)_ E~~~ N A/ I R N M E N T D E P A R T M E N T ___ ^^P A P E R S PAPER NS. 033 TOWARD ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Biodiversity Series Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Kev Issues Katrina Brandon' April 1996 -A -' + Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development The World Bank ESSD Global Environment Division Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Katrina Brandon April 1996 Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discussion. The use and citation of this paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Copies are available from the World Bank's Environment Department, Global Environment Division, Room S-2117X. This paper is based on a background report prepared for the Bellagio Conference on Ecotourism sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation in February, 1993. I would like to thank Al Binger, Director of the Global Environmental Program, and Alberta Arthurs, Director of the Arts and Humanities Program, for their sponsorship of the conference. The paper has benefitted from the insights of conference participants: Ray Ashton, Silvio Barros, Robert Bentley, Magali Daltabuit, Penelope Figgis, Chris Gakahu. Robert Healy, Len Ishmael. William Jonas, Eddie Koch, Jon Kosek, Dawson Munjeri, Joshua Reichert, Oppah Rushesha, Karna Sakya, Christine Eibs Singer. Tej Vir Singh, Bobby Stevens, Alfredo Toriello, and Said Zulficar. Many people, too numerous to mention, have provided information for the report and their help is greatly appreciated. The final version of the document has benefitted greatly from reviewers at the World Bank, including: Carter Brandon, Gloria Davis, Kathy MacKinnon, Hemanta Mishra, Ken Newcombe, Tony Whitten, and Lou Scura Contents Executive Summary i 1. Introduction 1 What is Ecotourism? I 2. Tourism: TheIndustry 3 The Demand for Ecotourism 3 The Supply of Ecotourism Services 5 Tourism: Factors Which Limit Its Potential 5 3. Conservation and Ecotourism 7 Ecotourism: A Financing Source for Conservation 7 Economic Justification for Conservation 10 Providing Local People with Economic Alternatives 10 Constituency Building 12 Impetus for Private Conservation Efforts 12 Ecotourism and Park Management 12 Conclusion 1 5 4. Cultural Issues and Ecotourism 17 How Tourism has Affected Cultures and Cultural Patrimony 17 Characteristics that Influence the Impact of Tourism on a Culture 19 Conclusion 21 5. Development Issues 23 Foreign Exchange Generation and National Revenues 23 Employment 24 Diversification 25 Regional and Local Growth 26 Fostering Greater Peace and Understanding 26 Domestic versus Foreign Tourism 26 Conclusion 27 Biodiversity Series Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues 6. Management Issues and Options 29 Local ,!volvement and Control 29 Private Sector Involvement 30 Role of Govemment 31 Partnerships 34 7. Conclusions and Recommendations 35 Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies 41 Australia, Uluru: Northern Territory 42 Belize: Comnmunity Baboon Project & Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary 43 Costa Rica: Monteverde 45 Ecuador: Galapagos & Capirona 48 Indonesia: Siberut & Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature Reserve 50 Nepal: Annapuma Conservation Area Project 52 Niger: Air/Tenere National Nature Reserve 54 Uganda, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project 56 Bibliography 57 Environment Department Papers Executive Summary Ecotourism is a subset of the spectrum of is low predictability about the quality of the tourism types which make up nature-based experience, including elements such as reliable tourism. Ecotourism is often viewed and wildlife viewing. Remote rainforest sites, often promoted as being consistent with conserva- high in biodiversity, are notable in this cat- tion objectives because it is small-scale with egory. limited ecological and social impacts. In contrast, nature-based tourism, because of its Five key benefits for conservation which can be larger scale, is often used to promote national appropriately targeted in the context of most development objectives rather than conserva- ecotourism and nature-based initiatives are: tion objectives. This review of some of the key issues of ecotourism and nature-based tourism 1. a source of financing for parks and conser- highlights the complexity of using tourism as a va2eon; tool for conservation. 2. economic justification for park protection; 3. economic alternatives for local people to One of the advantages claimed for ecotourism reduce exploitation of conservation areas is that it is seen as more ecologically and and resources; culturally sensitive and less likely to bring the 4. constituency building which promotes negative impacts associated with mass tour- neto atconservatd ism. How well ecotourism lives up to these 5. an impetus for private conservation criteria depends principally on the planning efforts. process prior to ecotourism initiatives and the This paper reviews experiences with management controls and involvement of ecotourism across the globe. Despite tremen- dous differences in size and management of The demand for nature-based tourism and protected areas, cultures, types of ecotourism ecotourism has been steadily increasing, a enterprises and government involvement, in trerid that can be expected to continue. Trips most cases, ecotourism and nature-based exist in a variety of price ranges and styles and tourism have not lived up to expectations. more are being developed all the time. The Nevertheless, they remain a potential avenue key determinants of what tourists want seems for conservahon. to be determined by their knowledge, their If ecotourism and nature-based tourism are to desired level of excitement versus predictabil- generate benefits for biodiversity conservation, ity, available vacation time, and cost. This there are a number of conditions which have to means that there are some limitations to the be met. expansion of ecotourism to "rougher" sites where costs and travel times are high and there * First, sites must be competitive (e.g. unique and able to attract visitors). Biodiversity Series Ecotourism and Nature-Based Tourism: A Review of Key Issues * Second, protected area authorities must Regulation, financing and management of have the capacity and jurisdictional ecotourism are generally not viewed as govern- mandates to design, implement and ment priorities. Without adequate regulation of manage sustainable ecotourism consistent private sector activities and sound protected with the protected area objectives. area management, ecotourism development * Third, fees must be collected and they may have adverse impacts on the resource base o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ond which its de ends.te Whil diechbdeya must reflect the management costs of upon which it depends. Vbile direct budgetary tourism and/or site protection. allocations may be necessary at the front-end to see that projects are well-managed, ecotourism 9 Finally, revenues from fees should first becolbeaim rtnsuceffnnig allocated to the parks where collected with tough improved colleon andpcing o leftoer fnds aplie towrd prorites,i through Improved collection and pricing of user leftover funds applied toward priornites in fees and taxes on direct and indirect expendi- overall biodiversity conservation in the tures on goods and services. Planning, if country. undertaken, is often fragmented among govern- ment agencies with unclear jurisdictions and Ecotourism can generate benefits to local few funds. communities such as employment, although these are frequently seasonal or low-paying Despite such problems, ecotourism represents jobs. At the community level, ecotourism may one of the few areas where the link between generate increased revenues, provide for more economic development and conservation of infrastructure such as roads and electricity, or natural areas is potentially clear and direct. provide proceeds from ecotourism for commu- This paper offers a set of recommendations nity projects such as school construction, and which diverse organizations and groups may health clinics. Despite this, economic benefits implement to help ecotourism serve as a vehicle from tourism often create insufficient incen- to provide environmental, socio-economic, and tives for local communities to support conser- cultural benefits at both local and national vation. Such benefits may be offset in the eyes levels. of local communities by the intrusion of tourists, greater income inequality within and * Protected areas site management should between local communities, increased pollu- define clear objectives for the area as well as fion, sequestering of profits by outsiders, and outline how tourism can be accommodated rising local prices. The literature demonstrates within those objectives; determine the that such benefits will only come about as the acceptable limits of ecosystem change result of clear planning and management. within ecotourism destinations and estab- hsh ongoing monitoring programs; and Nature-based tourism can be a significant develop and implement management plans component of some countries' national devel- and practices to control, regulate, and opment strategies, providing foreign exchange, enhance tourism to the area. employment, economic diversification, and growth. However, the economic benefits of * Local communities should learn about foreign exchange gains may be reduced by impacts, options and possibilities of economic leakages due in part to an inability to ecotourism development; explore means for capture income in the rural areas where ownership of specific ecotourism ventures; nature-based tourism sites are situated. and consider strategies for ecotourism as Likewise, while nature-based tourism offers compensation for restricted access to employment that may have national signifi- protected areas, including coordinated cance, it is generally less labor-intensive than investments in local infrastructure and often assumed. Increasing opportunities for services that improve local quality of life local income generation may assist conserva- and collection of local user fees from tion efforts if the economic benefits are directly tourists which support local development linked and dependent on conservation. initiatives. ii Environment Department Papers Executive Summary * Governments should supplement ongoing NGOs and academic institutions should activities to improve the sustainability of act as intermediaries between the private ecotourism, including requiring the devel- sector and local interests in ecotourism opment of ecotourism strategies as compo- development; identify technologies and nents of government documents as well as products that are produced or used locally clarifying the jurisdictional mandates and and which are economically and environ- responsibilities of agencies involved in mentally sustainable in order to reduce ecotourism planning and management. In waste; provide local groups with training, addition, governments should develop technical assistance and information pricing policies for use of ecotourism sites necessary to participate in the benefits and which reflect the social cost of operating employment opportunities from and maintaining such areas and decentral- ecotourism; and collect information, ize responsibility for area-specific monitor, and evaluate ecotourism develop- ecotourism strategies and developments. ment. * The private sector should support the * International institutions should integrate collection of user fees from tourists when planning for ecotourism into programs these are dedicated to maintaining and related to both conservation and cultural improving the quality of parks and pro- patrimony; use social assessment guide- tected areas; develop facilities which are lines to identify stakeholders in ecotourism environmentally and culturally appropriate activities; integrate indigenous knowledge in scale, construction, and context; intro- and natural resources management duce sound environmental practices systems into ecotourism development; including waste reduction and recycling; accelerate efforts to protect the world's and explore joint ventures and partnerships cultural and natural heritage; and promote with local communities, NGOs, and other environmental education. organizations for ecotourism development. Biodiversity Series ii Ecotourism and Nature-Based Tourism: A Review of Key Issues iv Environment Department Papers 1 Introduction What is Ecotourism? Most discussion of tourism eventually turns to Proponents claim that ecotourism "is a mode the issue of scale. There is a continuum of of ecodevelopment which represents a practi- tourism activities and impacts; what is appro- cal and effective means of attaining social and priate will depend on site-specific judgments. economic improvement for all countries In an effort to differentiate the issue of scale, [Ceballos-Lascurain, 1991:31]." Definitions of this paper uses ecotourism to refer to a scale ecotourism have evolved from emphasizing that is small with limited ecological and nature-oriented tourism to one which empha- social impacts. Nature-based tourism is used sizes both natural and cultural goals. The when scale is not the distinguishing feature but Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as: nature clearly is, such as travel to the "purposeful travel to natural areas to under- Galapagos or tours to Kenya. Finally, tourism stand the culture and natural history of the is used generically and as the broad sector of environment; taking care not to alter the which ecotourism and nature-based tourism integrity of the ecosystem; producing economic are a part. It is important to note that while opportunities that make the conservation of the paper tries to separate these strands, the natural resources beneficial to local people literature itself does not adhere to this nomen- [Ecotourism Society, 19911". This definition clature. gives no baseline about the scale of tourism although it implies low impact and little Ecotourism is seen as a potential vehicle to disruption of the ecosystem. provide environmental, socio-economic and cultural benefits at both local and national There is no standard nomenclature in the field levels. Claims for ecotourism's potential are and much of the literature fails to differentiate generally based on three key assumptions, that between nature-based mass tourism and ecotourism can: a) offer a source of financing nature-tourism which is small and limited. A for development or maintenance of natural or recent review described four types of travel culturally important sites; b) serve as a catalyst that are commonly given the ecotourism label: for local economic development; and c) 1) nature-based tourism; 2) conservation- provide needed foreign exchange and national supporting tourism; 3) environmentally aware level benefits. More specifically, conservation- tourism; and 4) sustainably-run tourism ists see ecotourism as one of the most promis- [Buckley, 1994: 6611. Most conservation ing strategies for providing funds for conserva- groups would assume that all of these at- tion and justifying its importance. In addition tributes make up ecotourism; in contrast, to providing a source of revenue for parks and industry representatives and governments conservation, there are numerous examples generally regard ecotourism as equivalent to where ecotourism is claimed to provide the nature-based tourism and argue that all economic justification for park protection. At tourism should be environmentally sustain- local levels, it can provide economic alterna- able. tives to encroachment into conservation areas, Biodiverity Series Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues and it can create an impetus for private tal degradation, negative impacts on local conservation efforts. Finally, it can help create culture, and creation of local economic hard- an awareness of conservation issues and create ships [Ceballos-Lascurain, 1991; Boo, 1991; a constituency for conservation action. West and Brechin, 1991]. Yet in discussing the impacts of ecotourism, it is important to keep Despite these claims, even ecotourism's in mind that these ecotourism impacts - proponents agree that they are more often positive or negative - are not fundamentally rhetoric than practice. different from any other form of tourism. While the intent may be different, the impacts There are few well-documented cases where are generally the same. Therefore, the discus- ecotourism has provided substantial social or sion about ecotourism is simply a more economic benefits. In some cases, ecotourism focused discussion of the debates that rage has led to ecological damage and environmen- over tourism. 2 Environment Department Papers 2 Tourism: The Industry To understand adequately the potential of tourism funds from the North to the South. contribution of ecotourism and nature-based Developing countries' market share increased tourism to conservation, it is essential to place from 20% of international tourism receipts in it within the overall context of the tourism 1980 to 23% in 1988. If one compares tourism industry. Travel and tourism is the world's revenues to export revenues, tourism accounts largest industry. Estimates for 1995 [World for more than 10% of the value in 47 develop- Travel and Tourism Council, 19951 indicate ing countries and more than 50% of the that travel and tourism: comparable amount received from export revenues in 17 countries [Healy, 1992: 4]. * will generate 10.9% of world GDP, or $3.4 r trillion; The Demand for Ecotourism * will contribute over 11.4% of the world's capital investment; Within this travel boom lies ecotourism, a type • will contribute over $655 billion to total tax of specialty travel which includes travel for payments worldwide. such diverse purposes as birdwatching, helping scientists conduct conservation re- Tourism is also a growth industry: world search, and photography. Worldwide figures tourism grew by 260% between 1970 and 1990. for special interest travel are unavailable, but it Increasing global ties have led to increased remains a small market segment of interna- travel for business, conferences, visits to friends tional travel. For example, special interest and relatives, and trips for leisure. One projec- travel accounts for 3% - 5% of international tion suggests that the growth in travel and travel expenditures (excluding airfare) by U.S. tourism will be between 2% and 4.5% per year. residents, with nature-oriented travel compris- If growth reached 4.5%, world travel and ing one-third to one-half of that figure tourism would increase by over 50% to around [Goldfarb, 1989:8]. 600 million international arrivals and up to 55 million jobs by the end of the nineties [World There are no reliable estimates available for the Travel and Tourism Council, 19921. world-wide expenditure on ecotourism. Con- servative estimates of the growth in demand International travel and tourism respond to range from 10-15% while optimistic forecasts market forces, particularly the growth in real go as high as 30% in the mid 1990s tVickland, income, leisure time, and developments in 1989; Kallen, 1990]. The optimistic projections international transportation. The continued forecast annual global nature-oriented travel at rise in real income and leisure time in the $260 billion by 1996 [Giannecchini, 19921. developed countries has led to a strong demand However, a recent study of the U.S. market for tourism: one study showed that consumers indicates that the U.S. nature-oriented tour in developed countries respond to a 10% market may be less than 1% of the outdoor increase in real income by increasing their recreation market, or a maximum amount of foreign travel expenditures by 15 to 20% [Artis about $160 million per year [McKinsey Group, in Goldfarb, 1989: 131. All countries generate 1991]. Such discrepancies in numbers, $160 and receive tourists, but there is a net oufflow million for the U.S. nature-based tourism Biodiversity Series 3 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues market versus $260 billion for the global guided nature-based trips with U.S.-based market are due not only to differences in companies indicate that the prime ecotourism projections, but to the very different definitions market is composed of men and women 45 to used by different groups all wanting to jump 65 years of age, mostly from North America, onto the "green" tourism bandwagon. Europe, or Japan. While it is safe to say that the demand for ecotourism is increasing Estimates of what will happen with the worldwide, ecotourism is and will probably ecotourism market vary dramatically, and there remain a small and specialized component of are contradictory trends. Studies of U.S. the world tourism market. Ecotourists will consumers showed that: largely be made up of wealthier, better edu- cated, and older travelers. However, selected * 40% of American travelers were interested markets have and will continue to be devel- in "life-enhancing" travel as compared oped to cater to different groups and their with 20% who were "seeking the sun." preferences and needs, such as backpacking, e About 30 million people in the U.S. belong student holidays, and singles vacations. to environmental organizations or have an interest in environmental protection Four types of ecotourists are described as: [Hawkins, 1992:3; Mudge, 1991]. Hard Core: members of tours or groups de- These projections must be tempered by other signed specifically for education and/or factors. For example, surveys of U.S. citizens involvement in environmental projects, such as reveal that: wildlife monitoring. Dedicated: travelers to see protected areas and a Only 8% hold valid passports and one in understand local natural and cultural history. five have never travelled more than a 50- mile radius from their home. Mainstream: tourists primarily interested in an * 17% are in poverty and are not planning unusual trip, such as to the Amazon or gorilla expensive vacations [Merschen, 1992: 212]. viewing in Rwanda. Casual: natural and cultural travel as an There is anecdotal evidence that development incidental component of a broader trip of ecotourism facilities in many developing [Lindberg, 1991:3]. countries has been demand driven, i.e. people have shown up at destinations needing food Ecotourists are further differentiated by the and lodging and this has led to provision of physical rigor they are willing to undergo on a services. This phenomenon is now called trip. A "hard" ecotourism trip may require the "spearheading". In many remote wilderness tourist to "walk miles into undeveloped areas, however, the supply of ecotourism backlands, sleep in a crude shelter, and tolerate facilities lags behind demand. For example, primitive sanitary conditions." A "soft" tourism to the Amazon increased by nearly ecotourism experience might have the visitor 300% between 1988 and 1989 but facilities "stay in first-class hotels, eat in good restau- were lacking at many sites. rants, and be conveyed in comfortable transport [Wilson, 1987:8]". Backpackers fall into the The demand for ecotourism not only depends "hard" category in terms of needs, but may be on the prices and supply of nature-based motivated by any of the factors from "hard tourism, but on the class of people who are the core" to "casual" described above. ecotourists. The variety of ecotourism experi- ences has been increasing to meet the diversity The difference between these groups is impor- of demands. Some people want to learn about tant for the type of services ecotourists want wildlife or indigenous peoples. Others are when they get to destinations. In general, it is adventure oriented tourists - people who the "hard" ecotourists who are more likely to be want to climb a mountain, or raft down content with less infrastructure and more likely whitewater rapids. Profiles of tourists taking to value contact with local people and close 4 Environment Department Papers Tourism: The Industry encounters with wildlife. At the same time, requires high levels of coordination through- there is the perception that "hard" tourists out the distribution channel. This is in part spend less, generating fewer national level because ecotourists place more specialized benefits. What may be significant however, is demands on destination points than other that even though "hard" tourists spend less on types of tourists (guides, equipment, trans- a daily basis, they stay longer than "soft" port). tourists and spend their money at small, locally-owned and operated enterprises [Singh, Although developing countries are often visited 1989]. While "soft" ecotourists place a higher by specialty tours, most operators concentrate value on comfort, they are willing to pay more on only a few countries. A survey of U.S. for it and for an interesting experience. These ecotour operators found that Mexico and Puerto tourists require more in the way of services, Rico were perceived as destinations with the which are generally linked to greater environ- greatest variety of ecotourism activities (e.g. mental impact. birdwatching, hiking and rafting), while Kenya, Tanzania, and Nepal were the most frequently These differences in tourist type have substan- promoted destinations [Ingram and Durst, tial implications for how facilities are de- 1989]. Perhaps more significant than the high- signed, the impact from tourism, and what value direct tours is the huge potential for type of ecotourism is encouraged, especially "add-on" tourism aimed at people who trave1 with regard to protected areas (PAs). Parks to destinations for reasons other than intent on attracting sustainable ecotourism and ecotourism: business, visiting family or generating high levels of revenue will have to friends, or "sea, sun, and fun" tourists. Few of make some trade-offs. It may be possible to these tourists would pay a large sum of money accommodate both "hard" and "soft" tourists, exclusively to visit special natural or cultural but a guiding principle should be to minimize sites. But many are willing to spend a portion the impact of tourism and infrastructure. At of their vacation, and more money and time, Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal, the for a unique experience which adds to their lodges and services range from first class hotel overall vacation or trip. This is where high service and safaris on elephant-back to basic potential exists for locally-owned and man- accommodations and wildlife viewing [Wells aged tour operations. & Brandon, 1992]. Tourism: Factors Which Limit Its The Supply of Ecotourism Services Potential Distribution channels typically involve up to While global prospects for the tourism industry four parties: suppliers, wholesalers, retailers, are promising, success for individual countries and consumers [Hudman and Hawkins, 1989]. and projects are subject to a number of factors, Most of the supply chain is owned or controlled many of which are beyond the control of by developed countries, for all types of tourism, tourism suppliers, wholesalers, or operators. including ecotourism. For example, airline and The key factors are political, social, environ- hotel chains in major cities are often controlled mental, economic, and technological. by outside interests. The consumers also tend Ecotourism is affected by all these factors as to be from developed countries. Tour operators well as trends which have little bearing on the tend to be from outside the country, although rest of the industry. they often contract with locally-owned enter- prises for transportation and local arrange- Political factors such as ethnic conflict in the ments. In the tourism industry, a large geo- host country can quickly hurt tourism rev- graphic distance between tourism suppliers enues. Sri Lanka, Haiti, Guatemala, and and potential consumers normally prevents Rwanda have all had substantial drops in suppliers from selling directly to consumers. tourism linked to civil and ethnic unrest. A This is especially true for ecotourism ventures, rise in international airline terrorism can also which are often located in remote areas. More hurt tourism revenues in some countries. than other kinds of tourism, ecotourism Biodiversity Series 5 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Social forces include concerns about personal from the industry perspective. Other problems safety, health, and general impression of the are inconsistent local service suppliers in country. Bad press and lack of knowledge remote areas and lack of local tour operators. about the destination country can deter some These all present problems for organized tours, tourists from choosing some countries [Ingram but are unlikely to deter ecotourists traveling and Durst, 1989:121. The fear of disease can independently, who are more likely deterred lead to tourism declines; the Kenyan coast and by external factors [Hawkins, 1992: 12-13; Thailand have both seen a drop in tourism due Ingram and Durst, 1989]. Internal factors are to the fear of AIDS, and tourists avoid parts of more likely to influence the quality of their Africa because of malaria [Anon., 1992c: 22]. trip, not its selection. Environmental factors include seasonality, The demographics of ecotravelers bears consid- natural disasters, and pollution. Two types of ering as well. At present, most ecotourists are seasonality need to be considered, that in the from the U.S., Europe, Canada, and Australia. origin country of tourists (eg. school summer As the populations of the U.S. and Europe age, vacation) and that of the destination country there is huge potential for increased travel, as a (eg. monsoon season). Earthquakes, volcanic larger number of people have leisure time. Yet eruptions, hurricanes, prolonged drought and the "soft" versus "hard" distinctions among a variety of other natural disasters can scare off ecotourists, and how these compare with the tourists. offerings at different sites, is a key issue for the future supply of ecotourism facilities. The Economic factors, such as global exchange combined aging of the populations of the U.S. rates may help one region or country while and Europe, and the fact that the "baby hurting another. Recessions and exchange boomers," the generation born between 1946 rates have a profound influence on who travels and 1964, are entering middle age signal some and where they go; economic factors strongly important, new demographic trends. They influence the operators' choice of destinations. will have the leisure time and the money to enjoy ecotourism experiences. Yet if access to Finally, technological issues of communica- most new sites is difficult and requires travel- tions and marketing affect information flows lers to be in good physical condition, the {Hudman and Hawkins, 1989: 150]. Operators demand may be reduced. In short, what and tourists are more likely to go where tourists want seems to be determined by their communications are possible to help with trip vacation time, their knowledge of what is planning and last minute changes. In the available, the level of excitement or predict- remote regions where ecotourism is most ability they want, and cost. This means that popular, communications are often poor or there are some limitations to the expansion of non-existent. ecotourism to "rougher" and more remote sites - where costs and travel time are high and There is evidence that factors which would there is low predictability about the quality of normally deter more conventional tourists the experience, including elements such as (different food, simple lodging) may in fact be reliable wildlife viewing. Remote rainforest preferred by the "hard" ecotourists. Yet the sites, often high in biodiversity, may have basic problems of difficult access to sites and limited tourism appeal because of difficulties lack of communication complicate ecotourism of access and low likelihood of seeing wildlife. 6 Environment Departnent Papers 3 Conservation and Ecotourism The interest in conservation, especially in the three quarters of the protected areas in Latin decline of tropical forests and the loss of America lack effective protection; an even larger endangered species, has skyrocketed in most of percentage lack long-term management plans the North in the past decade. The increase in and financial resources to guarantee financing nature-oriented tourism has coincided with for effective management [World Conservation worldwide concern about biodiversity preserva- Monitoring Centre, 1992]. Ecotourism is often tion. There has been an explosion of conserva- proposed as a mechanism to provide benefits tion-oriented travel-related services catering to both to individual parks and to national tourists, both as part of packages and for conservation systems as a whole. Proponents individuals traveling on their own. identify five key benefits for conservation from nature-oriented tourism: 1) providing a source Parks and protected areas are among the most of financing for parks and conservation; 2) important ways to conserve biodiversity. providing economic justification for park Nearly 8,500 protected areas cover about 5.17% protection; 3) providing local people with of the earth's land surface, over 773 million ha. economic alternatives to encroachment into The growth in protected areas has been stagger- conservation areas; 4) constituency-building to ing; 80 % of the world's protected areas have promote conservation; and 5) creating an been established since 1962 [World Conserva- impetus for private conservation efforts. Son Monitoring Centre, 1992]. Since 1970, more parks and reserves have been established than Ecotourism: A Financing Source for previously existed; for example, "officially Conservation gazetted protected areas (in Central America) have increased from only 30 in 1970 to more One of the biggest promises of ecotourism is than 230 by 1990 [Cornelius 1991]." that it offers a potentially important source of financing for conservation. At the most basic Most parks are under serious threat from many level, many conservationists feel that different sources, from poo ppeasants who have ecotourism should financially contribute to the few alternatives but to practice "slash and management of the individual parks visited by burn" agriculture to large-scale development tourists. On a larger scale, the argument is that projects promoted by international lending countries with high visitation to particular institutions. But the bottom line is that most parks (Galapagos, Rwanda's Volcanoes Park, countries lack the financial and human re- Komodo National Park) or with high levels of sources and political commitment for protected nature-based tourism country-wide (Costa Rica, area management. Many governments fail to Kenya) might be able to retain enough revenue look at park management and conservation as a to pay for their entire parks system. Although legitimate form of land use. Many recently the tourism sector is relatively easy to tax, established parks are little more than "paper governments rarely apply tax levels which are parks," because they really do exist only on sufficient to offset many of the costs of tourism. paper. Even if established, most protected areas Governments can use a variety of ways to lack effective protection. For example, nearly capture revenue through tourism (see Box 1). Biodiversity Series 7 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Box 1: Mechanisms to Capture Revenue User fees: are charged to people who use an area or facility. Examples include admission to parks or monuments, fees charged to divers, special fees for accommodations, trophy and hunting fees, trekking fees, or even special fees for rescue services (in the case of mountaineering). Concession: fees are charged to individuals or groups licensed to provide services to visitors at selected sites. Common types of services include food, lodging, transportation, guide services, and retail stores. Sales and Royalties: are a percentage of earnings from activities or products of a site tourists visit. Examples are sales and royalties from books, photographs or postcards, films, or pharmaceutical products made at or from products at the site. Taxation: of goods and services used by ecotourists are a common way to generate revenue. Hotel, food, and airport taxes are among the most common. Donations: can be solicited from tourists for special projects or routine maintenance. Examples include restoration of historic buildings, archeological excavation, improved species protection or habitat purchase, or community development activities, such as schools or clinics [adapted from Sherman and Dixon, 19901. User fees are considered to be equitable, because Virtually every study done of protected area only the people who use something pay for it. systems recommends that governments should Studies of parks worldwide reveal that in most capture revenue to maintain parks and pro- cases, entrance fees to parks aren't charged or tected areas and to offset the costs of visitor use, are too low to cover costs [Lindberg, 1991; which include: Lindberg and Enriquez, 1994]. This is largely to keep parks open to all citizens, even the poor. * infrastructure development, such as trails One solution is to introduce different entry fees and visitor centers; for foreign and national visitors, In Kenya and * safeguarding sites (guards, fences, signs, Costa Rica, for example, this strategy has been boundary markers); implemented and is extremely successful. * general maintenance; Elsewhere, legal and institutional problems * managing or restoring habitats or monu- make it difficult for two-tiered pricing. In ments; Mexico, a constitutional amendment would be * educational activities, including guides; required to have two-tiered fee collection for nationals and foreigners or even for parks to * administrative costs for agencies; charge entry fees for visitation. One park began * monitoring impacts. collecting donations, which government policy did allow. Park managers got tour companies Even changes in user fees and the introduction to add a donation onto the cost of the tour; since of two tiered pricing will not necessarily virtually all of the tourism to the park was from provide all the revenue needed for conservation. organized birding tours, this proved to be a For example, a study of potential pricing of good way to capture financial benefits [Touval, ecotourism for two protected areas in Belize, 1992]. In other countries, such as Indonesia, and the contribution to park management costs, park management agencies are simply not is shown in Table 1. In all cases the revenue authorized to collect such fees. generated by the proposed fees would cover the extra costs associated with tourism area; ecotourism revenues only cover management 8 Environment Department Papers Conservation and Ecotourism costs in one case [Lindberg and Enriquez, should be in favor of increased collection of 1994]. The table demonstrates that relatively revenues if the revenue goes back to protect or small increases in fees for tourists, when one maintain the tourism product [Ashton, 19911, considers the overall costs of their trip, can industry most often opposes revenue collection. substantially raise revenue for conservation The limited nature-based tourism experience and park management. In many countries, suggests that industry can exert a powerful changes in legislation are required to retain influence on governments and promote short- revenue for conservation and park manage- term profits over longer-term management ment. In 1994, legislation was passed allowing [Dixon and Sherman, 1991]. Industry groups one of Costa Rica's regional conservation areas, often complain that new taxes, user fees, or which includes five national parks and nine price increases will lead to a decline in tourism. other protected areas, to retain 75% of total For example, when Bonaire Marine Park revenues from park admissions fees, net sales proposed charging $10 per user per year, the income and contracts from concessionaires for diving industry was adamantly opposed, underwriting the following year's budget. As a running editorials and lobbying against such result, dependence on outside resources fees. Yet surveys showed that 92% of divers in dropped from 60.8% for the overall budget and the park, mostly non-resident, were willing to 26.5% for operating costs to 52.3% and 11.4% pay the $10 user fee, and 80% thought a fee of respectively by the end of the year [Church et. $20 per diver per year was reasonable [Scura al., 1994c]. and Van't Hof, 19931. Some industry groups with ties to an area, however, have realized that Given the low fees charged at most sites, there is long-term investment and profitabilitv can onlr evidence that ecotourists who may spend come about if there is sound use. thousands of dollars to visit a site would be willing to pay substantially more. For example, Hotel taxes are another way of collecting a study of foreign visitors to Madagascar's revenue - they apply to everyone, from busi- tropical biological reserves indicated that ness visitors to students to ecotourists. The consumers might be willing to pay from $276 to downside to such taxes, however, is that local- $360 to visit a park which only charges $11 per level initiatives, such as homestays and com- visitor [Maille and Mendelsohn, 1993]. Avail- munity-owned lodges, often have great diffi- able evidence suggests that more modest price culty in adhering to such government regula- increases have, thus far, rarely led to substan- tions. This can create conflicts between taxing tial drops in visitation. Exceptions are nature- to generate income for community works and based mass tourism sites, where, at least in decentralizing ecotourism to spread the ben- theory, user fees can be used to "manage" efits. Airport taxes provide a ready way to tourism. If one area is overcrowded, raising the capture benefits, but there is little link between price should reduce the number of visitors. the collection of such taxes and ecotourism. Concession fees and royalties have the potential Industry can play an important role in lobbying to provide significant amounts of money at tourists for or against user fees. While some famous or highly visited sites gince the conces- analysts have argued that industry groups sion fees are generally low relative to the overall Table 1: Effect of Entry Fees Revenue for Park Management Adapted from Lindberg and Enriquez (1994) Site Foreigners Revenue Percent of Percent of Park Entry Fee Generated Tourism Costs Management Covered Covered Cockscomb $1.50 $3,166 100% 4% ,_________________ $5.00 $26,004 100% 31% Hol Chan $2.50 $12,826 100% 38% __________________ $5.00 73,926 100% 217% Biodiversity Series 9 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues profit levels. District councils in the Maasai Mara demonstrate the value of the wildlife and of Kenya receive substantial fees from tourism. wildlands given what tourists are willing to Yet in most of the world, few governments have pay to see them. One study in Costa Rica auctioned" off the licensing of such concessions showed that the value of a tropical rain forest or priced such things at their fair-market value. reserve was at least equal to or twice as high if It is even more rare to find such fees directly left natural than the straight purchase price for supporting the parks in which they are situated. the land alone. Similarly, each free-flying macaw in Peru was estimated to generate Funds from both nature-based tourism and between $750 and $4,700 annually in tourist ecotourism are often appropriated back into the revenues [Munn, 1991:471. As economic central treasury rather than to the agencies valuation methods improve and are increas- which manage parks. A study of 23 protected ingly used to reflect the costs and benefits of areas, with ecotourism initiatives, found that alternative forms of land use, it is likely that most expenditures made by visitors went to tourism will provide one important component central treasury funds or concessionaires [Wells of the benefits - provided that reasonable and Brandon, 1992]. A study of tourism to revenue is collected at these sites. Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature Reserve in Indonesia [see Annex] shows that the Depart- Fair market pricing of wildland resources can ment of Forestry (the reserve management be one way of justifying protected areas to authority) only receives 2% of ecotourism governments. For example, tourism in Zimba- revenues - and the park only receives a fraction bwe relies heavily on the parks and associated of that total [Kinnaird and T.G. O'Brien, 1996]. A wildlife populations, giving these resources a study of Bonaire Marine Park found that eco- tangible value. The economic justification nomic activities directly associated with the park argument thus provides an incentive to govern- produced half of Bonaire's income (over $23 ments to increase fees, both to generate more mnillion), yet the park only receives $150,000 per revenue and to insure that the wildlands and year for management [Scura and Van't Hof, wildlife are seen as a valuable and competitive 1993]. In short, 'the money generated by land use [Child and Heath, 1990]. ecotourism does not necessarily go towards maintaining biological diversity or management Providing Local People with of parks themselves" [Kinnaird and O'Brien, Economic Alternatives 1996; Church and Brandon, 1995; Cuello et. al., 1996; Wells, 1993; Wells and Brandon, 1992]. Protected areas and surrounding lands are often among the most remote and agriculturally At present, ecotourism is a significant source of marginal lands in many countries. Their funding for conservation on public lands in only reoness co ntri eir Teio a few countries [Wells and Brandon, 1992; remoteness contributed to their protection, simce Lindberg, 1991]. Even in countries such as caey unpoctive Bot poeced as and Nepal, Rwanda. Kenya, Ecuador and Costa Rica, the lands around them face increasing degrada- which do capture substantial revenue, the ton as areulto e-sce development revenue collected is well below what should, or projecs, ex ult ural front could, e geneated. -ne stuy foun that projects, expanding agricultural frontiers, could, be generated. One study found that a illegal hunting and logging, fuelwood collec- private reserve, Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve tion and uncontrolled burning. Human use of [see Annex] generates more income from tourism thes onc nrote are increasin as as than s genratedby al Cosa Ricn natonalthese once remote areas IS increasing as a result than Is generated by all Costa Rican natonal of increased population growth in traditional parks [Church et. al. 1994cJ. communities, migration, and settlement, often the result of problems and policies elsewhere in Economic Justification for the country. Conservation There has been a tremendous emphasis in the Tourism can provide a strong economic rationale past five years on linking the conservation of to preserve areas rather than converting them to biological diversity in parks and protected alternative uses such as crop or pasture land. areas (PAs) with local social and economic Economic valuation is increasingly being used to development. Collectively, these approaches, 10 Environment Department Papers Conservation and Ecotourism known as Integrated Conservation and Devel- guard protected areas can only be answered on opment Projects (ICDPs), include biosphere a site specific basis. A study of 63 private reserves, multiple-use areas, buffer-zones, and nature reserves in Latin America and Africa large-scale planning units such as regional showed they employed 1,289 people year- conservation areas [Wells and Brandon, 19923. round; an average of about 20 jobs per reserve ICDPs aim to achieve PA conservation by year-round. An additional 336 people, or 5 promoting socio-economic development and people per lodge were added during the peak providing local people with alternative income season [Alderman, 1990]. In contrast, in the sources which do not threaten to deplete the Mount Everest region of Nepal, two-thirds of flora and fauna of the PA. The range of ap- the Sherpa families receive direct income from proaches under the rubric of ICDPs is based on nature-based tourism [Wells, 19931. concepts of sustainable use and sustainable development in the rural context. They imply The type of employment generated is directly types of land-use alternatives, which, in tied to the way in which tourism is managed combination with a range of social, technical and the level of local control. If local people and economic options, will lead to biodiversity own teashops or rent rooms in their homes to conservation. tourists, there may be many small employment benefits generated. In most places, local-level A study of 23 protected areas with projects jobs are guards, guides, maids, porters, cooks, designed to generate local economic develop- drivers or porters. If local people lack the ment found that while many projects promoted requisite skills, outside companies are usually ecotourism, few generated substantial benefits unwilling to make the investment of time and for either parks or local people [Wells and money to train them. Local people who desire Brandon, 1992]. Even at highly successful expanded opportunities will rarely find them parks, few direct economic benefits went to linked to ecotourism since the variety of jobs local communities. For example, while tourists created is low. Tourism may also provide generate about $5 million annually at Khao Yai support to traditional jobs such as craft produc- National Park in Thailand, little benefits tion. There are numerous examples where craft surrounding communities. Ecotourism rev- cooperatives or stores have been established to enues in Rwanda support the park system and cater to tourists. The scale of tourism is an the central government, but few economic important factor in differentiating types and alternatives exist for local populations. In levels of employment. Tangkoko DuaSaudara in Indonesia, benefit distribution is: 47% to the major tour company; Whether ecotourism is powerful enough to 44% to hotels; and only 7% to guides, of which change people's habits and reduce threats to the head reserve guard gets 20 %. Guides and protected areas depends on complex factors. food are usually brought from the provincial Benefits must be appropriately targeted and capital, so few benefits are retained at the designed so that they are in fact incentives. For village level [Kinnaird and O'Brien, 1996:70]. ecotourism to promote conservation, local Benefits which are captured by villagers people must clearly benefit and understand that through homestays, boat rental, or guide the benefits they receive are linked to the services are captured by a small group within protected area. If benefits do not stay in local villages [K. MacKinnon, pers. com]. Notable areas or are narrowly distributed, they may not exceptions, where benefits are more widely provide sufficient economic incentive to reduce distributed, are initiatives in Zimbabwe and livelihood dependence on the protected area Zambia, and the Annapurna Conservation [Brandon and Wells, 19921. For example, it may Area in Nepal [Wells and Brandon, 1992]. be better to convert many resource-dependent people, such as local hunters, into part-time The most significant benefit for most rural guides and guards, rather than hiring one or communities from ecotourism is the employ- two people full-time. It should not be assumed ment generated in a range of jobs, mostly as that ecotourism on its own will lead to changes guides or guards or in small lodges in a domes- in dependence on protected area resources. So tic capacity. The issue as to whether this far, the evidence indicates that when changes constitutes sufficient incentive to help safe- have taken place, ecotourism has been but one Biodiversity Series 1 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues component of the change. Other important ous private nature reserves worldwide. The elements have been improved education, ecological importance of such reserves is that improved access to information, improvements they supplement public protected areas and in park management, and increased economic may effectively extend the range of some opportunities other than just ecotourism [see species. Private conservation initiatives include Wells and Brandon, 1992]. In such cases, the establishment of special areas by non-profit ecotourism has been part of a larger develop- organizations and by private sector profit- ment scheme, structured to address a variety of oriented groups. Such private conservation local concerns simultaneously. In most cases areas are more comnmon in Africa, where there ecotourism has provided only small employ- are long-standing examples of ranchers using ment benefits that have not substantially part of their land for livestock and other areas reduced dependence on wildlands or wildlife for wildlife and sport-hunting. In recent years resources. Ecotourism should be seen as only there has been an emergence of privately owned one of many strategies for providing local areas throughout Latin America: most of these people with economic alternatives [Wells and are special developments designed to attract Brandon, 1992; West and Brechin, 1991; Kiss, ecotourists. These private reserves, if success- 1990; Place, 1991]. ful, could make a substantial contribution to localized conservation efforts in a number of Constituency Building countries [Alderman, 1990]. For example, Hato Pinero in Venezuela is a 170,000 hectare One of the often overlooked ways in which privately run, working cattle ranch, which ecotourism supports conservation is that protects its wildlife from hunting and doubles ecotourists, upon returning home, act as as an ecotourism operation. The region has a advocates for the areas they have visited. The great diversity of large and readily-observed impact may be most significant with domestic birds and mammals. In the dry season from ecotourists. This advocacy can help conserva- December to April when pools are drying, birds tion in many ways. First, ecotourists are likely and caiman concentrate at the remaining to give more generously to either conservation sources of water, offering easy and spectacular organizations working to preserve the site they wildlife viewing opportunities. The success of visited, or to conservation more broadly. Hato Piniero has led to the opening of a new Second, they often are willing to donate their ranch called Chinea Arriba, just 4 hours time and energy to lobby for or against policies southwest of Caracas. The ranch covers 2,471 or activities which threaten the areas they have acres and is situated on the Guarico and visited. Many join or start organizations which Orituco Rivers. The success of private ecotour- directly support the area they have visited by ism ventures are dependent on general environ- giving supplies or materials, arranging visits by mental quality in the region. scientists, starting lobbying or publicity efforts, and looking for financial support. Finally, they Ecotourism and Park Management act as "conservation ambassadors" and convince friends and family to take similar trips There are inherent dangers in promoting and increase their support to conservation. tourism in protected areas. Decision-makers Both internationally and for domestic popula- may be more interested in the economic gain tions, the importance of a constituency for from the park and not its conservation benefits. conservation activities cannot be underesti- If the tourism industry turns sour in that area, mated. there may be the tendency to look for more profitable land uses [MacKinnon et al, 1986]. Impetus for Private Conservation On the other hand, if the area is in high de- Efforts mand, decision-makers may want to promote inappropriate development of large hotels and The potential for income generation, the com- highways that would be detrimental to the patibiity of conservation and some private resources but increase short-term revenue. Park sector activities, and a desire to preserve natural managers must always keep the main purpose habitats, has led to the establishment of numer- of the park in mind, as wel as the differences between ecotourism and regular tourism, 12 Environment Department Papers Conservation and Ecotourism especially when the park has been established to Zoning protect vulnerable and valuable natural re- sources. The park manager has to weigh the Clear objectives are needed both for the park conservation impacts against the potential itself and as the basis for one of the most economic benefits from ecotourism. important elements of park management - zoning. Zoning combines a variety of different When ecotourism is regarded as the primary protection and use criteria with ecological data mechanism to supply a park or surrounding area to determine the most appropriate levels of use with economic benefits, the park must be strictly for different zones within the park. In most managed and protective measures must be in cases, the zoning process is internal to the PA place to prevent degradation by tourists, even and the park management authority has those tourists visiting with the "greenest" intent. complete control over its implementation. One "Ecotourism cannot be viewed as a benign, non- of the most critical elements in the management consumptive use of natural resources in the planning process is to determine appropriate tropics Jacobson and Lopez, 1994:415]." Many types of uses consistent with park objectives of the existing protected areas with the highest and where those uses will be permitted. In biodiversity are fragile and cannot endure heavy general, tourism should be organized in a human disturbance. The most remote sites may manner that minimizes habitat fragmentation be among the most important for biodiversity and disturbance and intrusion on wildlife, conservation because they are the least degraded. especially critical sites such as breeding However, this also makes them attractive to grounds. While this can be difficult, zoning can ecotourists, who want to travel to places which be an effective management tool. For example, a are biologically important and more "exotic' study of tourism effects on the 5,700 to 23,000 because of their remoteness. Many of these areas turtles that nest annually on the beaches in lack infrastructure and park managers have few Tortuguero, Costa Rica, found there were plans or resources to cope with an increasing impacts on nesting behavior. Fifty % more influx of tourists. This section explores some of nesting behavior occurred on weekday nights the issues and options in managing ecotourism when there were fewer tourists, than on week- in a manner consistent with biodiversity conser- end nights when there were high levels of vation. tourism. This may have been due to the use of flash cameras and flashlights, and people Management Objectives touching turtles. In response, the Costa Rican government declared a tourism zone along the Effective park management can only be achieved beach prohibiting the use of lights and requir- if there are clear objectives - managing a park ing the use of guides [Place, 19913. for recreation allows activities that might be inconsistent with management for nature Even low levels of visitation, and the infrastruc- conservation [MacKinnon et. al. 19861. If the ture to support such visitation, such as roads primary objective of a protected area is and trails, can create habitat islands within biodiversity conservation, any tourism to some parks and impede the movements of animals. areas of the park may be in conflict with biodi- This can threaten the viability of some species versity management objectives. Within park [Whitmore and Sayer, 1992:83]. In zoning for systems, countries may want to balance their tourism, there should be an emphasis on overall portfolio of visitation; for example, high maintaining core areas which are "off-limits" levels of tourism could be encouraged to some for visitation and on minimizing the impact of parks, ecotourism to others, and some parks infrastructure on wildlife. For example, roads which are sensitive or too remote might be closed should not be sited so that animals will need to to all tourism. Within parks, zoning is essential cross them to get to waterholes. in defining how visitation will take place. At the national level, decisions should be made about Suitability of Site for Tourism allocating tourism among parks and what management systems will be necessary at The expansion of ecotourism will depend on protected area sites. characteristics of the destinations and the demographics of travelers themselves. For Biodiversity Series 13 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues example, most African safaris provide a near some zones, such as breeding areas or fragile guarantee of seeing a variety of large mammals, habitats where any human intrusion will affect taking good photographs, and time for relaxing. the biological integrity, all tourism may be Safari tourists can be transported right to the regarded as unacceptable. Determining the wildlife and taken back to their lodges or luxury environmental carrying capacity depends on a tent camps midday for a jump in the pool when variety of value judgements about acceptable it is too hot for game viewing. It is relatively levels of alteration or degradation in areas easy for such tourists to know what kind of where visitor use is permitted. Such decisions experience they will have in advance of their and value judgements should be an explicit trip. Elsewhere, such as in tropical rainforests, part of the management planning process. it is harder for the ecotourist to pre-judge the quality of the experience. Without an excellent Once acceptable levels of ecotourism are naturalist, tourists may feel they have seen little. defined, methods to control visitation at those Under the tree canopy, it is often dark and levels need to be implemented. This includes damp with lots of mosquitoes. Weather and the ability to count visitors, keep visitation wildlife viewing are unpredictable and often statistics, and be able to stop visitors entering disappointing to ecotourists [see O'Rourke, the park when human carrying capacity is 1993]. Of tourists who did travel to lodges in reached. To determine acceptable visitation one region in Peru, 80% to 95% were unsatisfied levels, information on seasonality of tourism with wildlife viewing: "even the finest regions interest, ratio of foreign to national visitors and of the Amazon offer few opportunities for their income levels, activities of tourism in the tourists to see large concentrations of wildlife park including the type of tourist attracted, type [Munn, 1991: 621 ". Long-walks through dense of visitor experience desired by the tourist and jungle are often required to see any wildlife. the associated infrastructure expected, and duration of stay is needed, in addition to strong Acceptable Impacts and Change baseline data on ecosystem characteristics. Measures of acceptable impact and change, as Tourism demand for particular species or parts well as human carrying capacity, should be of the park should be reviewed within the integrated into park zoning and management management planning process. The probable plans. impacts of tourism on these and other park resources can be identified and measures Facilities and Services developed to determine appropriate levels of tourism [Harroun and Boo, 19951. The accept- The facilities and services that need to be able and sustainable level of tourism will present in a park for ecotourists depends on the depend on the biological features of the zone, zoning, combined with an analysis of the type the fragility of the species and ecosystems in the of tourists the park wants to attract, the proxim- park and the current and future disturbances ity of alternate facilities, acceptable levels of and threats, as well as the human and eco- impact, and the revenue the park wants to nomic resources available to run the park and generate. A combination of factors may make it provide services and facilities for tourists. In preferable to locate most services, especially Box 2: Negative Impacts of Visitation Negative impacts of visitor use that must be considered when setting visitor carrying capacity include: * human overcrowding resulting in environmental stress; * animals showing changes in behavior; * erosion of trails or beaches; * overdevelopment with unsightly structures; * increased pollution, noise, litter, or resource extraction, * harm of natural and culturally important features of the area [MacKinnon et al, 1986: 87] 14 Environment Department Papers Conservation and Ecotourism accommodations outside, rather than inside with enhanced guide and guard services, are parks. Different types of ecotourists (e.g. hard to key elements of ecotourism development within soft) require different facilities. By supplying parks. The impact of visitors can be restricted certain amenities, parks can attract different by limiting them to certain pathways, roads, or types of tourists that seek out specific facilities boats. Restrictions can range from not picking during their stay. Careful consideration is any plants or feeding the animals, no camping required in deciding who to attract and what or camping in only designated areas, only infrastructure to provide. The importance of walking on paths and trails, to pollution strong ecological knowledge as the basis for control. Clear procedures for groups or indi- siting infrastructure and facilities cannot be viduals who do not comply should be estab- overstated. For instance, proposed ecotourism lished as part of the management planning development to two biosphere reserves in the process. Strong training of guards and guides is Yucatan, which are protected barrier beaches, a critical element of tourism development required buildings, roads, dikes, pipes and Finally, there is a need to prepare for emergen- sewerage systems. The construction of the first cies - what to do if tourists are injured by stage of this development, a bridge, trapped wildlife or lost. Careful monitoring of visitor storm surges during a hurricane, forcing the impact, even with excellent education plans, is water into a lagoon and flooding flamingo necessary. At Royal Chitwan National Park in fledglings, which otherwise would have been Nepal, despite well organized education safe despite the hurricane [Savage, 19931. The programs, "disturbances to the ecology have development of even limited infrastructure in become obvious features" [Sowers et. al. 1994aJ. fragile areas can have unanticipated effects - road construction or changes in watercourses Conclusion can be devastating. The appropriate scale of tourism to an area is a Visitation and Conservation Education function of the size of the area, the resident population and the sensitivity of ecosystems. Much of the orientation ofa ration Scale is one of the most important factors in awaereinesd eduaothevisitonrogaream d wi managing ecotourism, for it is one of the key determined by who the visitors are and what factors that separates ecotourism from mass thiey are coming to see. Tourists are fickle andtors.Teeinoduthaectusmn want to see wildlife. Wildlife, especially the tourism. There x s no doubt that ecotourlsm em mega-fauna of Africa and southern Asia, have oma tours soely baui operats very high tourist appeal, but if their sighting of mass tourcsmc - solely because it operates at becomes unreliable due to shyness of the a reduced scale. If many ecotourists travel to an animals, low population numbers, or seasonal area or country, ecotourism begms to have the weather, visitors won't be as eager to come. Good environmental education and guiding Where nature tourism is significant throughout includes the ability to make other park re- an entire country, it is necessary to look at the sources attractive and educate visitors on other costs and benefits and their distribution unique attractions in the ecosystem, such as country wide. In some cases, nature-based indigenous species of plants, or mutuahstic tourism may be channeled to one section of a interactions between species. national park, or to one part of a communally . . . ~~~~~~~~owned area. This may be an appropriate Educating visitors about the functions of a park, management strategy which concentrates the what it protects, why it exists, what the restric- mngmn taeywihcnetae h wtitns protects whydaitexists, wthat thersic- impacts, especially if cultures or ecosystems are tions are, its boundaries, and the ecologicalhihysntveoouidr.Iohrplcst services are key elements of an environmental highly sensitive to outsiders. In other places, it education plan. There are three groups which may be better to spread ecotourists thinly over a ehoulducationsplan ered aren threvelroupsn ch ahuge area and disperse negative impacts and should be considered when developin such abefismrwdlyWheectusms plan:~~~~~~~~~~ inentoa.iios ainlrsdns benefits more widely. Where ecotourism is plan iternational vsiltors nahonal resdents, limited in scale, such as a particular park, and local residents, including children. A soil ecnmc an eclgclassmnso strong informational program describing park social, economic, and ecological assessments of segulatrong inratndacceprogram dehavirs,cr upa ecotourism can be more limited in scope. In regulation an accetabebhmany cases, it will be desirable to assist com- Biodiversity Series 15 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues munities in developing the services for contribution to conservation if it is appropri- ecotourism outside parks to reduce pressure on ately managed and regulated; otherwise, what parks and to ensure that benefits go into commu- is true for Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature nities. What is appropriate and acceptable will Reserve in Indonesia, where "ecotourists depend on the type and level of services appro- control Tangkoko, probably to the detriment of priate within the park, park management wildlife," will often be the case [Kinnaird and objectives, the management options which exist, O'Brien, 1996:721. Substantial investments and the skills and interest of communities living need to be made to strengthen the management nearby. Clear answers on "what works best" are capacity of protected area authorities to design impossible to provide since they change depend- and implement sustainable ecotourism and to ing on the context. ensure that tourism benefits the park and does not degrade its biological values. For Sites with the greatest potential for ecotourism ecotourism benefits to provide financial benefits are those with: to conservation, appropriate user fees and pricing policies which reflect the real costs of * an interesting wildlife component that cansevcsholbeitdudwthrens services should be introduced with revenues be easily viewed; reinvested into protected areas. If ecotourism is * reasonably easy access, good communica- to provide livelihood alternatives for local tion, and well-organized management; communities, greater and more equitable * an interesting cultural or historical attrac- generation of benefits will have to be estab- tions; lished [Wells and Brandon, 1992]. Such - economic competitiveness if the site doesn't activities should explicitly link generation of have some highly unique feature, such as local economic benefits to protected area mountain gorillas [Bacon, 1987; Ceballos- maintenance. Lascurain, 19911. Great potential does not always translate into great implementation nor to successful conserva- tion. Ecotourism has the potential to make a 16 Envirorunent Department Papers 4 Cultural Issues and Ecotourism Culture is an organized system of meaning or How Tourism Has Affected-Cultures symbols in which social interaction takes place; and Cultural Patrimony the framework of beliefs, symbols, and values iin terms of which individuals define their world, There are four ways in which tourism can affect express their feelings, and make their cultures and their patrimony. Perhaps the most judgments.. the fabric of meaning in terms of significant is known as "commodification' of which human beings interpret their experience culture. People and their symbols are treated as and guide their action [Geertz, in Greenwood, commodities which can be bought, changed, or 1989]. Many components make up a culture. sold. The other three major effects include The four key areas most commonly influenced changes in: by tourism are: commodification, culture and social structure, cultural knowledge and * group social structure; the way in which cultural patrimony. their lives are ordered and patterned; Interpreting the effect of tourism on culture * cultural knowledge or the body of informa- depends on the researcher's perspective on tion possessed by groups; and change and values, and the extent to which cultural change is thought to be inevitable. * the way in which cultural property is used Issues concerning cultural change can be and viewed. framed between two extremes: "To prohibit change is nonsensical, to ratify all change is The premise of culturally oriented ecotourism is immoral [Greenwood, 19891.' Within the that tour companies receive money from one tourism literature, much of the debate centers group of people to take them to see another around how much change is "good" for local group. In most cases, tourists are paying to people and insulated cultures. Different cul- watch and photograph native peoples as they tures are affected by tourism in varying ways go about their daily lives. Native peoples often and to different degrees. What devastates one have no say over whether they want the tourists culture may have no effect at all on another. there or not, and they derive few benefits from Therefore, the effects of tourism are not common their "service." The tour operators and tourists to all groups and do not have a consistent treat them as commodities, because that is how impact across cultures. Ecotourism is portrayed the relationship is structured. as a form of tourism which has less damaging effects on local people than mass tourism. This One of the interesting paradoxes of external appears to be based on three assumptions: 1) control that operators and tourists exert is that the scale of tourism is less, therefore the impact many cultures respond by " controlling" how is less; 2) the type of tourists are different, so the they are viewed, both for their own benefit and interactions are less disruptive; and 3) the range in turn to "control" tourists. Yet over time, this of opportunities for local involvement and control that cultures exert begins to redefine benefits is greater. In fact, there have been few in the culture and its practices. The culture, in literature suggests that cultural tourism differs what is known as staged authenticity, begins little from other forms of tourism. Biodiverity Series t7 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Box 3: Key Cultural Elements Influencet by Tounsm Cultural knowledge. Cultural knowledge is information that contains the culture's rules of interaction - information about the political economic, social, and ecological environment in which a group lives as well as the group's values and beliefs. It includes the information possessed by groups about their environment, and how to use it (such as the diversity of plants for medicinal and agricultural purposes). Cultural patrimony originally referred to an estate or property inherited from one's father or ancestor or one held by ancient right, such as church property. However cultural patnmony broadened in definition to include the inheritance of ideas, symbols, and traditions that make up a culture's identity. Cultural property' 'denotes sites of artifacts of archaeological, paleontological, historic, religious and unique natural value; it encompasses remains left by previous human inhabitants as well as unique natural environ- mental features rrhe United Nations Definition in Goodland and Webb, 19871." Cultural property embraces sites that have archaeological, historical, religious, and natural heritage significance {Goodland and Webb, 1987]. Cultural sites may also provide broader lessorts to other societies and opportunities for generating income through tourism. acting in ways that the tourists think is authen- down, leading to fracturing of local relation- tic. In many cases, staged authenticity has been ships. Local youths, in particular, often see the encouraged by tour operators, who have to way outsiders act as superior or easier to how create adventure while at the same time assur- they are expected to act. They see outsiders as ing safety, comfort, and reliability of the cultural having fewer rules than their traditional culture experience for their clients. It is easier for may impose. What is evident is a wealthy, operators if they know what dances groups will carefree life, unconstrained by daily necessities perform, when, what native groups will do, rather than the social obligations, problems, how exotic it will look, how long rituals take, stress, and environmental degradation that the and if groups can be photographed during tourist has left behind and from which they are rituals. Without the collaboration of indigenous trying to escape. Traditional patterns of local groups, operators will have greater difficulty orgarnization breakdown, people begin to controlling the tourism product. However, after emigrate, and those who remain shed tradi- a while the actions which cultures "stage" for tional practices and increasingly cater to tourists simply become an act disengaged from tourists. Money generated through sales of cultural meaning [MacCannell]. crafts or employment can dramatically change the family or community structure. For example, The commodification of culture, often through a five year old may make more money selling tourism, is usually viewed as one of the destruc- bracelets in a day than his/ her father can make tive influences on local groups. Yet there are in working in the fields in a month. It is also numerous examples where it is precisely particularly difficult for elders to justify to the interest in local arts, music, or symbols, or youth the value of maintaining traditional language that are instrumental in reviving values and practices. them. For example, the interest tourists to Capirona (see Annex) have shown in tradi- Cultural Knowledge tional knowledge and crafts has helped to validate and revive them [Colvin, 1994:3]. Thousands of years of indigenous culture can become extinct in one or two generations. In Change in Social Structure most cases, this results from: 1) the creation of new employment opportunities, so young Cultures have constantly gone through people don't learn or need to learn traditional changes, and they are constantly adapting to skills; 2) changes in social structure and new new circumstances. Tourism often brings such patterns of social interaction (e.g. women rapid changes that instead of adapting to the working outside their homes, loss of traditions new situation, community cohesion breaks 18 Environrnent Departrnent Papers Cultural Issues and Ecotourism such as oral storytelling); and 3) a disinterest in revenue for such projects and managing the cultural traditions among youth. Ecotourism flow of tourists is more difficult. Preservation of potentially offers one form of employment cultural property is even more problematic which is less disruptive and may reinforce when it involves special natural sites, such as traditional skills and practices. Critics of sacred forests in Nepal or rock paintings or tourism charge that youth end up spending sacred sites in Australia. In some cases, even more time with tourists or emulating tourist speaking directly with local people about these behavior than their own culture. Tourism sites, or trying to define them, may be sacrile- introduces modern technologies, such as radios gious. For example, at Uluru (Ayers rock) in and television, which reduce reliance on oral Australia, the Anagu people have expressed a traditions. disdain for people walking or climbing on their sacred rock. However, because of the revenue One important link between biodiversity generated by tourism the Anagu have made conservation and culture which has a tangible allowances for hundreds of tourists to climb market value in some cases is the specific Uluru daily U. Willis, 1992; Altman, 1989]. ecological information, or intellectual property, Respect and care of sacred sites is often sacri- possessed by indigenous groups and knowl- ficed by individuals for profit, even though they edge about human interactions with nature. For may be "owned" by the community. For ex- example, knowledge learned through the use of ample, wood from sacred forests in Nepal is plants through history, has saved literally often stolen to meet the increased demand for millions of lives (quinine for malaria, curare for cooking or hot water showers for trekking surgery, taxol for cancer) and provided knowl- tourists [Gurung, 1989]. edge of desirable properties for different crop strains. Diminished knowledge is one aspect of Characteristics that Influence the cultural change. Groups such as the Kuna Impact of Tourism on a Culture Indians in Panama have worked with foreign anthropologists to relearn traditional methods There are at least six factors that influence how of caring for the land [Chapin,1990]. Ethno- a culture reacts to tourism: botanicalstudies, searching for and working with traditional groups to identify these 1. Community cohesion and structure; properties, has beconme a significant element in 2. Ability to separate the sacred from the conservation and one small branch of the profane; ecotourism market. 3. Rapidity of tourism development; 4. Previous experience with "outside" groups; Use of Cultural Property 5. Balance with environment; 6. Distribution of tourism impacts and benefits. Cultural sites are irreplaceable resources. Once destroyed, the historical, cultural, ascetic, and Community Cohesion and Structure educational value are gone forever. In many parts of the world, tourism has served as one The effect tourism has on a culture in part justification and impetus for the preservation of depends on the degree of community cohesive- cultural sites. Tourism has often been an ness and the strength and elasticity of tradi- important force behind laws protecting sites tional practices. The impact of new technologies and antiquities, and has provided economic and customs can have markedly different justification for restoration of many sites impacts on different cultures, and even different [UNESCO, 1976]. Many protected areas have communities within a culture. If a culture has dual functions of biodiversity conservation and had diverse experiences coping with change, it protection of cultural property. Protection of is more likely to be flexible to the influences of historical monuments within protected areas, tourism. Some cultures have shown a remark- such as Mayan ruins at Tikal, Guatemala is able ability to incorporate the external influ- fairly straightforward, at least in terms of how ences brought by tourism and adapt them into and when conservation and protection are practices which are beneficial for their society, needed. But using ecotourism to generate the such as the Sherpas of Nepal. Nepalese sherpas Biodiverity Series 19 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues have been involved in tourism and the demand negatively, can have huge importance to how for wage labor for 40 years. They have found they react to tourism. In general, communities new ways to "reconstitute productive relations that have been exposed to a higher number of in their new economy. The Sherpa logic that groups slowly over time can more easily informs and shapes economic endeavors is a incorporate new ideas and practices into their cultural logic revolving around tendencies lives with fewer disruptions. Similarly, groups toward both independence and interdepen- which have encountered cultures that are very dence into which new tourism opportunities different than their own are likely to be less can fit [Adams, 1992:534]." overwhelmed than groups which have only been in contact with similar cultures. Separation Between the Sacred and the Profane Balance with Environment Not all cultures can easily separate the sacred Traditional management systems which from the profane, since there is a often a con- regulate resource use are highly susceptible to tinuum between the two. Two factors help external influences [Redford, 1996; Brandon, differentiate how cultures act their attitude 1996]. Many traditional resource management about questioning their own practices, and their systems work because they are based on low disposition to question the practices of others. population densities either intensively extract- Some cultures encourage questioning about ing from a small area, and allowing that area to their own practices, while others encourage regenerate, or extensive use of resources col- unquestioning adherence to local norms. When lected over a wide area. These systems are a culture is not able to discuss the importance appropriate within their own cultural and and role of certain practices, these practices ecological context but can rapidly erode if local often become events for tourists, and, over time, conditions change, particularly if: 1) there is a lose meaning for the people themselves [Maurer substantial increase in the local population; 2) a and Zeigler, 1988:75]. A culture's abiliq to few commodities increase in value and become assimilate outside ideas and interpret them more heavily exploited; or 3) the area available through their own cultural structures helps it for exploitation is substantially reduced. adapt to changes brought through tourism. Creation of protected areas is one example of the third reason. Ecotourism has the potential to Rapidity of Tourism Development partially offset economic losses born by local people. Yet groups already coping with stress Ecotourism contrasts with mass tourism in that from environmental dislocation may have it is aimed at bringing in fewer people at levels difficulty adapting to the rapid changes that do not cause cultural disruption. Yet even broughtby tourism. several hundred to one thousand tourists a year - a few every day - will have a marked effect Distribution of Tourism Impacts over relatively few years on a rural population. Communities may have little opportunity to The distribution of costs and benefits from adapt their practices so as to incorporate tourism across communities is one of the most external elements, and it may be difficult to important issues in devising sustainable identify when "too much" disruption has taken ecotourism strategies. In the short run, even place. There are few examples of mechanisms to providmg a limited number of jobs m areas monitor cultural change and to regulate tourism where there are few other opportunities may accordingly. provide substantial benefits with minimal costs. But problems arise when the impacts differen- Previous Experience with "Outside" tially affect one segment of a community Groups [Maurer and Zeigler, 19881. Similarly, problems can arise when the benefits are captured by one group or class within a community. Excellent While most cultures will have been in contact studies of cultural tourism in Ladakh, India with external groups, their experience in [Michaud, 19911 and San Cristobal, Mexico dealing with these groups, either positively or 20 Environrnent Department Papers Cultural Issues and Ecotourism [van der Berghe, 1992] demonstrate that differ- among youth. In addition, tourism can generate ent ethnic groups differentially receive the benefits to local communities such as employ- benefits from tourism. Without in-depth knowl- ment. However, whether or not jobs and other edge of a culture, it is difficult to say whether benefits have a positive long-term impact on the culture would better withstand a broad "culture", will depend on the resiliency of the distribution of impacts, or some alternative local community and perhaps more impor- approach that would affect a more restricted tantly, the ability of tourism operators and the sub-group. communifies themselves to recognize and organize in ways which minimize the signifi- Conclusion cant cultural impacts. Ecotourism may have greater impacts on culture than mass tourism In general, most of the intended benefits of since ecotourists are rural peoples. Therefore, tourism are not realized by indigenous cultures. particular attention should be given to social Tourism has a positive influence in cases where impact assessment in the development of the interest expressed by tourists in art, music, ecotourism projects. or crafts has stimulated local interest and pride and led to a revival of practices,especially I The terms cultural patrimony and cultural property are often used interchangeably, although this report uses the term cultural property to refer to specific sites, Biodiverity Series 21 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues 22 Environrnent Department Papers 5 Development Issues Many countries have viewed tourism as an exception of visas), and one in which the important component of their overall develop- consumer pays the transportation costs (the ment strategy. There are four significant reasons tourist comes to the country to collect the goods, why countries pursue tourism: generation of as it were). Tourism has proved to be a source of foreign exchange, employment, economic foreign exchange that is more dynamic than diversification, and regional growth major commodity exports [English,1986]. [Goldfarb,1989: 13]. Non-economic national Although recessions in developed countries can interests, such as diplomacy, international lead to a decrease in tourism to developing stature, and peace are also attributed to tourism countries, several studies suggest that tourism [D'Amore,19901. is less volatile than traditional primary com- modity exports [Pye and Lin,1983]. Even Tourism, if well managed, can contribute though tourism represents a major component positively to development. For most countries, of the world's economy, few countries have problems arise from the fact that the negative precise figures on tourism revenues fWyer et. economic, environmental, and social effects of al.,1988: 22]. Both the International Monetary tourism build cumulatively and lag behind Fund (IMF) and the World Tourism Organiza- initial positive economic impacts. Conflict tion (WTO) have recommended that tourism arises when political imperatives stress gains in receipts and expenditures be included in a the present and governments are unable or country's national accounts.2 unwilling to plan and manage tourism. This split in timeframe is compounded by a split Critics of tourism point out that if "economic along national/local lines: immediate economic leakages,' or the money that flows out of the benefits can be collected by the national govern- country in order to support tourism are taken ment while increasingly heavy costs are borne into account, many countries would have vastly by the local populations [Goldfarb,1989]. lower earnings than assumed. Leakages result Ecotourism is not exempt from this since many from the continued need for imported skills, of the most substantial costs of travel to a site go technologies and commodities to serve the to airlines, urban hotels, car rental agencies and tourism sector, including foreign goods and the like. services, increased oil imports for tourists transportation, repatriation of profits from Foreign Exchange Generation and hotels, restaurants, and car rental agencies National Revenues owned by foreign companies; imports of consumer goods and advertising and marketing The prospect of foreign exchange earnings is efforts abroad. the single biggest reason for developing coun- tries' interest in tourism, and tourism's contri- The level of leakages is in most cases quite high. bution can rank quite high. Unlike other export indicated that 55% of tourist spending in industries, tourism is an industry which is less ding that 55% of t developed subject to protectionist barriers (with the developing countries leaks back to developed Biodiversity Series 23 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues countries. Other studies suggest that leakages of Employment 80% - 90% may be more common for countries lacking a substantial share of national owner- Tourism-related employment is grouped into ship of tourism services, such as airlines, hotels, three categories: direct employment (hotels, and transportation companies [Mathieson and restaurants, clubs, taxis, souvenirs); indirect Wall,19821. More recent studies suggest that employment which results from inputs to the only ten percent of tourism spending remains in tourism industry, such as employment as a bus Zimbabwe [Lindberg,1991: 24] and 10% to 20% mechanic for a tour company; and induced of tourist spending is retained in Jamaica employment, which is a variation on the idea of [Church et al.,1994a]. "multiplier effect" from tourism expenditures. Induced employment is generated solely Local-Level Leakages. Leakages from rural because residents in the area have more to areas visited by ecotourists may be especially spend on new things, such as appliance high: estimates for leakages from the purchases. Tourist expenditures generate not Annapurna region of Nepal range from 90 % to only direct flows of money through the pur- 94%. [Wells, 1992; Gurung,1992: 38] and over chase of goods and services, but indirect flows, two-thirds of expenditures by tourists to when the recipients of the primary flow of Zimbabwe's protected areas leaves the country money respend it [Healy,1988: 2]. [Lindberg,1991: 24]. A recent study of Bonaire Marine Park in the Netherlands Antilles found There is an erroneous belief that tourism leads that "the revenues generated by park related to high levels of job creation, due largely to early activities tend to pass through the local studies claiming that, due to the multiplier economy with only a small portion, perhaps as effect, tourism created more jobs per dollar of little as 20% effectively remaining there [Scura investment than manufacturing. A 1969 study and Van't Hof,19931. Recent studies of Siberut, of Caribbean tourism estimated thate verv job Indonesia, indicate that only 16% of spending created in tourism resulted in 2.3 more jobs in remains on the island, and local people only supporting industries while multiplier figures retain 9% of what is spent (see Annex). for Kenya andTunisia were reported to be 4 and 6 [Anon.,1989: 19, 22]. Subsequent re- Economies in the remote regions which search indicated that the real job multiplier for ecotourists visit are often too undeveloped to the Caribbean was probably well below one. provide the required supporting goods and While the concept of multipliers has validity, services. Those promoting ecotourism often they are difficult to calculate with any accuracy import expertise and products from urban areas [Goldfarb,1989: 17-18]. The most critical issues and foreign countries to remote ecotourism sites in considering employment are: who is em- rather than developing expertise or products, ployed, in what capacity, at what wages, and including lodging and food supplies locally. for which months. How well does ecotourism Tourist dollars are often credited with having "fit" with overall labor patterns in the area? huge positive effects on developing country Rural households try and maximize a total level economies by virtue of the so-called "multi- of earnings; small bits of income may make a plier" effect- a phenomenon in which an initial crucial difference in their overall level of well- injection of tourist dollars prompts additional being. Similarly, if ecotourism related employ- rounds of spending by citizens on local goods ment does not conflict with important seasonal and services. Every tourism dollar spent creates patterns, such as harvest time, off-peak employ- "X" dollars worth of impacts, and every direct ment can be a valuable addition to households. tourism job creates "Y" number of indirect jobs. Rural areas may have both higher economic While it is difficult to generalize about leakages and lower "multipliers" than urban tourism's contribution to national employment, areas. In most rural situations, the lack of rural it is even more difficult, at the national level, to enterprises translates into reduced ways for disentangle the effects of mass tourism, nature currency to stimulate local economies. Multipli- based tourism and ecotourism. However, itis ers effects in the ecotourism context are likely to clear that most of the employment generated by be very limited. tourism is for workers with low skills. One 24 Environrnent Departrnent Papers Development Issues significant benefit of tourism, however, is that it is in the country. It is possible for ecotourism to provides these low-skilled workers with higher have high economic importance but low wages than they would receive in other occupa- employment generation. For example, in tions. Rwanda, high fees are charged to take tourists to view gorillas. Visitors are concentrated in a From a development perspective, the cost of small area and there is virtually nothing else for creating jobs in tourism must be compared to them to do or buy. The employment generated is the costs associated with investment leading to extremely small relative to the national eco- job creation in other sectors. Although it is often nomic importance. In contrast, the Tiger Moun- assumed that high levels of capital are not tain Group in Nepal employs 5,000 people required, this is incorrect if the emphasis is during peak seasons [Roberts, J.O.M. and B.D.G. hotel-based. A handful of studies focusing on Johnson,1985 in Lindberg, 1991:8). Nature- costs per hotel job found the hotel sector to be based tourism to Royal Chitwan National Park more capital-intensive than other modern is responsible for direct employment of about industries. No matter how the industry is 1000 people in hotels and lodges and another portrayed, tourism does not distinguish itself as 500 are employed as guides, laborers, Tharu a creator of employment, and it "is less labor- dancers, restaurant employees and shopkeep- intensive than commonly assumed" [English, ers. The seven concessions within the park also 1986]. are a source of employment for local communi- ties outside the park, with about 635 employees Many countries emphasizing nature-based in 1993 [Sowerset al., 1994a]. At local and tourism have a mix of tourism types, from regional levels, one of the strong arguments for modern fancy hotels to lodges to homestays. ecotourism is that it can be a source of employ- The latter may create more local-level jobs and ment for people in remote areas who otherwise require less capital investment, one of the would have few alternatives but dependence benefits of smaller-scale, more decentralized on, and possible depletion, of wildlands and forms of tourism. In all forrns of tourism, the wildlife. Revenue from tourism can be just one capital investment required for tourism may be component of a strategy of "multiple jobs" that offset by services generated as a result of lets people have a variety of income sources tourism, such as touring, shopping, and local spread throughout the year. This has been the purchasing of supplies. It is this latter genera- case in the western U.S. where some ranchers tion of local and regional benefits that can often welcome tourists to "help" on a working ranch. be maximized in ecotourism development The income may be small but significant when combined with other earnings. Seasonal Substantial employment on a national basis earnings are also important for many Sherpas from nature-based tourism is probably only who are employed as porters for several months significant for a few countries, such as Nepal, each year. While the seasonal aspects of Kenya, Tanzania, and perhaps Costa Rica. tourism employment can be advantageous in However, only a fraction of this tourism could some rural contexts, the lack of employment- be defined as ecotourism. A review of the cases stability and year-round income may diminish suggests that the attributes that have made ecotourism's effectiveness in changing local nature-based tourism into a significant factor patterns of resource use and dependence. for national-level employment are: 1) substan- tial numbers of tourists to see nature-based Diversification attractions; 2) dispersal of tourists throughout different regions of the country; 3) a variety of For many countries and regions which are ecotourism activities, including nature and highly dependent on a few commodities, cultural viewing, adventure-oriented activities, tourism provides an important avenue for shopping for locally-made products; and 4) economic diversification. Such diversification high levels of "add-on" tourism- tourism for may be especially important for countries reasons other than nature but where a day or which may have difficulty increasing manufac- two may become nature-based once the person turing and exports, such as landlocked coun- Biodiversity Series 25 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues tries (e.g. Nepal, Rwanda, and Bolivia). Just as Fostering Greater Peace and tourism can be an important way to diversify a Understanding country's economic base, ecotourism can be an attractive way to diversify the portfolio of Tourism provides countries with potentialy tourism activities within a country. Once the free public relations which may help to increase infrastructure is in place for more general aind expand business. On a global level, tourism tourism, promoting ecotourism may be rela- advocates point out that it helps to foster "an tively easy, especially on a small scale and as appreciation of the rich human, cultural and an "add-on." apelto fterc ua,clua n ecological diversity that our world mosaic offers; to evolve a mutual trust and respect for Regional and Local Growthi one another and the dignity of all life on earth" [D'Amore, 4.1990] . Tourism has been used as a way of spurring regional economic growth in countries. One of In some regions, such as Central America, the the most famous examples of this is in Mexico, creation of four bi-national peace parks has where the government explicitly decided to use been promoted as one way of increasing tourism as a way of stimulating economic regional peace while enhancing biodiversity development in diverse regions of the country. objectives [Arias and Nations,1992. Ecotourism While no one would point to Cancun as a has been viewed as a key financial vehicle to desirable model of tourism development, its support these initiatives. transformation from a fishing village with 426 residents to a major tourism center with Domestic Versus Foreign Tourism 300,000, residents is a dramatic example of the potential for tourism to serve as a development One important distinction for countries to make growth pole [Daltabuit,1992:4]. Nature-based is the of tourism that they wish to encour- tourism can become an inportant force mni h typeotursththy s oenu- age. Most countries are interested in interna- regional economic development; in contrast, tional tourism for the foreign exchange it brings. ecotourism will not because of its low levels of However, domestic tourism has several advan- scale and impact. Once high levels of tourism tages over interational tourism, in that a n occur, the form of tourism becomes mass tourism. * builds a national constituency for parks Although tourism and ecotourism can have and conservation; important local benefits, even small-scale development may have negative impacts. One * generates stable revenues for conservation of the most common is that as interest increases and protection of cultural property; in resources (whether land, animals) or access, local people may be pushed out or sell out. * fosters national integration. Local prices for commodities often increase as well. The local impacts of tourism are likely to Ecotourism can be a way of introducing middle be similar in developing and developed coun- classes, and elites, who are normally the people tries; for example, residents in the Austrian with some disposable income and leisure time, Alps felt that the overall influence of tourism on to the importance of maintaining wild habitats. their communities was positive, but that Use of and appreciation for wildlands helps to tourism had also brought about higher prices create a constituency for conservation within for basic necessities, higher taxes for commu- countries and convince people of the impor- nity infrastructure and tourism oriented tance of maintaining biodiversity within and recreational facilities, competition among outside parks. In Costa Rica in 1990, for ex- villagers as well as communities over the ample, over 227,300 residents visited the distribution of benefits, and decreased partici- national parks as compared with 161,800 pation in community projects [Kariel,1989]. foreign visitors [Place, 1991: 1871. This high 26 Environment Department Papers Development Issues visitation rate by Costa Ricans has been cred- true in rural areas, where most ecotourism sites ited with generating a larger interest among would be, where there is little enterprise and residents in supporting conservation, It has infrastructure to capture income. Tourism offers largely resulted from the presence of a large employment that may have national middle class and good access to the parks. significarice. Although tourism is less labor Domestic tourism is resistant to international intensive than often assumed, ecotourism can shocks, such as recessions or wars. Another create significant employment and income benefit is that the tastes and preferences of generating opportunities at the local level. domestic tourists are often similar to those of Providing alternative livelihood opportunities residents irn the destination area. that relieve pressure on natural resources has broader significance socially and environmen- Conclusion tally. The potential for local and regional growth through ecotourism can be significant, Tourism is an important, often significant, depending on how benefits and negative component of a country's development strategy impacts are distributed. Domestic tourism has a because it can provide foreign exchange, high potential to make major contributions to employment, economic diversification, and both ecotourism and biodiversity conservation growth. The economic benefits of foreign by creating a national constituency for conser- exchange are often reduced by the negative vation. effects of economic leakages. This is especially 2 The measurement of tourism expenditures is difficult, however, because the tourism industry consists of many component sub-industries. Whereas expenditure on tangible goods is measured by totalling sales, tourism expenditures are ideally measured by adting up the individual tourist's spending [Sheldon, 19901. Another compli- cating factor is that gross foreign exchange earnings are not the best measure of the revenue countries receive. Biodiversity Series 27 Ecotounsm and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues 28 Environrnent Departrnent Papers 6 Management Issues and Options While much of the literature on ecotourism employment. Such externally-planned highlights tourism's impacts, both positive and ecotourism development can be contrasted negative, few of the studies discuss how with local entrepreneurs which "spring up" to tourism is organized and managed. Perhaps satisfy a demand for ecotourism, which has the single most important consideration in how been the case in many parts of Costa Rica or ecotourism affects rural communities is the level Asia. Entrepreneurs, either from within the and type of control which local people have in local community, or from outside, have set up its development. Local involvement and control special lodges and facilities for tourists can range from ownership, management of co- [Horwich et al., 1993]. management or actual ventures, to participation in planning. Private sector involvement can All of these arrangements from small, locally range from individual entrepreneurs, whether controlled tourism, to large-scale internation- local or from outside the community, to national ally owned and operated tourist facilities use or foreign corporations. Governments can be the "ecotourism" label. But it is evident that the involved in one or many ways, including differences in the level of benefits, the effects on regulation, planning, coordination, promotion, local communities and culture, and the type of and revenue capture. Finally, the scale of benefits generated depends on the respective tourism in relation to the site and the surround- roles of government, the private sector, and ing communities can vary dramatically. local communities. In thinking about ecotourism management, it is Local Involvement and Control essential to first look at how these factors are inter-related. All kinds of ventures and Tourism can rapidly change the social and partnerships are found within ecotourism - economic situation in communities. Working from more traditional arrangements such as with community groups to identify ways of large private reserves employing local people promoting ecotourism requires time, energy, on an individual basis to indigenous groups and organizational capacity. However, if one of hiring or entering into partnerships with the the objectives of ecotourism is to provide private sector, such as the Kuna Indians in economic opportunities to reduce pressures on Panama, Uluru in Australia and Capirona in wildlands resources, such participation is Ecuador [see Annex for latter two cases]. essential. A great deal of brokering is often There are also cases where industry or govern- necessary, since private sector interests may ment have the lead role. Tourism to Kenya, want to move quickly and expect fast answers which is substantially nature-tourism oriented, to remain competitive. Tourists may show up is primarily controlled by multinational even if services aren't in place, "spearheading' corporations based outside the country, other tourists. although rents are received by District Coun- cils [Bentley, pers. comm.]. Rwanda offers an There are a number of cases where local example where the government controls and groups have received substantial benefits from manages much of the tourism and there is ecotourism while minimizing adverse impacts. minimal local involvement other than through Most cases have been where the local groups Biodiversity Series 29 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues have some degree of autonomy over the lands Many rural local populations worldwide lack where they live. Such traditional groups, secure ownership or title to the lands and especially if they have a cohesive social resources that they depend on for their liveli- structure, can exercise greater control over hood. In many cases, the places where they tourism and its impacts. They can decide what live are theirs through "customary" use rights level of tourism they want, what cultural and even ecotourism can lead to conflict over practices they wish to share, and where land claims. For example, the southeastern tourists can go. They can develop tourism coast of Costa Rica received few tourists until facilities themselves, in partnerships or joint improved roads led to rapid changes in land ventures with industry, or they can delegate all use for weekend houses and hotels. Local rights in return for user fees. Local ownership people, without title to land, were unable to and control is clearly the most basic of the receive market value, or sometimes any "conditions ... and planning actions under compensation, when outside interests came in which the positive economic development to purchase land [see Wells and Brandon, 1992: benefits [from tourism] will flow to local Talamanca case]. people" and which can "minimize negative economic, social, and cultural impacts on Where local communities have few bargaining resident people" Uohnson, 1991:393]. How- chips to use with industry or governments, they ever, community control may not be an have had little input into decision-making and equitable process or lead to wide-spread their needs are rarely taken into account. This distribution of benefits. Studies of ecotourism is particularly true for noncohesive communi- impact in Nepal suggest that only those who ties. Decisions made usually favor the needs of were village elites were able to capture the tourist and the operator/owner of the site ecotourism benefits [Sowers et. al. 1994a; Wells rather than the needs of the community. and Brandon; 1992]. Ecotourism can thus Employment may be one of the few benefits exacerbate local levels of income inequality received, and jobs may not be distributed within communities, or among communities in equitably or in the best way to encourage a region. biodiversity conservation. Working with communities to link ecotourism benefits with In many societies, the traditional authority conservation objectives requires strong social structures may inhibit extensive participation assessments [see World Bank Social Assess- in decision-making or may make it difficult to ment Guidelines for Biodiversity Conservation elicit the opinions of certain groups, such as Projects] and possibly technical assistance. women, young men, or the landless [Brandon, 19961. In spite of this, democratic decision- Private Sector Involvement making and benefit-distribution are the models most commonly promoted by NGOs, even Private sector involvement in nature-based though these models may not fit within the tourism ranges from small, locally-owned cultural context of indigenous peoples. Also, enterprises to tours run by universities and there are many different kinds of leaders. The conservation NGOs, to corporate giants, such leaders needed to control such ventures must as American Express. The majority of the be entrepreneurial with an ability to judge services required to transport travelers from what will work both within the community, as one place to another are private, which means well as with outsiders. Traditional authorities that most high-value ecotourism sites and may be effective within their own system, but tours are likely to be promoted, and even it is often younger, better educated men who operated, by international groups and compa- deal with outsiders [Brandon, 1996]. Deter- nies. In most cases, the majority of what mining who the "real" leader is and who tourists pay for a trip (airfare, hotel in the represents group interests best can be ex- capital, operator's share) will go to expatriate tremely difficult for outside groups entering companies. This highlights the importance for into partnerships. protected area managers to make sure that the 30 Environment Department Papers Management Issues and Options mechanisms are in place to capture and retain Tourism which is locally owned will in most some revenue from tourists - ideally starting cases generate greater benefits for the local with some type of user or entry fee. economy [see Belize examples in Annex). Locally-owned tourism is generally promoted Without the capital to provide appropriate among international conservation and devel- food, lodging, and other services which opment NGOs involved in ecotourism. Yet ecotourists need, there are often few ways that there are a number of difficulties associated local people can own ecotourism services. One with the development of a local private sector. study in Belize showed that it was extremely The most obvious is that the skills and capital difficult for national investors to get the credit to start small-scale businesses are often lack- to start what are seen as risky ventures. ing. In most cases, developing a local private However, if they entered into partnerships sector response is easiest when ecotourists are with external firms, the same banks were more already attracted to the area or when there is a willing to encourage such lending [Lindberg specific wildlife or nature-based attraction, and Enriquez, 19941. such as manatees or waterfalls. In some countries, such as Kenya, there is little Role of Government doubt that tourism would not have developed into an important national economic revenue Government, more than any other entity, has source if multinational corporations had not the potential power to shape the face of tourism made the initial investments and spent a internaly-how it is promoted, planned and considerable amount of money on marketing. managed, and regulated. For some countries, While multinational corporations may repatri- ecotourism may be one of the most obvious ate the highest percentage of their profits, ways to promote "sustainable development." causing high-level leakages, they may also have There are three inter-related ways in which strong incentives to invest in local communi- nature-based and ecotourism can be promoted ties. Some multinational corporations have by government actions. These are: made significant investments in guard train- ing, setting up infrastructure, and providing 1. the role of government in policy and benefits to local communities. For example. program coordination, including revenue Abercrombie and Kent, a large tour operator, collection and redistribution. has established a non-profit conservation 2. the infrastructure and incentives which the group to provide financial support to pro- government dedicates to ecotourism; tected areas in Kenya where they take tourists. 3. planning and promotion between national Foreign companies may also be more willing to and local level ecotourism ventures. construct simple lodgings in the national style. Conversely, national companies may be more Policy and program coordination can be biased against local buildings and promote extremely important. In Nepal, the 1993 "fancier" and less environmentally appropriate amendment to the Wildlife Conservation Act facilities. There is an increasing realization provides for the distribution of from 30 to 50 among large firms that for tourism to be percent of park and protected area revenues to sustainable, and for tourists to continue to surrounding communities. Bhutan has inten- come to the destination they offer, the site tionally limited tourism by requiring that must be clean, interesting, and attractive. visitors spend $200 per day and limiting the Some of the large operators express concern number of tourists who can visit Bhutan each that the smaller operators have greater flexibil- year [Wells, 1993: 17]. Additionally, they hav-w ity to rapidly change destinations if local restrictions on development so as to keep wildlife or culture is disrupted. In contrast, the tourism small-scale and dispersed. Botswana larger operators feel they have made an enacted a National Tourism Policy in 1990 to investment in the area which will only succeed "obtain, on a sustainable basis, the greatest if tourism can be sustained at a quality level possible net social and economic benefits for over the long-term. Botswana from their tourism resources: scenic Biodiversity Series 31 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Box 4: Contrasting Panamanian and Costa Rican Approaches to Tourism Development Panama has potential advantages in ecotourism promotion over neighboring Costa Rica: the presence of large numbers of Panamanians who speak English (important given proximity to U.S.); a national park spanning the canal zone; and the opportunity to link cultural tourism to the Kuna Indians with ecological tourism. Yet ecotourism has not been pursued, and Panama has promoted hotels, casinos, and shopping [M. Chapin 1990:42-451. Although the Kuna Indians established a camp for ecotourism and for scientists, it has had few visitors, due in large part to difficult access. In contrast, Costa Rica has developed a new tourism strategy and is linking protected areas into the larger regional context. One way Costa Rica is linking protected areas, and thus tourism benefits, with the areas around them is by allowing parks to keep a portion of the gate fees and then use them for region-wide activities which support conservation and local initiatives. beauty, wildlife, and unique ecological, on an area does little for conservation if the geological, and cultural characteristics." New government lacks the political will to under- approaches to implement this are: single land take strong management in support of the use zones, worker training programs, and area's conservation objectives. For example, direct compensation schemes [Whisonant, the Thai Government proposed allowing the 1992: 10]. Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) the right to manage "tourism zones" anywhere - Ecotourism can, at a local level, take place including in national parks - for tourism, without government support in any of these rather than for biodiversity conservation. areas. But for ecotourism to provide the Criticism from a broad coalition of groups maximum benefits to communities and coun- thwarted this plan. tries with a minimum of negative impacts, some level of governmental intervention is A strategy or overall plan for nature-based required. Ultimately, planning, management tourism, even in countries where the revenues and oversight of tourism (including nature- from such tourism are high, is usually nonex- based), is a government responsibility. Many istent. If such a strategy does exist, it is often governments have national tourism promotion limited to national strategies for state lands, offices and there is often a misconception that such as conservation areas or national parks "promotion equals planning" [Ishmael, and monuments. Furthermore, in most 1992:2311. Even when tourism is a critical countries, there is no one agency responsible component of an economy, there is often for tourism or for developing an overall difficulty in coordinating the variety of plan- strategy, so it is difficult for the lead agencies ning, promotional, and regulatory functions to get other agencies to become involved. For and services. example, in Zimbabwe there is a Ministry of Environment and Tourism, a board of tourism In particular, promotion of tourism to pro- (ZIMTOUR) and a separate agency responsible tected areas and lack of coordination among for Museums and Monuments. It is not different governmental agencies can cause uncommon to find several governmental conflict. The significance of some areas for agencies, protected area personnel, local global biodiversity has led to their designation communities, tourism industry, non-govern- as World Heritage Sites and RAMSAR (wet- mental organizations (NGOs), financial lands of international importance) sites institutions, and consumers involved in [Wescoat, 1992: 311. Examples of World ecotourism planning [Boo, 1991: 8]. Coordinat- Heritage Sites include: Ngorongoro Conserva- ing tourism policies is complex when such tion Area, Tanzania; Dogon/Bandiagara, Mali; diverse agencies are involved, and when Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in conflict is likely. Tourism promotion to Thailand; and Uluru National Park in Austra- biologically sensitive areas should be under- lia. Simply conferring World Heritage status taken only after adequate safeguards exist. 32 Environment Department Papers Management Issues and Options The costs of developing the necessary manage- In order to increase levels of mass tourism, ment plans and the infrastructure to accommo- most countries need to invest in infrastructure date tourists can represent a significant outlay for its development. When investment capital of human and financial resources, especially if is lacking, countries' may also offer incentives undertaken by park management agencies. To for multi-national corporations to undertake " do it right" usually means that the infrastruc- the development. Infrastructure development ture should be in place before tourism is can include the construction of airports, roads, encouraged, although this is difficult without and water and sewage facilities designed to the certainty that the investments will lead to serve tourists, although many of these systems tourism. Without external financing from benefit residents as well. In contrast, develop- international agencies or conservation NGOs, it ing an ecotourism strategy means linking may be impossible for parks departments to together a host of small-scale developments, raise the necessary start-up costs. For example, which are geographically dispersed and startup costs for a project within a Ugandan include both the public and private sectors. park to habituate chimpanzee troops for small groups of tourists include staff-time, two One of the arguments for ecotourism is that it vehicles, volunteers' living expenses, construc- requires less infrastructure than other forms of tion materials for small cabins and a visitor tourism. This clearly depends on the type and center, and trails construction. Assuming full level of ecotourism. Ecotourists however, share bookings, it will take about three years to some requirements with mass tourists: airport recover start-up costs of $421,000 plus operat- service, hotels in the capital city (in most cases ing costs [Makerere University Biological Field for a night or two); sufficient transport infra- Station and Annettee Lanjouw: 1990]. Initial structure to get to the destination, whether by costs were financed from grants from interna- car, jeep, train, or air. Even with ecotourists, tional conservation and development organi- lack of infrastructure can limit the revenue zations, with future revenues from ecotourism generated from ecotourism, as in the case of projected to cover park management costs. Rwanda. The NGOs saw this initial capital outlay as a way of generating permanent income for park Governments are increasingly looking toward management. nature-based tourism and developing special incentives to foster it. For example, Belize, Another difficulty in realizing ecotourism's Australia, and Venezuela have all developed potential relates to the linkage between plan- some type of nature-based tourism plans, in ning and coordination and regulation. For many cases as "add-on" tourism. Examples large scale tourism developments, such as include luring visitors to Belize or Australia to resorts, it may be possible for government to also spend two-days at a rainforest site or at set certain guidelines (e.g. government ap- the Great Barrier Reef. proval is required for developments over a certain size). This can more easily be done in One of the difficulties in promoting ecotourism the case of mass tourism and resort develop- is the need to integrate national and local level ment. Many of the policies with greatest initiatives. While countries may be quick to impact on the size and character of a country's promote ecotourism as a source of regional tourism industry were made with little thought economic growth, promotion is often empha- of their impact on either tourism or sized at the expense of planning. In many biodiversity. For example, in the United cases, a lack of integration of local level plans States, some of the national policies most with national level policy has led to greatly important for tourism were the creation of the reduced potential for ecotourism. national park system (1916), the decision to build the interstate highway system (1956), and Just as short-term objectives outweigh the deregulation of the airline industry (1978) long-view, national priorities often outweigh [Healy, 1992a:24]. local interests in tourism planning. When the primary objective of ecotourism promotion is Biodiversity Series 33 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues habitat and species preservation, conservation- the resources, capacity and investment, such as ists have to be most concerned with improved in protected areas [see MacKinnon et. al. 1986). management of protected areas, which includes Interesting partnerships have started between fostering positive linkages between ecotourism governments and local people, such as at activities and the surrounding local communi- Ayers Rock, or Uluru, in Australia (see Annex). ties. In the short run (and depending on the However, appropriate arrangements will size of the country), tourism development gone depend on local circumstances. awry at a particular beach can be shifted to another. But habitat degradation which leads New arrangements are constantly being to species extinction or loss of an ecosystem devised with an increasing number of partners, can entail a irreversible blow to environmental including all those mentioned above, plus agendas. international donors. For example, USAID is promoting a tourism strategy called Low Partnerships Impact Tourism (LIT). LIT focuses on estab- lishing indigenous natural resource manage- Perhaps one of the most exciting developments ment through private sector initiatives and in ecotourism is the emergence of new kinds of investment in rural village-based tourism partnerships. There is increasing recognition business infrastructure. Rural communities that partnerships between local people, the would get a percentage of tourism revenues, private sector, and government open up a range employment benefits and improved infrastruc- of opportunities that would not be available to ture [Lillywhite, 1992]. any one group. Most of these partnership arrangements are of recent origin: most are However, while bringing many partners to the accepted because they make good economic table offers the strengths of the combined sense and benefit all partners. organizations, it can make coordination and decision-making quite cumbersome. In such Some linkages will be born of necessity, e.g. the cases, ecotourism development may seem akin need for local groups to market their destination to a large integrated development project, with to a wider audience. Other linkages may result many of the difficulties that these projects face. from a need for greater flexibility in manage- Projects with fewer partners may be more ment. This has led to partnerships between manageable, but may require high levels of governments and NGOs, where management is coordination with other agencies. Another delegated to the NGO. Delegation of manage- concern is that the actors involved in tourism ment for the Annapurna Conservation Area (see development use concepts like 'ecotourism' Annex) to the King Mahendra Trust for Nature and 'sustainability' to defend or satisfy their Conservation is an example of the latter. own interests, even though amongst the different stakeholders there is no consensus Partnerships between the government and the about the precise meaning of the terms private sector have often allowed the private [Hummel, 1994]. Attempts to reach partner- sector to manage operations and run conces- ship agreements must be based on a shared sions in places where the government lacked vision. Box 5: Indigenous and Private Sector Partnerships The Cofan Indians of Zabalo, Ecuador and Metropolitan Touring, the largest ecotourism tour operator in Ecuador, have formed a partnership called Aguarico Trekking. Profits from ecotourism are shared 50/50. Metropolitan Tours brings the marketing skills, investment capital for motors, mattresses, and latrines, and transports people to Zabalo. The Cofan own the land, know the forest, have the canoes to travel deep into forest rivers, and can construct minimum impact trails and lodging. The program: 1) provides the tourists with a unique cultural and natural experience; 2) produces revenues to support the Cofan and the rainforest; 3) provide an economic incentive for the Cofan to continue their wise management of the area tProafio, 1992]. 34 Environment Department Papers 7 Conclusions and Recommendations This review of some of the key issues of conservation which can be appropriately ecotourism and nature-based tourism high- targeted in the context of most ecotourism and lights the complexity of using such tourism as nature-based initiatives: a tool for conservation and sustainable devel- i. a source of financing for parks and conser- opment There is an explosion of interest in ecotourism as a funding source for conserving 2 vaion; both biodiversity and cultural patrimony and 3. economic alternatives for local people to as a strategy for generating socio-economic reduce exploitation of conservation areas development. The demand for ecotourism has and biological resources; been steadily increasing, a trend that can be 4. constituency-building which promotes expected to continue. Trips exist m a variety of conservation; and price ranges and styles and more are being 5. an impetus for private conservation efforts developed all the time. One of the advantages claimed for ecotourism If ecotourism and nature-based tourism are to is that it is seen as more ecologically and generate these benefits for biodiversity conser- culturatiy sensimve and less likely to bring the vation, there are a number of conditions which culaturall sensitcve andslessoiktely wito bri th- have to be met. First, sites must be competitive negativ impacs assoiated wth mas tour-(e.g. unique and able to attract visitors) ism. How well ecotourism lives up to these vi E criteria depends principally on the planning Second, protected area authorities must have process prior to ecotourism initiatives and the the capacity and jurisdictional mandates to management controls and involvement of design and implement sustainable ecotourism stakeholders once they begin. However, consistent with the PA objectives. Third, fees strong government and local controls are often must be collected and they must reflect the necessary tinuthmanagement costs of tourism and/or site ns tie private se thr ate tvorurismnpractic by protection; pricing should reflect both equity culturaiay sustainable. issues such as two-tier user fees as well as market rates. Finally, such revenues should Cases reviewed in this study cover a range of first be distributed to the parks where collected protected areas, cultures, types of ecotourism with left-over funds applied towards priorities protected ara.clue,tye feoor in overall biodiversity conservation in the enterprises and management options. In many counry. cases, ecotourism and nature-based tourism country. have not lived up to expectations in terms of In most countries, nature-based tourism has creating revenues for conservation or in In m otes, natment oristry creatng aternaive ncomesoures totakebeen promoted by government or industry pressureaoffgprotecatved arcomeas.o ertess, twithout an overall strategy, effective protected pressurmain a potental avenue for conserva- area management plans, and without consulta- they ,, a . . for conserva. tion or inclusion of local communities. While tion. How effective it is will ultimately depend local communities do receive benefits from on who will benefit, as well as where, when tourism, these benefits are most frequently in and how it can be appropriately implemented. the form of seasonal or low-paying jobs. At the This paper identifies five key benefits for Biodiversity Series 35 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues community level, ecotourism may generate nerships that provide technical assistance, increased revenues, provide for more infra- training, and capital that are vital allow for structure such as roads and electricity, or communities to share in the benefits. proceeds from ecotourism may be directed to 4. Governents generaly provide inadequate community projects such as school construc- protection and management of the natural tion, and health clinics. Yet these benefits may and cultural assets which draw tourists and be offset in the eyes of local commumties by provide valuable foreign exchange. Plan- interference in their daily lives and resultant pi dervaluable fregnenge. an- cultural changes. When the low-impact scale of ning,oif undertaen, agmented amon . v . ., ~~~~~~~numerous government agencies with ecotourism is exceeded and the tourism, even if unclear jurisdictions and few funds. nature-based, takes on the characteristics of Despite the potentialy high levels of mass tourism, increased traffic, pollution, benefits, regulation and management of sequestering of profits by outsiders, and rising ecotourism is generally not viewed as a local prices can all become significant prob- governent priority. lems. 5. While there is evidence that eco-tourism Some of the key conclusions from reviewig the and biodiversity conservation can co-exist, literature:and the cases described in the annex it is also the case that biodiversity conser- are: vation is not significantly helped by 1. Excessive or unmanaged visitation ad- ecotourism. This is especially true in parks versely affects ecotourism sites, both and protected areas, unless strong manage- culturally and ecologically. How to best ment of tourists and retention of revenues manage ecotourism and the appropriate are possible. In most cases revenues from levels of visitation and development can ecotourism are minimal compared to only be determined at the site after careful management costs. Careful consideration analysis of the local conditions. Clear should be given to the tradeoffs between management objectives, zoning, and benefits to protected areas and increased regulations and the authority to impose costs and impacts (see annex). Nature- limitations on tourism are essential prereq- based tourism strategies within countries uisites. can balance these tradeoffs across protected 2. Benefits from tourism may be insufficient area systems. incentives for local communities to support 6. Governments are reluctant or unable to use conservation. Often, economic benefits ecotourism as a way of generating substan- have been insufficient, or have been tial support for nature conservation and inequitably distributed within local com- local level development. While direct munities. As a result, they have not budgetary allocations may be necessary at provided sufficient incentive for changes in the "front-end" to see that projects are well- natural resource use. Community participa- managed, ecotourism could be an impor- tion is essential if ecotourism is to provide tant source of financing through improved local level benefits. The case studies collection and pricing of user fees and taxes demonstrate that such benefits will not on direct and indirect expenditures on emerge spontaneously: they can only come goods and services. about as the result of clear planning and 7. Strong government and local controls are management. often necessary to insure that tourism 3. Partnerships are important for establishing practices by the private sector are environ- links between the private sector and local mentally and culturally sustainable. communities. Local communities often 8. Strategies to generate short-term profits, lack the capacity to develop and manage whether developed by protected area ecotourism on their own. Governents, management agencies or the private sector, NGOs and other non-profit groups can are often incompatible with sustamnable have a significant role in promoting part- environmental and development objectives. 36 Envirornment Department Papers Conclusions and Recommendations 9. Add-on tourism has the greatest growth 2. Determine the acceptable limits of ecosys- potential for ecotourism. It offers the tem change within ecotourism destinations, greatest potential for increased domestic develop appropriate management objec- control of ecotourism, both by the private tives and zoning, and establish on-going sector and communities. monitoring programs. Carrying capacities should be regarded as flexible and subject Ecotourism represents one of the few areas to change based on changing conditions. where the link between economic development 3. Develop and implement strong manage- and conservation of natural areas is potentially ment plans and practices which will clear and direct But these links have not led to control, regulate, and enhance tourism to the expected benefits at many sites worldwide, the park. Professional guidelines for for the reasons identified throughout the protected area planning and management review. Clearly, there is a great need in the [e.g. MacKinnon et aL, 1986 should be field for innovation and for new management used. practices which separate ecotourism from mass tourism. Partnerships will be an important 4. Contact local communities about tourism component of ecotourism benefiting both parks development and opportunities for maxi- and local communities. Without government mizing benefits to parks and communities. regulation or strong delegation of management authority to the regional or local levels, Actions for Local Communities or ecotourism in most places won't differ from Acis foriLocal Com mass tourism. The challenge for ecotourism Agencies Assisting Them planners will be to establish regulations and 1. Learn about impacts, options and possibili- incentives so that socio-economic benefits are ties of ecotourism development and define generated, and appropriately distributed, from mechanisms for involvement in ecotourism activities which are culturally and ecologically planning and development. sustainable. 2. Explore means for ownership of specific The following recommendations offer a basic ecotourism ventures, through increasing list of actions which different organizations and interests and investment, even if through groups, the partners in ecotourism develop- sharing of risk - in the form of financing, ment, could implement to help ecotourism serve labor, or land. as a vehicle to provide environmental, socio- 3. Explore market niches for art and handi- economic, and cultural benefits at both local and crafts, possibly with the help of NGOs and national levels. This emphasis on generating national trade promotion agencies. Con- local and national benefits should serve as the sider importance of traditional knowledge basis for developing future ecotourism activi- and potential impact of change on poten- ties. Some of the recommendations have been tialy marketable products. adapted for ecotourism from conferences such as the Globe9O conference. Most flow from this 4. Consider strategies for ecotourism as paper. Some may be controversial; they repre- compensation for restricted access (e.g., to sent strong positions on the subject and they are PA). Such strategies should ideally not intended to stimulate dialogue. Others may include simple payment. More appropriate need to be strengthened. All are offered as a approaches are: way of encouraging appropriate agencies to a. coordinated investments in local take action, and as an implicit "checklist" for infrastructure and services (e.g. educa- groups engaging in ecotourism. tion and health) that improve local quality of life; Actions for Parks and Protected Areas Site b. collection of local user fees from Management ecotourists which support local devel- opment initiatives, such as handicraft 1. Define clear objectives for the park or cooperatives or financing of small-scale protected area and how tourism can be ecotourism facilities (homestays and accommodated within those objectives. restaurants). Biodiversity Series 37 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Recommendations for Government 7. More carefully assess, as per IMF guide- lines, the importance of tourism as a 1. Supplement ongoing promotional activi- component of national economic activity. ties, if any, with strengthened planning procedures to improve the sustainability of 8. Assign priorities to the use of ecotourism ecotourism. Such procedures should: revenues as follows: a. Require the development of a. maintain and develop the areas in ecotourism strategies as components of which the funds were generated, relevant government planning docu- including activities which benefit local ments. For example, protected area communities and which are directly management agencies should fully linked to the protected area; consider how ecotourism will be b. support national activities to promote, integrated with protected area man- plan and manage ecotourism e.g. parks agement plans. and protected areas network; b. Clarify the jurisdictional mandates and c. support conservation education and responsibilities of the different agen- increased awareness; cies involved in ecotourism planning d. develop innovative financial mecha- and management. nisms to ensure long term support e.g. c. Develop standards and regulations for green taxes on tourists. environmental and cultural impact assessments, monitoring and auditing Recommendations for the Private Sector of existing and proposed tourism 1. Support the collection of ecotourism user developments, fees (e.g. entrance fees to park + donations) d. Design and implement publc consulta- from tourists when these are dedicated to tion techniques and processes to maintaining and improving the quality of involve al stakeholders in making the areas visited. Also, help monitor tourism-related decisions.' government (or NGO) use of such revenues. 2. Develop pricing policies for use of 2. Develop facilities which are environmen- ecotourism sites which are fair to country taly and culturaly appropriate in scale, nationals but which charge higher fees to construction, and context. foreign visitors, reflecting the true cost of operating and maintaining such areas 3. Introduce sound environmental practices, sustainably. including waste reduction and recycling, 3. Enforce regulations for illegal trade in and the use of energy efficient practices. wildlife, historic objects and crafts; unoffi- 4. Provide tourists with complete and credible cial archeological research; and desecration information on any relevant issues, such as of sacred sites. behaviors expected of tourists, local envi- 4Decentralize,othe extent possible, respon- ronmental or health risks (e.g. malaria), and 4.~~ ~ Deetaie to' hazards or impacts associated with travel. sibility for area-specific ecotourism strate- gies and developments - subject to na- 5. Explore joint ventures and partnerships tional standards and policies. with local communities, NGOs, or other Developappropriate lframework and organizations (e.g. governments in the 5. Develop appropriate legal contextr ofdbasasonohrfiacn regulations to contract, monitor, and benefit context of debt swaps or other fdanclg from private concessions on public lands. arrangements) for ecotourism develop- 6 Create national tourism advisory boards, such as National Ecotourism Councils, which involve all stakeholders, including local government, NGOs, private sector, and indigenous groups. 38 Environment Department Papers Conclusions and Recommendations Recommendations for NGOs and Recommendations for Intemnational Academic Institutions Institutions 1. Act as the intermediaries between the 1. Integrate planning for ecotourism into private sector and local interests in programs and activities related to both ecotourism development. NGOs can be conservation and cultural patrimony. particularly effective at organizing local Make scale an explicit consideration in groups to insure that their interests are project design. both protected and represented, insuring 2. Use social assessment guidelines to the involvement of diverse stakeholders, identify stakeholders in ecotourism and in working with the private sector on activities. ways local benefits can be maximized. 3. Assess applicabilit of indigenous knowi- 2. Identify technologies and products that are g produced or used locally and which are edge and natural resource management systems and integrate this knowledge into economically and environmentally susti-ousmdvlpeta-. able in order to reduce waste and eco- X nomic leakages. These technologies and 4. Accelerate efforts to protect the world's products would be promoted along with cultural and natural heritage through or incorporated into ecotourism activities international instruments such as the whenever possible. World Heritage Convention and the 3. Identify and work with local groups to Convention on Trade of Endangered provide them with the training, technical Species (CITES). Work with countries to ' ~~~~~~achieve the p)olitical commitment necessary assistance and information necessary for fac commitiett conserton. them to participate in the benefits and employment opportunities from ecotourism. 5. Promote environmental education. In- 4. Collect information, monitor, and evaluate creased domestic pride, appreciation and ecotourism development. These are valu- concern for threatened landscapes, ecosys- tems and sp,ecies is necessary for able services which can be used to identify: ecoors to fufil its potental. Ec a) the impacts of tourism on the local toureac sould bes pority touhel enviromnent and culture; b) participation establish the link between ecotourism and in local tourism developments; c) impacts cseatin benefits. of other economic sectors on tourism; d) government and private sector commit- 6. Support the recommendations of the IMF ments to ecotourism; and e) recommenda- and World Tourism Organization that tions for improving visitor management. tourism be explicitly identified in a 5. Utilize and support research. Academic country's national accounts. Although institutions can provide a knowledge base difficult to do, such information would to better understand ecological and increase awareness of the importance of the societal health and therefore inform sector. tourists or local communities on how to sustainably manage their resources. Biodiversity Series 39 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues 40 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies Australia: Uluru, Northern Territory [Source: Uluru-Kata Tjuta Board of Management, 1991 and Altman, 19911 Belize: Country Overview Community Baboon Project [Source: Horwich et al., 19921 Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary [Source: Horwich et al. 1992, and Lindberg and Enriquez, 19941 Costa Rica: Country Overview Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve [Source: Baldares and Larman, 1990; Boo, 1990; Honey and Littlejohn, 19941 Ecuador: Galapagos [Source: Brandon and Murer, 1996] Capirona [Source: Colvin, 1994 and Silver, 1992] Indonesia: Country Overview Siberut [Source: Sproule and Suhandi, 1994 and Asian Development Bankl Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature Reserve [Source: Kinnaird and O'Brien, 19961 Nepal: Country Overview Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) [Source: Wells, 1995, 1993] Niger: Air/Tenere National Nature [Source: Elbow in Wells et al., 1992] Uganda: Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project [Multiple sources] Biodiversity Series 41 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Uluru: Northern Territory, Australia limited to those aborigines who want to be involved with tourism directly and are paid for Ayers Rock is a national monument, as well as it. The community itself is closed to tourists, one of the most visited parks in Australia. although the focus of the park is as much on Aboriginal Australians were given title to the aboriginal issues as on the natural formations. land that was Ayers Rock National Park in 1985 with the stipulation that they would lease Aborigines are employed in a range of ways, it back to the Park Service for 99 years. This from contract positions as rangers, as park gives the aboriginal population tremendous administrators and on the Board of Manage- control; if the Park Service does not maintain ment. Local people are also hired by the park for the land or resources, or undertakes activities unskilled or semi-skilled contract jobs, e.g. which the community does not perceive are in controlled burns. Some local people give tours their interest, the Government will eventually to tourists to show how resources from the area lose the park. Thus the government through are used. They are also hired in biological and the Park Service is accountable to the local ecological research projects, where scientists people. and local people collaborate on population studies and species classification. At least two The Park Service and the local community work new species have been identified through this together on multiple levels in the maintenance program. and management of the park. Aborigines are in the majority on the Board of Management, the Limited employment and control over, and highest governing authority in the park which access to, traditional lands are a major benefit. oversees park management. The Board is made The community receives an annual rental fee of up of 10 people, 6 of whom are aboriginal. The $75,000 as well as 20% of the gross park Board designs the management plan for the entrance fees [Altman, 1989]. The Park Service park (which is then ratified by the Park Service also provides funds for community services in Canberra). They are also involved in the and housing for the community. The govern- selection of other members. Another component ment benefits from the agreement in that it of joint management is that the community retains use rights to the park, keeping access selects someone to represent them who has open for all residents. The government also authority equal to that of the park superinten- makes a high level of revenue from the Park; in dent (highest position in the park). This 1990-91 there were over 250,000 visitors. The individual is paid by the park, but represents lease arrangement also shows goodwill on the local interests and is supposed to help insure part of the government in dealing with aborigi- smooth relations between the park and the nal issues. The government has shown flexibil- community. ity in adopting this approach to park manage- ment. It has received some criticism from Regulations to protect the land and assure people who resent aboriginal control, hunting community involvement are spelled out in a and residence in the park. The park makes formal written agreement. The Park Service has enough revenue to pay for other less popular allowed no tourist facilities other than an parks. The relations between park rangers and information center which is part of the park the community are good; many rangers are headquarters. They have also been willing to learning the local language. Hiring of rangers close the park to tourism while aborigine must be approved by the local community. ceremonial rituals take place. While this has Uluru is considered a prestigious and challeng- led to economic losses and resentment from ing place to work and has been a catalyst and some non-aboriginals, it has demonstrated model for joint management throughout respect for aboriginal traditions. Australia [P. Figgis, pers com]. Community involvement with tourism is Interaction between the tourism industry and largely through the park. All park planning, the community is mostly limited to local literature and displays are either created or employment in low-level jobs. Tourism has approved by the community. The actual also benefitted a small city outside of the park. contact between tourists and the community is Guard training has been undertaken to certify 42 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies guides and train them in the traditions and would maintain a skeletal forest from which culture of the Anagu. The park demonstrates howlers and other species could use the that involvement and power sharing are key regenerating cut forests, while helping land- elements that help indigenous people benefit owners reduce riverbank erosion and reduce from tourism. There have been numerous cultivation fallow time. The sanctuary now good will gestures and serious efforts at includes over a hundred landowners and eight resolving existing conflicts. The mutual villages, encompassing forty seven square respect and trust the government and aborigi- kilometers along the Belize river. The increase nes show each other is frequently cited as in the howler monkey population shows nine extremely iMportant. out of ten landowners are living up to their pledge to support the project and have adopted Belize improved farm management practices. Since inception, visits by foreign and Belizean Country Overview tourists have increased from an estimated ten to thirty visitors in 1985 to over 6,000 in 1990. Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, is the only country in Central America where Villagers first proposed the tourism base, but English is the official language. That, combined given the lack of tourist amenities and re- with its proximity to the United States and its sources, the potential of the area as a tourist spectacular reefs, has made it an increasingly destination seemed limited. In 1987, a small popular tourist destination. By 1992, nearly group of students arrived at Bermudian Land- 250,000 tourists traveled to Belize; about half of ing to study monkeys and camped on host those were from Europe or North America. families properties and were provided with Estimates are that tourism generated US$211 meals by them. This program continued for million in sales throughout Belize, or $41 three years, and encouraged the community to million in payments to households primarily as diversify. Local families rent a few rooms and wages [Lindberg and Enriquez, 1994: 26.1 overnight visitors can also camp when taking meals with local families. A few tourists use While many tourists visit Belize for resort travel, local boat and horseback guides. These services there is evidence that nature-based tourism is are arranged through sanctuary staff. increasing. During the 1980s, international visitors to Belize's coastal resorts increasingly The first Belizean manager was hired in 1987 sought out alternative activities. For example, a and an operational plan was estabhlished. An study of tourists in 1988 found that many assistant manager was hired later in the first wanted to experience the culture and wildlife of year, and together the manager and assistant Belize. They were primarily North American gave field lectures to student classes, cared for and their perceptions and expectations differed the museum (the first in Belize), performed from the more traditional resort holidays maintenance chores, handled donations and desired by the Europeans interviewed museum sales, and hired and paid part-time [Allender, J., 1993]. workers and guides. Guided tours began in 1988, and with this sanctuary staff saw the The Community Baboon Sanctuary, Belize need to regulate visitor activities, as tour leaders often took their groups through the forest trails The Community Baboon Sanctuary (CBS) is on their own initiative. Subsequently, visitors located in a rural community 33 miles north- were asked to pay a $2.50 per person entrance west of Belize City. It was established in 1985 to fee and be accompanied by sanctuary staff. protect the black howler monkey,Alouatta pigra, Additional donations are also accepted. which was threatened due to forest habitat loss resulting from slash and burn agriculture. The In order to have a centralized location to project started with an expatriate and twelve welcome visitors, a sanctuary museum which landowners who concentrated on the subsis- houses the main headquarters was con- tence needs and agricultural practices of structed. This helped to formalize and consoli- farmers and small ranchers. Local landowners date the managers role, office and administra- were asked to follow a land-use plan which tive duties. The museum has become a tourist Biodiversity Series 43 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues attraction in its own right and ethnic con- sanctuary is managed by the Belize Audubon sciousness has increased since the opening of Society (BAS), who have rapidly developed the museum and development of the sanctu- sanctuary infrastructure to support the reserve. ary. Infrastructure includes simple accommodation for 10 people (overnight visitors pay a minimal The project has had some problems. Since the fee, with differential rates), latrines, and a manager arranged for all economic operations, potable water system. As of January 1994, BAS this eventually led to some claims of unfairness, did not have permission to charge entrance fees and jealousies developed. In response, the BAS to the sanctuary. Since the sanctuary cannot created a managerial committee comprised of charge gate or user fees, revenue generation is landowners from each village to oversee on-site limited to charges for bunk rentals, camping operations and implement the sanctuary's main accommodation, and on site donations. Be- goals of conservation, research, and tourism. tween April 1991 and April 1993 Cockscomb Maintaining a steady rate of tourism has been received BZ$33,651 in revenue from bunk fees, difficult, however, and there has been strong on-site donations, postcards books, and $US variation in the level of economic benefits 8,562 in government and international donor received by the different villages in the area. support. There is now a plan to spread tourism to all the communities in the sanctuary. More effort was Tourist visits to the site have increased from just invested in publicizing the area than in provid- 25 in 1985 to over 2,000 in 1990. Tourism at ing infrastructure for visitor overnight accom- Cockscomb has caused some trail erosion, but modation. An $11,000 grant from the Inter- management activities have prevented signifi- American Foundation has been used for low- cant ecological damage from tourism. Cock- interest revolving loans to villagers to add bed scomb currently receives an average of 261 and breakfast facilities to their homes. How- foreign visitors per month, and BAS has ever, the community based nature of the project requested permission to charge entrance fees at is threatened because foreign interests have Cockscomb of BZ$10 for foreigners and BZ$2.50 attempted to capitalize on the area's success by for Belizeans, although Belizean children and planning to build hotels in the area. school groups would be allowed in for free. Lindberg's (1994) survey revealed that 77% of There were approximately 3,000 visitors in 1990 visitors were willing to pay BZ$3.00 or more as who spent an estimated $21,605 in the village. an entrance fee which would cover all Of this, 43.2 on meals; 20.2 on accommodations; ecotourism-related expenditure and some 12.3 on souvenirs; 9.8% on guiding; 8.7% was traditional expenditures, fifty-eight percent spent on transportation; and 5.7 on personal/ were willing to pay BZ$5.00 or more. other. Most of the money goes to between six and ten of the families in the village, but most of Mayan residents practicing slash and burn the money probably stays in the community agriculture were relocated prior to the designa- through local purchases and hiring local labor. tion of Cockscomb as a sanctuary. The evicted Coordination in the area has been made easier residents were settled at Maya Center, a loca- by the fact that lands were all privately owned. tion 6 kilometers away from their original There was no national government involvement village and 11.3 kilometers outside the sanctu- and government authorities became interested ary. Initial resentment at resettlement began to in the project only after the CBS was publicized improve in 1987, after a local teacher was hired and tourism began to increase. as sanctuary director, and the local population gradually began to see potential economic Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, benefits of ecotourism. Residents of Maya Belize Center have increasingly realized economic benefits through employment as local cooks The Cockscomb forest reserve was established and guides. The community also benefits in 1984 to protect resident jaguars (Panthera through sale of food, handicrafts, and other onca) and their prey. Subsequently, the reserve products at the village store. Given the small was converted into a wildlife sanctuary, and size of the Maya Center village, the benefits of by 1990 covered a total of 41,553 hectares. The tourism are perceived as significant, and there 44 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies is also some recognition of Cockscomb's receiving benefits from tourism, the increase in productive, aesthetic, and educational benefits. support appears to be due to the increase in The average of BZ$2,336 which the families cash benefits from tourism with little change in receive compares favorably with the BZ$3,124 appreciation for traditional conservation average per capita GDP in Belize - especially as benefits (ie. wildlife protection, water supply). this is a rural area and therefore below average However, it is interesting to note that in commu- income-generating opportunities exist. Al- nities not receiving tourism benefits, support though residents at Maya Center depend has also increased and is based on traditional primarily on agriculture for employment, benefits. This is likely due to environmental tourism provides direct economic benefit to 67% education efforts. of community households. Costa Rica Local women recognized the demand for tourist souvenirs. Initially, they sold handicrafts at the Country Overview entry gate, but the park director and local council came up with a plan to establish a Tourism has become Costa Rica's second small building as a craft and souvenir center in greatest source of foreign income. In 1991, 1988. The BAS organized several workshops to tourism generated $336 million; by 1993 it had teach the local women business skills. Rev- climbed to $506 million [Burnie, D. 1994:251. enues have since increased significantly over By 1994, tourism has become the country's time with profits soaring 87% in just one year, most important foreign exchange earner [Boza, and in three and a half years, the women 1993: 244]. Between 1991 and 1994, tourism earned $28,000. Fifteen to 16 women partici- revenue grew at an annual rate of 25%, despite pate in the co-op and 10% of the revenue the fact that the number of visitors increased at generated is earmarked to finance a new craft a rate of only 14.5%. The population of Costa center building. As most of the materials they Rica is about 3 million; nearly half a million use in their craft-making are collected locally, tourists visited in 1991. Over three-quarters of most revenue is profit. Profits from the craft all tourists to Costa Rica visit at least one park center contribute significantly to household during their stay. Tourism development has incomes in the village, this was especially benefitted all sectors of the economy. Much of marked in 1993 when low citrus prices reduced the growth in tourism has been in small alternative money-earning opportunities for enterprises: 85% of the hotels have less than 50 many local people. rooms and 75% of the country's tourism enterprises are small to medium size. More- Two larger towns, Dangriga and Placencia over, at least 75% of all licensed tour agencies benefit from Cockscomb tourism because they are owned by nationals and long-term foreign are the closest sites with hotels, airstrips, and residents [Boez and Rovinshi, 1992]. other tourism infrastructure. Interviews of tourists indicated that 39% said they had come The boom in tourism has been attributed to to the region specifically to visit Cockscomb Costa Rica's international reputation for (MTE, 1993). These towns are also jumping off nature-oriented tourism. Thirty-five of the points for the off-shore cays, thus, only a few leading travel writers in the U.S. named Costa jobs in the tourism sectors of these communities Rica as the number one ecotourism destination may be dependent on the sanctuary. There is in the world. local enthusiasm for expanding tourism-related activities as a result of the success of the craft Costa Rica has also received a tremendous center, and there are ongoing efforts to expand amount of international support for the innova- the handicrafts program by marketing crafts tions which have taken place in the conserva- outside the craft shop in other areas of the tion arena. It is one of the primary training country. areas for tropical biologists; The Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS) represents a consor- Lindberg and Enriquez's (1994) survey indi- tium of over 40 U.S. and Costa Rican universi- cates that support for the sanctuary has in- ties that brings over 30,000 person-days per creased since its establishment. In communities year of visiting researchers and students. Biodiversity Series 45 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Kev Issues Costa Rica was one of the pioneers of debt-for- numerous private nature reserves, with both nature swaps and it has developed an innova- positive and negative consequences for the tive and decentralized system of protected area parks themselves. management. It is the home of INBio, the National Biological Institute, which is attempt- Monteverde ing to catalogue and discover the chemical properties of all life forms in the country. Yet Monteverde is a rural community in northern despite its international reputation for conser- Costa Rica that is home of the most famous vation, and the obvious link between the high private reserve in the country. Drawn to Costa revenues from ecotourism and the large Rica because it had just abolished its army, amount of land (about 24%) that is protected in Quakers settled there, bought 1,400 hectares, conservation areas, ecotourism revenues are divided it into parcels, set aside some land for not yet generating sufficient benefits to watershed protection, and converted much of provide significant financing for parks or to the forest into pasture for dairy cows. Eventu- widely change destructive activities in buffer ally they began a small cheese business, which areas surrounding parks. was tremendously successful and led to increased growth. The reasons for this are numerous. One prob- lem is that entry fees to parks have been so low Biologists began to visit the region to study that they contribute almost nothing to park some of its unique wildlife. The most famous maintenance and protection. For example, of resident of Monteverde was the golden toad, a the total $12 million National Parks budget for small, shiny, golden frog [Bufo periglenes] 1992. only $2.8 is provided by the Costa Rican found nowhere else in the world, which Government, and only 0.5% of this comes from disappeared in the late 1980s. In 1973, private entrance fees to the parks. To remedy this, Costa donations were used to set up the private Rica established a two-tiered pricing scheme Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, now and dramatically raised the entry fee of $1.50 operated by the Tropical Science Center in San for foreigners to $15.00 in September 1994. The Jose. The Reserve straddles the continental high levels of visitation to selected parks, divide in the Tilaran mountains and includes coupled with the visitation to parks nation- seasonal rainfall on its Pacific size and a wet wide, had completely strained the capacity of Atlantic side. The reserve spans six life zones, the park service. In response, the GOCR had and the quetzal, bell-bird, and umbrella birds cut park protection and services, and had are some of the more unique inhabitants. threatened to close some parks, despite the Jaguars, ocelots, macaws, agoutis, and kinka- fourfold increase in visitation between 1992 jous roam among immense oak trees. In all, and 1994. Restrictions on visitation to the most the area has about 600 tree species, 300 orchids visited parks was instituted since they were and 200 ferns, 100 mammals, and more than exceeding their carrying capacity [Ecotourism 2,000 flowering plants and over 500 different Society Newsletter, 1994]. For example, types of butterflies. tourism to Manuel Antonio Park has been restricted to 800 visitors at any given time. The 10,500 hectare reserve is one of the most popular destinations in Costa Rica for A change in policy allows regional conserva- ecotourists because of its cloud forest reserve. tion areas to retain 75 percent of the earnings The number of tourists increased from about from park entrance fees to fund park and 300 in 1973 to nearly 13,000 in 1987, and by regional activities [see Church and Brandon, 1994, Monteverde was drawing 15,000 tourists 1995; and Umafia and Brandon, 19921. There per year. Tourism earnings are now the are also localized examples of places where second largest source of income for local local people have changed their practices. residents after dairy production. The increase Similarly, the type of tourism and the impor- in tourism has increased pressure on the area, tance of the parks were an issue during the especially new tourist developments such as elections in 1994. The lack of infrastructure at restaurants and hotels. The area is threatened many of the parks has spawned the creation of by subsistence agriculture, logging, and land speculation. 46 Envirorunent Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies Monteverde, as a private reserve, was able to from the tourist industry, in part by attracting charge gate fees which until recently were tropical conservation students. Organizations higher than at the national parks. In 1994, the wield a substantial amount of control over gate fee was approximately $US8.00, while tour tourism, although their views aren't always group operators paid $US10.00 for each visitor. representative of the entire community. There is a multi-tiered user fee structure, with discounts for students, nationals, and free Many community residents are employed by the entrance for those under fifteen. Four-hour tourist industry, through art cooperatives, nature walks cost $US24 and some proceeds go hotels, restaurants and as guides. Indirect to an environmental education fund. Entrance employment includes work at the cheese fees are reported to have covered reserve factory, and agriculture for local restaurants maintenance costs for the last few years. In and hotels, and a variety of local ventures, 1987, 68% of total reserve expenses on such as a butterfly farm, bed and breakfast. ecotourism were for personnel, 13% for There is no mechanism for revenue sharing. maintenance, 15% for services, and 4% for tax Independent local entrepreneurs have set up and other purposes. Visitor donations have the services for tourists. While a great deal of helped to maintain the reserve and buy new local employment results from tourism, much land [Church et al., 1994e). of it is seasonal. Furthermore, there have been cycles of "boom and bust". Revenue through The ecological impacts of tourism at an enhanced tax base has allowed for commu- Monteverde include the creation of new trails nity projects, and support for community inside the reserve, for tourists and for research. projects has also come from international There is serious erosion on the former, with NGOs. nearby tree root trampling during rainy season. Locals have reported that animal habits have The area has received little direct govemment changed due to human activity in the reserve, support, apart from general services (schools, with some creatures visible near trails only after health, etc.) and the infrastructure (roads and the end of the tourist high season. To minimize communications) necessary to support tourism. these types of problems, entrance is now limited There have been no governmental restrictions to one hundred visitors at a time. However, on tourism development in the region. As tourism has been concentrated in some sec- tourism has become more profitable, there has tions to reduce impacts on the rest of the been an increase in the number of people from reserve. A recent and potentially serious outside the community and country who are problem is that the community is now reported buying land and building facilities for tourists, to be experiencing water shortages, given the often larger and more extravagant hotels. increased demands on a limited water supply. Regulation is generally limited to the local organizations in the community which are There are a range of groups that work together trying to better manage and control tourism and coordinate the community's response to development. Their efforts have generally tourism. The Monteverde Conservation been slow and have met with resistance from League is most concerned with the conserva- large hotel owners. tion of the area and has purchased large amounts of lands for protection. They also This case demonstrates that the creation of a have been involved in helping surrounding private reserve can be an important force in communities develop sustainable management generating tourism, especially when coupled plans for tourism. Finally, the Monteverde with other attractions (e.g. dairy and cheese- Conservation League has purchased land to making). It also points to the difference expand the reserve and triple its size. between local control over an area (the re- serve), and a lack of control over private A woman's handicraft cooperative has ben- initiatives outside of the area. It highlights the efited significantly by the tourism to the area. different visions that can emerge about what The Monteverde Institute is training people to constitutes appropriate tourism to the commu- set up family hotels and restaurants to benefit nity. With its good business base and high Biodiversity Series 47 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues levels of natuTe tourism, this area offers a on the environment and local population. The special potential to show that the regional park was zoned to allow for different levels of conservation area system, which attempts to use, including an intensive use zone where up integrate generation of economic benefits (e.g. to 90 passengers could disembark from one ecotourism) with protected areas, can be of large tourboat and an extensive use zone, benefit to local residents and be of value to which catered to the six small boats which conservation. carried under 12 tourists each [Kenchington, 19891. Ecuador The number of visitors to the islands has tripled The Galapagos during the last 10 years; the international visitors increased by 91 %, and the nationals by The Galapagos Islands, one of the key sites 245%! Historically, the tourism demand has which sparked Charles Darwin's thinking on surpassed every recommended visitor number The Origin of Species, has become one of the limit set by the Management Plan for the most famous nature-based tourism destina- islands. In 1971, on the basis of the current tions worldwide. Today, visitors come to see vessel capacity, a limit of 12,000 visitors per the unique Galapagos tortoises, land and year was established. By 1978, this figure was marine iguanas, lava lizards, flightless cormo- exceeded. In 1987, the limit was readjusted to rants, penguins, albatrosses, Galapagos finches 30,000 but the number recorded that year was and other native species. The high percentage 32,500 [Kenchington 1989]. In 1993, more than of endemic species make the Galapagos a 46,000 tourists visited the islands [Carrasco, unique environment important to preserve and 1994]. worthy of study. Yet the geological history, low rainfall, and high endemism make the With this explosion of tourism came an un- archipelago a fragile environment. planned expansion of infrastructure and people. In 1980, the Baltra airport was up- The islands were characterized by low levels of graded and in 1987, an airport in San Cristobal settlement until the 1950's. Recent immigra- was inaugurated. A third airport will be tion in the 1980s and 1990's has been generated opened soon on Isabela Island. The San by the expectation of jobs generated by the Cristobal airport also allowed more nationals to booming nature-based tourism industry visit the islands, outnumbering the interna- [Carrasco, 1994]. In 1959, Ecuador declared tional tourists for the first time. This increase in 97% of the 8,000 km2 archipelago a national nationals was also possible due to the introduc- park (all land except the inhabited areas). In tion of land-based tourism, which is cheaper. 1986, the Galapagos Marine Reserve was established, which added 70,000 square The Park has undertaken zoning to regulate kilometers of coastal and marine protected visitation and to effectively manage park area around the Park. The first organized resources. Guide services have been required operations started in 1969 when Metropolitan for all visiting groups since 1971. Boat itinerar- Touring, the largest tour operator in Ecuador, ies became required of all boats operating on began chartering a military flight to transport the islands in 1993 to stop overcrowding. The tourists to the islands. In 1971 the GNP Galapagos National Park counts on the guides formalized the conservation rules for the park to voluntarily report any problems to the Park. and required that all visiting groups had a While the management plan recommends naturalist guide trained by the CDRS. The seven patrol boats to monitor activities, whole emphasis of tourism however, was to insufficient funds have been allocated for the keep people off the islands as much as pos- maintenance and fuel costs of the Park fleet. In sible. Tour boats were supposed to provide all reality, patrolling is almost non-existent and of the basics needed by tourists, such as interrupted during various economic crises. lodging, food, restroom facilities, etc. The idea For example, no patrolling was done during was that keeping tourists on the boats rather 1982-1988. than the island would minimize their impact 48 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies The large increase in the visitation of park sites The development of tourism on the Galapagos has led to a variety of environmental impacts. Islands has diverged from the original concept Erosion has taken place along sensitive trails, of water-based tourism infrastructures (boats mostly sand trails. Plants and animals have serving as hotel and restaurants) which would been disturbed when guides allow their passen- minimize the impact of tourists on the islands gers to encircle animals or go off the trail to take and their populations, and one airport that pictures. As a result of such visitation, the would channel all visitors and facilitate visitor quality of the tourism experience has declined management. Visitor control by park managers as well and many tourists have lost the feeling is almost non-existent, leading to the over- of remoteness. crowding problems which are more closely associated with mass tourism than nature As one of the most unique nature-based tourism. Outside of the Park, there has been an tourism destinations in the world, there is no incredible population explosion on the three difficulty in luring people to the Galapagos. percent of the Galapagos that is not part of the One paper notes that if annual increases in Park. Migrants have come from the mainland, rates of tourism continue, the Galapagos can lured by employment opportunities in tourism expect 82,000 visitors by 1997 [Carrasco et al, and improved access to the Galapagos. The 1994]. The entrance fee to the Galapagos is a population has increased from a few hundred two- tiered system. In 1992, the entrance fee for in the 1940s to 6,000 in the early 1980s Ecuadorians was 12,000 sucres (about 10 [Kenchington, 19891 to 9,000 in the early 1990s dollars) and the fee for foreigners was US [Cepeda et al., 1991] and about 12,000 in 1994 $80.00. Until recently, the money collected [Carrasco, 19941. Forty percent of the employed from tourism to the national parks, including population were directly employed in tourism- Galapagos, was deposited in the Central Bank related activities in hotels, as tourists guides, in of Ecuador. From 1988 onward, "approxi- restaurants, or other activities [Carrasco, 1994]. mately 20% of the fees collected from visitors and for tourist patents came back to the Park Recent tensions in the Galapagos over lobster Service for Galapagos" [MacFarland, 1991]". fishing, sea cucumber harvesting and shark The Galapagos National Park budget has gone fishing have led to substantial conflict. Park from four million sucres in 1980 to 190 million personnel have been taken as hostages, dogs (approximately US $190,000) in 1991. At the have been set loose on some islands, tortoises same time, the budget in 1991 was insufficient have been killed, and fires have been started. for adequate patrolling and equipment mainte- Despite the fact that tourism provides a sub- nance, reducing the Park's capacity to control stantial source of revenue, the Government has visitors and problems generated directly from shown minimal political will to limit develop- tourism. In 1993, $2,600,000 dollars were ment and growth on the Galapagos or to halt collected from entrance fees ICarrasco, 19941. illegal harvesting of marine resources. There is also little evidence that the recent immigrants to In a 12 month period between 1990-91 alone, the Galapagos, despite the high rates of employ- tourists spent approximately US$32.6 million ment in tourism-based sectors, have any interest on air travel between mainland Ecuador and in the long-term survival of the park or its the Galapagos, park entrance fees, tours on wildlife resources. Unfortunately, the vessels, and hotel accommodations. These Galapagos, oft cited as the best example of tourists also spent an estimated $27.5 million revenue from ecotourism, is instead a clear on mainland Ecuador that they would not example of political inaction and regional have spent had they not visited the Galapagos. land/water use conflicts. There are growing indications - such as the 1992 decision to allow large, 800 passenger, Capirona transoceanic cruise ships to visit the Galapagos only if they do so in conjunction with a visit to Capirona is an indigenous Quichua community a mainland port - that the islands are being with about 24 families that has developed its used as a central attraction from which to own small scale tourism industry based on the launch a nationwide initiative to promote community's needs. The community is an nature-based tourism fEpler, B., 1993]. hours drive from the town of Tena in Eastern Biodiversity Series 49 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Ecuador. Many of the town's residents had The community controls all phases of tourism. experience as guides and cooks working in a They conceived of and created the industry nearby town that catered to ecotourists visiting themselves and the community makes all Ecuador's rain forests. In 1989, they decided to decisions about how tourism is organized and create a small tourist industry using their own managed. There is no government support, resources. involvement or regulation of any part of the project. The entire "industry" is community The community felt that tourism could be a owned and operated. The jobs created by the viable economic and culturally sensitive project, such as the guides, cooks, etc. are alternative - if they controlled and managed the supplementary income that people are not project themselves. They decided that for dependent upon. Benefits go to workers as pay tourism to work, the entire community would and revenue from accommodations goes to the have to benefit. They built a palm thatched entire community which decides upon the use guest house along a scenic river near the village of profits for community projects. center where tourists can stay for two to six days. Capirona offers an example of how a commu- nity with little capital can get involved in Locals are employed as guides showing tourists ecotourism by themselves with minimal impact the native uses of forest plants and animals, and total control over resources. Tourism was about the reality and challenges of their daily set up by the community to diversify the local life. Visitors sometimes join in communal work economic base and minimize economic risk. parties. Through a program of cultural ex- The community feels that if they are unhappy change, the people of Capirona share their with tourism, they can return to agriculture. If traditions and also learn about the experiences they are happy with the benefits, then they can and life of their visitors. Capirona has pur- continue or expand it. posely focused their efforts on small-scale tourism that complements their daily activities. The number of visitors grew from fewer than 12 people a year in 1989 to 300 by 1994. Local Most of the community hunt and fish and raise people also feel that they have truly bettered their own food in garden clearings where they their own situation through their own initia- grow some cash crops. Tourism provides tive, which is a source of pride, as well as an additional income for those working as guides important factor in protecting their own and cooks, and provides revenues for the culture. The Capirona case shows the impor- community (school projects and health care tance of indigenous organizations which can delivery). Marketing is through word of mouth provide logistical support training, and and guests are often scheduled through the technical assistance. Finally, it is a good offices of regional and national Indian organi- example of the demonstration effect, where zations and a few travel agents based in Quito. people in one community decide to copy the Such organizations have been vital to the practices they view in another. Clearly, a development of the project. For example, the regional system of tourism, coordinated Federation of Indian Organizations of the through a regional Indian organizations, Napo (FOIN), the Regional Indian Federation, would be more profitable and marketable than helped train community members to take care isolated tourism in one community. of visitors, and manage and administer a small business. Through FOIN, an Indian botanist Indonesia assisted the Capirona residents to mark out trails and label trees with scientific, Spanish Country Overview and Indian names. Residents of Capirona are now assisting surrounding Indian communi- Indonesia ranks second to Brazil among the ties to start similar projects and coordinate world's megadiversity countries. Despite this, planning with them to distribute guests in a great deal of tourism to Indonesia is for local different areas. cultures and sun and beaches. In order to 50 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies diversify the tourism base from its present Surveys of tourists to Siberut indicated that: focus on "sun and sea" and cultural tourism, the government is currently promoting nature- * over 90% of the visitors to Siberut are based and ecotourism. One aspect of this under age 34; policy is to direct tourism away from Bali to * 95% are interested in learning more about other parts of the archipelago. It appears that the wildlife; these policies are starting to take hold. For * 95% would like to have a guide; example, visitation to Komodo National Park, * over half knew about the existence of the the home of the Komodo dragon, increased Park; from 3,400 visitors from 1978-1988, to more * tourists spend an average of $16.37 per than that amount in just one vear: 4,900 in 1989. In the first six months of 1990, visitation day, and stay one week. reached 9,100 people [Campbell, D., 19941. The majority of visitors to Siberut (85%) are taken there by Sumatran-based tour companies. Siberut, Indonesia Leakages are high; 84% of the gross from tour The island of Siberut, off the western coast of costs leaves the island. Tourism to Siberut has Sumatra, is the largest in the chain of Mentawai been estimated to increase at five percent per Islands. It offers an example of the desire to year. Ecotourism to the park has been proposed use ecotourism benefits as a way of compen- as a way to generate revenue for the park and sating local people for restrictions on use of provide local people with income that will protected areas. It is also an example of the offset any economic losses they incur from the Indonesian government's effort to encourage establishment of the park. There is a sense at alternative forms of tourism development. the same time that it is unfair that the people who must put up with tourists retain only 9% of What is now Taitai Batti National Park on tourist expenditures. Siberut first was established in 1980 as a wildlife reserve. Because the island has been There are three proposals currently pending to separated from Sumatra for half a million years, generate benefits from tourists. The first is to there is a high degree of endemism: over 60 collect gate fees to Taitai Batti park and use percent of the wildlife and 15% of plants are those to promote local welfare. The second is to endemic. The creation of the Taitai Batti organize a local guide service. This would National Park, with a protected area of 146,000 provide direct employment for residents, ha., means that some activities currently enhance the cultural experience for visitors and practiced by local people will be illegal. There- increase their potential to learn about the fore, studies have been undertaken to determine island's flora and fauna. The final proposal is if ecotourism could provide people with some to directly charge the tourists a fee upon compensation for the economic losses they will arrival in Siberut. While the money would not incur from reduced use of the park area and be directly generated because of the park, it provide financing for the park. could be used to support sustainable liveli- hood activities. Tourists to Siberut were Current tourism to Siberut is cultural - not interviewed and said that they would be due to the biological diversity. Virtually all of willing to pay a small amount of money if they the 2200 tourists who visited the island in 1994 could be certain that the money would benefit were drawn by guidebooks or tours which talk the community and was controlled by the about the unique Mentawian culture. Native community. Willingness to pay surveys set the Mentawians have a high reliance on the plants amount at $8.67 per person. Funds from this and animals found on Siberut. The population could be used to support activities linking of Siberut is about 24,000 people, largely conservation and development. Neither of located on the island's coastal fringe where these activities are yet underway, but this is an they were reluctantly resettled. interesting example of using cultural tourism to support local community development linked to biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity Series 51 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Tangkoko DuaSaudara Nature Reserve which is returned to the North Sulawesi Government. This funding is inadequate to Kinnaird and O'Brien (1996) have provided control illegal hunting, which has reduced the one of the best studies on the impacts of macaque population in the reserve by 75% in ecotourism to a protected area, by analyzing the past 15 years. Even though guards benefit the ecotourism industry, the impacts of from the extra money they receive from ecotourism on wildlife, and the distribution of ecotourists for providing guide services, this ecotourism expenditures to Tangkoko has not been a sufficient incentive to control DuaSaudara Nature Reserve (TDNR), a 8800 hunting; indeed, time spent on guiding visitors ha. lowland rain forest located in North is time away from protection duties. Sulawesi. The reserve has both high levels of biodiversity and endemism, and is noteworthy There has been no development of manage- for its highly visible primate and birds. The ment plans to control, manage, or receive reserve meets several of the criteria for suc- benefits from tourism. Kinnaird and O'Brien cessful ecotourism; in particular, it is close to (1996) conclude that "although tourism is the provincial capital and has easy wildlife expanding rapidly, local benefits are not fully viewing. realized, the reserve does not genrate enough money to implement management, and Indonesian federal law prohibits tourism to primate behavior is being affected." nature reserves. In practice, tourism to TDNIR has been promoted by the provincial govern- Nepal ment, Foreign tourism to the reserve increased from 50 people per year in the late 1970s, to 634 in 1990, to 1515 in 1993. Domestic visita- Country Overview tion is approximately 300 visitors per year. Nepals tourism industry is the country's VSisitors reported high levels of satisfaction second largest foreign-exchange earner, bring- with wildlife viewing; however they expressed ing in over $100 million in 1990 [Sherpa, M.N. dissatisfaction with the reserve management, 1993]. Now, even more effort is being made to citing uncontrolled hunting, forest fires, litter, promote the country as a back-to-nature family and lack of tourism management as problems. experience. There are over 100 agencies offering Visitors also would have appreciated greater a variety of packages. Adventure tourism could information and better guide training. also help open up the rugged remoteness of western Nepal, which at present is practically Lack of organization of tourism has led to cut off from the rest of the country because of a negative impacts on wildlife. Macaque lack of roads and communication facilities populations have been negatively affected by [Suraiya, Jug, 1990]. Approximately 20% of tourism and have reduced the time spent visitors to Nepal visited protected areas, feeding and foraging. It appears that tarsiers resulting in over 100,000 visits to parks, or are also adversely affected through reduced estimated expenditures equivalent to $8.9 opportunities for early evening foraging. million dollars [Wells, M., 1992:3]. The majority of revenue stays in the provincial Despite the fact that adventure and nature- capital. Three lodges concentrated in one based tourism are one of the major compo- village, all owned by reserve guards, provide nents of tourism to Nepal, until recently, none the only real benefit to any of the many of the revenue from user fees was returned to villages which surround the reserve. Reserve the Department of National Parks and Wildlife guards act as guides - local villagers also act Conservation (DNPWC). The Department, as guides if there are no guards available. with few operating funds, also had little Some villagers receive income by renting boats effective management capacity, limited policy to visitors. Therefore, the only local people instructions, and lacked coordination with receiving any regular benefits are reserve other agencies and local communities. How- guards. The reserve retains virtually none of ever, the Army received over 70% of the park the profits from tourism; 2% of the total trip budget for park protection. cost is collected by the reserve administration, 52 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies Even though the carrying capacity of many of Permissible land uses and the degree of Nepal's parks has been exceeded, the DNPWC protection were established through a zoning cannot legally regulate the numbers of tourists system. Nepali staff, including many local entering parks. Permits for trekking within staff were recruited and a headquarters was protected areas are issued by the Department established in the intensive use zone. Commu- of Immigration. Except for the Annapurna nity development, forest management, conser- Conservation Area, there is no authority for vation education, and research and training any of the tourism or park agencies to work activities were started. High priority was with local communities. Overall, there has given to reducing the environmental impact of been little realization that any national strategy trekkers and increasing the local economic is needed which balances nature-oriented benefits from tourism. ACAP has provided tourism, foreign exchange earnings, and park expertise, but not financing, for lodgeowners protection [Wells, 1992:17-181. However, a to install 'back boilers', which heat recycled 1993 legislative change known as the Buffer water during cooking to further conserve Zone Management Act, allows the distribution energy, and solar panels. Lodgeowners have of from 30 to 50 percent of park and protected also contributed to the cost of trail upgrading area revenues to surrounding communities and maintenance. A hotel management [Sowers et. al., 1994a]. committee has set prices and basic standards for hotels, which assures the tourist of certain Annapurna Conservation Area Project standards in all lodges in the region. They also (ACAP) offer training for lodgeowners in a range of topics, such as finance and cooking for tourists. The 7,683 km2 Annapurna Conservation Area is one of the most geographically and cultur- The project has made significant progress in ally diverse conservation areas in the world. motivating a skeptical local population to About 118,000 people, mostly poor rural participate in natural resource management farmers, live in the region. Over 45,000 foreign decision-making, although local institutions are trekkers visit each year, which has led to the not expected to assume major responsibility for development of hundreds of lodges and tea several years. The kerosene regulation has shops along the trails. While tourism has substantially reduced deforestation rates and become important to the local economy, it has training programs have reduced the adverse also led to serious environmental problems. impacts of tourism and improved the liveli- Forests have been cleared to provide fuel for hoods of lodgeowners. ACAP has also set up cooking and heat for visitors. Expanding an artisans cooperative. However the signifi- agriculture, water pollution, poor sanitation cant local economic benefits from tourism have and litter on trekking routes have all acceler- not been distributed widely, either among or ated, compounded by a rapid growth in the within villages. In the villages on the major resident population. trekking routes, about 100-150 families owning tea shops or lodges have experienced signifi- Improving tourist development while safe- cant increases in income during the last decade. guarding the environment was the focus of a Economic impacts do not appear to spread far royal directive in 1985. Lobbying from The beyond these families into the local economy. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation The value of the economic benefits being (KMTNC), a Nepali NGO, resulted in new accumulated by lodgeowners has not been legislation creating the Annapurna Conserva- estimated but is clearly considerable by local tion Area in 1986 (gazetted in 1992), a multiple standards, and has dramatically increased the use area allowing hunting, collection of forest average per capita income. The use to which products, use of visitor fees for local develop- this surplus is being put has not been moni- ment and the delegation of management tored. Some lodge owners have bought land in authority to the village level. The Annapurna the nearest town, Pokhara, while others send Conservation Area Protect (ACAP) was their children to be educated at better schools initiated to help the inhabitants maintain in larger towns. control over their environment. Biodiversity Series 53 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues Some employment has been generated on It demonstrates that where large-scale tourism community development projects (ACAPs is practiced, user fees can be an important philosophy is that outsiders are only hired if source of revenue for community projects. skills aren't locally available). Employment outside of lodges or tea shops appears to be Axr/renere National Nature Reserve, very limited and, with the notable exception of Niger some seasonal vegetables, the majority of supplies are purchased from Pokhara, many [The events described in this case are no longer originating from outside Nepal. Employment accurate, the area has been plagued by civil unrest for porters has increased, since all goods must and general banditry. Tourism is no longer viable be back-packed. However, there appears to be in the area due to the lack of security and many of very httfle 'trickle down' economic growth the conservation and development activities taking place locally, described herein have slowed or stopped. A decision was made to include this case because it provides a An entry fee toete Anpm Conservain forcefl example of how any ecotouCism initiative is Area has been collected from tourists since hihl sujc oetraatr. Tors is2 1989. The price of the entry fee, as well as its expected toq esteali its. asa mj value, has fluctuated with exchange rates; from expected to quwheny establish etself as a major the equivalent of about $US 8 in 1989, it dropped to $US4 in 1984 and was increased to Niger is among the hottest and driest countries US$13 in 1996, with government approval. in the world. As little as 12 percent of the land Revenues in 1994 were equivalent to an annual mass of Niger, almost all of it located in the rate of 4 million NR ($US 160,000); this is equal extreme south of the country, is even matgin- to half the revenues from all of the trekking ally suitable for crop production. The southern permits issued in Nepal or over 40% of the regions contain the bulk of the country's revenues from all of the national parks put regionsion bulkpofate country's togeter [ells 199]. Th revnuescollctedpopulation of approximately seven millon, together [Wells, 19931. The revenues collected while the majority of Niger's 1,267,000 square pass directly to ACAP. External funds for the kilometers are either unpopulated or extremely project have been less than $500,000 for the sparsely populated. Temperatures in this first four years. desert half of the country range from 0 to 50 The community benefits from increased control degrees Centigrade. over tourism and revenue generation for The Air Mountains of Northern Niger cover an community development projects such as area of 65,000 square kilometers. This moun- bridge and trail repair, agricultural extension, tain range begins just north of Agadez - a city and women's programs. Community health marking the southem border of the Sahara and sanitation benefits include health clinics, Desert- and continues for over 400 kilometers mobile vaccinations and health education, further north. Carved out of these two regions latrines and rubbish pit construction, and is the A. r/Tenere National Nature Reserve. improved water supply. Area committees The desert environment predominant in the monitor and help manage environmental northern half of Niger is incapable of support- resources and environmental education and ing more than the sparsest of populations, tourism education programs are included in the whether plant, animal or human. Animal schools and elsewhere. The role of the tourism populations are uniquely well adapted to Ife industry is fairly diffuse and difficult to ascer- in the desert; notable among these animal tain because it is run on a regional level by populations are the addax, dama and dorcas ACAP. There is little involvement with the gazeles, Barbary sheep and ostrich. These Nepal tourist industry, except through regula- animals, in common with al desert lfe forms, tions such as designated camp sites, and the are dependent on the short but dramatic rainy minimal impact code. season that replenishes the vegetation growing in strips defined by the stream beds or valleys ACAP demonstrates that NGO-government that aryr xetdrngbiffahfod partnerships can be used to effectively manage o rring ervent rin. Though raead culturally and environmentally sensitive areas. 54 Environment Department Papers Annex: Selected Ecotourism Case Studies erratic, such rains maintain a sub-surface water presents an inconvenience to anyone, with the table that supports animal and vegetable life possible exception of tourists and some and, remarkably, allows for year-round poachers. irrigated gardening at the only two permanent human settlements within the reserve. The decree creating the Air/Tenere National Nature Reserve was designed to promote the The Air/Tenere has suffered from recurring continued and rational use of natural resources drought since the late 1960's. There have been by indigenous populations. Resident popula- three threats to wildlife in recent years: 1) tions are expressly assured the right to contin- natural habitat destruction from drought ued residence, as well as the right to move compounded by human activities such as freely throughout the reserve area. Customary livestock grazing; 2) soldiers engaged in resource use rights are also assured, in particu- military exercises in northern Niger venture lar: 1) the gathering of deadwood; 2) the into the Air to shoot game for sport or for harvesting of fruits and saps; 3) the use of meat; 3) European and North American forage resources; and 4) the use of plants for tourists who tour the desert in all-terrain food or medicine. vehicles. The tourists are unaware of desert animal physiology and chase animals to the The primary prohibitions to be enforced within point of collapse and death. the partial game reserve are: 1) hunting or the bearing of firearms within the reserve; 2) The Air/Tenere National Nature Reserve needlessly damaging the trees and bushes of Project was conceived to protect, conserve and the reserve, especially the eight species listed as study the endangered wildlife of Northern protected; 3) tourists not holding a valid touring Niger. Although the project boundaries define permit or unaccompanied by a recognized an area roughly the size of Scotland, the guide. The development of a locally based human population totals only 4,500. The tourist industry is recognized by the project as a philosophy was to integrate indigenous potentially important long-term development populations into the project's design and strategy which, if properly controlled, may be implementation. The local population are the made to be compatible with conservation Twareg, a desert-dwelling people of Berber objectives. The wildlife of the Air/Tenere is a descent. Slightly over one-half of the popula- primary attraction for tourists and, therefore, an tion is settled in the 2 villages in which the economically important asset. The project is major agricultural activities are irrigated promoting increased local participation in the gardening and the raising of livestock. The tourist industry which is currently dominated Twareg respect wildlife and other natural by tour operators located in Agadez, about 300 resources: 'the general attitude to wildlife is kilometers to the south of the reserve. A specific one of benevolence." The Air/Tenere is not a benefit of the development of a local tourist case in which the local population is hunting industry would be employment for guides and its game to extinction. artisans. The project has cooperated with local artisans in establishing an artisan center where Legislation passed in 1988 created two types of local arts and crafts may be displayed and sold. reserves, a partial game reserve, and inside of it, a total game reserve, known as the Addax Tourist activities into the reserve are monitored sanctuary. No entry is allowed into the Addax (and, probably, modified) by the legally re- sanctuary without high-level authorization. quired presence of guides. The publicity Also expressly forbidden are agricultural or surrounding the project, the legal prohibitions pastoral activities, forest exploitation, or against hunting, and the enforcement activities passage over the reserve in a low-flying air- of project staff have largely eliminated poaching plane. The boundaries of this restricted area in the area. A network of village representatives were set so that they do not interfere with has been set up to establish links between traditional caravan routes which pass through project objectives and the needs and participa- the surrounding partial game reserve. It is tion of local populations. Other activities unlikely that the creation of this total reserve started have been: research activities on wild- Biodiversity Series 55 Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues life; reforestation; reducing soil erosion; water Visitation and gorilla tracking are running at control and management; introduction of new nearly 100% of capacity. At current rates (75% building techniques; promotion of fuel-efficient non-resident and 25% lower resident fees) total cooking stoves; improved well construction revenue brought in by gorilla tourism is about techniques.The development of a tourist US$ 400,000 per year. Bwindi has the highest industry that benefits the local population revenue earnings of any park in Uganda. The could conceivably create a link between park is able to fund most of its own recurrent conservation and development that is not costs as well as contributing to operations of currently obvious. The project is working the 10 other national parks in Uganda. The toward such future developments, but has success has many tour operators lobbying for faced substantial uncertainty due to political more gorilla permits to be made available by and safety concerns. habituating a third group. This would increase revenue but also increase risk to the gorillas Bwindi Impenetrable Forest and surrounding habitat. Even though Bwindi Conservation Project is earning well in excess of its costs, this money is not retained locally. Permits are purchased Bwindi Impenetrable Forest is a new park that in Kampala and administered through Uganda attained full national park status in 1991. National Parks (UNP) which is a tedious About half (300) of the remaining population process. In current national guidelines 12% of of mountain gorillas are found in Bwindi, the the UNP revenue is available for revenue other half are found in the three parks that sharing. From combined entry, guide, gorilla incorporate most of the Virunga volcano range and accommodation revenues in UNPs 10% which traces the borders of Uganda, Rwanda went to local communities and 2% to district and Zaire. The three parks that support level administration in 1995 [Christine Feral, gorillas are Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, pers. comm.]. In addition, 20% of gorilla Uganda, Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda tourism revenue accrued since June, 1994, has and Parc National de Virunga, Zaire. The been shared with local parishes. Uganda National Parks (UNP), in conjunction Long-term financing for both Bwindi and with the International Gorilla Conservation Long-term has been a nd Programme (IGCP, a consortium of AWF, Mgahinga Parks has been assured through the WWF & FFPS) developed a plan to establish establishment of a trust fund, in 1995, with ecologically sound tourism while creating a initial financing of $4 million by the Global source of revenue through gorilla viewing. Environment Facility and USAID. The trust fund designates annual net income to park Bwindi is a small park of 330 square kilome- management (20%), research (20%) and ters, with an additional 70 acres recently community development which is compatible purchased to provide sites for tourism infra- with conservation (60%). The Trust's manage- structure and a buffer zone. The park has a ment includes representatives of the Ugandan research center and guard houses. Plans government, local and international NGOs, include building a visitor center, park office, and local communities. Fifty parishes touching staff housing and tourist accommodation. the park boundary have committees to develop With the rapid increase in demand, tourist proposals for community projects. accommodation is a priority. Currently, there is a community camping ground owned and Thls communmty parish system provided operated by local residents directly outside the useful informaton to authorities in their park gates. ~~~~~~~~~~investigation of the recent killing of gorillas in park gates. the park [Christine Feral, pers. comm.]. It is Two of the four groups of gorillas in the area are yet unclear how these killings relate, if at all, to habituated for viewing. Only six tourists are the gorilla tourism/conservation program. 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