS; and West Bank and Gaza—women’s share in renewables and the traditional electricity sector based on data provided by stakeholder interviews. Note: WB&G = West Bank and Gaza; KSA = Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. of women’s economic activity in related fields— The mean gender wage gap in the energy such as (1) mining and quarrying; (2) electricity, sector averages at 15 percent—across Egypt gas, steam, and air conditioning services; and (3) (18.5 percent), Jordan (19.3 percent), and Iraq construction—is still lower than that of men, but (8 percent)—to the disadvantage of women.21 in some instances, higher than what is seen more However, the gender gap may be much higher commonly in other MENA countries. For example, than the average estimation when we consider in Qatar, women represent 21 percent of workers a number of factors: (1) low female LFPRs, (2) in mining and quarrying and as high as 40 percent employment characteristics, and (3) unobservable in electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning; in characteristics. First, we cannot compare the Oman their share ranges from 8 percent to 16 average wage estimates of men and women in percent; and in Kuwait 7 percent and 4 percent, the energy sector as their LFPRs vary greatly, respectively.20 from 90–95 percent (men) to 5–10 percent 20 Sources: Qatar—Planning and Statistics Authority, Annual Report 2021; Kuwait—Kuwait Central Statistical Bureau, Annual Statistics (2017–18); and Oman—National Center for Statistics and Information, Annual Statistics Report 2021. These data include national and nonnational figures. 21 Original calculations based on labor force surveys for Egypt (2019), Jordan (2016), and Iraq (2012). 26 (women). Second, there is greater variation in 4.1 WOMEN IN POWER employment characteristics among men, who fill the range from low- to high-skilled jobs, whereas UTILITIES the majority of women in the energy sector, in many countries, are employed in high-skilled jobs. Typically, high-skilled jobs are associated The gender gap extends to women working with higher pay, but average wages are likely in national power utilities, especially those to mask the actual gender wage differentials. in technical roles. The total share of women at Third, given that few women are employed in the Lebanon’s power utility Electricité du Liban (EDL) energy sector, it is suggestive that they may have is 15 percent, at Jordan’s National Electric Power unobservable characteristics (e.g., grit, confidence, Company (NEPCO) is 20 percent (figure 4.2), and emotional intelligence, and managerial potential), in Algeria’s state-owned utility SONATRACH is 17 which are not representative of all women in percent (figure 4.3), compared with the global the labor market. As such, the average wage gap average of 25 percent. Along these lines, the share compares the average man in the energy sector of women in the Palestinian Energy and Natural with the unique 5–10 percent of women in the Resources Authority (PENRA), the associated energy sector.  electricity distribution companies, and electricity suppliers in West Bank and Gaza is only at 10 percent, but it is even  lower at the Palestinian Electricity Company, at 2 percent (figure 4.4). Admin repairs Tra d rep istratio an nsm air iss s n No Op ion er Non-technical at io n-tech ns Te c ser hnic Te nical vic al ch es ni ca l Plan ning NEPCO Transmission Studies an planning (Jordan) Gene Technical Transmission Planning and repairs Women ratio d Men te sta No nic n ch ff n- al Technic cal hni s Tec rvice se te No nic al ch n- al tion era Gen Non- ons technic Non- staff al technic EDL rati al (Lebanon) Ope Women Men Te d ch s an nic die g al Stu annin pl Figure 4.2 Gender distribution in two power utilities: Lebanon’s EDL and Jordan’s NEPCO Source: World Bank data 2021. on Note: EDL = Electricité du Liban; Transmissi NEPCO = National Electric Power Company. 27 Figure 4.3 Gender distribution in SONATRACH, Figure 4.4 Gender distribution in West Bank Algeria and Gaza utilities 40,000 40 35,000 35 30,000 30 25,000 25 20,000 20 15,000 15 10,000 10 5,000 5 0 0 Management Mid-level Technical level PENRA DISCOs Electricity Palestine Electric professionals suppliers Company Female Male Share of female employees Share of female managers (% of total) Source: SONATRACH 2018 human resource data. Source: Human resource data retrieved during stakeholder interviews in West Bank and Gaza between December 2021 and March 2022. Management data are available only for PENRA and the distribution companies. Note: DISCOs = electricity distribution companies; PENRA = Palestinian Energy and Natural Resources Authority. Women’s representation in technical fields and definition used for management is broad and leadership is also low. The share is particularly low includes support and backup positions such as in technical departments (e.g., those responsible engineering. for repairs and transmission)—it stands at about 13 percent at NEPCO, 8 percent at SONATRACH, Global experience indicates that utilities with and 6 percent at EDL. In nontechnical roles (e.g., improved women’s representation show better policy, legal, etc.), NEPCO has a balanced gender financial, environmental, social, and corporate representation, with women making up half. In governance performance. According to a recent other Jordanian power utilities, such as the Electric case study focused on US utilities, those with the Distribution Company and the Irbid District largest percentage of women in leadership roles Electricity Company, female LFPRs are also very were, on average, 47 percent more profitable low—at less than 8 and 6 percent, respectively than companies with the least representation. (USAID 2016).22 Women’s representation is Companies with greater women’s representation disproportionately low in leadership roles. For were also substantially more transparent and example, there are no women serving on EDL’s ranked higher on environmental, social, and board of directors. In West Bank and Gaza, governance metrics (Ernst and Hlinka 2021). interviews with utilities suggest that women This view is consistent with the wider research compose only 9 percent of the management, on the positive impact of gender diversity on which is marginally lower than the figure outside companies in general, and on utilities in particular, the energy sector.23 Finally, while the share of due to the access afforded to a wider pool of talent women in management seems higher in Algeria’s and higher levels of professionalism, productivity, SONATRACH, at 26 percent, it is likely because the and innovation (USAID 2016). 22 In Jordan, it seems that both public and private sector 23 Based on data from stakeholder interviews, women in senior roles (across energy business lines) are better represented in the public sector at 9 percent in PENRA, 4 percent in DISCOs, and 2 percent in renewable energy companies. 28 Apart from electricity utilities, oil companies in other energy industries (figure 4.6). Similarly, in Kuwait shows limited representation of more women work as plant operators in the women—approximately 19 percent (figure 4.5), renewable energy sector (11 percent) than in other which is consistent with global reports that energy industries (4 percent). The  employment women represent only 15 percent of the oil and redistribution effects of renewable energy can gas workforce (McKinsey & Company 2019). be fully understood when we observe that the While we cannot determine the distribution of share of women who work in clerical support employees by gender and position due to limited roles versus other roles in the renewable energy data availability, the same McKinsey survey (2019) sector is substantially lower (by 22 percentage shows that the representation of women steadily points) than that of other energy industries. declines after each stage of promotion within the There are several reasons for this. First, as shown sector in Kuwait, for example, women represent in the World Bank report, “Shedding Light on only 12 percent of supervisory positions in oil Female Talent in Lebanon’s Energy Sector,” female companies (Menachery 2019). students in Lebanon are more interested in enrolling in renewable energy programs (Ahmad et al. 2019). The same case study also points to 4.2 GENDER AND an important factor, that is, the reputational advantage of renewable energy being more RENEWABLE ENERGY “green,” sustainable, and modern. With youth in the MENA region becoming increasingly aware In Egypt, which is one of the major energy of climate change and the environmental stress development hubs in MENA, renewable energy it induces, such reputational factors could have firms are more likely to employ women in a major effect (Shafi 2022). A PwC (2019) survey technical roles as compared to nonrenewable found that youth in the countries of the GCC, energy industries. Based on the available labor the Levant, and North Africa are increasingly force data for Egypt, 11 percent of women work concerned about issues of energy consumption, in technical and associated professional roles in water conservation, and recycling. the renewable sector, as opposed to 6  percent Figure 4.5 Distribution of employees in Kuwait’s oil companies by gender 9,000 8,375 7,000 4,905 5,000 3,000 2039 1,641 615 933 1,000 575 57 272 119 83 145 69 37 109 36 185 131 -1,000 Kuwait Oil Company Kuwait National petroum Co Petrochemical Industries Co Kuwait Oil Tanker Co Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Co Kuwait Oil Gulf Company Kuwait Petroleum International Oil Sector Services Company Kuawit Integrated PetroleumIndustries Company Female Employees Male Employees Source: Kuwait Central Statistical Bureau 2020. 29 Figure 4.6 Distribution of Egyptian women workers across three major job categories 51% 29% 11% 11% 5% 4% Technicians and Plant and machine operators, Clerical and support workers associate professionals and assembly operators Renewable energy Non-renewable energy Source: Egypt’s Labor Force Survey 2021. However, shifting toward renewable energy For example, Jordan and Egypt’s labor force alone is not enough to attract significant surveys (2016 and 2019, respectively) show that numbers of women to work in the energy sector. women’s participation in the renewable energy IRENA has reported that the global share of sector has exceeded that of the overall energy women in the renewable energy sector stood at sector by only 1 percentage point.25 Although 32 percent, which is 10 percentage points higher these are just two of the many countries in the than the overall energy sector average (IRENA region, they are among the most advanced in 2019). This is in distinct contrast with women’s handling the energy transition and have become representation in the renewable energy sector regional hubs of renewable energy development in the MENA countries, which ranges from 7 to over the past decade. The challenges that are 9 percent in countries where data are available impeding women from joining MENA’s energy (figure 4.7)—substantially below the global transition are explored in the next chapter, based average.24 Also, the introduction of renewable on lessons learned from the regional assessment. energy in this region does not seem to trigger the same level of women’s participation as indicated by global trends. 24 Disaggregated data by subsector are not readily available in many countries. For example, human resource data collected from Palestinian utilities and renewable companies in West Bank and Gaza show the share of women in the renewables sector to be higher (15 percent) than in the traditional sector (10 percent). However, in absolute terms, there are many more women employed in the traditional sector than in renewable companies. 25 This is based on absolute numbers calculated from national labor force surveys. 30 Figure 4.7 Share of women in renewables in select MENA countries compared to the global average MENA Global Average 7 to 9% 32% Women representation in Global women representation MENA’s renewable energy sector in the renewable energy sector Source: For MENA, renewable data were collected from Egypt (9 percent), Jordan (7 percent), and Iraq (7 percent); for the global average, data were taken from IRENA (2019). Note: MENA = Middle East and North Africa. 31 5. Lessons Learned Women’s limited representation in the MENA energy market is related to the overarching challenges they face throughout the labor force. Stakeholder consultations through interviews and focus group discussions, combined with a literature review, revealed that women face specific obstacles to accessing entry points or participating in energy-related jobs. · Legal restrictions that reinforce gender stereotypes in the energy sector across the region: In all MENA countries but Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, women are not permitted to work in industrial jobs or those deemed hazardous (World Bank 2022). This may impact employment, given the nature of the sector. Such restrictions in labor codes reinforce pervasive gender stereotypes that determine the types of jobs women should, or should not, be working in. · Lack of access to education and equal opportunities for skills development: Women need to develop the skills of the future, not just to enter the workforce but also to advance their careers. Access to STEM education at the high school and university “There is a levels is uneven across the region. For example, in Yemen, where clear double a significant part of the population lives in rural areas, gender parity in primary education has not yet been achieved and standard women remain vastly underrepresented in STEM fields (Zakham and Jaton 2019). As a participant pointed out during a stakeholder where women group consultation, in a context like Yemen, finishing a degree, be must stand it STEM or otherwise, is an achievement for many women, given the scale of the challenges that go beyond social stereotyping to out on every a lack of a proper educational environment for females. Tapping into vocational technology opportunities can be an important metric to prove pathway for skills development, particularly for first-time job themselves seekers. eligible for · Limited guidance in the public education system, hampering management women’s transition from education in the STEM fields to work opportunities: Young women and men are tracked in specific positions.” fields of study based on their grades, and few are aware of career options related to their fields of study. An educator participating – Stakeholder in a focus group in Egypt said, “There is lack of information about interview in Jordan, career opportunities in STEM fields within schools; students are not familiar with their options, they are only directed based on 2021 their grades. If someone has high grades they automatically go to engineering, economics, and medicine universities.” For women, 32 this system can prove to be doubly challenging restrictive attitudes about women’s ability as they try to convince families that they need to get promoted in the energy sector. One to pursue a higher education in a STEM field interviewee pointed out that “there is a clear when they are not tracked to it. double standard where women must stand out on every metric to prove themselves eligible for · Concerns surrounding women’s safe mobility, management positions.” In some companies, including for on-site work: For women living in there are either no clear wage scales or equal rural areas, lack of safe and reliable transport opportunities for promotions.27 Additionally, options impedes efforts at continuing while the law mandates that companies must education or taking a job far from home; they provide for childcare, whether in the office or also miss out on opportunities to join the in coordination with other workplaces, the law labor market, as jobs tend to be centralized is often not implemented. in capital cities. In focus group discussions and stakeholder interviews, these issues were · A lack of role models and access to career noted as potential disincentives for women advice in the workforce: Consultations taking on technical and engineering jobs that across countries revealed a common need may require employees to conduct field work. for consistent training, mentorship, and role Another issue noted was inadequate facilities models to support female students or first-time at field sites. To a great extent, these findings job seekers in transitioning to the workforce, are consistent with past research (e.g., Ahmad as well as to support professionals in getting et al. 2019). promoted and being considered for leadership opportunities. Many of the female participants · Recruitment opportunities that are largely pointed to the need for safe spaces and mentors centralized and do not target women: The to boost workers’ confidence in the sector. For majority of opportunities are in central students and young women starting out, the (typically urban) locations. It was reported family and community play an influential role. that few companies specifically target women Studies have shown that supportive fathers in their recruitment processes, nor do they who encourage their daughters to take on mention the need for gender diversity during nontraditional professions contribute to their onboarding or have specific sexual harassment careers (UN Women Promundo 2017). This policies.26 Opportunities that consider the finding was reinforced by several interviewees needs of women are key to ensure diversity describing their career decisions in the context goals can be met. of family dynamics and community relations. For women who are mid-career, participants report · Difficulties in women’s advancement that there are few role models of other women owing to implicit biases and inequitable who “broke the glass ceiling.” Taking advantage workplace conditions: Many of the female of networking opportunities is also challenging, participants interviewed reported biases and given women’s outsized role in the home. 26 According to the Regional Action Plan on Gender-Based Violence in the Middle East and North Africa (World Bank 2021c), sexual harassment “refers to any form of unwelcome sex-based behavior (verbal, non-verbal, physical) that is offensive, humiliating or intimidating. It is common in public spaces and at workplaces.” 27 The global water sector has been active in addressing workplace conditions through initiatives such as Equal Aqua, “a collaborative platform that aims to deepen the dialogue on gender diversity and inclusion in water sector jobs by connecting utilities, associations, representatives from the private sector, academia and local and international organizations and benchmarking gender inclusion in water organizations” (https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/brief/inclusive-water- institutions-platform). 33 · The effect of social norms and expectations: “There is a change since 2012 Across interviews and focus group discussions, women stated a preference to not work on sites in the MENA region about the or in the field. The belief that women cannot or importance of being active in should not do physically demanding work is held the energy sector. Back then by both men and women. The beliefs and social traditions of individuals involved at all levels we really had to work hard to in the sector are very important in setting the sell it to women. They would tone for work, breaking norms, or challenging usually associate extractive the status quo. Socialization, meanwhile, affects how both men and women perceive energy with strong men work. A consistent theme that emerged across sitting on platforms or people interviews is the critical importance of managers handling electricity. Or such who support breaking gender norms. male-orientated images.” Because of their large size, utilities in MENA – Stakeholder interview in Lebanon, could be an important source of jobs for women 2021 engineers and technicians, even if the workplace improvements are small and incremental. As discussed in chapter 4, energy utilities are a critical part of the energy transition as they move capital from fossil fuel assets to renewables. By achieving greater efficiency in transmission and distribution, they can lay the groundwork for the ambitious expansion of renewable energy. Utilities also have the advantage of being called upon to hire a large number of workers in a diverse set of technical and nontechnical roles. To attract more women, first MENA utilities need to examine their gender baseline, and be aware of the added value of a diversified labor force (as discussed in chapter 1), and proactively educate their hiring managers about it. Second, utilities can form a taskforce comprised of both male and female employees to devise actionable steps that management can take to increase the share of women. The scope of the taskforce can include revising human resource policies to make them more Female friendly and finding ways to reach out to more qualified women candidates. Other ideas include well-structured internships, safe transportation, and facilities for women.28 28 Based on the WePOWER experience with participating utilities. 34 6. Next Steps There are many facets to achieving quality across the value chain. One example is Women in opportunities for women in MENA’s transition Clean Energy, an initiative focused on promoting to renewable energy. While the advent of women in leadership in the sector under the renewable energy creates new and untraditional umbrella of the MENA Clean Energy Business options for women, the layers of traditional Council, though it is not clear how active this constraints that have limited women’s roles in has been since its launch in 2020. Furthermore, the economy will require that policy makers and collective engagement is often lacking among key sector stakeholders address several key obstacles. energy stakeholders, such as power utilities and Solutions include a safe and equitable workplace energy companies, as well as private employers, environment, the synchronization of education academia, and nongovernmental organizations. and vocational preparation with job requirements, Much of the demand for supporting women’s and childcare and other supports that help labor force participation and involvement in the professionals achieve a work-life balance. Related sector takes place in isolated silos or top-down efforts must occur across countries that, despite initiatives that are country specific, company having a shared culture, are very diverse in nature. focused, and driven by leadership (often lacking broad‑based support). A multi-stakeholder community to boost women’s role in the energy sector across MENA In this context, consultations on the ground countries is much needed. Plenty of organizations have highlighted the need for women’s and networks support women’s empowerment empowerment networks. According to interviews and leadership in the region. However, few with representatives of women’s networks regionwide professional networks facilitate working in the energy field, a professional women’s entry into the workforce of the energy women’s network would be a valuable resource. and power sector, as well as their advancement Here, women would have a safe and professional 35 space to exchange ideas, discuss challenges without judgement, and build confidence. It is Box 6.1 only recently that the power and influence of women’s networks have started to be researched, The South Asia WePOWER characterized, and acknowledged (Bower 2019). Network: A success story The impact of women’s networks in “tough” sectors such as energy is significant. Since the number of women on the inside is limited, there Launched in 2018, the WePOWER network is great value to them sharing their experience, aims to promote women in the energy and knowledge, and advice on how to navigate power sector of eight South Asian countries: employment opportunities and rise up the career Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, ladder in a male-dominated industry. Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Since its establishment, WePOWER has Learning from similar networks that support grown exponentially—by the end of 2021 it women in energy in countries around the world, had completed over 1,400 activities ranging a coalition of local, regional and international from jobs created, internships, study tours to partners, among them the World Bank, plan to capacity building, and secured 28 partners. establish RENEW-MENA. This initiative would The network’s focus is twofold: (1) to support draw from the experience of the WePOWER women’s inclusion in the workforce of energy Network in South Asia (box 6.1) to promote projects and institutions; and (2) to promote women’s representation and status in energy a normative change for women and girls in the MENA region. It would tap women’s in science, technology, engineering, and professional networks to provide access to mathematics (STEM) education. role models and mentorship, build women’s confidence, and create safe spaces in which to With its diverse network of public and private discuss challenges and share opportunities. stakeholders and an emphasis on locally driven initiatives, WePOWER has had an The main objectives of RENEW-MENA are to (1) impressive reach, leading to tangible results increase women’s economic participation across on the ground. Its initiatives have led to the: (1) the energy sector value chain, and specifically hiring of 328 women through job fairs, career in clean energy transition jobs; (2) encourage counseling, mentorship programs, and so on; better workplace conditions in the private and (2) recruitment of 690 interns and enrollment public sectors; (3) combat widespread gender of 652 female students in study tours; and (3) stereotypes about women’s roles in STEM fields; participation of 11,156  female professionals and (4) increase the visibility of women in the in workshops and trainings. It has prompted sector. infrastructural enhancements, resulting in more than 200  new women-friendly In collaboration with similar networks—the facilities. WePOWER also conducts workshops Global Women’s Network for the Energy and seminars for mothers returning to the Transition (GWNET); the Swedish Power Women workplace, to promote retention. Network (Kraftkvinnorna); and the Nordic Energy Source: WePOWER Network Equality Network (NEEN) (see box 6.2)—RENEW- website and charter. MENA will engage with government utilities and agencies, the private sector, development 36 partners and donors, academia, and community- the country and regional levels (figure 6.1), direct based organizations to meet these objectives. It support to operations and client engagement, will also focus on partnerships and private sector and capacity building.29 RENEW will leverage the collaboration, innovative programming and World Bank’s engagement in countries to expand capacity building for individual and institutional its reach to stakeholders, influence policy, and members, promotion of knowledge sharing at coordinate efforts. Figure 6.1 RENEW’s mission To elevate women’s participation and leadership role as well as opportunities for entrepreneurship in the energy sector across the Middle East and North Africa. Facilitating STEM education-to-work transitions PARTNERSHIP BUILDING · Conduct job placement programs for private energy companies and public utilities. · Support internships and job fairs in universities that target female graduates. · Encourage mentorship programs and peer-to-peer networking (through virtual and physical hubs). · Promote a STEM-enabling environment in schools. · Train school counselors to encourage girls to take up careers in STEM fields and combat gender stereotypes and norms. INNOVATION Advancing recruitment, retention, and advancement AND CAPACITY BUILDING · Encourage partnerships to boost gender diversity in energy companies, utilities, power sector agencies, etc. through employer/ personnel trainings, staff awareness, and mentorship. · Draw from global/regional lessons to identify better workplace conditions (flexi work/parental care), assess promotion opportunities, and recognize female talent. · Generate new data on gender diversity business cases and share case studies of good practices to level the economic playing field for women. Promoting entrepreneurship and financial inclusion KNOWLEDGE SHARING · Promote entrepreneurship with a focus on renewables and digital technologies, in partnership with private sector companies and chambers of commerce. · Recognize business role models and linkages with existing leadership networks. · Support female entrepreneurs in innovative approaches that promote clean energy access and close financial inclusion, enhancing their access to green markets. Note: STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. 29 To be discussed and agreed upon in a closed session with key partners such as WePOWER-SAR, Kraftkvinnorna, NEEN, and others. Specific objectives will likely change based on the outcomes of the meeting. 37 Box 6.2 The power of networks: Examples from Sweden and the Nordic region Kraftkvinnorna started in 2015 as an exclusive network promoting women’s equality in the energy sector and has grown to become a nongovernmental organization owned by its members. Today, the network has 785 members with Facebook as its main communication platform; it also has 2,195 followers on Instagram and 1,465 followers on Twitter. Kraftkvinnorna’s board is elected by its members annually. The network promotes gender equality in the energy sector in three ways: · Promoting the visibility of role models: The organization chooses a “Power woman of the year” in Sweden to represent Kraftkvinnorna and women in the energy sector, acknowledging her role and achievements. It creates a list of women in the energy sector to be included in panels and boards, help firms with recruitment, and provides a platform for members to showcase their daily work on social media. · Advocacy for equality: Kraftkvinnorna advocates for women’s equality by participating in workshops with the Ministry of Energy, inviting ministers and executives to panel discussions, creating campaigns in association with Sweden’s annual interactive political discussion event “Almedalen Week,” writing editorials and articles, conducting research to identify potential employers in the sector, and producing a podcast that highlights inequalities and certifies seminars and panel discussions as “gender equal.” · Strengthening women in the energy sector: The network holds workshops and distributes a handbook to network members and sponsors that assists them in strengthening equality in their workplace; supports a mentorship program; and announces job opportunities within the network. Members attend conferences (getting free tickets when colleagues are speaking), wear promotional items such as a necklace with the Power Women logo, and otherwise build cohesion. Kraftkvinnorna also collaborates with sister networks and has helped Finland, Norway, and Denmark create their own networks such as the Nordic Energy Equality Network (NEEN). The Kraftkvinnorna network is sponsored by energy companies and the Swedish Energy Agency. As of spring 2022, there were 24 sponsors with more energy companies expressing their interest in supporting member activities. Members pay a yearly fee of SKr200 to support the organization. The Nordic Energy Equality Network (NEEN) was launched in 2019 after research was conducted to identify key challenges and solutions for women in the energy sector. While the issue of sustainable, clean energy is an issue that affects everyone, not all perspectives are heard. The aim of NEEN is to highlight such issues and develop tools for improving gender balance and diversity in the energy sector. Gathering statistics across the energy sector in the Nordic region is one important pillar of the network. As an action oriented organization, it also: 1. Organizes and participates in conferences and networking events that bring together academic, industrial, and public sector actors. 2. Connects with other networks in the region and globally such as Kraftkvinnorna in Sweden, Women in Energy – Iceland, Global Women’s Network for the Energy Transition (GWNET) and the Clean Energy Education & Empowerment (C3E) Initiative to share success stories and best practices to engage women. 3. Supports and communicates about inclusive efforts such as female mentorship programs, female entrepreneurship and showcasing role models. 4. Offers a list of female experts within the Nordic countries. The list may be used by media, event organizers, recruiters or anyone who is looking for skills within the energy sector. Link to the expert list: https://neen.network/experts/. Source: https://www.kraftkvinnorna.se/; https://neen.network/. 38 A series of activities will be conducted in presenting interventions that respond to preparation for the launch and operationalization closing those identified gaps and incorporating of RENEW. Once the initial assessment was sex-disaggregated metrics that measure complete, the World Bank hosted a technical progress made. workshop to present the findings to a select group · Develop branding, communications, and of stakeholders in order to seek their technical knowledge sharing for RENEW, building a guidance and feedback on the operationalization, community of practice. sustainability, and likely impact of RENEW. Based · Identify five strategic partners and agree on key on the workshop’s outcomes, the team will focus activities to be announced during the launch. on the following activities: · Host a formal high-level launch. · Establish a formal governance structure, with · Build ownership of the findings and the new the first Steering Committee meeting planned network through wide outreach and mapping in calendar year 2022. of institutional partners and members. · Set up a RENEW Advisory Committee and · Engage with the Bank to incorporate RENEW in units for fundraising, partnership building, and the design of project investments to contribute maintaining momentum. to a strong gender logic chain in operations · Implement a monitoring framework with by identifying gender gaps in the sector, pillars and indicators, as shown in table 6.1. Table 6.1 An example monitoring framework for RENEW Key pillars Indicators Number of new jobs filled by women among institutional members (of total new jobs filled) Share of female engineers recruited among institutional members Facilitating science, (of total engineering positions) technology, engineering, Number of internship and apprenticeship opportunities and mathematics (STEM) created by institutional members (disaggregated by gender) education-to-work transitions Number of students benefitting from career guidance opportunities organized by institutional members (disaggregated by gender) Number of role models identified to support young women in the early stages of their career Number of beneficiaries benefiting from mentorships, internships, Advancing recruitment, and other skills that promote their career retention, and advancement Number of institutional members reporting new measures to improve workplace conditions for women Promoting entrepreneurship New financing raised for female entrepreneurs in and financial inclusion energy‑related areas Number of RENEW-branded events in the Middle East and North Africa Expanding the RENEW Number of RENEW institutional members network Number of RENEW individual members Note: Targets will be defined after establishing RENEW and during its first phase of implementation. 39 References Ait Ali Slimane, M. 2020. “Final Addendum to Technical Assessment—Additional Finance: Economic Opportunities for Jordanians and Syrian Refugees PforR—P171172.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/ documentdetail/901261589855318137/final-addendum-to-technical-assessment- additional-finance-economic-opportunities-for-jordanians-and-syrian-refugees- pforr-p171172. 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Washington, DC: World Bank. https://wbl.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/wbl/documents/2021/02/WBL2022%20 Chapter%201.pdf. World Bank and UN Women. 2021. The Status of Women in Lebanon: Assessing Women’s Access to Economic Opportunities, Human Capital Accumulation & Agency. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/36512/ The-Status-of-Women-in-Lebanon-Assessing-Womens-Access-to-Economic- Opportunities-Human-Capital-Accumulation-and-Agency.pdf?sequence=1. WWWF (World Wide Web Foundation). 2021. The Costs of Exclusion: Economic Consequences of the Digital Gender Gap. https://webfoundation.org/research/costs-of- exclusion-report/. Zakham, F., and K. Jaton. 2019. “Supporting Female Scientists in Yemen.” The Lancet 393 (10171): 526–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32088-9. 43 Appendix A. Methodology The objective of this regional assessment is to Country-level assessments were carried out by provide a cross-country snapshot of the status individual and/or consultant firms based in the of women in the energy sector as well as their respective countries so as to build on informal constraints/opportunities in terms of career networks and support outreach to stakeholders decision-making, access to energy jobs, and on the ground, especially given the niche topic professional development in the workplace. and need for collecting new and hard-to-access The assessment is not exhaustive and given wide data. However, given the COVID-19 context, the variations in the availability of statistics, the majority of the qualitative data work was carried methodology used to collect sector-specific data out virtually. points and their presentation in the assessment may vary considerably. Its main purpose is to provide a preliminary analytical reference to A.1. DESK REVIEW underpin the urgent call for boosting women’s status in the sector and recommend concrete actions to be implemented by the Regional A desk review of secondary sources was carried Network in Energy for Women (RENEW) in the to provide country perspectives and regional Middle East and North Africa. comparison, which relied strongly on international indices and seminal reports such as the World To understand the gendered landscape of MENA’s Development Indicator Index (latest available energy sector, a mixed method approach was data); Women Business and the Law (2021); used that included: Enterprise Surveys (latest available data); Regional Gender Based Violence Action Plan (2021); Care i. A desk review of secondary sources to help Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent shed light on the status of women and the Work (ILO 2018); Renewable Energy: A Gender gendered realities in the MENA countries, Perspective (IRENA 2019); Stepping Up Women’s which presented general data points and then STEM Careers in Infrastructure: An Overview of focused on the energy sector. Promising Approaches (Schomer and Hammond ii. Quantitative analysis of key employment 2020); and Towards an Equal Future: Reimagining micro-data from labor force surveys in select Girls’ Education through STEM (UNICEF and ITU countries, depending on their availability. 2020). Data are disaggregated by type of position and category of work whenever possible. Analysis of micro-data was carried out drawing iii. Focus group discussions with educators from the Egypt Labor Force Survey (2019), Jordan and gender champions in the Arab Republic Labor Force Survey (2016), and Lebanon Labor of Egypt. Force and Household Condition Survey (2018–19). iv. Semi-structured interviews with select gender champions working in the sector, private sector Data on women’s employment in the energy sector players, and civil society organizations. were not readily available. On a global scale, the International Renewable Energy Agency estimates that women account for 32 percent of workers in 44 the renewable energy sector, and for less than 25 A.2. PRIMARY DATA percent in the energy sector as a whole. National labor force surveys are a good source for country- COLLECTION specific data on wages, occupations, and sectors of employment. These are standardized and use the International Standard Industrial Classification A combination of key informant interviews (ISIC) codes that have various levels of economic and focus group discussions was carried out categories (UNDESA 2008). At the broadest, there across the region; most were virtual due to the is the one-digit level that encompasses nine main pandemic. Semi-structured interviews with levels, whereas the highest is the six-digit level. To identified stakeholders in Algeria, Jordan, Saudi extract meaningful data on economic activity in Arabia, Lebanon, Iraq, and West Bank and Gaza the energy sector, data have to be classified by the represented a range of focus areas and seniority four- or six-digit level. levels (for more details about the interviewees, see table A.1). Interviewees were selected based However, data in the MENA region are somewhat on their knowledge and involvement in the sector, limited because: with care taken to ensure diversity (across young · Labor force surveys are not readily available professionals, executives, public sector employees, or accessible private sector employees, nongovernmental · Available labor force survey numbers organizations, and so on). The interview questions are outdated were structured around key areas, some of · Detailed four- or six-digit level ISIC variables which were cross-cutting such as education-to- are not included/collected in the dataset work transitions, staffing and recruitment, work environment (conditions) and infrastructure, the enabling environment, and issues related Once the detailed four- or six-digit-level data to norms. Focus group discussions took place in were extracted, they were categorized into Algeria and Egypt and among regional gender renewable and nonrenewable energy sectors. champions. Additionally, online surveys for Further disaggregation includes the percentage of this assessment were carried out in Algeria to employed women in each sector, and occupational complement the interviews and discussions. roles (e.g., management, technical, clerical, plant and machine operations). Table A.1 Details on primary data collection, by country ALGERIA Female Male Online surveys (2 total) 7 private sector respondents 11 private sector respondents 10 students n.a. Stakeholder interviews with private sector 5 21 Focus group discussions (3) 19 students 11 students 5 company representatives 1 enterprise cluster representative 45 EGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF Female Male Focus group discussions (4 total) 9 educators 4 educators 2 students 2 students IRAQ Female Male Stakeholder interviews with private sector / NGO (semi-structured) 3 3 JORDAN Female Male Stakeholder interviews with private sector / NGO (semi-structured) 5 1 LEBANON Female Male Stakeholder interviews with private sector / NGO (semi-structured) 6 0 SAUDI ARABIA Female Male Stakeholder group consultation (1 NGO) 2 6 WEST BANK and GAZA Female Male Stakeholder interviews with government / private sector (semi-structured) 12 5 REGIONAL / GLOBAL Female Male Stakeholder consultation with private sector, NGO, and academia (1) 22 gender champions 4 gender champions Stakeholder consultation (partners) 4 gender champions n.a. Note: NGO = nongovernmental organization. 46 Appendix B. Gender in Energy: Country Profiles Algeria Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 66 2020 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 60 2021 53 2021 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 19 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 25 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 20 2019 17 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 10 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 46 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 26 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Sources for all country tables: World Bank Development Indicators; World Bank Enterprise Surveys; Women, Business, and the Law (2021) unless otherwise noted. *This includes science, engineering, and information and communication technology (ICT) in all countries unless otherwise indicated; 2018 data based on UNESCO Report 2021. **Based on authors’ analysis of labor force surveys (latest available), primary data collection, and/or existing analysis; ~ILOSTAT accessed January 2021. 47 Bahrain Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 79 2020 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 60 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 47 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 42 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 5 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 1 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 16 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 4 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same No n.a. n.a. n.a. way as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or Yes n.a. n.a. n.a. hazardous in the same way as a man Djibouti Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 5 2011 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 54 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 73 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 11 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 11 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 22 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 21 2019 21 2019 48 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 7 2013 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 14 2013 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way as a No n.a. n.a. n.a. man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or No n.a. n.a. n.a. hazardous in the same way as a man Egypt, Arab Republic of Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 39.81 2018 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 41 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 20.00 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 25.93 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 21.33 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 6.73 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 53.35 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 18.21 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 2.30 2019 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 6.30 2019 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 9 2019 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 8 2019 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 49 Iraq Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 11.86 2004 43.12% 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 12.06 2019 21.25% 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 15.52 2019 29.85% 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 30.59 2019 17.67% 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 10 2019 7.58% 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 62.61 2019 45.07% 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 21.59 2019 21.18% 2019 Ratio of female to male youth unemployment (% ages 6 2012 15‑24) Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) N.A. 2011 4.30% Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 2.30 2011 6.50% 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 6 2012 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 8 2012 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way as a Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Jordan Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 37 2020 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields (engineering 35 2018 53 2018 only)* Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 16 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 23 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 24 2019 18 2019 50 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 15 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 51 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 34 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 8 2019 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 3 2019 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 6 2016 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 14 2019 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way as a No 2019 n.a. n.a. man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous Yes 2019 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Kuwait Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 82 2020 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 52 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 57 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 6 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 1 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 29 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 10 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 51 Lebanon Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 21 1985 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 26 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 32 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 10 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 5 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 21 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 15 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 5 2019 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 6 2019 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 5 2018/2019 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 21 2019 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2019 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or Yes 2019 n.a. n.a. hazardous in the same way as a man Libya Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 64 2003 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 36 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 52 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 24 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 15 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 68 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 42 2019 21 2019 52 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Experience of some form of intimate partner violence n.a. n.a. 35 2017 among women (lifetime or past 12 months) Morocco Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of 42 2020 43 2020 relevant age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 44 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 23 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 21 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 10 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 9 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 23 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 22 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 3 2019 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 5 2019 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2019 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2019 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 53 Oman Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 57 2020 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 65 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 38 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 43 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 7 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 1 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 36 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 8 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Qatar Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 59 2020 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 55 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 58 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 60 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 0.4 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 0.1 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 2 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 0.2 2019 21 2019 54 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4. 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector*** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man? Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man? Saudi Arabia Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 74 2020 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 39 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 28 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 23 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 3 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 64 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 21 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 5-6 2021 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 55 Syria Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 46 2019 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 54 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 16 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 20 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 20 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 6 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 22 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 21 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man Tunisia Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 42 2019 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 59 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 28 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 36 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 22 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 12 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 38 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 35 2019 21 2019 56 Ratio of female to male youth unemployment (% ages 15‑24) Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 8 2020 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 10 2020 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 27 2014 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 18 2010 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way No 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man United Arab Emirates Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 66 2020 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 58 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 53 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 56 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 6 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 1 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 13 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 5 2019 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) n.a. n.a. 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 7 2018 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 57 West Bank and Gaza Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant age 54 2020 43 2020 group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* 52 2018 53 2018 Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 19 2019 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 26 2019 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 41 2019 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 21 2019 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 67 2019 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 35 2019 21 2019 Ratio of female to male youth unemployment (% ages 15‑24) Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 1 2019 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 1 2019 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** 10-15 2021 n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 18 2020 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way as a No 2019 n.a. n.a. man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2019 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 58 Yemen Education Percentage Year MENA Year average Tertiary school enrollment, female (gross, % of relevant 43 2020 43 2020 age group) Percentage of female graduates in STEM fields* n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Economic opportunity (incl. entrepreneurship) Labor force participation rate, female (% of female 53 2020 21 2020 population, 15-64) Ratio of female to male labor force participation (%) 68 2020 30 2019 Unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 6 2020 18 2019 Unemployment, male (% of female labor force) 7 2020 8 2019 Youth unemployment, female (% of female labor force) 19 2020 45 2019 Youth unemployment, male (% of male labor force) 17 2020 21 2019 Firms with majority female ownership (% of firms) 1 2013 4 2019 Firms with female top manager (% of firms) 2 2013 7 2019 Share of women in energy sector** n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Share of female workers in science and engineering~ 1% 2014 n.a. n.a. Can a woman work in an industrial job in the same way Yes 2021 n.a. n.a. as a man Can a woman work in a job deemed dangerous or hazardous No 2021 n.a. n.a. in the same way as a man 59 RENEW MENA