89635 KNOWLEDGE PAPERS Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Design: miki@ultradesigns.com Cover photos: Right: javarman3/Thinkstock.com; left: MasterLU/Thinkstock.com Back cover photo: WitoldRyka/Thinkstock.com KNOWLEDGE PAPERS Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Anthony Gad Bigio Maria Catalina Ochoa Rana Amirtahmasebi June 2014, No. 19 Urban Development Series Produced by the World Bank’s Urban Development and Resilience Unit of the Sustainable Development Network, the Urban Development Series discusses the challenge of urbanization and what it will mean for developing countries in the decades ahead. The Series aims to explore and delve more substantively into the core issues framed by the World Bank’s 2009 Urban Strategy Systems of Cities: Harnessing Urbanization for Growth and Poverty Alleviation. Across the five domains of the Urban Strategy, the Series provides a focal point for publications that seek to foster a better understanding of (i) the core elements of the city system, (ii) pro-poor policies, (iii) city economies, (iv) urban land and housing markets, (v) sustainable urban environment, and other urban issues germane to the urban development agenda for sustainable cities and communities. © 2014 THE WORLD BANK All rights reserved. Urban Development & Resilience Unit World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA www.worldbank.org/urban This publication is a product of the staff of the World Bank Group. It does not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. This note is provided for information only. The World Bank has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs and citations for external or third-party sources referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Table of Contents Foreword v Acknowledgements vi Acronyms vii Executive Summary viii 1. World Heritage Cities: A Special Set of Urban Centers 1 2. Climate Change Risks for World Heritage Cities 3 3. Carbon Emissions from World Heritage Cities 9 4. Financing Climate Resilience and GHG Abatement in WHC 15 5. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 19 Paris 20 Tunis 25 Edinburgh 28 Mexico City 31 Hué 34 Quito 36 References 39 Boxes Box 1. Building reuse almost always offers environmental savings over demolition and new construction 10 Box 2. Copenhagen or the supremacy of travel by sustainable modes 13 Box 3. London’s Greenwich Millennium Village and private vehicle demand management 14 iii iv Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Figures Figure 1. Distribution of WHC by region 1 Figure 2. Geographic distribution of WHC based on their location in coastal and inland areas 3 Figure 3. Global distribution of WHC based on multi-hazard risk data 4 Figure 4. Geographic distribution of WHC based on multi-hazard risk in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East 5 Figure 5. Distribution of WHC based on flood data 6 Figure 6. Distribution of WHC based on landslide risk data 6 Figure 7. Urban density and transport sector energy consumption 11 Figure 8. Historic monuments along the banks of the River Seine 20 Figure 9. The Paris municipality close to the Seine River 23 Figure 10. Medina of Tunis 25 Figure 11. French Quarter 27 Figure 12. Old and New Edinburgh 28 Figure 13. Edinburgh World Heritage City next to the river 29 Figure 14. Metropolitan Cathedral 31 Figure 15. Mexico City Museum of Fine Arts 32 Figure 16. Hué historic city 34 Figure 17. An example of deterioration of the historic monuments of Hué 35 Figure 18. San Francisco plaza in historic Quito 36 Figure 19. Historic urban fabric of Quito 37 Tables Table 1. Top ten WHC by multi-hazard risk 7 Table 2. Top ten WHC by flood risk 7 Table 3. Top ten WHC by landslide risk 7 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities v Foreword Historic downtowns have great potential to contribute to In recent years, cultural heritage conservation and valori- city economies, are pillars of human culture and a testa- zation have increasingly become drivers of local economic ment to the evolution of civilization. Whether they are development. Many projects supported by the World hubs of commerce and local trade or magnets for tourists, Bank in this field help leverage cultural heritage for eco- they often generate significant economic activity, benefit- nomic development while developing infrastructure and ting the private sector and Micro, Small and Medium services for residents and enhancing the livability of cities. Enterprises. The World Bank has also been very active in addressing climate change risks and increasing resiliency of urban ar- Yet, while the negative impacts of climate change on ur- eas. This paper is also an effort to merge these two critical ban areas are well-known and widely discussed, its implic- agendas. it impacts on historic downtowns have not been studied as extensively. This includes World Heritage Cities, which The paper investigates the impacts of climate change on are inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scien- 237 World Heritage Cities and provides an overview of the tific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) due to their geographic distribution of these cities around the globe. It “Outstanding Universal Value”; they are considered col- then discusses the importance of historic downtowns and lective heritage of human beings, shared across different provides various options available to the governments of cultures and civilizations. these cities to address risk mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Further, it provides examples of World What if a historic downtown is washed away in a flood or Heritage Cities which have taken action to address vulner- destroyed by a major landslide? How would that impact ability to the adverse impacts of climate change. We hope job opportunities and livelihoods for their local commu- this paper will serve as a guide to help cities around the nities? And how would future generations learn about world as they seek potential courses of action. history if significant cultural sites are wrecked in earth- quakes? What are the major risks threatening our shared cultural heritage and its potential to develop local econo- Sameh Naguib Wahba mies, and how can we mitigate these risks? This paper aims Acting Director to lay out a framework to answer some of these questions. Urban and Disaster Risk Management Department vi Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Acknowledgments This report was prepared by a team led by Anthony Gad the keynote presentation made by Anthony Gad Bigio at Bigio and comprising Maria Catalina Ochoa and Rana its 11th Congress in Sintra, Portugal, November 22-25, Amirtahmasebi. Katie McWilliams prepared the report’s 2011. maps. The report was produced under supervision of Abha Joshi-Ghani and Sameh Naguib Wahba, previous The authors wish to thank the General Secretariat of the and current managers of the Urban Development and OWHC and the Municipality of Sintra for the opportu- Resilience Unit of the World Bank. Laura De Brular man- nity to share with the Congress some of the World Bank’s aged the publication process. on-going research in the field of World Heritage Cities and climate change adaptation and mitigation, urban The report was originally prepared by the World Bank development and project financing. They hope that this team at the invitation of the Organization of World Heri- will facilitate further World Bank engagement with World tage Cities (OWHC), and was circulated in support to Heritage Cities. Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities vii Acronyms AMF Autofreie Mustersiedlung Floridsdorf ANC The Control and Reduction of Unaccounted Water BRT Bus Rapid Transit CDM Clean Development Mechanism CH Community Heating CHP Combined Heat and Power CMI Marseille Center for Mediterranean Integration DAC Development Assistance Committee DE Decentralized Energy ETS Emissions Trading System GEF Global Environment Facility GHG Greenhouse Gas ITDP Institute for Transportation and Development Policy JESSICA Joint European Support for Sustainable Investment in City Areas MCMA Mexico City Metropolitan Area MDB Multilater Development Bank OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OGC Open Geospatial Consortium OWHC Organization of World Heritage Cities PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resilience QCCS Quito’s Climate Change Strategy SDI Spatial Data Infrastructures UNEP United Nations Environment Program UNESCO United Nations Education and Scientific Cultural Organization UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction WHC World Heritage Cities WMO World Meteorological Organization viii Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Executive Summary This report is organized in five sections. Section 1 presents Natural disasters can result in high economic losses, hu- an overview of World Heritage Cities (WHC), their geo- manitarian tragedies and environmental catastrophes. The graphic distribution and the growth of the urban agglom- damages are happening mostly in developing countries, erations to which they belong. Section 2 presents the natu- and direct damages from extreme events are rising. The ral hazard risks and climate change impacts facing WHC, paper presents maps, where all World Heritage Cities their location on the coastline or interior, and their rank are geo-referenced and overlaid with climate change and in terms of level of vulnerability. Section 3 outlines the natural disaster risks, which allows for the ranking of the characteristics that historic cities have in terms of carbon WHC most at risk. emissions and potential for climate change mitigation. Section 4 discusses the sources of financing which WHC CARBON EMISSIONS FROM may turn to in order to address climate change mitigation WORLD HERITAGE CITIES and adaptation. Section 5 presents the climate change ad- aptation and mitigation action plans being implemented Carbon emissions, the primary cause of climate change, in the WHC of Paris, Tunis, Edinburgh, Mexico City, are proportional to the quantity of energy that is con- Hué, and Quito. sumed in its various forms by end-users. While more than seventy percent of energy worldwide is consumed in the CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS FOR urban areas, the per capita carbon emissions of each city WORLD HERITAGE CITIES varies greatly, depending on urban form, density, econom- ic activities, and transportation systems. Many general WHC are at significant risk of deterioration. Climate characteristics of historic cores of WHC make them more change and natural disasters will exacerbate those already energy efficient with lower carbon emissions than newer complex challenges, and specific geographic locations— cities. They tend to have a more intensive and narrower such as coastal areas—and spatial development patterns road network as well as smaller-size blocks and buildings. may cause additional vulnerability to WHC. Human-cre- These factors favor the use of more limited space and en- ated hazards such as unsustainable tourism, uncontrolled ergy per capita. WHC also favor mixed land-uses, which urbanization, and poor management already constitute minimize the distance from residential to productive or serious threats for some WHC. Compounding risks due commercial areas. to climate change and natural disasters into the equation will make the conservation needs even more challenging The compact structure of WHC also allows for pedestrian in the future, especially for those located in developing and non-motorized mobility and for the use of public countries, where policies and resources to conserve and transit as the preferential transportation mode, as op- rehabilitate are often insufficient. posed to the use of private motorcars, in view of the size of the road network and limited parking opportunities. In Sea level rise and storm surges, coastal erosion, extreme the absence of abundant energy sources to heat or cool, precipitation events, heat waves and heat island effect, historic buildings have generally been designed and built water scarcity, and worsening air quality are the most rel- with passive systems and materials providing thermal iner- evant climate related hazards in urban areas, with impacts tia and therefore are highly adapted to local climatic con- on public health and the environment. Geophysical and ditions while emitting relatively low amounts of carbon. hydro-meteorological events are affecting heritage cit- Such comparative advantages of historic city cores can be ies and are becoming more intense and more frequent. harnessed by governments in further improving energy viii Executive Summary ix efficiency and abating carbon emissions, confirming the WORLD HERITAGE CITIES role of WHC as highly livable urban environments, pro- ENGAGING IN CLIMATE viding models of climate-friendly urban development. RESILIENCE AND MITIGATION FINANCING CLIMATE ACTION IN Many World Heritage Cities are already engaging in ac- tion plans and implementation programs to increase their WORLD HERITAGE CITIES climate change adaptation and mitigation of their carbon Financial resources for the conservation and rehabilita- emissions. The triggers for adaptation are generally the tion of World Heritage Cities mostly come from local increased understanding of vulnerability and risks and the government budgets, national government budgets, and need to build resilience in time. The trigger for mitigation investments made by the resident population and busi- may consist of national or supra-national policies, finan- cial incentives, or the grass-root movements in favor of nesses. Integrating climate resilience and carbon emissions greener city living. The paper reviews a number of cases of reduction objectives into the conservation and rehabilita- World Heritage Cities already investing in climate change tion programs creates opportunities to access additional adaptation and mitigation action plans: Paris, Tunis, Ed- funding. Wherever the national or supranational policy inburgh, Mexico City, Hué, and Quito. context establishes clear goals for carbon emissions reduc- tion, WHC can argue that investments in their urban These climate change action plans vary as to the kind of fabrics generate positive results and climate co-benefits. impacts the cities are facing: from flooding to marine inundation, glacier melt and related water scarcity, and International financing for climate change adaptation and heat waves. Not all of these cities are high emitters of mitigation and for urban development by the World Bank GHG, therefore only some of the action plans include can also promote historic city rehabilitation objectives. mitigation measures. In all cases, the action plans The World Bank has invested over $1.8 billion in sector combine where possible adaptation and mitigation operations in and around WHC in the past four decades. responses and integrate the proposed actions with These projects have directly and indirectly benefited the urban development planning and investment programs. conservation and enhancement of WHC. Finally, con- Municipalities are in the lead for their implementation cessional financing for climate change adaptation and and the mainstreaming of climate change in the management of WHC worldwide. mitigation, while currently targeted at national level, will increasingly find its way to sub-national governments, in- cluding WHC. The report reviews some of the financial mechanisms currently in place, as well as the limitations of concessional financing for urban adaptation. 1 World Heritage Cities: A Special Set of Urban Centers The 2371 World Heritage Cities (WHC) represent a spe- WHC are to be found in industrialized countries, emerg- cial set of urban centers across the world. They are identi- ing economies, and developing countries alike. When clas- fied by their placement on the UNESCO World Heritage sified according to the list of countries which are World List, where they were progressively inscribed in the course Bank clients, i.e., recipients of international development of nearly forty years since the establishment of the World aid financing, WHC are equally represented, with 125, or Heritage Convention. The inscription process starts with 53 percent, to be found in industrialized countries, and the request of the national governments and is finalized 112, or 47 percent, to be found in emerging economies with the approval of the UNESCO Committee, the cus- and developing countries. The two groups of WHC do todian of the list. They represent about one fourth of all not benefit from the same level of recognition, institu- World Heritage Sites, which include natural as well as tional support, conservation, and rehabilitation resources. cultural ones. The reasons for their inscription are related With greater international support, more historic cit- to the unique character of the urban fabric and of the his- ies from emerging economies and developing countries toric buildings that compose them. could eventually be included in the World Heritage List by UNESCO, thus changing the current regional distri- Figure 1 presents the distribution of WHC by regions of bution. the world, as defined by UNESCO. Europe and North America host the largest number of WHC with 143, fol- The original historic cores of WHC have become gener- lowed by Latin America and the Caribbean with 39, Asia ally part of much larger urban agglomerations. These are and the Pacific with 25, Arab States with 20, and Africa with at times limited to a few hundred thousand inhabitants 10. The geographic distribution of WHC reflects perhaps and are at times reaching many million. This radical trans- as much the commitment of their national governments to formation of the global urban landscape has profoundly promote their recognition, conservation, and future manage- modified the role and reduced the relative importance of ment, as the richness of the various regions of the world in the historic cores in the overall functioning of the agglom- urban heritage. In this respect, it is important to underline erations to which they belong, but not necessarily their that WHC are a subset of “historic cities” worldwide, which symbolic, cultural, spiritual, and artistic values. are defined in a variety of ways but which clearly include a much larger number of urban centers across the globe, of which WHC are certainly the best known. Figure 1. Distribution of WHC by region Latin America and the Cribbean 17% Europe and Africa 4% North America 60% Arab States 8% Asia and the Pacific 11% 1 This study was conducted based on the 2010 list of World Heritage cities. 1 2 Climate Change Risks for World Heritage Cities Like all cities in the world, WHC are vulnerable to the The vulnerability of WHC to natural hazards and climate increasing impacts of climate change, which compounds change is higher than that of modern cities on account of their exposure to natural hazards. Climate change risks the particular fragility of their urban fabric and of the his- vary very much by location. Coastal cities (e.g., Carta- toric buildings of which they are composed. The vulner- gena), which represent one full third of WHC, are ex- ability of a city to climate change and natural hazards is posed to increasing sea-level rise, storm surges, marine due to its physical characteristics, but it is also due to the inundation, and coastal erosion risks. Other cities may be ability to respond to its residents and local institutions. In exposed to the consequences of glacier melt (e.g., Qui- general terms, WHC in Europe and North America are to) or of increasing ambient temperatures with impacts inhabited by higher income residents; real-estate values on human health via heat waves and increased ambient are high, and regulations and institutions are in place for pollution. Urban flooding and landslides are prevalent their protection and conservation. Conversely, in emerg- risks for many WHC as climate change in many parts of ing economies and developing countries, WHC are most- the world induces increased precipitations and extreme ly inhabited by poorer populations; real-estate values are weather events. Natural hazards such as earthquakes and low, and resources for conservation are rarely sufficient. tsunamis, while not related to climate change, add to the urban vulnerability of WHC worldwide. Figure 2. Geographic distribution of WHC based on their location in coastal and inland areas Source: authors. 3 4 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities The World Bank team has conducted a detailed review of (WMO) and the United Nations Education and Scien- the risk exposure of the 237 WHC using the Global Risk tific Cultural Organization (UNESCO).2 Data Platform PREVIEW of the United Nations Envi- ronment Program (UNEP), initiated in 1999 by UNEP/ The Global Risk Data Platform provides world maps gen- GRID-Geneva. The Global Risk Data Platform has now erated on the basis of a Multi-Hazard Index, compound- evolved following all standards for Spatial Data Infrastruc- ing risks of cyclones, earthquakes, floods, and landslides, tures (SDI) and providing all the web-services in compli- and classifying world locations in five categories of risk: ance with the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). The (1) Low; (2) Moderate; (3) Medium; (4) High; and (5) data currently present in the platform has benefited from Extreme. Each of the 237 WHC was geo-referenced based new developments made for the Global Assessment Re- on latitude and longitude coordinates. The points were port on Disaster Risk Reduction version 2009 and updat- then overlaid with the global Multi-Hazard Risk grid. The ed for the 2011 version. The outcomes were developed by risk value at each point was extracted and visualized. The a large, interdisciplinary group of researchers from around specific exposures of WHC to flooding and landslides the world, making global disaster risk more visible as a key (two risks compounded by climate change) were also cal- step towards mobilizing the political and economic com- culated (see figures 5-6 and tables 1-3). mitment needed to reduce it. Methodologies on hazards modeling were reviewed by a team of 24 independent ex- The platform is accessible at: http://preview.grid.unep.ch and is supported by 2 perts selected by the World Meteorological Organization the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). Figure 3. Global distribution of WHC based on multi-hazard risk data Source: authors. Climate Change Risks for World Heritage Cities 5 Figure 4. Geographic distribution of WHC based on multi-hazard risk in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East Source: authors. 6 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Figure 5. Distribution of WHC based on flood data Source: authors. Figure 6. Distribution of WHC based on landslide risk data Source: authors. Climate Change Risks for World Heritage Cities 7 Note: The following rankings are directly derived from different rankings of WHC most at risk. The UNEP- the UNEP/GRID described above, as applied to the geo- GRID multi-hazard index does not account for the insti- referenced WHC. Different methodologies may generate tutional capacity to build resilience. Table 1. Top ten WHC by multi-hazard risk 1 Hué Viet Nam Asia and the Pacific 2 Aleppo Syrian Arab Republic Arab States 3 Cartagena Colombia Latin America and Caribbean 4 Amsterdam Netherlands Europe and North America 5 Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe and North America 6 Morelia Mexico Latin America and Caribbean 7 Santo Domingo Dominican Republic Latin America and Caribbean 8 Paris France Europe and North America 9 Lima Peru Latin America and Caribbean 10 Vilnius Lithuania Europe and North America Table 2. Top ten WHC by flood risk 1 Hué Viet Nam Asia and the Pacific 2 Aleppo Syrian Arab Republic Arab States 3 Kandy Sri Lanka Asia and the Pacific 4 Baku Azerbaijan Asia and the Pacific 5 Hoi An Viet Nam Asia and the Pacific 6 Lima Peru Latin America and Caribbean 7 Cartagena Colombia Latin America and Caribbean 8 Saint-Louis Senegal Africa 9 Moscow Russian Federation Europe and North America 10 Luang Prabang Lao People’s Democratic Republic Europe and North America Table 3. Top ten WHC by landslide risk 1 Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe and North America 2 Santo Domingo Dominican Republic Latin America and Caribbean 3 Dubrovnik Croatia Europe and North America 4 Oporto Portugal Europe and North America 5 Cuenca Ecuador Latin America and Caribbean 6 Antigua Guatemala Latin America and Caribbean 7 San Marino Republic of San Marino Europe and North America 8 San Cristobal Spain Europe and North America 9 Berat Albania Europe and North America 10 Macao China Asia and the Pacific 8 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities The role of municipalities in ensuring the resilience and ■■ Integrate resilience and adaptation within urban devel- adaptation of WHC is critical. This is particularly true opment and conservation plans. Rather than planning in emerging economies and developing countries where separately in order to deal with natural hazards and cli- national institutions and financial resources for urban de- mate change risks, resilience and adaptation responses velopment and historic city conservation may be limited. should be incorporated in urban planning instruments Local governments in charge of WHC already have the and in the conservation plans and regulations. special responsibility of managing the historic urban as- ■■ Be based on priority risks and incorporate specific fu- sets, protecting them from encroachment and decay, and ture climate scenarios for their locations. While some contributing to their conservation and contribution for risks are common to clusters of WHC, such as coastal the economic, social, and cultural life of the city. These cities, ultimately each city is a unique case which re- tasks come in addition to the general responsibilities of quires careful forecasting of future climate change im- managing urban growth, delivering urban services, mo- pacts for the location, which can only be obtained with bilizing financial resources, and ensuring urban livability down-scaling models and detailed risk assessments. of the entire urban agglomeration. Increasing urban resil- ■■ Integrate resilience and adaptation in addition to miti- ience to natural hazards and adaptation to climate change gation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Many ac- of WHC are additional tasks for which municipalities tions that are required to improve the adaptation of a need all the support they can get, from national govern- WHC to climate change also contribute to reducing ments and from international institutions alike. its GHG emissions. For instance, thermal insulation of the building envelopes to deal with increased ambient Adaptation and Resilience Action Plans define responses temperatures will also reduce the energy consumption, to climate change and natural hazard risks. They are the contributing to emissions reduction. result of a combination of technical assessments, consulta- tions among local and national stakeholders, and careful operational and financial planning. Once defined, climate action plans need to be supported politically, institution- ally, and financially, in order to get implemented. In the case of World Heritage Cities, climate action plans have to: ■■ Concern the entire agglomeration of the WHC, rather than only the historic urban core, as many of the hazards and risks concern the entire agglomeration and equally the responses must be found at the urban scale, while addressing the specific vulnerabilities and risks of the fabric, buildings, and human activities of the historic city. 3 Carbon Emissions from World Heritage Cities C02 emissions, the primary cause of climate change, are ing, and industrial processes, and (iii) electricity used for correlated to the quantity of energy consumed in its vari- cooling and other residential uses. Each of these categories ous forms by end-users. The increased demand for energy has one or more sources, each with an associated energy for human activity—for refrigeration, transportation, heat- intensity and carbon content. The main sources of en- ing, cooling, and industrial processes, among others—is ergy required for transportation are gasoline, diesel, and currently mostly met with non-renewable sources. Non- to a lesser extent compressed natural gas. The sources of renewable energy largely requires the combustion of fos- energy required for cooking, heating and industry are oil sil fuels, which are the main contributors to the rising of and natural gas. Finally, the main sources of energy to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. A move to- produce electricity are coal, nuclear, hydropower, and oil, wards limiting carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere just to name a few. The sources of energy and the city’s is going to require both (1) a substantial increase in the final energy mix are in general determined by levels of share of renewable energy (naturally replenished), and (2) a government beyond the metropolitan area, and therefore substantial effort to reduce the amount of energy required beyond the domain of urban public officials. for a given energy service or level of activity. Per capita GHG emissions vary greatly depending on ur- Studies suggest that around 70 percent of energy world- ban density, lifestyles, mobility patterns, and energy effi- wide is consumed in urban areas. Although it is still a ciency. These criteria, to a larger extent, are determined by subject of debate what exact share of global emissions urban form, land use patterns heating systems, economic can be attributed to cities, it is clear that with increased activities, and transportation systems. For instance the urbanization the share of urban GHG emissions will con- Metropolitan Area of Mexico City has a 2.8 tCO2e/cap- tinue to grow. Cities contribute to climate change mainly ita3, Paris a 5.2 tCO2e/capita, Brussels has a 7.5 tCO2e/ through: (i) the direct GHG emissions generated in the capita, Chicago has 12 tCO2e/capita, Minneapolis 18.34 city itself, (ii) the emissions embedded in the energy pro- tCO2e/capita, Sydney 20.3 tCO2e/capita, and Denver duced outside the city boundaries, which is required to 21.5 tCO2e/capita4. Although a broad comparison be- produce goods and services consumed within the city, and tween GDP per capita and CO2 emissions per capita sug- (iii) changes in atmospheric chemistry triggered by com- gests a general correlation between the two variables, an mon urban pollutants. Although some might argue that assessment of the correlation over time shows a slightly the total GHG emissions can vary greatly with the way different story. Cities in Europe have become wealthier in which they are accounted—whether one accounts for without the sharp increase in GHG emissions associated the three categories mentioned above or just for the first to the increase in GDP of cities in North America. A tra- one—a life-cycle approach to emissions accounting points dition of living in historic cities and the importance of at urban areas as being at the same time the “highest emit- compact city development as modelled after the WHC ters” and the best prepared to tackle climate change miti- have played a major role as WHC are more “climate- gation. friendly” than newer cities. Cities must reduce local energy demand while national In general, historic cores of World Heritage Cities have governments must clean its supply. The demand for lower emissions compared to the newer parts of town, energy in cities is the main source of emissions, and it comes in general in three main forms: (i) energy required 3 Tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. for transportation, (ii) energy required for heating, cook- 4 Hoornweg, 2011. 9 10 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities both on the individual building level and the urban fab- building transportation energy.5 Embodied energy is the ric as a whole. Historic cores are more energy efficient in initial energy investment that is required to construct a general since they were built based on sound elements building. It can include the up-front energy investment of environmental sustainability and before the age of air for extraction of natural resources, manufacturing, trans- conditioning and auto transport. Such neighborhoods portation, and installation of materials. Embodied en- are more energy efficient and have lower emissions due ergy is used by preservation advocates to convince policy to three factors: (1) building-related energy consumption, makers that adaptive reuse is more energy efficient than (2) the compactness and density of urban form, and (3) building a new construction (see box 1). Operating en- efficient mobility patterns. ergy is needed to operate a building and includes energy consumed by heating and cooling systems in addition to Building-related energy consumption is attributed to all other electrical needs of a building. Operating energy three categories: embodied energy, operating energy, and is a major element in evaluating building-related energy Box 1. Building reuse almost always offers environmental savings over demolition and new construction The National Trust for Historic Preservation, an American or even negate, the benefits of reuse. Adaptive re- advocacy organization, recently published an extensive re- use projects that use new material are less environmentally port about the potential environmental impact reductions as- friendly than the rest. sociated with building reuse. This report uses the Life Cycle Another report published by the city of New York on energy use Analysis methodology and compares the relative environmen- of its buildings indicates very clearly that on average, New York tal impacts of building reuse and renovation versus new con- City’s buildings perform significantly better than the national struction over the course of a 75-year life span in six different average. The report suggests that the city’s high performance building typologies and concludes with three major findings: could be attributable in part to the age of the city’s building • Building reuse almost always yields fewer envi- stock. Historic buildings of New York City perform better on en- ronmental impacts than new construction. Energy ergy efficiency measures than newer buildings. This is because savings from adaptive reuse can be between 4 and 46 per- such buildings tend to have less extensive ventilation systems, cent compared to the new construction. While these reduc- better thermal envelopes, and/or less dense or energy intensive tions in environmental impact reductions of individual build- tenant occupations. This extensive report studies a variety of ings sometimes may not seem significant, they can have a building types including single family and multifamily, office substantial role in reducing emissions when considered on buildings, commercial, and mixed-use. As an example, the the city scale. report concludes that while there are many factors to be consid- ered, newer office buildings in New York City tend to use more • Reuse of buildings with an average level of en- energy per square foot than older ones. This trend is generally ergy performance consistently offers immediate true for buildings dating back to the early 1900s, with each climate-change impact reductions compared to 20-year group using more energy per square foot than the prior more energy-efficient new construction. Unlike group. The energy usage of the office building typology has the popular belief, the report proves that the CO2-reduction also increased overtime from buildings before 1930 to build- benefits gained by a new, energy efficient building are ne- ings built after 1990, showing that the oldest office buildings glected by negative climate change impacts associated with are performing the best in energy usage. the building construction. Basically, a newer construction that is 30 percent more energy efficient than an average older Source: The Greenest Building: Quantifying the Environmental Value building will take 10 to 80 years to overcome the negative of Building Reuse. National Trust for Historic Preservation. Washing- climate change impacts related to its construction process. ton DC. 2012. Source: The New York City Local Law 84 Benchmarking Report. • Materials Matter: The quantity and type of ma- August 2012. http://www.nyc.gov/html/gbee/downloads/pdf/nyc_ll84_ terials used in a building renovation can reduce, benchmarking_report_2012.pdf 5 The Greenest Building: Quantifying the Environmental Value of Building Reuse. National Trust for Historic Preservation. Washington DC. 2012. Carbon Emissions from World Heritage Cities 11 impacts and in general is a large portion of energy use Figure 7. Urban density and transport sector in a city. For example, in 2006, the operating energy of energy consumption residential and commercial buildings in the United States constituted about 39 percent of total energy consumed nationwide. In most climates, historic cities have lower operation energy than new construction. The reason can be attributed to the absence of heating and cooling sys- tems in historic buildings and their passive design; passive survivability (building operates without energy inputs for key functions, such as during a power failure); and the compactness of the urban form and positioning of the buildings next to one another, which acts as an insulation system. Building transportation energy is related to mo- bility patterns and is the energy that is used to transport people to and from a building. Due to transportation ef- ficiencies in the historic cores, this category of energy is minimal compared to the newer parts of the city. The dense and compact urban form of historic cores has several climatic advantages. The historic urban form is con- centrated and uniform in its buildings and accommodates various land uses in a tight relationship with each other. The design of the historic urban form minimizes the exposure Source: Newman and Kenworthy, 1989. Atlas Environnement of the buildings to direct solar radiations. Streets and alleys du Monde Diplomatique 2007. within the city function as channels for air movement and heat exchange. There are few large open spaces through- out the urban fabric which reduce exposure to the sun and Amsterdam, Paris, London, Stockholm, Brussels, and Vi- the wind. Additionally, aside from monumental structures, enna follow this pattern (see figure 7). few tall buildings can be observed in the historic neighbor- hoods. The height of the buildings is uniform throughout The presence of a historic core is a fair predictor of a the city to prevent the air from downward diversion, result- historical mono-centric growth pattern, which initially ing in unwanted turbulence. The compact urban form of concentrated people, services and jobs within walkable historic urban cores has a density sometimes higher than distances and dense urban settings. The mono-centric the new high-rise developments. growth pattern followed by historic cores and WHC, values the distance to a main center, which makes land Urban density is the best predictor of urban GHG emis- around the center a desirable and scarce resource, fosters sions/capita from the transport sector. There is evidence of density and minimizes travel in climate-inefficient modes. strong correlation between energy consumption and urban According to some studies7 each doubling of average density.6 For instance, North American cities like Huston, density is associated with a decrease in per-household Phoenix, and Detroit are on the most energy intensive side vehicle use of 20–40 percent and the corresponding de- of the spectrum, with higher energy consumptions per cline in emissions. A study of GHG emissions in Toronto8 capita and lower densities. On the other hand, European concluded that as the distance from the central core in- and Asian cities are consuming less energy per capita and creases, the share of automobile emissions begins to domi- have higher densities. Some historic cities and WHC like nate the total. 7 Gottdiener and Budd, 2005. 6 Newman and Kenworthy, 1989. 8 VandeWeghe and Kennedy, 2007. 12 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Although the historic core of WHC act as a center, a as smaller-size blocks and buildings, all of which favor mono-centric growth pattern can only be followed up to less use of space and energy per capita. Greater urban a certain threshold of travel distances, after which a city density often translates into vibrant city life as well. evolves into a polycentric one. Some might argue that a ■■ Zoning that fosters accessibility to mixed services with mono-centric city is favorable to energy-efficient public less vehicle travel. Historic cities favor mixed land-uses, transit, while a dominantly polycentric city is more favor- minimizing the distance from residential to productive able to individual transport. Yet, a polycentric city can also or commercial areas, which results in compact centers favor a more efficient use of public transport by eliminating with short commutes. “empty trips” out of the city center in the morning, and ■■ Mobility by sustainable modes. The compact structure into the city in the evening. The balancing of the demand of historic cities allows for pedestrian and non-motor- for travel is critical for reducing a city’s carbon footprint. ized mobility and for the use of public transit as the preferential transportation modes, as opposed to the The patterns of urbanization that WHC have followed use of private motorcars, in view of the size of the road beyond their historic cores have resulted in a mix of en- network and limited parking opportunities. ergy efficiency outcomes. Historic cores are a key axis of the urban system and have been the subject of countless ■■ Historic cities precede the car era, therefore their streets transformations, redevelopment, and reinvention to adapt offer limited space to accommodate on-street parking. to time. It is throughout these transformations that WHC Limiting on-street parking is considered to be the sec- have proven to be laboratories for the exploration of new ond best travel demand management strategy after con- ways of urban living while preserving the uniqueness of gestion pricing. Not having parking spaces as a sunk cost their character. Many WHC in Europe have evolved from in a property makes parking costs perceived as monthly typical pedestrian-oriented mode, to adapting their nar- expenditures, therefore motivating residents and com- row streets to the streetcar, all the way to partially accom- muters to consider cheaper, alternative, and more sus- modating the use of private automobiles. Private motor- tainable options as transit and non-motorized modes. ization has subsequently generated urban sprawl outwards of city centers and has led to energy-inefficient urban Converting central areas into pedestrian zones is the low- development patterns. Transport infrastructure construc- hanging fruit of GHG mitigation by WHC. Creating tion has locked in many cities into unsustainable land use, such car-free environments promotes energy efficiency resulting in much more difficult ways to reduce GHG and economic growth while creating space for citizens to emissions per capita. Nevertheless, the protected historic experience the historic core. World Heritage Cities, espe- cores of WHC have often managed to maintain a more cially those in Europe, have made an enormous effort after energy-efficient lifestyle, in comparison to the newer parts the 1960s to transform their historic centers into pedestri- of their urban agglomerations. an zones in which to different extents and under different regulations private vehicles have restricted circulation. J.H The third and last attribute of historic city cores is their ef- Crawford, the champion of the “car-free” concept, has de- ficient mobility patterns. Given their urban features, even veloped a list of noteworthy care-free areas. To be included if embedded in a much larger agglomeration, the WHC in the list, a sizeable part of the city must be car-free or maintain unique characteristics which preserve them as have a car-free area that is of an exemplary nature for the naturally energy‐efficient and climate‐friendly urban ar- national context. WHC dominate the list, with cities such eas, which combine cultural qualities with urban livabil- as Vienna or Graz in Austria; Rhodes in Greece; Budapest ity. Historic cores have different patterns of mobility in in Hungary; and Guanajuato and Mexico City in Mexico; comparison with other parts of the city. These mobility among others. patterns are due to: Restriction of private vehicle use is the best strategy to ■■ Dense network of paths. Historic cities tend to have maximize non-motorized transportation. However, pe- a more intensive and narrower road network, as well destrian-zone policies need to be articulated with other Carbon Emissions from World Heritage Cities 13 tools to guarantee a safe, clean, and attractive environment As WHC experience further urbanization, the design to citizens. Some of the basic actions include improving principles of the historic core should be replicated. Cities lighting in streets and plazas, providing universal acces- are learning from the development patterns of their his- sibility through ramps, sound signaling, and widening toric cores and are replicating those principles as they ex- and leveling sidewalks, and integrating benches, toilets pand. For instance the Autofreie Mustersiedlung Florids- and vegetation into the historic fabric. Many WHC are dorf (AMF) housing project in Vienna replicates many of promoting bike events and bike share systems—including the elements of the historic center and builds upon those but not limited to Smart Bike Programs—locating sta- to include newly developed energy-efficient technologies. tions close to public transit stations and near attractions, An interesting feature of this development is that tenants such as plazas and historic buildings. By promoting non- have to abstain from owning a vehicle as specified in the motorized (zero emissions) travel, cites foster outdoor life lease agreement. Some of the sustainable features of the by creating safe urban environments that invite citizens AMF are: a passive solar design, low-energy building stan- to interact more. Land use policies that promote social dards, solar-supported heating, on-site recycling facili- interaction through mixed uses at the neighborhood, the ties, and on-site grey water treatment. Another example block, and the building level contribute significantly to a of influencing demand management to create sustainable more energy-efficient life style. See box 2 for a good ex- urban communities is the Greenwich Millennium Village ample of non-motorized transportation option. in London where only 20 percent of commuting trips are done by private vehicle and one fourth of all trips are done by non-motorized modes (box 3). Box 2. Copenhagen or the supremacy of travel by sustainable modes According to UNEP, 36 percent of Copenhagen’s population cycles to work every day. This avoids about 90,000 tons of CO2 urban emissions annually. For comparison’s sake, a ton of CO2 is emitted when driving an average car from Atlanta to Las Vegas (3,200Km) or by powering the average American home for a month. Copenhagen’s policy in favor of urban cycling is equivalent to powering 7,500 American households during a year, i.e., equivalent to 9.2 million gallons of gasoline consumed. TOMOYOSHI/Flickr.com (Creative Commons) 14 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Box 3. London’s Greenwich Millennium Village and private vehicle demand management Thirty minutes by public transit from the emblematic and fering high quality pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, avail- UNESCO-protected Tower of London, the Greenwich Millen- ability of car sharing, mixed uses — including super markets, nium Village was designed by architect Ralph Erskine is a schools, health centers, cafes, and so on—green spaces, high unique effort to redevelop a brown-field area into an innova- density, and “human scale” modern urban design inspired by tive mixed use sustainable community that seeks to minimize the urban qualities of historic cities. car dependency. Critical to attracting residents to the new area The Greenwich Millennium Village was designed as a sustain- has been offering a smooth and fast commute to downtown able community with CO2 and specific targets bench-marked London, unbundling parking requirements for residences, of- against a business-as-usual scenario: reducing by 50 percent the embodied energy used for building construction through the use of materials that require low energy for their produc- tion; 30 percent reduction in water consumption by using efficient taps, showers, and toilets; 50 percent reduction in construction waste by introducing segregation and recycling practices; a primary energy reduction of 80 percent through the use of improved insulation standards and use of combined Martin/Flicker.com (Creative Commons) heat and power; and a limit of CO2 emissions of up to 20Kg per square meter during normal operation (Targets from Euro- pean Sustainable Development projects, Benchmark Study). An interesting feature of the Greenwich Development Village is that despite a car ownership higher than inner London, the majority (79%) of its commuters travels to work by public tran- sit, and around 25 percent of all trips are done by walking and cycling (ITDP, 2011). Carbon Emissions from World Heritage Cities 15 4 Financing Climate Resilience and GHG Abatement in WHC Financing for the conservation and rehabilitation of development can be accompanied by requirements to WHC mostly comes from local and national government meet climate resilience and carbon mitigation standards. budgets, the resident population, and local businesses. Financing of urban infrastructure such as water and Integrating climate resilience and carbon emissions re- sanitation, transportation, energy distribution and street duction objectives with conservation and rehabilitation lighting, and public facilities, is already on-going, either programs creates opportunities for additional funding. in the form of new construction or of maintenance and Wherever the national or supranational policy context retrofitting across all the cities of the world. Additional establishes clear goals for carbon emissions reduction, funding clearly needs to be devoted to obtain significant WHC can argue that investments in their urban fabrics urban climate resilience and GHG abatement, but these generate positive results and climate co-benefits. objectives ought to also be integrated, and financed, as a component of sustainable urban growth. Global benefits International financing for climate change and mitiga- must be closely related to local benefits in order to garner tion and for urban development by the World Bank can the support and financing it merits. promote historic city rehabilitation objectives. The World Bank alone has invested over $1.8 billion in sector op- Fiscal decentralization has progressively increased the av- erations in and around WHC in the past four decades. erage share of sub-national expenditure, which in OECD These projects have directly and indirectly benefited the countries reached 33 percent in 2005. Therefore regional conservation and enhancement of WHC. As the World and local governments in member countries manage Bank has embarked in financing climate change adapta- significant resources which can be harnessed for climate tion and mitigation, it will be possible to combine such change action. Urban infrastructure investment financing objectives with the ones of WHC conservation and urban comes from a variety of sources, including direct central rehabilitation. government budgetary investments, intergovernmental transfers to sub-national governments, revenues raised by Climate change adaptation and mitigation are public sub-national governments, project financing by the pri- goods that require national and international resources. vate sector or via public-private partnerships, resources At the city level, it is a matter of providing protection of drawn from the capital markets via municipal bonds or fi- exposed assets and resident population and of ensuring the nancial intermediaries dedicated to sub-national lending, future safety of urban agglomerations in order to remain risk management instruments, and carbon financing. All livable, productive and attractive locations. GHG abate- such sources of financing provide opportunities to imple- ment should be part of the urban transformations and in- ment urban mitigation initiatives in WHC.9 vestments pursued to improve access to infrastructure and services for the resident population of fast-growing cities Budgetary, fiscal and market- in developing countries and to increase the livability and based instruments for urban sustainability of cities in industrialized countries, where GHG emission per capita are currently the highest. Many mitigation WHC are already pursuing this agenda. Two main groups of urban regulations, fiscal policies and financial incentives, which are generally under the control Incorporating adaptation and mitigation into broader of local governments, affect urban carbon emissions: those urban development objectives has important financial implications as many of the resources allocated to urban 9 ibidem. 16 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities related to land-use and those related to transportation. increase in property values arising from public infrastruc- Climate indicators can be introduced to such policies ture development, as in Hong Kong, Milan, and Bogotá. to ensure that carbon mitigation objectives can be met. In the Paris metropolitan region, companies employing These regulations and fiscal policies can be adopted by nine or more employees experience a surcharge of salary WHC as well. rates of up to 2.2 percent, which is dedicated to public transit and provides around 70 percent of the revenues of Land-use impacts carbon emissions through urban form the metropolitan transport authority.12 and density, and property taxes will impact land use. In some countries, property taxes may be skewed in favor of Other financial instruments beyond budgetary resources, single-family houses, discouraging compact city develop- taxes, and user fees come into play for municipalities and ment; in the USA, for example, sub-national jurisdictions their utility companies in order to proceed with invest- tax apartments more heavily than single-family homes, ment plans related to increasing the energy efficiency and considering them commercial real-estate.0 Elsewhere, like decreasing the carbon emissions of urban systems. Energy in Greater Copenhagen, the inverse is true, where hous- Services Companies, or ESCOs, generally finance their ing cooperatives are not subject to the municipal property energy efficiency investments via direct borrowing or via tax. More compact development can be stimulated by in- loans to end-users, which may be covered via utility bills troducing split-rate property taxes, as applied in Sydney, or property taxes. Municipal bonds can also be issued for Hong Kong, Pittsburg and Harrisburg, and other cities raising capital for municipal energy efficiency programs. in Denmark and Finland, where land value is taxed more For instance, the city of Varna in Bulgaria issued munici- heavily than the buildings on the land, thereby provid- pal bonds to obtain financing to retrofit and modernize ing an incentive to densify. Many cities depend on land the city’s street lighting system, a project which had a pay- sales for a large part of their revenues, which can create back period under three years. The bond raised three mil- perverse incentives for urban sprawl. In the case of China, lion Euros, had a 9 percent interest rate, and was repaid local governments have been so motivated to generate rev- over a three year period. enues from land sale and leasing that they have generated an oversupply of land for construction which in turn has Financial resources for urban stimulated sprawled development.11 mitigation in industrialized Metropolitan or municipal transportation policies and countries taxes also affect urban carbon emissions. Congestion Some G20 countries, and in particular those of the Eu- charges have been applied in a limited number of cities ropean Union, have made significant commitments, with world-wide to control road usage by private vehicles, and an EU target of GHG reduction of at least 20 percent some are designed to tax higher-emitting vehicles more below 1990 levels. This is accompanied by the specific cli- heavily, like in London and Milan. Congestion charges mate policies of the individual member states, such as the have been observed to reduce GHG emissions from trans- United Kingdom, which has a national reduction target of port up to 19.5 percent in London, where receipts are 80 percent by 2050. The EU and member countries have used to finance public transport, thus combining global put in place EU-wide and national programs to support and local benefits very effectively. Parking charges have led climate mitigation and related urban transformations. to a 12 percent decrease in vehicle miles of commuters Given the high rate of urbanization of EU countries and in US cities, a 20 percent reduction in single car trips in the high percentage of carbon emissions from their urban Ottawa, Canada, and a 38 percent increase of carpooling areas, estimated at between 70 and 80 percent of the to- in the city of Portland in the USA. In some metropoli- tal, a large share of the mitigation programs and related tan regions, transportation-related taxes are used to fund financing concern cities, directly or indirectly. Many Eu- mass transit systems by applying value capture taxes to the ropean cities are WHC. 10 Goodman, 2006. 11 OECD, 2011. 12 ibidem. Financing Resilience and Carbon Abatement in World Heritage Cities 17 EU structural funds have a key role to play in greening use of solar energy and enhance energy efficiency, includ- national and regional spending programs and serve as ing within the context of urban areas. The Plan aims to leverage for the release of additional private and public make habitat sustainable through improvements in energy funds. For the 2007-2013 period, community funding for efficiency in buildings, management of solid waste, and energy efficiency, co-generation, and energy management modal shift to public transport. Mexico’s Climate Change totals over 4 billion Euros. In addition, the EU-financed Program aspires to achieve 50 percent emissions reductions 450 operational programs include investing 9 billion for by 2050, and China’s national Climate Change Program energy-related projects and nearly 5 billion for renewable states that the country will achieve the target of about energies. Presumably much of this funding will affect cit- 20 percent reduction of energy consumption per unit of ies directly or indirectly. For instance, the JESSICA pro- GDP by 2010 and consequently reduce carbon emissions. gram (Joint European Support for Sustainable Investment Non-G20 countries, which collectively account for only 10 in City Areas) an initiative of the European Commission percent of global GNP, consequently have lower emissions in cooperation with the European Investment Bank and levels and fewer available financial resources for mitigation the Council of Europe Development Bank, currently policies and programs. has commitments of over 1 billion Euros with member states and regions. In Lithuania, the program will invest Bilateral aid flows to support GHG emissions abatement over 220 million Euros in energy efficiency projects for are monitored by the Development Assistance Committee retrofitting multi-apartment buildings via loans to home- (DAC) using the “Rio marker on climate change mitiga- owners, co-financed nationally. tion”. The latest available figures show that in 2010-2011 DAC members provided over $16 billion to developing In France, each region is permitted to use up to four per- countries for mitigation projects in the sectors of transport, cent of its funding for energy efficiency investments and energy, general environmental protection, forestry, and wa- greater use of renewable energy in existing social housing ter. Typical projects, relevant to urban areas, will include and run-down co-ownership buildings with low-income waste management, sewage treatment, renewable energy, residents. Specific energy saving targets are to be achieved energy efficiency of generators, machines and equipment, in all cases. In London, JESSICA funds are being applied demand-side energy management, preparation of invento- to investments in environmental infrastructure (decen- ries, and capacity building (OECD-DAC, 2014). tralized energy systems, waste processing and reprocessing facilities) for areas of intensification and urban regenera- The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the tion, in order to create sustainable places for businesses.13 Joint Implementation program provide resources, under Finally, the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), while the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate not focusing on the urban sector, per se, but rather on Change, to developing countries for carbon emissions re- heavy industrial production and energy generation, will duction, but urban usage of these instruments has been contribute to bring cleaner energy sources on line for ur- marginal so far. Of the more than 2,000 CDM projects ban end-users. registered as of March 2010, only a limited number have been urban projects, mostly targeting landfill gas or waste International sources of urban water treatment, and there have been only two urban adaptation and mitigation transportation projects. A similar marginal number of CDM projects (0.57%) and certified emissions reduction financing by 2012 (0.16%) deal with energy efficiency in the urban building sector (OECD, 2010). Emerging economies are making important commitments to and investments in emissions reduction. In 2008 India in- The Global Environment Facility (GEF), a multilateral troduced its first National Action Plan on Climate Change, financial mechanisms established in 1991, is the largest which includes the objective of dramatically increasing the source of grant and concessional financing for mitigation. 13 Rezessy, Bertoldi, 2010. Up to 2009, the GEF had invested $2.7 billion to support 18 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities climate change mitigation projects in developing countries International financing for climate change adapta- and economies in transition, of which $1 billion was during tion is largely insufficient, despite some progress. The the 2007-2009 period. This funding has leveraged another international community mobilized first around GHG $17.2 billion in project co-financing and helped avoid mitigation in the hopes that the adoption of a global more than 1 billion tons of GHG, an amount equivalent framework agreement, the precursor of which has been to nearly 5 percent of annual human emissions. Among its the Tokyo Protocol, would have contained GHG emis- strategic programs, energy efficiency in buildings and appli- sions, fostered a thriving market of certified emissions, ances is of relevance for cities. and contained global warming within acceptable limits. It has now become apparent that a global deal is hard to Multilateral Development Banks (MDB) have been in- achieve and that manifestations of climate change are creasingly contributing to climate change financing. Their increasingly impacting the various regions of the world, investments tripled from $5.4 billion in 2006 to $17 bil- with the hardest hit, paradoxically, being the ones that lion in 2009, accompanied by increased advisory and policy emit the least GHG. Some financial resources for adapta- services and leveraging additional financing for a total cost tion are made available by the GEF, and the Adaptation of projects and programs estimated at over $55 billion. Of Fund is funded from a 2 percent share of proceeds from the $17 billion invested, demand-side energy efficiency and the issuance of certified emission reductions under the renewable energy represent $7.2 billion and climate related Clean Development Mechanisms. The Pilot Program for Development Policy Loans about $4.9 billion. Funding Climate Resilience (PPCR), administered by the World from MDBs assist developing countries in framing climate Bank on behalf of a number of donors, also provides change policies and low-carbon, green growth strategies, concessional financing for adaptation. However, none of which can then become the roadmap for investments from these sources have invested significantly in urban areas, various sources and orient public sector spending. and the intersection with historic cities and WHC is still to be established. 5 Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation This section presents six case studies and aims at famil- oped a campaign for its youth, to familiarize them with iarizing the reader with current practices and trends with concepts and issues related to climate change, hoping that regards to climate change mitigation and adaptation ac- the new generation will take this serious agenda forward tions in WHC. These cities were chosen from various by understanding it clearly in early stages. geographic regions and vary in the nature and intensity of risks they face. They are also different in terms of their Another key common feature is the participation of sev- GDP per capita, which impacts their ability to access fi- eral entities in climate change action planning, under the nancial resources needed for climate change protection supervision of the local government. Edinburgh illustrates measures. The cities also vary greatly in their size and eco- this well. The City Council has prepared a World Heritage nomic activities, ranging from a mega city such as Mexico Management Plan, an Action Plan, and a Fire Plan. Other City with 21 million inhabitants to Hué, a small city with entities in the city have contributed to protection of the less than 500,000 people. The city of Hué has had a lim- World Heritage status of the city as well. The “Water of ited growth outside its historic structure, while Mexico Leith” management plan devotes a section to the World City’s historic center is only a fraction of its area today. Heritage status of the city and actionable measures taken to protect it. The city’s energy entity produced a plan on Although the cases are different from one another, they energy efficiency measures, of which many count as cli- also share some common facts. The climate change ac- mate change mitigation actions. The city also has a Biodi- tion plans all show that such plans need to be prepared versity Action Plan, which aims at protecting the natural with an interdisciplinary focus and integrated approach. and cultural assets of the city as a whole. Edinburgh is a In some cases, such as Mexico City, climate change ac- perfect example of a World Heritage city, working in all tions are paired with large-scale urban development and infrastructure projects, such as building BRT systems or sectors to protect and promote its World Heritage, while the addition of a metro line. It demonstrates that climate adapting to climate change and mitigating its effects. measures should be undertaken while the city is planning its capital investment projects. In developed countries’ Overall, the cases present actions related to most known cases, such as Paris, the transport sector is already in place risks of climate change. They cover floods, landslides, coastal and is currently improving its inter-city connections to erosions, glacier melts, droughts, saltwater intrusion, water the growing suburbs. scarcity and heat waves, among others. On the mitigation side, they incorporate measures related to energy-efficiency Almost all actions in all case studies promote the role of in buildings and public utilities, transport, waste manage- awareness raising, GHG inventories, and creation of da- ment, and water resources use. While in some cities the ac- tabases as a starting point. Paris is far advanced in this tions explicitly address the historic urban fabric, in others manner, planning on establishing an energy and climate they focus more on the urban agglomeration as a whole, of inventory for each and every building. Quito has devel- which the WHC is the central core. 19 20 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities PARIS14 Figure 8. Historic monuments along the banks of the River Seine Angelina Dimitrova/Shutterstock.com The collection of monuments on the banks of the River buildings consume energy on a scale below the annual Seine was listed as World Heritage in 1991. The world- average of European cities, which is considerable given renowned Louvre and Eiffel Tower, in addition to Notre the city’s well-preserved historic buildings. Nevertheless, Dame, palaces and governmental structures, and the the city established a new set of thermal regulations in development of Paris as a whole has been linked to the 2010 and has planned on renovations and setting energy river and its banks. The UNESCO inscription recognizes efficiency measures for its historic structures. this role. The Greater Paris region or Ile-de-France with a population of 12 million is one of the largest and most Risks densely populated areas in Europe, with a service-based With the current trend in energy price increase, the city economy gearing towards finance and information tech- of Paris will face a major energy deficit in the heating and nology, while still continuing its manufacturing roles.15 transport sectors if it continues to consume energy at the current rate. This is expected to affect lower-income fami- Paris has a good baseline of GHG emissions, estimated lies the most. In 2003, Paris experienced a long and in- at 5.2 tons per inhabitant in 2006, which considering its tense heat wave, with adverse effects on residents’ health. scale and density is notably low and is better than Berlin’s A 127 percent increase in death rates was observed that and London’s.16 Energy usage in Paris is also at a reason- August, effecting mostly vulnerable and exposed popula- able rate. One of Paris’ best performances however is in tions. Paris also faces the risk of flooding from the river the building energy efficiency category. Its residential Seine. The last major flood happened in 1910. If a flood with the same intensity happens today, it would dis- 14 Most of this section is excerpted from “Plan Parisien de lutte contre le déregle- tress 3,000,000 people. The potential flood could harm ment climatique” unless otherwise stated. electricity and water distribution systems and could dis- 15 Siemens European Green City Index. http://www.siemens.com/entry/cc/ able the city’s economy for months. Paris’ buildings are features/urbanization_development/all/en/pdf/report_en.pdf. 16 World Bank data accessed October 2011 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ the source of 27 percent of its GHG emissions, mainly INTUWM/Resources/GHG_Index_May_18.pdf. through heating. However, the long life of buildings in Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 21 Paris is a good measure for reducing emissions since new Energy efficiency measures are enforced in all of the mu- construction emits much more CO2 due to building ma- nicipality’s new construction. Furthermore, a 30 percent terials, energy use, and transport. reduction in electricity usage of public buildings has been envisaged. Paris is applying energy efficiency measures on Actions its municipal buildings, public spaces, and street furniture simultaneously. For public buildings, the city is replac- The Paris Climate Protection Plan was published in 2004 ing high-energy lamps with lower-energy ones. The light and envisions a series of mitigation and adaptation mea- bulbs used in street lighting are in the process of being sures for the period of 2004-2020. The city of Paris tar- replaced with LEDs, which consume 10 times less energy gets a 30 percent emissions reduction (against the 2004 than low-energy bulbs and 70 times less energy than tra- baseline), a 30 percent reduction in energy consumption ditional bulbs. The city also has started to turn off street- in municipal buildings and street lighting, and plans on lights at nights. Just by these two measures alone, the city procuring 30 percent of its energy usage from renewable is expected to use 30 percent less energy by 2020. sources. For Ile-de-France (Paris Metropolitan Region), these numbers are 25 percent emissions reduction, 25 In order to reduce the energy usage of social housing percent reduction in energy consumption, and 25 percent projects in Paris, public housing authorities were asked share of renewable energy respectively. to incorporated renewable energy sources in their new construction. The older structures are planned to be reno- Mitigation Actions vated and insulated for lower energy usage. Each public Paris’ carbon audit in 2004 showed that, tourism sec- housing authority will be provided with a thermal map of tor aside, three sectors are producing 80 percent of the its housing stock for any future renovation and thermal city’s emissions: buildings, passenger transport, and goods insulations. transport. Most of the mitigation measures proposed in the Paris Climate Plan focus on these sectors. In order to Paris is determined to supply 30 percent of its energy reduce energy consumption in the building sector, the city needs from renewable sources by 2020. Renewable ener- has launched a detailed plan to address energy efficiency gies will be incorporate into new constructions while the issues of governmental buildings and social housing. older structures will replace their source of energy with re- newable sources as much as possible. The electricity need- There are 3,000 public buildings in Paris, and the city ed for Paris’ facilities will be provided—as much as pos- plans to reduce their energy consumption by 39 percent sible—by green sources. The use of photovoltaic fixtures by 2020. In doing so, Paris focuses on reducing con- on street furniture in Paris is the subject of a technical sumption levels, improving energy efficiency, and using study to determine its feasibility. The city also launched a renewable energy sources. To reduce energy consump- design competition for a zero-energy street kiosk that uses tion in public buildings, the first step was to organize an renewable energy sources. The new land-use regulations information campaign and public energy consumption for public land will take into consideration the sustain- figures, to inform the employees about climate change ability measures for granting permits. and its negative impacts. In addition, each public build- Energy audit and renovation of Paris’ ing is subject to an energy audit by the city to determine building stock the necessary budget for renovations and thermal insula- tions. The city’s public buildings will be subject to ther- Paris is a city of history and culture. Many of the city’s mal renovations, which will reduce GHG emissions by 100,000 buildings are historic and worthy of preserva- 12 percent. Insulations are planned to be installed on the tion. While the density and compactness of the old town outside of the buildings. However, due to the historic planning system adds to the energy efficiency of the city nature of many of these structures, a working group has as a whole, individual buildings need to be renovated been formed to work with government entities respon- to adapt to the effects of climate change, such as urban sible for historic monuments. heat waves and colder winters. This is planned to be done 22 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities through insulating roofs, exterior walls, replacing old win- heat recovery from waste. Furthermore, the city is enhanc- dow frames and doors, and changes in the types of energy ing its recycling system and converting organic waste to used in the buildings. produce biogas and compost. Paris has launched a three-year pilot program to improve Urban Planning thermal and acoustic efficiency of its private buildings. The Paris’ “Development Zones” will adopt urban planning program works by providing the owners with financial as- provisions to ensure environmental quality by conducting sistance for including energy efficiency measurements on Environmental Impact Assessments and developing alter- their properties. This assistance is in the form of a subsidy native scenarios. The criteria used for choosing the best equivalent to 20 percent of the cost of energy efficiency scenario include energy efficiency, reduction in carbon renovations recommended in energy audits. The costs of footprint, development of renewable energies, promoting audits are subsidized by the public sector. density and high architectural quality, and measurements to reduce the rate of urban sprawl. A set of environmen- Additionally, the city has launched a program called the tal recommendations was published in 2004 to address “100,000 buildings plan” for renovation of all the build- the environmental aspects of construction and renovation ings in Paris. However, since the majority of Paris’ build- projects, from reducing site nuisances to managing energy. ings are co-owned, finding consensus to work on com- mon areas of buildings has been challenging; these areas Accordingly, the city published a sustainable develop- are usually where substantial energy saving measures can ment guide to advise municipalities on environmental be implemented. The plan, therefore focuses on aware- and social sustainability measures on every step of carbon- ness-raising and advocacy to achieve consensus within co- neutral urban development, from decision making to the owners’ associations. The city has provided some funding construction process. This document is prepared to guide for this program, in addition to developing innovative fi- municipalities on designing attractive public spaces, using nancial solutions. The city successfully partnered with the sustainable material, and moving to carbon-neutral urban banking sector to provide financing at attractive interest planning programs. When a major urban development rates and to adjust loan repayment charges to the cost- project is in progress, other investments will be planned to effectiveness of energy-saving measures that were taken. offset the additional emissions resulting from the new de- In addition to financing, the city supported the owners by velopment, by advanced insulation materials, envisioned providing advisory services allocating grants. high-density, and heat-recovery techniques. Energy distribution Transport In Paris, energy distribution is in the form of public-pri- Mitigation measures relating to the transport sector are vate partnership and is through concession holders. Paris focused on the City of Paris employees and on the gen- obliges the partner companies to ensure climate change eral public. City employees are encouraged to use vari- mitigation measures in their service delivery. These mea- ous kinds of public transport or share transport means to sures include air quality and reduction of GHG emissions, reduce emissions. In addition, the city’s new travel plan optimal management of natural resources, controls over targets a 60 percent reduction in emissions from inner- energy demand, and sound energy choices for the future. city traffic by 2020. Specific actions have been developed to achieve this goal. Waste Management Even before the Climate Plan, Paris used waste incinera- First and foremost, Paris is developing new forms of trans- tion to provide a good share of its energy. The incineration port as an alternative to private cars and is giving prior- process works with an improved renewable energy mix to ity to clean vehicles. The actions include the extension of reduce the use of coal. Under the new provisions, the city the tram system, expanding the major bus network, the of Paris will build a new incineration plant to consolidate extension of metro lines and metro service hours, a bet- Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 23 Figure 9. The Paris municipality close to the Seine River abadesign/Shutterstock.com ter public transport linkage between Paris and its suburbs, that the energy renovation work on historic buildings will and development of a river-boat shuttle on the Seine. In create an additional 100,000 jobs. Aligned with the coun- addition, Paris is enhancing its inter-mobility by facili- try as a whole, the City of Paris will encourage large and tating transfers on various modes of public transport and small industries, labs, and universities to develop a job from bus/bicycle to suburban lines. One last category of cluster on eco-industries. In addition, the city will develop this set of actions is development of “soft” transport alter- a business incubator dedicated to eco-industries and will natives. These include a bike-sharing system, lowering the contract with eco-industry SMEs to encourage this type speed limit of motor vehicles, and the creation of pedes- of business development. trian streets. Sustainable Tourism Secondly, Paris encourages businesses, social partners, and Paris is one of the major tourism destinations in the public offices to follow its “Enterprise Transport Plan” world. It receives about 27 million visitors every year. The to increase access for employees and customers, while tourism industry is a major contributor to France’s GDP, reducing travel times and traffic volume. The city will while creating about 300,000 jobs, directly or indirectly. advise businesses on their mobility needs and setting up Unfortunately, air travel is part of any tourism industry their operations in the city’s planned development zones. and a major polluter of the environment. Paris’ carbon Lastly, by analyzing travel demand, Paris will give prior- audit found out that each year, 4 million tons coal equiva- ity to business purposes associated with specific industry lent of GHGs emissions is resulted from air travel. How- sectors, while reducing nuisance, pollution, and negative ever, most tourists use the city’s metro system while in environmental impacts. Paris, accounting for 10 percent of the city’s metro usage. The Paris Climate Protection Plan set up several actions Green Jobs to reduce the impacts of its leading industry on the en- France expects to add 75,000 new jobs in the renewable vironment. These actions include improving inventories energy sector and 50,000 jobs in the wood-energy sec- and awareness of tourism’s impact, increasing awareness tor by 2015. France’s Environmental Agency also predicts among tourism sector professionals, promoting the use of 24 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities less polluting means of transport when possible, reduc- Planting trees ing the environmental impacts of tourist buses, extending The role of trees in curbing global warming is obvious. public transport services, incorporating the Climate Pro- Green open spaces and roof gardens contribute to improv- tection Plan into the city’s tourism policy, and offsetting ing the water cycle by limiting impervious areas and re- emissions caused by air travel by developing sustainable ducing the amount of water flowing into the gutters. Fur- development measures in other sectors. thermore, they create shades and cool urban environment, which allows for social integration as well as preventing Adaptation Measures pollution. Paris is planting trees to help prevent climate While Paris’ Climate Plan is heavily focused on mitiga- change and adapt to its effects. More than 250 wall gar- tion measures, it also lays out a framework for adaptation dens have so far been completed. The roof gardens are also actions: being created for insulation use. Paris is promoting the role of community gardens on public land. Just in 2007, Heat wave plan about 10,000 sqm of community gardens were developed and much more is in progress. By 2008, 100,000 trees To adapt to heat wave events, Paris acknowledges the ef- were planted in the streets of Paris. fect of air pollution on increasing the intensity of heat waves and therefore has restricted urban motor vehicle Flood Risk Protection Plan traffic during heat waves. The risk of heat waves is espe- cially high for Paris. The city was built based on a pleasant Paris Risk Protection Plan aims to prepare Paris in case climate and the historic structures are designed to pre- of a flood. It has developed measures for the city facili- serve the heat inside their elements and release it at night. ties and infrastructure to be able to continue service for Spaces under roofs with poor insulation, which were not several days after a potential flood. Paris Climate Plan has intended for habitat, have turned into living spaces. Many required public service providers to provide ground floors of these poorly insulated spaces are home to poor and vul- of buildings in flood-prone areas with service networks nerable groups. which would continue to work in case of a flood. To reduce the risk of heat waves, the city plans to: i) up- Carbon offsetting date a database of self-enrolled elderly and disabled people Some emissions are unavoidable. To reduce the effects to be able to check on them during heat waves. ii) partner of such emissions (such as air transport) Paris will make with groups of doctors and chemists and younger volun- investments to reduce emissions elsewhere. The city is in- teer population willing to provide support and services to volved in projects regarding energy efficiency, renewable the vulnerable groups during heat waves, and iii) adjust energies, and planting forests in developing countries to working hours and conditions for city employees to cope make up for its GHG emissions. In collaboration with with heat waves. Moreover, the city administration will France’s National Forest Authority, Paris will plant 2,000 monitor the effects of heat waves on local wildlife. hectares of forests in the next 5 years, reducing emissions equivalent to 400,000 tons of CO2. Adapting buildings One consequence of heat waves is the extreme increase in the use of air conditioners, which is a big contributor to GHG emissions. To reduce the usage of air condition- ers, Paris Climate Plan has envisioned measurements to prevent overheating of the buildings by creating a whole business sector around summer comfort. The actions in- clude installation of insulations on buildings exteriors, shutters and blinds for the windows, ventilation and hu- midification, and active cooling systems. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 25 TUNIS Figure 10. Medina of Tunis Witold Ryka/Thinkstock.com The Medina of Tunis was listed as a World Heritage site in for Mediterranean Integration (CMI), explains these risks 1979, due to its collection of about 700 monuments in- in detail for the period between 2010 and 2030. The re- cluding mosques, palaces, mausoleums, and madrassas. To- port indicates that in addition to natural risks threaten- day the city consists of three parts: the Medina, the French ing the city, urbanization and population growth will also quarter, and the newer sections in the south and north of raise the risks of climate change impacts. the city.17 The Medina of Tunis—expanding over 270 hect- ares—is still inhabited by local residents while being a ma- The current trends of urban growth show that the expan- jor tourist attraction. The three main Islamic monuments sion of the city will be in the form of low-density develop- of the city are located here: the Great Mosque, the Zitouna ment going beyond its natural limits, including develop- Mosque, and the Palace, in addition to the city’s main “Suq” ment on hillsides and in flood prone areas. This is a result of or market. The organic network of streets and public spaces the emerging middle-class who tends to live in the suburbs defines the boundaries of monuments and buildings. The of the city in areas near the water. The lower-income classes monuments manifest various tiers of historic development reside in the denser areas of the city in the west and south- of Tunis, dating back to the early Islamic period and the west districts. In terms of geographic distribution, the most Ottoman influence of 1500s.18 vulnerable urban area appears to be “Basse Ville” or “lower city”, also known as the French or European Quarter, a Risks dense urban neighborhood, located between the Tunis port While the medina of Tunis is located in a lower risk area and the Medina, exposed to the risks of flooding, marine compared to other parts of the city, Tunis as a whole is ex- submersion, and geological instability. The major categories posed to high risks resulted from climate change. A World of risk to Tunis are summarized below.19 Bank report, published in July 2011 by Marseille Center 19 Climate Change Adaptation and Natural Disasters Preparedness in Coastal 17 UNESCO. Cities of North Africa. Final Report. July 2011. http://www.cmimarseille. 18 Organization of World Heritage Cities. com/Cities-and-climate-change.php Accessed November 2011. 26 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Ground instability/seismicity: The location of Tunis at tive work is in progress. The adaptation measures include the edge of a zone of active tectonic convergence between massive beach nourishment, in addition to construction European and African plates, exposes the city to high of breakwaters and groins. Currently, about 16 kilometers seismic risks. The city and its surrounding areas have a of Tunis’s coastline is considered at risk of erosion. This gradient generally over five percent in the northwest and number is projected to increase to 27 kilometers in 2030. the southeast. The slopes increase the risk of ground insta- bility, which can result in landslides and rock movements. Flooding: Tunis is exposed to severe risk of flooding. The Ground instability can increase the risk of seismicity. The main areas at risk in Tunis are areas around the lake or increase in built-up areas due to urbanization on vulner- areas crossed by wadis21, which are also densely populated able soils and unstable grounds and areas of high subsis- and urbanized and occupied by informal settlements and tence will increase the geographic distribution of seismic pre-war city centers. The latest floods occurred in Septem- risks. Tunis is exposed to “medium” risk level, mostly in ber 2003 with 186 mm of rain in 24 hours. This event the area of structural damages to buildings, which may re- is expected to occur once in a century. Water levels of sult in collapses and structural damages. The “Basse Ville” 50 to 100 cm were observed and a total surface area of as well as informal urban settlements with their dense resi- 4,500 hectares was flooded. Climate change is expected dential areas built with poor quality material are in danger to change the frequency and intensity of exceptional pre- of land subsidence. cipitation events. Excessive urbanization will have a mag- nifying effect on climate change outcomes. For example, Tsunami marine submersion:20 The urbanized and in- urbanization will change the current rate of waterproofed dustrial areas in areas known as Basse Ville, Radès, Ezzahra ground surface from 31 percent to 47 percent, which will and Hammam Lif Ouest of Tunis, along with North and pose an obstacle to drainage. South Lakes’ shores are considered vulnerable to marine submersion. In 2010, 4,500 hectares of Tunis’ waterfront Water Scarcity: The Northern Africa region suffers from urban areas were at risk of flooding and it is expected that water scarcity, especially in successive dry years. Northern this will increase to 5,500 hectares in 2030. Structural Tunisia experienced such years in 1987-1990 and 1993- damages to the buildings located on the sea-front, and 1995. Droughts are expected to happen every 30 years. submersion of low areas can be expected as a result of The city of Tunis’ main water supply channel is Mejerda- tsunami risks. Urbanization along the seafront and lake- Cap Bon canal which accumulates water from the wadis shores in Tunis will increase the city’s vulnerability. in the north of Tunisia which in turn receive their flows from various dams. The governmental entity responsible Coastal erosion: Erosion can happen due to different for water supply in Tunis collects 13 percent of its flows factors such as long term physical trends, construction from this canal for Greater Tunis’ drinking water supply of dams, or presence of hard structure in the beaches. while using most of the remaining water for irrigation. However, a more contemporary form of erosion is due Tunisia started a drought management program after to sea level rise. Tunis’ coastal areas have been undergoing the successive dry years of 1993-1995. The program set natural erosion for at least 50 years. The rate of erosion restrictions on agriculture use and increased the quality has attained one meter per year on average. Nevertheless, of urban drinking water. Water scarcity will be a major the coastline in the future may recede up to 10 meters problem for Tunis in 2030 with the current rate of ur- per year in some stretches of local beaches, on account of banization. The usage of water from Mejerda-Cap Bon forecasted sea-level rise. The projected sea level rise of 20 canal will go up to 32 percent with already planned urban cm by 2030 will increase the rate of erosion, resulting in development projects. receding of the coastline. The city is already planning on adapting to this phenomenon and therefore some protec- 20 Marine submersions are flooding of coastal regions during natural disasters 21 Wadi in the Arabic language is a riverbed or a stream, which carries water in such as tsunamis and storm surges due to weather conditions and sea level the event of heavy rain or floods. In historic Arab town planning system and rise. in Medinas, wadis are considered the main drainage network of the city. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 27 Figure 11. French Quarter ■■ Zoning and planning regulations to prevent exposure to risks ■■ Ecological framework to reduce environmental hazards ■■ Urban risk reduction in the French Quarter ■■ Environmental approach to large urban development projects Earthquake risk management ■■ Establishment of a national seismic map and zoning ■■ Development of the network of seismic monitoring and recording ■■ Finalization of the seismic micro zoning of Tunis and its integration into urban development plans ■■ Analysis of subsidence phenomena and zoning the hazards resulting from ground movements at the scale of planning documents of Tunis ■■ Vulnerability analysis of existing buildings Risk control of erosion and marine flooding ■■ Changes in legislative framework for maritime public WitR/Shutterstock.com domain ■■ Development of a tsunami warning system ■■ Improvement of knowledge on the tsunami in Tunis ■■ Prevention of potential marine inundation along the coast of Tunis Adaptation Actions ■■ Enhancement of the local knowledge on the evolution of coastal beaches Unlike Paris, most of the strategies for dealing with climate change in Tunis are focused on adaptation rather than miti- ■■ Development of a strategy to fight against erosion and gation. These strategies discussed in the World Bank study the river between Rades Seltene have been organized into three groups: infrastructure and ■■ Monitoring the development and maintenance of the technical measures; urban planning; and institutional pre- North coast of the Gulf of Tunis paredness, training and awareness-raising. The actionable measures identified by the report are the following: Flood protection ■■ System monitoring and flood warning systems Actions against multiple hazard risks ■■ Hydraulic Management of urbanized areas exposed to ■■ Institutional coordination to reduce natural hazards flood risk and for adaptation to climate change ■■ Limiting the water level of the Sebkha Sedjoumi and ■■ Advanced planning, operational response and flood protection along the river streamlining of procedures for managing natural ■■ Run-off management for new neighborhoods or in hazards urban rehabilitation projects ■■ Implementation of planning regulations ■■ Control measures for suburban sprawl in order to ■■ Insurance against the impact of major risks and control runoff climate change ■■ Investments to protect the Basse Ville from flooding 28 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities ■■ Management and monitoring of the lake water levels Management of water resources and the port ■■ Monitor and optimize water consumption ■■ Investments for protection against flooding for all major urban watersheds ■■ Maintenance of networks, waterways and dams to reduce flood risk EDINBURGH Figure 12. Old and new Edinburgh Brendan Howard/Shutterstock.com Edinburgh is a harmonious juxtaposition of organic me- plan with a precise street network, which is laid out in a dieval and planned neoclassical town systems. The com- hierarchical way. The buildings shape a harmonious façade bination of Old and New Towns of Edinburgh was listed with consistent material (sandstones and slate roofs) and as World Heritage in 1995. The Old Town represents the shape.23 What makes Edinburgh a unique historic city is Scottish enlightenment while the new town exemplifies that the World Heritage site includes a large portion of the its thinking and ideals.22 The buildings in the Old Town city center which functions as a living urban environment. have continuous and unified façades, neatly bordering the The World Heritage status has helped the city with eco- streets. Behind the streets, the urban fabric tends to be nomic development and has highlighted the importance of more fragmented and organically shaped, with random the city as the political and economic heart of Scotland. A enclosed gardens scattered across the fabric. On the other city of nearly 500,000 inhabitants, Edinburgh is the sec- hand, the buildings of the New Town were built upon a ond largest tourist destination in the UK generating about 22 UNESCO. 23 Organization of World Heritage Cities. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 29 Figure 13. Edinburgh World Heritage City next to the river jean morrison/Shutterstock.com £2 billion income a year from tourist receipts.24 The city prepared an information catalogue, which outlines meth- constantly renews itself by long-term investments in build- ods to reduce risk of fire, fire safety management, and sup- ing conservation and quality new buildings. pression and detection systems. In addition, the Council works with the Fire and Rescue Services to develop and Risks manage a database on historic buildings. This database provides fire-fighting crews with information on the im- Edinburgh Management Plan acknowledges that there are portance and value of category ‘A’ listed buildings.27 threats to the World Heritage site posed by the impacts of climate change. Among these impacts are fire and floods. Flood risk mainly comes from “the Water of Leith”, which While fires are not predictable, the flood risk has been is the main river of Edinburgh. This threat became clear studied and identified in a limited part of Edinburgh’s when after a period of heavy rainfall in April of 2000, the World Heritage Site around the Dean Village and Stock- riverbanks broke and about 500 neighboring properties bridge. It is estimated that Scotland will experience about were damaged. In order to prevent similar events, the city a 20-30 percent increase in peak river flows by the 2080.25 developed a flood prevention scheme in 2003 (and a revi- In addition, climate change can impact the architectural sion in 2007) with regards to effects of climate change in quality of the World Heritage City. For example, it can the next 200 years. The “water of Leith” management plan speed up stone decay or can cause possible damage to the acknowledges the role of river, not only as a natural resource integrity of historic buildings from adaptation actions to but also as an integral part of the World Heritage of Edin- reduce emissions.26 burgh. While aiming at maintaining a clean urban river, the plan also emphasizes on promoting awareness about Leith’s Actions natural, cultural and historical heritage. The management To address the risk of fire damage to Old and New Towns plan also aims at identifying, safeguarding, and promoting of Historic Scotland, the City of Edinburgh Council has features of archaeological and cultural importance.28 24 The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh World Heritage Site, Management 27 Edinburgh World Heritage management plan has divided the buildings in Plan 2011-2016. Old and New Towns into three categories: A, B, and C, based on their archi- 25 JBA Consulting, 2007. tectural and historic significance. 26 The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh World Heritage Site, Management 28 The Water of Leith Management Scheme. http://www.waterofleith.org.uk/ Plan 2011-2016. management/ Accessed October 2011. 30 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities The Water of Leith scheme emphasizes building flood In 2006, to project energy demand for heat and electric- protection walls, sound reservoir management and main- ity and develop emissions reductions actions, the City of tenance of flood plains, by restricting development where Edinburgh Council commissioned a report called “Pow- necessary. Water reservoirs were designed originally to ering Edinburgh into the 21st century”. The report as- supplement low water-flows for mills during dry seasons. sumes that the target for building-related emissions is Today, they are used to protect the city against down- the same as the target for overall emissions, including stream flooding. By discharging extra water from the res- those from transport and industry. Due to population ervoirs, they can play an active role in flood protection. increase and demolition of some old housing units, Ed- The water scheme also includes a rain retention section, inburgh is expected to need 27,200 new dwellings in which suggests contour ploughing, tree planting, urban 2025. Meanwhile, the city plans to improve insulation agriculture, and creation of wetlands. The water scheme in existing units to decrease heat demand by 10 percent, will also contribute to improved water quality, while es- while the average domestic boiler efficiency is assumed tablishing limitations against development, which may to increase to 86 percent. Electricity demand per dwell- lead to a significant increase in the risk of flooding. ing is assumed to remain the same. The new dwellings are expected to have considerably lower heat demand The city of Edinburgh has prepared an extensive manage- and 20 percent less electricity demand, while their aver- ment plan for the World Heritage site. This plan specifi- age domestic boiler efficiency is assumed to be 92 per- cally addresses climate change issues under the Scottish cent. Overall, Edinburgh is expected to have 25 percent Government’s agenda regarding climate change. The reduction in annual heat demand and 30 percent reduc- Scottish Climate Change Programme was published in tion in electricity usage by 2050.31 March 2006 with ambitious goals of leading the Northern European climate change agenda. The goal of the plan is “Powering Edinburgh into the 21st century” suggests that to reduce the current carbon emissions by 26.7 percent the most certain way the city can meet its emissions re- by 2050 (compared to the 2005 baseline). The World duction goals is to proceed with the Decentralized Energy Heritage management plan also establishes a relationship (DE) scenario.32 This scheme includes gas-engine com- between the natural heritage and cultural heritage of Ed- bined heat and power (CHP). CHP has several environ- inburgh and acknowledges the role of natural heritage in mental benefits. The plan suggests that Edinburgh works the universal value of Edinburgh, which consists of ar- on a community heating (CH) system to encourage the chitectural spaces and gardens. Therefore, the open spaces usage of CHP. The historic sections of the city can be bar- within the site and those on its edges, along with Water of riers to this initiative. However, the plan suggests that the Leith, contribute to this setting. operation cannot be more invasive than establishing pipe utilities or communication networks. Community heat- The Edinburgh Biodiversity Action Plan is another in- ing networks have been successfully installed in other his- strument designed to provide a framework for ensuring toric cities in Europe such as Copenhagen, Amsterdam, that the integrity of Edinburgh as a whole is conserved and Paris.33 as a World Heritage city.29 The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh World Heritage Site Action Plan have further actionable measures. It plans to address the issues of fuel poverty and changes of energy behavior in the Edinburgh World Heritage city and to develop mechanisms for adapting historic buildings to reduce carbon reductions.30 31 Powering Edinburgh into the 21st century. November 2006. http://www. 29 The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh World Heritage Site, Management localpower.org/documents/reporto_greenpeace_poweringedinburgh.pdf. Plan 2011-2016. 32 DE includes a mix of decentralized energy sources and conventional central- 30 Edinburgh World Heritage Site Action Plan. August 2011. http://www. ized energy generation. edinburgh.gov.uk/downloads/file/5655/edinburgh_old_and_new_towns_ 33 Powering Edinburgh into the 21st century. November 2006. http://www. world_heritage_site_draft_action_plan. localpower.org/documents/reporto_greenpeace_poweringedinburgh.pdf. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 31 MEXICO CITY Figure 14. Metropolitan Cathedral Colman Lerner Gerardo/Shutterstock.com One of the best-preserved historic cities in the world, and landslides. About 40 percent of the city’s 4.6 million Mexico City manifests the coexistence of the Aztec and vulnerable inhabitants live in high risk areas, prone to Spanish cultures. It was built in the 16th century after landslides, extreme precipitation, and heat waves. Spanish invaders attacked the Valley of Mexico in search of gold. Mexico City’s Zocalo, the heart of its historic Consistent with other parts of the world, temperature in center, is an esplanade superimposed on the earlier Az- the Mexico Valley is increasing, which contributes to a tec square of Tenochtitlan, surrounded by structures that major heat island effect for the city. Projections confirm vary in style, from Neoclassical to Baroque, to Aztec tradi- that the mean temperature will increase by 2–3 degrees by tional architecture.34 Mexico City was inscribed as World the end of the century. The number of heat waves (days Heritage in 1987. Mexico City today is the largest met- with temperatures over 30 degrees) has increased and will ropolitan area in Latin America and one of the largest in increase in the future. The increase in temperature causes the world. Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) has floods and droughts. a population estimated at 21.2 million (18 percent of the country’s total population), and it generates about 21.8 On average the annual precipitation rate for Mexico City percent of Mexico’s GDP.35 is about 700–900 mm. The western region of MCMA has Risks the highest rate of precipitation, and this trend is expected to continue to reach a rate of over 30 mm/hour of rain Mexico City is vulnerable to various risks. The most im- during September and October, which presents the city portant risks of climate change for MCMA are tempera- with the risk of floods and landslides. This is very critical ture increase, heat waves and droughts, flooding, storms, considering the poor and vulnerable groups who reside on 34 Organization of World Heritage Cities. hillsides with slopes more than 15 degrees. The increase 35 World Bank 2011. in precipitation also increases the risk of water run-offs, 32 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities Figure 15. Mexico City Museum of Fine Arts Mauricio Avramow/Shutterstock.com especially given the current drainage system, which pres- world in not so high.38 However, due to Mexico City’s ents a great risk to the well-being of Mexico City’s large size and population, the effect of such emissions on the homeless population.36 UNESCO also identified the country and on the planet is significant. Some of these major risks to the historic center, which includes seismic effects have already been manifested in Mexico City by an instability and continued sinking of the city caused by the increase in the number and intensity of rain events and depletion of the aquifer. landslides and an increase in the mean annual tempera- ture. About 88 percent of GHG emissions in Mexico City Actions are the result of energy consumption. Mexico City is the first city in Latin America to prepare a Mitigation Actions climate change action plan, called Plan Verde. This plan is a combination of mitigation and adaptation measures The expected emissions reductions have been allocated to designated to reduce emissions while preparing the city different sectors: 12 percent to the water sector, 10 percent to adapt to consequences of climate change. Plan Verde is to the energy sector, 35 percent in the waste sector, and 42 designed for a 4-year period from 2008 to 2012. It plans percent in the transportation sector. Each sector specific to i) reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent emissions by actions are described below.39 seven million tons from 2008 to 2012, and ii) initiate an integrated program for adaptation to climate change to be Energy sector: most of the plan’s actions in the energy fully functional by 2012.37 sector are related to energy use in buildings. In the hous- ing sub-sector, new funding for sustainable multi-family Mexico City’s GHG emissions per capita is calculated at housing is envisioned to construct housing complexes 4.25 tons of CO2 equivalent for the city proper and 2.84 equipped with solar power plants, energy and water sav- in MCMA, which compared to other megacities of the 36 Climate Change, Disaster Risk And The Urban Poor: Cities Building Resil- 38 World Bank data accessed October 2011 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ ience For A Changing World. World Bank 2010. INTUWM/Resources/GHG_Index_May_18.pdf. 37 Mexico City Climate Action Plan 2008-2012 http://www.sma.df.gob.mx/ 39 Mexico City Climate Action Plan 2008-2012 http://www.sma.df.gob.mx/ sma/links/download/archivos/paccm_summary.pdf, accessed October 2011. sma/links/download/archivos/paccm_summary.pdf, accessed October 2011. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 33 ing systems, rain water collection and reuse infrastructure, Adaptation Actions waste-water treatment plants, and absorption walls. Be- Some of the mitigation measures in the water sector yond housing complexes, the plan lays out an environ- described above also act as adaptation measures. For ex- mental certification system for commercial and residential ample, the city plans to improve its infrastructure to pre- properties in Mexico City while promoting the use of re- vent leakage and rehabilitate pipe sectioning, which will newable energy sources. The plan urges the Mexico City help rationalize water usage for coping with its scarcity. In Government to reduce its energy footprint by using an addition, Mexico City has prepared an adaptation plan energy-efficient lighting system in public buildings and with medium- and long-term strategies to moderate pos- for public transport and street lighting. In parallel, the sible damage and forecast risk. government distributed 10 million compact fluorescent lamps to residential buildings. The plan envisions two groups of adaptation measures: early alert system and medium-term actions. The first Water sector: the major part of the water action plan in group includes six actions. One is an early warning system Mexico City is focused on reduction of sludge emissions for the Valley of Mexico through the Metropolitan Hydro- from the city’s biological treatment plant. The city also meteorological Monitoring and Forecasting System. This established a home water savings program to reduce the initiative aims at identifying risks to the citizens and de- water demand by 2.2 m3/s by installation of low-flow toi- fines short-, medium-, and long-term actions. In order to lets and water saving accessories. In parallel, the city made deal with the threat of heavy rains, the plan integrates a improvements to the water infrastructure to prevent leaks micro-basin management component for the urban riv- and water loss while installing electrical energy generators ers. The plan also lays out an action plan for providing as- in hydro plants. Finally, the sewage system of Mexico City sistance to the vulnerable groups in areas prone to extreme was improved to reduce emission from the septic system. climate events such as droughts or heavy rains. Another actions is to set up a remote detection and monitoring Transport sector: the plan expects to reduce most emis- system for forest fires. Epidemiological monitoring in sions in the transport sector by 10 different actions. One the context of climate change, and as a result of extreme major step for this sector is the obligatory school transport climate events, is also included in the plan. Last but not system, expected to reduce 471,000 CO2 equivalent tons least, the plan envisages protecting and recuperating the per year by gradually changing the transportation mode native crops and herbs in order to maintain the diversity for students from private to public transport. The next and resilience of agro-systems. major steps for the city are to construct an additional metro line and replace taxis with new energy-efficient ve- The second group of adaptation measures focuses on me- hicles. In parallel, nine Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors dium-term goals, mostly in the rural zone of Mexico City with 200 km of restricted lanes and 800 tandem buses Metropolitan Area. Two major actions target micro-basin will replace the city’s 3,000 microbuses, while high capac- management by conservation of soil and water on agri- ity vehicles will replace medium capacity vehicle service cultural lands. In addition, this set of actions intelligently concession. The city also established a vehicle inspection addresses the issue of genetically modified foods and sug- program for trucks and plans to replace its vehicle stock gests fomentation of organic agricultural production. Soil with energy-efficient cars by 2012. recovery and reforestation is also included for the rural zone of Mexico City. For the urban zone of the city, roof- Waste sector: the city plans to take a major step to capture top greening is proposed. and exploit the biogas emitted from its major landfill by building a gas-fired power plant. Also, a compost produc- tion plant in Central de Abostos market will be constructed to exploit the daily 700 tons of organic waste. The city is also rethinking its recycling system and modernizing its waste transfer stations and waste collection vehicles. 34 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities HUÉ Figure 16. Hue historic city Stephen Chung/Shutterstock.com Hué, the former capital of Vietnam was listed as a World from various kinds of natural disasters such as typhoons Heritage city in 1993 and represents the art, architecture, and and tropical cyclones causing heavy rain and landslide. town planning system of the Vietnamese feudal empire. The The area has the highest amount of rainfall in the country, complex of monuments in Hué are planned and built based ranging from five meters per year in the higher-altitude on ancient oriental philosophy and Vietnamese traditions. areas to three meters per year in the city of Hué. About 66 Laid out symmetrically on a north-south axis, the elements percent of this rainfall occurs from September to Novem- of this urban ensemble—Capital City, Imperial City, Forbid- ber each year.42 As a result of these floods, Hué is faced den City, Inner City, and the Coastal Bastion—are designed with soil erosion and degradation, and saltwater intrusion, in accordance with the natural site to protect the imperial which in turn can cause changes in availability of fish for dynasty against assaults from the land and sea.40 The major- fisherman communities, affecting their livelihoods.43 ity of buildings are built with brick, however wood elements and colorful tiles have added to the beauty and mysticism of On the other hand, Hué is also impacted by droughts ev- Hué.41 Hué has a population of 350,000 with a population ery year. This is due to the increase in length of the dry density of 4,660 persons per km2. seasons and insufficient water resources. During this dry season, river flows diminish to the extent that sea water Risks moves up into the river and penetrates the residential wa- ter intake of the Hué city.44 One important economic loss Hué is the capital of Thua Thien-Hué Province, located at due to sea-level rise is an estimated 28.8 percent loss in the banks of Huong River. Hué is one of the most disaster tourism revenues, according to the National Center for prone cities in Vietnam and is ranked first among World Heritage Cities on the Mutli-hazard Risk Index. The sea- 42 Climate Change Impacts In Huong River Basin And Adaptation In Its Coast- sons change drastically from long dry seasons to short al District Phu Vang, Ha Noi—December 2005. Netherlands Climate As- rainy seasons with very high rainfall in a short period of sistance Programme. 43 Enhancing Human Security, the Environment and Disaster Management. time, which is the main cause of floods. The region suffers Hue, Viet Nam. Submitted to Asian Development Bank (http://www.adb. org/Documents/Reports/Consultant/REG/37715/37715-02-reg-tacr.pdf ). 44 Climate Change Impacts In Huong River Basin And Adaptation In Its Coast- 40 UNESCO al District Phu Vang, Ha Noi—December 2005. Netherlands Climate As- 41 Organization of World Heritage Cities. sistance Programme. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 35 Figure 17. An example of deterioration of the historic monuments of Hué jejim/Shutterstock.com Hydro-Meteorological Forecasting. The estimated one- tors: water resources, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, coastal meter increase in the sea level could cause the touristic zones, energy and transport, and human health. Within beaches of Thua Thien-Hué Province to disappear. The these sectors, some specific activities relate to the urban economic loss is estimated at 10 percent of GDP.45 environment. In the water sector, adaptation actions focus on building water reservoirs, upgrading existing sea and Climate change is negatively impacting these already ad- river-mouth dykes, and conducting studies in long-term verse climatic conditions. In a report published by the water resource prediction. In the coastal zone manage- Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment of ment sector, the plan suggests building protection mea- Vietnam, it is projected that the annual mean temperature sures and relocating settlements and infrastructure in the in Vietnam will increase by 1.1–1.9°C and 2.1–3.6°C in threatened areas. The energy sector focuses on rational low and high emissions scenarios, respectively. The same and efficient use of energy. report predicts that the rainfall increase will be 1–5.2 percent and 1.8–10.1 percent in low and high emissions Mitigation Actions scenarios, respectively, and the sea level rise is likely to be The Government of Vietnam has integrated environmental in the range of 65–100cm.46 concerns and GHG mitigation strategies in its develop- ment plans. These plans are still in process of development Adaptation Actions and currently serve as guidelines only. Among the urban The city of Hué does not have a standalone adaption or mitigation measures, the plan focuses on developing new mitigation plan yet. However, the Government has pre- and renewable forms of energy (such as solar, wind, and pared general plans for both mitigation and adaptation. hydro power-plants) and on sustainable use of existing On adaptation actions, the plan is focused on these sec- energy resources. For example, the government plans to improve lighting efficiency of households, commercial fa- cilities, and public areas. In addition, the country plans to 45 http://vietnambusiness.asia/vietnam-central-province-faces-28-8-tourism- loss-due-to-climate-change/ Accessed October 2011. achieve methane recovery from large landfills in and around 46 Vietnam Assessment Report on Climate Change. Institute of Strategy and the cities.47 Policy on Natural Resources and Environment. Hanoi, 2009. http://www. unep.org/pdf/dtie/VTN_ASS_REP_CC.pdf Accessed October 2011. 47 Same source. 36 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities QUITO Figure 18. San Francisco plaza in historic Quito Ammit Jack/Shutterstock.com Quito was the first World Heritage City inscribed by bination contributes to the already existing water-shortage UNESCO on the World Heritage List in 1978. A fusion problem of Quito. In parallel, it is projected that the con- of Spanish, Italian, Moorish, Flemish, and indigenous ar- tribution of water supply from glaciers will also be reduced chitecture, Quito’s historic center and buildings present a in the course of the century. Water shortage seems to be the specific style of architecture and town planning as famous main risk faced by Quito due to a decrease in precipitation as the “Baroque School of Quito”. Laid out in rectangu- and reduction of water stream flows as a result of climate lar squares, the buildings of historic Quito are made of change. Moreover, the risk of natural disasters has also in- stucco-covered bricks and in Spanish or Moorish style.48 creased in Quito. These include urban floods due to melt- ing of glaciers, landslides in the mountain slopes, mud and Quito is the second highest capital city in the world, lo- debris flows from ravines, increased run off and erosion of cated about 2,800 meters above the sea level in the Andes soil, and risks to the infrastructure.50 Mountains and on the border of the Pichincha Volcano. The city is laid out on a complex topography with regular Quito’s Climate Change Strategy blocks, a central civic square and several other secondary (QCCS) squares all surrounded by palaces and religious buildings The authors of Quito’s Climate Change Strategy have used of the 16th to 18th century.49 Today, Quito has a popula- the city’s ecological footprint as a planning tool and have tion of 2.1 million, of which 43.5 percent live below the aimed at a sound local response to adverse risks of cli- national poverty line. mate change. The QCCS is a combination of mitigation and adaptation measures. It was approved in 2009 with Risks the main objective of developing comprehensive policies The annual mean temperature of Quito has increased by that guarantee the implementation of adequate, crosscut- 1.2°C in the last 100 years. At the same time a precipitation ting, and equitable adaptation and mitigation measures to decrease of 8 mm per decade has been observed. This com- counteract climate change.51 48 UNESCO. 50 Moreno, 2010. 49 Organization of World Heritage Cities. 51 ibidem. Case Studies of WHC Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 37 Figure 19. Historic urban fabric of Quito almondd/Shutterstock.com Actions established a social forestry initiative to engage local and indigenous communities. In addition, the municipality QCCS’s adaptation plan has five separate areas: i) eco- also established an inclusive informal recycling program. systems and biodiversity; ii) drinking water provision; iii) health; iv) infrastructure and productive systems, QCCS has laid out a detailed Water Master Plan from including hydroelectric power; and v) risk management. 2010 to 2040, which includes strategic short,- medi- The city is gathering all the necessary information for a um- and long-term plans. Within the master plan, Quito climate change database by preparing vegetation maps, addresses the issue of increased demand for water by reduc- maps of forest fires, a local GHG inventory, watershed ing water loss and consumption, in addition to increasing models, and monitoring systems for glaciers. In addition, water supply and invest in storm water drainage system. the municipality is in process of developing vulnerability The city has established an investment fund called Water analysis, socio-economic and poverty analysis, land-use Protection Financial Fund, or FONAG, for  watershed analysis, and a climate change information system.52 conservation. FONAG has been operating through a Quito is determined to use education and communica- trust (contributed to by Quito’s water company with 1.5 tion to involve citizens in the climate change adaptation percent of the amount of its billing) since January 2000. process. To this end, the municipality, with help of the Currently FONAG is in charge of contributing to several World Bank, has developed “Quito’s Youth Action on programs on  watersheds, education, and environmental Climate Change” to educate and inform the youth in monitoring, with an operating budget of US$ 6.6 million. marginalized neighborhoods about the effects of climate change and ways to cope with it.53 The city also devel- Furthermore, the eco-neighborhoods program works on oped a joint research agenda with local  universities and neighborhood scale water conservation through incorpo- rating innovative concepts in residential water manage- 52 Zambrano-Barragán et al., 2010. ment and wastewater separation in homes. The Control 53 Moreno, 2010. and Reduction of Unaccounted Water (ANC) Program is 38 Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities another action taken by the Municipality of Quito, which In addition to the Water Master Plan, the Municipality began in 2007. This program is in the process of install- of Quito has also prepared a Fire Plan, a  contingency ing meters and implementing the Telemetry and Control plan, and is in process of relocating the  families living System.  in risk-prone areas.  Climate change considerations have been integrated in land use planning and watershed man- Quito launched a Hillside Management Program in agement, and the city has taken actions for slope protec- 1997. The program focused on integrated management of tion, reforestation, and ecosystem restoration, and has set slopes on northern and central Quito to reduce the threats up campaigns for efficient water and energy use.55 they  pose on the city. So far, an investment of approxi- mately US$ 40 million has been made to mitigate and re- duce risks on the slopes of northern and central Quito.54 54 Zambrano-Barragán et al., 2010. 55 ibidem. Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities 39 References Baker, J. L., & World Bank. (2012). 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Climate-resilient, Climate-friendly World Heritage Cities 41 Previous knowledge papers in this series Lessons and Experiences from Mainstreaming Cities and Climate Change: An Urgent Agenda HIV/AIDS into Urban/Water Daniel Hoornweg, December 2010, No. 10 (AFTU1 & AFTU2) Projects Nina Schuler, Alicia Casalis, Sylvie Debomy, Memo to the Mayor: Improving Access to Christianna Johnnides, and Kate Kuper, September Urban Land for All Residents – Fulfilling the 2005, No. 1 Promise Barbara Lipman, with Robin Rajack, June 2011, No. 11 Occupational and Environmental Health Issues of Solid Waste Management: Conserving the Past as a Foundation for the Special Emphasis on Middle and Lower- Future: China-World Bank Partnership on Income Countries Cultural Heritage Conservation Sandra Cointreau, July 2006, No. 2 Katrinka Ebbe, Guido Licciardi and Axel Baeumler, September 2011, No. 12 A Review of Urban Development Issues in Poverty Reduction Strategies Guidebook on Capital Investment Planning Judy L. Baker and Iwona Reichardt, June 2007, No. 3 for Local Governments Olga Kaganova, October 2011, No. 13 Urban Poverty in Ethiopia: A Multi-Faceted and Spatial Perspective Financing the Urban Expansion in Tanzania Elisa Muzzini, January 2008, No. 4 Zara Sarzin and Uri Raich, January 2012, No. 14 Urban Poverty: A Global View What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Judy L. Baker, January 2008, No. 5 Waste Management Daniel Hoornweg and Perinaz Bhada-Tata, March Preparing Surveys for Urban Upgrading 2012, No. 15 Interventions: Prototype Survey Instrument and User Guide Investment in Urban Heritage: Economic Ana Goicoechea, April 2008, No. 6 Impacts of Cultural Heritage Projects in FYR Macedonia and Georgia Exploring Urban Growth Management: David Throsby, Macquarie University, Sydney, Insights from Three Cities September 2012, No. 16 Mila Freire, Douglas Webster, and Christopher Rose, June 2008, No. 7 Building Sustainability in an Urbanizing World: A Partnership Report Private Sector Initiatives in Slum Upgrading Daniel Hoornweg, Mila Freire, Julianne Baker-Gallegos Judy L. Baker and Kim McClain, May 2009, No. 8 and Artessa Saldivar-Sali, eds., July 2013, No. 17 The Urban Rehabilitation of the Medinas: The Urban Agriculture: Findings from Four City World Bank Experience in the Middle East Case Studies and North Africa July 2013, No. 18 Anthony G. Bigio and Guido Licciardi, May 2010, No. 9 KNOWLEDGE PAPERS For more information about the Urban Development Series, contact: Urban Development and Resilience Unit Sustainable Development Network The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA Email: Urbaninfo@worldbank.org Website: www.worldbank.org/urban June 2014, No. 19