1t- ___________________ 5 95 GEORGE LEDEC ROBERT GOODLAND >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I VV Their Prot ection -£ ~~~~Reot rNo;.:1159. Tye (PUB Tit'le: WILDLANDSS: THF-TR.PROTECTiON &; M 11 .FElC Y ,9tI I, . ? f 0 | E fg | E ti _ | -m> eo | . - w. B ? . , j 7'6? ~~~~~~BOKTOR- SETf1E _ ' _19-9 . Wildlands Their Protecion and Management in Economic Development George Ledec Robert Goodland t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1988 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 1988 Second printing September 1990 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this book are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The map that accompanies the text has been prepared solely for the convenience of readers; the designations and presentation of material in it da not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its aff liates, or its Board or member countries concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or i ts national affiliation. The backlist of publications by the World Bani: is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which is available from Publications Sales Unit, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, Banque mondiale, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ledec, George Wildlands: their protection and management in economic development. Bibliography: p. 1. Nature conservation. 2. Environmental protection. 3. Economic development-Environmental aspects. 1. Gooclland, Robert J. A., 1939- . II. Title. QH75.L37 1988 333.78'2 88-29582 ISBN 0-8213-1154-9 CONTENTS Preface vii Abbreviations xi Glossary xii I Wildlands and Economic Development 1 Note 4 2 The Need for Systematic Attention to Wildlands 5 Biological Diversity 6 The Modern Loss of Biological Diversity 7 The Case for Preserving Biological Diversity 8 The Importance of Wildland Management for Biological Diversity 15 Environmental Services 18 Agriculture and Livestock 18 Fisheries 21 Energy 22 Water Supply 23 Public Health 24 Transport 25 Tourism and Recreation 25 Climatic Stability and Protection from Catastrophes 26 Hanagement to Sustain Environmental Services 27 Protecting Wildlands of Special Concern 33 Notes 34 3 The World Bank and Wildland Management 36 Objectives and Achievements 38 Lessons Learned 42 4 Incorporating Wildland Management Components in Development Projects 45 Wildland Management in Specific Sectors 47 Agriculture and Land Settlement 47 Livestock 49 Fisheries 50 Forestry 53 Highways and Rural Roads 54 Water Development 57 Industry 61 Institution-Building, Training, Education, and Research 62 iii iv Types of Wildland Management Components 64 The Establishment or Improved Management of WMAs 64 Species Management 67 Siting Projects to Avoid Elarming Critical Wildland Areas or Rare Species 67 Notes 68 5 Other Development Activities That Benefit Wildland Management 70 The Increased Utilization of Already Converted Areas 70 Ensuring Sustainable Use 72 Management for Biological Diversity 75 Assisting Tribal Peoples 76 6 Wildland Management in Economic and Sector Planning 83 7 The Economic Analysis of Wildland Management 87 Some Difficulties 87 The Appropriate Treatment of Wildland Components 88 Wildland Components That Mitigate the Effects of Conversion 89 Wildland Components That Enhance Total Project Benefits 90 Note 93 8 Accommodating the Needs and Interests of Local People in Wildland Management 94 Preventing or Minimizing Conflicts 96 Two Examples 98 Notes 100 APPENDIXES A Wildland Management in Selected Projects Supported by the World Bank 102 Africa 103 Asia 114 Europe, Middle East, and North Africa 121 Latin America and Caribbean 125 B Wildland Management and the World Bank Project Cycle 143 C Identifying Wildlands of Special Concern in the Project Design 148 Regions with Exceptionally Endangered Wildlands 152 v D The Appropriate Siting, Size, and Shape of WHAs 156 Species Endemism and Diversity 157 Minimum Critical Size for Biological Conservation 158 The Appropriate Size and Shape of Wildland Management Areas 160 Note 164 E Categories of WMAs 165 F The Management of WMAs 177 Management Planning and Zoning 177 Personnel and Training 184 Equipment, Infrastructure, and Budgetary Needs 188 Legal Considerations 190 G Selected International Agreements Related to Wildland Management 193 Global Agreements 193 Regional Agreements 193 H The World Heritage Lists Natural Sites 195 I The Man and the Biosphere Program 198 J Organizations Concerned with Wildland Management 208 Bibliography 239 I PREFACE Wildlands--natural areas that are relatively untouched by human activities--include forests and prairies, deserts and shrublands, marshes and coral reefs. The wildlands that remain, after millennia of advancing civilization, are usually remote and inhospitable to human beings (except where traditional cultures have evolved ways of coexisting with the natural environment rather than taming it). But today the physical and practical barriers that have protected the wildlands are breaking down as technology makes large-scale alterations of the environment feasible and as demographic and economic pressures lead people to use less attractive areas and resources. Swamps can be drained, roads can be cut into forbidding mountain areas, and livestock can be raised where once forests grew. But what is possible may not always be wise. An all too frequent assumption in debates about whether to put wildlands to immediate human use is that wildlands in their natural state are only marginally useful to people and that the choice is between meeting human needs and preserving wildlands. But accumulated experience and a deeper understanding of the interactions between human beings and their environment point to a relation that is complex and often complementary. Treat water carelessly--destroy the forests and wetlands that control and purify the natural flow of water, pollute the sources, recklessly draw down the supply of water faster than it can be replenished--and the result is a ceaseless, ever more expensive, and perhaps contentious search for new supplies of a resource that was once abundant and taken for granted. It may be tempting today to clear a tropical forest for crops, but what if in a few years the thin layer of topsoil is depleted and the rich community of forest trees and animal life has been destroyed to purchase only an ephemeral gain? vii vii:L People have to eat--but they have to eat tomorrow too, and one of the goals of development is to help people move from hand-to-mouth satisfaction of the barest necessities to a fuller and more secure way of life. As Barber Conable, president of the World Bank, told the World Resources Institute in lS87, "Sustained development depends on managing resources, not exhausting them . . . What is wasted or poisoned today leaves that much less to nourish the world tomorrow" (Conable 1987). But there is no painless way of deciding between short-term and long-term benefits. Increasing populations have to be assured of a livelihood; development will go on and will impinge on wildlands; and agencies involved with development will have to weigh priorities and settle for compromises instead of ideal solutions. To complicate matters, no institution Dr government can completely control the process. President Conable also noted that 'individual practices driven by poverty and ignorance and unexamined economic policies have cumulative effects that are just as environmentally destructive as any badly planned wiLderness road or hydroelectric project." Wildlands therefore need to be protected indirectly as well as directly--through activities that offer employment, promote the stabilization of populations, and encourage the more efficient use of land and resources. It may be that, for now, the best way to balance pressing immediate needs and the long-term interests of people and the systems that sustain them is to work for what Bryan Norton has called a "patchwork environment" of "intensely productive lands" interspersed with "comparatively undisturbed ecosystems" (Norton 1985). The World Bank, over the years, has become increasingly concerned about the wider long-term effects of development projects. Experience with projects that had unforeseen detrimental effects on the environment and on local people underscored the need to include environmental safeguards in project planning and led to a series of environment-related guidelines and policy statements. These include a forestry policy (World Bank 1978b), a policy designed to protect ix the livelihoods and basic rights of tribal peoples, many of whom live in wildlands (Goodland 1982), a broad policy on environmental protection in all sectors (World Bank 1984a), a series of guidelines for controlling pollution from industrial wastes (World Bank 1983), and a policy on the preservation of archaeological sites, historical artifacts, and other cultural resources (Goodland and Webb 1987). The World Bank has also responded to growing concern about wildland management and other conservation issues by substantially increasing its own staff of environmental advisers. As part of a major internal reorganization in 1987, the Bank replaced its Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OESA) with a new and much larger Environment Department. In addition, an environmental advisory division was created within each of the Bank's four geographic operational regions. In a comprehensive policy statement specifically on wildlands (World Bank 1986), the Bank formally recognized that provision for some kind of wildland management should be part of any development project that affects wildlands and that wildland management should be considered in economic and sectoral planning. This book discusses and seeks to clarify the issues and tradeoffs that arise in carrying out this policy in widely differing circumstances around the world. It is hoped that governments and development agencies will find this material derived from the World Bank's experience useful for addressing wildland management issues in their own development work. The book is intended for development professionals worldwide, including the staffs of international development organizations and government agencies that deal with natural resources. It will also be of interest to nongovernmental organizations and to scientists and other persons concerned with conservation and development issues. This study was prepared by the Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs, World Bank, James A. Lee, director; that office has been succeeded by the Environment Department. Many specialists outside the Bank provided helpful comments and suggestions. They X include (with affiliations as of t:he time of the study) Faith Campbell, Bruce Rich, and Benjamin Weigler, Natural Resources Defense Council; Jeremy Harrison and Kenton Miller, International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN); Peter Raven, Missouri Botanical Garden; Ray Stanton, U.S. Fish and Wildlfe Service; William Burley and Robert Jenkins, The Nature Conservancy; Scott Perkin, IUCN Regional Office for East Africa; Caldwell Hahn and Kathy Parker, U.S. Agency for International Development; Gary Wetterberg, U.S. National Park Service; Herman Daly, Department of Economics, Louisiana State University; Henry Peskin, Resources for the Future; Bryan Norton, Center for Philosophy and Public Policy, University of Maryland; Kent Redford, Florida State Museum; Arthur Purcell, Resource Policy Institute; Peter Hazlewood and Robert Repettc, World Resources Institute; Richard Norgaard, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley; Barbara Lausche, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress; Robert E. Tillman, United Nations Environment Programme; Michael Bean, Environmental Defense Fund; Byron Swift, World Wildlife Fund-United States; Leslie Brownrigg, AMARU IV Cooperative; Nigel Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida; Karl Krantz, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution; William Lewis, Department of Biology, University of Colorado; William Gregg, Jr., U.S. National Park Service; and several anonymous reviewers. The following World Bank staff members also made important substantive contributions: Richard Ackermann, John Cleave, Stephen Eccles, Prem Garg, Jean Gorse, Colin Holloway, James Lee, Francis Lethem, Charles Nottidge, Ragnar Overby, Donald Pickering, Anthony Pritchard, John Spears, Herman van der Tak, Ralph Wadsworth, and Maryla Webb. ABBREVIATIONS ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEP ASEAN Environment Program CATIE Centro Agron6mico Tropical de Investigaci6n y Ensefianza (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center) CEQ Council on Environmental Quality CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CMC Conservation Monitoring Centre (IUCN) CNPPA Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN) EDI Economic Development Institute (World Bank) EEC European Economic Community PAO Food and Agriculture Organization FWS Fish and Wildlife Service (United States) GNP Gross national product IBPGR International Board for Plant Genetic Resources IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) ICBP International Council for Bird Preservation ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites IDA International Development Association (World Bank) IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFC International Finance Corporation (World Bank) IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources KREMU Kenya Rangelands Ecological Management Unit MAB Man and the Biosphere program (United Nations) xi xii NAS National Academy of Sciences (United States) NGO Nongovernmental organize.tion OAS Organization of American States OED Operations Evaluation Department (World Bank) OESA Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs, World Bank (superseded in July 1987 by the Environment Department) OMS Operational manual statement (an internal World Bank regulation on operating procedures) SACEP South Asian Cooperative Environment Program SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Program UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNSO United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office USAID United States Agency for International Development USDS United States Department of State WMA Wildland management area (legally protected natural area) WWF World Wildlife Fund GLOSSARY Agroforestry. A land use system that combines the production of agricultural crops, tree crops, and forest plants and animals, simultaneously or sequentially. Aquaculture. The propagation and culture of aquatic organisms under human control, as in fishponds. Biocides. Literally, "killers of life." They include herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, miticides, nematocides, fungicides, and other chemicals used to kill various organisms. The term biocides rather than pesticides is used in this book to remind the reader that these chemicals kill other species besides pests and that pests are sometimes difficult to distinguish from nonpests. Biogeographic province. A classification system used by conservationists for different types of forests, grasslands, or other wildlands. There are 193 biogeographic provinces around the world, each representing a substantially different type of ecosystem. Biological diversity. As used here, the full range of genetic diversity (species, subspecies, and distinct biological populations of plants and animals) as well as the full variety of ecosystems in which the plants and animals occur. Biosphere. The life-supporting part of the Earth, including all bodies of water, the soil, surface rocks, and the lower atmosphere, as well as living species. xiii xiv Buffer zone. An area that surrounds a wildland management area and serves to mitigate adverse effects irom human activities outside the area Some buffer zones are also intended to protect surrounding agricultural areas from depredations by wildlife. Carrying capacity. The maximum number of organisms that can be supported indefinitely in a given environment (allowing for seasonal and random changes) without any degradation of the environment that would diminish this maximum number :Ln the future. This concept is akin to the sustainable stocking ral:e of, for example, cattle per hectare of given pasture. The dens:ity of people at a given standard of living is a function of carrying capacity (which may be augmented by outside inputs of energy, food, and so on, as in a city). Coastal shallows. Marine wildlands that are shallow and close to shore, including coral reefs and seagrass beds. Conversion. The significant ecological modification or the complete elimination of a wildland by human activity. Examples of conversion include the clearing, drainage, excavation, and filling of land; the impoundment, channelization, and other physical alteration of natural bodies of water; significant. pollution, logging, grazing, and fishing; and the introduction of any nonnative species that alters fundamentally the natural species composition. Conservation. As used in this book, the rational and prudent management of the biosphere or its ratural resources to achieve the greatest sustainable current benefit while maintaining the potential of the resources to meet the needs cf future generations. Conservation practices cover a broad. range of activities, including control of soil erosion, the intensified sustainable use of existing agricultural land, the creation of timber and fuelwood plantations, land use planning, pollution control, and wildland management. In natural resource economics, conservation is sometimes defined more xv precisely as a rate of use of a natural resource which ensures that the same or a greater quantity of that resource will be available in the future. Thus conservation encompasses preservation (see below), maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment. Crop variety. A group of individuals of a given crop species that differs distinctly from other individuals of the same species in growth rate; resistance to drought, insects, or disease; size; nutrient requirements; or other genetically determined characteristics. Distinct biological population. A group of individuals that is geographically separated from other groups of the same species. Ecosystem (or ecological system). A community of different species in interaction with one another, plus the environment in which they live and with which they also interact (for example, a forest or a lake). Wildlands are natural ecosystems that are relatively unmodified by human activity. Endemic. Peculiar to a locality. Species endemic to a particular area or region are those species that are found nowhere else. Highly endemic species (those with very restricted natural ranges) are especially vulnerable to sudden extinction if their natural habitat is eliminated or significantly disturbed. (Note that this use of the term is different from its use in epidemiology.) Environmental services. Beneficial functions that are performed naturally by wildlands (or by certain types of modified ecosystems). Such functions include maintenance of water flow patterns, protection of the soil, breakdown of pollutants, recycling of wastes, support for economically important living resources, and regulation of climate. xv.i Estuaries. Areas in which fresh and salt water mix naturally, including bays, river mouths, lagoons, salt marshes, and mangrove swamp s . Ethnobiology. The study of how different plant and animal species are used by tribal or other traditional human societies for food, shelter, medicine, weapons, household products, and ornamental, ceremonial, religious, spiritual, and other purposes. Ex situ. The preservation of bioLogical diversity outside the nat:ural habitat, as in zoos and botanical gardens and through tissue cultures and sperm, seed, and polLen banks. Extinction. An irreversible proctess whereby a species (or subspecies or distinct biological population) forever ceases to exist. Human-induced extinctions now greatly outnumber natural ext:inctions. Forests. Plant communities dominated by trees that are at least 5 meters tall and have most of their crowns interlocking. Freshwater swamps. Freshwater wel:lands in which trees are the prevalent vegetation. Genetic diversity. As used here, the full range of species, subspecies, and distinct biological populations of plants and animals. Genetic resources. Species, subspecies, or genetic varieties of plants and animals that currently provide important goods and services or may be capable of providing them at some time in the future. xvii Germplasm. The genetic content of living organisms, including species, subspecies, and distinct biological populations, along with their associated biological variants and mutants. Since germplasm resources constitute the biological underpinnings of human survival, their continued availability is important for society's present and future well-being. Grasslands. Plant communities that consist primarily or exclusively of grasses or similar nonwoody plants. Natural grasslands include the steppes of Asia and Europe, the savannas of Africa, the prairies of North America, and the llanos and pampas of South America. Habitat. The physical and biological environment on which a given species depends for its survival. Indicator species. Any species that by its presence demonstrates the existence of certain environmental conditions or a specific type of ecosystem. In situ. The preservation of biological diversity within natural habitats, as in wildland management areas. Island biogeography. The study of the distribution of plant and animal species where suitable habitat is limited to "islands' within a larger region of human-modified or otherwise unsuitable habitat. Laterization. The process whereby soils, particularly in tropical rain forests, are converted to a brick-like substance on which vegetation cannot grow. Laterization occurs in some rain forests as a consequence of deforestation. Hanagement plan. A document that guides and controls the use and management of the resources of a wildland management area (WMA) and directs the design of subsequent programs for management and xviii development. A thorough management. plan describes the physical, biological, social, and cultural features of the WMA within a national, regional, and local context; identifies items of particular concern that underlie the objectives for managing specific areas of the WMA; defines, through zoning, appropriate uses for the WMA; and lists in chronological order the activities to be carried out to realize the proposed. management program. Mangroves (or mangrove swamps). Saltwater swamp forests that are dominated by salt-tolerant mangrove trees. Marginal lands. Lands that are unable to support permanent or intensive agriculture without high levels of fertilizer or other commercial inputs. When ecologically fragile marginal lands are cultivated, they frequently are eroded quickly and become infertile. For this reason wildland management is often the most rational use for marginal lands. Marshes. Periodically flooded or continuously wet areas dominated by sedges and other nonwoody plants that grow in shallow water. Natural capital. The endowment of renewable natural resources. Sustainable use of these resources implies consumption of only the "interest"; overexploitation or other unsustainable use implies a one-shot consumption of "capital." Natural resources. See Renewable natural resources and Nonrenewable natural resources. Nonrenewable natural resources. Natural resources that are not self-renewing. They include minerals, which can often be profitably recycled, and fossil fuels, which cannot. Care is required in the extraction and processing of nonrenewable resources to prevent or minimize damage to renewable resources, including wildlands. xix Overexploitation. The excessive or unsustainable use of a natural resource, which leads to the depletion or degradation of the resource and the consequent loss of its productivity. The incentives for overexploitation include short-term maximization of private profits and the competitive exploitation of common property. Paper parks. National parks or other wildland management areas which have been officially decreed and have been designated on a map but which lack effective on-site demarcation, patrolling, or other on-the-ground management. Paramo. A unique type of scrub and grassy vegetation that grows on high mountains above the timberline in Latin America. Pleistocene refugia. Areas of high species endemism (see Endemism, above) within tropical rain forests and other ecosystems. It is believed that these areas suvived the extensive natural disturbances of the Pleistocene geologic epoch 10,000-2,000,000 years ago, when most surrounding tropical areas became temporarily much drier. Preservation. A type of environmental management in which the future state of an ecosystem will be similar to the present state, mainly through restriction of human influence. Preservation can be viewed as a narrow subset of conservation. Public roods. Nonexclusive economic goods; their consumption by any one person does not affect their potential for consumption by others. Renewable natural resources. Natural resources, whether living (plants and animals) or nonliving (air, soil, and water) that propagate or sustain life and are naturally self-renewing. If they are not overexploited or otherwise mismanaged, renewable resources xx can provide humanity with an essentially endless supply of goods and services. Society can manage these resources sustainably, or it can, through mismanagement, permanently degrade or destroy them (for example, by "mining" forests--cutting trees at a rate far greater than the growth rate). Savannahs. Plant communities consisting largely of grasses but with interspersed trees or shrubs. Shrublands. Plant communities in which some type of shrub vegetation dominates. Examples include many types of natural desert, sagebrush, chaparral, maquis, veld, and paramo. Species diversity. The number of species in an area. (There are many, more complex, quantitative indexes of species diversity.) Species. A group of interbreeding organisms that, under natural conditions, seldom or never interbr~eed with individuals in other such groups. Subspecies. A geographically defined subdivision of a species that forms a group whose members differ, although perhaps not sharply, from other members of the species. Varzea. Seasonally flooded freshwater swamp forests found along streams in the Amazon Basin. Vegetatively propagated species. Plants that reproduce asexually through the detachment of some part of their bodies other than seeds or spores. Watershed catchment area. The upper area (usually with steep slopes) drained by a river basin. Disruption of the natural xxi vegetation in watershed catchment areas can significantly affect downstream water flow patterns. Wetlands. Transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic systems in which the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. Type of wetlands include tidal mudflats, natural ponds, marshes, sloughs, potholes, wet meadows, river overflows, carrs, peatlands, bogs, freshwater swamps, and mangroves. Wildlands. Natural land and water areas that have been modified by human activities only slightly or not at all. They include the full range of natural land-based ecosystems (for example, forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands), as well as natural inland bodies of water and coastal and marine areas. Wildland component (or wildland management component). Any addition to or modification in an economic development project which seeks to conserve wildlands or their characteristic plant or animal species. Wildland components are normally intended to mitigate the environmental costs of wildland conversion or to provide additional project benefits. Wildland management. The direct maintenance, protection, or enhancement of virtually unmodified natural ecosystems and their characteristic plant and animal species; a subset of conservation (see above). Wildland management areas (WMAs). Officially designated protected areas in which wildlands are managed so that they can be retained in a relatively unmodified state. Woodlands. Open stands of trees in which the crowns cover at least 30 percent of the area but are for the most part not interlocked. xxii World Bank-supported Droiects. Development projects that receive financial support from the World Bank or its affiliates, as well as projects that are executed by the World Bank but financed by such other agencies as the United Nations Development Programme. Chapter 1 WILDLANDS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Wildlands are natural areas that have not been significantly modified by human activities. Until two or three decades ago a large proportion of the world's wildiands were protected by their remoteness, their vastness, and their marginal direct usefulness for agriculture or other economic pursuits. This situation has changed, for the most part, and wildlands are rapidly disappearing in many developing countries. Improved access and the pressures of population growth, landlessness, and economic development are rapidly converting most types of wildlands to other uses. For example, tropical rain forests are being logged or cleared so rapidly that by 2000 as little as one-half of those standing in 1980 may be left (NAS 1980a; USDS 1980; UNEP 1982a; Gradwohl and Greenberg 1988). Kany other types of wildlands are undergoing similar or even more rapid rates of conversion--that is, they are being significantly modified or completely eliminated. (As used here, conversion refers to large-scale, permanent, and fundamental alteration of the natural ecosystem rather than to small-scale activities or to temporary modification by, for example, highly selective long-rotation logging.) The conversion of wildlands to more intensive uses through land clearing, inundation, the establishment of plantations, or other means can serve important development objectives and is an element of certain projects assisted by the World Bank. But wildlands that are maintained in their natural state can also contribute significantly to economic development. It is therefore important to seek a balance between preservation and conversion. Our understanding of the complex interactions that have permitted life to arise and survive on this planet--alone in the solar system and perhaps in the universe--is growing continually. 1 2 Correspondingly, the task of reconciling development with the protection of the natural environment that sustains us has grown more difficult (or, rather, we are increasingly recognizing its difficulty). In the past development projects have emphasized conversion simply because planners did not realize how important wildlands can be for sustainable development and for human well- being, particularly in the long term. Development efforts therefore gave little or no attention to cons;erving wildlands in their natural state. In the design and execution of development projects, wildland management concerns need to be given their proper place and weight. They must be part of the planning process from the very beginning and must be put on a par with conventional economic criteria in deciding whether a project is justified. Failure to give environmental factors their due exacts penalties--in the harm done to future generations and in the heavy costs of repairing damage to the environment or, if the injury is irreparable, of replacing, probably at higher cost, goods and services that were once taken for granted. The effects of environmental damage are eventually (and sometimes immediately) felt most severely by the poor, who are less able to escape the consequences of a degraded environment and who often depend directly on natural resources for their livelihoods. With these considerations in mind, the World Bank in 1986--building on experience with environmental guidelines for specific sectors--enunciated a comprehensive policy on the treatment of wildlands in development planning.1 Because this policy must be applied to a highly diverse range of projects and country situations, it is stated in general terms. World Bank project staff, with the help and advice of the Bank's enlarged corps of environmental specialists, are responsible for adapting the policy to specific cases. The entire content of the 1986 wildland management policy statement is discussed in this book in detail. Within the past decade there has lbeen growing international recognition of the importance of wildland management as a link in 3 sustainable economic development. Nonetheless, the present worldwide investment in wildland management is not enough to enable wildlands to make their fullest possible contribution to economic and social development now and in the future. Furthermore, the loss of wildlands is continuing, as are the associated extinctions of species and other environmental costs. Governments and development organizations are therefore increasingly seeking ways to prevent or mitigate the environmental degradation that often accompanies wildland conversion. This book is intended to show how wildlands can be managed in ways that make development projects and plans more successful and sustainable. As used here, wildlands include the full range of relatively undisturbed ecosystems--forests, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands, natural inland bodies of water, and coastal and marine areas. It should be noted that many wildlands throughout the world have been or are being slightly modified by the traditional activities of indigenous tribal peoples. These activities, which include hunting and gathering, subsistence fishing, nomadic livestock grazing, and low-density shifting agriculture, have been sustained without significa.Atly altering the species composition or other natural features of wildland ecosystems. Their impact on wildlands is therefore fundamentally different from that of the more intensive forms of land and water development practiced by modern societies. Wildland management is the direct maintenance, protection, or enhancement of virtually unmodified natural ecosystems and their native plant and animal species. Thus wildland management is a subset of conservation--the rational and prudent management of natural resources so that they yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining their potential for meeting the likely needs and aspirations of future generations. Other conservation activities include the control of soil erosion, the intensified sustainable use of existing agricultural lands, the establishment of timber and fuelwood plantations, land use planning, 4 and pollution control. This book Eocuses on one aspect of the broad field of conservation, the protection of intact natural areas. Note 1. Copies of the policy (World Bank 1986) are available in English, French, and Spanish from the Environment Department of the World Bank. The preservation of cultural resources (such as archaeological sites and historical. artifacts) is addressed in Goodland and Webb (1987). Chapter 2 THE NEED FOR SYSTEMATIC ATTENTION TO WILDLANDS "The land is one organism," wrote the American naturalist Aldo Leopold over forty years ago. "Its parts, like our own parts, compete with each other and cooperate with each other. . . If the biota, in the course of aeons, has built something we like but do not understand, then who but a fool would discard seemingly useless parts?" Wildlands, kept in their natural state and properly managed, provide a refuge for plant and animal species that may prove to have direct economic uses and that, more important, form part of the vast and still inadequately understood web of connections among all living things and their environment. Wildiands are also essential for the maintenance of environmental services--water control, soil conservation, and the like--most of them unpriced public goods that are indispensable for meeting human needs and supporting sustainable development. Because wildlands make significant and even unique long-term contributions to human welfare, prudent development should minimize or mitigate damages from wildland conversion. Indeed, the timely management of strategically important wildlands often prolongs or improves the effectiveness of development projects. Conversely, the unnecessary or short-sighted destruction of wildlands can lead to unanticipated and costly consequences, such as the rapid siltation of reservoirs and waterways, the loss of topsoil and of economically important species, and even the spread of disease. By incorporating wildland management in their projects and other activities, development organizations can improve the prospects for sustainable economic development. The importance of wildlands for sustainable development and improved human well-being now and in the future is discussed here under two headings: biological diversity and environmental 5 6 services. (Wildlands of special concern are surveyed in the final section of this chapter.) The essenatial role of wildlands in maintaining the livelihood of tribal peoples is discussed in Goodland (1982) and Davis (1985). Biological Diversity Biological diversity usually refers to three elements: (1) the number of different ecosystems (communities of plants and animals and the environments that sustain them) and their relative frequencies in a country or in the world; (2) the number of species of animals and plants1 and their reLative frequencies; and (3) the genetic variation within each species. The variability we see in the l:ife forms on Earth is primarily a resu]t of variations in DNA (dioxyr:bonucleic acid), as expressed in genes--the blueprints for life. Gernetic variability is greatest among species, but variability among isolated populations of a species or among individuals in a population is also important. A rare species is a genetically vulnerable species. If the number of individuals is small, the probability of advantageous genetic variations occurring is reduced, and inbreeding may perpetuate disadvantageous characteristics. Preserving biological diversity, then, entails preserving not only species but also different populations of species and the largest feasible number of individuals within those populations. Most of the world's wild plant and animal species depend on wildlands for their existence, as they cannot survive in areas that have been significantly modified by human beings. Moreover, most species depend on specific types of wildland habitats and have limited geographic ranges. "No species is born free. They are all captives of their environment. They live only where their needs are met" (King 1984). The elimination of a unique wildland habitat therefore causes the summary extinction of all the species that are completely dependent on that habitat for their survival. 7 Appropriate wildland management is the only method of preserving large and distinct populations of most species, thereby ensuring species survival and biological diversity. Conservation measures other than wildland management (such as the establishment of plantation forests) preserve some environmental services but cannot by themselves maintain diversity. The Modern Loss of Biological Diversity Human activities in the last quarter of the twentieth century are reducing biological diversity at a rate that may be unprecedented in the history of life on Earth. It is impossible to assess, with our limited knowledge, the consequences of the disappearance of species for the stability of Earth's environment or the economic value lost because of extinctions. The best available estimates indicate that if current trends continue, some 15-20 percent of the estimated 10 million to 30 million species of plants and animals alive in 1980 may become extinct by 2000 (see Wolf 1987), and many more species could be lost in the early decades of the twenty-first century. Development activities can be modified to help reduce these disturbing trends. As is shown below, the irreversible large-scale loss of biological diversity is not an unavoidable aspect of modern human survival or of economic development; it is a by-product of conducting human affairs without sufficient regard for long-term human needs or sufficient awareness of the needs of other species. The most striking difference between natural and human-induced extinctions is in the rates. Over the millennia the rate of natural extinction of species has usually been slightly less than the rate of formation of new species through evolutionary processes (Myers 1979). Human activity is greatly accelerating extinction rates; several hundred species a day may become extinct over the next twenty to thirty years. More species of the Earth's flora and fauna may disappear in the next several decades than were lost in the mass 8 extinction that wiped out whole taxonomic groups of animals, including the dinosaurs, 65 million years ago (Wolf 1987). Another difference is that whereas in the course of evolution a species that becomes extinct is often replaced by a better-adapted successor or group of successors, human-induced extinctions are evolutionary dead ends.2 Furthermore, although human beings are not the first species to have caused the extinction of other species, they are the first to be aware of the implications of their actions and to be capable of controlling them. The reduction of wildland habitats to less than the critical amount necessary for the survival of a species is by far the greatest cause of modern extinctions. Although many endangered species live in temperate areas, the problem is most severe in tropical regions, where at least two-thirds of the world's species of plants and animals are found. Appropriate, low-cost wildland management can significantly reduce current extinction rates to much lower--perhaps almost "natural"--levels. The approaches discussed here will help ensure that the loss of biological diversity is kept to a minimum in development projects that involve the conversion of wildlands. Although elimination of wildland habitats accounts for most present-day extinctions, direct over exploitation and the introduction of nonnative species that become pests or weeds are also important causes. To minimize these extinction risks, development projects must adhere to sustained-yield harvesting of forests and fisheries and must avoid, introducing potential pests or weeds in agricultural and fishery projects. The Case for Preserving Biological Dliversity There are compelling economic, scientific, aesthetic, and ethical reasons for preserving biolcgial diversity. All of them are grounded in the view that because species extinctions are completely 9 irreversible, preserving biological diversity keeps open important options for the future. The economic justification for preserving biological diversity is that many species of wild plants and animals are undeveloped resources--that is, they have significant economic potential that is currently undiscovered, undervalued, or underutilized. Biological resources are essential to human existence, and the preservation of biological diversity is important to the maintenance and improvement of agriculture, forestry, ranching, fisheries, medicine, industry, and tourism. The importance of genetic diversity for sustaining and increasing agricultural production is increasingly acknowledged. Without a diverse genetic base for plant breeding, the development of high-yielding crop varieties probably could not be sustained. The disappearance of many domesticated crop varieties and their wild relatives has made many of the world's productive farming areas increasingly susceptible to catastrophic attacks by pests and diseases (USDS 1982). Despite efforts to preserve crop germplasm, many domestic varieties and wild relatives of crop plants remain threatened. An example of the benefits of genetic diversity is a perennial wild maize (Zea diploperennis) which has been preserved almost accidentally. It may have seemed to be "just another weed" when it was discovered growing on a few hectares of land in Jalisco, Mexico, but it may become important for higher food production (Iltis and others 1979). Perennial maize could be grown in "maize orchards' that would not have to be plowed and seeded each year; the advantages for soil and energy conservation are obvious. In addition, cross-breeding with Zea diploperennis may significantly improve the resistance of annual varieties of maize to a number of serious diseases and insect pests (Nault and Findlay 1982). (In 1970 one disease, southern leaf blight, destroyed 15 percent of the U.S. maize crop, for a loss of roughly $1 billion, according to Vietmeyer 1978.)3 Human society is better off because this apparent 10 weed was not eliminated by the conversion of all its wildland habitat to agricultural or other uses. Besides increased yield, improved quality, and resistance to pests and diseases, wild relatives of crop plants provide numerous other benefits. They may add vigor to crops (as with pineapples, rubber, and sugarcane), extend the range of crops (as with grapes and lupins), enable crops to cope 'with environmental fluctuations (as with cassava and potatoes), and provide "genetic bridges" that make it possible to cross-breed crops with distantly related species (as with oats, barley, wheat, and potatoes) (K. R. Miller 1982d). Wild plant species have even greater potential as completely new crops. Of the world's approximately 240,000 species of plants, only about 3,000 have even been used as food, only 150 have been cultivated on any scale, and a mere 20 account for over 85 percent of present human consumption (Myers 1979). Population growth, rising per capita consumption, and shortages of arable land may make it important in future years to cultivate new species of crops that can produce calories, protein, specific mineral nutrients, vitamins, or fibers more efficiently than many of the species currently used. Many otherwise obscure animal species, particularly insects, should also be protected to maintain or enhance agricultural output. For example, the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is pollinated in the wild in Africa by a weevil, Elaeidobius kamerunicus. The oil palm was introduced in wl-k is now Malaysia in 1917 without the weevil and required costly, inefficient, labor-intensive hand pollination. In 1980-81 the pollinator was collected from its native habitat in the forests of Cameroon and brought to Malaysia; it promptly boosted fruiting in oil palm trees by 40-60 percent (Syed, Law, and Corley 1982). This improvement was worth approximately $57 million in foreign exchange in the first year alone. A good example of an economically valuable food plant that depends on a variety of unknown or poorly known species of animals and plants is the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa). Almost all commercial Brazil nut production is harvested from the wild rather 11 than grown in plantations. The pollinating insects have not all been identified, but several Euglossine bees visit the flowers. Euglossine males are attractive to females only after they have gathered organic compounds from certain epiphytic orchids, but they depend on other flower species for nectar. Dispersal and germination of Brazil nuts depend on a forest-dwelling rodent, the agouti (Dasyprocta), which is able to open the hard fruit case (pyxidium) that encloses the nut (Myers 1984). Thus, preserving the Brazil nut industry, which exports more than $16 million annually to the United States alone (Caufield 1982), appears to require the conservation of enough natural forest to provide nesting habitats for the Euglossine bees and to support nectar sources, certain orchids and the trees on which they grow, the insects or hummingbirds that pollinate the orchids (and all of their necessities in turn), and agoutis. Smoke from the burning of nearby forests has been suspected of decreasing yields of Brazil nuts by interfering with the pollinators. This illustrates the economic importance of maintaining certain wildlands fully intact so that potentially valuable species are not inadvertently lost. A diverse genetic base of tree species is essential to the management of both plantations and natural forests. Genetic input from several wild Central American pine species has greatly improved the productivity of plantations in East Africa (K. R. Miller 1982d). To give another example, the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) is short and stunted on most of its limited native range in California, where it is a rare species, but when planted elsewhere it is tall, straight, and rapid in its growth. It has become the most economically important forestry plantation species in the southern hemisphere. The importance of wild species to human nutrition is underdocumented and not sufficiently recognized. Coe (1980) estimates that in much of Africa 50-70 percent of the animal protein consumed by humans comes from wild animals. In other areas too, subsistence harvesting of such animals as rabbits, iguanas, 12 squirrels, fish, and birds makes a significant contribution to people's diets. In Africa game ranching may be a more efficient use of grazing land than cattle ranching (Hopcraft 1979). In Mauritius the sambar deer, introduced from JiLva, is being rationally harvested as a source of protein. Over 220 tons of venison were marketed in this small country in 1980 alone, eind producers plan to enter the lucrative European market. Domestication or hybridization of wild species offers further potential. Among the wild animal species now being domesticated are a wild toad (Calyptocephalella caucliverbera, a source of "frog's legs") in Chile, giant Achatina snails (with as much protein a kilogram as beef) in Nigeria, Podocnemis river turtles in Amazonia, and a cross between the Sinai Desert goat and the ibex in Israel (K. R. Miller 1982d). King (1984) suggests that the dodo--which became extinct largely because European sailors killed it for food--might have proved a good domestic fowl; we will never know. It is important to preserve the wild relatives of presently domesticated livestock, particularly cattle, as sources of disease resistance or other characteristics. Wild plants and animals are also fundamentally important for modern medicine and offer even greater future applications. Over 40 percent of all prescriptions written in the United States contain one or more drugs that originate from wild species (fungi, bacteria, higher plants, and animals); annual sales of such drugs in this one country are over $8 billion (Farnsworth 1982). In many cases it is still impossible to synthesize these compounds or more costly to synthesize them than to obtain them from living sources; in any case it would not have been possible to know what compound to synthesize without first having the natural model. Wild plant and animal species are of great and increasing importance to industry as sources of tannins, resins, gums, oils, dyes, and other commercially useful compounds. Until about 1850 even the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was just another Amazonian tree species of unknown economic value. The potential for new 13 industrial products from currently unknown or poorly known plant and animal species is significant but impossible to quantify. Such products may even include hydrocarbons for an oil-short world. For example, Copaifera langsdorfii, a tree that grows only in northern Brazil, produces 20 liters of sap per tree every six months, and this sap, it has recently been discovered, can be used directly as a fuel in diesel engines (IUCN 1980a; European Environmental Bureau 1982). To date there has been little systematic screening of wild plant species for products that can be used by modern society, but some plants naturally manufacture such products in considerable quantities. And other plant compounds may become valuable as new technologies and inventions emerge. These examples illustrate the range of economic uses of many wild plants and animals. But probably less than 5 percent4 of all the world's species have been inventoried and scientifically named, and even fewer have been assessed for possible human use. Moreover, now that genetic engineering techniques increasingly permit the transfer of genes from one species to another, the extinction of any one species means a lost opportunity for transferring potentially useful genes to other species. Biological resources, unlike petroleum and other fossil fuels, are completely renewable, but only if care is taken to keep them alive and able to reproduce. The protection of biological diversity is relatively low in cost (as is noted in chapter 3) and helps to preserve the means available for addressing unpredictable future problems. The scientific reason for species preservation is that we cannot understand the interactions of life forms and their environments unless we can observe how they function in the absence of significant human intervention. It is therefore necessary to conserve comprehensive samples of ecological systems in an undisturbed state. Moreover, each species has unique physiological, biochemical, and population characteristics, the study of which can help us to understand basic life processes. In addition to the direct economic applications of research on poorly known species, 14 eventual economic payoffs are likely to emerge from more basic scientific research. Wild animals are critically valuable in medical research. (To meet the needs of research without depleting native stocks, captive breeding of any animals that are beis.g taken from the wild at unsustainable rates should be encouraged.) In malaria research there is no substitute for the rare and dwindling northern Colombian subspecies of the owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus). Similarly, research on leprosy was hindered by the lack of nonhuman subjects until it was found that the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) also contracts this disease (K. R. Miller 1982d). The aesthetic justification is t;hat many wild species of plants and animals are an irreplaceable source of wonder, inspiration, and joy to human beings because of their beauty, intriguing appearance, variety, or fascinating behavior. The French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss described wild species as "an irreplaceable marvel, equal to the works of art which we religiously preserve in museums."5 Millions of people who may never actually encounter many wild species derive enrichment and vicarious satisfaction from reading and learning about them; are our descendants to be denied these pleasures? The ethical, or moral, justification, espoused by a significant and growing number of people, is that human beings should not exercise their power to obliterate other species at will--even species not known to have any practical value to humankind. From this perspective nonhuman species have their own intrinsic value independent of any practical or utilitarian value they may have for human beings. This ethical viewpoint has been called the "Noah principle" (Ehrenfeld 1981). A related, perhaps more traditional, view is that to eradicate other species is to deprive future generations of options and thus to fail in the duty of stewardship. For a couple of generations of huran beings to eliminate unnecessarily a sizable proportion of the diversity of life on Earth can be construed as an act of considerable arrogance. 15 All of these considerations argue that human beings should exercise great care to avoid inadvertent extinctions. A leading biologist, Edward 0. Wilson, has said: The worst thing that can happen--will happen--in the 1980s is not energy depletion, economic collapse, limited nuclear war, or conquest by a totalitarian government. As terrible as these catastrophes would be for us, they can be repaired within a few generations. The one process ongoing in the 1980s that will take millions of years to correct is the loss of genetic and species diversity by the destruction of natural habitats. This is the folly our descendants are least likely to forgive us. (Wilson 1985.) The Importance of Wildland Management for Biological Diversity Wildland management is the least costly--and in many cases the only--means available for maintaining biological diversity. For certain groups of plants and animals, off-site (ex situ) preservation techniques can be useful supplements to the in situ preservation provided by wildlands. But ex situ techniques--zoos and other captive-breeding facilities; botanical gardens; arboreta; cryogenic storage of embryos, eggs, and sperm; seed and pollen banks; and tissue cultures--cannot be expected to meet most biological conservation needs. Ex situ preservation is fundamental for conserving for future breeding the wild relatives of crop plants as well as traditional crop varieties that are being displaced by high-yielding varieties. But ex situ preservation has limitations. First, some crop species (including many trees and vegetatively propagated species) are difficult or costly to maintain ex situ. Second, important but rare genotypes are often absent from ex situ collections. Third, collections can be destroyed by mechanical breakdowns or accidents. Fourth, coevolution of a crop plant with other organisms, such as pollinators and potential pests and diseases, cannot continue ex situ. Fifth, the peculiar characteristics of each crop variety may be more difficult to study ex situ (Prescott-Allen and Prescott- Allen 1982a). Sixth, pollinators, propagule distributors (for 165 example, birds that eat fruit and excrete the seeds), and other species-specific necessities may be difficult or impossible to include in ex situ trials. For these reasons, wildlands that contain wild relatives of crops have a high priority as areas to be preserved. It is also advisable to encourage the planting of 'museum strips" of traditional crop varieties alongside new high- yielding varieties. For most other types of biological resources, ex situ preservation is simply not practical. The costs and difficulties of storage are too great, and, as noted above, a great proportion of the world's plants and animals have yet to be inventoried and collected. Furthermore, ex situ methods cannot preserve the numerous ecological interrelations among species that are so evident in natural systems and that encourage the evolution of new varieties (Norton 1983). Plants and animals in a natural setting continuously coevolve, but when they are removed and isolated for any length of time, they are often maladapted or completely unable to survive when reintroduced into the wild. Figure 2-1 ranks different options for preserving the genetic diversity found in wild species. It must be stressed that in situ preservation is the only feasible way to maintain most species, although ex situ preservation can be a useful supplement. Among the different categories of in situ preservation, scientific reserves or strict nature reserves provide the greatest protection. Most of the other categories, however, usually suffice for biological conservation, except that converted lands managed for genetic diversity are typically much less successful in preserving the full range of values of intact wildlands. (The merits of alternative wildland management categories are discussed in appendix E.) Maintaining dead specimens in museums and herbaria provides a historical record of their existence and structure but none of the benefits of living species. 17 Figure 2-1. Options for Preserving Genetic Diversity MOST EFFECTIVE Single use Scientific reserves/ wildland nature reserves management National parks Natural monuments Managed nature reserves Multiple use Protected landscapes In situ wildland Resource reserves management Anthropological reserves Multiple use management areas Areas Converted land managed Alive t _ other than _ for genetic diversity wildlands__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j g Whole Botanical gardens organism Zoos _ Ex situ _ Sperm, egg, and embryo banks Organism Organ banks __ parts _ Seed and pollen banks Gene banks Tissue culture Dead . HMuseums Herbaria__ LEAST EFFECTIVE Note: The ranking applies to the genetic diversity found in wild species. It does not apply to variation within domesticated species, such as traditional crop varieties. 18 Environmental Services In addition to maintaining bioLogical diversity, and thus the development options available to future generations, wildlands also provide perpetual environmental services that can be vital to successful economic development. These include the creation and protection of soil, the stabilizat:Lon of water flow patterns, the amelioration of climate, the breakdown of pollutants, the recycling of wastes, and the provision of nurseries for economically important fisheries and of barriers against weather damage. Despite their economic value and their importance in meeting human needs, environmental services are frequently overlooked or undervalued because they are almost always public goods that are not priced in the marketplace. Wildlands can be regarded as a form of natural capital that provides an unending stream of benefits and services to support and enhance economic development. All development projects support capital formation, and it is equally important that they avoid unnecessarily depreciating the natural capital represented by wildlands. Many costly development, failures and much human suffering in recent years are directly attributable to the ill- advised destruction of natural capital. Many sectors of developing country economies, including agriculture, livestock, fisheries, energy, water supply, public health, transport, and tourism, depend to a great degree on the ecological services provided by wildlands. Furthermore, wildlands contribute to economic development and help minimize human suffering by promoting climatic stability and. by preventing or mitigating floods, droughts, landslides, and other "acts of God.' Agriculture and Livestock Forests, and in some cases other wildlands (including woodlands, shrublands, and wetlands), support the agricultural sector in 19 important ways. By retaining water, forests prevent or minimize excessive flooding during rainy periods and thus help prevent soil erosion in downstream agricultural areas. Mangrove swamps benefit agriculture by encouraging land accretion in river deltas and by reducing erosion by coastal waves during storms. Wildlands also protect soils on agriculturally marginal lands until economically viable and ecologically sustainable cropping or silvicultural techniques can be introduced. This approach is far less costly than the rehabilitation of marginal lands that have been degraded by inappropriate clearing or subsequent misuse. Fully intact wildlands can also support agriculture by serving as baseline scientific study areas. Knowledge about nutrient cycling, energy flow, species interactions, and other ecological processes in natural ecosystems can enhance the management of agricultural systems. The need for baseline study areas is particularly evident in zones such as the humid lowland tropics where it has been difficult to achieve sustained agricultural yields. To retain their full complement of species over the long term, baseline areas often need to be substantial in size--perhaps 2,500 square kilometers or more for lowland tropical rain forests (see appendix D). Wildlands often provide refuges for plant and animal species that are important for sustained agricultural production but that cannot survive in converted areas. For example, certain insects that pollinate crops need forests to survive. On rangelands protected wildland areas preserve highly palatable grasses or other forage species that have disappeared from overgrazed areas. By maintaining these valuable species, wildlands can enable the surrounding degraded lands to recover their lost productivity. Forests and other well-vegetated wildlands also help maintain the productivity of irrigated agriculture. As protectors of watersheds they can augment and sustain water flows during the dry season, and they buffer peak flows and reduce inundation of crops during the wet season. Furthermore, by stabilizing upstream soils 20 they can greatly reduce sedimentat:Lon in irrigation canals and thereby decrease the costs of keep:ing these systems functional. About 40 percent of farmers in developing countries live in villages that depend on the watershed funct:Lons provided by forests. When forested or other well-vegetated wildlands are eliminated, the damage to agricultural output can be severe. Deforestation and the ensuing sedimentation have reduced the capacity of India's Nizamsagar Reservoir from almost 900 million cubic meters to less than 340 million cubic meters. As a result there is now not enough water to irrigate the 1,100 square kilometers of rice and sugarcane served by the reservoir, and local sugar factories have considerable underutilized capacity (IUCN 1980b). Hills (areas with slopes of more than 8 degrees) and highlands (areas well above sea level) cover approximately 50 percent of the land area of Mexico, Central America, the Andean countries, and the Caribbean. A recent evaluation of the agricultural potential of tropical America (Rockefeller Foundation 1981) recommended that a large portion of these lands be givren "protection management" because they perform their maximum agricultural service when left in a natural condition. If they were farmed, the combination of steep slopes, high rainfall, and thin soils would mean a high risk of erosion or injurious water runoff (Hahn 1982). Thus sometimes the best way to support agriculture is to ensure that certain important wildlands are not converted to agri.cultural production. To open these strategic natural areas to urLsustainable uses can be tantamount to "killing and eating the chicken while others (downstream) continue to depend upon the eggs" (K. R. Miller 1982c). Wildland management measures can also benefit agriculture by preventing or reducing damage to crops by wildlife. In the World Bank-supported Johore Land Settlement project in Malaysia, no measures were taken to establish protected areas and migration corridors for wild elephants. When their natural forest habitat was converted, the elephants invaded plantations and destroyed many young oil palms, apparently on purpose--that is, not for food or 21 accidentally. According to an internal World Bank report, the loss of 46 percent of the plantings, the resupply of young plants, the delays in settlement, and the implementation of animal control measures all contributed to the project's 94 percent cost overrun. This outcome could easily have been prevented at low cost had appropriate wildland management measures been taken to secure enough protected natural habitat for the elephants. Similarly, wildlife did considerable damage to crops in Nepal, where the World Bank- supported Settlement project provided no wildlife reserves. (This project also received weak support from the government because it directly contravened its interest in conservation and wildland management.) Fisheries Certain types of wildlands are critically important to inland and coastal fisheries. Many economically important species that are harvested at sea depend during part of their life cycles on coastal wetlands and shallows, particularly mangrove swamps, salt marshes, estuaries, and coral reefs. In fact, coastal wildlands provide essential food or shelter for fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs that account for an estimated two-thirds of the world's fisheries and that include some of the most commercially valuable species, such es shrimp (IUCN 1980b). Overfishing is commonly cited as the cause of declines in fishery production, but destruction of these important wildlands is often more to blame. For example, the destruction of coral reefs to produce lime in Sri Lanka caused a local fishery to collapse (IUCN 1980b). In the United States alone the cost of losses to marine fisheries as a result of the elimination of coastal wetlands has been estimated at $86 million a year. In Indonesia mangrove swamps and coastal estuaries support an annual catch of shrimp and fish valued at $194 million. During their vulnerable juvenile stages shrimp and many important fish species depend on mangrove swamps as a nursery habitat and on the 22 remains of fallen mangrove leaves for food. It has been shown that there is a direct linear relation between mangrove area and shrimp populations in Indonesia; that is, every decrease in mangrove area leads to a proportional decline in the shrimp harvest (WWF 1981a). It is ironic that mangrove swamps are often regarded as "underutilized,' whereas the fish and shrimp that they support are (often rightly) considered overexploited. It might be more appropriate to say that the mangrove area and the associated fishery yields are inadequate to meet human demand. Other types of wildlands provide essential support for inland fisheries, often in remarkable ways. For example, in the Amazon Basin many species of locally valuable fish thrive on fallen fruit in the varzea, the seasonally flooded freshwater swamp forests (Goulding 1980). Energy Wildlands protect and improve the power production of hydroelectric dams. When forests or other well-vegetated watersheds are cleared, reservoirs often silt up, the amount of water that can be stored decreases, the generation of electricity is curtailed, and the useful life of the hydroelectric investment is shortened. The useful life of the Ambuklao Dam in the Philippines has been cut from sixty to thirty-two years because of deforestation (USAID 1979), and virtually all of Colombia's lower AnchicayA Reservoir filled with silt within the first decade of operation (Allen 1972). Deforestation led to daily rationing of electricity in Bogota, Colombia, by causing the Guatavita hydroelectric complex to operate at only one-sixth of normal capacity (World Environment Report 1981). Such losses in power-generating capacity translate into impaired industrial growth or into massive expenditures for flushing or dredging reservoirs (if that is even practical) or for constructing replacement facilities. 23 The importance of forests and other well-vegetated,wildlands in protecting hydroelectric investments is evident in the case of the Guri Reservoir in Venezuela. An economic analysis in 1976 predicted severe erosion and a significant shortening of the dam's useful life if agricultural development were allowed in the watershed area. The government chose to forgo agricultural development in this area, as the potential costs if the investment in the dam were impaired outweighed the anticipated benefits from the proposed development. It also decided not to build timber roads for sustained-yield logging in the area because of the risk of uncontrolled colonization (Hahn 1982). Instead, the watershed area is now managed as part of the expanded 3-million-hectare Canaima-Gran Sabana National Park. Watershed nanagement above the Guri Reservoir augments the power generated, thereby reducing the need for additional power sources, and will greatly prolong the useful life of the reservoir. Water Supply Forests and other wildlands are important for maintaining adequate, high-quality water supplies throughout the year in urban and rural areas. Intact wildlands can thus benefit public health and industries that depend on high-quality water. In some rural areas deforestation causes groundwater sources or springs to dry up, forcing people to drink from polluted streams. Deforestation has contributed to the malfunction of urban sewers in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (Ledec 1985) and may make it more difficult and more costly to supply clean drinking water to Panama City (Allen 1980). In Colombia deforestation associated with the World Bank-supported Caqueta Land Colonization project has caused some rivers to run dry part of the year and has produced serious flooding and erosion during the rainy season. The benefits of the water supply services that wildlands provide are often recognized only after the wildlands are gone. 24 Wetlands, particularly marshes aLnd swamps, also help to regulate water flow by quickly absorbing vast, amounts of water from torrential rains and then releasing it gradually. Moreover, wetlands help maintain high-quality water supplies by naturally absorbing and breaking down pollutarLts. The economic value of the wastewater treatment and support for fisheries provided by one tidal marsh in the United States has been estimated at $205,000 per hectare a year (Gosselink, Odum, and Pope 1974). The groundwater supply, water purification, soil ercision control, and streamside fertilization afforded by a 930-hectare tract of swamps and riverine forests in the United States have been valued at $1.8 million a year (Wharton 1970). Comparable research, in developing countries is likely to produce similar data. Mangrove swamps also protect supplies of fresh water by reducing the intrusion of salt water into groundwater in coastal areas. Public Health The damming of free-flowing rivers to create reservoirs can spread schistosomiasis and other water-related diseases, and mitigatory precautions should be routine (Lee 1985). In South America yellow fever is transmitted naturally among monkeys by Haemagogus mosquitoes, which inhabit the sunlit forest canopy rather than the shady forest floor. People are not normally exposed to these mosquitoes, but when trees are felled, forest workers are often bitten and infected. They may then carry the virus to villages and cities, where urban-dwelling mosquitoes (notably Aedes aegypti) can transmit the disease to the inhabitants (Unesco 1981c). These examples show that in some cases serious public health risks may militate against the conversion of wildlands. 25 Transport The watershed protection provided by wildlands helps to prevent floods and landslides, which block and damage roads--a serious problem in steep, deforested areas, as in Colombia and Nepal. By preventing soil erosion and the resulting sedimentation, forests and other wildlands help to keep harbors and navigation canals functional. Deforestation is jeopardizing the long-term viability of Panama's most important economic asset, the Panama Canal, which suffers from heavy sedimentation and, during some dry seasons, from insufficient water to operate the locks for large ships (USDS 1978). Similarly, it costs Argentina $10 million a year to dredge silt from the mouth of the Plata River and keep Buenos Aires open to shipping; 80 percent of the sediment load comes from only 4 percent of the drainage basin--the small but heavily overgrazed watershed of the Bermejo River, 1,800 kilometers upstream (Pereira 1973). In Thailand some important waterways are no longer navigable because of sedimentation owing to deforestation (Clay 1982). In the Caqueta region of Colombia large boats can no longer navigate several important rivers as a consequence of deforestation arising from the CaquetA Land Colonization project. The conversion of wildlands (or the subsequent mismanagement of converted areas) thus entails serious economic losses in maintenance expenditures, forgone revenues, and a general reduction in economic activity. Tourism and Recreation The colorful sea life of coral reefs, the grandeur of such unspoiled natural features as canyons, waterfalls, and rock formations, and the unique species to be seen in wild areas attract visitors and valuable foreign exchange to countries that possess these resources. For example, wildlife-based tourism, the development of which has been supported by the World Bank, is among Kenya's most important foreign exchange earners. Other developing 26 countries that earn substantial foreign exchange from nature- oriented tourism include Botswana, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nepal, Rwanda, Seychelles, and Tanzania. Some wildlands have become important as recreation areas for the citizens of developing countries themselves; the Tijuca Forest near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is a case in point. As interest in nature and outdoor recreation continues to grow, wildland areas will become increasingly valuable to visitors from both developed and developing countries. It must be emphasized that the status of wildlands in one country can affect wildlife (and the associated recreational actiLvities and tourism) elsewhere. For example, of 645 bird species that breed in North America, 245 spend the northern winter in Latin America or the Caribbean; at least 57 of these strictly depend on tropical forests for their continued survival (WWF 1982; Ehrlich, Dobkin, and Wheye 1988). The fate of the tropical forests will determine the future of these bird<;, which are valued for aesthetic reasons and for their role in the N4orth American environment. Climatic Stability and Protection :-rom Catastrophes Wildland management can be important in preventing or minimizing economic disruption and losses of human life owing to floods and droughts. Even when such disasters are blamed on nature, they are in fact often intensified or even caused by human destruction of protective vegetation. Each year typhoons in the Philippines cause floods and landslides that are made much worse by the deforestation of watersheds and by the removal of mangrove or other coastal swamps, which buffer coastal flooding (UNEP 1980a). The Caroni Swamp near Port-of-Spain, the capital of Trinidad and Tobago, was preserved as a national park in part because it absorbs seasonal flood waters that could seriously disrupt urban life (OAS 1979). During its annual monsoons India suffers tragic losses of human life and roughly $1 billion in property damage as a result of floods in the Ganges Valley that are exacerbated by deforestation in northern 27 India and Nepal (Center for Science and the Environment 1982). Conversion of certain types of wildlands, particularly cloud forests (mountain forests that intercept moisture from clouds) can cause drought. When cloud forests north of Veracruz, Mexico, were cleared for agriculture, the coastal fogs held much of their moisture instead of depositing it, and over 2,500 square kilometers became considerably drier than before (Vogelman 1981). Droughts in northwestern Costa Rica have been attributed to the removal of forests (Myers 1979). On a larger scale, it is feared that because the Amazon Basin forest generates approximately 50 percent of its own rainfall, deforestation in the basin beyond a certain point could set off an irreversible drying trend throughout Brazil (Salati 1981). The importance of wildlands in mitigating natural disasters and preserving regional (and even global) climatic stability should not be overlooked. A large increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, attributable in considerable measure to tropical deforestation, could cause significant climatic changes with disruptive consequences worldwide. These effects are speculative, but by the time they are proved conclusively it will almost certainly be too late to do much about them. Management to Sustain Environmental Services Thus many or most of the same wildlands that are vital for preserving biological diversity are important in protecting the environmental services necessary to sustain economic development and human well-being. Some, although not all, of these environmental services can be provided by other land use systems. Most notably, the water retention, soil protection, and climate stabilization afforded by natural forests can also be provided by plantation forests, although to a lesser degree because the trees are smaller. But even if plantations can adequately protect watersheds, they do not preserve biological diversity. And in any case wildland 26, management is often the easiest and most cost-effective means of protecting important watersheds. Many wildlands can sustain significant harvests of wood, wildlife, or other products and still maintain their environmental services and often much (although not all) of their biological diversity. For example, mangrove swamps provide nursery grounds for commercial fish and shrimp, reduce! coastal storm and flood damage, build up land, remove sediment from waterways, and prevent the intrusion of salt water. In addition, if properly managed and not overexploited, they can provide building timber, pulpwood, charcoal, tanbark, livestock fodder, shellfish, honey, waxes, and other commercial products. It is estimated that the scientifically managed mangroves of Matang, Malaysia, yield more than $1,100 per hectare annually in forest and fish products alone and provide one job for every 3 hectares. If all of Southeast Asia's roughly 200,000 square kilometers of mangroves were tapped with similar care, they could provide about $25 billion annually to the region's economy (nearly 10 percent of present GNP), along with 7 million- 8 million new jobs (Knowland 1980). (This rough calculation assumes constant prices for the products involved.) As another example, of the animal protein consumed by people in forested areas of southern Nigeria, about 70 percent--$27 million a year in value--comes from forest wildlife. Table 2-1 summarizes the environmental services and material goods that can be obtained from different types of wildlands. The most appropriate type of management system (whether strict protection or some form of multiple use) for any particular wildland depends on several factors: biological conservation needs, the environmental services that require protection, regional economic opportunities, the subsistence needs of local people, and adjacent land use patterns. The types of wildland management system best suited to different kinds of development projects are discussed in appendix E. Table 2-1. Economic Benefits of Wildiand Monagement: Some Examples Wildland ecosystem Brushlands Marshos and Wooded Estuaries Woodlands (moist or Grass- similar freshwater and coastal Coral Benefits Forests and savannas arid) landn wetlands sweps Mangroves shallows roefs Arlrcultur, mpreowd water control for irrigotloe X X X sdueed *d miosttieon Is irrigatie works X X X X Ceel of otl e oresioe X X X X X X Avel lbility of baseline ecole csl "Wady ares X X X X X X X Support of pollinators Ned post control agents X X X X X X X Load accretion in river deltas, X Managemeet of marginal l1ead X X X X Reduction of damag to crop by wildlif X X X X X Preservation of crop germplam X X X X Soure of new crops X X X X X X (Table continues on the following pag .) Table 2-1 (continued) Wildiand ecosystems Brushlands Marshes and Wooded Estuaries Woodlands (moist or Grass- similar freshwater and coastal Coral Benefits Forests and savannas arid) lands wetlands swamps Mangroves shallows reefs Fisheries Nursery or feeding grounds for fish, shrimp, and the like X X X X X Source of new species for harvest or aquaculture X X X X X Livestock Sustained-yield harvest of wiid game x x x x x x Preservation of livestock germplasm X X X X X X Source of new species for domestication X X X X x x LImited grazing or fodder collection X X X X X X X Forestry Preservation of tree germplasm X X X X Source of new forestry species X X X X X Fruits, nuts, honey, waxes, and other forestry products X X X X X Limited wood harvest X X X X Energy Increased hydroelectic production through roduced sedimentation X X X X Sustained-yield fuelwood harvest X X X Source of now biomass energy crops X X X X X X X Industry Incroased froshwater supplies X X X X X X Natural breakdown of pollutants X X X X Source of new species for industrial products X X X X X X X X X Health Increased supply of high-quality water for urban and rural areas X X X X X X Source of new and currently used medications X X X X X X X X X Source of subjects for medical research X X X X X X X X X Control of yollow fever and other diseases X (Table continues on the following page.) Tablo 2-1 (continued) Wildland ecosystems Brushlands Marshes and Wooded Estuaries Woodlands (moist or Grass- similar freshwater and coastal Coral Benefits Forests and savannas arid) lands wetlands swamps Mangroves shallows reefn Transport Icrose d operating efficiency of harbors aNd mviatiom caenls throgo reduced oodimentaties X X X X dedced erosion, land- *Id e, med flooding a Ion rods X X X X Tourti Preservation of wildlitf aN other "mtrsl attractions X X X X X X X X X Protection from catastroahe Control of inland floods X X X X x x Control of coastal floods x x x x x Control of landslides X X X X Control of coastal erosion X X X X X Minimization of extent of drought X Source: Adapted from Hahn (1982). 33 The replacement costs for environmental services lost owing to wildland conversion are often exceedingly high, even when replacement is feasible. Corrective measures may require expenditures for reforestation, check dams, levees, dredging operations, fish hatcheries, water purification equipment, and the like, and scarce development resources are diverted from productive to remedial or production-preserving activities. Failure to adopt appropriate wildland management measures in the present thus greatly increases the capital costs of economic development in the future. The success of national economies depends largely on the nature, extent, quality, and complexity of their total capital stock, including wildlands and other natural capital. Protecting Wildlands of Special Concern Wildlands of special concern are areas that are recognized as exceptionally important for conserving biological diversity or perpetuating environmental services. There are two types: o Wildlands officially designated as protected areas by governments, sometimes in collaboration with the United Nations or the international scientific community. They include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries or game reserves, nature reserves, areas designated for protected status in national conservation strategies or master plans, and similar protected areas. Protected areas such as World Heritage natural sites, biosphere reserves.6 or wetlands of international importance that have been given particular status through international conventions (appendix G) deserve special attention because of their role in cooperative research projects and their internationally recognized value. o Wildlands that are not yet protected by legislation but that have been recognized by national or international scientific and conservation communities (often in collaboration with the United Nations) as exceptionally endangered ecosystems, known sites of rare 34 or endangered species, or important wildlife breeding, feeding, or staging areas and therefore as priority sites for the establishment of wildland management areas. These include certain types of wildlands that are threatened throughout much of the world and that are biologically unique, ecologica]ly fragile, or of special importance for local people and environmental services. Among the likely locations for wildlands of special concern are tropical forests, Mediterranean-type brushlands, mangrove swamps, coastal marshes, estuaries, seagrass beds, coral reefs, small oceanic islands, and certain tropical freshwater lakes and riverine areas. Also in this category are certain geographic regions (see appendix C) where the wildlands have been reduced to comparatively small patches that continue to undergo rapid attrition. As a result, these regions harbor some of the most threatened species in the world. Within the spectrum of tropical forests, lowland moist or wet forests have the richest assorl:ment of species and are often the most vulnerable. Notes 1. Although biological diversLty pertains to microbes as well as to multicelled plants and animals, only the latter are discussed here because the existence of microbial species is usually related to the survival of the plant and animal species on which the microbes depend. 2. It may someday become possible to create some new life forms in laboratories, but no technological achievement can hope to match the complex interdependencies and self-sustaining cycles that are the fruit of natural evolutionary processes. (Indeed, even the remote possibility of upsetting these natural relations leads governments and scientists to be cautious about the practical application of genetic experimental:ion.) 3. All dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million. 35 4. That is, 500,000 species out of 10 million-30 million (Wolf 1987); insects account for a large proportion. 5. Discussion, Special Commission on Internal Pollution, October 1975, London. Levi-Strauss was referring in particular to insects. 6. Although development projects must avoid modifying the core areas of biosphere reserves, wildland management components can be used to strengthen the buffer zones of certain of these reserves. Some types of rural development projects can also include provisions for new biosphere reserves. Development agencies should work with Unesco's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program and with MAB national committees to develop model rural development projects that can be integrated into biosphere reserves. Chapter 3 THE WORLD BANK AND WILDLAND MANAGEMENT During the past fifteen years the World Bank (including IDA and the IFC) has assisted with the financing or execution of more than forty projects with significant wildland management components (see appendix A). Most of these components have involved the establishment or strengthening of wildland management areas (WMAs); the total area involved is about 60,000 square kilometers. WMAs are defined here as officially protected areas that are managed to maintain a relatively unmodified state. World Bank-supported WMAs include national parks, nature reserves, ecological stations, game reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and forest reserves that are managed primarily for their watershed or biological value rather than for wood production. Other wildland management components have involved management of wildlife and of the human use of wildlife. Such components include antipoaching measures, management of water flows from reservoirs to maintain wildlife habitat, and relocation of certain species. In still other cases the location of the project has been changed specifically to avoid biologically important areas. Other projects have indirectly promoted wildland management (see chapter 5). Every project assisted by the Warld Bank must contribute substantially to development objectives and be economically, technically, and financially sound. Wildland management thus fits into an existing framework for judging the usefulness and success of projects. Every project goes through six stages, from the identification, in consultation withl the prospective borrower, of projects that support a country's policies and goals to evaluation of the completed project. (This series of steps, the project cycle, is described in more detail in appendix B.) Each stage provides an 3 6 37 opportunity for assessing the effects of the project on wildlands and taking the necessary measures to protect environmental values. As a result of a major reorganization in 1987, the World Bank's operational staff is organized around four geographic regions: (Sub-Saharan) Africa; Asia; Europe, Middle East, and North Africa; and Latin America and Caribbean. Each of these operational regions now has an Environment Division to address the wildland management and other environmental implications of Bank-supported projects. Moreover, the Bank's former Office of Environmental and Scientific Affairs has been expanded into a new central Environment Department under the Vice President for Sector Policy and Research. Responsibility for implementing wildland management projects or components rests primarily with the Bank's regional staff, which can draw on the advice of the Environmental Division as well as the other regional environmental specialists. The central Environment Department provides a variety of technical assistance and other operational support as needed for a wide range of environmental issues, including wildland management. The identification stage, when projects are first under consideration, is the earliest chance to determine whether the project will affect ecologically important wildlands and, if so, what should be done about it. The Environment Department, as well as regional staff, is involved at this stage in studying the available information on wildlands in the area; if information is scanty, a field survey will be needed. The preparation stage is a time for conducting environmental studies and summing up in a project brief the impact of the project on wildlands. The project brief will include, if appropriate, suggestions for achieving the goals of the government at least cost to wildlands. The appraisal of the feasibility of the project is a crucial stage because it is used to establish the terms and conditions of the loan. The appraisal report specifically describes any planned 38 wildland management measures, their budgets, and the responsibilities of each agency involved. The last stage before implementation is the negotiation of the loan with the borrower (that is, with the government or a body guaranteed by the government). Negotiation is a politically sensitive process that often involvess compromises between the Bank and the borrower on a wide range of project-related issues. At times, compromises occur concerning w:ildland management or other environmental matters. As a lending institution, the Bank is not able or willing to coerce sovereign governments on environmental or other policy matters. It can, however, ensure through specific loan conditions that projects are designied and implemented in broad compliance with its environmental pol:icies, including those that concern wildlands. Because wildland management must continue beyond the life of the project--indeed, in perpetuity--to be effective, it is important that the loan agreement specify long-term measures that the borrower agrees to implement. During the implementation phase, supervision teams should routinely review with the borrower the progress that has been made in carrying out the wildland measures. The implementation of important wildland components should be well under way before a project's main land-clearing or construction activities are allowed to proceed. Finally, the evaluation phase provides a opportunity for drawing lessons that can be applied to future projects. Objectives and Achievements Wildland management components have two principal objectives. The first is to prevent, minimize, or partially compensate for the conversion of wildlands and thereby to preserve biological diversity. Most of the wildland components listed in appendix A have this goal. The second is to preserve and improve the environmental services provided by wildlands and thus increase the 39 project's economic or social benefits. Some wildland components seek both objectives. For example, the Dumoga-Bone National Park, established under the Irrigation XV project in Indonesia, helps to ensure a large and reliable water supply, reduce sedimentation in the irrigation works, and preserve a significant portion of the project area in its natural state despite surrounding development. The investment costs of wildland management components in World Bank-supported projects have typically been low--normally less than 3 percent of total project costs and in half the cases less than 1 percent. In many instances it is difficult to separate out the cost of the wildland component because it is bound up with other components. For example, fire control measures in the Watershed Management and Erosion Control project, Philippines, will protect plantations and production forests as well as intact natural forests. In one case (Wildlife and Tourism, Kenya), the wildland component amounted to 100 percent of project costs. More than $36 million was invested in seven WMAs to support antipoaching measures and provide for wildlife studies and the training of personnel. This project, although purely environmental, was economically justified; its internal economic rate of return was about 16 percent. At the other extreme many projects have achieved significant wildland management objectives at zero additional cost. For example, manipulation of the water release schedule in the Kafue Hydroelectric II project, Zambia, costs little or nothing, but it provides significant downstream benefits for wildlife, people, and cattle by ensuring a dependable water suppply. Despite their generally low (and sometimes zero) costs, wildland management components have achieved significant benefits. All have contributed to the preservation of biological diversity, which is now a formal objective of the World Bank. At least three projects (Watershed Management and Erosion Control, Philippines; Upper Magdalena Pilot Watershed Management, Colombia; and Guavio Hydro 40 Power, Colombia) protect downstream hydroelectric power-generating capacity by maintaining forested watersheds in their natural state. Other projects protect downstream i:rrigated agriculture from the sedimentation, erosion damage, and irregular water supplies induced by the deforestation of watersheds. Six of the projects listed in appendix A have directly benefited tourism by conserving wildlands and wildlife. Others (for example, Livestock Development II, Kenya) have indirectly helped tourism by conserving wildlife. In Bolivia, the Ulla Ulla Development project provides an example of a wildland component that is not directly related to the rest of the project but was included because of its contribution to long-term sustainable development. Indeed, the wildland component, which protects the endangered vicuficn, has been more successful than other parts of the project. (Vicugna vicugna, a wild relative of the llama that has defied domestication, produces one of the world's highest-quality fleeces. InternatiDnal trade in vicufa wool has been prohibited under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora--CITES--but if the species receives sufficient protection to rebuild its numbers, sustained-yield harvesting would be possible.) The Central Visayas Regional project, Philippines, contributes to the production of coastal fisheries by protecting vital mangrove and coral reef habitats and by partially compensating, through the planting of mangroves and the construction of artificial reefs, for the earlier (non-project-related) destruction of fish habitats. In the Yacyreta Hydroelectric project (Argentina-Paraguay) freshwater fisheries are protected, at least to some extent, by a specific fish management component. Several projects improve the quality and quantity of water available for human consumption, through water management practices that also benefit wildlife (Kafue Hydroelectric II, Zambia) or through the protection of forested watersheds (Upper Magdalena Pilot Watershed Management, Colombia). By greatly reducing the risk of flooding and landslides owing to deforestation, the wildland component in the Highway IV project, 41 Costa Rica, assists the transport sector. The Northwest I Agricultural Development and Environmental Protection project, Brazil, provides for research into opportunities for the economic utilization of nonwood forest products, including wildlife. A good example of how cost-effective a wildland component can be is the Irrigation XV project, Indonesia. To help protect the watershed catchment area for the Dumoga irrigation works on the island of Sulawesi, the 3,000-square-kilometer Dumoga-Bone National Park was established. The costs of this component--about 1 percent of total project costs--went mainly to establish and demarcate park boundaries, develop a management plan, hire personnel, and provide the necessary infrastructure and equipment. This relatively small investment in wildland management protects and enhances the project's valuable irrigation investment by reducing sedimentation and the associated high maintenance costs and by helping to ensure F steady year-round flow of water. The park also preserves much of the rich flora and fauna that are unique to Sulawesi and has become the focus of the largest single biological research expedition ever undertaken, Operation Wallace, sponsored by the Indonesian Institute of Science and the British Royal Entomological Society. Wildland management components require additional staff time and can increase the complexity of a project, but they have rarely caused significant delays. Moreover, the failure to incorporate adequate wildland components may cause greater delays and complexity later, substantially reduce project benefits, and even lead to failure of the project. According to World Bank project completion reports or postaudits, for only three out of forty-three wildland components was implementation markedly slower than for most other project components. (The three were Agricultural Development and Environmental Protection, Brazil; Mahaweli Ganga Development III, Sri Lanka; and Watershed Management and Erosion Control, Philippines.) In one other case (Bura Irrigation Settlement, Kenya) implementation of the wildland component has been disappointing, but 42 the entire project has been plagued. by serious problems. In at least five cases the wildland component was implemented with less difficulty than most other project components. (The projects were Ulla Ulla Development, Bolivia; Yacyreta Hydroelectric, Argentina- Paraguay; Livestock Development II, Kenya; Middle Atlas-Central Area Agricultural Development, Morocco; and Colon Urban Development, Panama.) Appendix A includes comments on the implementation of these and other wildland components to date. As wildland management componerts within projects become more routine, the additional staff effort required to manage them successfully is expected to decrease further. One purpose of this book is to clarify the issues involved in designing wildland components and thereby to facilitate their implementation by development organizations. Lessons Learned Some important lessons have emerged from accumulated experience with wildland management. First, wildland management components should be routinely and systematically incorporated into certain types of development projects so that the short-term and long-term benefits of wildland management can. be fully realized. Wildland components have often been incorporated in projects in an irregular, ad hoc way and have sometimes been omitted from projects that would have benefited from them. Some past projects have even incurred both economic and environmental losses because of inadequate attention to wildland management. The type and size of wildland component that is most appropriate will, of course, vary with each project. Second, although at times it may be necessary, because of unforeseen circumstances, to add wildland components at later stages of a project, it is more effective and less costly to incorporate them as early as possible in the project cycle. For example, in the Rahad Irrigation project, Sudan, it was much more cost-effective to 43 choose beforehand a canal site that would not interfere with wildlife migrations than it would have been to provide mitigatory measures later. Conversely, consultation with appropriate wildlife experts might have obviated the need to make changes during the implementation of the Evros Development project in Greece and the Rural Development project in Mauritius. Third, meeting wildland management goals requires effective management on the ground, not merely on paper. Colonists and resource-extracting companies often move rapidly into "paper parks" that exist only in a legal document or on a map, unless they are inaccessible or unattractive for other reasons. Wildland management objectives have to be translated into specific measures with a budget for implementing them. These measures include the hiring and training of personnel, the provision of infrastructure and equipment, the development of a scientifically sound management plan that accommodates the needs and interests of local people, and a policy environment--legal, economic, and institutional--that supports wildland management objectives (see chapter 8 and appendix F). A mere declaration of intent to protect wildlands or wildlife, or even the designation of a WMA on a map, does not ensure effective management unless specific supporting measures are implemented. In the Alto Turi Land Settlement project, Brazilian law required that 50 percent of the natural forest in the project area be preserved. The World Bank's project appraisal report specified conservation of two forest blocks totaling 1,000 square kilometers, but this measure was never translated into an actual wildland component with the necessary budget for implementation. Fourth, the WMA must be carefully designed if it is to attain its multiple objectives. A WMA may be large enough for some narrow purpose but too small to conserve biological diversity, safeguard evolutionary processes, or provide extensive environmental services. In addition, the specific location and shape of a WMA can be important to its success. Appendix D provides guidance on WMA design issues and on the tradeoffs that sometimes occur. 44 Appropriate design features for each site are best determined by a conservation specialist. Fifth, the success of wildland management components depends on the government's commitment and ability. Even where commitment is strong, a government's ability to establish and maintain a WMA often depends on the degree of financial support provided by external funding agencies. Most of the wildland components described in appendix A have provided some direct support for establishing or strengthening WMAs. In some cases, however (for example, the Braulio Carillo National Park in Costa Rica, a component of the Highway IV project), the government assumed all the costs of establishing the WMA, and the Bank took no specific measures to secure continued financing. It would be preferable for the Bank to take steps to ensure counterpart finnacing or to provide the financing itself to ensure the availability of the relatively modest sums necessary for the establishment and continuation of WMAs. The government's commitment and ability are contingent on the support of the local people who are affected. Such support must be garnered through dialogue among project staff, government officials, environmental advocates, and the local people on the importance of conservation and the benefits (such as tourism or watershed protection) of WMAs. Support of the WMA by local people often depends on their inclusion in WMA planning and benefits and on rural development investments that provide alternatives to encroachment (see chapter 8 for details). Finally, the successful establishment and management of WMAs by governments can depend critically on technical and legal assistance. International organizations can assi:st countries in developing coherent national and sectoral plant; and policies that promote wildland management. Often, economic or policy interventions to relieve pressures on natural resources are absolutely necessary if WMAs are to achieve their objectives. WMA projects will be much more successful if the planning process assists borrowing countries in determining and implementing these interventions. Chapter 4 INCORPORATING WILDLAND MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS IN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS The World Bank's 1986 policy requires that wildland management components be included in certain types of projects. These components have two broad and overlapping objectives: to prevent, minimize, or compensate for any conversion of wildlands as a consequence of projects and to conserve environmental services that increase the economic or social benefits of certain projects, even if no wildlands are converted under those projects. Among different countries (and different regions within the same country) there is great variation in the remaining wildland area and its relative biological and environmental significance, the dependence of local people on wildland resources, the types of economic activities, and the political circumstances. As a result, the World Bank's wildlands policy is stated in general language and is adapted to local conditions case by case. The Bank's general policy regarding wildlands is to seek to avoid their conversion and to assist in their preservation. The points that follow are from the World Bank's official policy statement. o The Bank normally declines to finance projects that involve the conversion of wildlands of special concern, even if this conversion occurred before the Bank was invited to consider financing. o Where wildlands other than those of special concern may become involved, the Bank prefers to site projects on lands that have already been cleared, cultivated, heavily logged, or otherwise converted sometime in the past rather than on lands that have been converted in anticipation of a Bank- 45 46 financed project. Deviations from this policy must be explicitly justified. o When development of wildlands is justified (as found through the normal appraisal procedure, in which the Environment Department participates), less valuable rather than more valuable wildlands should be converted. o When a significant conversion is justified, the loss should be offset by including a wildland management component in the project concerned rather than in some future project. (A significant conversion is one that affects, say, 100 or more square kilometers or a large proportion of the remaining wildlands in a specific smaller ecosystem.) The compensatory component should directly support the preservation of an ecologically similar area.1 This policy pertains to any project in which the World Bank is involved, irrespective of whether the Bank is financing the component that affects wildlands.2 The implications are explained by Goodland (1987, 1988). Even when a project does not itself affect wildlands, its success may depend on the environmental services that wildlands provide. In such cases the World Bank's policy is to require borrowers to include a project component that will conserve the relevant wildlands in a WMA rather than leave their preservation to chance. If land use systems other than wildlands (such as plantation forests) that can efficiiantly provide environmental services are contemplated, a compensatory wildland component should be included to offset any significant conversion of wildlands. In areas without remaining wildlands, alternative conservation measures may be needed to provide benefits similar to those that wildlands would have offered. In cases in which the wildlands do not directly benefit or serve the objectives of :he project, the project may still be improved through wildland components that provide 47 socioeconomic benefits in the general project area. Projects with wildland management as their sole objective are also encouraged. Before designing projects that might involve wildland conversion, it is essential to determine the significance of the wildland in question. Appendix C outlines simple procedures for determining whether a proposed project area contains wildlands of special importance. Since data on the biological importance and environmental services of most wildlands are poor or nonexistent, it will usually be necessary for the project to finance a preproject survey by an experienced natural resources specialist. Although detailed biological inventories (which include insects and other invertebrates and small plants) can be time-consuming, more cursory surveys that make use of remote sensing and a reconnaisance of soil conditions and indicator species can provide essential planning information in a month or less. It is worthwhile and cost-effective to consult the literature, responsible organizations (including appropriate NGOs), and scientific experts beforehand and to carry out preproject surveys when necessary. These precautions help to ensure that the environmental and economic costs of wildland conversion will be avoided or kept to a minimum. Wildland Management in Specific Sectors The kind of wildland component needed and the rationale for it will vary according to project. This section describes, sector by sector, how wildland management can be used to protect public goods and improve projects. Agriculture and Land Settlement It is better to increase agricultural production by more intensively using already converted areas than by clearing additional natural forests or other wildlands. Agriculture or land settlement projects that expand the cultivated area by clearing 48 wildlands should avoid those wildlands that are of greatest value for biological conservation or environmental services. Any projects that convert sizable wildland areas should routinely support the establishment or improved management of a compensatory WMA in an ecologically similar area. Irrigation projects, if they are implemented in an environmentally sustainable manner, can indirectly benefit wildland management to the extent that increased agricultural output or employment on the irrigated land reduces pressures to expand cultivation by converting wildlands. The irrigation of unique arid wildlands of high biological value should be avoided, however. A few square kilometers in desert and semidesert areas may harbor the entire world population of a highly endemic (that is, highly localized) plant species (Tillman :L981). Care should also be taken to ensure that excessive water diversions and the runoff of fertilizers and biocides do not sigsnificantly harm downstream aquatic life. Large irrigation canals can block movements of wildlife (as well as of livestock aLnd people) unless the canals are properly situated (as in the Rahad Irrigation project, Sudan) or unless appropriate crossings are provided. Mitigatory measures for the construction of irrigation dams are discussed below.3 One of the most compelling reasons for incorporating wildland management components in irrigation projects is to preserve well- vegetated watersheds, particularly forests, and thereby protect the value of the irrigation investment by preventing soil erosion, sedimentation, and excessive seasonal fluctuations in water flow. For this reason every new irrigation project should endeavor to ensure proper hydrologic functioning of the water catchment area. In most cases this implies a component for the establishment or improved management of a wildland unit, since natural vegetation provides the least-cost means of protecting watersheds. In some cases, intensive forms of land use, such as tree plantations, can provide adequate watershed protection. 49 Livestock Livestock production affects wildlands most severely when large tracts of forest are cleared for cattle pasture. This practice, which is most widespread in Latin America, may yield short-term gains to individuals at the expense of long-term environmental and economic damage.4 In the absence of intensive management, many pastures established on tropical forest soils rapidly lose their productivity owing to soil erosion, compaction by cattle hooves, the depletion of nutrients (calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium from the soil end up in cattle carcasses), and invasion by noxious and unpalatable plants that rapidly crowd out pasture grasses. Primarily for these reasons, nearly all of the cattle ranches established in Amazonia between 1965 and 1978 have been abandoned (Goodland 1986). This lack of sustainability, coupled with very low creation of employment, makes large-scale cattle ranching on tropical forest soils a short-term, high-risk investment. (In Amazonian Brazil only one job is created for each $63,000 invested in cattle ranches. This is the lowest employment expenditure ratio for virtually any type of development project; see Goodland 1986.) In recognition of these problems the government of Brazil recently reversed its policy of providing generous financial incentives for Amazonian cattle ranching. Development projects that promote cattle raising in tropical forest regions would be more sustainable and more prudent if they emphasized the use of improved pasture management and animal husbandry to raise productivity on existing pasturelands rather than expansion of pastures at the expense of forests. The World Bank is also prepared to support the development of livestock species that can utilize humid tropical environments more efficiently than cattle. These include water buffalo, sambar deer, such small livestock as pigs, poultry, and rabbits, and even unconventional species--pacas, agoutis, and capybaras (all are large Latin American rodents), as well as turtles and iguanas. If, in a livestock credit 50 project, the conversion of forests or other wildlands is deemed unavoidable (as determined under the procedure described in chapter 3), a wildland component should be included to establish a compensatory WMA or provide other mitigatory measures. In more arid regions cattle and other livestock may displace wildlife from natural grasslands and, in the absence of proper range management, may degrade and desertify grazing lands. To minimize these problems, support for livestcck development loans should be contingent on scientifically sound stocking densities that do not lead to overgrazing and thereby to desertification and the reduction of livestock carrying capacity. Since livestock fences may impede wildlife migration routes or even kill animals that become entangled in them, their use needs to be carefully evaluated beforehand. Proper planning for livestock projects routinely includes the assessment of important wildlife resources and the incorporation of a management scheme to minimize possible conflicts in land and water use. Wildlands of special value fcor wildlife or for rare plant species (including wild relatives cf crops) should be protected within WMAs. The World Bank is also prepared to assist the ecologically sound ranching of antelope or other wildlife for meat, hides, or other products, where it is justified on economic and social grounds, since some species can utilize grazing lands more efficiently and less destructively than can cattle, sheep, or goats (Hopcraft 1979). Fisheries Fishery projects both affect and are affected by wildlands. As noted in chapter 2, certain wildlarnds sustain, at some stage of the animals' life cycles, important species of fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, including many that are hLarvested as adults far offshore. Particularly important in this respect are freshwater swamp forests such as the Amazonian varzea, freshwater and salt marshes, mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs, and other wetlands and coastal 51 shallows. Because so much of the fishery production in developing countries is critically dependent on these wildlands, fishery projects need to ensure that they receive adequate protection. The preparation stage of all fishery projects should routinely include an assessment of which wildland areas support the fishery resource and whether a wildland component is needed to conserve these areas. The full range of fishery projects, including credit, marketing and processing facilities, boatbuilding, and ports should include wildland components whenever necessary because a loss of wildlands can undercut all these types of investment. An understanding of the species composition and basic ecology of the fishery resource is also essential to the ecological sustainability of fishery projects. For example, only about 3,000 of the estimated 5,000 fish species of the Amazon and Orinoco drainage systems, which harbor the world's most diverse assemblage of freshwater fish, have been named by scientists. Lack of basic knowledge can hamper sustained-yield management of this important resource. Biological inventories can greatly increase the benefits of fishery development projects and should often be included as project components. Water development projects can also severely reduce fishery productivity by harming aquatic wildlands; appropriate preventive and mitigatory measures are discussed below. Pollution from agriculture and industry can jeopardize the survival of valuable fish species or affect their marketability if unacceptable concentrations of toxic substances accumulate in the catch. The World Bank will not support projects that cause significant and irreparable damage to long-term fishery production in exchange for short-term economic gains. It would be inappropriate, for example, to support a cement plant that obtained its raw material from pulverized coral. Coral reefs are too valuable for fisheries (as well as for biological conservation and for tourism) to be used for this purpose, particularly since alternative raw materials exist. 52 Fisheries depend heavily on wildlands for sustained productivity, but certain aspects of fishery projects can damage wildlands or biological diversity if proper precautions are not taken. Overfishing can have damaging repercussions on a wide variety of species in aquatic ecosystems, even to the point of causing species extinctions, and continued overfishing destroys the long-term economic productivity of the fishery. For this reason development projects should assess and monitor optimal sustainable yield so as not to overexploit the fishery and cause its decline. Aquaculture (the propagation of fish and other aquatic organisms under human control) can help to reduce the harvesting of natural fishery stocks and is often economically worthwhile. It can be carried out in coastal wetlands and shallows, irrigation networks, rice padd,Les, tanks, barrels, artificial and natural ponds, and sewage lagoons. Often cages, pens, or other devices, such as artificial substrates for oyster culture, are used. In some areas, particularly Southeast Asia and Latin America, fishponds for aquaculture are developed by convert:ing mangrove swamps, marshes, and other wetlands. As a result the natural inland or coastal fisheries that depend on these wildLands often decline (WWF 1981a). Furthermore, the environmental services provided by these wildlands are lost, along with the wood and ol:her products that can be harvested from them. Excessive convrersion of wetlands also threatens biological diversity. For these reasons aquaculture projects should avoid or minimize the conversion of natural wetlands, particularly those that are important for biological conservation or environmental services. When conversion is deemed to be unavoidable, ecologically similar areas should be protected in WMAs as project components. An important cause of species extinctions is the introduction of aggressive nonnative species that prey on or outcompete native species. For example, the introduction of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Brazil has led to muddied. water and loss of vegetation, thereby threatening the survival of native species (FAO 1974a). 53 Fishery projects (including aquaculture in natural bodies of water) should include precautions to minimize the risk of species extinctions. Nonnative species should not be introduced into natural lakes and rivers unless no economically acceptable native species are available and a scientific assessment of the risks of ecological disruption has been completed. Nonnative species should not be introduced if the potential for ecological disruption is significant. Forestry Many forestry projects do not entail wildland conversion because they are situated on already converted and often degraded lands. These projects, which include reforestation and afforestation, village woodlots, shelterbelts, agroforestry, and timber and fuelwood plantations, are environmentally beneficial, as they provide valuable goods and environmental services and often help to reduce pressure for logging or clearing natural forests. In cases that involve the afforestation of naturally unforested wildlands (such as the paramo shrublands in the high mountains of South America), species diversity could be threatened by a large project (Steyermark 1977). Careful site selection, a species inventory, and support for compensatory WMAs would minimize this risk. Some projects call for selective logging or clear-felling of natural forests, to be followed by regeneration of the natural forest, the establishment of tree plantations, or some type of nonforest use. Projects should avoid logging in forests that have been determined to be important for biological conservation, the needs of tribal peoples, or environmental services that are not readily duplicated by plantations or natural regrowth. Despite our incomplete knowledge about tropical forests, it is clear that conversion increases the risks of extinctions because so many tropical forest species are highly endemic. Therefore, where substantial tracts of natural forest are modified or cleared, a 54 comparable forest area should be set aside in one or more WMAs. In many countries, such as Kenya, plantation forestry projects have converted some natural forest but have also reduced pressures to convert the remaining natural forest because the plantations produce a large volume of wood on a comparatively small area. In such instances development agencies should actively support the establishment of WMAs to help ensure that an adequate sample of the remaining natural forest remains unconverted. Additional measures to minimize thLe conflict between forestry development and wildland management are usually feasible. For example, selective logging operations using techniques that minimize damage to the residual forest (table 4-1) would aid natural regeneration and promote greater biological diversity in the logged area. Highways and Rural Roads Highways and rural roads affect wildland management only if they penetrate previously remote wildland areas. Although the roads themselves increase the risk of fire and can be an uncrossable barrier for certain species of small. animals, the main problem that roads pose for wildland management is that they provide access for slash-and-burn cultivators, spontaneous settlers, timber cutters, hunters, and the like. In regions with significant population densities the mere building of a roa.d into a forest or other wildland is usually sufficient to encourage spontaneous human migration. The result is often extensive clearing of the natural vegetation, frequently followed by severe erosion or degradation of the soil, disruption of water supplies, and loss of biological diversity. Even paving or otherwise improving an existing road can have this effect by providing settlers with improved access to markets for the products that they extract or cultivate. Land settlement, whether it is planned, as in integrated colonization projects, or is simply stimulated by the construction 55 Table 4-1. Environmental Ranking of Methods of Tree Felling (F) and Removal (R) in Selective Logging Minimum damage to residual forest Hand removal (R) Blimp, balloon, or helicopter (R) Aerial cable (R) Manual felling (F) Chainsaw (R) Elephant (R) Other draft animal (R) Hand winch (R) Mechanical winch (R) Shearing blade (F, R) Tree pusher (F, R) Skidder (R) Tractor and chain (F, R) Bulldozer (various types) (F, R) Maximum damage to residual forest Note: These methods are ranked in approximate order of environmental preference. It is recognized that economics, labor supply, terrain, and other criteria will also influence the choice. 56 of roads, deserves official support only if the wildlands to be cleared are fertile enough to sustain the intended land use. Over the years many land development schemes have performed poorly because the planned land uses were incompatible with soil types and other ecological conditions (Schumann and Partridge 1988). Many existing wildlands have remained intact precisely because soil conditions and other environmental constraints made them not very suitable for settlement. A tropical forest that is "empty" today generally is so because people have avoided it in favor of less harsh environments. Such lands may offer little promise for sustainable development. The type of wildland component most appropriate for a road project that penetrates wildlands depends on the principal objectives of the project. If the road is intended explicitly to facilitate settlement of new lands (assuming that such a project has been found to be justified and feasible), the wildland component should resemble those for agricultural settlement projects in general--that is, compensatory WHAs should be provided--and the road should avoid the most important wildlands. A road that is not intended to facilitate settlement or conversion of wildlands should be situated, when practicable, so as not to cross wildlands. If, despite best efforts, this is not feasible or not economically justified, a project component should provide for guard stations or other measures to restrict spontaneous settlement. The extension of the Braulio Carrillo National Park in the Highway IV project in Costa Rica is a useful model in many respects even though in this case the World Bank did not fund the wildland component. Besides conserving wildlands and their associated biological and environmental values, measures such as these sometimes avoid the significantly higher maintenance costs that arise from the landslides and flooding associated with deforestation. (Other environmental aspects of highway construction that are less directly related to wildlands management are outlined in Lee 1985.) 57 Water Development Water development projects significantly affect aquatic and marine wildlands, including free-flowing rivers and streams, natural lakes, marshes, swamps, and coastal areas such as coral reefs. Such projects can drastically reduce aquatic life, biological diversity, fisheries, and certain environmental services. o Dams for hydroelectric power, irrigation, and other purposes convert free-flowing rivers and streams into reservoir ecosystems. This fundamentally transforms the aquatic environment, often significantly changing species composition and reducing biological diversity. O Channelization and dredging in flood control, navigation, and port projects significantly alter the aquatic environment and affect many aquatic species. o Diversion or impoundment of water may reduce the downstream water supply for aquatic life and often for terrestrial wildlife, livestock, and people as well. O Water quality can be degraded by changes in water depth and flow rate, the decay of submerged vegetation, runoff from agricultural areas, or pollution from project-related activities. These changes can significantly affect aquatic life. o The reduction of riverborne nutrients by dams can severely affect freshwater and marine fish and other aquatic species. For example, declining nutrient loads in the Nile River as a consequence of the construction of the Aswan Dam have virtually eliminated the sardine fishery in the Nile Delta area, which produced 18,000 tons a year (Farvar and Milton 1972). The cutoff of nutrient inputs into the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez), Mexico, because of extensive damming and diversion of the Colorado River in the United States is causing the decline of the sea bass, shrimp, and 58 shark fisheries and may threaterL the survival of the endemic Gulf porpoise (Phocoena sinus) (Watson 1981). O In the absence of appropriate passage facilities, dams inhibit the migration of fish arLd other aquatic species, sometimes causing biological and economic damage. o Drainage and reclamation of wetlands for agriculture, industrial development, or other purposes can severely impair biological diversity, fisheries, and environmental services. An internal World Bank report orL the Drainage and Land Reclamation project, Sri Lanka, states that aquatic life suffered and fish catches were reduced because the control of tidal action impeded "the free flowing and mixing of sea with fresh water [and limited] access to the frequently flooded marshy area." The report adds, "These losses are all the more important to a nation like Sri Lanka relying heavily on fishing for the protein supply of its population and for exports. . . With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that consideration should have been given to the project's negative impact on marine life. A lesson learned from the adverse development of fisheries, following project implementation, is that any interference with the free flow of coastal-brackish water may lead to unwarranted changes in the ecology, and to reduced aquatic life." o Urban sewage disposal projects can adversely affect water quality, sometimes in areas thalt are important for local fisheries or tourism. Moreover, sewage settling ponds sometimes involve the conversion of marshes or other wetlands, which may be important: fish nurseries or migratory bird habitats. Careful siting of sewage disposal or treatment facilities can preveni: most negative environmental effects. An example is the effort to ensure that a planned sewage treatment plant in Limmasol, Cyprus, will not harm the Akrotiri Salt Lake. 59 Because of the diverse range of ecological effects caused by water development, the most appropriate type of wildland component will vary according to the specific project. The project should be sited so as to minimize the conversion of aquatic wildlands. The most biologically valuable aquatic areas should not be converted. For aquatic wildlands with poorly known biological or hydrologic characteristics, preproject surveys are necessary to determine which project site is least damaging to biological diversity or environmental services. After a site is chosen, modifications in project design can mitigate adverse environmental effects. For example, facilities that allow fish to pass can ensure the survival of some migratory species. Fish hatcheries or other components can increase the fishery potential of reservoirs, but native species should be used whenever possible to avoid the risks associated with the introduction of exotic species. Modifications in water management can minimize impacts on aquatic as well as terrestrial species. The removal of forest vegetation before inundation can improve water quality, fisheries, and navigation and provide valuable wood. (See Goodland 1979 and World Bank 1984b for discussions of these and other measures.) Some reservoirs have inundated enormous land areas; the Akosombo Dam in Ghana flooded 8,482 square kilometers. To minimize the loss of biologically valuable wildlands or other land, reservoir sites for hydroelectric projects can be chosen to maximize the ratio of hydropower generated to area inundated. This ratio varies greatly among large hydroelectric projects (table 4-2). Dam sites should also be chosen to avoid flooding unique types of wildlands. If a large tract of wildland is unavoidably and justifiably inundated by a new project, a component should be included to provide support for the establishment or improved management of a compensatory WMA. Additional environmental aspects of hydroelectric projects, such as the control of water-related diseases and aquatic weeds and the 60 Table 4-2. Hydropower Generated per Hectare Inundated Normal area Project and Rated capacity of reservoir Kilowatts country (kilowatts (hectares) per hectare Pehuenche (Chile) 500, D00 400 1,250 Guavio (Colombia) 1,600,D00 1,500 1,067 Rio Grande II (Colombia) 324, 000 1,100 295 Paulo Afonso (Brazil) 1,299,D00 7,520 173 Sayanskaya (U.S.S.R.) 6,400,D00 80,000 80 Churchill Falls (Canada) 5,225,D00 66,500 79 Itaipu (Brazil and Paraguay) 10,500,D00 135,000 77 Grand Coulee (United States) 2,025,D00 32,400 63 Urra I (Colombia) 340,D00 6,200 55 Jupia (Brazil 1,400, D00 33,300 42 Slo Simao (Brazil 2,680,D00 66,000 41 Tucurui (Brazil 6,480,D00 216,000 30 Ilha Solteira (Brazil) 3,200,D00 120,000 27 Guri (Venezuela) 6,000,D00 328,000 18 Paredlo (Brazil) 40,D00 2,300 17 Urra II (Colombia) 860,D00 54,000 16 Cabora Bassa (Mozambique) 4,000,D00 380,000 14 Furnas (Brazil) 1,200,D00 135,000 9 Samuel (Brazil) 110,D00 15,000 7 Aswan High Dam (Egypt) 2,100,D00 400,000 5 Curua-Una (Brazil) 40,D00 8,600 5 Tres Marias (Brazil) 400,000 105,200 4 Kariba (Zimbabwe and Zambia) 1,500,000 510,000 3 Sobradinho (Brazil) 900,000 450,000 2 Balbina (Brazil) 250,000 124,000 2 Akosombo (Ghana) 833,000 848,200 1 Brokopondo (Suriname) 30,000 150,000 0.2 Note: The data are approrimate. Sources: Goodland (1979) and specific project reports. 61 preservation or salvage of historic or archaeological artifacts, are reviewed in Lee (1985). Although they significantly affect aquatic and sometimes terrestrial wildlands, water development projects often depend for their functioning on the control of sedimentation and the regulation of water flow that forests and other well-vegetated wildlands in water catchment areas provide. In every new water development project it is therefore important to assess whether a wildland or other watershed management component is needed to ensure the continuation of important environmental services. This approach helps to prevent impaired economic performance or the added costs of dredging silt from hydroelectric or other reservoirs, harbors, navigation canals, and related facilities. Even smaller projects that supply water for municipal or industrial consumption should include a watershed protection component if that is needed to ensure safe and reliable water supplies. Industry Certain types of industrial development projects can destroy or degrade wildlands. Aquatic and marine areas lose much of their biological diversity and productivity if they are severely polluted by industrial effluents. The World Bank routinely incorporates water pollution control measures in industrial projects, as specified in its handbook Environmental Considerations for the Industrial Development Sector (World Bank 1978a). Industrial projects should be sited, and pollution control features incorporated, to avoid contaminating important wildland areas. In the case of Rift Valley Textiles, Ltd., Kenya, an IFC investment, it was feasible to relocate the textile mill to avoid polluting Lake Nakuru. Some mining projects account for the conversion of sizable wildland areas. Often the vegetation and small fauna on ore-rich sites are unique because of the special soils of these areas. To 62 preserve biological diversity in mining or quarrying areas, it is important to ensure that some of the unique vegetation is conserved in its natural state. This is being attempted at the Mt. Nimba Strict Nature Reserve (not a World Bank-assisted project), which covers 130 square kilometers in Guinea and 50 square kilometers in C8te d'Ivoire. Mt. Nimba is a rich iron ore mining area at the junction of Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, and Liberia and contains unique vegetation and over 200 animal species found nowhere else (IUCN 1985b; Myers 1979). (The environmental aspects of mining and other industrial projects are further discussed in World Bank 1983.) Institution-Building, Training, Education, and Research A wide variety of development projects or project components can be highly effective vehicles for promoting wildland management. For example, an environmental education and training project in Indonesia provides assistance to three government-sponsored centers for the study of environment and na.tural resources in the first phase and to more than six centers in the second.5 Although there is no separate wildland component, a significant amount of the education, training, and research conducted at these centers addresses wildland management within the broader context of management of natural resources for sustainable development. When appropriate, wildland management should similarly be integrated in development projects that involve research or training in agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and forestry, since there are important and sometimes complex linkages between wildlands and the productivity of these sectors. Furthermore, projects or project components intended to strengthen institutions that deal with agriculture, livestock, fisheries, forestry, hydroelectric power, or other natural resources should include, where appropriate, support for environmental or conservation divisions or for trained experts within these agencies. For example, a power subsector loan to Thailand will create a permanent environmental protection unit 63 within the government agency responsible for electricity generation. The environmental specialists supported by this component will address wildland management as well as other environmental issues. The incorporation of environmental institution-building, training, education, and research activities in projects related to the utilization of natural resources helps to meet both of the objectives outlined at the beginning of this chapter: reducing unnecessary conversion of wildlands and improving economic performance. In addition to its importance in projects not otherwise directly related to wildland management, the development of local institutional capacity through training is often a vital element of wildland management projects or components. The mechanisms available for training WMA personnel are outlined in appendix F. These training mechanisms are often remarkably effective and efficient for producing qualified personnel, but there are not enough such programs to meet present demand. Many also suffer from severe funding limitations. Because training is important for effective wildland management, every wildland management-related project should seek to incorporate a training component. Such components can include, among other activities, short technical training courses on wildland management- related subjects, scholarship programs for actual or prospective WMA managers, the establishment of wildland management and related curricula at local universities, and even the creation of new institutions, such as the Wildlife and Fisheries Training Institute in Naivasha, Kenya, which was established under the Wildlife and Tourism project. Because of the prevalence of "paper parks" and other inadequately managed WMAs in some countries, some wildland management components may justifiably concentrate exclusively on training. Training is essential for the staff of all government agencies which affect wildland management. These can include agencies responsible for agriculture (including irrigation and land titling), livestock, fisheries, forestry, highways and public works, 64 and electric power, as well as wildlands agencies such as national parks and wildlife departments. Types of Wildland Management Components The type of wildland management component that should be emphasized in development projects that entail conversion of wildlands varies according to the overall conversion pressures in the region. At one extreme are wildlands that have already been reduced to small remnants of their original area: here further conversion is almost always inadvisable. Wildland management components are especially urgent for projects sited in such regions. An example is Nepal, which has already lost most of its native subtropical forest. A strong wildland management component in the World Bank-supported Settlement project would not only have safeguarded the important environmental values of Nepal's natural forests but could also have met the government's concerns about forest conservation. An internal Bank report suggested that lack of governmental support was largely responsible for the project's poor performance. At the other extreme, Guyana, where the Bank assisted the Upper Demerara Forestry project, still retains most of its natural forest cover. A wildland management component, although less obviously necessary than in Nepal, would have provided a useful input to the country's development of an ecologically representative system of national parks and other protected areas. Thus, all projects that involve significant conversion of wildlands should include a wildland management component, but the specific nature of the component will depend in part on the relative ecological significance of the wildlands in question. The Establishment or Improved Management of WMAs If an ecologically significant wildland is to be converted under a development project, often the most useful type of component is 65 the establishment of one or more WMAs in an ecologically similar area. Such a component helps both to mitigate the effects of wildland conversion (and hence to conserve biological diversity) and to protect important environmental services. The WMA should be large enough to maintain the biological diversity or other important values present in the area to be converted. As a rule, compensatory WMAs should be no smaller than the wildland area converted by the project. Where there is already a WA in the same type of ecosystem as the land to be converted by a development project, it may be preferable administratively or for purposes of biological conservation to enlarge the existing WMA rather than to establish a new one. Governmental wildland agencies, the wildlife departments of local universities, and international organizations can often advise in such cases. For project components that involve the establishment of WAs, a variety of management categories can be used. The choice of category depends on the particular management objectives that are given priority (see appendix E). Another useful option can be to improve the quality of management of existing WMA. Many WMAs in developing countries suffer from inadequate salaries and training for staff, from shortages of infrastructure, including staff housing, and of equipment, spare parts, and fuel, and from the lack of a well- developed management plan that would permit the efficient allocation of resources. It can be relatively simple and inexpensive to include within development projects small components to correct these deficiencies. In countries in which effective management is clearly lacking, it is generally better to improve the management of existing WMAs than to create new units on paper, thereby further taxing the limited capabilities of the responsible agencies. Whenever a new WMA is established as a project component, measures should be included to ensure effective management. Since many wildland agencies (for example, departments of national parks or of 66 wildlife) are not as operationally effective as they should be, the strengthening of institutions (particularly through training) should be an important element of wildland management components. Details on how to design or improve the management of WMAs in development projects are provided in appendixes C-F. The establishment or strengthening of WMAs is particularly effective when the government includes these areas in a national conservation or land use plan. A growing number of developing country governments have undertaken some type of systematic land use planning for wildland management. Such planning can take forms that range from master plans for a system of national parks and other WMAs to national conservation strategies that address wildland management as only one component of comprehensive natural resource planning. International development agencies can greatly strengthen wildland management at the national level by assisting such planning efforts. When governments agree to develop appropriate land use plans, it is important for international agencies to refrain from supporting projects that would run counter to these plans. In a relatively small number of developing countries pressures for conversion of wildlands are still minor because human population densities are low, the economic demiand for agricultural land, timber, or other resources is not great, or a substantial proportion of each remaining wildland ecosystem in a country has been set aside in WHAs that receive good on-the-ground protection and have strong policy support from the government. In such cases the requirement for a compensatory wildland component can be interpreted more flexibly to involve measures other t:han the establishment or strengthening of WMAs. Such alternative options include careful siting of projects to avoid converting the most environmentally sensitive areas, support for naturaL resource assessment or land use planning, and institutional strengthening of the government's wildland management agency, if needed. 67 Species Management At times, management of particular animal or plant species may be needed to mitigate the undesirable impacts of a project or to enhance its economic value. Management may take the form of antipoaching measures to protect vulnerable wildlife or intensive management of particular wildlife habitats to provide for the needs of highly localized or specialized species. Seasonal water releases from the Kafue Hydroelectric II project in Zambia, for example, help the lechwe (Kobus leche), a rare antelope. Passage facilities or related mitigatory measures for migratory fish or other aquatic species should be routine in water development projects that significantly affect aquatic life. Relocation of rare wildlife to accommodate wildland conversion can occasionally be an effective measure, as in the World Bank-supported Yacyreta Hydroelectric project in Argentina and Paraguay (although it would more effective to avoid conversion in the first place). Captive breeding of wildlife to supplement depleted populations may be necessary in certain cases.6 Training components are usually essential for effective species management. Wildland components of development projects should also provide for wildlife research so that the most appropriate measures can be determined. Siting Proiects to Avoid Harming Critical Wildland Areas or Rare Species Since prevention is usually cheaper than cure, the most cost- effective way to avoid conflicts between development projects and wildlands is often to site the project in a less environmentally sensitive area. Projects that would threaten wildlands of particular importance should be sited so as to prevent or at least minimize possible damage. For example, the most effective and most economically efficient way to protect the aquatic environment and 68 distinctive bird life of Kenya's Lake Nakuru was to locate the IFC- supported Rift Valley Textiles Mill elsewhere (appendix A). In other instances, unique or strategically important wildlands can be protected by excluding them from the area to be converted, as was done in the World Bank-supported Rural Development project in Mauritius to protect the highly endangered pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri). Where project developments surround a critical wildland, the long-term conservation of the wildland will be better served by an active management component, such as the establishment of a WMA, than by passive avoidance of conversion. Notes 1. This idea is not new. For iexample, Brazilian law requires that at least 50 percent of the area of all Amazonian land development projects be devoted to preservation of the natural forest. 2. This policy was stated in less detail in the 1978 Forestry Sector Policy Paper: "In countries where there are no adequate natural resource conservation programs, the Bank will not support projects that might result in disinl:egration of a habitat not elsewhere represented in the country and not under suitable protection (as in national parks and wildlife reserves)" (World Bank 1978b). 3. Irrigation projects involve many other environmental risks less directly related to wildland management. These include waterlogging, salinity, and alkalini.ty of the soil (if proper drainage is lacking), leaching, an i.ncreased incidence of water- related diseases, the pollution of surface and groundwater supplies, and increasing proliferation of insect and other pests because of year-round cropping. Some of these problems are now routinely addressed in Bank-supported irrigation projects. 69 4. For details see Goodland (1986), Shane (1986), Ledec (1985), and NAS (1980a). 5. Training and Education in Environment and Resources, funded by UNDP (Project INS/78/056/A/01/42), signed February 26, 1980. 6. Examples of species bred in captivity that have been reintroduced into areas where they had become extinct are the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx. Arabia), the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia, Brazil), and Pere David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus, China). Chapter 5 OTHER DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES THAT BENEFIT WILDLAND MANAGEMENT Wildland management objectives relate closely to many other issues of natural resource management. Many development projects or project components that do not specifically involve wildlands can aid wildland management indirectly but nonetheless significantly. This chapter describes these projects, which should receive continued or increased support wherever appropriate. The Increased Utilization of Already Converted Areas As noted in chapter 4, development projects should, whenever feasible, promote increased production of food, fiber, energy, and other goods on lands that have already been converted rather than on newly converted wildlands. Most of the World Bank's agriculture and forestry projects already follow this approach. If growing demands for food, export crops, fuelwood, or timber can be met by intensifying production in already converted areas in a way that can be sustained, the pressures for converting additional wildlands can be proportionately reduced. For example, marketable wood can usually be grown much more quickly in intensively managed tree plantations than in natural forests, and production from plantations therefore reduces pressures to cut the forests. Recent World Bank- supported projects that have indirectly benefited forested wildlands by establishing fuelwood or timber plantations include Hazara Forestry, Pakistan; Forestry Technical Assistance, Niger; Forestry, Burundi; and Himalayan Watershed Management, India. (A number of the projects listed in appendix A also reduce pressure on natural forests through the establishment of tree plantations, in addition to their direct wildland management components.) Spears and Ayensu (1985) and World Bank and World Resources Institute (1985) discuss 70 71 other instances of how specific approaches to intensifying agriculture and forestry have been successfully used to reduce encroachment on tropical forests and other wildlands. In many developing countries large areas of already converted lands or aquatic ecosystems lie idle or remain underutilized because their natural productivity has been diminished through soil erosion, overuse, and mismanagement. These man-made wastelands can often be restored and made productive again through careful husbandry--such measures as reforestation, the planting of shelterbelts, the use of legumes and cover crops, land terracing and other erosion control measures, and the restocking of depleted fisheries. Examples of World Bank-supported projects to rehabilitate degraded lands or prevent further degradation include Community Forestry, Nepal; Forestry, Haiti; three social forestry projects in India; and forestry projects in Sahelian countries, including Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal. Where efforts are being made to prevent excessive conversion of wildlands, increasing the amount of employment on already converted land is no less important than increasing production. The incentives for people to colonize wildlands are significantly reduced to the extent that rural employment on nonwildlands can be increased through such means as economic diversification, the creation of agricultural processing industries or other local value- added activities, the use of more labor-intensive agricultural technologies and crops, and the development of cottage industries. Development projects that increase rural employment opportunities can significantly assist wildland management objectives and should be strongly encouraged. Projects that significantly displace local rural labor through mechanization or induced changes in land tenure patterns run the risk of increasing the migration of rural people into wildlands. Project staff should carefully assess and seek to minimize such labor displacement, particularly where spontaneous migration to wildlands may result. 72 An additional means of indirectly reducing pressures to convert wildlands is to promote more efficient utilization of harvested or extracted products. For example, the efficient utilization of wood (including the salvaging and market:ing of timber from land-clearing operations) helps to reduce the demand for logging in other areas. Similarly, projects that promote the more efficient use of firewood and charcoal in home cooking, brickmaking, the drying of fish or crops, and other activities indirectly help to protect wooded wildlands in fuelwood-short regions while providing many other economic and social benefits. Where wildlands are converted to more intensive uses, the efficient utilization of the converted areas will minimize the loss of wildlands and increase the projetct's chances of success. In Amazonian land settlement schemes, for example, plots commonly average 100 hectares per family. The usual way for a family to manage such a huge parcel is to cut and burn the trees, grow crops for a few years, and then run a smELll herd of cattle--a use that is unsustainable and environmentally tndesirable. In contrast, land settlement projects in Indonesia provide each family with 2 or 3 hectares of land similar in quality to that in the Amazonian programs. This encourages more careful land husbandry, often including development of fishponds, home gardens, orchards, and tree crops (Goodland 1981, 1984). The Indonesian system is clearly better for wildland management beciLuse much less land is converted per family. Ensuring Sustainable Use If economic activities that utiLlize renewable natural resources, such as agriculture, forestry, livestock production, and fishing, are carried out in a sustainable manner, the productive potential of the resources remains undiminished,, Then it will not be necessary to convert wildlands simply because formerly productive land or aquatic areas have been exhausted. 73 Ensuring sustainability in development projects greatly improves their prospects for economic success. It saves expenditures of labor, fuel, and other inputs on activities that cannot succeed in the long term. It avoids or minimizes the need for expensive remedial measures later. It prevents waste of land and water resources and thereby minimizes pressures to convert additional wildlands. This approach also ensures that the continuing societal benefits of wildlands are not lost to ephemeral, unsustainable uses. Development projects should seek to prevent unsustainable overharvesting or overexploitation of renewable natural resources. It is especially important for governments and development organizations to ensure that lands that are cleared or modified as part of projects can sustain the planned activities. During project identification or appraisal environmental assessments can be used to select ecologically compatible activities for each site. Special care is needed to ensure the sustainability of projects in ecologically fragile areas, including semiarid or steep regions and tropical moist forests with relatively infertile soils. The range of economic activities that can be sustained on such marginal lands is more limited than in other areas; these lands are often most useful in their natural state. Among the most important measures for ensuring the sustainability of projects is some form of land use planning to provide a good fit between the intended activity and the available site. A number of World Bank-supported projects, such as Amazonas Agricultural Development, Brazil, include agricultural land use planning (or "agroecological zoning") to improve the efficiency and sustainability of land use. Development activities that rely on the extraction of nonrenewable resources--for example, coal or ores--are inherently unsustainable. When it is no longer economically feasible to exploit these resources at a particular site, it is environmentally desirable to restore the site so that it can support activities such 74 as forestry or grazing that offer sustainable production of renewable resources. Some poorly understood ecological systems (notably, tropical moist forests) cannot sustain most forms of modern agriculture but may offer other resources that could be of benefit to human societies. Ecological research can improve the prospects for sustainable development of these areas. Such research includes: o Biological inventories of plant and animal species, many of which, in areas that are pioorly known biologically, will be new to science o Detailed studies of ecosystem dynamics, with emphasis on those aspects that are likiely to affect the sustainability of proposed development activities. (Priority areas and topics of investigation for detailed tropical ecosystem studies are outlined in NAS 1980b.) o Investigation of natural products (such as timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, nuts, tannins, fibers, honey, waxes, fish, and wild game) that might be profitably and sustainably extracted from natural or s;lightly modified ecosystems as an alternative to conversion o Monitoring of ecological changes as conversion proceeds, as is done by the Kenya Rangel.ands Ecological Monitoring Unit, which was established as a component of the World Bank- supported Livestock II project o Destructive (but scientifically useful) ecological experiments in areas destined for imminent conversion. A notable example of this type of research is the Minimum Critical Size project (not a Bank-supported project) near Manaus, Brazil. Development organizations should promote these types of research, both within agricultural research projects and as components of projects that involve actual conversion of wildlands. Local 75 universities and agricultural research stations should be involved in carrying out such studies. Management for Biological Diversity The accelerated establishment and improved management of WMAs are necessary but not sufficient measures for conserving biological diversity and perpetuating important environmental services. Many types of converted areas (such as tree plantations) maintain environmental services, and recent forestry and agriculture projects include components for watershed management, soil conservation, and the like on converted lands. Attention should also be given to the potential of forestry and agriculture projects for maintaining and enhancing biological diversity. Table 5-1, at the end of this chapter, indicates, for each World Bank member country, the percentage of the country's land and inland water area allocated to WMAs as of 1985. The evidence in this book points to the desirability of significantly increasing this percentage in most countries, in accordance with their stated goals. Competing demands for land or water use, however, may make it difficult for some countries to maintain more than 10-15 percent of their territory in WMAs. In certain densely populated countries this percentage will be even smaller, in part because only a small amount of land remains unconverted. In such cases it is important to maintain and enhance biological diversity on converted lands when feasible. Converted lands can often sustain considerable biological diversity without significantly sacrificing other objectives. Many forests that are managed for wood production retain a great part (although seldom all) of their original species diversity. For example, a study in West Malaysia found that 91 percent of the mammal species and 77 percent of the bird species in one forest were still present after selective logging (Johns 1983). Natural grasslands managed for livestock grazing can retain most of their initial species diversity. Some highly productive agricultural 76 systems also support a surprising variety of plant and animal life; among them are the acahual system Df agroforestry in Chiapas, Mexico (Nodecal 1981), home gardens in Java, and Kandy gardens in Sri Lanka. In projects that involve commercial tree plantations, shelterbelts, fuelwood plantations, and the like, consideration should be given to using a mix of native tree or shrub species that provide good wildlife habitat. This practice can sometimes control pest populations by providing a habitat for natural predators. Agricultural, residential, and other development projects can be planned to include strips or plots of natural vegetation. Hedgerows, terraces, stone fences, and windbreaks provide important wildlife habitat in many human-dominated landscapes around the world. Reservoirs, canals, and other converted aquatic ecosystems can also be managed to encourage the survival of fish and other species. For example, large clumps of grass introduced in lakes in China support birds and other marsh species and help compensate for the past drainage of wetlands. An example of an innovative World Bank-supported project that encourages biological diversity in nonwildland areas is Mangrove Afforestation, Bangladesh. This project supports the establishement of roughly 400 square kilometers of new mangrove plantations in river deltas. The mangroves help to reduce coastal flooding, provide valuable wood products, increase fish and shrimp yields, and accelerate land accretion from the river's silt load. After the land has been sufficiently stabilized (in about twenty years), much of the mangrove area is likely to be cleared and the newly formed land used for agriculture. In the interim, however, the mangroves provide valuable habitat for birds, fish, and other organisms. Assisting Tribal Peoples Some development projects are potentially damaging to tribal peoples (vulnerable ethnic minorities not fully integrated into the 77 dominant national society). In 1982 the World Bank adopted a new policy (outlined in Goodland 1982) to protect tribal lands from unnecessary or uncompensated encroachment related to projects. Many tribal lands are de facto wildlands, and some are even managed as such (see "Anthropological Reserves," appendix E). Other tribal lands have been modified or converted but still harbor substantial biological diversity or help to protect environmental services; examples include acahual areas in Mexico and Maasai pastoral lands in Kenya and Tanzania. Thus vigorous implementation of the Bank's tribal policy will assist wildland management objectives in many areas. The World Bank's wildland management policy also stands to improve the welfare of tribal people in many areas, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the tribal peoples policy. For example, WAMs can help tribal people who live on their margins by protecting watersheds and providing food (fruits, nuts, honey, fish, and game) and other products and services. The specialized knowledge that tribal peoples have accumulated about economically useful plant and animal species and about how the ecosystem functions (including the likely effect of certain human disturbances) can be of great use to modern society. Where appropriate, development organizations should encourage research in ethnobiology to identify plant and animal species used by tribal people that have potential as new medications, foods, or industrial products. Such research can broaden the range of benefits offered by WMAs by providing modern society with economically valuable new products. Where tribal societies are undergoing rapid acculturation, ethnobiological research is particularly important to prevent their specialized knowledge from being irretrievably lost. Such research can be an appropriate element of development projects with broader tribal, wildland management, or agricultural research components. 78 Table 5-1. Wildland Management Areas in World Bank Member Countries Total land and inland water Area in Percentage area (square WMAs (square of total area Number Country kilometers) kilometers) in WMAs of WMAs Eastern Africa Seychelles 280 219 78.21 3 Botswana 600,370 116,440 19.39 8 Tanzania 939,762 1.06,018 11.28 15 Rwanda 26,340 2,620 9.95 2 Malawi 118,480 10,815 9.13 9 Zambia 752,610 66,644 8.86 19 Zimbabwe 389,361 27,578 7.08 17 Uganda 236,040 13,320 5.64 18 Kenya 582,650 31,053 5.33 28 Ethiopia 1,221,900 30,275 2.48 10 Swaziland 17,360 400 2.30 4 Mauritius 1,860 40 2.15 3 Madagascar 587,040 6,747 1.15 14 Sudan 2,505,810 19,157 0.76 3 Somalia 637,660 3,340 0.52 1 Lesotho 30,350 68 0.22 1 Burundi 27,830 0 0.00 0 Comoros 2,170 0 0.00 0 Djibouti 22,000 0 0.00 0 Total 8,699,873 434,734 5.00 155 Western Africa Senegal 196,190 21,767 11.09 9 Togo 56,790 4,726 8.32 7 Central African Rep. 622,980 39,040 6.27 7 Gabon 267,670 16,730 6.25 5 Cote d'Ivoire 322,460 18,650 5.78 10 Ghana 238,540 11,751 4.93 8 Cameroon 475,440 22,282 4.69 15 Benin 112,620 8,435 4.30 2 Congo, People's Rep. 342,000 13,531 3.96 10 Zaire 2,345,410 88,270 3.76 9 Burkina Faso 274,200 6,829 2.49 6 Mauritania 1,030,700 14,830 1.44 2 Sierra Leone 71,740 980 1.37 1 Liberia 111,370 1,307 1.17 1 Nigeria 923,770 8,681 0.94 3 79 Total land and inland water Area in Percentage area (square WMAs (square of total area Number Country kilometers) kilometers) in WMAs of WMAs Mali 1,240,000 8,761 0.71 6 Niger 1,267,000 3,720 0.29 3 Chad 1,284,000 1,140 0.09 1 Guinea 245,860 130 0.05 1 Cape Verde 4,030 0 0.00 0 Equatorial Guinea 28,050 0 0.00 0 Gambia 11,300 0 O.CO 0 Guinea-Bissau 36,120 0 0.00 0 Slo Tome and Princip4 960 0 0.00 0 Total 11,509,200 291,200 2.53 106 Total, Sub-Saharan Africa 20,209,073 725,934 3.59 261 East Asia and Pacific Indonesia 1,919,280 137,552 7.17 140 Thailand 514,000 27,205 5.29 45 Korea, Rep. of 98,480 4,758 4.83 14 Malaysia 329,750 15,589 4.73 34 Singapore 580 24 4.13 1 Philippines 300,000 3,909 1.30 26 Western Samoa 2,860 29 1.01 1 Viet Nam 329,560 1,581 0.48 12 Fiji 18,270 53 0.29 2 China 9,596,960 22,736 0.24 62 Kampuchea, Dem. 181,040 107 0.06 1 Papua New Guinea 461,690 31 0.01 2 Lao PDR 236,800 0 0.00 0 Solomon Islands 28,450 0 0.00 0 Vanuatu 14,760 0 0.00 0 Total 14,032,480 213,574 1.52 340 South Asia Bhutan 47,000 9,500 20.21 11 Sri Lanka 65,610 6,427 9.80 37 Pakistan 803,940 65,373 8.13 52 Nepal 140,800 9,745 6.92 10 (Table continues on the following page.) 80 Table 5-1 (continued) Total land and inland water Area in Percentage area (square WHAs (square of total area Number Country kilometers) kilometers) in WMAs of WHAs India 3,287,590 11:L,493 3.39 239 Bangladesh 144,000 324 0.22 3 Burma 676,550 0 0.00 0 Maldives 300 0 0.00 0 Total 5,165,790 202,862 3.93 352 Total, Asia 19,198,270 416,436 2.17 692 Latin America and Caribbean Chile 756,950 127,374 16.83 64 Ecuador 283,560 26,274 9.27 12 Dominica 750 68 9.07 1 Bahamas 13,940 1,225 8.79 4 Panama 77,080 6,609 8.57 6 Costa Rica 50,700 4,125 8.14 21 Venezuela 912,050 73,889 8.10 34 Dominican Rep. 48,730 2,198 4.51 5 Bolivia 1,098,580 47,077 4.29 12 Honduras 112,090 4,226 3.77 4 Suriname 163,270 5,824 3.57 9 Colombia 1,138,910 39,588 3.48 30 Trinidad/Tobago 5,130 165 3.22 8 Paraguay 406,750 11,205 2.75 9 St. Lucia 620 16 2.58 1 Brazil 8,511,970 118,943 1.40 50 Peru 1,285,220 24,076 1.87 11 Argentina 2,766,890 25,944 0.94 29 Guatemala 108,890 596 0.55 2 Mexico 1,972,550 9,384 0.48 29 Belize 22,960 53 0.23 2 Haiti 27,750 50 0.18 2 Uruguay 176,220 288 0.16 6 Nicaragua 130,000 173 0.13 2 Guyana 214,970 117 0.05 1 Barbados 430 0 0.00 0 El Salvador 21,040 0 0.00 0 Grenada 340 0 0.00 0 Jamaica 10,990 0 0.00 0 Total 20,319,360 529,487 2.61 354 81 Total land and inland water Area in Percentage area (square WMAs (square of total area Number Country kilometers) kilometers) in WHAs of WMAs Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Portugal 92,080 3,811 4.14 12 Iran 1,648,000 30,557 1.85 24 Israel 20,770 340 1.64 5 Yugoslavia 255,800 3,361 1.31 20 Greece 131,940 631 0.48 14 Romania 237,500 983 0.41 9 Turkey 780,580 2,868 0.37 15 Jordan 97,740 343 0.35 2 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 4,500 0.21 1 Tunisia 163,610 330 0.20 3 Algeria 2,381,740 2,265 0.10 5 Morocco 446,550 410 0.09 2 Oman 212,460 200 0.09 1 Libya 1,759,540 1,300 0.07 2 Egypt, Arab Rep. 1,001,450 171 0.02 1 Afghanistan 647,500 0 0.00 0 Bahrain 620 0 0.00 0 Cyprus 9,250 0 0.00 0 Iraq 434,920 0 0.00 0 Lebanon 10,400 0 0.00 0 Qatar 11,000 0 0.00 0 Syrian Arab Rep. 185,180 0 0.00 0 Yemen Arab Rep. 195,000 0 0.00 0 Yemen, PDR 332,970 0 0.00 0 Total 13,206,290 52,070 0.39 116 High-income countries Luxembourg 2,586 1,114 44.24 4 Denmark (including Greenland) 2,194,870 711,757 32.43 25 Norway 324,220 47,166 14.55 61 New Zealand 268,680 28,009 10.42 148 Iceland 103,000 7,894 7.66 21 United States (including Puerto Rico) 9,372,360 649,461 6.93 251 United Kingdom 244,820 15,526 6.34 57 Japan 372,310 21,956 5.90 50 South Africa 1,221,040 56,892 4.66 149 (Table continues on the following page.) 82 Table 5-1 (continued) Total land and inland water Area in Percentage area (square WHAs (square of total area Number Country kilometers) kilometers) in WMAs of WMAs Australia 7,686,850 354,137 4.61 581 Netherlands (including Netherlands Antilles) 37,610 :1,643 4.37 50 Austria 83,850 2,970 3.54 27 Spain (including Canary Islands) 504,780 127,007 3.37 56 Sweden 449,960 14,631 3.25 67 France (including New Caledonia) 566,090 16,549 2.92 37 Finland 337,030 8,034 2.38 33 Canada 9,976,140 229,491 2.30 78 Germany, Fed. Rep. 248,580 5,312 2.14 45 Italy 301,230 5,167 1.72 34 Belgium 30,510 117 0.38 4 Ireland 70,280 204 0.29 3 Kuwait 17,820 0 0.00 0 United Arab Emirates 83,600 0 0.00 0 Total 34,498,216 2,19S,067 6.36 1,781 Total, all Bank member countries 107,431,200 3,918,994 3.62 3,204 Note: The data are approximate. Countries within each region are ranked in decreasing order of the proportion of the country's total area that is in WMAs. WMAs are areas in categories I-V, IX, and X, as defined in appendix E. Source: Area and number of WMAs, adapted from IUCN (1985c); total area, FAO Production Yearbook, 1981. Chapter 6 WILDLAND MANAGEMENT IN ECONOMIC AND SECTOR PLANNING Since wildland management is essentially site-specific, most support for wildland management will be at the project level. Support for wildland management can be made more effective, however, if corresponding support is provided in country and sector planning. The more promising opportunities for support of wildland management above the project level are described here. Incorporation of wildland management concerns in economic and sector planning documents. Important wildland areas and the development opportunities they present if they are properly managed should be discussed in such papers. Country planning should seek to harmonize national and subnational policies and plans regarding agriculture, forestry, livestock, fisheries, energy, transport, tourism, water resources, and wildland management so that they are compatible and mutually reinforcing rather than at cross purposes. Research that involves economic and sector planning should include, whete appropriate, the identification of strategically important wildlands as well as related concerns such as the need to rehabilitate large land areas. Assistance with government planning concerning the management of wildlands and related natural resources. The World Bank participated, for example, in the process of incorporating wildland management (including national park planning) and other environmental concerns in Malaysia's Third Five-Year Plan and Indonesia's Fourth Five-Year Plan. As a follow-up to the IUCN World Conservation Strategy (endorsed by the president of the World Bank in 1980), many countries are developing or considering national conservation strategies, which include wildland management as well as other natural resource and environmental concerns. Several countries are already receiving international assistance from the IUCN, the FAO, and USAID for developing such strategies. In 83 84 addition, many countries have already prepared or are seeking to prepare national master plans for wildland management. Development organizations can further economic development and productively assist these efforts by incorporating the goals of national conservation strategies or wildland management plans in appropriate economic and sector planning documents and by providing financial and technical assistance where needed. Master plans are particularly important in countries that are undergoing the most rapid and extensive conversion of wildlands. Inclusion of wildland management concerns in policy dialogues between governments and international agencies. Because wildlands are important to sustainable economic development in many countries, their proper management should be discussed by development agency staff and goverrnment officials. Support by development agencies for wildland management at the project and program levels will be most successful if governments pursue compatible policies concerning wildland management and natural resoulrce use in general. Where appropriate, the World Bank will seekc to promote wildland management through its discussions with member governments and with other development agencies. Successful wildland management depends on effective coordination with other policies and legislation concerning land and natural resources. Many national forestry or land use laws, for example, still provide subsidies or other incentives for wildland conversion --special taxes on uncleared land, requirements for deforestation or other "improvements" as a condition for obtaining land title, and loan credits and tax holidays for converting wildlands to such unsustainable uses as cattle raising in tropical moist forest areas. These policies may be the outgrowth of important government objectives, such as promoting land reform by taxing 'idle" land, but they can undermine wildland management objectives and lead to ecologically unsound and economically inefficient uses of land and natural resources. International organizations should support efforts to change such policies in ways that promote wildland 85 management without sacrificing other important objectives. Other policies and laws that contribute to wildland management objectives (such as export restrictions on products from endangered species) merit enthusiastic support by development organizations. Cooperation with national and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Many NGOs have specialized expertise in wildland management planning which development agencies can often put to good use. For example, the IUCN has developed an extensive computer data base that is designed to make information on important wildland areas around the world readily available to development planners. The Nature Conservancy is supporting natural heritage data bases, with information on wildland areas of special concern, in several Latin American countries. Other international and national NGOs with germane interests are listed in appendix J. It may sometimes be appropriate for development agencies to support directly the wildland management-related activities of NGOs, either as a project component or through other means; USAID is cooperating in this way with Fundaci6n Natura, an Ecuadorian NGO. Incorporation of wildland management training in the curricula of development traininR institutions. The World Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI) has developed a forestry projects course which includes discussion of the importance of protecting natural vegetation in watershed management projects. A more thorough and systematic treatment of wildland management could be incorporated in courses at the EDI and elsewhere on such subjects as agriculture, livestock, fisheries, transport, water resources, tourism, and industry. Such training would give government officials the information on wildland management they need to achieve national priorities. Most of the above initiatives would benefit from the use of country-specific wildland management indicators, including: 86 o The total areas managed in W1{s as a percentage of total national territory and as a piercentage of the national goal (if one has been stated) o The number and percentage of IWMAs with completed management plans o International agreements related to wildland management that the country has ratified (appendix G) o The country's participation in international institutions and programs related to wildland management--the IUCN, Unesco's Man and the Biosphere Program, the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP), the ASEAN Environment Program (ASEP), the South Asian Cooperative Environment Program (SACEP), and others o Lists of rare and endangered species and the management measures being taken to ensure their survival o The remaining wildland areas ils a proportion of the historical total o The existence of national or subnational wildland management master plans, either alone or as components of broader national conservation strategies. Chapter 7 THE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WILDLAND MANAGEMENT As was discussed in chapter 4, the World Bank's policy is to include appropriate wildland management components in projects which either convert sizable wildland areas or would realize economic or social benefits from intact wildlands in the project area. This chapter briefly relates these two objectives to commonly used procedures for the economic analysis of projects. Some Difficulties Wildland management has inherent features that complicate economic cost-benefit analysis. These include a high degree of uncertainty in measuring and valuing benefits, the potential for irreversible losses, and the fact that most of the economic benefits produced by intact wildlands are not marketed. Uncertainty. The physical extent of the environmental damage (such as flooding, landslides, soil erosion, sedimentation, loss of fisheries, or local climatic change) that may come about because of the elimination of a particular wildland usually cannot be accurately predicted. Even when the physical effects of wildland conversion can be estimated with reasonable accuracy, it may be difficult to assign an economic value to these effects. How can one quaiitify the intangible aesthetic and ethical benefits of preventing or reducing species extinctions through wildland management? Moreover, the benefits of wildland management may be felt only in the long term. Thus humanity today derives great economic benefits from a tiny fraction of the world's plant and animal species--but 80 percent or more of living species have not been identified and studied for possible economic uses. The economic benefits to future society of preserving unknown but potentially useful species through 87 88 wildland management are likely to be substantial, but they remain beyond accurate prediction. Irreversibility. Species extinctions are completely irreversible. Many environmental services can be restored only over an exceedingly long period--natural formation of soil to offset losses from erosion is an example--or at considerable expense (as with reforestation). Excessive wildland conversion therefore risks irreversible damage of unknown but perhaps considerable extent to the welfare of future generations. j Absence of market prices. The economic benefits of wildland management are outlined in chapter 2 and summarized in table 2-1. A few of thse benefits can be directly measured as marketed goods (for example, tourism revenues or the controlled harvest of fish, wildlife, or forest products). But most of the environmental services and other benefits provided by wildlands are public goods or positive externalities that are not priced in the marketplace. Investment in wildland management is a relatively low-cost means of reducing risks. Some economists argue that the relative benefits of wildland management are likely to increase over time and that some sacrifice in the short-term benefits of development projects is desirable to preserve future choices (Fisher and Hanemann 1985; Krutilla and Fisher 1975; Arrow and Fisher 1974). In other words, the direct and opportunity costs of wildland management, which are usually small, can be viewed as an insurance premium to safeguard against irreversibility and to keep options open. The Appropriate Treatment of Wildland Components In view of the inherent difficulties of cost-benefit analysis of wildland management, the following guidelines are suggested as a means of facilitating the appraisal of development projects. The approach to economic valuation of a wildland component depends in part on whether the component is intended to compensate for wildland conversion under the same project. 89 Wildland Components That Mitigate the Effects of Conversion Many wildland management components are designed primarily to avoid, minimize, or mitigate the environmental costs of the conversion of wildlands in the same project. The principal benefit of this type of component is the avoidance or reduction of the environmental costs of conversion, which are usually difficult to measure, although they are often substantial. For this reason the wildland component can be viewed as inseparable from the project--as being necessary to reduce to an acceptable level the environmental costs of the project as a whole. Under this approach the costs (and benefits, if measurable) of the wildland component are added to those of the rest of the project in calculating the project's overall rate of return. An analogous approach is now used by the World Bank to evaluate other aspects of proposed projects. The Bank's operational procedures specify that water development projects in one country must be designed so that they do not adversely affect neighboring or downstream countries (unless those countries give their express consent). Similarly, projects cannot displace any group of people from their homes unless specific resettlement or compensation components ensure that the people affected are materially no worse off than before the project. Also, projects must not adversely affect tribal people unless there are specific components to minimize adverse effects. In these cases the additional costs of the mitigatory component are accepted as an unavoidable cost of the project, even if it is difficult to quantify the benefits in monetary terms. The extra costs enter into the calculation of the rate of return for the entire project. Because mitigatory wildland management components usually account for less than 3 percent of total project costs, only in the most economically marginal projects is the measured viability of the project likely to be affected by such a component. Other 90 types of necessary mitigatory comporLents can be significantly more expensive than wildland management. This is particularly true of measures to mitigate involuntary resettlement, which, for example, accounted for roughly 15 percent of the costs of the Yacyreta Hydroelectric Project in Argentina EMd Paraguay. Wildland Components That Enhance Total Project Benefits Many wildland management components are included in projects that do not cause any conversion of wildlands. Their purpose is to increase the project's total economilc and social benefits. In many cases the wildland component direct]y improves one or more of the other components. For example, it is expected that the Dumoga-Bone National Park component of the Irrigation XV project, Indonesia, will improve irrigated rice production by protecting seasonal water supplies and reducing the need to remove silt from the irrigation works. In other projects wildland components that are not directly related to the other components nonetheless provide important benefits. In the Central Visayas Regional project, Philippines, for example, the component for conservation of mangroves and coral reefs and for the improvement of fish habitats does not influence the upland agriculture and social forestry components but does help fisheries significantly. The benefits of these types of wildland components can be measured through a three-step process: qualitative identification, physical quantification, and economic (monetary) valuation. Identification and qualitative description of many (if not all) of the benefits from a wildland management component are always possible. (Table 2-1 can be used as a checklist of economic benefits from wildland components.) In many cases physical quantification will also be possible. Examples of benefits that can often be so quantified include increased fish catches if nursery grounds are protected in WMAs, reduced sediment load in hydro- electric reservoirs, improved river flow and water supply in the 91 dry season, the number of endangered species conserved, and increased levels of tourism or of scientific research. In a smaller number of cases the final step--determining a monetary value--will be possible. Wildland components can be justified through nonmonetary quantification or through the mere identification of benefits, but even partial valuation in monetary terms of the benefits of a wildland component is desirable, when feasible. Various methodologies are available for estimating the monetary value of physically quantified wildland management benefits. These techniques can provide partial estimates of some benefits and at least a lower bound to the full range of benefits. Even minimal estimates of the economic benefits obtainable from wildland components may exceed their costs. This section briefly notes six (somewhat overlapping) approaches to the economic valuation of wildland components.1 Approaches 1, 2, and 3 make use of basic categories of economic benefits that are obtainable from wildland management. Approaches 4, 5, and 6 describe special techniques that can be used to estimate wildland management benefits where straightforward measurement of benefits is not practical. 1. Linkages with other activities. Wildland management may have an important impact on other activities. Protection of an upland watershed, for example, may measurably increase irrigated agricultural production downstream. Moreover, the benefits of certain projects cannot be fully realized without wildland management. A fish cannery may be able to continue operating at full capacity only if certain mangroves, coral reefs, or other breeding areas for fish are conserved. A hydroelectric plant may be able to operate at full capacity only if sedimentation is prevented through such means as the protection of watershed forests within a WMA. In these cases the benefits of the wildland component include 92 the gain in the project's output that is attributable to wildland management. 2. Property value approach. The maintenance of environmental services, such as flood control, can raise the value of downstream or adjacent lands. Since land markets in many rural areas are often disorganized, constrained by sociocultural factors, or otherwise inefficient, an artificially appraised value based on some economic criterion such as agricultural output is often used. 3. Replacement cost. The costs of replacing lost environmental services by other means can be estimated in some cases. The replacement costs of not conserving forests in watershed catchment areas can include the costs of dredging silt from reservoirs, navigation canals, harbors, and irrigation works or of providing check dams and other engineering works for flood and erosion control. The cost of compensating victims of the projected consequences (such as flooding) of lost environmental services can be roughly estimated. This approach is similar to estimating the least-cost alternative. 4. Proxy value. Certain wildland management benefits can be indirectly estimated by substituting a commodity for which a market price can be calculated for a good or a service for which no market exists. For example, the value to society of fuelwood that could be sustainably harvested from a multiple use management area (defined in appendix E) can be calculated by estimating the loss in agricultural output and revenues if animal dung is used as fuel. 5. Switching value/social demand curves. The estimated social willingness to pay" for the nonmarketed benefits of wildland mangement is estimated and compared with the cost of the wildland component. 6. Least-cost alternative. Where wildland management benefits are intangible or otherwise difficult to measure, their value may be estimated by comparing the cost of the wildland management component with the least-cost alternative for providing similar benefits. For benefits such as biological diversity and, sometimes, environmental 93 services, however, there is no technologically or economically feasible alternative to wildland management. After the benefits of wildland components have been identified, quantified, or economically valued, a sensitivity test can be used to determine how the cost of the wildland component affects the project's economic rate of return. Because the direct costs of wildland components are relatively small, they will rarely affect the economic viability of projects. These costs, which include WMA personnel, equipment, minor infrastructure, and occasionally land acquisition or resettlement, are discussed in appendix F. Note 1. For more detailed discussions of these techniques see Hufschmidt and others (1983); Sfeir-Younis (1983); Bishop (1982); Brookshire, Ewbanks, and Randall (1982); Cuddington, Johnson, and Knetsch (1981); Lynne, Conroy, and Prochaska (1981); Schulze, d'Arge, and Brookshire (1981); Brookshire, Randall, and Stoll (1980); Hueting (1980); Krutilla and Fisher (1975, 1980); Arrow and Fisher (1974); Ciriacy-Wantrup (1972); and Fisher, Krutilla, and Cicchetti (1972). Chapter 8 ACCOMMODATING THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF LOCAL PEOPLE IN WILDLAND MANAGEMENT Protected wildlands provide a wide variety of social benefits, many of which accrue to people who live some distance away, such as downstream farmers, fishers, and urban dwellers who benefit from the flood control, improved water quality, and sedimentation control provided by upstream wildlands. People who live in other countries, including tourists, scientists, and consumers of new products derived from protected wild species, are also beneficiaries of wildland management. And the benefits of protected wildlands will be felt most of all by future generations. Although wildland management provides benefits largely to people removed in distance or time, it can protect and enhance the livelihoods of people who live within the wildlands or on their peripheries. But the establishment of WMAs can also impose significant costs on local people by constraining their use of natural resources. If a WMA limits local people's access to traditional sources of livelihood, the result is often resentment, illegal agricultural encroachment, timber cutting, or poaching and considerable pressure to remove part or all of the WMA from protected status. But with adequate planning and local participation WMAs can usually be protected from incompatible uses while contributing positively to the economic well-being of people in their vicinity. The successful maInagement of WMAs ultimately depends on the cooperation and suppDrt of the local people. A substantial number of WMAs are inhabited by indigenous tribal peoples who gain their livelihoods 'by such traditional means as hunting and gathering, subsistence fishing, nomadic pastoralism, or very low density shifting agriculture. These groups, particularly the hunters and gatherers, have coexisted with their wildland 94 95 ecosystems for hundreds or thousands of years without causing noticeable environmental deterioration. Indigenous societies are therefore often considered as much a part of the wildland ecosystem as the wildlife and can safely remain in the WMA as long as th'eir traditional ways of life are continued. Frequently these groups will assist with guarding the WMA and protecing it from outside encroachment. The Kuna Indians, for example, patrol a 600-square- kilometer tropical forest reserve in Panama that protects their ancestral homeland (World Bank and World Resources Institute 1985). The official policy of the World Bank is to protect tribal societies from the potentially negative effects of development projects. The Bank will not assist development projects that knowingly encroach on the traditional territories of tribal people without their full and voluntary consent. Details of the Bank's policy on tribal peoples in development projects are provided in Goodland (1982). A more difficult situation for wildland management arises when indigenous societies change in ways that cause them to convert or modify substantially their wildland environments. These changes typically come about for the following reasons: o Technological change may make it physically easier to overexploit natural resources (for example, to cut more trees or catch more fish or wildlife than can be replaced naturally). o Population growth may lead to pressures to overexploit natural resources to meet subsistence needs. o Increased participation in market economies may encourage the overexploitation for export of natural resources that were previously harvested for local use only. o Traditional value systems, which often encouraged conservation, directly or indirectly, frequently break down under modern influences. 96 Even greater conflict occurs when the local people are recent colonists whose livelihood involves converting or overexploiting wildlands for agriculture, grazing, commercial lumbering, or uncontrolled, market-oriented hunting. Such relatively intensive land uses are generally incompatible with wildland management. Preventing or Minimizing Conflicts Several methods can be used to ininimize the risk that the establishment or expansion of a WMA will be unacceptable to local people. One of the most important is to promote more intensive development of lands outside the WKH, thereby providing local people with an alternative source of incom4s or employment. (This approach is discussed in greater detail in World Bank and World Resources Institute 1985.) Intensification of development outside the WMA is best combined with a component to strengthen protection of the WMA as needed. (Appendix A provides examples of how these components have been combined in projects supported by the World Bank.) It is also important to ensure that the development activities being promoted in the vicinity of WHAs are ecologically sustainable, since pressure to encroach on the WMAs will grow if surrounding lands become exhausted. Another approach that is often essential to prevent conflicts between wildland management and local people is careful siting of new WMAs (see appendix D) and of near development projects. Careful siting of new highways and rural roads is particularly important. Roads provide access to otherwise remote wildland areas, and such access often leads to pressure from new settlers to convert a protected wildland. Buffer zones (discussed in appendix F) are often necessary to ensure adequate protection of WMAs. At times, the establishment or extension of a WMA requires the purchase of private land or the resettlement of people living within the wildland area. Resettlement is particularly important when the local people's activities are fundamentally incompatible with the 97 preservation objectives of the WHA. The Bank's policy on involuntary resettlement states that Bank-supported projects may not displace any group of people from their homes unless specific resettlement or compensation components are included to ensure that the people affected will be no worse off materially than before the project. Most WMAs, however, are established on wholly government- owned lands on which people have not settled (at least not in recent history). Furthermore, the number of people that may need to be resettled to accommodate a new WMA is usually very small, since WHAs are sited to protect natural areas that do not yet have a large human population. Many WMAs can be managed in ways that provide important economic benefits to local people without seriously compromising preservation objectives. The economic activities that might appropriately take place within a WMA for the benefit of local people depend in part on the category of WMA (see appendix E). WMAs may also be divided into different zones to permit a variety of different but compatible human uses (see appendix F). Examples of economic benefits that VMAs often provide to local people include o Direct employment as lWMA managers, guards, wardens, or guides. An example of the latter is found in Zaire's Kahuzi-Biega National Park, where former gorilla poachers are now paid to take tourists to see habituated groups of the endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). O Indirect employment generated by tourism, scientific research, or other activities associated with the WMA o Improvement of the local water supply; control of floods, landslides, and sail erosion; increased productivity of fisheries; and other environmental services. Often these benefits are present but not visible; in such cases extension efforts are needed to publicize these unseen benefits. 98 o Sharing in the revenues from tourism, controlled harvesting, or other activities from whlich fees are collected o Direct sustained-yield harvesting by local people of economically important plant or animal products such as fuelwood, fruits, nuts, medicinal plants, honey, fish, or game o Consumption of meat from official game-culling operations, where applicable o Control of marauding wildlife or of other negative spillovers from the wildland areas. Whenever a new WMA is established or an existing one enlarged, the local people who are likely to be affected should be kept fully informed and should be invited to participate meaningfully in decisions about siting and management. Such participation can prevent many conflicts and can increase the flow of economic benefits to the local people. Two Examples Two difficult wildland management cases in which many of the above-mentioned principles were successfully applied are Nepal's Royal Chitwan National Park and Kenya's Amboseli National Park.1 (The latter project received assistance from the World Bank.) In both cases intense local human pressures for the exploitation of natural resources within the parks have been accommodated with considerable success. The Royal Chitwan National Park, established in 1973, is 894 sqaure kilometers in area and encompasses a variety of remnant subtropical ecosystems in an otherwise densely settled agricultural region of Nepal. It harbors a wealth of rare plant and animal species, including the endangered great Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), tiger (Panthera tigris), Ganges River dolphin (Platanista gangetica), and gharial crocodile (Gavialis 99 gangeticus). The principal problems have been the loss to wild animals of crops, livestock, and occasionally human life and villagers' lack of access to park lands for grazing, woodcutting, and agriculture. The park's lush vegetation has important benefits for soil conservation and water control, as it minimizes erosion along the banks of the Rapti River and reduces damage from flooding in the monsoon season. These benefits have been scientifically documented but are largely unrecognized by local villagers, who are inclined to view floods and landslides as acts of God, not the results of poor land management (Mishra 1982). To improve the villagers' welfare in a more visible way, park managers have allowed them to enter the park for fifteen days each year to collect tall grass for building materials. Most houses in the vicinity are roofed with thatch grass, and canes of tall elephant grass are used to construct walls and partitions both inside and outside houses. Because of heavy grazing or conversion of land to agriculture outside the park boundaries, the park is no* the only area in the district where these traditional building materials can be obtained. Over 100,000 villagers, who come from as far as 50 kilometers away, harvest 50,000-100,000 tons of grass each year. Between 1978 and 1982 the annual value of the grass harvest varied from $444,431 to $891,985 (Mishra 1982). Because the harvested grass regenerates quickly, the ecological disturbance is minimal. This management device has markedly increased local acceptance and appreciation of the park. Amboseli National Park harbors many of Kenya's spectacular wildlife species and is one of the country's most important WMAs for tourism. During the wet season many of Amboseli's large mammal species migrate outside park boundaries onto lands owned by the Maasai, a pastoralist tribal group. In the dry season the Maasai's cattle, sheep, and goats depend on permanent watering areas that are located largely within the park's boundaries. Because of competition for forage between wildlife and livestock and restrictions on access to prime dry-season watering areas, many 100 Maasai resented the establishment of the park in 1974. To demonstrate their displeasure they deliberately speared wildlife, particularly the endangered black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). A number of measures were implemented to gain the Maasai's cooperation in protecting park wildlife that migrate seasonally onto their lands. Park boundaries were slightly redrawn to allow the Maasai access to a portion of the prime watering areas, and additional watering areas outside the park are being developed. Several devices are being used to distribute part of the park's substantial revenues from tourism to the Maasai. An annual compensation fee of roughly $30,000 covers the grazing opportunities that have been lost in accommodating the park's migratory wildlife, a tourist campsite is being relocated onto Maasai lands to provide additional revenue, and all firewood and road gravel used in the park is purchased from the Maasai. Since this plan was implemented, many Maasai have shifted increasingly to a tourism-based cash economy, particularly since per capita livestock holdings have diminished as a result of losses from drought and the growth of the human population. A measure of the Maasai's satisfaction with the new system is that since 1977 no rhinos have been killed by the Maasai (Western 1982).2 By channeling a fraction of tourism revenues in the Amboseli area to the Maasai the Kenyan government has gained their support for wildlife conservation. The park has now become a working model for managing similar conflicts in other WMAs. These two examples represent fairly extreme cases of local human pressures. In many WMAs the pressures are substantially less and sometimes even nonexistent, and accomnodating the needs and interests of local people is usually considerably easier. Notes 1. For descriptions of other case studies see McNeely and Miller (1984). 101 2. The black rhino is, however, still critially endangered throughout Africa because of illegal commercial trade in its horn. Appendix A WILDLAND MANAGEMENT INf SELECTED PROJECTS SUPPORTED BY TE[E WORLD BANK Wildland management is here defined as the direct maintenance, protection, or enhancement of virtually unmodified natural ecosystems and their characteristic plant and animal species. This definition excludes many environmentally beneficial projects or project components that contribute importantly but indirectly to the conservation of wildlands--projects that include, for example, soil conservation and erosion control; the intensified use of existing agricultural lands to relieve encroachment on wildlands; timber and fuelwood plantations; land use planning; and pollution control. Such measures are now standard in many forestry and other projects fjnanced by the World Bank. Watershled protection is considered wildland management if the watershed is under native vegetation that is maintained in a relatively unmodified state. This appendix includes only Bankc-supported projects with wildland management components. The Bank has in the past supported projects that affected wildlands bul: lacked wildland components. These projects, however, were undertaken before the Bank's official policy on wildland management was aclopted in June 1986. The summary below, arranged in aLlphabetical order by region and country, includes the project name E&nd the date on which the loan agreement was signed. The cost is t.he preproject figure, not actual expenditures. (The "Remarks" secticins discuss modifications in some projects that led to changes in costs.) 102 103 AFRICA Botswana o National Land Tenure and Livestock. December 15, 1985. Total cost at appraisal. $17.8 million, of which $.03 million (0.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Assistance to the government for the implementation of its Tribal Grazing Lands Program. Support for land use planning and training, the establishment of four district planning units, the strengthening of four land boards and the land development division in the Ministry of Agriculture, the establishment of a relevant methodology for rangeland analysis, the upgrading and improved supervision and maintenance of trek (herd migration) routes, extension programs on livestock for small farmers, credits for medium and large farmers for ranch development, and the analysis of livestock pricing and taxation policies. Wildland component. Assistance to the government to minimize the impact of livestock development on wildlife. (Large-scale fencing of rangeland for the development of commercial and communal grazing land will hinder traditional wildlife migrations.) Funding for a study of the appropriate organizational structure, manpower, and budget of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks to promote more effective implementation of conservation and wildlife management measures C6te d'Ivoire o Tourism II. June 15, 1979. Total cost at appraisal. $63.66 million, of which $2.36 million (3.7 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Provision of funding for hotel construction and technical assistance for activities to promote tourism. iC14 Wildland component. Assistance for the establishment and development of the 193-square-kilcmeter Azagny National Park, including provisions for resettlement of squatters currently on park lands and for park infrastructure, tourist facilities, and antipoaching measures. Remarks. A program to rehabilitate the 11,500-square-kilameter Comoe National Park has been added. It includes the establishment of a single administrative entity, the Park Directorate, vith responsibility for park management and protection; rehabilitation of park tracks, bridges, and culverts; and provision of equipment and operating costs. The Comoe National Park constitutes the largest WMA in Western Africa and is among the twenty largest in the world. Kenya o Wildlife and Tourism. July 9, 1976. Total cost at appraisal. $36.435 million, of which 100 percent is for wildland management. General description. Support for development of wildlife-based tourism. Components include expanded tourist facilities and new game-viewing tracks in the Amboseli National Park, the Marmar Ranch, a-d the Masai Hara, Samburu, Buffalo Springs, and Shaba national reserves; measures to mitigate the destructive *nvironmenta. impacts of tourism at Lake Turkana National Park; gameproof barriers and compensation schemes to reduce conflicts between wildlife and farmers or pastoralists; antipoaching measures; studies of policies for wildlife management and tourism development; and support for the creation of a Wildlife and Fisheries Training Institute and a Wildlife Planning Unit and for the Wildlife Clubs of Kenya. Wildland component. The entire project. Remarks. The project has generally manifested satisfactory progress and is drawing to a close. The Wildlife and Fisheries Training Institute is now functioning, but one of the funding bodies, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), 105 considers-the Wildlife Planning Unit a failure. The beneficial environmental effects of reduced off-track driving have been most apparent at Amboseli, where the new game-viewing tracks have been completed. As of November 1986 tracks had been only partially constructed in the Masai Mara and Samburu parks, however. Kenyan government officials and representatives of concerned NGOs (the African Wildlife Foundation and the World Wildlife Fund) agree that wildlife poaching is no longer a serious problem in Kenya and that the project deserves some of the credit for this success. o Livestock Development II. June 5, 1974. Total cost at appraisal. $59.7 million, of which $3.442 million (5.8 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Development of beef cattle ranches and feedlots, water supplies, grazing management, and livestock marketing. Wildland component. Assistance for wildlife management in the Amboseli National Park and the Masai Mara Game Reserve; development of new watering areas and compensation schemes to reduce competition between livestock and wildlife; and establishment of the Kenya Rangelands Ecological Management Unit (KREMU) to monitor ecological changes in Kenya's rangelands and provide necessary data for management of wildlife and livestock. Remarks. The overall project encountered serious management problems and will probably not show a positive economic rate of return, according to a World Bank audit of project performance, but the wildland component was considerably more successful. In particular, KREMU is now an operational unit of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, and its mandate has been expanded to provide data on various other natural resources. o Bura Irrigation Settlement. June 22, 1977. Total cost at appraisal. $98.4 million, of which $0.3 million (0.3 percent) is for the wildland component. 106 General description. Resettlement of 5,150 landless families; development of a canal to divert water from the Lower Tana River to irrigate 145 square kilometers; construction of roads, housing, schools, and medical facilities to accommodate the population influx; and creation of tree plantations to provide fuelwood. Wildland component. Measures tD protect from cutting the area's ecologically unique riverine forest; antipoaching measures; development of alternative watering areas for wildlife, away from populated areas; development of canal crossings for wildlife, including several thousand elephants; and monitoring of wildlife populations, including the rare and endemic Hunter's hartebeest. Remarks. Financial, managerial, and other problems have caused great difficulties with implementation and have led to a government decision to limit further investment in the project. Like most other components the wildland component has suffered from poor implementation. For example, the r:Lverine forest is being cut for charcoal production and fuelwood coLlection owing to inadequate protective measures (Kenya 1985). o Forestry Plantation II. June 27, 1975. Total cost at appraisal. $59.436 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Establishment of exotic tree plantations for sawlogs and pulpwood on 400 squa.re kilometers of land, mostly logged-over indigenous forest; reforestation of 60 square kilometers of clearfelled plantations, mainly for sawlogs; construction of forest roads, staff housing, and administrative buildings; and technical assistance and training. Wildland component. Designation by the government of about 34 square kilometers of the North Nandi Forest Reserve, about 43 square kilometers of the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve, and other areas as strict nature reserves to protect unique plant and animal species. This provision was a covenant in the credit agreement. 107 Remarks. The government did designate the North Nandi and Arabuko-Sokoke strict nature reserves but failed to designate several other nature reserves specified in the credit agreement. It did, however, establish several new forest reserves, totaling 160 square kilometers, that were not mentioned in the agreement. o Rift valley Textiles, Ltd. (IFC). July 18, 1975. Total cost at appraisal. $32.9 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Support for construction and operation of an integrated textile mill with an annual production capacity of 12.2 million square meters of cotton fabric. Wildland component. Relocation of the mill from Nakuru to Eldoret to prevent effluents (dyes, detergents, scouring agents, and the like) from harming the fragile aquatic environment of Lake Nakuru. Lake Nakuru National Park is the principal feeding area for many thousands of lesser flamingoes and harbors numerous other species of water birds. Malawi o National Rural Development Program III. March 8, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $8.608 million, of which $0.290 million (3.4 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Support for improvements in;agricultural production in the Karonga and Chitipa districts. Components include agricultural research, training, and extension; livestock development; credit; market facilities; tree plantations for fuelwood and poles; promotion of tobacco as a crop; and social infrastructure. Wildland component. Establishment of seven new forest reserves--some for strict protection, others with regulated cutting and grazing--and provision of salaries, housing, vehicles, and office space for forest reserve staff. 108 Remarks. According to supervision reports, progress on land acquisition for the Chitipa forest reserves has been satisfactory. Land acquisition continues to be a problem, however, for the Karonga Escarpment forest reserves owing to the continued presence of livestock herds. o Shire Valley Agricultural Development II. March 28, 1973. Total cost at appraisal. $12.6 million, of which $0.06 million (0.5 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Agricultural, livestock, and freshwater fishery development in the Lower Shire Valley of southern Malawi, including extension services, credit and marketing facilities, training, roads, water supply, health services, and research. Wildland component. Provision of fencing, staff housing, and other infrastructure to strengthen protection of the 130-square- kilometer Lengwe National Park, which is important for the conservation of the rare nyala antelope. Remarks. The wildland component was completed without significant complications. The World Bank's audit of project performance in 1979 noted that the construction of national park facilities met appraisal targets and remained within the projected appraisal costs. Mali o Forestry II. March 14, 1985. Total cost of appraisal. $14.6 million, of which $0.5 million (3.5 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Assistance to the Forestry Department for added facilities and equipment, for three major studies needed to formulate forestry policy and programs, and for monitoring national rural forestry activities, strengt1hening the tax collection system for domestic wood products, and training forestry officers; funding for rural forestry activities, including two pilot programs on 109 agrosilvopastoral management and assistance to tree and shrub plantations; establishment, management, and protection of tree plantations; improvement of planting stock and forestry techniques; and silvicultural treatment of 600 hectares of natural forest in the Bamako area each year. Wildland component. Assistance to the 3,500-square-kilometer Boucle du Baoule National Park, including implementation of the regional plan for the park, resettlement of villagers outside the park boundaries, and provision of equipment such as radio communication and track networks. In addition, the project includes the financing of a general study of Malian parks and reserves and the development of a long-term national plan for WMA management. Mauritius o Rural Development. July 9, 1973. Total cost at appraisal. $11.010 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Integrated rural development, including bench terracing, planting of fodder, rural village improvements, institution building, and training. A forestry component involves the replacement of 16 square kilometers of native scrub forest with plantations of commercial tree species. Wildland component. Deletion from the plans to develop plantation forest of 5 square kilometers of native sc#ub forest that is habitat for the critically endangered pink pigeon. Establishment of a government committee, with conservationist representation, to prevent future conflicts between endangered species habitats and development plans, including those supported by the World Bank. Remarks. The decision to avoid converting the unique scrub forest habitat was made during project implementation in response to international expressions of concern from conservationists and 110 scientists. The remaining native forest habitat of the pink pigeon was granted almost complete protection in 1974 when the government established the 36-square-kilometer Macaber-Bel Ombre Nature Reserve (Collar and Stuart 1985). Rwanda o Second Integrated Forestry. June 25, 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $22.2 million, of which $4.6 million (20.7 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. The main objectives of the project are to protect and conserve Rwanda's remaining natural forests and to increase fuelwood supplies by promoting agroforestry. Specific measures include support for strengthening the Ministry of Agriculture through the development of a management framework and through training and technical assistance; the creation, maintenance, and protection of plantations as buffers or on degraded slopes; the strengthening of the Forest Department's rural afforestation program; the development of an integrated approach to livestock and forest management in the Gishwati region; support for the existing extension system in the six communes around Gishwati; and applied research on animal nutrition, plantation development and agroforestry. Wildland component. Establishment of a management program in the Nyungwe and Gishwati natural forests (including an ecological reconnaissance of the total area, development of a monitoring and evaluation program, and establishment of buffer plantations) and support for applied research on nal:ural forest management. Senegal o Forestry Proiect. November 13, 1981. Total cost at appraisal. $17.]. million, of which an unspecified amount is for the wildland component. 111 General description. Improvement in productivity and management of about 10,000 hectares of existing natural forest; establishment of tree plantations; strengthening of the Forestry Department; and establishment and operation of a forestry training center. Wildland component. Assistance for strengthening the protection and management of the 9,130-square-kilometer Niokolo-Koba National Park and surrounding reserves as part of natural forest management. Somalia o Semimechanized Rainfed Agriculture Pilot. April 13, 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $14.7 million, of which about $0.37 million (2.5 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Creation of four management units in addition to two existing ones, to settle 400 additional families and further develop semimechanized rainfed farming technology in Somalia. This entails the expansion of the cultivated area, the provision of roads, housing, machinery, and other infrastructure, and extension programs to train farmers. Studies on the feasibility of expanding this pilot project will also be financed. Wildland component. Mitigatory environmental measures, the exact nature of which will be determined on completion of an environmental impact study. The once dense populations of elephants, antelope, hyenas, lions, leopards, and other wildlife have been declining in the project area for several years. Sudan o Rahad Irrigation. March 30, 1973. Total cost at appraisal. $96.140 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Development of 1,260 square kilometers of 112 irrigated agriculture on the east bank of the Rahad River using water pumped from the Blue Nile. Components include construction of works for irrigation supply, distr:Lbution, and drainage; installation of agricultural processing equipment and storage facilities; settlement of about 70,000 people; and provision of the necessary infrastructure for the settlers. Wildland component. Revision of the project design--largely for economic reasons--to eliminate interference with wildlife migration. The original location of a water supply canal would have interfered with the migration of tiang, roan antelope, reticulated giraffes, ostrich, and other species. Revision was more cost-effective than mitigatory measures after the fact. Tanzania o Kidatu Hydroelectric. Stage II (Mtera Dam). August 12, 1976. Total cost at appraisal. $88.2 million; no additional cost for the wildland component was stated in the documentation. General description. Construction of a concrete buttress dam at Mtera, installation of two additional hydropower units at the existing Kidatu powerhouse, and construction of a transformer station at Morogoro. Wildland component. Creation of a new watershed and wildlife protection and management area, the Lunda-Mkwambi Game Control Area, between the Ruaha National Park and the reservoir. The new WMA is about ten times the size of the project impoundment area and is 80 percent as large as Ruaha National ]?ark, which covers 2,500 square kilometers. o Tourism Rehabilitation. January 22, 1979. Total cost at appraisal. $19.50 million, of which $0.630 million (3.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Rehabilit&tion of twelve hotels, 113 establishment of a Hotel and Tourism Training Institute, improvements to Dar es Salaam Airport, and other activities to promote tourism. Wildland component. Provision of antipoaching equipment (vehicles, radios, and binoculars), monitoring of wildlife populations in the Serengeti National Park and by the Ngorongoro Conservation Authority, and upgrading to all-weather standards of the Makuyuni-Serengeti road, a major access road to the national parks. In addition, the government is to continue to pursue policies consistent with preservation of wildlife resources. Remarks. Supervision reports in 1983 and 1984 indicate that the implementation of the wildland component has been highly satisfactory. Equipment financed under the project is being used successfully, and the government is complying with the credit condition on protecting wildlife. The rehabilitation component has also proceeded smoothly; most of the equipment for the hotels and lodges has been installed. Tourist traffic, which had declined steadily since 1979, has recently begun to show signs of an upturn. Uganda o Forestry Rehabilitation. July 6, 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $52.6 million, of which $0.7 million (2.1 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Objectives are to increase fuelwood supplies and to relieve pressure on existing hardwood forests by establishing periurban fuelwood plantations, encouraging social forestry in rural areas, rehabilitating industrial softwood plantations, strengthening the Forestry Department, and protecting natural forests. Wildland component. Funding for the reestablishment of the nature reserves program of the Forestry Department, for an increase in the proportion of natural forest identified as nature reserves 114 from 5 to 20 percent over the six-year project period, for the implementation of measures to protect these areas, and for publicity programs for environmental conservation. Zambia o Kafue Hydroelectric II. July 16, 1973. Total cost at appraisal. $137.7 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Construction of a hydroelectric dam and power-generating and transmitting facilities. Wildland component. Periodic water releases from the reservoir to replicate the natural seasonal flooding of the Kafue Flats, an area important to cattle and to wildlife, including the lechwe, a rare endemic antelope. Remarks. Tentative findings suggest that water releases from the dam have not replicated natural flooding conditions as well as was hoped but that the situation is appreciably better than would have been the case without the wildland component. ASIA China o Heilongiang Land Reclamation,. May 20, 1983. Total cost at appraisal. $271 raillion, not including funding for the wildland component, which is being provided separately by the government. General description. Development, through drainage and land clearing, of 2,000 square kilometers of uncultivated lands in the Sanjiang Plain region for production of food grains and soybeans; provision of drains, embankments, pumping stations, rural roads, 115 housing, supporting infrastructure, and agricultural and construction machinery. Wildland component. Inclusion of an environmental monitoring program to help ensure the biological integrity of five existing wildlife reserves that encompass 2,300 square kilometers, including 770 square kilometers of marshland. India o Chandrapur Thermal Power. September 16, 1985. Total cost at appraisal. $1,116.1 million, of which $11.4 million (1.0 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Installation of two 500-megawatt generating units, including boilers, turbogenerator sets, electrical and mechanical auxiliary equipment, associated civil works, and common services and facilities; construction of a water conveyance system to link the Human Reservoir with the existing Erai Reservoir; and a program to rehabilitate and increase the efficiency of thermal stations. Wildland component. Modification of the path of the water conveyance system between the Human and Erai reservoirs to avoid crossing the 117-square-kilometer Tadoba National Park. Indonesia o Irrigation XV. April 3, 1980. Total cost at appraisal. $53.2 million, of which approximately $1.1 million (2.1 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Construction and improvement of irrigation and drainage works to serve some 110 square kilometers of arable land in the Dumoga area of northern Sulawesi. Also provides for roads, agricultural training and extension, and other support services. Wildland component. Establishment of the 3,000-square- 116 kilometer Dumoga-Bone National Park in northern Sulawesi to protect the watershed for the irrigated crops and to conserve endemic forest plants and animals, including the rare giant civet and maleo fowl. Remarks. Implementation of this important wildland component is proceeding successfully; as of December 1984 sixty park management personnel had been hired and trained and were working in the project area. Physical facilities in the managed park were about 70 percent complete. The 300-400 people who lived within the park's boundaries have been relocated. Republic of Korea o Nakdong Second Water Supply. October 21, 1983. Total cost at appraisal. $167 million, of which $2.0 million (1.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Construction of a 510-meter barrage (a type of dam) and of dikes and a closure dam to ensure a reliable water supply for Busan and thirty-si: other cities. Also included are national programs for detection and control of leaks and for strengthening accounting and financial management in the city water bureaus. Wildland component. The Nakdong estuary is nationally and internationally important as a link in the migration route and as a wintering ground for migratory birds, mainly waterfowl and waders. The main threat to the bird and fish habitat in the estuary is not from the barrage but from human pressure to reclaim land from the sea. For this reason the loan and project agreement required a study of the factors that have made the Nakdong estuary an important bird habitat, and the study was used to give permanent protection to part of the estuary by designating a natural environmental preservation area and a natural ecological system preservation area. Other environmental components includea the creation of two environmental units in the Industrial Site and Water Resources Development Corporation (ISWACO), a workshop on environmental 117 management for estuarine barrages for officials, environmental safeguards in the design and location of the project facilities, and establishment of eight water quality stations. Nepal o Highway III. August 28, 1984. Total cost at appraisal. $116 million, of which about $0.5 million is for the training element of the wildland component. General description. Construction of a 204-kilometer section of the East-West Highway to link the western part of Nepal with the rest of the country; technical assistance and training. Wildland component. To gain access to a suitable location for a bridge over the Karnali River, about 15 kilometers of the project road had to run through the 368-square-kilometer Royal Bardia (Karnali) National Park. The construction and mitigatory measures listed below were therefore made conditions for the credit. A tract of land was added to the park to compensate for that taken by the road. (The park was actually doubled in size.) Spontaneous colonization within the boundaries of the park was to be prevented. Park personnel were to receive further training (completion of a Ph.D. in ecology and reserve management by the senior warden, of M.Sc. degrees in wildlife ecology and management by two wardens, and of B.S. degrees in parks and recreation by two assistant wardens, as well as attendance at international seminars by senior officials at the Department of National Parks and Wildlife and at the park). During construction, work was to be limited to daylight hours, no permanent camps for laborers were to be permitted within the park, the cleared width of the road was to be kept to a minimum and a minimum number of trees were to be felled, materials for construction were to be obtained from sources outside the park, no spoil was to be dumped within the park, gates were to be erected at the highway's entry and exit points, and a twenty-four-hour watch was to be posted and was to be maintained during construction and 118 thereafter for the life of the project. Finally, after construction, all vehicles entering the park were to be inspected according to park and wildlife regu:Lations, maximum speed within the reserve was to be 35 kilometers per hour, night driving was to be banned, and radio communications were to be maintained to monitor enforcement of the agreed measures. Philippines o Watershed Management and Eros;ion Control. August 4, 1980. Total cost at appraisal. $75.0 million, of which $10.7 million (14.3 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Watershed protection and rehabilitation in the Pantabangan and Magat watersheds on Luzon, which serve the two largest multipurpose dams in the Philippines. Components include the reforestation of 321 square kilcmeters of denuded land with fast-growing species, the construction and maintenance of forest roads, the construction of charcoal ovens, a feasibility study and pilot programs for ecologically sound agroforestry and pasture management, and administrative support services. Wildland component. Provides for equipment and vehicles for fire prevention and protection of natural forests and for a pilot project on protection of natural forests that would train forest guards and resettle shifting cultivators. The entire project will indirectly help to conserve natural forests. Remarks. A 1985 supervision report noted that the pilot programs for forest protection and range management in problematic watersheds have shown little progress owing to budgeting problems and insufficient commitment to the underlying objectives on the part of the government. o Central Visayas Regional. Febmruary 7, 1984. Total cost at appraisal. $44.3 million, of which $1.2 million 119 (2.7 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Rural development to improve environmental management while raising the living standards of small farmers and fishers. Provides for reforestation of denuded slopes, improved management of logged-over forests, planting of tree crops, on-farm soil conservation, new roads and trails, credit, institutional strengthening, technical assistance, training, and research. Wildland component. Provision of forest guards and motorboats to improve protection of three mangrove and swamp forest preserves (totaling 50 square kilometers) in northern Bohol; replanting of 6.5 square kilometers of mangrove swamps; establishment of 36 square kilometers of coral reef sanctuaries; and development of artificial reefs along 114 kilometers of shoreline by local fishers. These measures are designed to enhance coastal fisheries by maintaining essential mangrove and reef habitats. The project will also strengthen the ability of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources to control overfishing in coastal areas. Remarks. A supervision report in 1986 noted continued good progress with the fisheries and forestry components. Land tenure problems, however, have prevented a large proportion of the farmers from adopting the same soil conservation practices that have been adopted enthusiastically by other farmers. Sri Lanka o Tree Crop Diversification (Tea) I. July 12, 1978. Total cost at appraisal. $6.5 million, of which $0.0192 million (0.3 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Support for agricultural diversification of about 115 square kilometers of marginal tea land, scrub, and degraded forest and for establishment of small farms, mixed tree cropping and dairying, soil conservation measures, and social infrastructure. Wildland component. Preservation of 21 square kilometers of 12D steep land in conservation areas owned and managed by the Forest Department and funding for hiring local people as forest guards. Remarks. The project's physical implementation progressed well, but owing to problems in connection with settlement and the transfer of labor the credit was closed prematurely in August 1982 and the undisbursed balance of $0.28 million was cancelled. o Mahaweli Ganga Development [II. November 5, 1981. Total cost at appraisal. $201.8 million, of which $6.9 million (3.4 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. The projeact forms part of the Accelerated Mahaweli Ganga Development Program,, which seeks to develop 500-600 megawatts of electric power and to settle, clear, and irrigate at least 3,650 square kilometers of land in Sri Lanka's dry zone. The project includes the Minipe Right Ilank Transbasin Canal and other irrigation and drainage infrastrucl:ure, the clearing or modification of 310 square kilometers of land (rlost of it now forested), social infrastructure, roads, fuelwood and cashew plantations, and related management and support services. Wildland component. A wildlife conservation action plan has been prepared to minimize or mitigaLte damage to populations of wild elephants and other endangered species affected by the project. Wildlife corridors and reserves will be created in areas set aside under the project, and the Department of Wildlife Conservation, which is responsible for implementing the program and managing the new parks, will be upgraded. The program is being funded by USAID ($5.0 million) and the government ($1.9 million). Thailand o Northern Agricultural Develcipment. June 28, 1979. Total cost at appraisal. $47.49 million, of which $0.346 million (0.7 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Agricultural and forestry development in 121 upland areas (including 30,000 hectares of land development and 750 kilometers of access tracks), agricultural and social development in the highlands (800 hectares of irrigated rice, 800 hectares of tree crops, 1,300 hectares of rainfed crops, 80 schools, 32 health posts, and 500 kilometers of access tracks), forestry development in the highlands (4,600 hectares of forest rehabilitation, 3,100 hectares of village woodlots, 1,730 kilometers of fire lanes, and 345 kilometers of access tracks), strengthening of provincial planning, preparation of additional projects, and pilot schemes for rainfed agriculture. Wildland component. Construction of fire lanes and provision of forest guards to control fires and illegal encroachment in 1,380 square kilometers of natural highland forests considered important for watershed protection and soil stabilization. Other project components help to conserve natural forests indirectly, for example, by replacing shifting cultivation with settled agriculture. Remarks. A supervision report in 1986 indicated that the forestry component was satisfactorily completed by the Thai Royal Forestry Department but that much work remained to be done on farming systems. Other recommendations were for review and improvement of the fire protection system that had been set up more than six years previously and for an extensive educational program to change attitudes toward wildfires. The Land Policy Study of November 1986 analyzes the national forest policy of 1985 (which provided that 15 percent;of the country's total land area be set aside as conservation forest areas) and makes several recommendations on how the policy can be more effectively implemented. EUROPE, MIDDLE EAST, AND NORTH AFRICA Cyprus o Limassol Sewerage and Drainage Proiect. May 31, 1984. 122 Total cost at appraisal. $37.3 million. General description. ProvisiorL of sewerage service to about 40 percent of the domestic population of Limassol and 100 percent of the commercial and industrial areas and protection of the city water supply boreholes and of Limassol BELy. Components include construction of the first stage of a central sewage collection and treatment system, upgrading of the existing stormwater drainage system, and training for staff of the Sewerage Board of Limassol. Wildland component. The siting of the sewage treatment plant has been highly problematic. One of the sites that has been seriously considered by the government is in a eucalyptus plantation near the edge of the Akrotiri Salt Lake. The lake and surrounding salt marshes are an internationally recognized habitat for migratory birds. As many as 50 million birds use this area for feeding and resting as they migrate between Europe and Africa. The Bank has made it clear that if this area is chosen, certain safeguards should be implemented, including protected area status for the lake, marshes, and critical margins; restricted access and hunting; and engineering features to minimize odors and avoid overflows. Remarks. As of January 1987 a proposed new site was under study by environmental consultants. There is some question as to whether any funds will actually be disbursed, as the loan may be canceled before a site is finally selected. Greece o Evros Development. June 27, 1977; completed December 1984. Total cost at appraisal. $62.2 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Rural development, including maize drying and storage facilities, roads, social infrastructure, flood control, irrigation, and forestry development (logging, wood processing, and reforestation). 123 Wildland component. Establishment in 1980 of Dadia Native Reserve, which comprises two strictly protected core areas of 73 square kilometers and a buffer zone of 207 square kilometers in which seasonal cutting of fuelwood by villagers is permitted but commercial logging is not. The reserve protects old-growth pine forest, which provides nesting habitat for twenty-two species of birds of prey, including the imperial eagle, the white-tailed sea eagle, and the cinereous vulture, all of which are threatened species. Because of the establishment of the reserves, some previously planned logging roads were not built. Remarks. The wildland component was introduced during implementation, after the World Bank and the government were alerted to the presence of these rare bird species by the IUCN. Preparation of a reserve management plan by staff of the University of Thessaloniki began in 1985 with funding from the European Economic Community. Morocco o Middle Atlas-Central Area Agricultural Development. March 3, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $92.2 million, of which less than 1 percent is for the wildland component. General description. Integrated forestry, livestock, and cropland development in north-central Morocco. Components include management plans, infrastructure, and equipment to enable natural- regeneration harvesting of 360 square kilometers of natural cedar and holm oak forests; institution-building support for the forestry services; aerial spraying to control the processionary caterpillar (a forest pest); investments to improve range management, forage production, and animal husbandry; improvements in irrigation; agricultural extension and credit; and road construction. 124 Wildland component. Provision of guard housing for the 1.9-square-kilometer Seheb Floral Reserve, a scientific baseline forest study area. Support for t1le government's identification and designation of other strict nature reserves in the area, primarily to preserve endemic plant species, In particular, the inventory work in Aghbalou Larbi forest incLudes proposals for several floral reserves. Overseas training courses in nature conservation for two reserve guards is provided. Remarks. Although general project implementation has been slowed by the government's budgetaLry constraints, progress in implementing the wildland componerLt has been good. The Seheb (1.9 square kilometers) and Sidi M'Guild Mountain (about 3.0 square kilometers) nature reserves have already been established, and a consultant has identified additional sites for nature reserves. Training for the Brigade de la Chasse (wildlife agency) staff is being arranged. Turkey o South Antalya Tourism Infrastructure. July 9, 1976. Total cost at appraisal. $65.994 million, of which $3.402 million (5.2 percent) is for the wildland component, General description. Tourism development in the Antalya Bay region of southern Turkey. Components include roads, water supply, sewerage, electricity, and other infrastructure, hotel training facilities, construction of housing for hotel employees, construction of a small-craft harbor, and archaeological preservation. Wildland component. Development of tourist facilities in a small portion of the Olympus National Park and increased support to park staff for firefighting and other protection activities. Planned facilities include a day visitor beach, three campsites, 135 kilometers of hiking trails, and a visitor center. Other components include highway beautification and reforestation of denuded areas. 125 Remarks. According to a 1983 supervision report the wildland component is proceeding on schedule, but because of a general reduction in the construction works program and in procurement of equipment it has been scaled down in size (for example, one campsite rather than three; elimination of one helicopter). o Northern Forestry. June 5, 1978. Total cost at appraisal. $915 million, of which $1.818 million (0.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Promotion of intensified forest utilization throughout much of northern Turkey. Provides for logging roads, logging equipment, reforestation, erosion control, range management, fire control, technical assistance, and training. Wildland component. Increased protection for about a half-dozen wildlife reserves in northwest Turkey and translocation of red and roe deer into these areas from breeding centers in the field. The project will finance translocation equipment, an overseas fellowship in wildlife management, and consultancies to prepare management plans for the reserves and guidelines for forest development. Remarks. The translocation of red deer and other wildlife was somewhat delayed by a shortage of the necessary equipment, but equipment purchases are now proceeding normally. The candidate for training in wildlife management has begun his one-year program in British Columbia, Canada. The preparation of management plans has progressed more slowly than anticipated, and some 30 percent of the plans will have to be completed after the project closes. The reforestation targets have been surpassed--a positive development for erosion control and range management. LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN Argentina and Paraguay o Yacyreta Hydroelectric. November 6, 1979. 126 Total cost at appraisal. $3,7B4 million, of which approximately $1 million (0.03 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Construction of a 70-kilometer-long earth dam, a powerhouse, and related infrastructure on the Parana River (creating a 1,700-square-kilometer reservoir) to provide power and irrigation to Argentina and Paraguay. Wildland component. Relocation of endangered marsh deer to a natural reserve now being established in Paraguay; studies and land use restrictions to protect unique riverine forest habitat; and provision of passageways for fish and of research facilities to monitor aquatic life and water quality. Remarks. Construction on this project was reinitiated after long delays. Meanwhile, the envircnmental teams responsible for implementing the wildland component have been active in both countries. Relocation of marsh deer and planning studies on water quality are under way. The facilities for passage of fish have been redesigned, and fish are being inventoried and their migration habits surveyed. Construction of fish hatcheries was scheduled to start in 1987. Bolivia o Ulla Ulla Development. April. 6, 1978. Total cost at appraisal. $24.0 million, of which $0.67 million (2.8 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Promotion of integrated production, processing, and marketing of alpaca and llama wool to raise the income levels of poor farmers and artisans. Wildland component. Population inventories, pasture management research and antipoaching measures to conserve the endangered vicufla. Remarks. The government has complied with a credit covenant to extend the legal moratorium on killing vicufas or marketing their skins. The antipoaching measures have reportedly been highly 127 successful; between 1978 and 1986 the vicufta population in the project area increased from roughly 600 to 2,830. The wildland component was successfully implemented despite great political, financial, and managerial problems with other project components. Brazil o Minas Gerais Forestry Development. Reappraised November 18, in 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $100.2 million, of which $3.1 million (3 percent) is for the wildland component ("parks and reserves development "). General description. Forestry development to improve timber and charcoal production through reforestation with fast-growing species; management and conservation of natural forests (cerrados, or savanna-type woodlands) throughout the state of Minas Gerais. Components include credit to finance about 165,000 hectares of industrial plantations for charcoal and pulpwood production; establishment of 40,000 hectares of rural woodlots on small and medium farms; rural forestry extension; forestry research, including species trials of native and exotic tree species to test their production potential for charcoal, fuelwood, forage, and fruit and their contribution to soil conservation, nitrogen fixation, and other uses; conservation education for staff of the executing agencies and the general public; protection and development of adminstrative infrastructure for state parks and reserves; and institution building, particularly for the State Forestry Institute. Wildland component. Strengthening of administration, including boundary delineation and establishment of guard posts, for the Rio Doce, Ibitipoca, Jaiba, Itacolom, and Cipos state parks and the Acaua, Matados Ausentes, and Mar de Espanha biological reserves; construction of patrol roads and of housing and laboratories for ecological researchers in Rio Doce State Park; promotion of forest conservation and improved management on about 54,000 private rural 12E8 properties; assistance for enforcement of forest conservation laws on public and private lands; use of satellite imagery and surveys to monitor activities in forests; promotion of formal and informal forest conservation education intended to reach 26,000 rural schoolteachers and extension aides and 291,000 students; establishment of an experiment station to carry out research on the management of the cerrados of Minas Gerais; support for research, particularly in Rio Doce State Park, on forest animals that are in danger of extinction or that have potential economic value because of their meat, skins, or other products; and establishment of a forestry germplasm bank. o Northwest I Agricultural Development and Environmental Protection. December 14, 1983. Total cost at appraisal. $199.344 million, of which $18.728 million (9.4 percent) is for the wi]dland component. This project addresses environmental concerns associated with five Bank-supported projects totaling approximately $l,500 million; the wildland component thus accounts for approximately 1.2 percent of appraised Northwest Regional Development Program costs to date. General description. Consolidation of ongoing agricultural development and land settlement activities. Includes access roads, village infrastructure, primary education, facilities for drying and storing crops, the regularization of land titles, and agricultural extension services. A forestry component includes the establishment and regulation of production forests, institution building, and extension services. Wildland component. Assistance for the establishment and protection of the Pacaas Novos National Park and the Guapore and Jaru biological reserves, which encormpass roughly 15,330 square kilometers of natural ecosystems, largely rain forest. Assistance for the establishment or extension oi four ecological stations encompassing approximately 3,370 square kilometers. Provision for ecological research, including biological inventories. 129 Remarks. Implementation of the wildland component lagged seriously behind other components, according to a 1984 supervision report. Partly because of this delay, disbursements were suspended for several months in 1985 until implementation of the environmental components improved. Unless unplanned settlement and illicit timber extraction are effectively controlled, the long-term integrity of some of the 'WMAs may be in doubt. A satellite system surveys the program area every eighteen days to detect encroachments. The project finances helicopter hovercraft and a battalion of armed guards who check all encroachments that have been detected by satellite, remove any illegal settlers, and confiscate illegal logging equipment such as bulldozers and sawmills. More than 27 percent of Rondonia is now permanently conserved in 20,416 square kilometers of forest reserves and 45,534 square kilometers of indigenous reserves. O Carajas Iron Ore. August 13, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $4,526 million, of which $20 million (0.5 percent) is for the environmental (including wildland) component and $13.6 million is for protection of Amerindians. General description. Development of iron ore mining in the Serra dos Carajas region of the Amazon Basin, an 890-kilometer railway, and port facilities. Includes pollution control and Amerindian protection components. Wildland component. Provision of three full-time environmental officers; establishment and management of several wildland management units of significant size, including patches of unique ironstone scrub vegetation; a biological inventory of areas to be developed; and rehabilitation of mined land. Remarks. A 1983 supervision report indicated that the main problem in implementing the wildland and Amerindian components has been inadequate control of illegal settlement in the vicinity of the mine and the railroad. I; 130 o Amazonas Agricultural Development. August 25, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $77.3 million, of which less than $1 million (1.3 percent) is for the wrildland component. General description. Agricultural support services for six municipalities in the Amazon regicn. Special features include agricultural use of periodically flooded alluvial land in varzea forests, planting of upland areas in perennial crops (oil palm and guarana), agroecological zoning, and natural resource studies. Wildland component. Identification and demarcation of about 1,600 square kilometers of biological reserves and 200 square kilometers of forest reserves. Remarks. The supervision reports suggest that progress in implementing the wildland component has been satisfactory. Delays owing to problems in staffing, counterpart funding, and interagency cooperation have affected many project components, including the wildland portion. o Maranhao Rural Development. June 25, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $122.2 million, of which $1.689 million (1.4 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Integrateed rural development in Brazil's northeastern region, including land redistribution and title regularization, land use planning, agricultural extension and research, seed production, establishment of marketing facilities, development of cooperatives, research and training in freshwater fishery development, road construction, and education and health services. Wildland component. Identification and protection of two new forest reserves expected to total about 1,000 square kilometers, the establishment of a post to protect an existing 120-square-kilometer reserve, and a diagnostic study to idefine a strategy for subsequent forest protection and reforestation in the project area. 131 o Northeast Rural Development VII Project (Maranhlo). July 20, 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $190.6 million, of which $4.2 (2.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Development of water resources through construction of 5 small irrigation schemes, 253 simple water supply systems, and 2 fish hatcheries; agricultural research and extension; extension of rural credit; expansion of marketing services; creation of a community development fund; and environmental protection. Wildland component. Demarcation, protection, and management by the State Secretariat for Natural Resources of the Mirador State Park, watershed of the Itapecuru River, and the demarcation, protection, and management by the Brazilian Forestry Development Institute of the national reserve of Gurupi-Alto Turi. Chile o Pehuenche Hydroelectric. December 15, 1987. Total cost at appraisal. $838.0 million, of which about $1.1 million (0.13 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Construction of a 500-megawatt hydroelectric power plant about 250 kilometers south of Santiago. The main works include a small diversion dam at the Maule River and a daily-storage earth dam, 90 meters high, at the Melado River, a tributary of the Maule. Also included are construction of transmission facilities, training in the technical operation of power plants and transmission systems and in finance and administration, and power sector studies. Wildland component. The reservoir will flood two of the nation's twelve remaining breeding sites (containing 100 to 200 individuals) of the Chilean subspecies of the burrowing parrot, so named for its habit of excavating a nesting hole in vertical cliffs of a specific type. This large and attractive bird is in serious danger of extinction, largely owing to the capture of the young for 132 commerce and the killing of adults as they eat crops. Because of the project's heavy impact on this rare species, mitigatory measures, including the establishment of a national environmental program for the protection of this and other endangered species, are being financed by the project. Other environmental measures include studies on environmental and resettLement issues related to power projects and environmental and ecological training. Colombia o Guavio Hydro Power. May 28, 1981. Total cost at appraisal. $1,053.1 million, of which $0.3 million (0.03 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Construction of a dam, river diversion works, and generating and transmission facilities to produce up to 1,600 megawatts of electric power. Wildland component. Development of a watershed management plan that includes the protection of the existing natural forest and its wildlife, particularly in areas adjacent to the 200-square-kilometer Chingaza National Park. Remarks. The watershed plan was completed. In 1985 the Bogota electric power company created a unit to implement the plan. o Upper Magdalena Pilot Watershed Management. April 16, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $25 million, of which $1.9 million (7.5 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Pilot watershed management and rehabilitation to reduce flooding, soil erosion, and siltation of hydroelectric and irrigation'works anid to maintain a regular water supply for irrigation and domestic use. Pilot investments in three subwatersheds of the Magdalena River include promotion of soil- conserving cropping patterns, improved livestock management, reforestation of 6.6 square kilometers with local and exotic species for watershed protection and commerciLal use, and construction of 133 minor erosion control structures. The project also includes research and evaluation components to provide the basis for a follow-up project covering the entire Upper Magdalena Watershed. Wildland component. Provision of field equipment, vehicles, offices, trails, shelters, and incremental operating costs to strengthen protection of natural forest areas, including the Los Nevados National Park, which is to be expanded by 20 square kilometers, and the Nevado del Huila National Park, which contains 1,580 square kilometers. Remarks. This project was not executed according to expectations. As of December 1986 total project expenditures were only about 20 percent of the projected project costs. The loan ended June 30, 1987, and was not extended. World Wildlife Fund-U.S. was to provide technical assistance to develop the national parks component. Costa Rica o Highway IV. January 14, 1976, physical works completed June 1985. Total cost at appraisal. $67 million, not including funding for the wildland component, to be provided separately by the government. General description. Construction of a new highway from Rio Sucio to Siquirres (90 kilometers) and from Rio Sucio to Puerto Viejo (29 kilometers). Wildland component. Before project appraisal, the road design was altered to minimize the environmental impact. During the early years of project implementation the government expanded the Braulio Carrillo National Park to prevent spontaneous colonization in an area of primary forest on steep slopes that was traversed by the highway. Plans for the park include a visitor center, scenic parking areas, underpasses for wildlife crossings, and establishment of a guard station to prevent colonization, logging, hunting, and other illegal activities. Construction of side roads in the park is 1134 prohibited except for park management purposes. The construction of the highway was monitored closely to minimize the environmental impact. Honduras o Tourism Development. June 25, 1979. Total cost at appraisal. $38.321 million, of which $0.189 million (0.5 percent) is for the wiLdland component. General description. Tourism promotion, including hotel construction, airport improvements, training in hotel administration, tourism marketing measures, and establishment of a small national archeological park at. Copan. Wildland component. Development of an environmental control master plan for Roatan Island to prevent severe deterioration of its coral reefs and other ecosystems owing to the increased tourism. The plan was to include detailed land use planning, zoning, and building regulations. The Tornasal beach development was relocated to protect the mangroves and other ecosystems of Quemada Lagoon. Remarks. The environmental master plan for Roatan Island was completed in 1984 but has not yet been implemented. Mexico o Baia California Tourism. July 5, 1977. Total cost at appraisal. $83.94 million, of which $0.29 million (0.3 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Tourism and urban development in southern Baja California, including streets, water, sewerage and drainage systems, airport expansion, electric power, two prototype hotels, telecommunications, health clinics, marketplaces, schools, and recreational facilities. Wildland component. Protective measures to conserve the area's rich marine life and unique coastal and desert ecosystems include 135 establishment of "green areas" (including beach dunes) where building is prohibited, studies of rare fauna and of coastal water quality management, cleanup and conservation of the lagoon at San Jose del Cabo, establishment of four fauna protection stations, and implementation of a coastal zone management program. Remarks. Although a severe storm and financing problems have caused some construction delays, most elements of the wildland component have been implemented with a high degree of success. To protect the rich marine resources of Coronado Island from overfishing, establishment of a national marine park is under study by the Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE) and the governor of Baja California. o Chiapas Rural Roads Project. July 16, 1985. Total cost at appraisal. $41.7 million; no additional cost for the wildland component. General description. Construction of about 1,000 kilometers of rural roads, rehabilitation and improvement of about 2,000 kilometers of existing rural roads, and related engineering and administrative support. This project, together with the Chiapas Agricultural Development Project, is intended to increase agricultural production, accelerate economic growth, and alleviate poverty in southeastern Mexico. Wildland component. The ecologically important state of Chiapas contains two federally protected areas: the 3,312-square-kilometer Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve in the Selva Lacadona--the last remaining tropical forest of significant size in North America-- and the 60-square-kilometer Lagunas de Montebello National Park, a pine and oak forest containing eighty lakes with subterranean rivers and caves. At negotiation it was confirmed that no road would be financed without the consent of SEDUE. After reviewing the designs, the construction technologies to be used, and the land use plans to protect the park from spontaneous settlement, SEDUE gave clearance 136 for seven roads (out of fifty-seven) that will pass through the Lagunas de Montebello Park. Panama o Colon Urban Development. August 7, 1980. Total cost at appraisal. $133.3 million, of which $0.3 million (0.3 percent-) is for the wildland component. General description. Revitalization of the city of Colon. Includes dwellings, industrial and free trade zones, a retail mall, a bus terminal, improvements to the port of Cristobal and to the highway linking Colon to Panama City, and technical assistance. Wildland component. Establishnent of the Gatun Lake Nature and Recreation Park (0.2 square kilometers), financed by the project as a separate component. Remarks. The original project design was modified significantly to reflect changing economic circumstances. The wildland component, however, was implemented within budget. The park opened in April 1983, although the road improvemenl:s were not completed until 1985. Paraguay o Caazapa Area Development. February 25, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $54.3 million, of which $0.12 million (0.2 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. Integrated rural development, including provision of agricultural credit arLd extension services, agricultural research, resettlement., health facilities, rural roads, soil conservation, natural-regeneration harvesting of up to 807 square kilometers of forest, and measures to improve the welfare of local tribal people. Wildland component. Construction of an administrative headquarters, staff housing, and other infrastructure to improve protection of the 65-square-kilometer Caaguazu National Park. 137 Peru o Alto Mayo Rural Development. December 14, 1982. Total cost at appraisal. $84.0 million, of which less than 1.2 million (2.1 percent) is for the wildland component. General description. The project is a prototype for development of the Ceja de Selva (high jungle) region of Peru and includes agricultural credit, feeder roads, extension and research, land titling, forestry, fisheries, and social infrastructure intended to reach 12,800 families. Components for environmental monitoring and protection of tribal people are included. The project area covers 1,200 square kilometers of the 7,700-square-kilometer Alto Mayo Basin. Wildland component. Designation of 600 square kilometers as native reserves which are to remain under forest or other native vegetation and provide hunting grounds for the tribal people of the area, the Aguaruna. Remarks. The 1986 supervision report indicates that the project has been successful in protecting native land rights; all nine Aguaruna communities in the Alto Mayo possess land titles. Moreover, native community lands are still basically intact despite continual pressure by immigrants. To address the problem of encroachment, the project plans to assist with the surveying and marking of community borders. 138 Table A-1. Selected Endangered or Rare Species Assisted by Projects SuDported by the World Bank English name Latin name Country Project Asiatic Elephas maximus Sri Lanka Mahaweli Ganga elephant Development III Chilean conure Cyanoliseus patagonus Chile Pehuenche (burrowing byroni Hydroelectric parrot) Cinereous Aegyptus monachus Greece Evros Development vulture Giant civet Hacrogalidia Indonesia Irrigation XV musschenbroeki Nunter's Damaliscus hunteri Kenya Bura Irrigation hartebeest Settlement Imperial eagle Aauila heliaca Greece Evros Development Lechve Kobus leche Zambia Kafue Hydro- electric II Lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias minor Kenya Rift Valley Textiles, Ltd. (IFC) Maleo fowl Macrocephalon maleo Indonesia Irrigation XV Marsh deer Blastocerus dichotomns Argentina- Yacyreta Hydro- Paraguay electric Nyala Tragelaphus angasi Malawi Shire Valley Agricultural Development II Ostrich Struthio camelus Sudan Rahad Irrigation Pink pigeon Nesoenas mayeri Mauritius Rural Development Red deer Cervus elaphus Turkey Northern Forestry 139 English name Latin name Country Project Reticulated Giraffa camelopardalis Sudan Rahad Irrigation giraffe reticulata Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus Sudan Rahad Irrigation Roe deer Capreolus capreolus Turkey Northern Forestry Tiang Damaliscus lunatus Sudan Rahad Irrigation korrigum Vicufia Vicugna vicugna Bolivia Ulla Ulla Development White-tailed Haliaetus albicilla Greece Evros Development sea eagle Table A-1. Selected WMAs That Have Been Established or StrenRthened under Projects Supported by the World Bank Area (square Country WMA kilometers) Project Brazil Pacaas Novos National Park, 15,330 Northwest I Agricultural Guapore Biological Reserve, Development and and Jaru Biological Reserve Environmental Protection To be named 1,600 Amazona Agricultural Development Ique, Serra das Araras, 3,370 Northwest I Agricultural T-alAra, ad Cunia Development and Environmental 0 ecological stations Protection To be named 1,120 Maranhlo Rural Development Rio Doce State Park 357 Minas Gerais Forestry Ibitipoca State Park 15 Development Jaiba State Park 62 China To be named 2,300 Heliongiang Land Reclamation Colombia Los Nevados National Park 320 Upper Magdalena Pilot Watershed Nevado del Huila National Park 1,580 Management Chingaza National Park 200 Guavio Hydro Power Costa Rica Braulio Carrillo National Park 320 Highway IV COte d'Ivoire Comoe National Park 11,500 Tourism II Azagny National Park 193 Greece Dadia Native Reserve 280 Evros Development Indonesia Dumoga-Bone National Park 3,000 Irrigation XV Kenya Masai Mara National Reserve 1,672 Wildlife and Tourism Livestock Development II North Nandi Forest Reserve 34 Forestry Plantation II Samburu, Buffalo Springs, 803 Wildlife and Tourism and Shaba national reserves Nairobi National Park 117 Livestock Development II Malawi Lengwe National Park 130 Shire Valley Agricultural Development II Mali Boucle du Baoule National Park 3,500 Forestry II Morocco Seheb Floral Reserve 2 Middle Atlas-Central Area Sidi M'Guild Mountain Reserve 3 Agricultural Development Nepal Royal Bardia National Park 368 Highway III Paraguay Caaguazu National Park 65 Caazapa Area Development (Table continues on the following page.) Table A-1 (continued) Area (square Country WMA kilometers) Project Peru To be named 600 Alto Mayo Rural Development Philippines Ipil I, Ipil II, and Abatan II 50 Central Visayas Regional mangrove preserves Development Rwanda Nyungwe Forest 390 Second Integrated Forestry Gishwati Forest 50 Senegal Niokolo Koba National Park 9,130 Forestry Sri Lanka To be named 21 Tree Crop Diversification (Tea) I Tanzania Serengeti National Park 14,763 Tourism Rehabilitation Ngorongoro Conservation Area 8,292 Lunda-Mkwambi Game Control Area 2,000 Kidatu Hydroelectric, Stage II (Mtera Dam) Thailand To be named 1,380 Northern Agricultural Development Turkey Olympus National Park 698 South Antalya Tourism Infrastructure Total 85,181 Appendix B WILDLAND MANAGEMENT AND THE WORLD BANK PROJECT CYCLE The regional operations staff of the World Bank has the prime responsibility for implementing wildland management projects or components. The Environment Department provides advice and operational support. Every project assisted by the World Bank must contribute substantially to development objectives and be economically, technically, and financially sound. All projects pass through a series of stages, known as the project cycle. These stages are: o Identification of projects with a high priority that fit into and support a country's overall national and sectoral policies and objectives o Preparation of a project, which includes full specification of its objectives; the timetable for achieving them; the technical, institutional, economic, and financial conditions necessary for success; and the relative costs and effectiveness of alternative ways of achieving the project's objectives o Appraisal of the project in terms of its technical, institutional, economic, and financial feasibility. This appraisal is used to establish the terms and conditions of a loan. o NeRotiation between the Bank and the borrower concerning the points to be set out in the loan documents--the terms of the loan, the legal obligations of both the Bank and the borrower, and all the conditions that have to be fulfilled o Implementation and supervision of the project. If implementation problems arise, as often happens, the project may have to be modified. 143 144 o Evaluation of the project in the final stage of the cycle. At completion, all projects are audited by the Bank's Operations Evaluation Department (OED) and a project completion report is prepared by the regular project staff or the borrower. Thus, every project is subjected to both self-evaluation and independent audit by OED; in addition, some projects are selected for extensive long-term evaluation, which is an assessment of their impact at least five years after final disbursement. This appendix describes how the! above procedure is applied to projects that affect wildlands. At the identification stage regional staff and the Environment Department review the projects under consideration to determine as early as possible whether steps should be taken to avoid conversion of a wildland tract or to preserve such a tract as part of the project. To find out whether a proposed project will convert environmentally important wildlands or be close to them, staff can consult the government agencies that have jurisdiction over wildland management or obtain information from published directories and from computerized data bases maintained by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). If none of these resources show ecologically important wildlands in the project area, a brief preproject field survey should be conducted, since many important wildlands have not yeit been identified. The field survey should be undertaken by the appropriate specialists from the country's environmental ministry, wildlife agency, national university, or similar institution. It should indicate how and to what extent the implementation of the pro4ect will affect critical wildlands and should put the information in a national context. The results should be recorded on a form similar to that shown in figure B-1. During preparation, project staff (or consultants) may assist the borrower or project sponsor in carrying out the necessary environmental studies, including those pertaining to wildlands. 145 After any necessary studies have been completed, a project brief is written. It should indicate whether the project involves the conversion or disintegration of a relatively unmodified ecosystem and include alternative suggestions for achieving the goals of the government. If conversion is justified, the brief should outline why and describe the wildland management components needed to mitigate the adverse effects of the project. As part of appraisal, project staff assess the planned wildland management components and other environmental measures. The staff appraisal report specifically describes any planned wildland management measures, including budgets and agency responsibilities. Timely action on necessary wildland measures should be ensured by setting conditions for the effectiveness or disbursement of the loan. Since wildland management must continue in perpetuity to be effective, the loan agreement should specify long-term measures that the borrower agrees to implement. Supervision teams should routinely review with the borrower the implementation of the wildland component. Such aspects are handled as for environmental issues in general. Implementation of important wildland components should, as a general principle, be well under way before a project's main land-clearing or construction activities are allowed to proceed. 146 Figure B-1. Sample Wildland Survey and Management Form Name of project: Expected appraisal date: Date of survey: Surveyor: Surveyor's affiliation: Methodology (circle one): Site inspection Library research Both of the above other (specify) 1. Specific subcategory(ies) oil ecosystem that proposed project will affect (for example, tropical itemievergreen moist forest, salt marsh, wet savanna). 2. Important environmental and biological features of ecosystem(s) (for example, water catchment area for large agricultural valley and habitat for the endangered mountain gorilla). 3. Projected general type of impact on ecosystem(s) of proposed project (for example, deforestation, flooding, draining). 4. Percentage of the region's remaining ecosystems (as in paragraph 1, above) to be converted itor impacted, if different). (Example: This project will flood about 10 percent of the country's remaining lowland riparian swamp foretst.) 147 5. Estimated annual rates of attrition of affected ecosystae(s) in the country and historical trend of this rate. (Example: The current annual rate of attrition of semimontane forest is 3 percent a year. This rate was 0.5 percent in 1975 and 1 percent in 1980.) Maps and more complete reports used or available may be appended or cited. Note: This type of information is expected as part of project identification and can be used for the project brief. The form may be completed by the country's environmental ministry or wildlife agency or by the wildlands specialist on the project prefeasibility team. Append:ix C IDENTIFYING WILDLANDS OF SPECIAL CONCERN IN THE PROJECT DESIGN If wildland management measures are to be effective, project designers need accurate information about those wildlands that are especially important for conserving biological diversity or perpetuating environmental services. Although all development projects that involve wildland conversion should incorporate appropriate wildland management components (discussed in chapter 4), these wildlands of special concern require particular care. The information contained here is not comprehensive. It is designed to show the options for assessing the wildland values of areas that have been proposed as sites for development projects. Because available data on the existence and distribution of most plant and animal species, particularly in the tropics, are sketchy, it will often be necessary to carry out preproject field surveys to assess the significance of particular wildlands for biological conservation or environmental services. To determine quickly whether a proposed project site contains existing or proposed protected areas, known endangered species, important breeding, feeding, or staging areas for wildlife or fish, important watershed catchments, or living resources of significance for local people, project planners can contact government agencies that have jurisdiction over wildland management. (Many of these agencies are listed in appendix J, as are the nongovernmental organizations mentioned in this appendix.) A principal nongovernmental source of information is the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (CMC). Its computerized data base on important wildland areas and endangered species is the most comprehensive of its kind and is designed to be readily accessible to development planners. The CMC is also developing detailed 148 149 reports on areas that the IUCN regards as the most important for wildland management in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. The World Bank and other organizations have used IUCN data searches or completed reports as documentation for the preliminary planning of several projects. Technical inquiries can also be directed to the IUCN headquarters at the World Conservation Center in Gland, Switzerland, or to IUCN-US, Washington, D.C. A number of countries have established "natural heritage" data bases that contain information on wildland areas of special concern. In this they have been assisted by The Nature Conservancy, an international NGO with headquarters in Washington, D.C., that can also help development planners. The Nature Conservancy is developing for Latin America the most exhaustive and systematic method of categorizing ecosystems ever attempted and is preparing reports that identify priority areas for wildland management. National NGOs, particularly scientifically oriented ones, can provide useful information about critical wildlands within their countries or regions of expertise; many of these organizations are listed in appendix J. In some cases the Division of International Park Affairs of the U.S. National Park Service (U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240) can provide advice on existing or proposed wildland management areas The World Bank's Environment Department can provide information and assistance regarding the identification of important wildland areas in project design and can recommend consultants or other experts who can identify important wildland areas, carry out field surveys, or help design wildland components. Project designers may also find the following publications useful. o The 1985 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN 1985c) gives ecological classifications (by biogeographic province), sizes, and years of establishment for most of the world's WHAs in categories I-V, IX, and X 150 (strict nature reserves, national parks, natural monuments, managed nature reserves, proteacted landscapes, biosphere reserves, and World Heritage sites--see appendix E for definitions). The next edition, planned for late 1987, is expected to list, in addition, categories VI-VIII (resource reserves, anthropological reserves, and multiple use management areas). o The World Directory of National Parks and Other Protected Areas (IUCN 1979c) briefly describes many existing WMAs and gives their locations, with map coordinates. O Threatened Protected Areas of the World (IUCN 1986) contains the names and locations of (currently) sixty-one parks and reserves and describes the activities that threaten them. The list is not exhaustive and is developed by extracting information from letters and reports received by the IUCN rather than by systematic survey. All information is verified, however, by IUCN regional councillors. o The Directory of the World's Maior Coral Reefs (IUCN forthcoming) provides descriptions, statuses, and geographic locations for many coral reefs. o The IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas (IUCN 1982d) provides detail on approximately 140 wildland units in Latin America and the Caribbean. IUCN plans to publish similar directories for the Afrotropical, Oceanic, and Indomalayan regions in the near future. O The List of Wetlands of International Importance (IUCN annual) provides the names, geographic locations, and sizes of important wetlands that many countries have agreed to manage as wildlands under the 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat. O The Directory of Western Palearctic Wetlands (Carp 1980) is a thorough listing of wetlands that are considered to be of international importance because of their outstanding biological or other value. The directory provides a brief 151 description of each wetland, the criteria by which it is deemed to be of international importance, and its precise location, legal status, and management practices--for example, whether the area is protected as a WMA. (The Western Paleartic encompasses most of the countries in the World Bank's Europe, Middle East, and North Africa region.) o Wetlands in East Asia--A Preliminary Review and Inventory (ICBP 1985) lists 488 sites in twenty-one countries and gives detailed information on many of them. The book is organized by country and gives brief summaries on the status of the wetlands and on relevant legislation, government bodies, administration, and references. (East Asia encompasses most of the countries in the World Bank's Asia region.) o The Directory of Neotropical Wetlands (Scott and Carbonell 1986) lists the principal wetlands for every country in Latin America and the Caribbean. This book indicates the location, size, ecological type, wildlife species of special concern, degree of protection (if any), and known threats (if any) for each of the more than 730 wetland sites listed. o The "ICBP Oceanic Islands Data Base: A Preliminary Demonstration" now provides conservation briefs on seven islands, but it will eventually include all significant oceanic islands. Oceanic islands generally possess a large number of species found nowhere else; a large proportion of the species endangered today are these rare island species. o The World's Greatest Natural Areas: An Indicative Inventory of Natural Sites of World Heritage Quality (IUCN 1982e) lists and briefly describes wildland areas of unique and outstanding value that have been selected or are being considered as World Heritage natural sites under the World Heritage Convention administered by Unesco. 152 To determine whether a proposed project site contains known endangered species, project planners can consult the IUCN or ICBP Red Data Books, which are organized by species and geographic location, with one or two pages oIn each entry. The series includes: o IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells, Pyle, and Collins, 1983) and Threatened SwalLowtail Butterflies of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book (Collins and Morris 1985) o IUCN Mammal Red Data Book (Thornback and Jenkins 1982) and "Mammalia" (Goodwin and Holloway 1978) o IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book (Groombridge 1982) and "Amphibia and Reptilia" (Elonegger 1979) o Endangered Birds of the World: The ICBP Bird Red Data Book (King 1981) and Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book (Collar and Stuart 1985) o IUCN Plant Red Data Book (Lucas and Synge 1978) (contains data on 250 selected plant species that are threatened on a world scale) o "Pisces: Freshwater Fishes" (R. R. Miller 1969) o Plant Extinction: A Global Crisis (Koopowitz and Kaye 1983) (another helpful reference, similar to a Red Data Book). Regions with Exceptionally Endangered Wildlands Certain types of wildlands that are under significant conversion pressure throughout much of the wcrld are biologically unique, ecologically fragile, and vulnerable or are of special importance for local people and environmental services. These ecosystems include all types of tropical forests, high mountain forests, Mediterranean-type brushlands, mangrove swamps, coastal marshes, coral reefs, and small oceanic islands (IUCN 1980b). It is especially important for development projects that might affect or 153 be affected by these ecosystems to incorporate appropriate wildland components. Among tropical forests (the most species-rich ecosystems on earth) certain regions that are exceptionally important for biological conservation have been reduced to comparatively small patches and continue to undergo rapid conversion. As a result these regions harbor numerous endangered species. Development projects should not undermine, and whenever possible should support, conservation of these highly threatened tropical forest wildlands. The following incomplete list is not in priority order. It is drawn from Kenya, National Environment and Human Settlements Secretariat (1984); Myers (1981), p. 145; WWF (1981b), pp. 9-17; IUCN (1980b); and NAS (1980a), p. 176, and (1980b), pp. 57-60. AFRICA Cameroon. In particular, Cameroon Mountain and the moist forested area extending into Gabon and to the Cross River area in southeastern Nigeria, including the Oban Hills C8te d'Ivoire. Southwestern forests, including the Tai forest and adjacent parts of Liberia and Sierra Leone Ethiopia. Much of the remaining highland forest Kenya. Taita Hills and the Kakamega, Nandi, Arabuko-Sokoke, and coastal kaya forests Madagascar. Significant portions of the northern and eastern moist forests Rwanda. Mountain forests, including adjacent portions of Zaire and Uganda Tanzania. Remaining Eastern Arc mountain forests, particularly in the Usambara, Pare, Uluguru, and Uzungwa mountains; remnant coastal forests, particularly the Kiono, Pande, Pugu, and Rondo Plateau forests 154 ASIA Burma. The uncut teak forests in the northern regions India. Most of the forests remaining in the Western Ghats Indonesia. Much of the remaining lowland forests of Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi (especially the two southern peninsulas), and many smaller islands, including Siberut Malay Peninsula (Malaysia and parts of Thailand). Lowland forests, especially along the nortZhwestern and eastern coasts Philippines. Much lowland foraest on all the larger islands Sri Lanka. The coastal hills of the southwest and the Sinharaja forest of the wet zone LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN Brazil. The coastal forests oiE the cocoa region in the southeastern extension of Bahia between the coast and 41°30'W longitude and between 13000' and 18°15'S latitude, and an outlier near Linhares, Espiritu Santo; parts of the eastern and southern Amazon region Colombia. The Choc6 region adjacent to Darien Province Ecuador. Lowland coastal forests Honduras-Nicaragua border. Mosquitia forest Mexico. The Selva Lacandona in Chiapas Panama. Darien Province Certain biologically valuable freshwater tropical aquatic systems may be vulnerable to rapid modification. Wildland components are particularly important in development projects in these areas. The following, derived from NAS (1980b) and R. E. Tillman (personal communication) are examples of these unique and vulnerable aquatic wildlands. 155 Amazon River and associated wetlands, including varzea forests (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) Orinoco River and Delta (Colombia and Venezuela) Purari River (Papua New Guinea) Musi River, Sumatra (Indonesia) Lake Malawi (Malawi), and other Rift Valley lakes Lake Toba, Sumatra (Indonesia) Sudd Swamp (Sudan) Pantanal Swamp, Mato Grosso (Brazil) Lake Atitlan (Guatemala) Many other terrestrial, freshwater, and marine wildlands are under significant conversion pressure but are not listed here. As is explained in chapter 4, the guidelines for World Bank-supported wildland components apply to all wildlands, not just the most critically threatened ones. Appendlix D THE APPROPRIATE SITING, SIZE, AND SHAPE OF WMAS The siting of WMAs is vital to their success in meeting their objectives. WMAs that are intended to protect or enhance other development project investments should be so located as to maximize the value of the other investments. For example, a WMA that encompasses an important watershed forest should be situated where its effect in controlling erosion and optimizing water flow for downstream uses will be greatest. For WMAs that are intended to compensate for conversion of wildlands, the most important consideration is that the WMAs encompass ecosystems that are as similar as possible to the ones being converted. This approach he:Lps to ensure that, insofar as possible, the species and other important resources that are affected by the conversions will bi, protected in the compensatory wildland unit. Meeting this requirement usually entails siting the WMA in the same geographic region EIS the converted area, since most of the specific ecosystems found inL developing countries are relatively localized. At the same time it may be advisable to locate the WMA some distance from the converted area to help minimize encroachment on the WMA by, people living in the converted area. Where an existing WMA contains the same type of ecosystem as is to be converted by a development project, it is often preferable to enlarge the existing WMA to compensate for the conversion rather than to establish a new WMA. This is because biological conservation is usually more effective in one large WMA than in several small ones of the same total size and encompassing the same types of natural habitats. Also, enlarging an existing unit may be administratively simpler and more efficient than establishing a new one. There are, however, likely to be many cases in which extension 156 157 of the existing unit is impossible or relatively difficult. For example, the area bordering the existing unit may already have undergone modification or conversion, or land acquisition may be particularly difficult for political or institutional reasons. Under these circumstances it would more appropriate to establish a new WMA elsewhere in the same type of ecosystem. The procedures for determining appropriate sites for new WMAs or extensions of existing ones are similar to those used for determining priorities for avoiding wildland conversion (appendix C). Consultations with the government agencies responsible for wildland management and with other appropriate institutions and specialists can determine priority sites for new WMAs. In addition to these consultants, brief field surveys are often necessary for making a final selection. The choice of specialists and techniques used for these surveys depends on the wildland resources and benefits that are of special interest. Examples are overall biological diversity, the likely presence of many endemic species, known endangered species, species of economic importance to local people, species with special management needs (such as elephants),l critical water catchment areas, and fishery support systems such as mangroves, estuaries, salt marshes, and coral reefs. A variety of other practical considerations will influence the siting of certain WMAs. For example, the accessibility of sites for tourism or scientific research may be important for units where these are principal objectives. Species Endemism and Diversity With respect to safeguarding biological diversity, there are two particularly important criteria for selecting protected area sites. One is the relative degree of species endemism of particular sites. Areas of high species endemism--those containing many species found nowhere else--are high-priority sites for the establishment of WMAs. Such areas may be relatively small, isolated sites within larger 15i8 regions. For example, some tropical moist forests contain Pleistocene refugia--"islands' of older tropical forest that survived the climatic changes of the Pleistocene epoch. The map shows the likely Pleistocene refugia or centers of endemism for the Amazon Basin. A related criterion is the number of species, or the species diversity, of proposed WMA sites. All else being equal, the more naturally biologically diverse a wildland site is, the greater is its value as a WMA. Sites of exceptionally high species diversity typically include a variety of different natural habitats, such as streams, rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and different forest, brushland, or grassland types, within their boundaries. Such highly diverse areas are particularly appropriate for designation as WMAs. Hinimum Critical Size for Biological Conservation To maintain their full complement of plant and animal species, most wildland management areas need to be of considerable size. Because certain types of animal andl plant species occur naturally at low densities, relatively large areas are needed to support viable breeding populations. Below a threshold minimum population, these species face extinction because of inbreeding and consequent genetic problems, demographic instability cwing to skewed male-female ratios, and other imbalances, and the risk of catastrophic losses from such threats as fire and disease. Among the species with the greatest area requirements for intact wildlands are carnivores, species that migrate over large areas, such as elephants, and many tropical forest trees, birds, and even butterflies. For purposes of biological conservation, the minimum viable population size for long-lived organisms with low natural mortality rates (which tend to be those with the greatest land requirements) is believed to be about 50 individuals in the short term (perhaps 50-100 years) and 500 in the long term (Franklin 1980). Ideally, wildland management areas should contain at least the higher number 159 Map D-1. The Amazon River Basin: Priority Areas for Wildland Management Co VENEZUELA GUYAN IH IA.A 0 L 0 M B I A ECUADOR 13 20 2 E R U 2 2 B R A Z I L '11, 12 ju 25 0 200 400 600 Miles Kilometers RAGUAY CHIL 0 400 800 E ARGENTIN 66- 1i6O of their rarest species. The area required varies with the species and ecosystem and is scientifically highly uncertain. Although valuable research on the minimum critical size of wildland units for effective biological conservation is under way in such areas as the Amazon Basin (Lovejoy and others 1983), it will be some time before many answers are known. In the meantime, some scientists have suggested that the minimum area for WMAs in tropical rain forests if they are to safeguard most, if not all, of their species, is 1,000-2,500 square kilometers (see, for example, Terborgh 1974). For other types of ecological systems this figure could be significantly different--typically less. Some wildland areas have a very small minimum critical size for biological conservation. These include ecological systems that naturally occur in small patches, such as rocky outcroppings and areas of limestone or serpentine soils, and some areas where wildlife congregate, such as beaches where birds or sea turtles nest. The Appropriate Size and Shape of Wfildland Management Areas A WMA that is intended to compensate for wildland conversion should be large enough to maintain biological diversity or other important values in the area to be converted. A WMA that is large enough to encompass a viable population of the largest local predator (for example, the eagle or tiger), or the seasonal territories and migration routes of the largest local herbivore will probably preserve all other pertinent ecological values. In tropical forests these objectives would most likely be achieved in a WMA larger than 1,000 square kilometers. Many biological conservation values are conserved in forest WMAs of 500 square kilometers, although possibly not all in perpetuity. Interim forest WMAs of less than 100 square kilometers can be useful short-term expedients for subsequent expansion into surrounding degraded areas (as is now being done with Costa Rica's Guanacaste National Park). 161 In general, the larger the WMA, the greater the number of ecological interdependencies and gene pools that will be preserved. Both features are necessary to a healthy and self-perpetuating ecosystem. Often an appropriate size for a WMA can be estimated by noting what natural features should be included to constitute a self- sustaining ecological system. For example, boundaries for a new WMA might be drawn to encompass the annual migration routes of some large animals. A WMA that contains an important wetland should also include the wetland's upstream water source, where feasible. As noted above, however, some types of wildlands naturally occur in much smaller units. In many cases, the minimum adequate size for a compensatory WMA that will maintain the existing biological diversity can only be determined by an educated guess. Often, new WMAs will be much smaller than the ideal size because no additional wildland area remains or because of human pressures for more intensive land use. Where a compromise is unavoidable, various measures can be taken in the design and management of WMAs to minimize the adverse consequences of inadequate size. For migratory wildlife such as elephants, special migration corridors can be established to permit passage between WMAs if a single large WMA is not feasible. These corridors can even be established by restoring already converted land, although this is usually more difficult and expensive than designating existing wildlands as corridors. Relatively small WMAs can sometimes be intensively managed to sustain more adequately their threatened species or environmental services. For example, controlled burning can maintain a representative vegetation "mosaic" of different ecological succession stages that, without human assistance, would occur only in larger areas. Similarly, individual animals can sometimes be translocated among different WMAs to prevent inbreeding in small populations. Although such intensive management of small WMAs is definitely a second-best solution, at times it will be the only feasible alternative. 162 Lands adjacent to WMAs can oft:en be managed in ways that increase the effective range available to threatened species in the WMAs. For example, a selectively logged area surrounding a tropical forest national park might be able! to harbor much of the park's wide-ranging wildlife (Johns 1983). Similarly, the natural grasslands that surround many national parks in Sub-Saharan Africa can accommodate both livestock and the seasonal spillovers of migratory game herds from the national parks if obstructive fences are avoided. In World Bank-supported projects that convert a relatively small tract (say 100 square kilometers), it is desirable, although not always practical, to establish a mach larger compensatory WMA (say, 2,500 square kilometers) that can accommodate most biological conservation needs. If specialists believe that a new WMA equivalent in size to the wildland to be converted would be too small for effective biological contiervation, three options are available: to make the new WMA significantly larger, to enlarge an existing WMA (especially one that Ls presently too small to meet its conservation objectives effectively), or to strengthen the management of an existing WMA through support for additional personnel, training, equipment, or other needs. Studies in 'island biogeography' have found that the risk of species extinctions within wildlandL areas that are biological "islands' in an otherwise human-modified landscape can be minimized through the careful design of WHAs. In essence WMAs should maximize the opportunities both for gene flow within the rarest species and for dispersal of seeds or young animals to new sites. These opportunities are maximized if the following guidelines are used (see figure D-1). A Large WMAs are more effective than small ones B One large WMA is more effective than several small ones in the same type of ecosystem and with the same total area 163 Figure D-1. The Optimal Design of Wildland Management Units for Biological Conservation Better Worse R ~ ~~A 0. ~~C .0. D @00 * F - Note: These suggested geometric principles for the design of WM4As are derived from island biogeographic studies. In each of the six cases species extinction rates will be lower for the WMA design on the left than for the one on the right. Source: Diamond (1975). 164 C WMAs should be located close together rather than widely separated D WMAs should be sited in a cluster pattern rather than a stretched-out linear pattern E WMAs that harbor similar ecological systems should usually be linked by wildlife migration corridors F The optimal shape of a WMA is circular, except where the natural ecological boundaries--for example, the natural contours of a wetland, lake, or watershed forest--dictate otherwise. Accordingly, narrow, stretched-out shapes should be avoided unless those are the natural contours of the ecological system being managed (such as a patch of riverine forest that occurs naturally only along the river). Biogeographic considerations are not the only ones that determine the appropriate shape of a WMA. Where maintenance of specific environmental services is a high priority, the WMA should be designed accordingly. For example, critical watershed catchment areas have specific shapes that should be recognized in WMA planning. Such practical constraint:s as the feasibility of acquiring land and the needs and interests of local people will also have to be considered in determining the shape of a new WMA. Note 1. The special problems that elephants can pose for development projects and the design of projects to minimize conflicts are discussed in Seidensticker (1984). Appendix B CATEGORIES OF WMAS The management category of a WMA that is established under a development project will depend on the particular management objectives that are given priority. National park is the most widely used and the best-known category, but there are many others. Since different names may be used by different countries to describe similar WMAs, or similar names may be used for different types of WMAs, the IUCN has developed a standardized nomenclature. Different management categories emphasize different but often overlapping outputs, whether scientific, recreational, aesthetic and spiritual, educational, or strictly economic; none involves lands that are "unutilizedw in the strict sense. (Most of the material in this appendix is adapted from K. R. Miller 1982c.) Number International Category I Scientific reserve/strict nature reserve II National park III Natural monument/natural landmark IV Nature conservation reserve/managed nature reservelwildlife sanctuary V Protected landscape VI Resource reserve VII Anthropological reserve/natural biotic area VIII Multiple use management area/managed resource area IX Biosphere reserve X World Heritage natural site 165 165 Categories I through VIII are arranged (very roughly) in increasing order of the degree of human modification that is allowable for proper management. Categories IX and X refer to two types of specific, internationally recognized WMAs. With minor modifications the following information concerning selection criteria and management objectives can also be applied to coastal marine wildlands, such as coral reEfs. Special considerations in the design and management of proposed "open sea" protected areas that are not under the jurisdiction of any one country are not discussed here. I. Scientific Reserves/Strict Nature Reserves Scientific reserves and strict nature reserves are intended to maintain in an undisturbed state ecologically representative examples of the natural environment for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. Such areas possess outstanding ecosystems, natural feat:ures, or species of flora and fauna that are of national scientif:c importance. They may contain fragile ecosystems or life forms or centers of important biological or geological diversity, or they may be particularly important for conserving genetic resources. The aLppropriate size is that required to ensure the protection and integrity of the unit so that it can accomplish its management objectives. These sites are generally closed to recreation and tourism. Cnly compatible types of research are permitted and these are planned and undertaken carefully to minimize disturbance. II. National Parks National parks are relatively large areas that contain plant and animal species, geomorphologic sites, and natural habitats of special scientific, educational, and recreational interest. They 167 contain one or several entire ecosystems that have not been materially altered by human exploitation and occupation. The highest competent authority of the country (such as the parliament, the congress, or the president) has taken steps to prevent or to remove as soon as possible any resource exploitation or permanent settlement and to ensure the protection of important ecological, geomorphologic, or aesthetic features. Controlled visitor entry is allowed for inspirational, educational, cultural, and recreational purposes. III. Natural Monuments/Natural Landmarks Natural monuments and natural landmarks normally contain one or several specific natural features of outstanding national significance, such as a geologic formation, a unique natural site, animal or plant species, or a habitat which, because of uniqueness or rarity, may be threatened and should be protected. The specific feature to be protected ideally shows little or no evidence of human activity. These features are not large or diverse enough to justify making the area a national park. The area need only be large enough to protect the integrity of the site. Natural monuments have particular potential for public education and appreciation. Although they may have value for recreation and tourism, they are managed in such a way as to remain relatively free from human disturbance. They may be owned and managed by central or other government agencies or by nonprofit trusts or corporations as long as it is certain that their inherent features will be protected in the long term. IV. Nature Conservation Reserves/Managed Nature Reserves/Wildlife Sanctuaries Nature conservation reserves, managed nature reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries protect specific sites necessary to the 168 continued existence or well-being of rare plant or animal species or of resident Jr migratory fauna of rLational or global significance. The protected areas in this category have as their primary purpose the protection of nature and not the production of harvestable resources (although this may play a, role in the management of particular areas). The area (or, in certain instances, the season) in which special management is necessary depends on the habitat requirement or the specific characteristics of the species to be protected. Special management areas can be relatively small, consisting of nesting areas or of marsh, lake, estuary, forest, or grassland habitats. Habitat manipulation may be required to provide optimal conditions for the species or the vegetative community of special concern. For example, a grassland or heath community may be perpetuated by allowing a limited amount of livestock grazing to remove unwanted successor species such as shrubs. A marsh where waterfowl winter may require continual removal of excess weeds and supplementary cultivation of food plants, whereas a reserve for a highly endangered animal may need protection against predators. These areas may be developed to a limited extent for public education and appreciation of the work of wildlife management. Ownership may be by the central government or, with adequate safeguards and controls to ensure long-term protection, by lower levels of government, nonprofit trusts or corporations, or private individuals or groups. V. Protected Landscapes Many areas have distinctive and aesthetically attractive landscapes that are created by the integration of specific natural and human elements. Protected landscapes maintain nationally significant areas that show the harmonious interaction of humankind and nature while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism that do not disrupt the normal life style and economic activity of the areas. Such areas are also 169 valuable for preserving ecological diversity and for scientific, cultural, and educational purposes. The scope of areas that fall within this category is necessarily broad because of the wide variety of seminatural and cultural landscapes that occur within different nations, but there are two general types: (1) landscapes with special aesthetic qualities that are a result of the interaction of human beings and land and (2) primarily natural areas that are managed intensively by society for recreation and tourism. In the first case the landscapes are characterized by scenically attractive or aesthetically unique patterns of human settlement. Traditional land use practices associated with agriculture, grazing, and fishing are dominant. The size of the area is large enough to ensure the integrity of the landscape pattern. The second case often includes natural areas found along coastlines and lakeshores, in hilly or mountainous terrain, or along the shores or rivers near important tourist highways or population centers. Many such areas have the potential to be developed for a variety of outdoor recreational uses. In some cases the land may be privately held and either central or delegated planning control may be necessary to ensure the perpetuation of desired land use patterns. Government assistance may be required to improve the local standard of living while maintaining the natural quality of the site through appropriate management. In other instances the areas are established and managed under public ownership. VI. Resource Reserves Resource reserves are "interim" wildland management areas. They normally consist of extensive, relatively isolated, uninhabited areas with difficult access or of regions that are lightly populated but that may be under considerable pressure for colonization and intensive utilization. In many cases there has been little study or evaluation of these areas, and the consequences of converting them 170 to agriculture, extracting mineral or timber resources, or constructing roads or other infrastructure are unclear. Intensive development of their resources may not be appropriate because of constraints on technological, human, or financial resources or because of alternative national priorities. Consequently, natural, social, and economic values are not well enough identified to permit the area to be managed for specific objectives or to justify its conversion to other uses. Since restricted access is implied, these areas will normally require control, depending on the pressures to enter and utilize them. Some resource reserves may be government owned; others may be owned or administered by public corporations. The maintenance of existing conditions to allow for study of the potential future uses of these areas is a prerequisite. No exploitation should occur except for the use of resources by indigenous inhabitants; existing environmentally compatible activities are acceptable. VII. Anthropological Reserves/Natural Biotic Areas Anthropological reserves and natural biotic areas are relatively unmodified natural areas in which modern technology has not significantly interfered with or been absorbed into the traditional life styles of the inhabitants. Such areas may be relatively remote and isolated. The tribal societies present are unique. They are particularly significant for research into traditional, sustainable means of utilizing poorly known spec:Les and ecosystems, for they are integral components of these predominantly natural areas, utilizing the natural environment for their tot:al livelihood, including food, shelter, and other basic materials. Large-scale intensive cultivation or other major modifications of the vegetation and animal life of areas in this category are not normally permitted. The aim of management is to maintain the habitat for traditional societies to provide for the secure continuance of their livelihood in accordance with their own culture. 171 VIII. Multiple Use Management Areas/Managed Resource Areas The primary purpose of multiple use management areas and managed resource areas, which are relatively intensively managed, is to provide for the sustained production of such economic goods as water (especially for downstream uses), timber, wild fruits, herbs, gums, and other plant products, wildlife, fish, grazing, and outdoor recreation. Included in this category are protection forests, which are intended primarily to shield downstream economic activities from flooding, erosion, landslides, or irregular water flow. Within these units the conservation of ecological systems is primarily oriented to the support of these economic activities, although specific zones may also be designated within these areas to achieve more narrow conservation objectives, such as preservation of biological diversity. These WMAs are generally large and are capable of sustaining the types of economic activities noted above without irreversible degradation or elimination of the wildland resource. Parts of these wildlands may be settled and may already have been altered significantly by humans. Generally these wildland units do not possess nationally unique or exceptional natural features. Planning to ensure that these areas are managed on a sustained- yield basis is essential. Land ownership should normally be under nonprivate control. Through proper zoning significant areas within these units can be given specific additional protection as special wilderness zones or nature reserves. Under multiple use, all the renewable resources are managed and used in some combination that best meets the diverse needs of the country. The primary premise in the management of these lands is that they will be managed to maintain their natural productivity in perpetuity. 172 IX. Biosphere Reserves Biosphere reserves are large units of landscape or seascape that are managed for multiple objectives--from strict protection as a benchmark for measurements of long-term changes in the biosphere (the core area) to demonstrations of intensive, yet sustainable and environmentally well integrated, development (the buffer zone). Biosphere reserves are one focus of Unesco's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program (see appendix I), the intent of which to conserve representative natural areas throughout the world through establishment of a network of such reserves. More specifically, biosphere reserves safeguard biological diversity within natural ecosystems, allow for ecological research, particularly through baseline studies for environmental monitoring within both natural and human-altered parts of the reserve, and provide facilities for education and training. Each biosphere reserve contains one or more of the following: o Representative examples of inatural ecosystems o Unique biological communities, or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest o Examples of harmonious landiscapes created by traditional patterns of land use o Examples of modified or degraded ecosystems that could be restored to more natural conditionii. Aside from their special interniational status, biosphere reserves combine features that distinguish them froui similar types of protected areas. o They represent samples of major ecological systems rather than exceptional scenic views or other unusual features (see category X, below). 173 o They form a network with an international character that is maintained by an exchange of information and personnel through MAB committees and technical notes. o They provide for manipulative research in portions of the reserves. o They combine conservation, research, education, and training as primary objectives. o Their local populations are viewed as an integral part of each reserve, and the social and economic activities of local people are a significant management input. Biosphere reserves incorporate ecological zoning to meet their management objectives. Four zones may be distinguished: natural, or core, zones; manipulative, or buffer, zones; reclamation, or restoration, zones; and stable cultural zones. Each biosphere reserve contains a minimally disturbed core zone that is representative of the area before alteration by humankind. These core zones serve as baseline study areas for measuring long-term changes in the biosphere. Activities in the other zones may include experimental manipulation, the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems, and the perpetuation and study of traditional systems of use and management. The buffer zone surrounding the core should be designed so that its activities are compatible with each other and with the protection of the core zone. It may also include a large multiple use area in which agricultural projects, managed forests, and other activities are implemented on a sustainable basis. Biosphere reserves are therefore useful sites for researching sustainable rural development alternatives, particulatly for complex and poorly understood ecosystems such as tropical forests (Unesco 1984). A biosphere reserve must be given adequate long-term legal protection by the country where it is located. Each reserve should be large enough to be an effective conservation unit and to accommodate different uses without undue conflict. Each must be 174 approved by the M&B International Coordinating Council to receive official recognition. In early 15186 there were 260 biosphere reserves in eighty countries. X. World Heritage Natural Sites The international Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (appendix H) provides for the designation of areas of "outstanding universal value" as world heritage sites. Many outstanding wildlands can qualify as World Heritage natural sites (although not as cultural sites, a category that emphasizes outstanding man-made features). To be included in the World Heritage List as established by the World Heritage Committee, natural properties must contain at least one of the following: o Outstanding examples of major stages of the Earth's evolutionary history o Outstanding examples of significant ongoing geological processes, of biological evolution, and of human interaction with the natural environment o Unique, rare, or superlative natural phenomena or formations, features, or areas of exceptional natural beauty o Habitats containing populations of rare or endangered species of plants and animals. (Nominations based solely on this criterion must take into account the extent of critical natural habitat for the species worldwide). Management of World Heritage na:tural sites should stress the maintenance of their heritage values, ensure the continuation of legal protection, and promote each site on the basis of its significance for the country and the world. All sites must have strict legal protection and be owned by governments or by nonprofit trusts in perpetuity. Although recreation and on-site 175 interpretation will generally be developed, some sites may be of such significance that their public use should be strictly controlled or even prohibited. Because the World Heritage List is intended to include only areas of outstanding universal value, not every nation need have a World Heritage site. Only a country that is a party to the World Heritage Convention may nominate a site. The secretariat of the World Heritage Convention is provided by Unesco. The IUCN screens nominations with the use of the criteria established by the World Heritage Committee. Table E-1 summarizes the degree of emphasis that different management objectives receive in different types of WMA. It can be used to check that the type of management category selected for a particular wildland is appropriate to the principal management objectives. The numerical index for each management objective in each category of wildland unit need not apply strictly to any one site. For example, the World Bank-supported Dumoga-Bone National Park in Indonesia has as primary objectives watershed conservation and protection of downstream investments; these objectives are given only a 2 rating for national parks in the table because national parks are frequently established and managed for a variety of other reasons. 176 Table E-1. Alternative Categories for Wildland Management Management category Primary management objective I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Maintain sample ecosystems in natural state 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 -- 1 1 Maintain ecological diversity and environmental regulation 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 Conserve genetic resources 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 Provide education, research, and environmental monitoring 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 1 Protect water supplies 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 Control erosion and sedi- mentation and protect downstream investments 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 Produce protein and animal products from wildlife; provide sport hunting and fishing -- -- -- -- 3 3 2 1 3 -- Provide recreation and tourism services -- 1 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 Produce timber and forage on sustained-yield basis -- -- -- a 2 -- 3 1 2 -- Protect sites and objects of cultural, historical, and archaeological interest -- 1 3 -- 1 3 1 3 2 1 Protect scenic beauty and *green areas 3 1 2 2 1 -- -- 3 2 1 Keep options open; provide management flexibility and multiple use -- -- -- -- 3 1 3 1 2 -- Stimulate rational use of marginal lands and rational rural development 2 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 Note: Management catgories are as defined irn this appendix. Key: 1, primary objective for management of the aras and its resources; 2, not necessarily primary, but always Included as an important objective; 3, included as an objective where resources and other management objectives permit; --, not applicable. Source: Adapted from IUCN (1982b). Appendix F THE MANAGEMENT OF WMAS Most of the material in this appendix is adapted from K. R. Miller (1982c). Management Planning and Zoning Many, although by no means all, of the benefits obtained from WMAs involve direct human use of their territory for recreation and tourism, scientific research, education, baseline environmental monitoring, and, where appropriate, controlled harvesting. These direct on-site uses increase the public visibility of WMAs and thereby help to ensure continued support and protection. At the same time multiple uses increase the need for proper management planning and zoning so that the important natural values of the WMAs are not seriously compromised. JMAs need well-developed management plans to ensure efficient allocation of scarce financial and human resources. A management plan is a document that guides and controls the use of the resources of a WMA and directs the design of subsequent management and development programs. A thorough management plan o Describes the physical, biological, social, and cultural features of the WMA within a national, regional, and local context o Identifies those items of particular concern that underlie the objectives for managing specific areas of the WMA. O Defines appropriate uses and zones for the WMA o Lists in chronological order the activities to be carried out to realize the proposed management programs. 177 178 Although it is a single document, a management plan should be based on a continual, interactive, and systematic process of management planning by persons with direct responsibility for managing a particular WMA. The management planning process includes such things as the choice of the wildland management category and of the location, size, shape, intensity of use, and management goals of the WMA. It also addresses the appropriate means for achieving the goals and provides for monitoring and evaluation. A management plan is flexible and is subject to modification as new information is obtained. All changes, however, should be made in a manner that assures the overall continuity of the plan. Support for WMAs as project components by the World Bank or other development agencies need not directly involve most of the details of the management planning process. Preparation and implementation of management plans are carried out by the government wildland agency. Project staff, however, should endeavor to ensure that WMAs either have or will soon develop adequate management plans. Some parts of a management plan can be completed in a few days, but others may take years to refine. While a long-term management plan is being developed, an interim management plan or operational plan may be used. Table F-1 provides a sample outline for a typical management plan for EL national park or similar WMA. An important function of a man&Lgement plan is to define different management zones within E; WMA to prevent unnecessary conflicts among different uses. Seven types of zones are suggested here. Most WMAs incorporate several of these zones, although relatively few use all seven. 1. An intangible, or scientific, zone contains unique or fragile species, portions of ecosystems, or other natural phenomena that require a great degree of protection from other than natural influences. The zone is dedicated primarily to scientific research, environmental monitoring, and protection of ecosystems and of genetic resources. Roads and vehicles are specifically prohibited. 179 Table F-1. Sample Outline for a WMA Management Plan Definition of the Management Plan Location of the WMA Legal Basis for the WMA Purpose of the WMA 1. National and Regional Background National context National objectives for wildland management National strategy and system for WMAs Biogeographic provinces and physical and biological regions National transportation system Regional context Biophysical features Topography Watersheds and drainage patterns Water Climate and weather Geology and geomorphology Soils Vegetation Fauna Role of fire and other significant natural influences Critical areas Scenic values and visual quality Cultural features History Archaeology Anthropology Contemporary culture Socioeconomic features Regional economy and land use Demographic characteristics Regional transportation system Tourism, recreation, and existing infrastructure Summary (Table continues on the f6lloVing pte. 182) Table F-1 (continued) 2. Analysis of the WMA Biophysical features Topography Watersheds and drainage patterns Water Climate and weather Geology and geomorphology Soils Vegetation Fauna Role of fire or other significant natural influences Critical areas and special considerations Scenic values and visual quality Cultural features History Archaeology Anthropology Contemporary culture Socioeconomic use of the area Present land use and trends Visitor use Analysis of visitors Summary and statement of signif:icance 3. Management and Development Obiectives Limitations, constraints, and capabilities Basic concept for use, management, and development Management zones Wilderness (scientific) zone Primitive zone Extensive use zone Intensive use zone Historical-cultural zone Recovery zone Special use zone X Boundaries 181 Management programs Environmental management program Protection Resource management Research Monitoring and cooperative scientific activities Public use program Recreation Interpretation Education Tourism Public relations and extension Operations program Administration Maintenance Integrated development program Development areas Personnel development Institutional factors General development map Development schedule Literature cited Appendixes Budget Law creating WMA Flora checklist Fauna checklist Supporting maps Development area site plans Supporting documents Acknowledgments and planning team members Figures and Tables Map. Location of the park Map. Biogeographic areas of the country Map. Regional land use Map. Present land use of study area Organizational diagram for the park Map. General development Development schedule Map. Development schedule Budget [Others as appropriate] Source: Adapted from K. R. Miller (1982c). 182 2. A primitive zone contains unique species, portions of ecosystems, or natural phenomena that are of scientific interest but are resilient enough to tolerate some public use. Roads and motorized vehicles are prohibited. The general management objective is to preserve the natural environment and at the same time to facilitate scientific research, environmental education, and low- impact recreation. 3. An extensive use zone consisl:s principally of natural areas but may also contain areas that have been altered by people. It contains representative scenery and other significant features of the wildland unit that can be developed for educational activities, recreation, or subsistence hunting and fishing. This zone represents a transition between the intangible and primitive zones, where roads are not allowed and where human impact remains minimal, and areas of higher human concentration and impact. The general management objective is to maintain a natural environment with minimal human impact while providing access and public facilities for educational and recreational purposes. Large human concentrations should be avoided. 4. An intensive use zone consists of natural or human-altered areas that are appropriate for relatively intensive recreation, harvesting of wood or other biological resources, or manipulative ecological research. The topography, can be developed for the necessary transport and support facilities. The environment is kept as natural as practicable, given the relatively high level of human activity. The general management objective is to facilitate economic, educational, and intensive recreational uses in a manner that minimizes the negative environmental impact. 5. A historical-cultural zone ccntains historical, archaeological, or other human cultural manifestations that are to be preserved or restored and interpreted for the public. The general management objective is to protect the artifacts and sites as integral elements of the natural environment and as part of the 183 nation's cultural heritage. This zone is developed for environmentally compatible educational and recreational uses. 6. A natural recovery zone is one in which the natural vegetation, fauna, or soils have been severely altered or depleted or in which specific management projects are to be undertaken to replace introduced exotic species with native ones. Once rehabilitated, this zone can be reassigned to one of the other categories. The general management objective is to prevent further degradation or to restore the area to the most natural state possible. 7. A special use zone consists of relatively small areas needed for administrative, maintenance, and other activities that are basically inconsistent with the other management objectives of the WMA. The general management objective is to minimize the negative impact of these facilities on the natural or cultural environment. WHAs are more effective and secure if they have a buffer zone-- an area that surrounds a WMA and mitigates the adverse environmental effects on the WMA of outside human activities. Buffer zones are especially essential if adjacent land use is intensive. They can be either specially designated areas under another land management category or undesignated areas with controlled land use. Appropriate land and water uses within a buffer zone are typically intermediate in intensity between the WMA and its intensively developed environs. For example, a buffer zone between a tropical forest WHA and surrounding agricultural land discourages unauthorized agricultural settlement within the WMA. Buffer zones may be used for tree plantations, controlled logging,4agroforestry, or other intermediate activities. For example, encircling a protected natural forest area with well-guarded commercial plantations can prevent agricultural encroachment and provide an economically attractive investment. Different types of buffer zones can be used for aquatic and coastal WMAs. 184 In addition to protecting the natural resources of a WMA from outside disturbances, buffer zones may protect surrounding agricultural areas from depredation by wildlife. For example, in Sri Lanka grasslands that are heavi.ly grazed by domestic stock are used as buffer zones to discourage Asian elephants from invading croplands (Seidensticker 1984). Where depredation by wildlife is not an issue, buffer zones should be designed to enhance wildlife habitat rather than restrict it. Buffer zones can be administered by the agency in charge of the WMA or by a separate agency. For example, Argentina's National Park Service also manages the country's national reserves, many of which serve as buffer zones for the national parks. In the United States, the national parks are managed by the National Park Service, and the national forests, which provide buffer zones for most of the parks, are managed by the Forest Service. In France the buffer zones for national WMAs are called preparcs and are managed by local governments. Figure F-l illustrates how these concepts of zoning can be applied both within WMAs and for the establishment of buffer zones. The selection and siting of specific zones depends on decisions made in the course of developing a management plan. Although in the sample WMAs the extent of intensive use zones is severely limited, such zones might be relatively larger in some types of WMAs, particularly protected landscapes and multiple use management areas. Personnel and Training The need for dedicated, competent, and well-trained personnel to manage WMAs properly cannot be overemphasized. Without adequate numbers of such people WMAs can easily become "paper parks" that cannot serve their intended societal functions effectively. Just as the stockholders of major corporations take pains to ensure that these institutions are managed by highly qualified executives, so should governments endeavor to ensure that their wildland heritage 185 Figure F-1. Examples of Zoning for Wildland Management Areas A Terrestrial WMA 0 *R A Coastal WMA 0~~~~~~~~ R~~C Primitive zone Human settlements L Lagoon UExtensive zone R Research station W Wetland I Buffer zone T Tourism and training CR Coral reef U Intensive use zone -- Boundary of wildland ---- Boundary of wildiand management land area management sea area 186 is managed by competent, well-trained professionals. Wildland components of development projects should therefore provide for staffing levels and training activities that ensure that WMAs are competently managed. The appropriate number and types of WMA personnel depend on the category of the WMA, its size, and the intensity of its management. The usual minimum adequate number of staff for a typical WMA is about eight: one on-site manager, one chief warden, one interpreter or researcher, and five other employees (see figure F-2). The minimum number of staff would be ccinsiderably higher, however, under the following types of management conditions. O Large numbers of visitors cr indigenous occupants o Multiple and potentially conflicting human uses--scientific, recreational, educational, or economic (harvesting for subsistence or for market-oriented production) o Significant human population densities along the boundaries of the WMA o Human manipulation of wildlife populations or ecosystems, whether for species preservation, research, or enhanced harvest o The presence of threatened species that are highly vulnerable to human disturbance or poaching. Figure F-2 indicates the categories of permanent staff that may be necessary for the proper management of a typical national park. A variety of temporary or specialized staff may also be necessary at various stages of park development. These temporary staffing requirements will vary according to the category of WMA. Mechanisms for training WMA personnel include o Apprenticeship programs and team WMA planning exercises o On-site training seminars and workshops 187 Figure F-2. Sample Organizational Chart for a National Park IPark manager Interpretation Environmental Administration and research management and maintenance Administrative. . Ecologist Interpreter Chief warden offices Park engineer . * ~~accountant . Guidea Wardens Foreman Crews Source: K. R. Miller (1982c). 188 o Attendance at specialized regional or national wildland management training centers. Regional centers include the Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center (CATIE) in Turrialba, Costa Rica; the Ranger Training Center in San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina; the Technical Training Center in Conocoto, Ecuador; the College of African Wildlife Management in Mweka, Tanzania; the School of Training of Wildlife Specialists in Garoua, Cameroon; and the School of Environmental Conservation Management in Ciawi, Indonesia o Continual or periodic university courses on wildland management issues, such as those in national park management at La Molina National Agrarian University in Lima, Peru, or (at the graduate level) at the School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan o Conferences and congresses, such as the Third World National Parks Congress (Bali, Indonesia, 1982). Equipment, Infrastructure, and Budgetary Needs The mere designation of wildlanid management areas on a map does not ensure that they will be managed to provide the greatest possible benefit to society. Effective on-the-ground management requires a variety of physical inputs. In WMAs that are supported by development agencies, it is important to ensure that adequate amounts of these inputs are provided on a timely basis as a project component. Table F-2 provides a basic checklist of the physical inputs that are typically needed for effective WMA management. Some types of WHA will require additional inputs, depending on the specific management objectives. For example, overnight facilities for tourists may be appropriate in ;protected landscapes and multiple use management areas but not within the boundaries of most other WMAs. 189 Table F-2. Typical Physical InDuts Required for a WHA Headquarters building and guard posts at entry points Staff housing Visitor information center, including educational and interpretative exhibits where appropriate Research facilities, including laboratory and housing for visiting scientists Roads and trails (extent will vary according to intensity of management desired) Fencing and signs adequate to ensure proper demarcation and to restrict access as desired Communications, internal and external (radio, walkie-talkies, mail service, and, where appropriate, telephone) Sewerage and waste systems Four-wheel drive or other vehicles Boats, outboard motors, and docking facilities, where needed Appropriate tools, maintenance equipment, and spare parts Fuel Management-oriented publications: maps, species lists, pamphlets for visitors, and so on Source: Adapted from K. R. Miller (1982c). 19() The budgetary requirements for establishing and operating WMAs vary according to the amounts of infrastructure, equipment, and personnel that are needed but are relatively small. The comparatively large (3,000 square kilometers) Dumoga-Bone National Park, financed by the Indonesia Irrigation XV project, cost roughly $1 million for establishment and initial running costs; most smaller WMAs can be expected to cost consicderably less. In some instances additional funds may be needed to purchase land from private or tribal owners to establish or enlarge a WMA. At times it may also be necessary to resettle and compensate people living within the boundaries of a newly established WMA (see chapter 8). Usually, however, WMAs are established on wholly government- owned properties on which people have not settled. The largest recurrent cost for WMAs is usually staff salaries, which should be maintained at levels that encourage high productivity and a degree of permanence and discourage corruption. It is best to pay a flat salary for each day of work; salaries not dependent on actual work often lead to truancy, and payment per poacher caught or trap snare confiscated often leads to misrepresentation. A relatively small but vital recurrent budget item is spare parts. Without a reliable supply of spare parts for often remote WMAs, necessary equipment may lie idle or be cannibalized for parts. In some cases the costs of salaries, spare parts, fuel, and other recurrent items can be fully or partly met by fees collected from tourists, persons engaged in some form of harvesting, or overseas scientific researchers. Otherwise, small annual outlays from the national or other government budget will be needed. Legal Considerations The success of a WMA may depend on how its design fits into an overall national legal framework that deals with natural resource management in general and wildland management in particular. To 191 maintain their legitimacy in the eyes of policymakers and local populations, WMAs must have a firm legal foundation. National legislation, sometimes reinforced by a specific presidential designation, is often needed to establish a WMA. Such legislation should be precise enough to specify clearly the official category and general management objectives of the WMA. Depending on the particular situation, the legislation needs to establish precise WMA boundaries, specific management zones within the WMA (including buffer zones), a central management authority at the national or subnational level with unambiguous responsibilities, and a mechanism for local participation in WMA management decisions. WMAs should also be designated in conformity with the country's existing and potentially applicable legal frameworks. These frameworks may overlap and may include international and regional agreements, traditional or customary law, colonial legislation, and national legislation that draws on domestic and outside sources. In situations in which there is no adequate legal framework for establishing WMAs the country may develop a framework by adapting examples from other countries to suit its own needs. Guidance for establishing such a legal framework can be obtained from the IUCN Environmental Law Center and from other NGOs. Development assistance agencies can do several things to help ensure that WMAs are established and managed within a compatible and supportive legal and policy context. They can assist, where appropriate, in inventorying existing legislation to determine its adequacy for the establishment or management of WMAs. They can assist with the development or extension of specific legislation (or general legislative frameworks, where needed) for project components that support the establishment or management of these areas. Project staff should also endeavor to ensure good compatibility and coordination between WMAs and related policies and legislation concerning land use, forestry, and natural resources. This was accomplished, for example, in the World Bank-supported Tourism Rehabilitation project in Tanzania through a credit covenant 192 stipulating that the government pursue policies consistent with wildlife conservation objectives. Appendix G SELECTED INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELATED TO WILDLAND MANAGEMENT Global Agreements Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, signed 1972 in Paris (see appendix H for a list of sites) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), signed 1973 in Washington, D.C. (The permanent secretariat is in Gland, Switzerland.) Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, signed 1979 in Bonn Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, signed 1971 in Ramsar, Iran United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, signed December 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica (Provisions for the establishment of coastal protected areas are included.) Regional Agreements African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, signed 1968 in Algiers Convention on Natural Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, signed 1940 in Washington, D.C. Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific, signed June 1976 in Apia, Western Samoa Treaty of Amazonian Cooperation, signed July 1978 in Brasilia Caribbean Environmental Action Plan, signed April 1981 in Montego Bay, Jamaica Convention on the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in Their Natural State, signed 1933 in London (signatories include countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa) 193 194 Regional Convention for Cooperation on Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, signed 1978 in Kuwait (signatories include countries in the Middle East) Convention on Game Hunting Formalities Applicable to Tourists Entering Countries in the Conseil de l'Entente, signed 1976 in Yamoussoukro, COte d'Ivoire Convention on the Conservation and Management of the Vicu1ia, signed 1979 in Lima Convention on Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, signed 1978 in Barcelona, Spain (The Protocol against Pollution from Land-based Sources, added in 1980, deals with estuaries and other coastal wildLands.) Copies of any of these agreements can be obtained from the IUCN Environmental Law Center, Adenauerallee 214, D-5300, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany. Appendix h WORLD HERITAGE LISTs NATURAL SITES The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, which has been ratified by eighty-nine countries, beginning with the United States in 1973, provides for the designation and protection of outstanding cultural and natural properties. The treaty declares that the 'deterioration or disappearance [of such properties] is harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all nations of the world.' Each participating nation assumes primary responsibility for protecting and interpreting its own properties while pledging to cooperate with other nations when assistance is required. As of 1986 the World Heritage Conmmittee had approved the natural properties listed below for inclusion in the World Heritage List. Further information on the convention and the World Heritage List is available from the Secretariat, International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), 75, rue du Temple, F-7500, Paris, France; Director, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240; or US/ICOMOS, 1600 H Street, N.W.,, Washington, D.C. 20006. Algeria Tassili-n-Ajjer Araentina Iguazd National Park Los Glaciares Australia Great Barrier Reef Kakadu National Park Lord Howe Island Group Western Tasmania Wilderness National Parks Willandra Lakes Region 195 196 Bulgaria Pirin National Park Srebarna Nature Reserve Canada Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks (including Burgess Shale Site) Dinosaur Provincial Park Nahanni National Park Wood Buffalo National Park C6te d'Ivoire Comoe National Park Tai National Park Ecuador Galapagos Islands (Archipielago de Colon) Sangay National Park Ethiopia Simien National Park France Cape Girolata, Cape Porto, and Scandola Nature Reserve (Corsica) Guatemala Tikal National Park Honduras Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve India Kaziranga National Park Keoladeo National Park Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Malawi Lake Malawi National Park Nepal Royal Chitwan National Park Sagarmatha National Park Panama Darien National Park Peru Huascaran National Park Santuario Historico de Machu Piccbu Poland Bialowieza National Park 197 Senegal Djoudj National Park Niokolo-Koba National Park Seychelles Republic Aldabra Atoll Vallee de Mai Nature Reserve Tanzania Ngorongoro Conservation Area Selous Game Reserve Serengeti National Park Tunisia Ichkeul National Park Turkey Goreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia United States of America Everglades National Park Grand Canyon National Park Great Smoky Mountains National Park Mammoth Cave National Park Olympic National Park Redwood National Park Yellowstone National Park Yosemite National Park Yugoslavia Durmitor National Park Ohrid Region with Its Cultural and Historical Aspects and Its Natural Environment Plitvice Lakes National Park Zaire Garamba National Park Kahuzi-Biega National Park Salonga National Park Virunga National Park Zimbabwe Mana Pools National Park, Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas International Canada/United States Kluane National Park/Wrangell-St. Elias National Park Guinea/Cfte d'Ivoire Mt. Nimba Strict Nature Reserve Appendix I THE MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAM The Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB) is a major science program of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (Unesco) that was officially initiated in 1970 at the Unesco General Conference. Its purpose is to facilitate international scientific and political cooperation in establishing, through research and education, better interactions between people and the environment. Man and the Biosphere focuses "on the general study of the structure and functioning of the biosphere and its ecological regions, on the systematic observation of the changes brought about by man in the biosphere and its resources, on the study of the overall effects of these changes on the human species itself, and on the education and information to be provided on these subjects" (Unesco 1984). MAB consists of an International Coordinating Council that sets policies and priorities and of national committees in member countries of Unesco. The program has fourteen principal projects or areas of scientific investigation: tropical forests, temperate forests, grazing lands, arid lands, fresh water and coasts, mountains and tundra, islands, biosphere reserves, cultivation systems, major engineering works, urban ecosystems, demographic changes, perception of environmental quality, and environmental pollution. The understanding gained through these projects and investigations provides the groundwork for an improved relation between people and their environment. One part of the program calls for the establishment of a coordinated network of biosphere reserves, which are 'protected areas of representative terrestrial and coastal environments which have been internationally recognized for their value in conservation and in providing the scientific knowledge, skills, and human values 1:o support sustainable 198 199 development' (Unesco 1984). Unesco is trying to establish a biosphere reserve within each of the world's biogeographic provinces. The first biosphere reserves were designated in 1976 in Australia, Iran, Norway, Poland, Thailand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, Yugoslavia, and Zaire. In 1986 the biosphere reserve network consisted of 260 reserves in eighty countries. The list below gives, for each country, the name of each reserve, the year in which it was established, and the area. Area (hectares) Argentina San Guillermo (1980) 981,660 Reserva Natural de Vida Silvestre "Laguna Blanca" (1982) 981,620 Parque Costero del Sur (1984) 30,000 Australia The Unnamed Conservation Park of South Australia (1977) 2,132,000 Prince Regent River Nature Reserve (1977) 633,825 Kosciusko National Park (1977) 625,525 Southwest National Park (1977) 403,240 Danggali Conservation Park (1976) 253,230 Fitzgerald River National Park (1977) 242,727 Uluru (Ayers Rock-Mount Olga) National Park (1977) 132,550 Croajingolong (1977) 101,000 Yathong Nature Reserve (1977) 87,698 Hattah-Kulkyne National Park and Murray-Kulkyne Park (1977) 49,550 Wilson's Promontory National Park (1981) 49,000 Macquarie Island Nature Reserve (1977) 12,785 Austria Neusiedler See (Oesterreichischer Teil) (1977) 25,000 Gurgler Kamm (1977) 1,500 Lobau Reserve (1977) 1,000 Gossenkollesee (1977) 100 Bolivia Reserva Biologica de Ulla Ulla (1977) 200,000 Parque Nacional Pilon-Lagas (1977) 10,000 200 Area (hectares) Bulgaria Parc National Steneto (1977) 1,865 Reserve Djendema (1977) 1,775 Reserve Maritchini Ezera (1977) 1,510 Reserve Parangalitza (1977) 1,509 Reserve Baevi Doupki (1977) 1,449 Reserve Boatine (1977) 1,228 Reserve Doupkata (1977) 1,210 Reserve Koupena (1977) 962 Reserve Bistrichko Branichte (1977) 943 Reserve Tchouprene (1977) 936 Reserve Tsaritchina (1977) 616 Reserve Srebarna (1977) 600 Reserve Mantaritza (1977) 576 Reserve Ouzounbodjak (1977) 575 Reserve Tchervenata Stena (1977) 571 Reserve Kamtchia (1977) 556 Reserve Alibotouch (1977) 530 Cameroon Reserve Forestiere et de Faune de Djla (1981) 500,000 Parc National de la Benoue (1981) 180,000 Parc National de Waza (1979) 170,000 Canada Waterton Lakes National Park (1979) 52,597 Mont St. Hilaire (1978) 5,550 Central African Rep. Bamingui-Bangoran Conservation Area (1979) 1,622,000 Basse-Lobaye Forest (1977) 18,200 Chile Laguna San Rafael National Park (including El Guayaneco National Park) (1979) 1,742,000 Parque Nacional Lauca (1981) 520,000 Torres del Paine National Park (1978) 163,000 Araucarias (1983) 81,000 La Campana-Penuelas (1984) 19,095 Parque Nacional Juan Fernandez (1977) 18,300 Parque Nacional Fray Jorge/ Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas (1977) 14,074 China Changbai Nature Reserve (1979) 217,235 Wolung Nature Reserve (1979) 207,210 Dinghu Nature Reserve (1979) 1,200 201 Area (hectares) Colombia El Tuparro Nature Reserve (1979) 928,145 Cinturon Andino Cluster Biosphere Reserve (1979) 855,000 Sierra Nevada de Santa Harta (including Tayrona National Park) (1979) 731,250 Congo, People's Rep. Parc National d'Odzala (1977) 110,000 Costa Rica La Amistad (1982) 500,000 COte d'Ivoire Parc National de la Comoe (1983) 1,150,000 Parc National de Tai (1977) 330,000 Cuba Sierra del Rosario 10,000 Czechoslovakia Trebon Basin Reserve 70,000 Krivoklatsko Reserve 62,792 Slovak Karst Reserve 36,100 Denmark Northeast Greenland National Park (1977) 70,000,000 Ecuador Archipi6lago de Colon (Galapagos) (1984) 766,514 Egypt, Arab Rep. Omayed Experimental Research Area (1981) 1,000 France Parc Nationale des Cevennes (1984) 323,000 Reserve Nationale de Camargue (1977) 13,117 Foret Domaniale du Fango (1977) 6,410 Atoll de Taiaro (1977) 2,000 Gabon Reserve Naturelle Integrale d'Ipassa-Makokou (1983) 15,000 German Democratic Rep. Steckby-Lddderitz Forest Nature Reserve (1979) 2,113 Vessertal Nature Reserve (1979) 1,384 202 Area (hectares) Germany, Federal Rep. Bayerischer Wald National Park (1981) 13,100 Ghana Bia National Park (1983) 7,770 Greece Gorge of Samaria National Park (1981) 4,840 Mount Olympus National Park (1981) 4,000 Guinea Massif du Ziama (1980) 116,170 Monts Niaba (1980) 17,130 Honduras Rio Platano (1980) 500,000 Huniary Hortobagy National Park (1979) 52,000 Pilis (1980) 23,000 Kiskunsag (1979) 22,095 Aggtelek (1979) 19,246 Lake Ferto (1979) 12,542 Indonesia Gunung Leuser Reserves (1981) 946,400 Tanjung Puting Nature Park (1977) 205,000 Lore Lindu National Park (1977) 131,000 Komodo National Park (1977) 30,000 Siberut Nature Reserve (1981) 6,000 Gunung Gede National Park (1977) 1,040 Iran Touran Protected Area (1976) 1,000,000 Kavir National Park (1976) 700,000 Lake Oromeeh National Park (1976) 462,600 Golestan National Park (1976) 125,895 Hara Protected Area (1976) 85,686 Miankaleh Protected Area (1976) 68,800 Arjan Protected Area (1976) 65,750 Arasbaran Protected Area (1976) 52,000 Geno Protected Area (1976) 49,000 Ireland Killarney National Park (1982) 8,300 North Bull Island (1981) 500 203 Area (hectares) Italy Foret Domaniale du Circeo (1977) 3,260 Collemeluccio-Montedimezzo (1977) 478 Miramare Marine Park (1979) 60 Japan Mount Hakusan (1980) 48,000 Mount Odaigahara and Mount Omine (1980) 36,000 Yakushima Island (1980) 19,000 Shiga Highland (1980) 13,000 Kenya Mount Kulal (1978) 700,000 Mount Kenya (1978) 71,759 Kiunga Marine National Reserve (1980) 60,000 Malindi-Watamu (1979) 19,600 Korea, Rep. of Mount Sorak (1982) 37,430 Hali Parc National de la Boucle du Baoule (1982) 771,000 Hauritius Macchabee-Bel Ombre Nature Reserve (1977) 3,594 Mexico Montes Azules (1979) 331,200 Reserva de Mapimi (1977) 100,000 Reserva de la Hichilia (1977) 42,000 Nigeria Omo Reserve (1977) 460 Norway Northeast Svalbard Nature Reserve (1976) 1,555,000 Pakistan Lalsohanra National Park (1977) 31,355 Panama Darien National Park (1983) 575,000 Peru Reserva del Manu (1977) 1,881,200 Reserva de Huascaran (1977) 399,239 Reserva del Noroeste (1977) 226,300 204 Area (hectares) Philippines Puerto Galera (1977) 23,525 Poland Slowinski National Park (1976) 18,069 Bialowieza National Park (1976) 5,069 Babia Gora National Park (1976) 1,728 Luknajno Lake Reserve (1976) 710 Portugal Paul do Boquilobo (1981) 395 Romania Retezat National Park (1979) 20,000 Rosca-Letea Reserve (1979) 18,145 Pietrosu Mare Nature Reserve (1979) 3,068 Rwanda Parc National des Volcans (1983) 15,065 Senegal Parc National do Niokolo-Koba (198.1) 913,000 Delta du Sine Saloum (1980) 180,000 ForOt Classee de Samba Dia (1979) 756 Spain Las Sierras de Cazorla y Segura (1983) 190,000 Donana (1980) 77,260 Reserva de Ordesa-Vinamala (1977) 51,396 Reserva de Grazalema (1977) 32,210 La Mancha Humeda (1980) 25,000 Urdaibai (1984) 22,500 Parque Natural del Montseny (1978) 17,372 Marismas del Odiel (1983) 8,728 El Canal y los Tiles (1983) 511 Sri Lanka Sinharaja Forest Reserve (1978) 8,900 Hurulu Forest Reserve (1977) 512 Sudan Radom National Park (1979) 1,250,970 Dinder National Park (1979) 650,000 Switzerland Parc National Suisse (1979) 16,870 205 Area (hectares) Tanzania Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (1981) 2,305,000 Lake Manyara National Park (1981) 32,900 Thailand Mae Sa-Kog Ma Reserve (1977) 14,200 Sakaerat Environmental Research Station (1976) 7,200 Hauy Tak Teak Reserve (1977) 4,700 Tunisia Parc National de Djebel Bou-Hedma (1977) 11,625 Parc National de l'Ichkeul (1977) 10,770 Parc National de Djebel Chambi (1977) 6,000 Parc National des Iles Zembra et Zembretta (1977) 4,030 United Kingdom Isle of Rhum National Nature Reserve (1976) 10,560 Moor House-Upper Teesdale (1976) 7,399 Caerlaverock National Nature Reserve (1976) 5,501 North Norfolk Coast (1976) 5,497 Beinn Eighe National Nature Reserve (1976) 4,800 Silver Flowe-Merrick Kells (1976) 3,080 Cairnsmore of Fleet National Nature Reserve (1976) 1,922 Loch Druidibeg National Nature Reserve (1976) 1,658 Dyfi National Nature Reserve (1976) 1,589 St. Kilda National Nature Reserve (1976) 842 Braunton Burrows National Nature Reserve (1976) 596 Claish Moss National Nature Reserve (1977) 480 Taynish National Nature Reserve (1977) 326 Uganda Queen Elizabeth National Park (1979) 220,000 United States Noatak (1976) 3,035,200 Mojave and Colorado Deserts (1984) 1,292,704 Aleutian Islands (1976) 1,100,940 Yellowstone National Park (1976) 898,349 Denali National Park (1976) 782,000 Everglades National Park (including Fort Jefferson National Monument) (1976) 585,867 South Atlantic Coastal Plain (1983) 444,335 Glacier National Park (1976) 410,202 Olympic National Park (1976) 363,379 Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks (1976) 343,000 Big Bend National Park (1976) 283,247 Isle Royale National Park (1980) 215,740 206 Area (hectares) United States (continued) Great Smoky Mountains National Park (1976) 208,403 Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (1976) 133,278 Beaver Creek Experimental Watershed (1976) 111,300 Rocky Mountain National Park (1976:1 106,710 Hawaii Islands (1980) 104,396 Three Sisters Wilderness (1976) 80,900 Jornada Experimental Range (1976) 78,297 Central Gulf Coastal Plain (1983) 72,964 Big Thicket National Preserve (1983.) 34,217 Desert Experimental Range (1976) 22,513 Virginia Coast Reserve (1979) 13,511 Luquillo Experimental Forest (Caribbean National Forest) (1976) 11,340 Fraser Experimental Forest (1976) 9,328 Channel Islands National Park (1976) 7,448 Cascade Head Experimental Forest and Scenic Research Area (1976) 7,051 San Dimas Experimental Forest (1976) 6,947 Central Plains Experimental Range (1976) 6,210 Virgin Islands National Park (1976) 6,127 H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest (1976) 6,100 California Coast Ranges (1983) 5,624 University of Michigan Biological Station (1979) 4,048 Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve (1981) 4,006 lConza Prairie Research Natural Area (1979) 3,486 Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (1976) 3,076 Coram Experimental Forest (1976) 3,019 Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (1976:i 2,185 San Joaquin Experimental Range (1976) 1,832 Niwot Ridge (1979) 1,200 Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest (1976) 607 Uruguay Banados del Este (1976) 200,000 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Kronotsky Zapovednik (1984) 1,099,000 Pechero-Ilychsky Zapovednik (1984) 721,300 Sayano-Shushensky Zapovednik (1984) 389,600 Sikhote-Alin Reserve (1978) 340,200 Laplandsky Zapovednik (1984) 278,400 Caucasian Reserve (1978) 263,500 Sokhondinsky Zapovednik (1984) 211,000 Tchernomorsky State Reserve (1984) 87,348 Berozinsky Reserve (1978) 76,200 Astrakhansky Zapovednik (1984) 63,400 Repetek Reserve (1978) 34,600 207 Area (hectares) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (continued) Askania-Nova State Reserve (1984) 33,307 Voronezhsky Zapovednik (1984) 31,053 Sary-Chelek Reserve (1978) 23,868 Central Forest Zapovednik (1984) 21,348 Priokosko-Terrasny Reserve (1978) 4,945 Central-Chernozem Reserve (1978) 4,795 YuQoslavia Reserve Ecologique du Bassin de la Riviere Tara (1976) 200,000 Velebit Mountain (1977) 150,000 Zaire Reserve Floristique de Yangambi (1976) 250,000 Forest Reserve of Luki (1979) 33,000 Vallee de la Lufira (1982) 14,700 Appendix J ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH WILDLAND MANAGEMENT The partial lists given here reflect the best available information at the time of writing. The countries listed are World Bank members that are not high-income oil exporters or industrial market economies, according to the classification in World Development Report 1988, but not every country in this category is included. Some groups listed under 'Nongovernmental Organizations" are quasi-governmental or receive government support, and some listed under individual countries ]have a regional focus. GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES Africa Botswana Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Department of Wildlife, National Parks, and Tourism, P.O. Box 1.31, Gaborone Benin Minist6re du Developpement Rural et, de la Cooperation, Service des Eaux, ForOts, et Chasse, B.P. 393, Cotonou, or P.O. Box 34, Porto Novo Burundi Office National pour la Conservation de la Nature, Bujumbura Burkina Faso Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Department of National Parks, B.P. 7044, Ouagadougou Ministbre de l'Agriculture, Direction des Eaux et For#ts, B.P. 4, Ouagadougou Cameroon Ministry of Equipment, Environment, and Land, Yaounde Ministbre de l'Agriculture, Direction des Eaux et For#ts et des Chasses, B.P. 194, Yaounde 208 209 Ministry of Plans and Territorial Development, Yaounde Cape Verde Ministerio do Desenvolvimento Rural, Praia Central African Rep. Minist6re des Eaux, Forets, Chasses, et Pgches, B.P. 830, Bangui Chad Direction des Eaux, Forets et Chasse, B.P. 447, N'Djamena; Direction des Parcs Nationaux et Reserves de Faune, B.P. 2153, N'Djamena Congo, People's ReD. Service de la Chasse, de la Pfche, et de la Conservation de la Nature, B.P. 2153, Brazzaville Service des Parcs Nationaux, cdo Parc National Garamba, Faradje P.O. C6te d'Ivoire Ministere de l'Agriculture, Direction des Eaux, Forfts, et Chasse, B.P. 1373, Abidjan; Direction des Parcs Nationaux, B.P. 20896, Abidjan Ministbre du Plan, Abidjan (includes conservation) Diibouti Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 453, Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Forestry, Malabo Ethiopia Wildlife Conservation Organization, P.O. Box 386, Addis Ababa Forestry and Wildlife Conservation and Development Authority, P.O. Box 1034, Addis Ababa Ministry of Mines, Energy, and Water Resources Development, P.O. Box 486, Mexico Square, Addis Ababa Gabon Ministbre de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage, et des Eaux et Forgts, Libreville Service des Chasses et PQches, B.P. 1128, Libreville 210 Gambia Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Cape St. Mary, Banjul Wildlife Conservation Unit, Office of the President, Statehouse Ghana Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources, P.O. Box M-212, Accra; Department of Game and Wildlife, P.O. Box 8, Damongo Ministry of Local Government, Department of Parks and Gardens, Accra Environmental Protection Council, Parliament House, Accra (coordinates activities of al:L bodies concerned with environmental matters) Ghana Forestry Commission, P.O. Box M-239, Ministry Post Office, Accra Guinea Minist&re du Developpement Rural, X:nspection General des Eaux et Forets, B.P. 624, Conakry Guinea-Bissau Commissioner for Agricultural Planning and Natural Resources, Madina do Boe Kenya Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, P.O. Box 30027, Nairobi Wildlife Conservation and Management Department, P.O. Box 40241, Nairobi Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30126, Nairobi; Forest Department, P.O. Box 30513, Nairobi; National Environment and Human Settlements Secretariat, P.O. Box 67839, Nairobi Lesotho National Environment Secretariat, Prime Minister's Office, P.O. Box 527, Masero 100 Tourism Department, P.O. Box 52, Maniero (manages national parks) Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 24, Masero 100 (manages flora and fauna outside national parks) Liberia Ministry of Agriculture, Division of Wildlife and National Parks, Forestry Development Authority, P.O. Box 3010, Monrovia 211 Ministry of Lands and Mines, P.O. Box 9024, Monrovia Madagascar Ministbre de la ForOt Malgache et du Reboisement National, B.P. 243, Tananarive Ministbre du Developpement Rural, Tananarive Malawi Department of National Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 30131, Lilongwe Environmental Department, Office of the President, Private Bag 338, Lilongwe 3 Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources, Private Bag 350, Lilongwe 3 Mali Ministry of Nature Protection, Bamako Ministare de la Production, Service des Eaux et Forgts, Bamako (includes operation of the Boucle de Baoule National Park) Mauritania Ministbre du Developpement Rural, Service de Protection de la Nature, B.P. 17170, Nouakchott Mauritius Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Le Reduit, Port Louis Forestry Service, Curepipe Niger Ministry of Rural Economy, Environment, Climate, and Aid to the Population, Direction des Eaux et For8ts, B.P. 578, Niamey Nigeria Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Independence House, Lagos Department of Forestry, Private Mail Bag 5054, Ibadan Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, Land and Surveys Division, Lagos Western Nigeria state governments Agriculture and Resource Ministry, Ibadan 212 Rwanda Office Rwanda de Tourisme, c/o President of the Republic, P.O. Box 905, Kigali Ministry of Agriculture, Service des Eaux et Forgts, Parcs Nationaux, et Chasses, B.P. 621, Kigali Ministry of Planning and Natural Resources, Kigali Senegal Ministere du Developpement Rural, B.P. 1831, Dakar; Direction des Parcs Nationaux, B.P. 5135, Dakar; Service des Eaux, des Forets, et de Chasse Commission Nationale de 1'Environnement, Dakar Seychelles Ministry of Agriculture and Land Use, Conservation Offices, Botanical Gardens, P.O. Box 54, Victoria, Mahe Ministry of Planning and Development., Unity House, P.O. Box 199, Victoria, Mahe Sierra Leone Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ministerial Building, George Street, Freetown Ministry of Lands, Freetown A Somalia Ministry of Tourism and National Parks, Mogadishu Ministry of Livestock, Forestry, and Range, Mogadishu South Africa Ministry of Planning and Statistics, Department of Planning, Committee on Environmental Conservation, Private Bag X-213, Pretoria National Parks Board of Trustees of South Africa, P.O. Box 787, Pretoria Ministry of Water Affairs and Forestry, Department of Forestry, Private Bag X-334, Pretoria Council for Scientific and Industrial. Research, P.O. Box 395, Pretoria 0001 Natal: Natal Parks, Game, and Fish Preservation Board, P.O. Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal 3200 213 Cape of Good Hope: Department of Nature Consevation, P.O. Box 659, Provincial Building, Cape Town Orange Free State: Nature Conservation Division, P.O. Box 517, Bloemfontein Transvaal: Nature Conservation Branch, Church Street, Private Bag 209, Pretoria Sudan National Committee for Environment, National Council of Research, Khartoum Ministry of Agriculture, Nutrition, and Natural Resources, Wildlife Department, P.O. Box 336, Khartoum Swaziland Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Extension Section, Natural Resources Board, Swaziland National Herbarium, P.O. Box 162, Mbabane Swaziland National Trust Commission, P.O. Box 75, Mbabane Tanzania Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, P.O. Box 1994, Dar es Salaam; Forest Division, P.O. Box 426, Dar es Salaam; Wildlife Division, P.O. Box 1994, Dar es Salaam; Tanzania National Parks, P.O. Box 3134, Arusha; Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, P.O. Box 776, Arusha Serengeti Wildlife Research Institute, P.O. Box 661, Arusha Tanzania Wildlife Corporation, P.O. Box 1144, Arusha Togo Animal Husbandry Department, Lome (manages wildlife) Ministare du Developpement Rural, Service des ForAts, de Chasse, et l'Environnement, B.P. 355, Lome Uganda Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, P.O. Box 4241, Kampala; Uganda Game Department, P.O. Box 4, Entebbe; Uganda National Parks, P.O. Box 3530, Kampala; Uganda Institute of Ecology, P.O. Box 22, Lake Katwe Ministry of Environmental Protection, P.O. Box 4544, Kampala Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 31, Entebbe; Forest Department, P.O. Box 31, Entebbe 214 Zambia Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources, and Tourism, National Parks and Wildlife Services, Private Bag 1, Chilanga Zimbabwe Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Post Bag 8070, Causeway, Harare Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare Asia Bangladesh Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Forest Department, Chief Conservator of Forestry, Dacca Bhutan Department of Forest Resources and Development, Royal Government of Bhutan Burma Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, 62 Phayre Street, Rangoon China Department of Wildlife, Northeast Forestry Institute, Harbin, Heilongj iang Ministry of Forestry, Beijing Office of the Environmental Protectioni Leading Group, State Council of Chima, Bai Wan Zhuang, Beijing Fij Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forests, Suva Ministry for Lands, Mines, and Mineral. Resources, Suva India Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110011; Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Indian Board for Wildlife, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi; Project Tiger, Mashi, Bhavan, New Delhi Ministry of Science and Technology, Naitional Committee on Environmental Protection, Parliament Street, New Delhi Department of Forests, Vallabh Bhavan, Bhopal 215 Indian Forest Service, Central Forest Division, Imphal 795001 Planning Commission, Yojana Bhavan, New Delhi 110001 State of Gujarat: Ecology Council, Wildlife Wing, Sardabag, Junagadh Indonesia Division of Nature Conservation and Wildlife Management (PPA), Jalan Juanda 9 (Kebun Raya), Bogor Minister of State for Environment and Population, Jalan Merdeka Barat 15, Jakarta National Committee on the Environment, Jalan Raden Saleh 43, Jakarta Pusat Department of Agriculture, Directorate General of Forestry, Jalan Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (Bogor Herbarium and Bogor Zoological Museum), Jalan Juanda 22, Bogor Korea, Rep. of National Parks Association of Korea, 297 Chagjon-dong, Mapo-ku, Seoul 121 Lao PDR Ministry of National Economy and Planning, Directorate of Water and Forests, Vientiane Ma laysia Game Department, 4th Floor MABA Building, Jalan Division, Kuala Lumpur; Ministry of Local Government and Environment, Jalan Young, Kuala Lumpur Sabah: Sabah National Parks Board, P.O. Box 626, Kota Kinabalu Sarawak: National Parks and Wildlife Office, Jalan Gartak, Kuching; Forest Department, Badruddin Road, Kuching Papua New Guinea Department of Lands, Surveys, and Environment, P.O. Box 258, Konedobu Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries, Division of Animal Industry, P.O. Box 2417, Konedobu (manages wildlife) Ministry of Environment and Conservation, P.O. Box 2142. Konedobu National Parks Service, P.O. Box 5749, Boroko 2lS Maldives Ministry of Agriculture, Male Ministry of Fisheries, Male Nepal Ministry of State for Forests, Nepal Forest Service, Panchayani, Thapathali, Kathmandu Department of National Parks and W:Lldlife Conservation, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu National Planning Committee, Singha Durbar, Nepal Pakistan Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Underdeveloped Areas, National Council for Conservation of Nature, Islamabad Zoological Survey Department, Bloclk 13, Pakistan Section, Karachi 1 Puniab: Punjab Wildlife Management Board 2, Sanda Road, Lahore Sind: Sind Wildlife Management Board, M.R. Kiyani Road, Karachi Philippines Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Office of Parks and Wildlife, Manila Bureau of Forest Development, Parks and Wildlife Division, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City National Environmental Protection Council, Ministry of Human Settlements and Ecology, Malacanang Palace, Manila Singapore Ministry of the Environment, Princess House, Alexandra Road, Singapore 3 Commission for Parks and Recreation, Botanic Gardens, Singapore Sri Lanka Department of Wildlife Conservation, 29 Gregory's Road, Colombo 7; Anagaricka Dharmapacha Mawatha, 54 Chatham Street, Colombo 1 Environment Officer, Mahaweli Authority, 248 Galle Road, Colombo 4 217 Thailand Office of the National Environment Board, Soi Pracha Sumpan 4, Rama Road 6, Bangkok 4 72993 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Royal Forest Department, National Parks Division, Paholyothin Road, Bangkhen, Bangkok National Environment Council of Thailand, Bangkok Western Samoa Department of Lands and Land Registry, Apia Department of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 206, Apia Forest Department, Oloaaaa National Park, Apia Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Kabul (includes Forestry Department) Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Kabul AlReria Ministere de l'Agriculture et de la Reforme Agraire, 12, Boulevard Colonel Amiroche, Algiers Iumeuble des ForOts, Bois du Petit Atlas, P.O. Box 819, Algiers Ministere de l'Hydraulique, B.P. 86, Kouba Secretary of State for Terrestrial Development, B.P. 1033, El- Nouradie Bahrain Ministry of Trade, Agriculture, and Economy, Agriculture Department, P.O. Box 251, Manama Cyprus Ministry of Trade, Agriculture and Natural Resources Council for Nature Conservation; Environmental Protection Service; Forest Department (National Agency of the European Center for Nature Conservation, Council of Europe), Nicosia Ministry of the Interior, Department of Lands and Surveys; Game and Wildlife Service, Nicosia 218 EgyDt, Arab Rep. Coastal Conservation Commission, Cairo Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Giza Zoological Gardens, Cairo National Committee for Environment,, Office of the Prime Minister, Kasr el Aini Street, Cairo Greece Ministry of Agriculture, National Parks Section, 3-5 Hippocratons Street, Athens; Forestry DepaLrtment, 9 Kratinou Street, Athens; Division for the Protection of the Environment, 2 Aharwo Street, Athens Ministry of Coordination, Secretariat of the National Council for Physical Planning and the Environment, 3 Zolokosta Street, Athens Iran Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Department of Environmental Conservation, P.O. Box 1430, Tehran Iraq Ministry of Agriculture, Baghdad (includes conservation and management of pasture lands) Ministry of Environmental Conservation, Baghdad Ministry of Northern Affairs (manages forests) Israel Environmental Protection Service, Prime Minister's Office, Hakirya Building 3, Jerusalem 91000 National Parks Authority, 3 Het Street, Tel Aviv Nature Reserves Authority, 16 Hanaziv Street, Tel Aviv Jordan Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, National Parks Division, P.O. Box 224, Amman Ministry of Municipal, Rural, and Environmental Affairs, P.O. Box 1799, Amman Lebanon Ministare de l'Agriculture, Service Forestier et des Resources Naturelles, Bureau of Wildlife and Fish, Beirut 219 Morocco Direction des Eaux et Forgts, Nature Protection Service, Rabat Ministry of Urbanism, Housing, Tourism, and Environment, Rabat Oman Ministry for Divan Affairs, Adviser for the Preservation of the Environment, Muscat Council for Conservation, The Palace, P.O. Box 246, Muscat Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, P.O. Box 467, Muscat Council for Conservation and Environment, P.O. Box 5310, Ruwi PortuRal Ministry of Public Services and Environment, Torero do Paco, Lisbon Servicio Nacional de Parques, Rue da Lapa 73, Lisbon Office of the Secretary of State for Planning and Environment, rua Professor Gomes Teixeira, 1300 Lisbon Romania Comisia Pentru Ocrotirea Monumentelor Naturii (Commission for the Protection of Natural Monuments), Calea Victoriei 124, Bucharest 22 Syrian Arab ReDublic Ministry of Agrarian Reform and Agriculture, Damascus Tunisia Ministere de l'Agriculture, Direction des Forets, Service de la Chasse et des Parcs Nationaux, 30 rue Alain Sarary, Tunis National Commission for Protection of the Environment, Office of the Prime Minister, La Kasbah, Tunis Turkey Ministry of Forestry, Karanfil Sokak no. 42, Ankara; General Directorate of Forestry and Directorate of National Parks, Ankara Yemen PDR Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform Yusoslavia Institute for the Conservation of Nature, Molerova 35, Belgrade Plitvice Lakes National Park, 48231 Plitvicka Jezera; Durmitor National Park, Zabijak 220 Latin America and the Caribbean Argentina Direcci6n Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Departamento de Caza y Conservaci6n de la Fatua, Paseo Colon, Buenos Aires; Servicio Nacional de Parques Nacionales, Santa Fe 690, Buenos Aires Argentina Biological Inventory (natural heritage program), Servicio Nacional de Parques Nacionales, C.C. 380-8400 San Carlos de Bariloche, Rio Negro Bahamas Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Local Government, P.O. Box 28, Nassau Barbados Ministry of Agriculture, Science, and Technology, Crumpton Street, St. Michael (responsible for wildlife management) Ministry of Labor, Lands, and Housing, Parks and Beaches Commission, River Road, St. Michael Barbados National Trust, 48 Blue Waters, Christ Church Belize Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Belmopan Hinistry of Natural Resources, Bebnopan Bolivia Ministerio de Agricultura y Asuntos Rurales, Divisi6n de Parques Nacionales y Recursos ForestaLes, Avenida Camacho 1471, La Paz Departamento de Vida Silvestre, Caza, y Pesca, Centro Desarrollo Forestal, Casilla de Correo, 1862 Avenida Camacho 1471, La Paz Direcci6n de Forestaci6n, Avenida Vtillazon 1978, La Paz (responsible for several recreational parks) Brazil Departamento de Parques Nacionais, Brazilian Institute of Forestry Development (IBDF), CP 070285, Av. L4, Brasilia, D.F. 70000 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA), Caixa Postal 478, 60.000 Manaus, Amazonas Ministerio da Agricultura, Departamento de Pesquisa e Conservacao de Natureza, Rua Pacheco Lego 2040, Rio de Janeiro 221 Ministerio do Interior, Secretaria Especial do Meio Ambiente (SEMA) and National Environment Council (CONAMA), Esplanada dos Ministerios, Brazilia, D.F. 70054 Guanabara: Secretaria de Ciencia e Technologia, Instituto de Conservacao de Natureza, Estrada de Vista Chinesa, 741 (Tijuca), C.O. 3545 ZC-00, Rio de Janeiro Parana: Secretaria da Agricultura do Parana, Instituto de Defensa do Patrimonio Natural, C.P. 1341, Curitiba Chile Ministerio de Agricultura, Servicio Agricola y Ganadero, Divisi6n de Pesca y Caza, Casilla 9344, Santiago Corporaci6n Nacional Forestal (CONAF), Department of Conservation, Avenida Bulnes 285, Santiago Colombia Ministerio de Agricultura, Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables (INDERENA), Diagonal 345-18, Bogotd; Divisi6n de Parques Nacionales, Calle 26, No. 13B-47, BogotA Costa Rica Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Apartado 10094, San Jose; Subdirecci6n de Pesca y Vida Silvestre, Apartado Postal 1306, San Jose Dominica Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Fisheries, Forestry Office, National Parks Service, Roseau Dominican Rep. Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura, Departamento de Caza y Pesca, Santo Domingo Departamento de Parques Nacionales, Presidencia de la Republica, Casa-Bastidas, Calle las Damas, Santo Domingo Subsecretaria de Recursos Naturales, Departamento de Vida Silvestre; Departamento de Recursos Pequeros, Santo Domingo Ecuador Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderio, Divisi6n de Desarrollo Forestal, Santa Prisca 223, Quito Ministerio de la Producci6n, Servicio Forestal, Apartado 2919, Quito (includes National Parks Section) 2.!2 Departamento de Asuntos Marinos, Estaci6n Charles Darwin, Casilla 58-39, Guayaquil Servicio del Parque Nacional GalApagos, Isla Santa Cruz, GalApagos Islands El Salvador Servicio de Parques Nacionales y V'ida Silvestre, P.O. Box 2265, Canton el Matasano, Soyapangc, San Salvador Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales Renovables, San Salvador Grenada Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry, St. George's Ministry of Planning, Development, Lands, and Surveys, St. George's Guatemala Comisi6n de Defensa del Medio Ambiente, Palacio Municipal, Zona 4, Guatemala City Ministerio de Agricultura, Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales Renovables, 7a Avenida 7-09, Guatemala City 13 Guyana Ministry of Agriculture, Regent and Vlissengen Roads, Georgetown Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Forest Department, P.O. Box 249, Georgetown Haiti Departement de l'Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelles et du Developpement Rural, Service de la Conservation des Sols, des For4ts et de la Protection de la Faune, Port-au-Prince Departement du Plan, Direction de l'Amenagement des Terres et de la Protection de l'Environnement, Port-au-Prince Honduras Secretaria de Recursos Naturales, Direcci6n General de Recursos Forestales, Caza, y Pesca, 6o Piso del Banco Nacional de Fomento, Comayaguela Departamento de Medio Ambiente, P.O. Box 1329, Tegucigalpa Corporaci6n Hondurefia de Desarrollo Forestal, P.O. Box 1378, Tegucigalpa Departamento de Ecologia, Direccion General de Recursos Naturales Renovables (RENARE), 8a Avenida 11 y 12 Calle Comayaguela, Tegucigalpa 223 Jamaica National Resources Conservation Department, Department of Recreation and Conservation Division, 53-le2 Molynes Road, Kingston 10 Beach Control Authority, Beachwood Avenue, Kingston Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Kingston Mexico Departamento de Parques Nacionales, Aquiles Serdan 28, Mexico, D.F. Coordinaci6n de Asesoria Tecnica--SARH, Subsecretaria Forestal y de la Fauna, Insurgentes Sur 456, Mexico, D.F. Instituto de Ecologia, Sede Museo de Historia Natural, Nuevo Bosque de Chapultepec, Apartado Postal 18-845, Mexico 18, D.F. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Technologia, Circuito Cultural, Centro Cultural Universitario, Ciudad Universitaria, 04515 Mexico, D.F. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bi6ticos (INIREB), Km. 2-1/2 Ant. Carretera a Coatepec, P.O. Box 63, Jalapa, Veracruz Nicaragua Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Edificio Bernard, Managua Departamento Areas Silvestre y Fauna, Km. 13 162 Carretera Norte- Irena, Managua Instituto de la Naturaleza y el Medio Ambiente, Managua Panama Direcci6n de Recursos Naturales Renovables (RENARE), Apartado 2016, Paraiso, Ancon Paraguay Servicio Forestal Nacional, Tacuari 443, Edificio Patria, Asunci6n Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Division de Vida Silvestre y Pesca, Calle Pte. Franco y Alberdi, Asunci6n Peru Ministerio de Agricultura, Direcci6n General Forestal y de Fauna, Natalio Sanchez 220, Jesus Maria, Lima 11 Oficina Nacional de Evaluaci6n de Recursos Naturales (ONERN), 355 Calle 17, El Palomar, Lima 27 22'4 St. Lucia Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Fisheries, Forestry Division, Castries Suriname Nature Conservation Department, Department of Development, P.O. Box 436, Paramaribo Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Fisheries, National Parks Division, P.O. Box 30, Port-of-Spain; Forestry Department, Long Circular Rd., St. James, Port-of-Spain; Lands and Surveys Department, 2b. Richmond Street, Port-of-Spain National Environment and Conservat:Lon Council, Port-of-Spain Uruguay Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca, Direcci6n Forestal, Parques, y Fauna, Maldonado 1276, Montev:Ldeo Ministerio de Educaci6n y Cultura, Instituto Nacional para la Preservacion del Medio Ambiente, Sarandi 444, Montevideo Venezuela Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Direcci6n de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Los Palos Grandes, 4a Avenida 5a, Calle 2808, Caracas; Director, Parques Nacionales, Av. Francisco de Miranda, Caracas 1062 Instituto Agrario Nacional, Caracas (includes management of wildlands) Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables, Torre sur, Centro Simon Bolivar, Piso 25, Caracas NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Africa Cameroon Ecole pour la Formation des SpOciaListes de la Faune, B.P. 271, Garoua Earthlife, 1990 M Street, N.W., Su:Lte 700, Washington, D.C. 20036 (involved in fund raising for forest conservation in Cameroon) Cote d'Ivoire Ecology Research Institute, University of Abidjan, Abidjan 225 Ethiopia Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society, P.O. Box 1160, Addis Ababa Ghana Ghana Wildlife Society, P.O. Box 3148, Kumasi Kenya IUCN Regional Office for East Africa, P.O. Box 68200, Nairobi African Elephant Specialist Group, P.O. Box 546167, Nairobi Unesco Regional Office for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 30592, Nairobi African Environment Association, P.O. Box 43739, Nairobi Environmental Management Service, United Nations Environment Programme, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi World Wildlife Fund Regional Office for East and Central Africa, P.O. Box 62440, Nairobi, Kenya Madagascar Societe des Amis du Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tananarive, B.P. 434, Tananarive WWF Representative, B.P. 4373, Antananarivo Division des Collections Scientifiques et Techniques, B.P. 4166, Antananarivo Universite de Madagascar, B.P. 175, Antananarivo Malawi National Fauna Preservation Society of Malawi, P.O. Box 135, Limbe University of Malawi, Chancellor College, Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, P.O. Box 280, Zomba (includes wildland management training programs) Nigeria University of Ibadan, Wildlife and Range Management, Ibadan Senegal Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM), Station Ecologique de Richard-Toll, B.P. 20, Richard-Toll (conducts botanical and applied zoological studies) Faculte des Science, Institut des Science de l'Environnement, Universite de Dakar, Dakar 226 Sierra Leone Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown (includes a program in environmental studies) Department of Botany, Fouran Bay College, University of Sierra Leone, Freetown Tanzania College of African Wildlife Manageiment, Mveka, P.O. Box 3031, Moshi Uganda Uganda Institute of Ecology, P.O. Box 22, Lake Katwe Zambia Wildlife Conservation Society of Zambia, P.O. Box 255, Lusaka Asia Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Society of Bangladesh, Karim Villa, 10 Elephant Road, Maghbazar, Ramr,a, Dacca 27 Fiji National Trust for Fiji, c/o Fiji Museum, P.O. Box 1004, Suva or Government Buildings, P.O. Box 2089, Suva India India Board for Wildlife, Krishy Bhavan, New Delhi Project Tiger, Delhi Zoological Park, New Delhi 1 Wildlife Preservation Society of India, 6 Astley Hall, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711103 Wildlife Conservation Society, Savinaya Society, Behind Patel Park, Bhavnagar 364001 Mountain Eco-conservation and Wildlife Society of India, Post Box 78, Jammu 180 001 World Wildlife Fund-India, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagar Singh Road, Bombay 400023; WWF-India, Data Center for Natural Resources, 18 Spencer Road, Fraser Town P.O., Bangalore 560005 Zoological Survey of India, Indian Mluseum, Calcutta 13 (conducts studies of wildlife and wildlands) Wildlife Research Institute of India, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 248006 227 Institute of Himalayan Studies and Regional Development, Garhwal University, P.O. Box 12, Srinagar, Garhwal Department of Biosciences, Sanrashtra University, Rakjot Central Crocodile Institute, Hyderabad 500265 Indonesia Institute for Nature Conservation, Lembaga Pengawetan Alam, Dji, Pledang 30, Bogor School of Environmental Conservation Management, Ciawi, Bogor Center of Environmental Studies, Airlangga University, Surabaya World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia, c/o PPA, Jalan Juanda 9 (Kebun Raya), Bogor Faculty of Fisheries, Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Bogor Yayasan Indonesia Hijau, Tromolpos 2572, Jakarta Indonesian Zoological Association, Ragunan, Jakarta Faculty of Forestry, Gadjamada University, Bulaksumar, Jogyakarta Indonesian Institute of Science, Jakarta Institute of Environmental Sciences, USU, Medan, Sumatra Faculty of Forestry, Mulawarman University, Samarinda, Kalimantan Institute of Environmental Sciences, UNHAS Hasannuddin, Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi Forest Research Institute, Gunnug Batu, Bogor National Oceanographic Institute, Jakarta National Biological Institute, Jalan Juanda 22, Bogor Korea, Rep. of National Parks Association of Korea, 45 Daechi Myong Chune, Yangbun, Chungnam Environmental Research Institute, Ewha Women's University, Seoul 120 Korea Environmental Protection Association, Third Floor, 342, 3-Ka, Ulchi-Ro, Chung-Ku, Seoul 100 228 Korean Commission for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, San-I Cheongryangri-dong, Dongdaemun-Ku, Seoul 131 Malaysia World Wildlife Fund-Malaysia, Eighth Floor, Wisma Damansara, Jalan Semantan, P.O. Box 769, Kuala Lumpur University of Malaysia, Pantai Valley, Kuala Lumpur Asian Environmental Society, c/o School of Engineering, Mara Institute of Technology, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Environmental Protection Society, P.O. Box 382, Jalan Sultan, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Malayan Nature Society, c/o Museum INegara, Jalan Damansara, Kuala Lumpur Society for Conservation and Environmental Protection, c/o Agriculture University of Malaysia, P.O. Box 203, Sungei Besi, Selangor Sabah Foundation, P.O. Box 1623, Lilcas Bay, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Pakistan Pakistan Wildlife Appeal, c/o Packagres, Ltd., Rumi Road, Lahore 14 Papua New Guinea New Guinea Bird Society, c/o Department of Agriculture, Stock, and Fisheries, P.O. Box 2417, Koneclobu Papua New Guinea Scientific Society, c/o Geological Survey Division, P.O. Box 778, Port Moresby (interests include wildland management) Wau Ecology Institute, P.O. Box 77, Wau (includes research, training, and advice to governmental agencies in wildland management) Philippines Philippine Wildlife Conservation Foundation, Bancom Building, Pasay Road, Makati, Rizal Haribon Society, Maicata, Metro Manila University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City (includes Institute of Planning and Marine Sciences Center) Society for a Better Environment, CdD National Science Development Board, P.O. Box 2121, Manila 229 Singapore Singapore Zoological Gardens, Bukit Panjang, P.O. Box 44, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 25 Sri Lanka Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Ceylon, Chaitiya Road, Marine Drive, Fort, Colombo 1 Ceylon Section, International Council for Bird Preservation, P.O. Box 11, Colombo Ceylon Environmental Society, 7 - 13th Lane, Colombo 3 Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society, Colombo University of Sri Lanka, Department of Botany, Peradeniya Thailand Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, 4 Old Custom House Lane, Bangkok Europe, Middle East, and North Africa Cyprus Association for the Protection of Cyprus Environment, P.O. Box 2444, Chanteclair Building, Nicosia Mountaineers and Nature Friends Association, P.O. Box 225, Limassol Egypt, Arab Republic Zoological Gardens, Giza R.EMDENE, Box 589, Alexandria Greece Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, 69 Anagnostopoulou Street, Athens 135 Iran University of Tehran, Faculty of Natural Resources, Karadj Israel Institute for Nature Conservation Research, 155 Herzl Street, Tel Aviv Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, 4 Hashfela Street, Tel Aviv 66183 230 Jordan Royal Society for the Conservation cf Nature, P.O. Box 6354, Amman Morocco Association Nationale pour la Protection de l'Environnement et de la Nature, 13, Zankat El Madani ben el Housni, Rabat-Souissi Portugal Liga para a ProtecAo da Natureza, Estrada do Calhariz de Benefica 187, 1500 Lisbon World Wildlife Fund-Portugal, c/o Banco Espirito Santo, 95 Rua do Comercio 119, Lisbon Romania Association pour la Protection de la Nature "Aristide Caradja," cdo Statiunea de Cercetan Stejarul, Pingarati (Neamt), P.O. Box 68, Piatra Neamt Tunisia Association pour la Protection de la Nature et de l'Environnement, Ancien Casino du Belvedere, Tunis Federation des Associations Regionales de Chasse, rue Charles de Gaulle, Tunis Turkey Turkiye Tabiatum Koruma Cemiyeti (Turkish Nature Conservation Association), Tuna Caddesi No. 5/c, Yenisehir-Ankara World Wildlife Fund-Turkey, Istasyon Cad 60619, Goztepe, Istanbul Bogazici Univesitesi, Center for Environmental Studies, P.K. 2, Bebek, Istanbul Cerve Koruma ve Yesillendirme Dernegi (Environment and Woodland Protection Society), Sisli Meydani No. 364, Istanbul Ornithological Society of Turkey, Foreign Section, 20, Fenchurch Street, London EC3, United Kingdom Tabiati Koruma ve Tanitma Turk Genclik Dernegi (Turkish Youth Society of Nature Conservation and Publicity), c/o Sumru Unsal, Ege Universitesi Fen, Fakultesi, Zooloji Boltumti Ogrenci Kultibu, Bornova-Izmir 231 Yugoslavia Institute for Nature Protection, Molerova 35, 11000 Belgrade Yugoslav Nature Conservation Association, Treci Bulevar 106, 11070, Belgrade Yugoslav Council for Protection and Improvement of the Environment, Bulebar Lenjina 2, 11070 Belgrade Yugoslav Hunters' Federation, Alekse Nenadovica 19023, Belgrade Nature and Mathematics Faculty, 1, H-Dusi Street, Pristina Latin America and the Caribbean Argentina Associaci6n Natura, 25 de Mayo 749, Primero Piso, Buenos Aires Fundaci6n Bariloche, Bariloche Centro de Investigaci6n de Biologia Marina, Avenida Leandro N. Alem 1067, 1001 Buenos Aires Comitt Argentino de Conservaci6n de la Naturaleza, Avenida Santa Fe 1145, Buenos Aires Centro de Ecologia y Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, C.C. 395, 5000 Cordoba Bahamas Bahamas National Trust, P.O. Box N4105, Nassau (concerned with areas of historic interest or natural beauty) Barbados Museum and Historical Society, St. Ann's Garrison Belize Belize Audubon Society, Belize City Brazil Associaclo de Preservaclo da Vida Selvagem, Rua da Consolacao 3095, Sbo Paulo Fundacao Brasileria para Conservacao da Natureza, Rua Miranda Valve, Rio de Janeiro 22281 Associacao Gaucha de Protecao ao Ambiente Natural, Rua da Praia 9326104, C.P. 1996, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 232 Centro Cearense de Conservacao da Fatureza, Rua Barao do Rio Branco, 12565, Fortaleza, Ceara Centro de Conservacao da Natureza de Brasilia, Edificio Antonio Venancio da Silva, Sala 512, Brasilia Centro Espiritossantense para a Conservacao da Natureza, Edificio Sede da ACARES, Rua Afonso Sarlo, Vitoria, Espirito Santo Museu Nacional, Quinta da Boa Vista., Rio de Janiero, CEP 20940 Centro Leopoldense de Conservacao d.a Natureza, Praca Jo§o Pessoa 35, Sao Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Su.l Centro Mineiro para a Conservacao d.a Natureza, c/o Escola Superior de Florestas, Vicosa, Minas Gerais Centro Pernambucano de Conservaclo da Natureza, C.P. 2071, Recife, Pernambuco Associacao de Defesa da Flora e da Fauna, C.P. 832, Praca da Republica, 80/216 Sao Paulo Bolivia Departmento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnologia, Universidad Mayor de San Simon, Cochabamba The Nature Conservancy--Bolivia, P.O. Box 7000, La Paz, Bolivia Instituto de Ecologia, Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz Chile Comit6 Nacional pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora, Casilla 3675, Huerfanos 972, Oficina 508, Santiago Facultad de Ciencias Biol6gicas y de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Concepci6n, Casilla 2407, Apartado 10, Concepci6n Unidad de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, c/o Corporaci6n Nacional Forestal, Avenida Bulnes 285, Apartado 401, Santiago Facultad Ing. Forestal, Universidad Austural de Chile, Avenida Pedro Aquirre Cerda 2001, Valdivia Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Casilla 787, Santiago Instituto de Ecologia y Evoluci6n, Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdivia 233 Colombia Asociaci6n Colombiana de Amigos de los Parques Nacionales, Apartado Aereo 21133, Bogota Grupo Ecoldgico, Universidad de Tolima, Ibague Asociaci6n Nacional para la Defensa de la Naturaleza, Apartado Aereo 6227, Cali Fundacidn Natura, Apartado Aereo 55402, Bogota Costa Rica Fundacifn Neotropica, Apartado 236-1002, San Jose Fundaci6n de Parques Nacionales, c/o Servicio de Parques Nacionales, P.O. Box 1094, San Jose Programa Educaci6n Ambiental, Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Apartado 2, Plaza Gonzales Viquez, San Jose Centro Cientifico Tropical, Apartado 8-3870, San Jose Ecuador Fundacion Natura, Jorge Juan 481, Casilla 243, Quito Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad de Guayaquil, Casilla 471, Guayaquil Estaci6n Cientifica Charles Darwin, Puerto Ayora, Isla de Santa Cruz, Archipielago de Colon El Salvador Friends of the Earth, Avenida Morazan No. 117, San Salvador Guatemala Asociaci6n "Amigos del Bosque," 9A Calle No. 2-23, Zona 1, Guatemala City Centro de Estudios Conservaci6nistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Ciudad Universitaria, 15 Calle A, Guatemala City Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Apartado 987, Guatemala City Escuela de Biologia, Jardin Botanico, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-43, Zona 10, Guatemala City Guyana Guyana Museum and Zoo, Georgetown National Science Research Council, 44 Pere Street, Georgetown 234 Honduras Departmento de Biologia, Universidat Nacional Aut6noma de Honduras, Ciudad Universitaria, TegucigaLpa Jamaica Zoology Department, University of West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7 Mexico Centro de Ecodesarrollo de Mexico, Apartado 11,440, Mexico 11, D.F. Federaci6n Conservaci6nista Mexicania A.C., Apartado 10-934, Mexico 11000 D.F. Pronatura, Apartado Postal 14, La Fl.orida, 53160 Edificio de Mexico, Mexico San Miguel de Allende Audubon Society, Apartado Postal 102, San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato l'affiliated with National Audubon Society, United States) Panama Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 2072, Balboa Panama Audubon Society, Apartado 2026, Balboa (affiliated with National Audubon Society, United States) Departmento de Biologia Marina, Estafeta Universitaria, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Panama Fundaci6n de Parques Nacionales y Medio Ambiente, Apartado 6-6623, El Dorado Asociaci6n Nacional para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza, Apartado 1387, Zona 1, Panama Peru Asociaci6n Peruana de Defensa Contra la Contaminaci6n Ambiental, Cusco 610, Of. 203, Lima Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, Apartado Postal 456, Limna Fundacifn Peruana para la Conservacifn de la Naturaleza, Apartado 5396, Lima 18, Peru Pro Defensa de la Naturaleza, Avenida Nicolas de Pierola, 742, Oficina 703, Edificio Internacional, Lima (affiliated with World Wildlife Fund) 235 Tri:tidad and Tobago Society for the Conservation, Appreciation, and Promotion of the Environment, c/o Trintoplan Consultants, Ltd., P.O. Box 1262, Port-of-Spain Department of Biological Sciences, University of West Indies, St. Augustine Trinidad Field Naturalists Club, 25, Baden Powell Street, Woodbrook, Port-of-Spain Uruguay Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Buenos Aires, 652, Casilla 399, Montevideo Venezuela Asociaci6n Nacional para la Defensa de la Naturaleza, Apartado Correos 68300, Caracas 106 Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela, Apartado 80450, Caracas 108 (affiliated with National Audubon Society, United States) Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas Sociedad Venezolana de Ciencias Naturales, Apartado 1521, Avenida Paez, El Paraiso, Caracas 101 Programa de Patrimonio Natural, Fundaci6n para la Defensa de la Naturaleza, Apartado 70376, Caracas 107 Universidad Nacional de Los Llanos, Occidentales, Guanare, Estado Portuguesa EDF Orinoco, Apartado 3-D, Bararida, Barquisimelo 3002 Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Marida Centro de Investigaciones Cientificas, Universidad de Oriente-Boca de Rio, Isla Margarita International NGOs African Wildlife Foundation, P.O. Box 48177, Nairobi, Kenya Caribbean Conservation Association, Mer Vue, Hastings, Christ Church, Barbados (serves all Antilles; affiliated with National Wildlife Federation, United States) 236 Canadian Nature Federation, 75 Albert Street, Ottawa KlP 6G1, Canada (involved in Caribbean region) Centro Agron6mico Tropical de Investigaci6n y Ensefianza (CATIE), Wildlands Management Unit, Turrialba, Costa Rica Charles Darwin Foundation for the 37alapagos Isles, Greensted Hall, Ongar, Essex, United Kingdom Commonwealth Human Ecology Council (CHEC), 85 Cromwell Road, London SW7, United Kingdom East African Wild Life Society, P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi, Kenya Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program (ECNAMP), St. Croix, Virgin Islands, United States (serves all Antilles) Environment Liaison Center, Atlas House, P.O. Box 72461, Nairobi, Kenya Environmental Defense Fund, 1616 P Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 Environmental Policy Institute, 317 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20003, Unite:d States European Information Center for Nature Conservation, Division of Environment and Natural Resources, Council of Europe, 67006 Strasbourg Cedex, France Fauna Preservation Society, c/o Zoological Society, Regents Park, London NW1, United Kingdom Federaci6n Mesoamericana de Asociaciones Conservaci6nistas No- Gubernamentales (FEDEMAC), San Jose, Costa Rica Friends World Committee for Consull:ation (FWCC), Drayton House, 30 Gordon St., London WC1H OA, England Holy Land Conservation Fund, 150 East 58th Street, New York, N. Y. 10022 Federaci6n Iberoamericana de Parques Zoologicos, Parque Zool6gico de Barcelona, Barcelona 5, Spain International Council for Bird Presevation (ICBP), c/o British Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7, United Kingdom (represented in sixty countries); Section CT (Conservation of Terrestrial Communities), IBP Central Office, 7 Marylebone Road, London NW1 5HB, United Kingdom 237 International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), 75, rue du Temple, F-7500, Paris, France International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA), Centro de Estudos de Arquitectura Paisagista, Tapada de Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal (societies in twenty-four countries; concerned with conservation of green areas and coastal zones) International Association of Game, Fish, and Conservation Commissioners, 1709 New York Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 Internationale des Amis de la Nature/Naturfreunde-Internationale (NFI) (International Federation of Friends of Nature), Kurfurstenstrasse 70, CH-8002, Zurich, Switzerland International Primate Protection League, 1224 Bonita, Berkeley, Calif. 97409 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), avenue du Mont Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland, telex 22618 IUCNCH, telephone 022-64-71-81 (ninety-three countries represented) IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K. telex 817036, telephone (0223) 277314/277420 IUCN Environmental Law Center, Adenauerallee 214, D-5300 Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany IUCN Regional Office for Eastern Africa, P.O. Box 86200, Nairobi, Kenya IUCN-US, Smithsonian Building 120, Washington, D.C. 20560, telephone (202) 357-4536 International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens, Zoologicka Zahrada, Prague 7, Czechoslovakia (members in twenty-two countries) International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, GL2 7BX, United Kingdom National Wildlife Federation, International Program, 1325 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 Natural Resources Defense Council, International Project, 1350 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 Nature Conservancy, International Program, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 238 New York Zoological Society, Wildlife Conservation International, c/o Bronx Zoo, Bronx, N.Y. 10460 Organization for Tropical Studies, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria, San Jose, Costa Rica; P.O. Box DM, Duke Station, Durham, N.C. 22706 Societe pour l'Etude, la Protection, et l'Amenagement de la Nature dans la Region Inter-Tropicales (SEPANRIT), Maison des Sciences de l'Homme de Bordeaux, Esplanade des Antilles, 33405 Talence, France Southern African Wildlife Management Association (SAWMA), P.O. Box 413, Pretoria, South Africa Tigerpaper, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Far East, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2, Thailand Wildlife Conservation International, P.O. 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THE WORLD BANK The world's wildlands--torests. savannas, wetlands, and other areas as yet little touched by human activ- ity-are increasingly under pressure from population growth and economic development But to view wildlands and human needs as necessarily in conflict is a disservice to both environmental and economic interests In this pragmatic book the authors show how wildlands contribute substantially to economic development and to the well-being of the population, particularly in the long term Wildlands protect the soil, control erosion and sedimentation, recycle wastes, reduce floods and droughts, buffer against storms, and provide habitat for plant and animal species that are of known or potential value, economically and in their own right Preserving important wildlands is by far the cheapest and least complicated way of ensuring that these vital environmental services continue To guard against unnecessary damage to irreplaceable natural areas, the World Bank requires that wildland management measures- ranging from the establishment of national parks to the simple rerouting of a road-be included in develop- ment projects that may affect wildlands The authors show howv the policy has been applied in specific cases and address some of the practical considerations in establishing and administering protected areas Useful appendixes give details on the status of wildlands in project areas around the world and provide annotated listings of information sources, organizations. and international agreements. At the time of writing George Ledec was a consultant to the Office of Environmental Affairs. World Bank He is now a Fulbnght fellow at the University of California at Berkeley. Robert Goodland is the chief of the Environment Division of: the Bank's Latin America and the Caribbean Regional Office OTHER WORLD B4NK PUBLICATIONS OF RELATED INTERESi The Management of Cultural Property in World Bank-Assisted Projects: Archaeological, Historical, Religious, and Natural Unique Sites. Robert Goodland and Mar Xla Webb World Bank Technical Paper 62 The Environment, Public Health, and Human Ecology: Considerations for Economic Development. James A Lee The Johns Hopkins University Press Tropical Forests: A Call for Action. The World Resources Institute, the World Bank, and the United Nations Development Piogramme Tribal Peoples and Economic Development: Human Ecologic Considerations. 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