SFG3028 Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) For the Implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia INCLUDING THE OROMIA FORESTED LANDSCAPE PROGRAM (OFLP) SOCIAL ASSESSMENT (SA) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change The National REDD+ Secretariat and Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit Addis Ababa February 2017 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Oromia Environment, Forest and Climate Climate Change (MEFCC) The National Change Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit REDD+ Secretariat E-mail: tesfaye.gonfa@yahoo.com, P. O. Box: 12760 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Telephone: +251-115-58-05-36 Fax: +251-115-58-05-90 Web- https://reddplusethiopia.wordpress.com E-mail: yitebitumoges@yahoo.com Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Project Team members: Sebsebe Demissew (Prof.-Team Leader, Biodiversity Specialist), Zerihun Woldu (Prof.-Vegetation Ecologist), Tamrat Bekele (PhD.- Vegetation Ecologist), Mekuria Argaw (PhD, Environment, Natural Resource Management), Gizaw Ebissa (MSc,-Environmental Analyst), Ketema Abebe (PhD.-Environmental Sociologist), Mellese Madda (PhD- Sociologist), Alemu Mekonen (PhD.-Economist), Ermias Aynekulu (PhD.- GIS Specialist and Vegetation Ecologist), Mellese Damtie (PhD.- Policy Analyst). Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 1 General Concerns and Recommendations ........................................................................... 11 Environmental Concerns and Recommendations ................................................................ 12 Social Concerns and Recommendations.............................................................................. 13 Legal, Institutional and Policy ............................................................................................. 14 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 16 1.1. Background ........................................................................................................... 16 1.2. Objectives of the SESA ......................................................................................... 17 2. REDD+ Mechanism and indicative strategic options ........................................... 18 3. Approach and Methodology .................................................................................. 45 3.1. Approach ............................................................................................................... 45 3.1.2 Preparation for the SESA ................................................................................. 45 3.1.3 Scoping .............................................................................................................. 45 3.1.4 Identifying and Mapping of Stakeholders ...................................................... 46 3.1.5 Collecting and Analyzing Baseline Data ......................................................... 46 3.2. Methodology ......................................................................................................... 47 3.2.2 Secondary data review .................................................................................... 48 3.2.3 Primary Data Collection .................................................................................. 49 3.2.4 Criteria for Sample Sites Selection ................................................................. 50 3.2.5 Hot-spot for Deforestation and Forest Degradation ..................................... 51 3.2.6 REDD+ Projects Implementation Potential ................................................... 51 3.2.6.1 Leakage ......................................................................................................... 50 3.2.6.2 Forest Cover .................................................................................................. 50 3.2.6.3 Forest Types (diversity) .............................................................................. 50 3.2.6.4 Socio-economic settings .............................................................................. 50 3.2.6.5 Plantation sites ............................................................................................. 50 3.2.6.6 Regional States ............................................................................................. 51 3.2.6.7 Samples sites................................................................................................. 51 4. Ethiopia Baseline Situation .......................................................................................... 53 4.1. Population Profile.................................................................................................. 53 4.2. Social Profile............................................................................................................. 54 4.3. Social Profile of Oromia ........................................................................................... 54 vii. Riverine vegetation.................................................................................................. 62 4.4.3 Ground Water ................................................................................................... 72 4.4.4 Hydropower ..................................................................................................... 73 4.4.5 Road Network................................................................................................... 74 5 Oromia Baseline Situation: The People, Culture, Identity and Forest ...................... 76 5.2 Oromo People, Culture and Identity ..................................................................... 76 5.3 Oromo Traditional Resource Management and Conflict Resolution .................... 77 5.4 Institutions in Resource Management and Conflict Resolution ............................ 78 5.5 Most Vulnerable and Underserved Groups in Oromia.......................................... 80 5.6 Grievance Redress Systems .................................................................................. 82 5.6.1 World Bank Group Grievance Redress Service ................................................ 82 5.6.2 OFLP Grievance Redress Mechanism ............................................................... 82 6 Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Process ................................................... 84 6.2 Objectives of the Stakeholder Analysis .............................................................. 84 6.3 Procedures of Stakeholder Analysis .................................................................. 85 6.4 Identification of the Potential Stakeholders ...................................................... 85 6.5 Analysis of the identified Stakeholders ............................................................. 92 7 Summary of Public Participation and Consultations with Stakeholders in Oromia . 96 7.1 Consultation Approaches ...................................................................................... 96 7.2 Summary of Issues and Dates of Community Consultation post October 2015 Appraisal of OFLP........................................................................................................... 96 7.3 Community Consultation and Participation focused on three key agendas, ......... 97 7.4 General level of awareness and understanding on Climate Change, OFLP and REDD+ ............................................................................................................................ 97 7.5 General Agreements .............................................................................................. 97 7.6 Concerns raised during Consultation .................................................................... 98 7.7 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 99 8 Environmental and Social Situation of Ethiopia..................................................... 101 8.2 Environmental Situation of the Forest Sector of Ethiopia .................................. 101 8.2.2. Main Environmental Issues of the Forest Sector ............................................. 103 8.2.2.1. Agricultural investment in forest areas ........................................................ 103 8.2.2.2. Forest Coffee Management and Forest degradation .................................... 104 8.2.2.3. Enset (Ensete ventricosum) Plantations in the Forest .................................. 104 8.2.2.4. Mining and Deforestations ........................................................................... 104 8.2.2.5. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) ....................................................................... 104 8.2.2.6. Smallholder Agriculture............................................................................... 105 8.2.2.7. Overgrazing.................................................................................................. 105 8.2.2.8. Fuel Wood Extraction and Charcoal production ......................................... 106 8.2.2.9. Climate Change ............................................................................................ 106 8.2.2.10. Pollution ....................................................................................................... 106 8.2.2.11. Urbanization ................................................................................................. 106 8.2.2.12. Forest Fire .................................................................................................... 107 8.2.2.13. Infrastructure ................................................................................................ 107 8.3. General Social Situation of Ethiopia ................................................................... 108 8.3.2. Social Development Policy of Ethiopia .......................................................... 109 8.3.3. Gender Issues ................................................................................................... 111 8.4. Forest Related Social Situation in Ethiopia......................................................... 110 8.4.3. Forests and Livelihoods in Ethiopia ................................................................ 110 8.4.4. Women Entitlement to Land and Forest Resources ........................................ 111 8.4.5. Women involvement in the forestry education ................................................ 113 8.4.6. Gender and REDD+: Issues for consideration ................................................ 113 8.4.7. Review of Community Attachment to the Forest Resource ............................ 114 8.4.8. Livestock Seasonal Migration to Forests ........................................................ 115 8.4.9. Traditional forest conservation practices in the SNNPR ................................. 116 8.4.10. Ethno-botany ................................................................................................ 116 8.4.11. Forest as a Household Food Security Source .............................................. 117 8.4.12. Forest as Cultural and Symbolic Values ...................................................... 117 8.4.13. Forest and Forest Product Uses ................................................................... 117 8.4.14. Forest and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) ........................................ 117 8.4.15. Settlements wit in the Forest ........................................................................ 118 8.4.16. Forest Related Grievances ........................................................................... 118 8.4.17. Cause of the Grievance .................................................................................. 91 8.4.18. Grievance Management Mechanism.............................................................. 91 9. Forest Governance .................................................................................................... 93 9.3. Historical Perspectives of Forest Governance in Ethiopia .................................... 94 9.4. Land Tenure, Carbon Rights and Benefit Sharing ................................................ 96 9.4.3. Carbon Rights .................................................................................................... 97 9.4.4. Benefit Sharing .................................................................................................. 98 9.5. Law Enforcement .................................................................................................. 99 9.6. Good Governance and Anti-Corruption .............................................................. 100 9.7. Major Forest ownerships and management in Ethiopia ...................................... 100 9.7.3. Private Forests ................................................................................................. 102 9.7.4. Government Managed Forests ......................................................................... 103 9.7.5. Traditional Forest Management and Resource Use Systems .......................... 104 9.7.6. Global Experience on Traditional Forest Management and Resource Use Systems 105 10. Legal, Policy and Institutional Framework ......................................................... 106 10.2.2. United Nations Framework Conventions for Climate Change (UNFCCC) 106 10.2.3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ............. 106 10.2.4. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ....................... 107 10.2.5. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) .... 108 10.2.6. Convention for the Safeguards of Intangible Heritage ................................ 108 10.2.7. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity 108 10.2.8. Pan African Agency for the Great Green Wall (PAGWW) ......................... 108 10.3. National Policies, Laws and Strategies ............................................................ 108 10.3.2. The Rural Development Policy and Strategy, 2001 ..................................... 109 10.3.3. Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation 2007...... 109 10.3.4. Forest Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy, 2007 .................. 110 10.3.5. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE), 1997 ........................................... 110 10.3.6. Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (EIA) No. 299/2002 ...... 111 10.3.7. Productive Safety Net and Sustainable Land Management Program .......... 112 10.3.8. The Growth and Transformation Plan and CRGE Strategy of Ethiopia ...... 113 10.4. Regional Legal Framework ............................................................................. 114 10.4.2. Amhara National Regional State ................................................................. 114 10.4.3. Tigray National Regional State.................................................................... 114 10.4.4. Oromia National Regional State .................................................................. 115 10.4.5. Southern Nations and Nationalities and Peoples Regional State ................. 115 10.5. Institutional and policy challenges in the forest sector.................................... 117 10.6. Other Policies related to REDD+ Implementation .......................................... 119 10.6.3. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy-1999 ............................... 119 10.6.4. Proclamation for Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife . 120 10.6.5. Law on Expropriation of Landholdings for Public Purposes and Payment of Compensation ................................................................................................................ 120 10.6.6. Access to Genetic Resources and Community Knowledge, and Community Rights Proclamation No. 482 /2006 .............................................................................. 122 10.6.7. Gender Mainstreaming Policies and Strategy .............................................. 122 10.6.8. Legal Framework for Underserved and Vulnerable Groups meeting OP4.10 requirements .................................................................................................................. 123 10.6.9. World Bank Safeguard Policies ................................................................... 124 10.6.10. International Commitments ......................................................................... 126 11. Institutional Review ............................................................................................ 127 11.2. Federal Institutions Review ............................................................................. 127 11.2.3. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR) .......................... 127 11.2.4. Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation (MoFEC) ........................ 128 11.2.5. Ethiopian Agricultural Investment Land Administration Agency (AILAA) 129 11.2.6. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute ................................................................... 130 11.2.7. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) ................................. 131 11.2.8. Environmental Protection and Forestry Research Institute ......................... 131 11.3. Regional and Zonal Government Institutions .................................................. 131 11.3.3. Regional Agriculture and natural Resources Bureaus ................................. 132 11.3.4. Regional Rural Land Administration Bureaus ............................................. 132 11.3.5. Women, Children and Youth affair Bureau ................................................. 132 11.3.6. Cooperative Promotion Agency ................................................................... 132 11.3.7. Woreda/District Level Government Organizations ..................................... 133 11.3.8. Local Level Indigenous Institutions (LLII) ................................................. 133 11.3.9. WAJIB ......................................................................................................... 133 11.3.10. WaBuB ......................................................................................................... 134 11.4. Institutional Review of other REDD+ Stakeholders ....................................... 134 11.4.3. Ministry of Transport ................................................................................... 135 11.4.4. The Ministry of Federal and Pastoralist Affairs ........................................... 135 11.4.5. Higher Educational Institutions ................................................................... 135 11.4.6. HoAREC&N ................................................................................................ 136 11.4.7. FARM Africa ............................................................................................... 136 11.4.8. SOS Sahel .................................................................................................... 136 11.4.9. World Vision................................................................................................ 136 11.4.10. Donor Institutions ........................................................................................ 137 11.4.10.2. DFID-Ethiopia .......................................................................................... 137 11.5. REDD+ Management Arrangement ................................................................ 138 11.5.3. The Federal Level REDD+ Steering Committee (RSC) .............................. 138 11.5.4. National REDD+ Technical Working Group .............................................. 138 11.6. REDD+ Task Force ......................................................................................... 138 11.6.2. The SESA and Consultation and Participation Task Force (SESACP) ....... 139 11.6.3. The MRV Task Force .................................................................................. 139 11.6.4. National REDD+ Secretariat........................................................................ 139 11.6.5. Focal Persons ............................................................................................... 139 11.6.6. Regional REDD+ Management Arrangement ............................................. 140 11.6.7. Coordination among Ministries ................................................................... 140 11.7. A Template for Organizational structure of REDD+ pilot projects22 ............ 141 12. Analyses of the Potential Impacts, Risks and the Mitigation .............................. 142 12.3. Review of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options to Address the Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation ........................................................................... 142 12.3.2.1. Direct Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation ............................. 142 12.3.2.2. Underlying causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation ...................... 144 12.4. Proposed Strategic options to address the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation and Legal.................................................................................................... 149 12.4.3. Strategic Options to address the direct drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation ................................................................................................................... 153 12.4.4. Strategic Options to address Underlying causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation ................................................................................................................... 154 12.4.5. Potential Environmental and Social Benefits of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options ........................................................................................................... 158 12.4.6. Potential Environmental and Social Risks of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options and the Mitigation Measures ............................................................................ 167 12.4.7. Suggested Alternative Strategic Options for Further Consideration in line with the environmental and social situations ................................................................. 185 12.4.8. Potential environmental and social risks of the proposed Alternative Strategic Options and mitigation measures................................................................................... 187 13.2. OFLP Potential Environmental and Social Benefits ....................................... 191 13.3. Potential Implementation Risks and Challenges ............................................. 192 13.4. Social Development Plan (SDP) for OFLP ..................................................... 193 14.3. Environmental ................................................................................................. 200 14.4. Social ............................................................................................................... 200 14.5. Legal, Institutional and Policy ......................................................................... 201 15. References ........................................................................................................... 204 16. Annex .................................................................................................................. 213 Annex 1: Terms of Reference ............................................................................................ 213 Annex 2: Sampled Sites and GPS Points........................................................................... 222 Annex 3: Summary of Field Assessment of other Regions ............................................... 224 Sample photographs from the regions ........................................................................... 232 Annex 4: Field Assessment Summary of Environmental and Social Issues by Regions ....................................................................................................................................... 243 Annex 5: Stakeholder Analysis Checklist ...................................................................... 248 Annex 6: Lists of Participants (partial) .......................................................................... 249 Annex 7: Sample Attendance sheet from Decha Woreda Women FGD, SNNP Region ........................................................................................................................... 270 Annex 8: Sample Attendance sheet for Dodola Woreda Men FGD, Oromia Region 271 Annex 9: Sample Attendance sheet from Decha Woreda Youth FGD, SNNP Region ....................................................................................................................................... 272 Figure 1-Analysis of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation ................................. 6 Figure 2-Underlying causes of deforestation and forest Degradation ....................................... 6 Figure 3-Proposed and the Suggested Enhancement Strategic Options for the National REDD+ Readiness Process........................................................................................................ 7 Figure 4-Proposed strategic options environmental and social benefits ................................... 9 Figure 5-Identified Environmental and Social Risks and mitigation measures ...................... 10 Figure 6-Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by forest ecosystem, sector or commodity types and agents in Oromia region ....................................................................... 27 Figure 7-Existing strategies as reviewed and presented in the R-PP ...................................... 28 Figure 8-Strategic options as reviewed and identified by EDRI 2010 to mitigate deforestation and forest ................................................................................................................................. 29 Figure 9-Proposed required intuitional and regulatory changes in the R-PP to enable effective implementation of REDD+...................................................................................................... 29 Figure 10-Main strategic options in the Bale-Eco-region REDD+ intervention ..................... 30 Figure 11-Strategy options for the Oromia Forested Landscape REDD+............................... 31 Figure 12-Strategic options and targeted measures in the draft national REDD+ strategy ..... 32 Figure 13-Ethiopia’s REDD+ Readiness Process under FCPF ............................................... 33 Figure 14-National REDD+ management arrangement .......................................................... 34 Figure 15-Description of REDD+ pilot projects and implementing organizations in Ethiopia ................................................................................................................................................. 43 Figure 16-SESA Process Flowchart ........................................................................................ 47 Figure17-PRA tools used, the levels at which the tools used and the stakeholders addressed by the particular PRA tools ..................................................................................................... 50 Figure18-Criteria set to select sample sites for SESA-ESMF-RPF-PF studies ...................... 51 Figure 19-REDD+ Projects Implementation Potential Sites ................................................... 52 Figure20-Selected Woreda and Selection criteria .................................................................. 51 Figure21-forest cover of Ethiopia over years .......................................................................... 55 Figure 22-Forest Cover Change vs Population Growth of Ethiopia ....................................... 56 Figure 23-The land-cover types of Ethiopia and their magnitude/proportion ......................... 58 Figure 24-LCLU Map of Ethiopia ........................................................................................... 58 Figure 25-Potential Vegetation Map of Ethiopia .................................................................... 62 Figure 26-Geology of Ethiopia ................................................................................................ 65 Figure 27-Topography/ Relief of Ethiopia .............................................................................. 66 Figure 28-Hydropower Generating Rivers of Ethiopia ........................................................... 73 Acronyms AAU Addis Ababa University ADLI Agriculture Development-Led Industrialization AEZ Agro-ecological Zone AfDB African Development Bank AGP Agricultural Growth Program A/R Afforestation / Reforestation BGRS Benishangul Gumuz Regional State BERSM Bale Eco-region Sustainable Management Project BioCF BioCarbon Fund BoARDs Bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development CBFM Community Based Forest Management CDM Clean Development Mechanism CER Certified Emission Reductions CFC Collaborative Forest Committee CIF Climate Investment Fund CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research (Indonesia) COP Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC CREMA Community Resource Management Area CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy CSA Central Statistics Agency DD Deforestation and forest Degradation DFID Department for International Development (UK) EDRI Ethiopian Development Research Institute EFAP Ethiopian Forestry Action Program EBI Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EF Emission Factors EMP Environmental Management Plan EPA Environmental Protection Agency ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment ESIF Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework ESMF Environmental and Social Management Framework EU European Union EWCA Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia FASC Federation of African Societies of Chemistry FASDEP Food and Agricultural Sector Development Policy FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Facility FDMP Forest Development Master Plan FGD Focus Group Discussion FRL Forest Reference Level FREL Forest Reference Emission Level GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GECS Green Environment Consultancy Service GHG Green House Gas GIS Global Information System GIZ German Development Corporation GOE Government of Ethiopia GTP Growth and Transformation Plan GTP2 Growth and Transformation Plan 2 Ha Hectare HAPPI Horn of Africa Press Institute HFPAs High Forest Priority Areas HoAREC&N Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Network IBC Institute of Biodiversity Conservation Ethiopia (now EBI) ICCO Inter-Church Cooperation Organization IGES Institute for Global Environmental Studies IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPO Implementing Partner Organizations IT Information Technology IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JFM Joint Forest Management JIIE Joint Implementation and International Emissions Trading LULC Land Use Land Cover MEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MoANR Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation MoHUDC Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and Construction MoWIE Ministry of Water Irrigation and Electricity MRV Monitoring Reporting and Verification MW Mega watts NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action NFF National Forest Forum NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations NPV Net Present Value NFPA National Forest Priority Areas NTFPs Non-Timber Forest Products OEFCC Oromia Environment, Forest and Climate Change OFLP Oromia Forested Landscape Program OFWE Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise ORCU Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit ORS Oromia Regional State PAD Project Appraisal Document PAGWW Pan African Agency for the Great Green Wall PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty PDD Project Design Document PFM Participatory Forest Management PIM Project Implementation Manual PLC Private Limited Company PPE Personal Protective Equipment PROC. Proclamation REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation REL Reference Emission Level RL Reference Level RLMRV Reference Level Measurement Reporting and Verification R-PIN REDD+ Project Idea Note RPP Readiness Preparation Proposal SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SESA Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment SFM Sustainable Forest Management SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project SNNPRS Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State tCO2 Ton of Carbon dioxide TF Task Force ToR Terms of Reference TWG Technical Working Group UK United Kingdom UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees URRAP Universal Rural Road Access Program USD United States Dollar VCS Voluntary Carbon Standards VPA Voluntary Partnership Agreement WaBuB Walda Bulchiinsa Bosonaa (afaan Aromoo) Forest Management WB World Bank WBISPP Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project WRI World Resources Institute 8 Acknowledgements The team would like to forward appreciation to the REDD+ secretariat office at MEF for facilitating meetings with relevant staff, providing critical information and documents, for coordinating the field assessment with regional focal persons, providing support letters to stakeholders and closely following up the entire work process throughout the assessment period. We gratefully acknowledge regional, Woreda and Kebele administrations for excellently coordinating the field assessment and providing their unreserved support in arranging meetings, facilitating discussions and availing the required data and information. Despite the strain on the timing of the assessment as it coincided with the national poll, we received all the necessary support. The team and the consulting firms would also like to extend sincere thanks to all government offices, NGOs, CBOs and local community members for providing their precious time for discussions, interviews and consultative meetings for the preparation of this SESA document. Executive Summary 1.1. Background In February 2014, the REDD + Secretariat in the Ministry of Environment and Forestry commissioned this Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) of the REDD+ Strategy. It is accompanied by a separate report detailing an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF), Process Framework and Resettlement Policy Framework. This SESA study has been carried out with the aim of mainstreaming sustainable development principles into the REDD+ strategy options. Ethiopia has prepared a Climate Resilient and Green Economy (CRGE) strategy to ensure its social and economic developments are socially, environmentally and economically acceptable and sustainable. Forestry is one of the four pillars for the successful implementation of the CRGE strategy through REDD+. Ethiopia has prepared the Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) in April 2010 through a participatory consultative process, which was approved in March 2011. Ethiopia is getting closer to readiness to implement REDD+ at the national scale. This SESA is a critical requirement for the process and to guide decision making for a successful implementation of the REDD+ in a manner consistent with Ethiopia’s environmental and social policies, laws and regulations and the World Bank’s environmental and social safeguard policies. Further, this SESA is a critical requirement for the process and to guide decision making for a successful implementation of the REDD+ in a manner consistent with Ethiopia’s environmental and social policies, laws and regulations and the World Bank’s environmental and social safeguard policies. In line with the move towards integrating social dimensions in Environmental Assessment and preparing integrated environmental and social impact assessment instruments (ESIAs). This SESA also includes sections on vulnerability assessment, specifically focusing on impacts on groups meeting OP4.101 and proposes measures for providing culturally appropriate economic and social benefits and/or avoiding, minimizing, mitigating, or compensating adverse impacts; and the process used to conduct free, prior, and informed consultations with beneficiaries/affected peoples, consistent with OP 4.10 requirements and the outcome of the consultations informs the decision/design process for the Oromia Forested Landscape Program (OFLP) and the National REDD+ Strategy. There are already pilot REDD+ projects and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects in the country, where experience can be built on. Hence, REDD+ implementation has already got good ground and much of the activities are on-going, which will continue to intensify over the course of time. The pilot REDD+ and CDM projects in the country include the Bale Mountain Eco-region REDD+ Project (in Oromia), Nono Sele Participatory Forest Management REDD+ project (includes Oromia location), Yayu REDD+ Project (includes Oromia location), forest related CDM Projects and, lastly, the new Oromia Forested 1 OP/BP. 4.10 is the World Bank’s Operational policy on underserved peoples in Ethiopia context. The elements of IPP is included in this SESA as Social Development Plan (SDP) to include standard vulnerability analysis of groups meeting OP4.10 criteria. This vulnerability assessment is integrated in the broader SESA. It also include measures for providing culturally appropriate economic and social benefits for vulnerable groups and, where there are potential adverse impacts on these groups, measures to avoid, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for these impacts and the process used in fostering free, prior, and informed consultations for their broad support for the program. 1 Landscape Program (OFLP) which is detailed in this SESA. 1.2. Baseline Situation Ethiopia is one of the least urbanized countries in the world with over 85 % of its population living in rural areas. Ethiopia has 86 ethnic groups living in different parts of the country some being forest dependent communities and are closely attached with forests for their livelihoods. Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa. Currently, the population is estimated at 98 million with average annual growth rate of 2.6% in 2014. Ethiopia has great geographic diversity with high and rugged mountains, flat topped plateaus, deep gorges, incised river valleys and rolling plains. The Danakil Depression is located at 125 m below sea level while the highest mountain is Ras-Dashen with 4620 m above sea level. The drainage basin of Ethiopia is described as exoreic (eastern and western drainage systems: Nile Basin) and endoreic (Main Ethiopian Rift drainage systems: Awash River, Lake Region, Abaya-Chamo Basin, Chew Bahir Basin and Omo River). The climate pattern of Ethiopia is mainly determined by the alternations of inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the influence of the Indian Monsoon throughout the year. Two major air streams cause dry and rainy seasons from late June to early September. Precipitation and temperature gradients are strongly dependent on altitude; while precipitation increases, temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The major agricultural soils include Nitosols, Cambisols, Vertisols and Fluvisols. The soils that are important as arable land have a total area of about 40 million hectare. As estimated by Ministry of Environment and Forest (MEF) (unpublished document), the current forest coverage of the country is about 15 %. The natural vegetation types include the Afroalpine belt, the Ericaceous belt, the Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex, the Moist Afromontane Forest, Transitional Rain Forest, Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland, Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bush land, Wooded grassland of the western Gambela region, the Riverine vegetation, Freshwater lakes, lake shores, marsh and flood plain vegetation, Desert and semi-desert scrubland and the Salt –water lakes, lake shores, salt marshes and pan vegetation Ethiopia is considered as a powerhouse of Africa for its high hydropower potential but only a small proportion of the potential is developed so far. Large hydro-dams are under construction with the objective of excess power export plan to neighboring countries. The road network of Ethiopia is very limited and government has recently launched 2 initiatives to improve the connectivity of rural-to-rural, rural-to –urban and urban-to- urban through the Universal Rural Road Access Program (URRAP) and The Road Sector Development Program (RSDP). 1.3. Forest related Environmental and Social Situations Historical evidence shows that 40% of the land of Ethiopia was covered by forest in 1900, then dropped to 3% in 1980s and now unpublished government sources indicate the cover increased to 15%. Though there are multiple and combined factors for the deforestation and forest degradation of Ethiopia, agricultural expansion and population growth coupled with the dependency on forest and woodlands for construction and fuel wood (94% of households depend on biomass energy) are the major causes. Small scale agricultural expansion (at the expense of forests), uncontrolled extraction of fuel wood and charcoal for energy, illegal logging and deforestation by large scale agricultural investment are some of the key environmental issues in the forest sector of Ethiopia. Examples of such activities were observed in the SNNPR, Gambella, Benishamgul- Gumuz, Oromia and Tigray regions. The forest sector has evolved and gone through various structural reforms. Attention was given since the time of Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913). At that time, crown forestlands were set aside for protection. During Emperor Haile Sillassie (1931-1974), they established the ‘Rist’ system as a legal and traditional land tenure system in the country with the land tenure systems different in northern and southern part of Ethiopia. The Derg (1974- 1991) government had introduced a land reform proclamation in 1975, known as “Land to the Tiller”. Derg had enacted different proclamations to protect the natural resources of the country. Derg implemented afforestation/reforestation programs on private and communal lands. The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia enabled the country manage the forest resources at different administrative tiers. The key social issues of the forest sector in Ethiopia must be viewed from the perspective that forests are vital means of livelihoods for the rural poor in the country, though the degree of dependence of communities on the forest and forest resources varies from region to region due to ecological conditions, socio-cultural values and economic factors. Women and youth proportionally rely more on forests for their livelihoods and financial needs. Hence, programs like REDD+ need to consider gender as a key social issue to be looked at across projects. At the same time, forests provide critical ecosystem services important for the poor such as water provisioning and regulating services (for crops, livestock, households, flood control, drought resilience), climate regulation, and tangible non-timber forest products such as medicines and honey. Removing these environmental and economic benefits would amplify social risks. 1.4. Forest Governance Forest sector governance is defined as the modus operandi by which people, stakeholder groups, and institutions (both formal and informal) acquire and exercise authority in the management of forest resources, to sustain and improve the quality of life for those whose livelihood depends on the sector. Forest governance has been recognized as one of the key issues that should be addressed to ensure successful implementation of REDD+. 3 There have been various initiatives to formulate legislations, decrees and guidelines aimed at guiding the sustainable management of the forest resources of the country. The change in the Ethiopian forest policy has been a dynamic process, influenced by frequent structural changes, political orientation, international environmental agreements, economic priorities and global forest related discourses. Current land ownership in Ethiopia is regulated by the 1995 Constitution that assigned land as a state and public good. The people of Ethiopia have only user right over the land including the natural resources and are not entitled to sell land or use it as a means for exchange. The forest ownership was defined as community, private and government in the earlier regime, while the current Federal forest proclamation recognizes state and private forest ownership, although community ownership is treated under private ownership. Forest management experience in the country has been both formal and traditional. There were efforts to designate forestlands as national forest priority areas and put under strict protection. There are also traditional management systems through tree based farming. 1.5. Legal, Policy and Institutional Framework The 1995 Ethiopian constitution is the supreme law of the land that has laid out the foundations for Ethiopia's commitment to ensure sustainable development, environmental and social safety. As a result, Ethiopia has given due attention to protect the environment and natural resources by ratifying international agreements and preparing national legal frameworks pertinent to environment and natural resources protection. The summary of the legal, policy and institutional frameworks is presented below including international conventions relevant to the REDD+ and the OFLP, however, detail discussions is under section 8.1 of this SESA. 1. Ethiopia participated on the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and ratified the UNFCC convention in 1994 and became a party to it. 2. Ethiopia signed in 1997 and become a party to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 3. Ethiopia signed United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 4. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 5. Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Ethiopia ratified the convention in 1977 and become a party to it. 6. Pan African Agency for the Great Green Wall (PAGWW) Project, Ethiopia became a member in 2014. The forest sector in Ethiopia has received considerable attention in the policy and development strategy of the country over the last two decades. The previous national forest policy and strategy formulated in 2007 has been revised in 2015 bringing in broader forest sector functions in terms of policy and strategy coverage. Furthermore, The Ministry of Environment and Forest has finalized reviewing the “Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation which is expected to be ratified when new National Parliament resumes its legislation work at the beginning of October, 2015. Though not directly related to the forest sector and to the issues of REDD+, there are also policies and strategies formulated in other sectors that influence the protection and conservation of forests. The national legal and policy frameworks relevant for REDD+ include, 4 1. The 2015 Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation (expected be legislated in October 2015) 2. The Forest Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy (revised in 2015) 3. The 1997 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE) (currently, a revision of this policy is underway by MEFCC) 4. The 299/2002 Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (EIA) 5. National Energy Policy, 1994 6. Water Resources Management Policy, 1999 7. Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife proclamation, 2007 8. Expropriation of Landholdings for Public Purposes and Payment of Compensation, 2005 9. Rural Land Administration and Land use proclamation, 2005 10. National Social Protection Policy, 2014 11. Proclamation on Access to Genetic Resources and Community Knowledge, and Community Rights Proclamation, 2007 and the 12. Gender Mainstreaming Policy and Strategy. Projects and Plans 1. The Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) 2. The Sustainable Land Management Program 3. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) for the period 2010/11-2014/15 The FDRE Constitution vests a power to the regional states to formulate their respective policies, raise their own revenue as well as plan and execute their own forest development activities in accordance with the framework of the overall policies of the federal government. Accordingly, different regional governments of the country have formulated their own strategies to protect and conserve their natural resources. This SESA complies with the World Bank safeguard policies related to the social and environmental safeguards relevant for the implementation of the REDD+ project are reviewed under section 8.5.7 of this report. 1.6. Analysis of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation (D- DD) This analysis of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation was essential to scrutinize whether the proposed strategic options are targeted towards tackling the direct and root causes of deforestation and forest degradation. The review looked at national strategic documents and recent D-DD studies at regional and national levels. The following direct drivers and underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation were considered pertinent and critical to be addressed in the strategic interventions. 5 Figure 1-Analysis of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation • Small-scale agriculture • Large-scale agriculture • Fuel wood extraction • Charcoal production • Logging (legal and illegal, Construction wood extraction • Forest coffee planting • Livestock grazing Anthropogenic • Mining (small artesian and large scale industrial) • Roads and infrastructure • Invasive alien species Direct drivers • Fires/human caused • Wild Fire • Climate change/Droughts Natural • Pests and diseases • Floods The underlying causes are those factors rooted in the economic, social, institutional, political, cultural, and governance layers with a complex cause-and-effect interaction and operating at different scales. The factors and underlying causes listed below are identified as applicable to the reality in forest loss and degradation conundrum in Ethiopian. This host of factors requires further structural and intuitional adjustments in order to bring tangible changes in curbing deforestation and forest degradation. Figure 2-Underlying causes of deforestation and forest Degradation Root factors Underlying causes of deforestation and forest Degradation Economic • Commodity markets/prices • Commodity markets • Investment • Urbanization • Unemployment Social • Poverty • Livelihoods • Conflicts • Gender • Awareness/Education Political • Equity • Resource allocation Demographic • Population • Migration • Resettlement Cultural • Attitudes • Values and beliefs 6 1.7. Analysis of the proposed Strategic Options (SO) to achieve REDD+ objectives The draft national REDD+ Strategy identified comprehensive range of strategic options for this SESA, broadly categorized into policy and institutional measures, targeted sector- based measures and crosscutting issues. They are inclusive of the different strategic options identified in the CRGE, the R-PP and the regional REDD+ pilots. The strategic options were assessed vis-à-vis the direct drivers and underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation and they are all-inclusive and responsive to the drivers with some environmental and social risks. However, based on the social and environmental situation assessment, this SESA identified some critical gaps in the strategic options and proposed what could be considered as alternative or complementary options to address the critical gaps. The proposed and the alternative strategic options are listed below. Figure 3-Proposed and the Suggested Enhancement Strategic Options for the National REDD+ Readiness Process Proposed strategic options Suggested Enhancements to Strategic options SO1: Enhance cross-sectorial synergies ESO1: Support the establishment and implementation and stakeholder participation of the REDD+ coordination mechanism (policies, marketing, BSM), information (i.e., strategic communication, MRV) SO2: Forest governance and law ESO2:Provide capacity building to local level actors enforcement SO3: Forest tenure and property right ESO3: Test models for community forest tenure SO4: Land use planning ESO4: Develop/support national, regional and local level land use planning framework and land use plans and/or watershed plans SO5: Ensure Sustainable Forest ESO5: Support afforestation and reforestation (A/R) on Management degraded lands and participatory forest management (PFM) of natural forests including livelihoods support. SO6: Enhancement of forest carbon stock ESO6: Support alternatives to address deforestation, reduce land-use based emissions and adoption of improved technologies. (See SO5 and ESO5) SO7: Agricultural intensification ESO7: Support adoption of improved, climate-smart farming practices and diversify and/or intensify their current production systems including provision of water points and watershed rehabilitation 7 SO8: Reduce demand for fuel wood and charcoal ESO8: Coordinate with the national cook stoves and biogas programs to mitigate biomass demand SO9: Increase wood and charcoal supply ESO9:Enhance sustainability of wood and charcoal supply by rationalizing markets, promoting alternative wood lots as well as A/R SO10: Improved livestock management- ESO10: Support improved livestock management including improved breeds, value addition and marketing of livestock byproducts SO11: Promote supplementary income generation ESO11: Support sustainable livelihood or income generating activities for forest dependent communities using NTPFs and nonagricultural alternatives SO12: Capacity building N/A SO13: Inter-sectoral coordination on planning and implementation See SO1 and ESO1 SO14: Demand-driven research and extension Support research to enhance agricultural productivity, linkage sustainable utilization of forest resource, alternative livelihoods SO15: Ensure full participation and Ensure participatory and consultative process to equitable benefit for women establish a system that responds to both women and underserved groups SO16: Benefit sharing Support the development of a benefit sharing mechanism where most of the benefits should reach communities and smallholders that promote adoption of more sustainable land-uses rather than cash payment; promote non-carbon benefits The proposed strategic options have multiple environmental and social benefits that can bring significant improvement in local livelihoods and ecosystem health. Long list of the potential benefits are presented in the main text and the following are few examples provided in this summary. 8 Environmental Benefits Social Benefits • Contribute to significant reduction of deforestation • Create employment opportunities for and forest degradation; reduce impacts of large sale the youth and contribute to improving agricultural investment, mining and infrastructure the role of the forest sector to the development on forest ecosystems economic growth • Enhance the regeneration potential of threatened • Contribute to harmonization of policies tree species by preventing the impacts of grazing, and laws towards complementarity than logging and fuel wood extraction and charcoal competition and overlaps through production, • Enhance carbon sequestration and storage in the improved synergy and joint planning at different carbon pools (above and below ground) all levels. • Provide alternative energy sources and contribute • Enhance participation of all stakeholders to reducing loss of forest cover, degradation in planning, implementation and • Improve biodiversity conservation and maintenance monitoring of projects and programs of ecosystems services; • Increased knowledge and awareness • Reduce environmental pollution through increased • of local communities on the economic, buffering of important wetlands and water bodies social and environmental benefits of • Enhance environmental sustainability and forests agricultural landscape productivity through reduced • Diversify income and reduce risk of soil degradation dependency on forest resources for • Improve soil fertility and crop yields through forest dependent communities improved nutrient cycling within the system and increased organic residue return • Increase involvement and participation • Enhance conservation of agro-biodiversity of underserved communities in resource • Enhance ecosystem services and contribute to governance and decision making resilience towards the impacts of climate change on • Increase the roles of women in forest human and natural systems management and conservation through • Increase availability of fuel wood and construction gender mainstreaming in the forest wood from sustainably managed sources sector • Improve access to social services such as health and clean water supply • Increased food security to households Figure 4-Proposed strategic options environmental and social benefits The potential environmental and social risks of the proposed strategic options and the mitigation measures are provided in greater details in the respective sections, including the specificity of OFLP, and only a brief synopsis is provided below. 9 Figure 5-Identified Environmental and Social Risks and mitigation measures Environmental Risks Mitigation Measures Social Risks Mitigation Measures • Increased • Synergy and policy • Increased forest • Enhance synergy; deforestation and harmonization products and NTFP facilitate for the forest degradation Coordination unit to prices; inefficient creation of due to absence of be formed at the social service from the alternatives for the inter- sectoral synergy higher level sectoral offices due to forest product and • Forest land • Replacement planting lack of coordination NTFP conversion to required to • Attractive forest • Implement land use agriculture may compensate for the tenure and plan, effective law increase due to small loss property right may enforcement to deter holder and large scale • Establish strong increase competition competition for land at agriculture quarantine centers for land all administrative • Poorly quarantined at national and • Small holder farmers levels agroforestry species regional levels may be evicted from • Organize local may become invasive • Implement watershed their community user and damage the management holdings for groups through tested natural environment; practice to protect investment models (e.g., PFM, • Increased siltation of reservoirs • Loss in land use right forest user reservoirs; pollution • Provide other or ownership may be associations), and from agro-chemicals renewable alternate induced grant clear use right may increase health energy sources such as • Already fragment land over forest resources risks solar power utilization use may reduce • Use compensation • Increased use of energy devices productivity and cause mechanisms both in efficient stove may food insecurity kind and other means indirectly lead to high • Increase mineral • Increase productivity biomass energy fertilizer dependency per unit area through demand and incurs cost to the poor improved input use consumption, which in and local (seed, fertilizer, etc.). turn cause communities; • Integrate suitable deforestation agroforestry species • Encourage agriculture intensification using organic fertilizers such as compost • Supply of energy efficient cooking and baking gadgets at subsidized price; avail electricity and solar devices at affordable price by the community 10 1.8. Observations and Recommendations General Concerns and Recommendations Concerns • The REDD+ program has technical and institutional interventions, management arrangements, benefit sharing mechanism to address the prevailing social and environmental problems entangling the forest sector in Ethiopia to effectively reverse the millennial process of deforestation and forest degradation, if rightly implemented with the required institutional reforms. The causes of deforestation are deeply rooted in the economic, social, institutional, cultural, and political and governance layers of the country. The strategic options are designed to address these drivers at the respective scales and the impacts of those options are largely positive. • The level of awareness on REDD+ is generally low in the regions. Conducting awareness creation workshops, distributing promotional materials, in appropriate languages and culturally sensitive manner, and expanding support for local capacity building on forest sector development and law enforcement should be part of the preparedness process. • There is sufficient and accumulated positive experience in the country on the practices of area closures for environmental rehabilitation and biodiversity restoration. In some cases, farmland closures are also introduced and successful results are reported. The practice of free grazing is a serious challenge for sustainability, and most closures target overuse of lands by livestock principally cattle. • As the rural mass largely depends on biomass energy source (particularly fuel wood and charcoal) for cooking and lighting, much of this is extracted from the natural vegetation including high forests and woodlands. Recommendation • It requires commitment and strong will at the political level and work strategically to bring social and behavioral change. Thus, for a successful implementation of the REDD+ program, continued engagement and dialogue with the stakeholders using the national consultation and participation plan is essential to bring about appropriate reforms in the legislative and policy instruments and the implementation mechanisms. • Areas of capacity building should cover the wider community, local governments, and investors on the role of forests in mitigating the looming climate change impacts, enhancing local livelihoods, environmental and social stability, agricultural productivity and on the significance of law enforcement. • Thus, variety of measures that may improve productivity and reduce the number of heads of livestock (e.g., improving productivity through improved breeds, better access to market and value addition to products, i.e., packaging, processing, etc...) may address the grazing problem. Reducing the impact of free grazing, through stock control and increasing tie-and feed system is essential to improve sustainable forest conservation and degraded area rehabilitation. • Agricultural intensification is feasible in highlands and lowlands in the current context, according to the information collected from the field observations. 11 Nevertheless, availability of inputs and technology (equipment for line seeding or row planting and fertilizer application) are critically lacking. The other (this comes out-of-the-blue) barrier will be the availability and cost of inputs, particularly improved seeds and capital. • Promote initiating and engagement on commercial tree planting such as community forests and industrial plantations; and such initiatives have to start with piloting with interested groups, farmers associations and local administrations. Positive results from such pilots can be scaled up later. Environmental Concerns and Recommendations Concerns • Invasive alien species are serious environmental and social threats in most parts of the country, particularly in Afar and Borana areas, causing biodiversity degradation and loss. • Forest demarcation is essential to protect and conserve the existing forests from further deforestation and forest degradation. The SESA study confirmed that demarcated forests under the jurisdiction of the Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) are being cleared on daily a basis and changed to ‘coffee and enset’ farms (e.g., in Odo Shakiso Woreda of the Oromia region). OFWE has been unable to enforce or implement existing laws to protect the forest and the local administration have no resources to carry out meaning corrective actions at the local level. • The GoE (2014) revised forest definition excludes shrub lands, which covers quite extensive area in the country and this might instigate clearing such vegetation for other land uses or it might lead to the replacement of such natural vegetation with (plantation of) exotic forest species. Recommendations • Strategic interventions should consider controlling the expansion and dissemination of such species into new environments and support the eradication efforts. In addition, the quarantine system of the country needs to be revisited and strengthen in order to prevent the introduction of new invasive alien species (IAS) into the country. • Thus, forest demarcation has to be done very cautiously. It is generally recommended that the regional forest enterprises (OFWE, Amhara Region Forest Enterprise) have to get strong local support to enforce laws and to rightly administer the forest concessions. • Closely work together with the Ethiopian Roads Authority and the Ministry of Mines in order to have accurate estimates of the destruction and thus, to avoid where feasible, or minimize exploring all viable alternative project designs to avoid such destruction in the future. This also requires joint planning and implementation among the respective institutions. 12 • The GoE (2014) revised forest definition excludes shrub lands, which covers quite extensive area in the country and this might instigate clearing such vegetation for other land uses or it might lead to the replacement of such natural vegetation exotic plantation forest species. Social Concerns and Recommendations Concerns • The experience in the country for benefit sharing is not well developed. The proceeds collected from different sources in different types of forest conservation associations (e.g., PFM and Joint Forest Management (JFM)), are not properly shared to those who have formed the legal associations. While building on the models of Humbo, Soddo, PFMs and JFM care should be taken to develop a good model. • Gender disparity is a reality when it comes to resource ownership and entitlement for women and men, especially in the rural areas. Hence, women are economically and culturally disadvantaged groups, which often lead to women being engaged in exploiting “free access” resources to generate their own income (e.g., fire wood and other forest products). Recommendations • The benefit sharing mechanisms in existing forest management initiatives should be piloted before scaling up to increase the chances of designing a better benefit sharing mechanism for REDD+ and OFLP. • Development opportunities accruing from the REDD interventions should benefit both women and men equally. • The OFLP’s anticipated social impacts have triggered World Bank OP/BP 4.12 and OP/BP 4.10, and the Oromia program has put in place mitigation mechanisms acceptable to the World Bank to mitigate these impacts. For impact on land and properties, the Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) will be used and for involuntary restriction of access9 to legally designated parks and protected areas, a Process Framework (PF) will be used to address any potential impacts, which are expected to be site specific. The Bank’s OP 4.10 is triggered based on the screening conducted by the World Bank and reinforced by the constitution of Ethiopia, which indicate that the majority of the target population identify themselves as having the characteristics defined under OP 4.10. Therefore, issues relating to PAPs meeting the OP 4.10 requirements is defined in detail through “Enhanced Social Assessment and Consultation,” (part of this SESA) which identified social issues and economic opportunities for the underserved groups. Key stakeholders have been consulted in the Woredas, Kebeles and communities, including identified vulnerable and undeserved groups to seek their broad support for the OFLP and the importance of this program to themselves and their families. The findings of the enhanced social assessment and extensive consultations, including measures to ensure the provision of grievance redress, and benefit sharing issues, and the identified mitigating measures are incorporated in the design of OFLP. 13 Legal, Institutional and Policy • The Federal forest proclamation designates forest ownership as state (government) and private, although community ownership is treated under private ownership. Some of the regional proclamations recognize private and community ownership separately (e.g., Oromia region). However, the necessary guidelines and regulations are not yet in place to attract private investment into the forestry sector. Thus, there is a need to prepare implementation guidelines and regulatory frameworks, which is crucial for involvement of the private sector and individuals. • It might be beneficial if the height of a tree in the definition be lower than two meters so that important shrub vegetation species, which often have a height of less than two meter, and such vegetation types will be saved from destruction. • Although REDD+ is recognized as an instrument in the CRGE to achieve the forestry sector emission reduction objective, other sectoral project formulations and implementations need to be aligned with the CRGE to reduce emissions and maximize a carbon neutral development gains. • Review of the existing environmental instruments and discussions with stakeholders revealed that although there is an EIA proclamation (Proclamation No. 299/2002 for addressing project based impacts), but Ethiopia generally lacks policy or legal framework on strategic social and environmental assessment (SEA) to evaluate undesired social and environmental outcomes of strategic development programs. This may pose a challenge in the proper implementation of the SESA/ESMF in the future. There is a need to formulate strategic social and environmental assessment policy and implementation guideline to fill the gap. The current review process of the EIA proclamation by MEFCC should take into account this gap and put an effort to address it through the review process. • Review of the national draft ESIA (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment) guideline indicates that the guideline has essentially missed concepts on REDD+. It is highly recommended that the draft ESIA guideline should include environmental and social issues of REDD+. • Discussion with stakeholders and client as well as reviewing the relevant available documents revealed that Ethiopia has no ESA (Environmental and Social Auditing) guidance. But currently MEFCC is said to have started working on the preparation. Generally, it is recommended that the country should develop its own ESA guideline for carrying out environmental and social audit of the REDD+ projects. • In the EIA Proclamation No.299/2002, development projects including agricultural investments that have impact on forest resources are required to undertake EIA and the report to be reviewed by the competent agencies (regional or federal environment offices). The proclamation mandated the competent Federal agency and Regional environment bureaus to review the EIA reports to avoid conflicts of interest. Against this legal provision, the Federal agency (now MEFCC) transferred its mandate to the implementing and/or investment licensing sectoral Minsters to provide environmental clearance to projects. This misinterpretation of the proclamation needs to be reviewed and corrective measures have to be taken accordingly. • Proclamation No. 691/2010 vests power to the MoA to protect natural resources 14 and conserve biodiversity. There is no clear definition of natural resources that it is mandated to protect and conserve. This is an example of overlap in mandates with the other sectors like MEFCC and will create gap in addressing key problems around the forest resources. • Strong synergy is needed among the relevant institutions and organizations not only the traditional vertical relationship but also horizontal. • Inclusion of traditional local institutions (e.g., Aba Gadaa, in Oromia, Gepitato in Sheko) will contribute to the successful implementation of REDD+ projects. The adoption of forest conservation experiences from the local forest user associations such as WAJIB and WaBuB will significantly contribute to the successful implementation of REDD+ projects. • There is a clear gap in cross-sectoral coordination in joint planning and implementation of projects and programs. This needs to be seriously looked at and synergy coordination office should be established and be accountable to a higher level of government. • The REDD+ program (both national and Oromia) needs to build on the experience gained by some NGOs, such as FARM Africa, SOS-Sahel and World Vision Ethiopia and Ethio- Wetlands, in preparing and implementing pilot REDD+ and CDM projects, closely work with them in future projects. 15 1. Introduction 1.1. Background Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, and enhancing forest carbon stocks (REDD+) has become one of the global instruments to curb greenhouse gas emissions and to mitigate climate change. REDD has gained ground after the Bali decision (Bali Action Plan, 2007; COP 13) and it is implemented in developing countries, those with forest resources and facilitates financial mobilization for the implementing countries. REDD+ drives a low carbon-growth by avoiding emissions from forestland and contributes to biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction. The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) under the World Bank provides support to those countries engaged in the preparation of readiness plans and subsequent implementation of national REDD+ strategies to reduce deforestation and forest degradation. Ethiopia has been participating in the FCPF since 2008 and prepared the Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) in April 2010 through a participatory consultative process, which was approved in March 2011. With the financial support from the FCPF, Ethiopia has put in place the national readiness management structure and prepared the national REDD+ implementation framework. Since the forest sector development is one of the key pillars of Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE), the REDD+ program is an important propeller to achieve the forest sector development objective in particular and the economic development in general. Ethiopia has been implementing the R-PP in the last few years and one of the expectations during the readiness process is to ensure proposed strategic programs and activities “do good” to society and the environment while trying to enhance benefits to local communities and forest ecosystems. Thus, the FCPF requires countries participating in the Readiness and the REDD+ activities implementation to undertake a Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) to identify and compile the potential impacts from national REDD+ programs and policies, and to formulate alternatives and to develop mitigation strategies. SESA is a tool that uses a range of analytical and participatory approaches aiming at integrating environmental and social considerations into policies, plans and programs and evaluates the inter- linkages with economic and institutional considerations. SESA supports the design of the national REDD+ policy framework, including the National REDD+ Strategy. SESA offers a platform for consultations with stakeholders from the higher to the micro-levels. SESA is complemented by an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF), Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) and Process Framework (PF) which establishes the principles, guidelines, and procedures for reducing, mitigating, and/or off-setting potential adverse environmental and social impacts, enhancing positive impacts and opportunities, and otherwise guiding potential investments towards compliance with relevant safeguards. In the preparation of this SESA, preliminary results from the national study on the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation has been used in assessing the impacts of the REDD+ strategic options. Besides, relevant inputs were taken from the strategic options proposed in the 16 national R-PP document, the draft national REDD+ strategy, strategic options proposed in the study of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation for the Oromia Forested Landscape Program (OFLP), and the study for deforestation and forest degradation for the Bale REDD+. 1. 2. 1.2. Objectives of the SESA The general objective of the SESA aims to ensure that strategic environmental and social assessment principles are applied to integrate environmental and social considerations into Ethiopia’s REDD+ readiness process in a manner consistent with Ethiopia’s environmental laws and regulations and the World Bank’s environmental and social safeguard policies, and associated risks are addressed from an early stage in the process of formulating REDD Policy and programs, and incorporated throughout the process. The specific objectives of the SESA are to identify opportunities that: o Facilitate an understanding of the operating environment for REDD+ programs, including stakeholder analysis and the socio-environmental dimensions of the forestry sector in Ethiopia; o Identify potential environmental and social impacts related to REDD+ programs in Ethiopia; (the SESA process should ensure full coherence and coordination with the ongoing institutional and legal assessment, including benefit sharing for REDD+ in Ethiopia, led by the Government of Ethiopia); o Design enhanced stakeholder’s consultation and participation approach to mitigate and/or enhance the identified impacts; o Suggest methods and measures to mitigate environmental and socioeconomic risks during REDD+ strategy implementation. o Assess key socio-economic factors that require consideration, specifically for Oromia Regional State; identify vulnerable and historically underserved groups that may be included/excluded from the OFLP and be adversely affected as a result, and proposes necessary impact mitigating measures towards addressing World Bank requirements on social safeguards triggered by the program (OP/BP 4.10 and OP/BP 4.12). The SESA is being carried out to ensure that the implementation of the REDD+ mechanism contributes positively to sustainable forest management in line with the objectives of Ethiopia’s 2012 Forest Policy (MoARD, 2012). In addition, the SESA would contribute towards Ethiopia’s overarching goal of environmental sustainability, climate change, economic growth, job creation and poverty alleviation programmes. With this in mind, the purpose of the SESA is to ensure operational integration of environmental quality objectives, economic efficiency principles, and social and gender equity goals into the REDD+ strategy options. 17 2. REDD+ Mechanism and indicative strategic options 2.1 History of REDD+ under the UNFCCC Negotiations The following is a synopsis of the evolution of the mitigation mechanism for REDD+ in the context of more than 20 years of climate change negotiation under the UNFCCC. The main decision-making body of the UNFCCC, the Conference of Parties (COP), annually reviews the work of the Convention. 1. December 1997 - Under the Kyoto Protocol, the COP adopted an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was agreed as a financial mechanism to facilitate GHG emissions reductions At its third meeting in 1997 in Kyoto, the COP adopted the Kyoto Protocol, a legally binding international treaty aimed at reducing the signatories greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels by the year 2012. 2. February 2005: At COP 11 in Montreal, the proposal for a mechanism for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries received a wide support from Parties and the COP established a contact group and thereafter began a two year consultation period to explore options for REDD. 3. December 2007 (COP 13): During COP 13 in Bali, Indonesia (2007), the Bali Action Plan called for the needs of local and underserved communities to be addressed, as well as the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks, (IUCN 2009) two phrases that transformed REDD into REDD+. Same year, two multilateral fast start mechanisms namely, the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank and UN-REDD, were launched with the aim of providing financial and technical support to national REDD initiatives. 4. December 2008: During the COP 14 meeting in Poznan, Poland, the concept of REDD+ was adopted following pressure from countries who wished ‘conservation, sustainable management for forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks’ to be given the same level of priority in the negotiations as deforestation and forest degradation. 5. December 2009: During the COP 15 meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark, the COP 15 report states that developing countries should receive methodological and technical guidance related to REDD+ activities. And the Copenhagen Accord identified REDD+ as a critical component of a broad strategy to address the problem of climate change. 6. December 2010: During the COP 16 meeting in Cancun, Mexico, a REDD+ text was adopted on the scope, scale, national strategy, safeguards system, monitoring system and MRV. A REDD+ partnership and the 'Cancun agreements' was reached. In the same year, Brazil and Indonesia defined voluntary REDD targets. 7. December 2011: During the COP 17 meeting in Durban, South Africa, various sources of finance and 'appropriate' market-based approaches were considered and safeguards and reference level texts adopted. 8. December 2012: During the COP 18 in Doha, Qatar, while no decisions were made related to REDD+, the issues of climate change had been discussed in depth. 9. November 2013: During the COP 19 meeting in Warsaw, Poland, the “Warsaw Framework for REDD+” was adopted to provide guidance on how countries can harvest available data to create reliable snapshots of their forests over time and to use these snapshots to create deforestation reference levels that are recognized by the UNFCCC. 10. December 2014: COP 20 was in Lima, Peru. Developed countries wanted “nationally determined commitments” to focus only on mitigation, while many developing countries pushed to include adaptation and finance too. Many developing countries insisted on 18 maintaining the stark differentiation of the past, but developed countries refused. In the end, the Lima decision largely sidestepped the issue, which is certain to be a central challenge in reaching an agreement in Paris. 11. November 30 to December 11, 2015: COP 21 will be in Paris, France. Foreign Minister of France on 29 August 2014 disclosed that France focuses on the adoption of a legally-binding agreement, subsequent pledges by all countries, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and carbon pricing. 2.2 Background to Ethiopia's involvement in REDD+ Initiative Ethiopia has long recognized the country's vulnerability to climate change impacts and the urgency for a national adaptive response to climate change effects. As a responsible member of the global community, Ethiopia has been an active participant in international climate negotiations and initiated and implemented a number of climate-related national policies. It has ratified the UNFCCC (1994) and UNCCD (1997), and submitted its initial national communications to the UNFCCC (in 2001) and its related instrument, the Kyoto Protocol (in 2005). REDD+ has evolved in Ethiopia under a policy framework that encourages land rehabilitation through reforestation/afforestation. This is reflected through the national targets to increase forest cover, as in the PASDEP (FDRE 2006), and in the provision of tax incentives for farmers who plant trees on their land, as stipulated in the 2007 Forest Management, Development and Utilization Policy. The NAMA (2010) further outlines strategies for multi-sectoral projects that aim to reduce GHG emissions, mainly through the use of renewable energy resources. Under the NAMA, forestry projects aim at reducing deforestation and forest degradation and increasing carbon sequestration through reforestation of degraded areas and sustainable management of existing forests. In recent years, REDD+ policy seems to have been embedded within the wider CRGE strategy, which works together with the GTP. The GTP reflects the government’s ambition to lift the country to middle income status by 2025. The CRGE strategy compliments the GTP in that it provides an ambitious cross-sectoral plan for achieving the transition, aiming to nearly triple GDP per capita by 2025 without increasing current levels of GHG emissions. Importantly, REDD+ is one of the four major initiatives of the CRGE strategy selected for fast-track implementation (FDRE 2011a). Ethiopia considers REDD+ as an opportunity and viable source of sustainable finance for investment in forest management, forest conservation, and forest restoration to enhance multiple benefits of forests, including but not limited to biodiversity conservation, watershed management, increased resilience to climate change, improved livelihoods and reduced poverty (Annual Country Report, 2014). Draft R-PP was submitted to the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) in October 2010 and after comments received, a reviewed version of the R-PP was re-submitted in May 2011. In October 2012, the FCPF approved a readiness preparation grant of 3.6 million USD. According to Ethiopia's R-PP, implementation of the REDD+ Readiness process requires a total budget of USD 13.6 million. The balance of the funding required for implementation (USD 10 million) of the R-PP was provided by the Norwegian government and UK’s DFID. The REDD+ Readiness Process was officially launched in January 2013. The REDD+ Secretariat at the Ministry of Environment and Forest is the prime unit for the coordination and implementation of the National REDD+ Readiness process. 19 2.3 The problem of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Ethiopia There is no expert consensus on Ethiopia's historical forest cover despite the frequently cited assertion that the country had close to 40% forest cover only a century or so ago. This figure has been derived from the work of the forester, Brietenbach (1962) who considered the effect of climatic factors to determine the extent that the climax forest vegetation cover must have had (FAO, 1981). Historical sources, for example Alvares who visited the country in the beginning of the sixteenth century, describe the Ethiopian highlands as extensively cultivated with many trees, but few closed forests (Prester John, 1961). It is, therefore, not possible that Ethiopia has ever had a closed forest cover within historical times as extensive as that described by FAO. The history of changes in vegetation, reconstructed from various written sources, has been summarized by Tewolde Berhan G. Egziabher (1990) for the period since 1500 A.D. His conclusion is that Ethiopia's forests were of limited extent, and that they were at their most extensive state, in the 19th century. Historically, deforestation in Ethiopia, particularly in the long-inhabited highland areas, has been a severe and persistent process (Zewdu Eshetu and Hogbeg 2000; Demel Teketay 2001; Darbyshire et al. 2003). Agricultural expansion since the third and fourth millennium BC resulted in extensive deforestation and forest degradation in the northern highlands of Tigray and Wello (Phillipson, 1990). A study on the environmental history of Tigray, based on the analysis of geomorphological and other evidences, revealed that the highland plateau was extensively covered by dense vegetation before the advent and expansion of agriculture in the middle Holocene (Bard et al., 2000). Similarly, using evidences from charcoal and pollen analysis of sediments, Darbyshire et al. (2003) reported that forests in the highlands of Wello have been steadily cleared for agriculture during the last 3000 years. Melaku Bekele (1992), after extensive review of the historical accounts, concluded that much of the forests in the central and northern highlands had already been converted for cultivation before the sixteenth century. Deforestation and forest degradation in the southwestern highlands, where there is one of the last remaining largest patches of high forests in the country, dates back to the last Century. Some historical accounts indicate that a large part of the high forest is secondary growth from abandoned cultivated fields (Athil, 1920; Melaku Bekele, 1992). From floristic evidence, Russ (1945) stated that large areas of the forests were cleared and cultivated but reverted to forest again in the past one or two hundred years. This was attributed to the massive depopulation of the region due to war and other causes in the middle of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Montaden, 1912; Russ 1945; Melaku Bekele, 1992). The opening of inroads and the start of forest logging (introduction of sawmills) during the Italian invasion caused rampant deforestation for agriculture and increased sporadic in-migration of people to the region. During the inventory of the southwest forests, Chaffey (1978) described extensive clearing of forests for cultivation. For example, 50% of the southwest forest was cleared for cultivation in less than 20 years (Reusing, 1998). Deforestation in the region continued on a larger scale after the resettlement of people from the degraded and drought-affected regions of the country (Mekuria Argaw, 2005). The absence of regular forest assessments at national level has limited the availability of up-to-date information on the dynamics and extent of forest cover change. The most current and relatively thorough assessments of deforestation and degradation are therefore limited to specific forest areas connected to development projects on forest management and conservation, or those forests considered for academic 20 or other studies. There is a general consensus among experts in that the problem of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia has its roots in unsustainable land use (particularly agricultural expansion), unsustainable wood consumption, lack of appropriate institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks, economic and demographic factors. Of particular interest, in this regard, is the institutional instability of the forest sector which is believed to contribute to the irrecoverable loss of the most precious forest reserves of the country loss of institutional memory and discontinuity of planned activities to total neglect of the sectors valuable socio-economic contributions (Forum for Environment, 2009). 2.4 Review of the Drivers of Deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia The understanding and appropriate analysis of the nature and diversity of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation (D-DD) across scales is critical for designing strategic interventions and to change the business-as-usual scenario in GHG emissions from the sector. The drivers can take different forms as natural and anthropogenic, as direct and indirect, as social and economic, as policy and institutional, as local and national and/or global. However, for analytical simplicity and practical interpretation, the D-DDs are often categorized into two main parts: Direct or Proximate Drivers and Indirect or Underlying Drivers as defined below. These definitions hold as a working definition in this assessment study. However, first making the distinction between deforestation and forest degradation is essential. Accordingly, deforestation is understood as an anthropogenic act of changing or converting a forestland (planted or natural) to a different land use other than forest. Forest Degradation is the reduction or destruction of the forest structure, diversity and composition resulting in the deterioration of the productive capacity, function and limitation of the goods and services from the forest. A. Direct drivers and agents In Ethiopia, the main drivers and agents of deforestation and forest degradation are (i) Nature in combination with human actions; (ii) Agriculture; (iii) Forestry; and (iv) Livestock. These drivers and agents are briefly discussed below. Nature in combination with human actions: Most of the nature-based drivers causing deforestation and degradation are promoted by the human actions, which sensitize land areas, for example, to erosion. On lowlands the land-fires is the most prominent driver. As they are set by man on most occasions and thus are avoidable with the secured land tenure and environmental awareness campaigns. The lowland drivers of deforestation and degradation are characterizing Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, Tigray, Afar, Somali and SNNP regions. In Amhara, SNNP and in parts of Benishangul-Gumuz land-fires are declining, while in Gambella and other parts of Benishangul-Gumuz, and Afar the land-fires are increasing. High altitudes and steep slopes subject to erosion are in Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and SNNP regions. Agriculture: There are several kinds of agriculture practices, which can be listed as drivers of deforestation and degradation. The most significant one is the large-scale investment agricultural schemes – both private ones and state owned ones. These have been established in Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, Afar and some other regions during the last ten years and their environmental consequences have been hugely negative in all cases. The negative consequences relate foremost to the fact that these schemes are established in dense forest areas instead of grasslands or other land with less forest. The other significant agricultural issue is small-holder farmland expansion. Most of the small-holder farming resettlement schemes are likewise established on forest lands and are therefore also environment unfriendly. However, their negative impacts can be substantially reduced by promoting agroforestry practices. The same is true for traditional shifting cultivation where tree stumps are left in the fields and no proper ploughing is conducted. The main problem with shifting cultivation is the excess use of fires to clear the land. Dry vegetation burn intensively during the dry season and flames can kill all tree seedlings and trees. 21 Forestry: Forestry-related drivers of deforestation and degradation are usually illegal and often criminal in nature and conducted by persons who are ignorant of the environmental consequences they cause. The worst kinds are the illegal timber cuttings in the last remaining high forests, for which one can blame a number of corrupt officials, businessmen and wood traders. In addition, except in Tigray and in some parts of Amhara where the cultivation of plantation wood on farmers’ own land has been able to supply most of the fuelwood needed, in all other regions there is a huge pressure on the local native forests for fuelwood. Further, charcoal is another problematic issue, as it is required about six times the amount of wood to produce 100kg of charcoal, thus 600kg of fuelwood is required. In more developed regions of Ethiopia the charcoal is illegally produced from natural forests and woodland trees, and most of the charcoal ends up to be used in regional towns. In Somali and Afar region charcoal is produced by almost all rural households as one of the core livelihood income sources. Livestock: Livestock free grazing/traditional livestock rearing has negative impacts on deforestation and degradation in many places, including destruction of tree seedlings. However, it is under change in many parts of Ethiopia towards stall-feeding or feeding tied to a removable pole. An exception from this rule seems to be Amhara region in some areas. B. Underlying causes The main under laying causes of deforestation and degradation are population growth and land tenure issues. Please see below for further information. Population growth With more than 90 million inhabitants (2015), Ethiopia is the most populous nation in Eastern Africa and the second-most populous in Africa after Nigeria. With an annual population growth of more than 2%, Ethiopia will have more than 120 million people by 2030. Over the past 50 years poor rural families have not got sufficient social security support and turned therefore to various other kinds of social security net surrogates. These surrogates have been, for instance, large families, which provided sufficient household labour for a common family livelihood. Secondly, the families in villages and town communities have support each other during the difficult times. The third social security net surrogate has been exploitable forests, which could provide many goods and services free of charge such as wood energy, construction wood, food and fodder, new farm and housing land and drinking water. Now this path has been driven to the limit and in many regions, zones and woredas almost all available land has been taken into household use except the last remaining patches of forests, which are now under heavy pressure from desperate poor families. Such desperate poor families may not have anything to lose when they are encroaching into degraded forests to start up cultivating chat or coffee or something else, which is able to secure them a living. Factors such as overpopulation, poverty and lack of other income sources are core issues behind the deforestation and degradation. Land tenure: As long as there is no real responsibility among the local population for the common forest resources and forest laws and regulations are not enforced, it is impossible to stop another person from exploiting forests. With land registration, individual households will get user right certificates and would be able to defend their land and natural resources outsiders coming to cut trees and degrade their land. The ongoing GoE land certification program has started to impact favorably on deforestation and degradation. Furthermore, local people with some environment awareness, living in an area usually take better care of their landscape than people, who come from the outside with economic interests only. The government is working to scale up the practice of participatory forest management, where the local communities are organized in forest users groups and cooperatives to assume the responsibility of managing and using the forest resource in accordance with the agreement they entered with the government. 22 C. Mitigating actions Today there are already many mitigating actions in use, which aim to reduce deforestation and degradation, including watershed management, agricultural intensifications, trees on farm, Livestock management and Non- wood and alternative energy sources. Please refer to the Study of causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia and the identification and prioritization of strategic options to address those (MEF, 2015) for further information. 2.5 OFLP- Oromia D-DDs The dynamics of deforestation are complex and not easily reduced to a single factor or linear explanations. The variability of actors, situations and relationships calls for localized analysis in forested areas. However, deforestation finds its root causes in global trends and drivers are often found ‘outside the forest’. Direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are human activities and actions that directly impact forest cover and result in the loss of carbon stocks. Underlying causes or indirect drivers are a complex of economic issues, policies, and institutional matters; technological factors; cultural or sociopolitical concerns; and demographic factors. The primary drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Oromia region can be categorized into direct and indirect drivers. The former includes small-scale conversions for agricultural expansion and wood extraction for firewood and charcoal purposes that are carried out by investors and small scale farmers/pastoralists. The latter includes ineffective land-use planning and enforcement at micro-level, and inadequate cross-sectoral policy and investment coordination. Direct Drivers The main direct driver of deforestation is agriculture; of which small-scale and commercial/large- scale agriculture accounts 85 % and 15 % of the loss, respectively. In terms of degradation, wood fuel is the main driver affecting forests, with roughly 68% of degradation emissions attributed to wood fuel collectors/producers. Small-holder agriculture: Expansion of small-scale cultivation systems has been identified as a major driver of deforestation and forest degradation in both moist and dry forests. Subsistence agriculture is the main economic activity throughout Oromia, with farmers cultivating a diversity of crops depending on the local livelihood systems. Main crops include barley, wheat, beans, potatoes, and cabbage in the highlands and bananas, maize and teff in the lowlands. The choice of crops in smallholder agricultural production systems results in different impacts on forest cover as farming techniques vary with different crop combinations. Some crops result in more forest conversion or forest degradation, such as khat (Unique, 2014). Farmers’ decision for which crops to plant is influenced by a range of factors, including agro-ecological characteristics of the land, proximity to markets, consumption preferences, and price fluctuations. For example, enset - a banana type found in southern Oromia near the border to SNNPRS - provides a higher amount of foodstuffs per unit area – enset has helped to support a dense population in the southern region in general – as compared to many other crop choices, especially cereals and maize. The shift in consumption patterns in both rural and urban areas from tubers to cereal crops (often conceived as modernization) demands larger plots and is less likely to be integrated with other land uses such as forest or crops (Wakjira, 2010). Many poor farming households respond to declining land productivity by abandoning existing degraded cropland and moving to new lands for cultivation. Therefore, one of the main reasons for the destruction of natural forests are unsustainable agricultural practices which transforms forested landscapes into mosaics of managed and unmanaged ecosystems, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation for many species of flora and fauna. The majority of small-scale farmers operating 23 in Oromia’s forest are engaged in coffee production. Current coffee prices lie around US$ 1.76/kg (30 ETB) for clean coffee at the farm gate. The response of small-scale coffee farmers to global coffee price increases has been systematically analyzed by a number of studies, with mixed results. In the case of Alemu & Worako (2009), coffee growers were found to benefit little from positive changes in world price, as this price fluctuation is mainly absorbed in the coffee auction markets. These authors attribute the lack of producer price response to world price fluctuations to the use of the domestic market as a major coffee outlet at times of lower world prices Wood extraction for firewood and charcoal: Extensive extraction of fuel wood for both commercial and subsistence purposes is a driver of degradation throughout Ethiopia. The demand for wood fuel in 2009 was 77 million m3 against 9.3 million m3 of sustainable supply (Beleke, 2011). More than 40% of the annual charcoal supply to Addis Ababa is from the Rift Valley areas (Alem et al., 2010 as cited by Benzin & Serk, 2013). The activity is aggravated by inefficient traditional charcoal production technologies. Fuel-wood extraction is most prominent in surrounding urban areas, as these areas have high demand for fuel-wood. The extent of biomass scarcity is exemplified by the long travel distances currently required for wood collection. Most charcoal and wood fuel production are conducted informally without any license. Charcoal trade is characterized by weak law enforcement as the capacity to enforce regulations and effectively collect revenue is low (Beleke, 2011). The vast majority of households depend on wood o r charcoal for domestic energy consumption, using wood for cooking, heating and lighting. Traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, dung) accounts for roughly 90% of total primary energy use in Ethiopia and about 84% and 99% of urban and rural households, respectively, rely on biomass as their primary cooking fuel (Johnson & Mengistu, 2013). Charcoal is made using traditional earth mound kilns which incurs considerable losses, entailing four or five times as much energy input as would be required for burning wood directly. Many account the loss of acacia woodland in the Central Rift Valley area to mainly charcoal production and firewood extraction. According to Ethiopia’s recent Biomass Energy Strategy developed by the Ministry of Water Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE), there is a massive increase in charcoal consumption in the past 15 years due to the significant increase in rural incomes, proliferation of rural markets, improved road system and reduced transportation costs and the limited land for growing trees surrounding urban areas. Indirect Drivers The analysis pursued by Unique2 on selected woredas, and the analysis carried out by Climate Focus3, combined with a literature review concludes the main underlying causes of deforestation and degradation in Ethiopia are population growth and migration; ineffective land-use planning; and inadequate cross-sectoral policy and investment coordination, specifically changes in policies linked to land tenure and agricultural intensification, market drivers, environmental degradation, poverty, food insecurity and infrastructure development. As well as issues of rule of law, law enforcement and government capacity on-the-ground, land tenure and the land licensing and certification process, and government policies related to the Growth and Transformation Plan and Master Land Use Planning for the Oromia region. Ineffective land-use planning. Land-use planning is an important tool to support REDD+ by promoting environmentally sustainable, socially sound and economically viable land uses, and by directing economic activities to where they are most suited. The Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation provides a framework for rural land administration and mandates the 2 Unique. Strategy Options for the Oromia Forested Landscape Project. Final report, Addis Ababa, 2014 3 Climate Focus. Legal and Institutional Framework for Oromia Forested Landscape Program. Final Report, Addis Ababa, 2015. 24 Oromia Bureau of Rural Land Environmental Protection (BoRLEP) to develop a Master Plan for land-use. To-date, Oromia BoRLEP has completed nearly half of the ‘land resource mapping process’, which constitutes the main ground work for land-use planning. Upon approval by the Oromia Regional Administrative Council, the proposed land uses will be legally binding. The Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) has demarcated large parts of the forest area under its responsibility. Some areas however remain either outside its concession or cannot be demarcated until the completion of Oromia BoRLEP’s resource mapping process. There is a lack of harmonization and consistency between the various existing processes, which currently follow divergent methodologies and technologies. To speed up and strengthen land-use planning in Oromia, OFLP will support a consultative policy process to facilitate a common understanding among various stakeholders about its purposes, goals, and process. This process will also help develop procedures that clarify the roles and functions of the different institutions and stakeholders. To effectively fulfill their functions, the capacities of Oromia BoRLEP, OFWE, Oromia Bureau of Agriculture, and the local administrations should be strengthened. Also, an effective land tenure system provides clarity over ownership and other land rights, allows the identification of relevant actors, incentivizes long-term investments (financial or otherwise) in sustainable management and enables actors to successfully manage their land without interference from intruders. The Oromia Forest Proclamation recognizes, in addition to the state and private forms of forest and land-use rights recognized by the Federal Forestry Proclamation, communal administration and land-use rights over forest. Oromia legislation provides for holding certificates demonstrating proof of land-use right. Land-use rights cannot be sold or exchanged, though they may be bequeathed and up to half of the land may be leased. Several issues impair tenure security and efforts to improve it. The inability to transfer ownership creates some insecurity for private investors, which can hinder efforts to promote REDD+-related investments. There has also been limited focus on assigning land-use rights to communities. OFLP will support the adoption of guidelines on the implementation of communal land certification processes and dedication additional resources to the implementation of these guidelines, as well as an increased community outreach that creates awareness about land rights, in particular in support of PFM. Inadequate cross-sectoral policy and investment coordination. Effective REDD+ implementation depends on cross-sectoral coordination and the development of relevant capacities among institutions overseeing forest and land administration. In Oromia, effective implementation is currently hindered by the lack of cross-sectoral coordination and by overlapping mandates. While OFWE’s formal mandate over forests in Oromia is broad and includes both commercial and non- commercial activities, its structure as a profit-oriented state enterprise has it focus on commercial activities. Coordination would be ensured through a proposed multi-sector coordination platform, the Oromia REDD+ Steering Committee, chaired by the Oromia Bureau Head, for land-use issues. 25 Oromia through the OFWE is among the pioneers of the regional states of Ethiopia with more than eight hundred thousand hectares of forest under Participatory Forest Management. PFM presents an opportunity for REDD+ as it can facilitate forest conservation, development and utilization through community participation. Oromia’s forest legislation provides a relatively favorable legal framework, yet the success of PFM has been constrained by the lack of livelihood benefits provided to local communities. The opportunity that sustainable forest management presents for enhancing livelihoods of local communities is hardly considered and constrained by the absence of suitable local implementation structures. To strengthen the sustainability of PFM schemes, OFLP will support an increased focus on forest management agreements as well as ecologically and economically sound forest management plans. To strengthen PFM implementation, OFLP will support the adoption of a PFM regulation that clearly defines institutional roles, a review framework, minimum requirements for forest management planning and agreements, among other elements. Projected Deforestation Regarding projected deforestation and degradation in forest areas large-scale commercial farming is often unable to expand due to the large amounts of land already occupied by small-scale farmers. Expansion of traditional small-scale agriculture is expected to continue in forested areas due to population growth and the continued effects of previous resettlement programs. This is combined with increasing wood and forest product extraction in the forested areas, which sparks a forest degradation process that renders deforestation of previously unviable areas more interesting for conversion to agriculture. In general, woodlands will be adversely affected by improved transportation networks combined with technological improvements such as irrigation and economic development focused on increasing total agricultural production. The commercial agriculture development plans outlined in the country’s development strategies will most likely affect the woodlands, especially the high woodlands in the Northwest as the edaphic and rainfall conditions are most suitable to agriculture. Woodland degradation due to increasing livestock production is at highest risk in the low Borena woodlands as adverse effects of climate change are expected to continue unabated, leading to augmented impact of livestock grazing. See Figure 1 below for high risk sites of future deforestation/degradation in the region. In conclusion, the main causes of deforestation and forest degradation stem from growing demand for land and forest products and the inefficiency of sustainable resources management due to the economic, social, and policy/institutional constraints, among others. The growing demands for land and forest products are linked with small-scale subsistence, cash crop agriculture and commercial coffee (which are mainly affecting moist and dry forests); commercial agriculture expansion affecting high woodlands; and fuel wood collection and livestock affecting moist forest, dry forests, high woodlands and low woodlands (Unique/Conscientia, 2014). 26 Figure 6-Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by forest ecosystem, sector or commodity types and agents in Oromia region Forest ecosystems Drivers Impacts Agents High Forests Small-scale cultivation Deforestation Small-holder farmer (Moist and dry high Forest fire Deforestation / Variable agents – including small- forests) Degradation holder farmers, hunters, unknown Forest-coffee farming Degradation Small-scale and commercial coffee farmers Woodlands (high and Small-scale cultivation Deforestation Small-holder farmer lowland woodlands) Medium/large-scale Deforestation Commercial farmer commercial farming Livestock grazing Deforestation / Small-holder farmer Degradation Fuel wood (firewood Degradation Small-holder farmers and fuel and charcoal) extraction wood sellers Sectors/commodity types Deforestation / Small-holder farmers and fuel Energy/Biomass Degradation wood sellers Degradation Commercial and small-scale Livestock grazing/dairy and meat farmers Deforestation / Commercial enterprises, Wood industry/Unsustainable timber extraction Degradation communities and households Investment/Coffee Degradation Commercial and small-scale Agriculture supply chains/Khat, Sesame, maize, Deforestation Commercial and small-scale Source: Adapted from OFWE (2014) Results from another pilot REDD+ project in Oromia region, the Bale Mountains Eco-region REDD+ project (OFWE et al., 2014), identified agricultural expansion and unsustainable firewood and charcoal production as main drivers of deforestation. The agents are smallholder farmers (local residents and migrants into the region) clearing for subsistence production. The recent increase of in-migration into the region, for instance in Harena Buluk and Nansabo Woredas, coupled with the local population growth has made population main cause of deforestation in the area. The key underlying causes that contributed to the proximate drivers were identified as weak law enforcement, absence of forest managing institution at grass roots level, poverty, lack of poor access to education and population growth. Based on the analysis of the historical relationship between the main agents, key drivers and underlying causes, the following sequence of causative steps were identified to illustrate process of deforestation in the past and in the future: • Small-holder farmers wish to achieve food security and improve their levels of income • Income growth is mainly dependent on agriculture as opportunities to move into other sectors are often limited. • Opportunities to intensify agriculture are often limited. By contrast, expansion of farmland into forest areas is relatively easy under current conditions, despite the law. 27 • Weak forest law enforcement, low investment in forest protection and limited opportunities for current forest-users to protect their resources all facilitate expansion of farmland into forest areas • Absence of alternative energy sources and construction material lead the farmers to cut trees for household energy and construction • Fast population growth in the region forced the extra people to clear forests for their subsistence • This process is accelerated by rising commodity prices, improving road networks, rising populations and other economic development factor 2.6 Review of REDD+ Strategy Options for Ethiopia The REDD Preparation Proposal (R-PP) presented a review of the current strategies in different development programs that are targeted directly or indirectly to address deforestation and forest degradation within the existing legal and policy framework (FDRE, 2011) as shown in Box 1 below. Figure 7-Existing strategies as reviewed and presented in the R-PP In the review work of EDRI earlier in 2010, in an effort to identify and prioritize the main strategic options to mitigate deforestation and forest degradation, specifically targeting the main drivers such as agricultural conversion and unsustainable fuel wood consumption, a combination of levers were proposed focusing on improving agriculture, soil and forest management and adopting alternative clean energy supply and energy efficiency measures as being the basis for Ethiopia’s REDD+ strategy. 28 Figure 8-Strategic options as reviewed and identified by EDRI 2010 to mitigate deforestation and forest Strategic Options Activity measures • Reducing land conversion to • Increase farmland productivity agriculture (including • Grazing land management and pasture improvement pastureland) techniques • Integrate animal feed and fertilizer production into reforestation • Support profitable forestry • Limiting the impact of fuel • Rural energy production wood consumption • Efficient fuel wood stoves and other cost-effective green technologies • Develop sustainable • Promote development of wood plantations of fast growing forest management species for fuel wood consumption or timber, enabling practices sustainable logging. • Participatory forest management enabling local communities to be part of decision-making in all aspects of forest management, • Protection of forest areas primarily through means of laws • Other solutions to improve • Large-scale afforestation and reforestation program covering carbon sequestration 3.0 Mha by 2030 The R-PP also stressed that a series of institutional revisions are needed with regards to local people’s rights, institutional capacity and coordination in land use for efficient and effective implementation of the strategic options. The required changes in the enabling regulatory and institutional environment for effective implementation of REDD+ in the country are pointed out in the R-PP as shown in the Box below. Figure 9-Proposed required intuitional and regulatory changes in the R-PP to enable effective implementation of REDD+ • Clarify, reinforce and support local people's right: REDD+ will support PFM and the various community institutions set up within PFM. • Support development of service oriented institution: support for sustainable forest management as well as support to the marketing of products leading to investments • Better coordinated land use planning to reduce migrations/population increase to avoid loss of forest. • Strengthening the enforcement of laws: deforestation and forest degradation occurs in Ethiopia due to an open access mentality and weak enforcement of laws. • Other concrete actions to be carried out in order to strengthen law enforcement are: • Empowering and strengthening local community organizations; • Institutionalizing the required inspection and regulatory activities at the Federal, Regional and Woreda levels; • Increasing the number of forest inspectors and the frequency of inspection and regulatory activities backed by local communities; • Capacity building and empowerment of the inspectors; • Creating a wood (timber) product certification system and traceability of origin of timber and • Strengthening coordination between the judiciary and public prosecution authorities 29 Forestry is one of the key pillars of the CRGE strategy (FDRE, 2011b) and it has identified six strategic levers for the sector that are grouped into three main strategic options, namely, reduced deforestation, reduced forest degradation and increased carbon sequestration. These strategic options are basically targeted to reduce GHG emissions from forestry sources and/or increasing sequestration in forestry sinks. The pilot REDD+ programs of the Oromia region, project and landscape level strategic options are designed to address the main drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. For instance, the Bale Eco-Region pilot REDD+ project interventions are focused on providing options to curb expansion of agricultural activities by smallholder farming (by local farmers, migrants and seasonal settlers), to reduce the incidences of forest fires and to avail alternatives to satisfy fuel and construction wood needs. Figure 10-Main strategic options in the Bale-Eco-region REDD+ intervention • Agricultural intensification and provision of economic alternatives • Provision of fuel efficient technology and alternative supply of wood for fuel and construction materials from non-forest lands • Implementation of sustainable forest management, conservation and Protection and support for effective law enforcement • Institutional Capacity building for government and JFM community, PFM Cooperatives and OFWE • Development and Implementation of Bale Mountains Eco-region Fund The strategy options for the Oromia Forested Landscape REDD+ Program by OFWE focused on three main sectors: agriculture, forestry and energy as shown in the Box below. 30 Primary causes of OFLP Interventions Source of Funding deforestation in Oromia Primary Small-scale Forest management investment in deforestation hotspots, including the OFLP grant Direct agriculture promotion of Participatory Forest Management OFLP grant Causes expansion Strengthening extension services on forest management, smallholder GoE and development agriculture, soil and water conservation, and household energy. partners funding REDD- Coordination with several other initiatives in Oromia promoting more relevant initiatives (such resilient and productive agricultural and land management techniques. as SLMP, PSNP, AGP. Refer to Annex 10) Wood extraction Forest management investment, including afforestation and OFLP grant for firewood reforestation for biomass energy (woodlots). GoE and charcoal Coordination with the national cook stoves and the biogas programs to mitigate biomass demand (see below for incentives enhancements and policy). Primary Inadequate Land-use planning support at woreda level and community levels OFLP grant Indirect land-use Further coordination to promote smallholder land certification. GoE land use planning Causes planning and initiative SLMP (MoA/BoA) enforcement at DFID (LIFT) micro-level Inadequate State-level activities to promote cross-sectoral coordination, including OFLP grant cross-sectoral the establishment of the Oromia REDD+ Steering Committee chaired by GoE policy and the Oromia Bureau Head; and of the Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit. GoE and development Policy development and enforcement (harmonized PFM rules, forest and partners funding REDD- investment land certification, incentives for the adoption of renewable energy relevant initiatives (such coordination sources, etc.) as SLMP, PSNP, AGP. Improvement of incentives (marketing of cook stoves, preparation of Refer to Annex 10) benefits sharing mechanism for ER payments, small natural-resource based enterprise operating environment) Local-level activities to coordinate and leverage existing initiatives to protect and expand forest cover and improve land use. Information enhancements such as MRV, Forest Management Information System, and strategic communication Figure 11-Strategy options for the Oromia Forested Landscape REDD+ The draft national REDD+ Strategy proposed range of strategic options grouped in three main categories such as targeted measures (focusing on three sectors), policy and institutional measures and crosscutting issues as listed in the box below. 31 Figure 12-Strategic options and targeted measures in the draft national REDD+ strategy Strategic Option categories Strategic actions Targeted sector based measures • Ensure Sustainable Forest Management (in high forest as well as woodlands) • Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stock • Agricultural intensification • Reduce Demand for fuel wood and charcoal • Increase supply of wood and charcoal • Improved Livestock Management • Promote supplementary income generation Policy and institutional measures • Enhance cross-sectoral synergies and stakeholder participation • Forest Governance and law enforcement • Forest tenure and property right • Land Use Planning • Inter-sectoral coordination on planning and joint implementation Cross-cutting Issues • Capacity Building • Ensure full participation and equitable benefit flow to women • Demand-driven Research and research and extension linkage • Benefit sharing Source: Draft National REDD + Strategy (2015) 2.7 Overview of Ethiopia's REDD+ Readiness process under FCPF Ethiopia is a participant of the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility's (FCPFs) REDD+ program. The full cost for Ethiopia's REDD+ Readiness process is funded by a grant from the World Bank (USD 3.6 million) and a financial support (USD 10 million) by Norway and United Kingdom (UK) through the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund. The FCPF of the World Bank serves as a financial trustee for funding provided by donors and the World Bank provides the technical advice and implementation support. Ethiopia's REDD+ readiness process was officially launched in January 2013 and the National REDD+ Secretariat at the Ministry of Environment and Forest is responsible for planning, execution and coordination of the REDD+ Readiness Process. The REDD+ Readiness Process is basically the implementation of different activities identified in the R-PP document. The major activities outlined in the R-PP document for implementation include putting in place REDD+ management arrangements across different levels; organizing and consulting stakeholders; preparation of the national REDD+ Strategy; setting reference levels and MRV system and preparation of M & E framework. The implementation of the R-PP covers the period of 2013-2018. As indicated below, Figure 1 reflects only REDD+ Readiness activities under the FCPF grant. Further, through the additional financial support, the following activities are being implemented from 2016 to 2018 (the new extended grant completion date): (i) finalization of the development the MRV system; (ii) institutionalization of the MRV; (iii) undertaking of analytical studies as inputs to the development of bankable regional REDD+ investment programs in the three pilot regions (Amhara; Tigray; and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS)); and (iv) development and 32 finalization of bankable REDD+ investment programs in the above three regions. Figure 13-Ethiopia’s REDD+ Readiness Process under FCPF August 2009 Jan. 2013 July 2008 R-PIN accepted May 2011 REDD+ 2014 2015 Submission & Ethiopia R-PP was Readiness Bio-Carbon Consultation of R-PIN to signed a grant approved by implementation Fund and WB’s FCPF agreement with the FCPF phase officially approved Participation the WB launched 200 200 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 8 9 Oct. 2012 1st REL April 2010 FCPF communicated 10 M USD R-PP started approved a WB’s Bio- to UNFCC readiness Carbon Fund DD study preparation approved completed grant of 3.5 Wide M USD consultation& April 29-30, 2010 2nd national participation consultation June 17-18, 2010 done 2nd national Regional Pilot consultation workshop Coordination Unit opened Sep, 15- Oct. 15, 2010 2nd round Regional July-Aug. 2010 level multi- 1st round Regional, stakeholder Woreda and consultation community level multi-stakeholder consultation Oct. 2010 Submission of draft R- PP to FCPF 33 2.8 REDD+ Management Arrangement The Federal level REDD+ Management arrangement (see figure 2) is put in place and fully functional. The Federal level management arrangement includes a steering committee, a technical working group and 3 (REDD+ task forces REDD+ SESA TF, RLMRV TF and REDD+ Strategy TF) each with defined ToR. This REDD+ management arrangement is gradually moving to embrace the regional state level REDD units. Regional Steering Committee and Regional Technical Working Group have been functional in Oromia Region, with representatives from regional government bureaus, OFWE, the forest-dependent peoples and civil society organizations. Similar arrangements are being followed in other regional states (SNNPR, Tigray and Amhara) w i t h REDD+ Coordination Units established and coordinators recruited. Figure 14-National REDD+ management arrangement 34 2.9 Consultation and Participation The process of consultation and participation is central to the effective implementation of REDD+ Readiness. A national REDD+ Consultation and Participation Plan is currently under preparation to complement the consultation and Participation platforms used in preparing the SESA, ESMF, RPF and PF to secure broad community support for the REDD+ Readiness and the OFLP. Further, the consultation and participation Plan will provide a framework that ensures ownership, transparency, and inclusiveness of relevant stakeholders in the implementation process of the R-PP. The consultation process at the national level will be guided by the Consultation and Participation Plan together with an Awareness and Communications Strategy and a Conflicts and Grievances Management Plan all of which are under preparation. Awareness creation activities have been going on since January 2013 using different communication channels including workshops, SMS messages, brochures, TV and Radio message. A communication strategy is under design and will classify REDD+ stakeholders and set out the mechanism to reach the different stakeholders. REDD+ Strategy formulation The National REDD+ Strategy will be informed by findings from different on-going technical studies including drivers of deforestation and degradation, SESA/ESMF study, analysis of the legal and institutional arrangement for REDD+ implementation, consultation and participation plan and national forest inventory. A draft REDD+ strategy was finalized in November 2014 which provides the framework and strategic goals of the national REDD+ implementation. A national study on drivers of deforestation and forest degradation identified the drivers, (agents and causes) disaggregated spatially across Ethiopia and prioritized strategic options to address the identified drivers. This on-going SESA/ESMF study will produce four inter-related documents: Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment, Environmental and Social Management Framework, Resettlement Policy Framework and Process Framework. These four safeguard documents will provide clear directions for managing and mitigating the environmental and social risks and impacts of future investments (projects, activities, and/or policies and regulations) associated with implementing the country’s REDD+ strategy. 2.10 National Forest Inventory, Reference Level and MRV system Ethiopia is now designing and implementing a robust system for monitoring and measuring carbon emissions and removals to enable the country to report and verify actions on deforestation and forest degradation and other activities aiming to conserve, sustainably manage and increase forest carbon stocks. The Ministry of Environment and Forest on behalf of the government of Ethiopia and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations signed an agreement in August 2014 for the provision of technical assistance for the implementation of a national forest monitoring and MRV system for REDD+ Readiness in Ethiopia. A national forest inventory has been undergoing since March 2014. Land use land cover mapping is now completed while validation is soon to be finalized. Regarding the development of a FRL/FREL in Ethiopia, the basic elements that have been defined at the moment include: National Forest Definition, scale, scope, the approach to establish FREL/FRL, and the calculation of activity data and emission factor. A version zero national forest reference level has been produced and version 1 reference level will be ready in July 2015. As the REDD+ scheme in Ethiopia is expected to deliver emission reductions and other co-benefits, the MRV system will be designed to help track a range of other indicators such as biodiversity and social benefits. The national MRV system will consider the development of innovative participatory 35 approaches aimed at engaging forest-dependent communities in monitoring and verification work build understanding and local ownership. In this regard, a PMRV pilot project is being designed jointly with the involvement and support of the MRV and Safeguards components of REDD+ Secretariat, CIFOR and FAO. 2.11 Situation of REDD+ Pilot Projects in Ethiopia REDD+ implementation in Ethiopia is the responsibility of different entities including NGOs (local and international) working with regional bureaus and government sector. REDD+ implementation is largely in its early stage and activities on the ground will soon be intensified in the coming few years. Much of the on-going activities are design (project level) and/or readiness process (national level). Bale Mountain Eco-region REDD+ Project is a pioneer REDD+ initiative jointly implemented by FARM Africa/SOS Sahel and OFWE with the financial support from the Royal Norwegian Embassy (major funder), Royal Netherlands Embassy and Irish Aid. The project design process started in 2010 and conducted assessments and technical studies to identify drivers of deforestation and forest degradation and prioritizing strategic options. Additional technical studies were taken up by a consortium of consulting firms to determine the reference level (RL) and emission factors (EF). A series of consultations were carried out between 2010 and 2012 involving a range of stakeholders; local communities, local and regional level government offices, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), and non-government organizations. The consultation process was conducted in accordance to the Cancun social and environmental safeguard elements where stakeholders at all level were consulted following the free, prior, informed, consent (FPIC) approach on issues related to project design, project life time and benefit sharing among others. Since the Bale REDD+ Project is one of the six components of the bigger Bale Eco-region Sustainable Management Project (BERSMP), much of the community organizations are built on the experience of the previous PFM activities. The design phase also involved the preparation of manuals for carbon stock determination and different capacity building activities for experts, community members and other stakeholders. It is the first REDD+ project in Ethiopia registered under the Voluntary Carbon Standard (VM0015) and a Project Design Document (PDD) is finalized and project validation and registration is near to completion. Major implementation activities identified include sustainable livelihood development activities, sustainable energy and construction material, sustainable forest management and institutional strengthening. Since 2012, implementation activities include sustainable forest management and sustainable energy. A total of 382,000 ha of natural forest is now under Joint Forest Management involving over 100 forest management CBOs implementing Sustainable Forest Management with the Regional government. Promotion of improved stoves to ca. 24,000 community households estimated to save 90,000m3 wood in three years. Additional interventions soon to be implemented include forest- based livelihood diversification through sustainable extraction of Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (such as coffee and honey production), community-based wood lots, agricultural intensification, and institutional strengthening and forest law enforcement. Preliminary change detection analysis in early 2014 indicated that the project intervention led to a reduction in deforestation of a total of 2000ha per annum which needs to be verified. Ethio-wetlands REDD+ Project: This is the second REDD+ initiative started in 2013 in four different Woredas (Masha-Anderacha-Gesha-Nono Sele) in the south-western part of Ethiopia undertaken by a local NGO, Ethio-wetlands Natural Resource Association. The REDD+ project is an extension of a long-standing activity of the project in the area of NTFP and PFM. The REDD+ 36 project aims at developing model for community driven REDD+; demonstrate how cost effective carbon storage by avoiding deforestation can be achieved in a mutually inclusive way with objectives related to sustainable development and poverty reduction of forest dependent communities. Project activities are being undertaken in ca. 240,00ha of high montane forests. So far, the project has identified drivers of deforestation and strategic options and assessed the social and environmental safeguard issues. The REDD+ project is being implemented in forest areas where Participatory Forest Management was being implemented as part of a previous project activity. A local level, participatory MRV aligned to the national MRV system is under establishment. Apart from PFM, additional interventions include livelihood diversification through improved forest management and forest-based enterprise development. Yayu REDD+ Project: The project is jointly initiated in 2012 by a consortium of NGO’s, the Environment and Coffee Forest Forum, Horn of Africa Regional Environment Center & Network and Inter-Church Cooperation Organization (ICCO). The project aims to avoid deforestation and forest degradation while promoting carbon stocks conservation and enhancement (REDD+), coffee genes and forest biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction through the creation and implementation of conservation areas through strengthening OFWE and community based organizations in Illubabor Zone in Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. The project area covers a total of 168,610 ha. Based on its feasibility study, average annual deforestation is estimated at 1.2% and the number of project beneficiaries are estimated t o b e 150,000 households. Moreover, the project is expected to generate a total of 16,637,271 tCO2 over 20 years’. Oromia Forested Landscape Program (OFLP) OFLP will be Oromia Regional State’s strategic programmatic umbrella and coordination platform for multi-sector, multi-partner intervention on all forested landscapes in Oromia. The longer term program will contribute to a transformation in how forested landscapes are managed in Oromia to deliver multiple benefits such as poverty reduction and resilient livelihoods, climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and water provisioning. OFLP would foster equitable and sustainable low carbon development through a series of: (i) on-the-ground activities that address deforestation, reduce land-use based emissions and enhance f o r e s t carbon stocks; and (ii) state- wide and local enhancements to institutions, incentives, information, and safeguards management to upscale investment (enabling environment), including coordinating and leveraging multiple REDD- relevant interventions4 across the regional state. 4 REDD-relevant initiatives are projects, programs and activities in general promoted by GoE, donors, NGOs or private sector that directly or indirectly contribute to reducing emissions from deforestation or increasing forest carbon stocks in the Oromia Regional State. Examples of these initiatives, include, the Ministry of Agriculture’s SLMP, JICA and OFWE’s efforts to promote participatory forest management (PFM) and new forest-based business models (including forest coffee) and OFWE’s planted forests. 37 OFLP would help enable GoE to strategically mobilize, coordinate and scale-up funding programmatically from several different sources. The success of OFLP and the achievement of the Government’s broader forest, land-use, and climate ambitions depend on OFLP’s ability to leverage financial resources from existing and future REDD-relevant initiatives such as PSNP, SLMP, AGP, private sector activities, the CRGE Facility, bilateral support, farmers’ own investment, Germany’s intended investment in Bale National Park through EWCA, and government budget. REDD-relevant initiatives also include REDD+ projects that are currently seeking carbon payments, which would be integrated (or ‘nested,’ as per the technical term) into OFLP, such as the Bale Mountains REDD+ project. The OFLP will establish programmatic approach through two financial instruments that would be supported by two legal instruments that will be supported by two legal instruments: (i) the US$ 18 million mobilization grant; and (ii) the US$ 50 million Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA). These are detailed below: i. The 5-year mobilization grant will finance the establishment and i n i t i a l implementation of the state-wide jurisdictional ER components of the Program. The grant financing would support GoE to strengthen its state-level and local-level enabling environment and implement selected on-the-ground investment activities which would facilitate the achievement of ERs (and resulting ER payments) while also leveraging greater financial resources from multiple sources. The grant would in particular finance: (i) TA among all woredas across the state (such as landscape management coordination, land-use planning support, and safeguards management); and (ii) forest investment and livelihoods support in deforestation hotspots with high carbon content (49 woredas yet to be defined sites within).5 ii. Emissions Reductions Payments of US$ 50 million for verified carbon performance paid in a period of up to 10 years (2016-2026). These payments would be available once the Program achieves, verifies and reports on results in terms of reduced emissions. The ER payments would be distributed according to a Benefit Sharing Mechanism (BSM) and used primarily to ensure the sustainability of the land-use interventions promoted to reduce deforestation (including activities in the agriculture, energy and forestry sectors), as well as to scale up the interventions to other geographical areas within Oromia. This climate financing would be channeled through an Emissions Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA) to be signed between GoE and WBG in 2016. The envelope for these payments could grow as OFLP becomes operational and generates results, and as other ER buyers show interest in OFLP. The OFLP geographic boundary would be all forests in Oromia. The Program would monitor and account for positive and negative changes in forest cover and associated GHG emissions reduction from ER payments would be defined as per the BSM currently under preparation by the GoE. This scope is fully in line with the REDD+ “jurisdictional approach.” Monitoring forest cover and forest cover changes would follow methodologies that are being established at the national level, and in line with international best practices. The data generated by OFLP would feed into the national forest cover monitoring system and UNFCCC reporting more 5 These woredas were selected according to: (i) presence of high forest areas (given the high carbon stocks in these forests); (ii) large size deforested area and high rate of deforestation within these woredas; and (iii) contiguity 40 broadly. ER payments would be made upon third-party verification of carbon performance. Program Components OFLP would have three components. The US$ 18 million mobilization grant would finance activities under two components over a 5-year period: (1) Enabling investments; and (2) Enabling environment. These funds would be channeled to GoE as a recipient executed (RE) grant. The third component would consist of US$ 50 million of ER Payments for verified emissions reductions as they are delivered over longterm period (the components overlap in time). Component 1: Enabling Investments (US$ 11.556 million RE grant, 5-year period): Component 1 wil finance investment in participatory forest management (including livelihoods support and selected nature-based community enterprise development) and reforestation in deforestation hotspots, extension services, and land-use planning state-wide at state and local levels. Component 2. Enabling Environment (US$ 6.457 million RE grant, 5-year period): Component 2 will finance complementary activities to improve the effectiveness and impact of institutions, incentives (i.e., policies, marketing, BSM), information (i.e., strategic communications, MRV) and safeguards management at state and local levels. This component will enhance the enabling environment to help scale up and leverage action on the ground to reduce deforestation and forest degradation. Component 3. Emissions Reductions (ER) Payments (US$ 50 million ERPA, 10-year period): Unless specified differently in the ERPA, ER Payments will be made only for emission reductions achieved during the ERPA period. However, interventions conducive to emission reductions can start at any time. ER payments will be delivered once results are achieved, verified by a third party, and formally reported to the WBG. Based on the design of the MRV system, it is expected that reporting and verification of ERs can occur every two years. The ER payments will be managed by the FDRE and distributed to the beneficiaries according to the BSM to be prepared by the FDRE (see annex 6), which will aim to incentivize greater uptake of sustainable land-use actions. The BSM will need to be formally adopted by the FDRE before any ER payment can be made. In addition, it should be noted that the ER payments will not cover the full cost of implementing changes in landscape management. The ER payments will provide some return that offsets some of the costs of improving the landscape for the wider benefit of all. Program Location and Salient Physical Characteristics Relevant to the Safeguard Analysis: The OFLP geographic boundary would be all forests in Oromia. The region is located between 3024′20″- 10023′26″ N latitudes and 34007′37″-42058′51″ E longitudes. Oromia is Ethiopia’s largest regional state in terms of land area (around 28.5 million hectares, roughly the size of Italy), population (over 30 million people) and forest cover8 (approximately 9 million ha in total9). The Program would monitor and account for positive and negative changes in forest cover and associated GHG emissions reduction within all 287 rural and semi-rural woredas the regional state boundaries of Oromia (i.e., 6 Includes physical and price contingencies of 3.24 percent. 7 Ibid. 8 Calculated based on the Ethiopia’s Forest Reference Emissions Level submitted to the UNFCCC (3rd version, December 2016, not publicly available yet) 9 The Forest Sector Management at MEFCC defines forests in Ethiopia as ‘Land spanning at least 0.5 ha covered by trees (including bamboo) attaining a height of at least 2 m and a canopy cover of at least 20% or trees with the potential to reach these thresholds in situ in due course”. An updated map is expected from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MEFCC). 41 the “accounting area of the Program”). However, specific sites to be financed by the grant under portion of OFLP are not yet known. Based on the national forest definition, 284 of Oromia’s rural and semi-rural woredas include some forest. Most of Oromia’s high forest (moist montane forests) is found in the Bale forested landscape in the southeast and the Jimma/Wellega/Ilubabor forested landscape in the west. Bale serves as the water tower for the eastern drylands in the Somali region and the country of Somalia, drylands where mobile pastoralism is the predominant livelihood system and which is highly vulnerable to drought. The forests in Oromia region provide critical ecosystem services to the country and to the region. It harbors globally important biodiversity with endangered endemic species such as the Abyssinian wolf and the mountain Nyla. Oromia’s western forest are home to endemic coffee (Coffee Arabica) that has high potential as a value-added export, and harbor wild varieties of the species. Important rivers also originate in or are affected by Oromia’s forests, including those flowing into the new Renaissance Dam under construction. Forest loss and degradation are increasing in Oromia. Deforestation in Oromia has been particularly intense in western (in the Zones of West Wollega, Qeleme Wollega, Ilu Aba Bora) and eastern parts of the regional state (in the Zones of Bale and Guji). In Oromia as a whole, nearly 157,000 ha of forest was lost between 2000 and 2013, or around 12,000 hectares lost every year. This has resulted in over 46 million tons of CO2 equivalent emitted into the atmosphere over this period, or around 3.5 million tons annually (calculated based on Hansen et al, 2013 and DetNorske Veritas, 2015). OFLP would have positive role in reversing deforestation through activities described under Component 1 which include, among others, support to land-use planning; rehabilitation of forests through afforestation, reforestation, participatory forest management; and assisted natural regeneration. The state-wide activities under Component 2 would also have beneficial impacts through establishing and implementing the OFLP strategic framework. Sub-component 2.4 would, in particular, finance activities to enhance safeguards management at regional and local levels. 42 Figure 15-Description of REDD+ pilot projects and implementing organizations in Ethiopia REDD+ initiative Location Scale Size (ha) Status Proponent Bale Mountains Eco- Oromia Project level 500,000 Under Oromia Forest & Wild Region REDD+ Project validation life Enterprise Kaffa/Sheka Biosphere SNNPR Project level >240,000 Initiated Ethio-wetlands and Reserve Natural Resources Association Yayu REDD+ Project Oromia Project level 190,000 Initiated Environment and Coffee Forest Forum Oromia Forested Oromia Jurisdictional Approximate Design phase Oromia Forest & Wild Landscape Program ly 8.7 million completed life Enterprise (a ha in total national pilot) 2.12 Forest related CDM Projects The Kyoto Protocol (1997) came up with three flexible mitigation mechanisms linked to carbon markets namely, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation and International Emissions Trading (JIIE). Among these three, CDM projects have been initiated in many developing countries with the aim of generating emission reduction credits that can be sold in the compliance markets. CDM projects are common in the forestry, energy and waste management sectors. In the forestry sector, afforestation/reforestation activities are eligible for CDM projects. Reforestation and afforestation CDM projects in Ethiopia worth noting are the Humbo Ethiopia Assisted Natural Regeneration Project, the Sodo Community Managed Reforestation (Forest Regeneration) Project and the Abote Community-Managed Reforestation Project. The Sodo Community Managed Agroforestry & Forestry Project is located in Sodo Zuria in SNNPRS. It was initiated with the objective of enhancing carbon sequestration in bio-diverse native forests and contributing to poverty alleviation through the flow of benefits in the form of carbon credits and other non-monetary benefits. The project is validated under the Gold Standard Foundation, the Carbon Fix Standard and the Climate Communit y Biodiversity Standards. A total of 189,027 tCO2 (35 years crediting period) is certified in accordance with the Gold Standard. First round 50,000 tCO2 Certified Emission Reduction purchase agreement is signed with forest finance (1ton = USD 9). The Humbo Ethiopia Assisted Natural Regeneration Project in SNNPRS was the first CDM project and was initiated by World Vision-Ethiopia. It is a practical project that has been operating in the country since 2006. The project uses an afforestation/reforestation approach on a site of 2728ha that was severely degraded due to excessive fuel wood extraction and overgrazing. It provides multiple benefits including enhancing GHG removal by sinks, promoting native vegetation and biodiversity, reducing soil erosion, and provision of an income stream for communities. The project achieved Gold Level Validation under the Climate Community and Biodiversity standards in 2011, and in October 2012 became the first CDM project in Africa to sell Certified Emission Reductions. The 30-year project will sequester an estimated 880,295 tCO2 with total revenue of USD 3,961,328– the equivalent of USD 4.5/ton (Humbo AR-CDM PDD 2009). The Abote Community-Managed Reforestation Project is a joint initiative by World Vision and 43 the local community in Oromia. It aims to rehabilitate degraded land covering a total area of more than 8000ha. The project, which started in 2010, has been validated but its certification is yet to come. 44 3. Approach and Methodology 3.1. Approach 3.1.1 SESA process The Terms of Reference (ToR) for the SESA study was prepared by the National REDD+ Secretariat. The ToR contains the background and purpose/objectives of the SESA project as provided in annex 1. The task encompasses the following five stages as shown in Figure 2: 1. Preparation for the SESA; 2. Scoping; 3. Identifying and Mapping of Stakeholders 4. Baseline data collection; 5. Report writing and submission. The five stages of the SESA process have been followed in an iterative manner as deemed necessary 3.1.2 Preparation for the SESA SESA/ESMF ToR was prepared by national REDD+ Secretariat. Expression of interest was announced in November 2013 to identify interested and relevant firms to participate in the bid process. In July 2014, invitation for proposal submission announced. The contract was awarded in February 2015 and an inception workshop was held on 27 February 2015. Negotiations and revisions on the terms of deliverables (e.g., Process Framework newly added; and inclusion of more study sites in Oromia) were agreed in February 2015. 3.1.3 Scoping The stakeholder analysis and the inception process constitutes much of the work in the scoping phase. The scoping process establishes pertinent issues for subsequent detail assessment as an input for the SESA, identifies relevant criteria for assessment, and helps to precisely conduct stakeholder analysis/mapping. In order to identify the relevant stakeholders the SESA study team has prepared a checklist (Annex 2) and conducted interviews during this process. Revision of SESA/ESMF Work Plan Comments were given by the stakeholders during the inception workshop as well as by the client (MEF). During the inception workshop, the number of sample sites (Woredas) was proposed to increase from 16 to 26. Incorporating all the comments and the revised sample Woredas, the final inception report was submitted to the National REDD+ Secretariat in March 2015. Team organization SESA, ESMF, PF and RPF teams were organized with one key staff as principal investigator for each standalone report. Each team was in charge of developing data collection tools, its respective assignment and then cross-check the compatibility and coherence of the tools with checklist of other groups. The key staffs had provided training to field data enumerators and consultation experts. 45 Mobilization for field work The SESA study team has mobilized five field teams on June 2, 2015. As part of the contract arrangement the field teams have been mobilized to the selected eight regions, 26 Woredas and 52 Kebeles in their respective localities. Each field team consists of three members that is comprised of one key staff and two experts that have adequate professional and wo rk experiences in conducting consultation and collecting socio-economic data. A one day discussion on the contents of various data collection tools has been given to field crew members and pre- tests had been carried out. 3.1.4 Identifying and Mapping of Stakeholders Stakeholder identification and mapping checklist was developed and distributed (annex 2) to different institutes including National REDD+ Secretariat to exhaustively capture stakeholders that are relevant and directly or indirectly take part in the REDD+ processes and its implementation. 3.1.5 Collecting and Analyzing Baseline Data Based on understandings of the context, the team has started collecting and analyzing the baseline information that was necessary to identify the existing environmental and social issues related to REDD+ strategic options; policy and institutional gaps in relation to REDD+ process; and key stakeholders that are associated with these issues. This has been achieved by reviewing all previous studies carried out and collecting primary data from sources identified, including the study on the drivers of forest deforestation and forest degradation. 46 Figure 16-SESA Process Flowchart 3.2. Methodology 3.2.1 Secondary and Primary Data Collection Methods Primary and secondary data were collected from review of pertinent literature, published and unpublished reports and strategic documents; and from interviews, discussions and observations in the selected study regions, Woredas and Kebeles. The following steps were followed in the data collection process. • Secondary data review • Deploying PRA • Conducting workshops • Spatial Analyses 47 3.2.2 Secondary data review Secondary data pertinent to the assignments (global, national, regional and local), which included but not limited to the followings were reviewed, and analyzed. Policy, Legal Frameworks and Other Relevant Documents Review The following policy, legal frameworks and other relevant documents were revised. • Constitution of The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (Proclamation No. 1/1995) • Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE, 1997) • Forest development, conservation and utilization policy and strategy (April, 2007) • Forest development, conservation and utilization (Proclamation No 542/2007) • National Energy Policy of Ethiopia (2006) • Development, conservation and utilization of wildlife (Proclamation No 541/2007) • Environmental Impact Assessment (Proclamation No. 299/2002) • Legislation on Expropriation of Landholdings for Public Purposes and Payment of Compensation (Proclamation No 455/2005) • National Social Protection Policy, 2014 • The Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation No. 456/2005 • Regulations on land Expropriated and payment of Compensation (Reg. No. 135/2007) • The Rural Development Policy and Strategy (2001) • Productive Safety Net Program and Sustainable Land Management • Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (1999) • Access to Genetic Resources and Community Knowledge, and Community Rights (Proclamation No. 482 /2006) Relevant Natural resource related document reviewed • Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE, 2011) • REDD+ Readiness preparation proposal (R-PP) (2011) • Draft National REDD+ Strategy (2015) World Bank safeguard policy triggered by the implementation of REDD+ Program • World Bank Policy on Environmental Assessment (OP /BP 4.01) • World Bank Policy on Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) • World Bank Policy on Pest Management (OP 4.09) • World Bank Policy on Indigenous People (OP 4.10) • World Bank Policy on Physical and Cultural Resources (OP/ BP 4.11) • World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement (OP/ BP 4.12) • World Bank Policy on Forests (OP/ BP 4.36) • OPN 11.03: Cultural Property • World Bank Policy on Safety of Dams (OP/BP 4.37) 48 International Legal framework • Cartagena Protocol • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) • Convention on International trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora • Convention on Economic, Cultural and Social rights (UNESCO) • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) • United Nations Framework Conventions for Climate Change (UNFCCC) • Convention for the safeguards of intangible heritage • Pan African Agency for the Great Green Wall (PAGWW) 3.2.3 Primary Data Collection Deploying PRA Different PRA tools (Table 3), such as consultation, focus group discussion and key informant interview have been used to generate primary data. The PRA tools were administered at different levels (i.e. from Kebele to national levels) including but not limited to community, government institutions, local and international nongovernmental organizations, academia and research institutions, private sector, civil society, activist groups and development partners. Community consultation has been carried out in all selected study sites. In 52 Kebeles, a total of 936 consultations were carried out with women, men, youth, forest dependent and underserved community members. National, Regional and Woreda level consultation were held to get views on environment and social impacts of proposed strategic options to reduce deforestation and forest degradation as well as the legal frameworks of REDD+ such as benefit sharing mechanisms, conflict resolution forest resource use right, carbon right and land use planning. Stakeholders from different institutions and civil society at different levels were involved in consultations at National, Regional and Woreda levels. Participants for consultation at national and regional levels had been drawn from a wide range of stakeholders such as representatives of government organization, major ministries (Agriculture, Environment and Forestry, Energy). For consultations that were carried out at Woreda and Kebele or Community level, depending on the social context of the consultation area, participants had been drawn from representatives of existing ethnic groups, clan groups, social statuses, religious groups, gender groups, age groups, educational groups and, and any other walks of life that the facilitator encountered in the course of consultation and for sought its relevance. Separate consultation had been carried out with social, status, age and gender groups thinking of that opinions would be suppressed in mixed group discussion that may emanate. 49 Interviews at Household level with local and underserved community were conducted in all selected Kebeles. Selection of Kebele level interviewees had mainly included forest dependent community, women headed households and elders who involve in conflict resolution that arises from forest resource utilization. This method was employed to capture information from people who couldn’t express themselves in group discussion settings as well as to capture data which could not be disclosed in focus group discussion. Local forest users associations such as PFM, JFM, and others have also got due attention in the assessment process. In the selection of the forest user communities, care had been taken to sample communities with/without piloted REDD+ projects in order to obtain balanced views. The R-PP served as useful guiding document in this regard. Figure17-PRA tools used, the levels at which the tools used and the stakeholders addressed by the particular PRA tools Data collection techniques Level Consul Focus Group Key Informant Interview Household Others tation Discussion Interview National √ √ Regional √ √ Woreda √ √ Baseline Data Kebele √ √ √ Site Observation 52 forest sites visited Consultations were conducted at national, regional and Woreda levels. Participants included key stakeholders from government and non-government organizations. At Woreda level, stakeholders from government and community based organizations, ethnic or clan groups, community elders, youth associations, and gender groups were involved. 3.2.4 Criteria for Sample Sites Selection Sample sites for the preparation of the reports on SESA, ESMF, PF and RPF are selected based on the following criteria: 50 Figure18-Criteria set to select sample sites for SESA-ESMF-RPF-PF studies Criteria code Proposed Criteria Deforestation & Forest Degradation (Hotspot points identified by Deforestation A & forest degradation study team) B Forest cover-Woreda with the maximum forest cover C REDD+ project implementation potential D Forest vegetation type D1: High forest D2: Woodland D3: Bamboo forest Socio economic setting E E1: Sites with community based institutions engaged on forest activities (PFM, NTFP) E2: Ethnic groups diversity E3: Cultural practices & diversity E4: Forest dependent community living within and/or around the forest F Plantation Sites to see risks of afforestation /reforestation G Regional Administration H Leakage 3.2.5 Hot-spot for Deforestation and Forest Degradation SESA-ESMF used the outputs from the study of the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradations. The hot spots for deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia were identified in several studies (MEF 2015; SOS Sahel Ethiopia and Farm Africa 2015). Other than using hot spot areas (high deforestation and forest degradation areas) as SESA sample sites selections, the following criteria described in the subsequent sub-sections were also used. 3.2.6 REDD+ Projects Implementation Potential Lands that have forest and/or could support forest growth and have potential for the implementation of REDD+ were considered in the samples. The potential of these sites considered in the samples for carbon stock can be attained through enrichment plantation, reforestation- afforestation scheme, assisted natural regeneration and rehabilitation of the existing forest. 51 Figure 19-REDD+ Projects Implementation Potential Sites Code Land Cover Designation ACB/RV Acacia wooded grassland of the Rift Valley. ACB Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland proper. AA Afroalpine belt CTW Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland. DSS Desert and semi-desert scrubland. DAF Dry evergreen Afromontane forest and grassland complex. EB Ericaceous belt. FLV/OW Freshwater lakes-open water vegetation. FLV/MFS Freshwater marshes and swamps floodplains and lake shore vegetation. MAF Moist evergreen Afromontane forest. SLV/OW Salt lake-open water vegetation. SLV/SSS Salt pans saline/brackish and intermittent wetlands and salt-lake shore vegetation. TRF Transitional rain forest. WGG Wooded grasslands of the western Gambella region. 52 3.2.6.1 Leakage Forest lands found adjacent to areas where REDD+ project is implemented may become prone to leakage. Leakage creates environmental risk in terms of forest degradation and biodiversity loss. 3.2.6.2 Forest Cover Woreda with high forest covers and Kebele within the Woreda having high potential for the implementation of REDD+ project was used as a criteria for selecting of the sample sites. 3.2.6.3 Forest Types (diversity) Forest types that include high forests (Dry Evergreen Montane and Moist/humid Evergreen Montane Forests), woodlands (Acacia-Comiphora and Combretum-Terminalia) and bamboo forests are included in the sample sites. 3.2.6.4 Socio-economic settings Those communities who, in one way or another depend on forests to support their economy, exercise their cultural practices, social and spiritual values, have also been considered for the sample sites selection. These segment of communities include pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and sedentary agriculture practitioners with their respective diversity of ethnicity, cultural practices, and institutional setups (CBOs and religious institutes). Social groups, those who are underserved and vulnerable (e.g., women, elders, people with disability); and the youth were proportionally represented in the various focus group discussions, key informant and household interviews. 3.2.6.5 Plantation sites In different regions of the country, forest plantations through afforestation, reforestation and forest restoration are undertaken regularly as routine activities by the relevant sector offices, local communities and civil society organizations, to protect land degradation, rehabilitate catchments, improve the micro-climate and fuel wood supply on top of the efforts to enhance the forest stock in the country. Such plantation forests may have potential social and environmental risk that need to be assessed for the REDD+ implementation. The REDD+ Secretariat, during the inception meeting held on 23 Feb 2015 with stakeholders, both the client and the consultants emphasized the need to include sample sites from the plantation forest sites. Accordingly, Koso-Ber (Plantation Forest in Awi Zone) of the Amhara Regional State was selected and included as a sample in the survey. The Amhara Region is selected in this regard, because the region is known for a considerable plantation forest than the other regions, for it has established 'Forest Enterprise' merely on existing plantation forests and due to the potential for afforestation and reforestation. 50 3.2.6.6 Regional States There was a need to strike a balance between the different regions of the country with regard to the REDD+ project implementation and equity with respect to their resource utilization. Maintenance of diversity of the regions and fair utilization of resources has to do with the carbon funds and a priority that needs to be considered. Therefore, all National Regional States with a potential for the REDD+ program implementation were included and this is one of the selection criteria for the study sites. Additional numbers of study sample sites were also considered in Oromia due to the existence of large area of high forest and the pilot REDD+ regional initiative that is under preparation in the region. 3.2.6.7 Samples sites Twenty six Woredas from 8 Regional States of the country with 2 Kebeles from each Woreda, which makes a total of 52 Kebeles nationwide, were included in the study. The selection of the sample Woredas was made by considering the representatives of all forest types of the country, the social and cultural diversity of the forest communities with respect to their forest management and utilization practices. The combination of the specific criteria used for the selection of the sample Woredas are shown in Table 6. Figure20-Selected Woreda and Selection criteria Regional States Zone Woreda Selection Criteria Afar Zone-3 Gewane A,B,C,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G North Shewa Tarmaber/Debre-Sina A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Gonder Metemma A,B,C,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Amhara Awi Banja-Shikudad/Kosober B,C,E2,F, E4,G,H Asosa A,B,C,D2,D3,E1,E2,E3, E4,G BSG Assosa Bambasi A,B,C,D2,D3,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Anuak Abobo A,B,C,D1,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Gambela Mezenger Godere A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Harena Bulk A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Bale Dinsho (BMNP) A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G West Arsi Dodola A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Jima Gera A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Yayu A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Illubabor Didu A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Oromia Kelem Wollega Anfillo A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Guji Odo Shakiso A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G,H West Shewa Jibat A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G West Hararghe Anchar A,B,C,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Somali Jarar Yoo’ale A,B,C,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G SNNPR Gamo-Gofa Arba Minch Zuria A,B,C,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Kafa Decha A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Bench-Maji Sheko A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G 51 Sidama Wendo Genet A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Sheka Masha A,B,C,D1,D3,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Misraqawi Atsbi Wemberta A,B,C,D1,D2,E1,E2,E3, E4,G Tigray Mierabawi Wolkayit-Tegede A,B,C,D1,E1,E2,E3, E4,G 52 4. Ethiopia Baseline Situation 4.1. Population Profile Despite Ethiopia’s long history, there were no estimates of its total population prior to the 1930s. The first population and housing census was conducted in 1984, a second census was conducted in 1994, a third in 2007 and based on the census projections estimates were realized every year on July. The population has increased steadily over the last three decades, from 42.6 million in 1984 to 53.5 million in 1994; 73.8 million in 2007; 86.6 million in 2013 and 96.6 million in 2014. There were slight declines in the population growth rates over these periods, from 3.1 percent per annum in 1984 to 2.9 percent in 1994 and 2.6% in 2007, 2.6% in 2013, 2.6% in 2014. Ethiopia is one of the least urbanized countries in the world; only 17% of the population lives in urban areas while the balance 83% live in rural areas (CSA, 2014). Here urban areas refer to all capital of regions, zones and Woredas, and it also includes localities with urban Kebeles whose inhabitants are primarily engaged in non-agricultural activities. The majority of the population lives in the highland areas. The main occupation of the settled rural population is farming, while the lowland areas are mostly inhabited by pastoral people, who depend mainly on livestock production and move from place to place in search of grass and water. More than 80% of the country’s total population lives in the regional states of Oromia, Amhara and SNNP. The population which is growing at a very rapid rate, of about 2.6% annually, has been clearing forests and vegetation to satisfy its increasing requirements of food and energy. As population grows, arable land per capita declines and the fragmentation and degradation of land through overuse increases. In response to the increased population density and shortage of arable land, fallowing practices which were traditionally used by farmers to maintain land fertility have also been either abandoned or the periods shorten. Rural population constitutes about 83% of the total population and is mainly dependent on farming (CSA, 2014). So land is the most important source for food (agriculture), building materials and domestic energy (forests). According to UNHCR, the total number of refugees in Ethiopia has reached 570,000 refugees as of the end of May 2014, making Ethiopia the second largest refugee host nation in Africa after Kenya. The main refugee populations in Ethiopia are from Somalia (42.6%), followed by South Sudan (32%), Eritrea (16.8%), and Sudan (7%). The increasing number of refugees in the country is largely the effect of the current influx of South Sudanese refugees to Gambella Region. Since many of the refugee camps are located in the peripheries where the remaining forests in the country exist, the refugees are causing a devastating effect as field reports indicated the cases from Gambela and Benishangul-Gumuz regional states. The refugees not only clear forests for settlement but also depend on them for house construction and fuel wood. 53 4.2. Social Profile Ethiopia is not only known for variations in the natural settings that extend from the highlands in the center to the low lands in the peripheries but also for its socio-cultural variations. The country as the nation state is comprised of 86 ethnic groups who have their own distinct languages and socio- cultural structures. These different socio-cultural structures and indigenous social and religious institutions molded the way each group use, protect and manage the natural resources such as forests and forest resources. On the other hand, the largest portion of the Ethiopian population lives in the rural areas depending on cultivation, agro-pastoralism, pastoralism and hunting-gathering combined with fishing as economic activities. 4.3. Social Profile of Oromia Ethiopia has achieved substantial progress in economic, social and human development over the past decade, achieving rapid and inclusive economic growth averaging 10.9 percent since 2004. Extreme poverty fell from 56 percent in 2000 (one of the highest levels internationally) to 31 percent in 2011. Low levels of inequality have been maintained through this period. Non-monetary dimensions of well-being also show strong improvement. Life expectancy, for instance, increased by one year every year over this period, from 52 to 63 years. Meanwhile, the 2014 population of 95 million people (WBG, 2013) will grow to at least 120 million by 2030. 1. Demography Based on the 2013 Central Statistics Authority population projection, the population of Ethiopia has reached 45, 249,998 male and 44,826,014 female and a total of 90, 076, 012 in 2015. Likewise, the population of Oromia based on the same projection reached 33,691,991 in 2015. The demographic figures show almost a 50:50 ratio of men and women dominated by more than 50% young and dynamic population group (CSA, 2013, BoFED, 2013). Oromia is home for more than 88% of the ethnic Oromo. Whereas, twelve percent of the population of Oromia belongs to the different ethnic groups (Amhara, Hadiya, Sidama, etc). More than 87% of the people of Oromia live in rural areas while 13% reside in urban areas (CSA, 2007). Exploring the 200710 census, religious wise about 48% of the people residing in Oromia follow Islam, 30% Orthodox Christian, 18% Protestant, three percent Traditional, half percent Catholic, one percent others respectively. 2. OFLP Program Beneficiaries In line with the REDD+ jurisdictional approach that defines the carbon accounting area, OFLP would cover all of Oromia’s 287 rural and semi-rural woredas11. In these woredas, there are approximately 1.8 million people living inside or immediately adjacent to existing forests. A subset of this population, as well as officials in relevant institutions at all levels of government, would receive training or operational support under the grant. The direct beneficiaries are small holders, communities and officials in relevant institutions at all levels of government, who will benefit from capacity building and training in A/R, Participatory Forest Management (PFM), land use planning, safeguards, policy development, and extension activities. The number of these direct beneficiaries is 25,000 (30 percent 10 This is the latest data with breakdowns on the religious composition of the population of Oromia. 11 Ethiopia Mapping Agency (EMA). 2013 Land Cover Map and Population Data. Central Statistical Agency (CSA), 2014 female), most of whom are located in 49 woredas with deforestation hotspots. However, work on the enabling environment will be carried out state-wide and the number of direct beneficiaries includes those benefitting from training and other non-investment support provided by the grant. In addition, ER payments will also directly benefit communities and the government according to the rules set out in the Benefit Sharing Mechanism (BSM) that is to be prepared. ER payments will promote sustainable land-use practices. The exact number of direct beneficiaries of ER payments will be evaluated ex post, once the BSM is in place. Moreover, these benefits will only materialize when emissions from forest change are reduced in Oromia. The direct benefits include goods, services, small works, and training that will: (a) improve forest management and empower communities to participate; (b) create opportunities for jobs, casual labor, and livelihoods from forests; (c) improve capacities and policies to better manage landscapes for multiple benefits; and (d) help secure ecosystem services such as more usable water for crops and households, resilience from intact biodiversity, and more shade for livestock. A large additional population in Ethiopia and her neighbors will indirectly benefit from natural asset protection downstream, including by reduced soil erosion, flood risk, and sedimentation in water bodies for hydropower, fishing, irrigation, and water supply. 3. OFLP Geographic Location: Physical Characteristics The OFLP geographic boundary would be all forests in Oromia. The region is located between 3024′20″-10023′26″ N latitudes and 34007′37″-42058′51″ E longitudes. Oromia is Ethiopia’s largest regional state in terms of land area (around 28.5 million hectares, roughly the size of Italy), population (over 30 million people) and forest cover (approximately 9 million ha in total spread over rural areas of Oromia).12 Based on the national forest definition13, 284 of Oromia’s rural and semi-rural woredas include some forest. Most of Oromia’s high forest (moist montane forests) is found in the Bale forested landscape in the southeast and the Jimma/Wellega/Ilubabor forested landscape in the west. Bale serves as the water tower for the eastern drylands in the Somali region and the country of Somalia, drylands where mobile pastoralism is the predominant livelihood system and which is highly vulnerable to drought. 4. Forest Resource Base Gebremarkos Wolde Selassie (1998) based on historical evidences indicated that “historical evidences revealed that a few hundred years ago more than 63% of the total land mass of Ethiopia was covered by dense forests but it is not greater than 3% now.” However, high and extended rate of deforestation and forest degradation coupled with rapid population growth, brought the forest cover that was estimated to be 40% in 1900 to 16% in 1954, 8% in 1961, 4% in 1975, 3.2% in 1980 (Amogne Asfaw 2014). However, recent unpublished reports claim that the Ethiopian forest cover has reached about 15%. (Table 13 and Figure 18). Figure21-forest cover of Ethiopia over years 12 This data was calculated using the 2013 map prepared by the Ethiopia Mapping Agency (data unpublished, 2015). 13 Forests in Ethiopia are defined as land with a minimum of 20% canopy cover, with trees at least 2m high and a minimum size of 0.5 hectares. An updated map is expected from FAO/MEF in September 2015 Year Forest cover (%) Population (in ‘ 000’) 1900 40 11,901 1954A 16 17,634 1961 8 21,162 1975 4 27,465 1980A 3.6 38,749 1998B 2.7 61,226 2015C 15 106,312 Sources for Forest Data: AMillion Bekle (2001); B Reusing (1998); C MEF (unpublished), Source for Population: Jan Lahmeyer, 2004 Figure 22-Forest Cover Change vs Population Growth of Ethiopia Varying figures have been produced by many foresters on the extent of coverage of the Ethiopian forest resources. The debate has gone on for decades until the Ethiopian Mapping Agency has recently indicated (but not published) that the estimated forest coverage of the country to reach to 15%. The extent and forest types have been reviewed by Yitebitu Moges et al. (2010) which has similar projection as the Ethiopian Mapping Agency’s 2015 results. They had also indicated that Ethiopia’s forest resources supply most of the wood products used within the country, as well as a large volume of diverse non-timber forest products (NTFPs), besides their ecological functions. Several authors and national or sub-national inventory projects have carried out assessments and documented the extent of forest resources and other land uses of Ethiopia. Among these, the following are worth mentioning: Chaffey (1982), LUPRD-MOA/FAO (1985), and the World Bank- funded Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (WBISPP) (2005) has reviewed these various reports. A key source of information on forests and other land uses in Ethiopia is WBISPP. WBISPP (2005) classified the land cover types in Ethiopia into 9 major types (Table 2). In the recent Forest Proclamation No. 542/2007, high forests, woodlands, bamboo forests are recognized as forests. Based on WBISPP, the land use/land cover statistics in Ethiopia indicates that woody vegetation including high forests cover over 50% of the land (WBISPP, 2005). The definition of forest is ambiguous in the IPCC Good practices Guideline. Following the definition of FAO (2001) the vegetation of Ethiopia that may qualify as ‘forests’ are natural high forests, woodlands, plantations and bamboo forests, with an estimated area of 35.13 million ha. If the shrub lands are added to this (considering the definition of IPCC for forest), the estimated cover is over 50% (61.62 million ha). The next largest land use type is cultivated land with 18.6% cover. The land-cover types of Ethiopia and their magnitude/proportion (WBISPP, 2005) (Source: WBISPP, 2005) Figure 23-The land-cover types of Ethiopia and their magnitude/proportion Figure 24-LCLU Map of Ethiopia (Source: Chen et.al. 2015). On the other hand, the recent data on forest resources of Ethiopia reported in FAO (2010) puts Ethiopia among countries with forest cover of 10-30%. According to this report, Ethiopia’s forest cover (FAO definition) is 12.2 million ha (11%), clearly underestimated compared to the IPCC definition. It further indicated that the forest cover shows a decline from 15.11 million ha in 1990 to 12.2 million ha in 2010, during which 2.65% of the forest cover was deforested. The cover belonging to other wooded land remained constant in the same period. The FAO (2010) FRA data is based on a reclassification, calibration and linear extrapolation of data from WBISPP 2004. Disaggregated by region, the land use land change analysis conducted by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA) showed that the forest cover in most of the regions has increased except in the Afar regional state in the period between 2003 and 2008. According to this analysis, currently the highest forest cover in the country is found in Oromia region, covering about 65 % (Table 8). In the entire country, much of the forest increase was due to conversion of grasslands and croplands into forest lands. A total of about 5.5 million ha of grassland and about 2.4 million ha of cropland has been changed into forest land between 2003 and 2008. During the same period, the dynamics shows that a total of about 3.3 million ha of forest land was changed into grassland and another 1.9 million ha of forest land was changed into cropland. 58 5. Spatial Distribution of the Forest Vegetation Resources of the Country The Major Vegetation Types The vegetation types in Ethiopia is shown in the Potential Vegetation Map of Ethiopia (Friis et al. 2011) that recognizes 12 major vegetation types and three subtypes. These include: the Afroalpine belt, the Ericaceous belt, the Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forset and grassland complex, the Moist Afromontane Forest, Tranisitional Rain Forest, Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland, Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland, Wooded grassland of the western Gambela region, the Riverine vegetation, Freshwater lakes, lake shores, marsh and flood plain vegetation, Desert and semi-desert scrubland and the Salt –water lakes, lake shores, salt marshes an pan vegetation. Of these vegetation types, the following include “forests”, the Ericaceous belt, the Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forset and grassland complex, the Moist Afromontane Forest, Transitional Rain Forest, Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland, Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland, and the Riverine vegetation. A brief description is given below. i. Acacia-Commiphora Woodland and Bushland This vegetation type is characterized by drought resistant trees and shrubs occurring between 400 and 1800 m. This vegetation type occurs in the northern, eastern, central and southern part of the country. The trees and shrubs form an almost complete stratum and characteristic species include species of Acacia, Balanites, Commiphora. Most of the National Parks in the country are found in this ecosystem. Of these parks, only the Awash National Park is gazetted. All the other conservation areas (Abijata-Shala Lakes, Nechisar, Omo, Mago, Yangudirassa NPs attempt to function without proper legal recognition). Threats: The Acacia-Commiphora woodland is currently under strong environmental stress. Extraction of fuel wood and charcoal has increased the rate of deforestation and natural resource depletion. Clearance for rain-fed agriculture and irrigation under takings further enhanced its vulnerability. Over 40 taxa are threatened in this ecosystem. The failure to manage the expansion of exotic invasive species, such as Prosopis juliflora is threatening the biodiversity. ii. Dry Evergreen Afro-montane Forest and Grassland Complex This vegetation type represents a complex system of successions involving extensive grasslands rich in legumes, shrubs and small to large-sized trees to closed forest with a canopy of several strata occurring between (1800-) 1900 and 3000 m. This vegetation type covers much of highland areas and mountainous chains of Ethiopia in Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) regions. The areas with Dry Evergreen Afromontane forest have canopies usually dominated by Podocarpus falcatus with Juniperus procera as co-dominant, followed by Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, etc. The areas with Afromontane woodland, wooded grassland and grassland include the natural woodlands and wooded grasslands of the plateau with Acacia abyssinica, A. negrii, A. pilispina, A. bavazanoi, A. montigena, etc. The grasslands occur in the areas where human activity has been largest and most intense, and found at altitudes between 1500 and 3000 m. The montane grassland in most places derive from forest and other woody vegetation types. The evergreen scrub vegetation occurs in the highlands of Ethiopia either as an intact scrub in association with the dry evergreen montane forest or usually as secondary growth after deforestation of the dry evergreen montane forest. Threats: In general, the Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex is inhabited by the majority of the Ethiopian population and represents a zone of sedentary cereal-based mixed agriculture for centuries. The forests have diminished due to human interference and replaced by bushlands in most areas. This forest is under severe pressure as a consequence of inhabitants’ need for agricultural and grazing land. There is a severe and increasing fuel wood gap in the country, which leads to depletion of standing stock and, hence, further degradation of the remaining forest stands. This is also an ecosystem where livestock density is one of the highest in the country thus exacerbating the degradation process. ii. Moist Evergreen Afromontane Forest This vegetation type is in most cases characterized by one or more closed strata of evergreen trees, which may reach a height of 30 to 40 m. These forests occur in the South-Western part of the Ethiopian Highlands at between 1500 and 2600 m elevation and the Harenna Forest on the southern slopes of the Bale Mountains. The forests characteristically contain a mixture of Podocarpus falcatus and broad-leaved species as emergent trees in the canopy including Pouteria adolfi-friederici. There are also a number of medium-sized trees, and large shrubs. A number of the High Priority forests recognized are included in this vegetation type. Threats: Expanding agricultural expansion in this vegetation type. iii. Transitional Rain Forest The Transitional Rainforest, from the western escarpment of the Ethiopian Highlands, in western Ethiopia (Wellega, Illubabor and Kefa). It occurs between 500 and 1500 m elevation. The characteristic species in the canopy includes Pouteria (Aningeria) altissima, Anthocleista schweinfurthii. Threats: Expanding agricultural expansion in this vegetation type. iv. Ericaceous Belt This vegetation type includes Areas between 3000-3200 m a.s.l. below the Afro-alpine vegetation. The vegetation type is characterised by the dominant species of Erica arborea, E. trimera, Hypericum revolutum, Myrsine melanophloeos. This vegetation type is sometimes considered as a sub-afroalpine vegetation type. v. Afro-alpine vegetation This vegetation type includes areas between 3500 m and 4620 m. The vegetation type is characterised by the most conspicuous giant Lobelia, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, and evergreen shrubs including the heather, Erica arborea and perennial herbs such as Helichrysum species. Ethiopia has the largest extent of afroalpine and subafroalpine habitats in Africa. These environments are highly fragile due to the extreme climatic conditions (low temperature, harmful short wave radiation, etc.). Threats: Because of the increasing population pressure there are frequent encroachments by man that result in widespread destruction of wildlife and their habitats. As a result of intensive human pressure most of the faunal and floral resources are now at risk. Apart from the Semien and Bale Mountains, most of the afroalpine and subafroalpine vegetation type are not as such protected. vii. Riverine vegetation The riverine vegetation is recognized below 1500 m. It is highly variable in structure and density, and species composition depending on altitude and the geographic location. Common species in this vegetation type include Salix subserrata, Trichilia emetica, Diospyros mespiliformis, Syzygium guineense, Tamarindus indica, Phoenix reclinata, Hyphaene thebaica, etc. Traditionally what is considered as high forests include the Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex, the Moist Afromontane Forest) and is described below. The Bamboo forests are also described as a separate forest types are also described separately. But in reality, the highland bamboo forest dominated by Arundinaria alpina is part of the Afromontane rainforests and the lowland bamboo dominated by Oxythenanthera abyssinica is part of the Combretum-Terminalia woodland. Figure 25-Potential Vegetation Map of Ethiopia (Source: Friis et al. 2011) 6. High Forest The Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan of Ethiopia speculated that about 35% of the area of Ethiopia (which then included Eritrea) was once forested (EFAP, 1994) but failed to substantiate the information with tangible facts. The high forests of Ethiopia may be categorized into Dry Evergreen Montane forests and Moist Evergreen Montane forests. Dry evergreen forest occur in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia where the sub-humid climate prevails while moist evergreen forest occur in the southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia where humid climate prevails. For a long time high only forests with three stories (canopy layers) and canopy cover exceeding 75% were considered as forest proper. Accordingly the current high forest cover of Ethiopia varied between 3 and 2.5% depending on different estimates. Currently FAO has provided a definition of forest which included areas formerly understood as woodland. According to FAO (2011) forest is defined as land with tree crown cover of more than 10 percent of the ground with area exceeding 0.5 ha. Tree height at maturity should exceed 5 m. (FAO, 2011). The new forest definition included the broad leafed deciduous Combretum-Terminalia woodland, Acacia-Commiphora woodland and the Acacia woodland. Earth Trends (2003) gave the various classes of forest in Ethiopia as (a) those covering greater that than 10% accounted for 47.36%, (b) those forests with canopy cover greater that 25% accounted for 24.14%, (c) forests with crown cover greater that 50% accounted for 8.25 % and (d) forests with crown cover greater than 75% accounted for 3.15%. These estimates however did not consider tree height at maturity and the vegetation cover with 10% crown cover is therefore highly over estimated. The same document gives the forest cover of Ethiopia as 4.16%. This indicate that the crown cover data are gathered using different methodologies and estimates may differ substantially. The total forest cover of Ethiopia meeting the definition of the FAO, 2011 reported as 13% is therefore doubtful since it is not supported with tangible data. The dry evergreen montane forests of Ethiopia with Juniperus procera , Olea europaea subsp. europaea and Podocarpus falcatus co-dominants occur sparsely scattered irregularly as remnant forest patches such as inaccessible areas, church yards, Holy places and sacred areas whereas the moist evergreen forests with Pouteria adolfi-friedericii, Albizia and Ficus spp., dominating interchangeably depending on variations in habitats occur more extensively. The apparent extensive moist evergreen forest cover however is deceptive since close inspection of these forests would reveal that the biodiversity is impoverished as a result of the coffee growing underneath. 7. Plantation Forest Resource Ethiopia has a long history of tree planting activities. According to historical records, afforestation started in the early 1400s by the order of King Zera Yakob (1434-1468). Modern tree planting using introduced tree species (mainly Australian Eucalyptus) started in 1895 when Emperor Menelik II (1888-1892) looked into solutions for alleviating shortage of firewood and construction wood in the capital, Addis Ababa. An official estimation of plantation forest in the country has been given by Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project at approximately 500, 000 ha (WBISPP, 2005). Close to 27% of the total plantation forests were established as community plantations between 1978 and 1989 by the Derg regime. Eucalyptus species (58%) and Cupressus species (29%) are the dominant species of those plantations. Though no formal survey has been conducted since the WBISPP (2005) report, recent document compiled from regional reports raise the national plantation forest coverage to 972,000 ha (Million Bekele, 2011). According to this document only 20 percent of the total plantation is categorized as large scale and industrial plantation. The few wood industries in the country utilize these forests to produce sawn lumber and poles. The products from these few industries is by far less than the national demand for forest products which therefore is compensated by importing timber products worth 430 million ETB annually. The vast majority of the plantation (80%) on the other hand is comprised of plantation forests created through government rehabilitation programs, annual national plantation schemes, community based watershed development programs, individual woodlots and trees in the traditional agroforestry systems. Small-scale plantations are getting momentum since the last one and half decade (Mulugeta Lemeneh, 2010). The major drivers for the expansion of smallholder plantations are income generation from tree products and self-sustenance in meeting household energy demands. The Ethiopian forest policy (1999) encourages the expansion of smallholder plantation in the form of woodlots and agro-forestry. The policy also prescribes incentive mechanisms for those smallholder farmers that increase their tree crop holdings. However, being unaware of the provisions instated in the country’s forest policy farmers are being driven by the high local, national and international demands for wood and wood products. According to the review by Mulugeta Lemeneh (2011), the major reasons that are initiating the smallholder farmers in Ethiopia to expand and establish smallholder plantation are two: wood scarcity both for construction and fuel wood and thus the need to satisfy household subsistence demand, and to generate cash income. In some communities, eucalypt trees are regarded as insurance resource or life savior, since they are cut and readily converted to cash during critical needs (Mesele Negash 2002). In other societies, such as the Gurage, planting eucalypt is a privilege and obligation of all households not only for meeting household wood requirements and generate cash revenues but to preserve social pride and reputation (Negussie Achalu 2004). Individually owned woodlots also bestow a considerable reputation and social value to the owner, and these reputations depend very much on the size of the woodlots. Recently, the Ethiopian government has taken a big initiative to create climate resilient green economy to be achieved by 2025. The forest sector as one of the pillars in the CRGE strategy has prioritized afforestation, reforestation, and forest management programs to increase carbon sequestration in forests and woodlands. 8. Bamboo forests Bamboo belongs to the subfamily Bambusoideae and family Poaceae. There are More than 1,500 species and 90 genera of bamboo are found in the world, covering 36 million hectare (ha) of land which is distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical belt ((Zhou et al., 2005;FAO, 2007). Africa has 43 species and 9 genera covering about 1.5 million ha and forty of these species occur only in Madagascar (FAO, 2007). There are only two bamboo species in Ethiopia, namely the high land bamboo, Arundinaria alpina K.Schum. Growing between 1200 to 1800 m covering 1,000,000 ha and the low land bamboo Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro covering 300,000 ha (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 2000; Kassahun Embaye, 2003) and Ethiopia, home to 86% of the overall bamboo and rattan forest in Africa. Lowland bamboo grows in the western parts of Ethiopia along major river valleys and the lowlands bordering Sudan often forming extensive stands. The highland bamboo is found naturally in the south, southwest and central highlands of Ethiopia at 2,200 to 4,000 m.a.s.l. Bamboo forests are known to be effective in protecting hillsides from soil erosion though the complex network of fine roots which facilitate percolation of water to the deeper water table thus playing a significant role in ecosystem services. The profuse litter fall of bamboo of improves soil structure and fertility (Fanshawe, 1972). The easy workability, strength of the fibers, straight and uniform boles and short maturity period makes bamboo a tree of high prominence for commercial and domestic uses including furniture, building, pulp, bio-energy, food, forage and medicine (Liese, 1985). 9. Geological settings The geologic and tectonic situation of Ethiopia (figure 7) is strongly linked to the development of the East African Rift System and of the Ethiopian magma dome. This dome can be differentiated into three major geological settings: Precambrian complexes occur in the north and the west that are strongly folded and where granites or granitoides outcrop. The actual dome originates from the ballooning of a magma chamber and as a consequence volcanic activities, such as fissure eruptions and developed multiple basalt layers (Boccaletti et al., 1998). These Mesozoic to Tertiary layers cover most parts of the Ethiopian Highlands and the Somali Plateau. The Somali Plateau and the Ethiopian Highlands are not significantly folded. However, the Lake Tana region and the Graben shoulders of the Rift Valley constitute an exception where Precambrian Rocks outcrop. Figure 26-Geology of Ethiopia Source: Modified after the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (1988) 10. Topography and Relief Ethiopia has great geographic diversity with high and rugged mountains, flat topped plateaus, deep gorges, incised river valleys and rolling plains. The Danakil Depression is located at 125 m below sea level (b.s.l.) while the highest point is Ras-Dashen with 4.620 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (CIA, 2005). The northern and western parts of Ethiopia, with the exception of the Afar Triangle, are dominated by very rugged terrain with high plateaus (> 2200 m a.s.l.) and deeply incised valleys, such as the Nile drainage system. Figure 27-Topography/ Relief of Ethiopia Source DEM: Jarvis, et.al. 2008 The physical conditions and variations in altitudes have resulted in a great diversity of climate, soil and vegetation. The Ethiopian relief includes a range of altitudes stretching from below sea level to nearly 4600 meters above sea level. Within these extremes, about 50% of the land surface is above the 1500 m contour line. The difference in altitude and therefore of climate conditions have provided the scene for a wide variety of cropping patterns in agriculture. The extreme difference in altitude has also created the conditions for high potential in the production of hydro- electric power. 11. Major Drainage Basins The major drainage systems are of endogenous origin. The drainage systems are of canyon shaped character in the northern Ethiopian Highlands whereas the drainage valleys in the southern Ethiopian Highlands (Kaffa) and the Somali Plateau are v-shaped. The drainage basins of Ethiopia is described as exoreic (eastern and western drainage systems: Nile Basin) and endoreic (Main Ethiopian Rift drainage systems: Awash River, Lake Region, Abaya-Chamo Basin, Chew Bahir Basin and Omo River). Figure 11-Drainage Basin of Ethiopia Source: Sileshi Bekele, 2001 12. Climate Pattern The climate pattern of Ethiopia is mainly determined by the alternations of the inner tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the influence of the Indian Monsoon throughout the year (Moron, 1998). Two major air streams cause dry and rainy seasons from late June to early September, when the ITCZ is northernmost, the equator dominant air stream direction is south-east in southern Ethiopia and south-west in central to northern Ethiopia. These warm and moist winds are the result of high evaporation and water vapor saturation of the air mass both above the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and Congo Basin, respectively. Precipitation and temperature gradients are strongly dependent on altitude; while precipitation increases, temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The three major climate classifications characterizing Ethiopia are therefore very elevation dependent (Köppen, 1931): • Cwb-, Cfb-, Cwc-climates in the Ethiopian Highlands, which are of warm to cool mountainous semi-humid to humid characteristics. • As-, Aw-, Am-climates in the lowlands, which are of semi-humid to semi-arid characteristics surrounding the highlands. • BWh-, BSh- and BSk-climate in the Afar-Triangle and the Somali Region. 67 Figure 12-Climatic Classification after Köppen & Geiger (Modified source: Ethiopian Mapping Authority Services, 1988) Precipitation across the country is characterized by high spatial and temporal variability (figure 10). On a spatial scale, the distribution of annual rainfall ranges from less than 400 mm in the Somali Region and the Afar Triangle to more than 2,400 mm in the southwest of Ethiopia. 68 Figure 13-Mean Annual Precipitation On inter-annual time scales, precipitation in Ethiopia is highly seasonal, with the time and length of the different seasons varying by location. While the southern-eastern parts of the country experience precipitation maxima in spring and autumn, central Ethiopia has its main precipitation volume in spring and summer. The north-western part has its maximum in summer. In some localized parts in the South of the country, the maximum precipitation occurs in spring, winter and summer (figure 10 and 12; Delliquadri, 1958; Westphal, 1975; Eklundh & Pilesjö, 1990). 69 Figure 14-Rainfall Regimes Modified source: Ethiopian Mapping Authority Services, 1988 13. Major Soils of Ethiopia Ethiopia has 18 soil types but the Major ones from the agricultural perspectives are Nitosols, Cambisols, Vertisols and Fluvisols. The soils that are important as arable land have a total area of about 40 million hectare. Table 18-Soil Type of Ethiopia Per cent Soil Type Coverage (Square Kilometer) of the Total Land Area of the Total Arable Area Litholos 210,585 17.1 Nitosols 150,089 12.2 23 Cambisols 144,438 11.6 19 Regosols 135,613 10.9 Vertisols 123,585 10 18 fjuvisols 102,461 8.3 Source: LUPRD 1984 70 Figure 15-Soils Types of Ethiopia Source: FAO, 1998 14. Water Resources 4.4.2 Surface Water The country has 12 river basins. The total mean annual flow from all the 12 river basins is estimated to be 122 BMC (MoWR, 1999). The Ethiopian plateau is the source of the Abay, Tekeze, Mereb, Baro, Akobo and Omo rivers that flow to the west and southwest. The Baro/Akobo basin is potentially the largest possible irrigable area although none of it has yet been d e v e l o p e d probably because of the large investment requirement and the distance from the central market for commercial agriculture. Awash River is the only river that is extensively used for commercial plantations of industrial and horticultural crops in the Rift Valley. From the total irrigated agriculture of about 161,125 hectares, over 43 % are found in the Awash River basin. This is also the river providing 440 giga watt hour (GWH) which is 20% of the current energy requirement of the country from hydroelectric power source. The remaining potential for irrigated agriculture using Awash River is estimated at 136 220 hectares (Aberra Mekonen and Deksios Tarekegne, 2001). The potential for developing irrigated agriculture nationally is given in Table 8. 72 Table 19-Potential for Irrigated Agriculture in Ethiopia Baro Genale Omo Rift Wabi Basin Abay Awash Mereb Tekeze Total Akobo Dawa Gibe Valley Shabele Hectare 711,000 206,400 483,000 326,000 38,000 348,100 46,500 302,000 122,000 2,583,000 Source: Aberra Mekonen and Deksios Tarekegne (2001) Figure 16-River Basin Map of Ethiopia Source: Sileshi Bekele, et.al. 2007 4.4.3 Ground Water As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has lower ground water potential. However, by many countries’ standard the total exploitable groundwater potential is high. Based on the scanty knowledge available on groundwater resources, the potential is estimated to be about 2.6 BMC (Billion Metric Cube) annually rechargeable resource; see also table 2, which provides a little higher value. Tadesse K. (2004) estimated that at least13.2 billion m3 infiltrates into the groundwater system of which 50 percent could be extractable. 72 4.4.4 Hydropower Ethiopia is considered as a powerhouse of Africa due to its high hydropower potential but only a small part of the potential is developed so far. Power was so short in 2009 (less than 10%) of what was required. Recently, the government has embarked on an ambitious mega dam building program to harness the problem. Three hydropower plants with a combined capacity of 1.18 GW were commissioned in 2009 and 2010 alone, more than doubling the previous installed capacity of the country. The largest hydroelectric plant in Ethiopia, Beles, began initial operation in May 2010. Contracts for five more large dams have been signed. Once completed, which is expected to be around 2015, these dams would increase the installed capacity by more than 11 GW from less than 1 GW in 2008. The construction of more large dams is foreseen in a Master Plan that aims to bring capacity to 15 GW. The country has a plan to export power to Sudan, Kenya, Djibouti and even Yemen and Egypt. Many dams are multi-purpose dams that are also designed to provide water for irrigation and flood control. Figure 28-Hydropower Generating Rivers of Ethiopia Installed capacity (in Name Commissioning Basin MW) Koka 42 1960 Awash River Awash II 36 1966 Awash River Awash III 36 1971 Awash River Fincha 134 1973 Fincha (Blue Nile) Gilgel Gibe I 180 2004 Gilgel Gibe River Tekezé 300 2009 Tekeze (Atbara) Beles 460 2010 Lake Tana (Blue Nile) Gilgel Gibe II 420 2010 Omo River (no dam, fed by GG I) Gilgel Gibe III 1,870 2015 Omo River Fincha Amerti Nesse (FAN) 100 2012 Fincha (Blue Nile) Halele Worabese 440 2014 Omo River Gilgel Gibe IV 2,000 2015 Omo River tributary of the Blue Nile, near Chemoga Yeda 278 2013 Debre Markos Tendaho Irrigation Dam none 2014 Awash River Genale Dawa III 256 2009 between Oromo and Somali state Grand Ethiopian 6000 2018 Blue Nile River Renaissance Dam 74 Figure 17-Hydropower Generating Stations of Ethiopia Source: http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/system/library/2010/02/ 4.4.5 Road Network The Road Sector Development Program (RSDP) which was launched in 1997 is now in its Phase IV of implementation stage since 2010. In its 16 years implementation action, the total road network expansion of the country has reached 85,966km. When the program was launched in 1997, Ethiopia's total road coverage was standing at 26,550km. Reports depicted that the overall performance of the Woreda roads sub-sector has not been impressive in phase IV of the program which had planned to construct 40,044km of roads but achieved only 27,628km. The total Federal road coverage has increased by 62 % with 11,301 km of asphalt and 14,455km of gravel road. The regional road network has also reached to 32,582km in the 16 years of the program. 74 Figure 18-Road Network of Ethiopia (Source:http://www.infrastructureafrica.org/system/library/2010/02/) 75 5 Oromia Baseline Situation: The People, Culture, Identity and Forest 5.1 Demographic, Ethnic and Religious Features Based on the 2013 Central Statistics Authority population projection, the population of Oromia reached 33,691,991 in 2015. The demographic figures show almost a 50:50 ratio of men and women dominated by more than 50% young and dynamic population group (CSA, 2013, BoFED, 2013). Oromia is home for more than 88% of the ethnic Oromo. Whereas, twelve percent of the population of Oromia belongs to the different ethnic groups (Amhara, Hadiya, Sidama, etc). More than 87% of the people of Oromia live in rural areas while 13% reside in urban areas (CSA, 2007). Exploring the 200714 census, religious wise about 48% of the people residing in Oromia follow Islam, 30% Orthodox Christian, 18% Protestant, three percent Traditional, 0.5 percent Catholic, one percent others respectively. 5.2 Oromo People, Culture and Identity The Oromo have rich culture and a well-developed age-based system upon which the religious, political, economic and social life of the people are organized. Among others, the Gada system which organizes Oromo society into age groups and rotates leadership in every eight years is a remarkable egalitarian democracy. The Gada institution is still functional in different part of Oromia in general and Borena zone in particular and works very well along with the modern administration. In the system, elders are considered to be wiser and responsible for teaching, resolving conflicts, and nurturing Oromo culture. The system helps to exercise democracy, participatory government and leadership. Before the expansion of Islam and Christianity, the Oromo had their own traditional religion called Waaqeffannaa, the belief in Waaq (the supreme God). The religion teaches Safuu (do's and don'ts) to help them live together in peace, prosperity and faithfulness to each other. The Kallu as ritual leader is the most senior men in the kinship system. All major conflicts will be taken to them for adjudication. The Oromo people have several subgroups who vary in their cultural outlook and livelihoods, although most of them speak the East-Cushitic language Affaan Oromoo (Oromo language). Many of the Oromo groups, including the Arsi, Borana and Guji, have developed distinct sub-identities. Broadly speaking, however, there are five main groups of Oromo: 1) The Western Oromo live mainly in the Wollega area and are settled agriculturists. Many have been converted to evangelical churches and other Christian sects by missionary churches. 2) The Northern Oromo live in Shoa and some areas of Wollo are more integrated into the Amhara cultural sphere than other Oromo. The northern Oromo are generally bilingual (speak both Amharic and Oromiffa), and most of them follow Orthodox Christianity. Some pockets of Oromo are also found as far north as Tigray. 14 This is the latest data with breakdowns on the religious composition of the population of Oromia. 76 3) The Southern Oromo consist of smaller sub-groups without regional cohesion. Many are pastoralists and have a semi-nomadic lifestyle. 4) The Eastern Oromo live in the Harerge area and in the towns of Harar and Dire Dawa. They have strong links to the Arab world through ancient trade routes and the practice of Islam. Many eastern Oromo leaders are vocal supporters of political Islam. 5) The fifth Oromo grouping is the Borana, considered by many to be the ‘original’ Oromo. They live in the southernmost part of Ethiopia and across the Kenyan border. The Borana have partly kept alive the traditional Gada system – among other things, a politico- administrative system – where male age-groups hold the leadership office in the community (Abba Gada) on an eight-year rotating basis. Women are excluded from participating in the Gada, and are believed to acquire influence and privilege by virtue of their relationships with the men passing through the Gada grades. The Gada system goes beyond politico-administrative purposes, but also provides a framework for the Oromo way of life. Pastoralism is a significant socio-economic sector in Ethiopia. It is a tenure system that evolved to meet the constraints of local, often difficult, environments and to facilitate the operation of complex spatial and temporal land use patterns. The communities in the lowland areas keep livestock as a saving investment. The communities in the lowland areas are pastoralists that have a transhumance system for coping seasonal had times. The transhumance system in the lowland Oromo community is a well-known tradition known as Godaantuu (explained in detail under section three). Though sedentary agriculture is the main source of livelihood for the majority of the rural population in the region, pastoralism and agro-pastoralism livelihood system is common in low land areas. There are 33 pastoral and agro-pastoral Woredas in the region, distributed in 6 zones (Borana, Guji, Bale, East Hararghe, East Shewa and West Hararghe). The pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of the region covers about 152,170 km2, accounting for about 37% of the total area. Its total human population size is estimated to be about three million whereas about 30% of the livestock population of the region is found in pastoral and agro pastoral areas. 5.3 Oromo Traditional Resource Management and Conflict Resolution Traditional resource management practices of the Borena people are based on complex customary administrative structure of the Gada system that applies the customs and laws of the Borana (Adaseera). The smallest territorial unit among the Borana is the Warra, which constitutes a Borana household. A group of Warra with associated cattle enclosures constitutes an Olla, or village. Clan affiliation is not necessary to ensure cooperation within a village where several clans may exist, and Warra members cooperate based on being Borana and sharing territory. Adjacent villages together constitute the next territorial unit, the Ardaa. At this level, a council of elders (Jarsaardaa) is 77 nominated to deal with the management of communal pasture, and intervenes when there are signs of pasture depletion. Decisions are made at this level regarding lactating stock (Loon Warraa), which graze around the villages, and dry stock (Loon Fooraa), which has to be grazed further away to avoid pasture depletion in the vicinity. Neighboring Ardaa together constitute a Reera, with no rigid boundaries between them. At this level, there is cooperation to mobilize labor for important occasions, and also cooperation on the use of ponds. The next level up is the Maddaa, which consists of several Reera and is commonly named after a permanent water point. A collection of Maddaa together makes up the largest Borana unit, the Dheedha, which together make up the entire Borana territory. The Arsi-Bale have a well-instituted traditional range management systems (herd management, grazing areas, settlement stratification, management of water supply points, hierarchical cohort based responsibilities) most of which are designed for conflict prevention and peaceful coexistence. Their view on nature and environment are instituted in their customary laws not only to protect the natural environment and eco-system, but also to reduce conflicts that may arise on over utilization and rapid depletion of resources. The communities have a customary law that prohibits cutting trees without adequate reasons. Some trees are prohibited for their spiritual, economic, social and cultural values. The type of trees grown in specific areas is also an indication of the availability or shortage of ground water. The Gada system and rules allow cutting of trees only for fencing and building houses. Big trees should not be cut and only small branches are permitted for the construction of Barns. The Arsis believe that trees have and sustain life. The Guji’s are also followers of Islam and Waaqeffanna with rising number of protestant (Christianity). The Gadaa is a social and political institution providing guidance on customary practice of the Guji- Boran society to demarcate dry and wet season grazing, with a set of specific rules and regulations. Such cyclical grazing and range management is compatible to the requirements of range ecology, keeps equilibrium of vegetation dynamics by minimizing overgrazing and depletion of water. As indicated above, the grazing land and water points have their own utilization and management procedures. Grazing land is managed by the Abbaa Dheedaa, a person who administers over 15 Ollaas and monitors the utilization of large grazing areas. He demarcates the dry and wet season grazing areas, communal and individual enclosures, and plans in consultation with the heads of Ollaas the cyclical grazing and migration schedule. This system contributes to the productivity of the rangeland and animals, and reduces the negative impact of drought and conflict. This approach is instituted in these customary laws not only to protect the natural environment and eco system but also to reduce conflicts that may arise over utilization and rapid depletion of resources. 5.4 Institutions in Resource Management and Conflict Resolution The Oromo people have age old traditional institutions of resource sharing and conflict resolution embedded in their life. They have strong attachment to their respective institutions and systems 78 which could also boost the OFLP initiative. These include, a) The Gada system is a political institution of the Oromo where successive generations pass through age based leadership mentoring to assume the higher positions. It has a strong unwritten customary regulations governing forest tenure, resource access, use and management. The Kallu is the religious institution of the Oromo. The Kallu also handles conflicts and provide adjudication to grievances. b) Religious Institutions: churches and mosques can involve in forest protection through awareness creation in preaching. These institutions have better acceptance by the community in settling of conflict. c) Godaantuu: is a transhumance system of Oromo pastoralists, and key feature of traditional human use of forest based resources especially in the Bale/Arsi forested landscape. In this system, livestock, particularly cattle are sent to higher grazing grounds during the months when crops are growing in lower altitude areas or into the forest for shade during the dry season. When drought hits the pastoral and agro pastoral areas beneath the forests of Oromia, the people move to the forests with their livestock for grazing, watering and shelter seasonally. The accession of resources during the seasonal migration of pastoralists and agro- pastoralists is governed by the Gada system including, allocation of grazing, watering and shelter areas. Communities from the lowlands of Bale Zone of Oromia Region make influx into the Harenna Forest, and settle for 3-4 months in the dry season. Godaantuu system is a customary natural resource use practice regulated by the traditional institution called Abbaa Ardaa. Abbaa Ardaa regulates the opening and closing dates for seasonal livestock grazing, use area and use patterns of grazing in order to avoid degradation of particular areas, and enable particular groups to control their grazing territory. d) Qobbo: system is a forest (tree) tenure institution that grants first claimers an exclusive use right over a block of forest, usually for collection of forest coffee, hanging beehives and access to other non-timber forest products (NTFP). Once claimed, the forest block is de facto individual property, respected by fellow citizens of the area, and the owner has the right to exclude others. The system is prevalent in Western Ethiopia among people residing outside the forest, but historically have resources (bee hives, coffee, spices) paying service charges for keeping and ensuring access to people. e) Waldaa Jiraatota Bosonaa (Wajib) is an acronym in Oromo language for forest dwellers association. WAJIB assist to make certain that local people can share the responsibilities and benefits of forest conservation and take decisions about forestry issues that affect their lives. The process leads to collaboration and a relationship of equals. Most importantly, it demonstrates that if people can get secure access to the forests that have long been “protected” by the state alone, there is a huge potential for forests to play a substantial role in contributing to food security and transforming people’s lives. 79 f) Waldaa Bulchiinsa Bosonaa (WaBuB): is an acronym for in Oromo language, meaning “Forest Management Association”, originally given by a community which established the first WaBuB. The members of the WaBuB are thereby granted an exclusive right to use forest products within the demarcated forest area defined in the forest management agreements. g) Seqe-Ayoo (mother sticks) is a cultural rituals which is exercised by a group of mothers to condemn illegal and non-acceptable activities by community members, also used for forest management. The name of the traditional institution is called “Sadeta” which helps in conserving the forest. ‘Sadeta’ enforces the traditional rules on the local community not to break the traditional forest management regulation. So anyone who does not abide by the law is pronounced as guilty and will be traditionally punished. h) Awlia: is a traditional forest management practice applicable as a fear of the punishment of the ‘Awlia’ (a person believed to possess supernatural power).’ Melkamahiber (a local nongovernment organization) uses the Awlia as an opportunity to protect the forest from any harmful activities. Abakera and Arseda are another traditional believe systems found in Gera Woreda, Meo Kebele supporting activities that protect the forest. 5.5 Most Vulnerable and Underserved Groups in Oromia Basic principles regarding vulnerable peoples are stated in the articles of the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) Constitution and various proclamations, where the most comprehensive is the Social Protection Policy, approved by the Council of Ministers in December 2014. The policy actions identified vulnerable people encompassing vulnerable pregnant and lactating women, children, the elderly, people with disabilities, labor constrained individuals and households, the unemployed, those exposed to natural and human made calamities, persons living with or directly affected by HIV and AIDS and other chronic debilitating diseases, victims of social problems such as drug users, beggars, victims of human trafficking and commercial sex workers and people with difficulties in accessing basic social services. Different social assessments conducted by the GoE as part of the World Bank’s Safeguards requirement are reviewed to capture socio-cultural identity of the people of Oromia with special emphasis to underserved and vulnerable groups in the region for Projects/Programs reviewed below to capture; i. Women in male-headed and female-headed households: In many communities, women become vulnerable because of lack of education, gender bias, tradition and culture, and their reproductive and productive roles. The OFLP will mainstream gender equality in sharing program benefits and strengthen grievance redress as part of citizen engagement aimed at listening to stakeholders and seeking their consensus on OFLP-related activities. OFLP activities would be gender sensitive, including such aspects as household energy demand management, household livelihoods support activities, community forest tenure piloting, and the scaling up of PFM structures. The OFLP benefit sharing mechanism design process, safeguards implementation, community participation and citizen engagement 80 issues, would also include efforts to ensure and enhance female involvement. M&E indicators would be disaggregated by gender to inform OFLP’s adaptive management. ii. Polygamous households: The form of polygamy (multiple marriages; a marriage of a man to two or more women at a time) is a common practice in many parts of Ethiopia including Oromia. A woman joins her husband in his patrilineal village on his ancestral land, the characteristic of a patriarchal society. The women do not own land and other major assets, and are vulnerable to economic insecurity. iii. Pastoralists: Pastoral and agro-pastoral groups have historically been among the most underserved communities in Ethiopia. In Oromia region, pastoral and agro pastoral areas account for 33 administrative woredas and around three million people. Beset as it is by a range of adverse conditions, seasonal migratory pastoralism continues to sustain an increasing population. iv. Unemployed Rural Youth: this vulnerable segment of the population include boys and girls who have dropped out of school for various reasons at secondary or preparatory levels. Others are youths who have returned to live in their birth villages because of not finding work after completing technical and vocational training or university/college education. v. Most Vulnerable Community Members: these group include orphans, pregnant and lactating mothers, elderly households, and other labour-poor, high-risk households with sick individuals, such as people living with HIV and AIDS, and the majority of female-headed households with young children. vi. Occupational Minorities: These remain socially isolated and vulnerable groups, despite encouraging improvements in social attitudes and the conditions of these groups in recent years. These group are underserved and excluded from different walks of life based on occupational engagements and nature of livelihoods. The people identified under this group are craft worker; potters, smiths, wood workers, tanners, weavers and basket weaving. The form and nature of exclusion varies across cultures, geography, economic status and nature of livelihood engagement, social status, decision making and participation of the political process. (Pankhurst and Freeman, 2001) Accordingly, some of the excluded in Oromia encompass, the Idig (smiths), fuga (wood workers), kallu (tanners) and potters who produce basic day to day implements to farm production and home use. The group are identified based on their food culture (eating wild games) and religious identity (conversion to Christianity or Islam) as factors determining the level of purity. 81 5.6 Grievance Redress Systems In general, grievances related to natural resources arise due to overuse, conservation and management of forests. Forest related grievances take place among communities, communities with guards or communities with outsiders. Largely, grievances related with forests cover issue of resource access, use and control, conflicts over tenure right, pursuing livelihoods (agricultural land expansion) and lack of alternative livelihood options with community’s dependence on forests. 5.6.1 World Bank Group Grievance Redress Service Communities and individuals who believe that they are adversely affected by a World Bank Group supported program, may submit complaints to existing program-level grievance redress mechanisms or the WBG’s Grievance Redress Service (GRS). The GRS ensures that complaints received are promptly reviewed in order to address program-related concerns. Program affected communities and individuals may submit their complaint to the WBG’s independent Inspection Panel which determines whether harm occurred, or could occur, as a result of WBG non- compliance with its policies and procedures. Complaints may be submitted at any time after concerns have been brought directly to the WBG’s attention, and WBG Management has been given an opportunity to respond. For information on how to submit complaints to the WBG’s corporate Grievance Redress Service (GRS), please visit http://www.worldbank.org/GRS. For information on how to submit complaints to the WBG Inspection Panel, please visit www.inspectionpanel.org. 5.6.2 OFLP Grievance Redress Mechanism Ethiopian Grievance Redress Mechanisms (EGRM): As part of risk mitigation measures, the OFLP would support citizen’s complaints or grievances in a formalized, transparent, cost- effective, and time bound manner. All program-affected people would be informed about how to register grievances or complaints, including specific concerns on any OFLP activities. Resolution of different types of grievances can be addressed at different levels: • Grievance Redress Mechanisms: Arbitration by appropriate local institutions such as Local Authorities or community leaders is encouraged. This includes the use of traditional conflict and resource management systems compliance with the local context stated in the section above. The Program would make use of the existing Kebele, Woreda, Zonal and Regional Public Grievance Hearing Offices (PGHO) in Oromia. • The Ethiopian Institute of Ombudsman (EIO): the EIO, which reports directly to parliament and is independent of government agencies, is now implementing the EGRM with six branches at present, and is responsible for ensuring that the constitutional rights of citizens are not violated by executive organs. It receives and investigates complaints in respect of maladministration; conducts supervision to ensure 82 the executive carries out its functions according to the law; and seeks remedies in case of maladministration. OFLP would use the EIO regional branch office of Oromia. • A complainant has the option to lodge his/her complaint to the nearby EIO branch or the respective Public Grievance Hearing Office (PGHO) in person, through his/her representative, orally, in writing, by fax, telephone or in any other manner. Complaints are examined; investigated and remedial actions are taken. If not satisfied with the decision of the lower level of the Ethiopian GRM system, the complainant has the right to escalate his/her case to the next higher level of administration. In addition, some regions (including Oromia) have mobile grievance handling teams at Woreda level to address grievances by clustering Kebeles; and some have good governance command posts to handle cases that have not been settled by the Kebele Manager and woreda PGHOs. The Enhanced Equitable Basic Services Project (being financed by the WB independently of OFLP) is supporting GRM system strengthening including the opening of new EIO branches. • Where satisfactory solutions to grievances cannot be achieved, the aggrieved party may take the matter before the courts. 83 6 Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Process 6.1 Overview Stakeholder engagement is crucial for the sustainability of policy, strategy, program and project design and implementation. It also helps to build local understanding and ownership. The sixteenth UNFCCC international conference of the parties held in Cancun, Mexico set four stakeholder engagement pillars. The four REDD+ stakeholder engagement pillars are the full and effective participation of relevant stakeholders, in particular Underserved Peoples and local communities, in REDD+ actions; respect for the knowledge and rights of Underserved Peoples and members of local communities; recognizing the importance of "transparent and effective" national forest governance structures; and enhancing social and environmental benefits. Hence, the government of Ethiopia strongly believes the non- applicability of any development including the REDD+ process without active engagement of stakeholders. Accordingly, the first stakeholder involvement for the National REDD+ process began in 2010 when the R-PP document preparation was conceived. The same year two workshops were held with the objectives of identifying pertinent stakeholders, who would significantly contribute for REDD+ implementation and help to design the institutional set up required for the REDD+ process at National level. Since then a number of national and regional workshops were held across 7 regions (Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples, Tigray, Benshangul Gumuz, Gambella and Somali) with local institutions, and local and forest dependent communities. As part of the CRGE Strategy development, discussions were also held with different sectoral agencies and NGO groups. In this stakeholder analysis, data and information were gathered by applying the tools developed by Howett and Nagu (1997). Inputs were also taken from feedback of the MEF and OFWE on the draft stakeholder analysis framework and from the reviews of the drafts documents on REDD+ strategy, Drivers of Deforestation and Forest degradation studies for national and for Oromia levels, and the Mid-term report of the REDD+ legal and Institutional analysis. 6.2 Objectives of the Stakeholder Analysis This stakeholder analysis process is needed in the REDD+ SESA and ESMF preparation mainly for two purposes: • Identify the key stakeholders for consultations. These include those who are directly or indirectly affected by REDD+ implementation process, and/or those who will be directly or indirectly affected by the enforcement of Institutional, policy and legal framework to be developed in REDD+ process; and • Capture the important concerns and interests of the key stakeholders in the REDD+ implementation process. 84 6.3 Procedures of Stakeholder Analysis The identification and analysis of stakeholders was made by following the steps/procedures indicated below (Figure 18): • Identifying stakeholders • Stakeholder list by type and Level S p • Description of Stakeholders in Relation to REDD+ • Assessing the likely impact of the REDD+ on each of these interests S p Analysis of the identified stakeholder based on functional category S (Contributor, implementer and beneficiaries) Analysis of the identified stakeholder based on relative importance of the stakeholder to the success of REDD+ (degree & type) 6.4 Identification of the Potential Stakeholders Potential stakeholders were identified by reviewing the stakeholders list in the R-PP and other relevant documents provided by client to the consulting firms, and the stakeholders’ suggestion during the SESA/ESMF kick off meeting, and by collecting information through questionnaires and interviewing project clients. The identified potential stakeholders (Table 11) are those who are directly or indirectly affected by REDD+ implementation process or those who will be directly or indirectly affected by the enforcement of institutional, policy and legal framework to be developed in REDD+ process. As shown in the list below, the identified stakeholders are categorized by type as federal, regional and Woreda; governmental, nongovernmental, community based, academia, international, religious and cultural groups. 85 86 Table 21-Identified Stakeholders Level Type Stakeholders Description of Stakeholders in Relation to REDD+ Federal Level Government Ministry of Proponent and implementer of Organization Environment, Forest and REDD+ process, the Ministry Climate Change hosted the national REDD+ Secretariat office, benefited in Government Ministry of Finance & Involve in financial Management of Organization Economic Cooperation REDD+ at national level. Government Ministry of Agriculture Involve in the preparation of Organization and Natural Resources policy and strategy on watershed rehabilitation and soil and water conservation, small irrigation, agricultural investment, promotion of agricultural productivity and environmental and social safeguards implementation Government Ministry of Water, Involve in the preparation of policy Organization Irrigation and Electricity and strategy on Renewable Energy, Promotion and Dissemination of improved energy Government Ethiopian Investment Involve in the preparation of Organization Agency investment policy and harmonization of it with other policies such as in agriculture, and Government The Ethiopian Road Involves in the identification of Organization Authority impacts of major roads on forests and prepares EIA for such projects Government Ministry of Women, Involve in the Coordination of Organization Youth and Children’s Women and Youth Association in Affairs the country. Women and children benefit from the implementation Government Ministry of Federal It is mandated to Organization and Pastoralist Affairs coordinate the development activities in underserved regions (developing regional states) and it involves in solving conflicts Government Ethiopian Wildlife Involves in the management of Organization Conservation Authority National Parks and Protected (EWCA) areas, prepare Laws and Regulations on National Parks and Protected areas , implementation of REDD+ increase the number of 87 Parliament Natural Resource and Appeal REDD+ issues i n the Environmental Affairs parliament. Support the Standing Committee implementation of Government The Judiciary Involve in the implementation of Organization forest laws enforcement mechanisms (regulations) Government Ethiopia Institute Provide technical Organization of support for REDD+ Biodiversity implementation and Conservation (IBC) conservation of biodiversity is enhanced Government Ethiopian Institute of Through research Organization Agricultural Research findings help the (EIAR) enhancement of agricultural productivity Academia Academia (Addis Through research findings Ababa University; help the enhancement of Hawassa University- agricultural productivity, Wondo Genet College provide technical support on of Forestry and Natural forest sustainable utilization of Resource; Haromaya forest resource, these institutes University; Mekelle also get research sites University Private Forestry Wood-based industries Contribute to law Sector located in urban areas enforcement and cooperate (small, medium and with the implementing offices large scale) to prevent deforestation by regulating timbers sources to be only from managed and legal Regional Level Enterprise Oromia Forest and • In OFWE concessions, implements Wildlife Enterprise part of the PFM, livelihoods and A/R activities financed by the OFLP (OFWE) grant in accordance with the MoU to be signed between OEFCCA and OFWE. Sites are not yet selected. • Participates in the REDD+ Steering Committee and REDD+ Technical Working Group. • Provides items for joint annual work program and budget approval (facilitated and coordinated by ORCU). • Reports to ORCU on OFLP implementation. 88 Enterprise Amhara Manage forests in Amhara Fore Region, host the REDD+ st Enterprise Coordination unit of the region implementation of REDD+ Government Regional increase Involve in forest the cover in the Organization Agricultur Promotion of e and Natural Agricultural Government Regional Rural Administer Rural lands, Organization Land involve in the implementation Administration Bureau of REDD+ process, the implementation of REDD+ help protection of the environment Government Oromia Environment, Designs and implements Organization Forest and Climate Forest MIS, Design and Change Authority implements PFM activities (OEFCCA) (subcomponent 1.3.1) (out of OFWE concessions) and A/R activities (Subcomponent 1.3.2) in 49 deforestations Government Women, Children and Involve in coordinating Organization Youth affair Bureau women and Youth associations at regional level. Women and children benefit Government Regional from the implementation Prepare cooperative Organization Cooperativ guidelines, provide e Promotion Bureau technical support during forest cooperative Level Type Stakeholders Description of Stakeholders in Relation to REDD+ establishment, issue legal cooperative certificate and approve District Level Enterprise OFWE District Offices OFWE District Office (roughly equivalent to woreda level, but often consists of multiple woredas) would: (i) host the OFLP Coordinator; and (ii) implement work on the ground financed directly by OFLP, such as PFM, and report on implementation progress. There are currently 38 OFWE District Offices covering 130 woredas; ten of these OFWE District Offices cover semi-arid woodlands Woreda Level Government Woreda Administration Coordinate Woreda Offices Organization 89 Government Woreda Agriculture Involve in promotion of Organization and Natural Resources agricultural Office productivity and environmental Government Woreda Land Administer Rural lands, involve in the Organization Administration Office implementation of REDD+ process, the implementation of REDD+ help protection of the environment Government Women, Children and Involve in coordinating women and Organization Youth Affair Bureau Youth associations at Woreda. Women and children benefit from the implementation Government Woreda Cooperative Provide technical support during Organization promotion Office forest cooperative establishment, issue legal cooperative certificate and approve bylaws Private Non-forest Dwellers Involve in utilization and (urban and rural) dissemination of energy efficient technologies and renewable energy use (e.g., efficient cook stoves and Kebele Government Kebele Administrative Involve in administration of the Organization resource in collaboration with relevant Woreda sectoral offices Kebele CBOs NTFP gatherers (bee Involve the implementation of REDD+ keeper (Sheka forest), at grass root level, share the benefit wild fruit collectors from the forest resource, participate in Gambella Vitlleria forest management paradoxa), Hunters, Fishers, Fuel wood collectors, WABUB-, WAJIB, Pastoralist groups Kebele Communities Underserved and Involve in the implementation of Forest Dwellers REDD+ projects at the grass root level communities and share benefits from the forest resources and participate in the management and protection of the 90 International Development Multilateral Provide financial and technical Partners Development Partners support for the implementation of the World Bank, UNDP, REDD+ process bilateral development partners Embassy of Norway, UK, Ireland, Netherland, DFID, GIZ All level (Federal, Relevant NGOs Examples: SOS Sahel, Involve in implementation of regional and working on climate Farm Africa, Ethio- REDD+, Kebele) change, Forestry and Wetland, Horn of Africa providing technical support REDD+ Regional Environment Center and Network (HoAREC&N), World Vision, Environment and Coffee Forest Forum. All level Religious institutions Churches, mosques, Involve in forest protection help and other relevent awareness creation through institutions or preaching and conflict resolution traditional beliefs Region Traditional Examples: Aba Geda, Play role in conflict resolution institutions Sinqe-Ayoo (Oromia), Gepitato (Sheko), Edir National Professional Forestry society of Capacity building, involve in Societies, and other Ethiopia, awareness creation activities related to relevant Environmental Society, REDD+ Associations Biological Society of Ethiopia, Coffee Trading Association, Forum for Social Studies, Ethiopian Society of Sociologists, Social Workers and Anthropologists National & Media Mass media Dissemination of information about Regional REDD+ 91 6.5 Analysis of the identified Stakeholders The identified stakeholders were analyzed based on their potential contribution, involvement on implementation and accruing benefits from REDD+ process. Stakeholders that are identified as implementers are organizations, who are involved or will involve in implementing and managing REDD+ process. Stakeholders identified as contributors are those involved in funding, sponsoring and provision of t e c h n i c a l support to the REDD+ process. Stakeholders in the list categorized under beneficiaries are those benefiting or have the potential to be benefited from the REDD+ process. The identified stakeholders are further analyzed and categorized based on degree of influence and importance in REDD+ process and type of stake. Stakeholders who have significant power of influence to determine the direction and outcomes of the REDD+ process are regarded as key stakeholders. Stakeholders that gain benefits from REDD+ or who make direct contribution of resources or services to the REDD+ process are considered as primary stakeholders. Stakeholders that are intermediaries in the R E D D + process and who may make some gain from their involvement are taken as secondary stakeholders. Stakeholders those who may suffer material losses or loss of influence are taken as negatively affected stakeholders. Table 22-Stakeholder prioritization Level Stakeholders Analysis Base d on Analysis Based on degree functional r ole and type of stake, & categ Ministry of Environment, Contributor, Primary and key, Category A Forest and Climate Change implementer and beneficiaries Ministry of Finance & Economic Implementer Primary , Category C Cooperation Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Implementer and Primary and Key , Category Resources beneficiary A Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Implementer and Primary and Key, Category Electricity beneficiary A National Level Ministry of Women, Youth and Contributor and Secondary , Category B Government Office Children’s Affairs beneficiaries Ministry of Federal Affairs Contributor Secondary , Category D Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Implementer, and Primary , Category A Authority (EWCA) beneficiary Natural resource and Environmental Contributor Secondary , Category B affairs standing committee Ethiopia Institute of Biodiversity Contributor and Secondary, Category B Conservation (IBC) beneficiary Ethiopian Institute Of Contributor Secondary, Category B Agricultural Research (EIAR) 92 Academia (Addis Ababa Contributor and Secondary , Category B University; Hawassa University - Wondo beneficiary Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resource; Haromaya University; Mekelle University OEFCCA, Oromia Forest and Implementer, Primary and key, Category Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) Amhara contributor and A Regional Level Forest Enterprise beneficiary Government Office Regional Agriculture and Natural Resources Implementer and Primary and key, Category A Bureau beneficiary Regional Rural Land Contributor and Primary, Category A Administration and Environmental beneficiary Protection Bureau Women, Children and Youth Contributor and Secondary , Category B affair Bureau beneficiary Regional Cooperative promotion Contributor Secondary Bureau Woreda Level Woreda Administration Contributor Primary and Key , Category Government A Office Woreda Agriculture office Implementer and Primary and Key, Category beneficiary A Woreda Land Administration office Contributor and Primary and Key , Category beneficiary A Women, Children and Youth Contributor and Primary and Key , Category affair Bureau beneficiary Woreda Cooperative promotion office Contributor Primary , Category B CBOs Forest Dwellers communities Implementer, Primary and Key, (Edir) NTFP gatherers (bee contributor and Negatively keeper (Sheka forest), wild fruit beneficiary affected collectors Gambella (Vitlleria paradoxa), Hunters, Fishers, Category A Fuel wood collectors, WABUB-, WAJIB International Multilateral Development Contributor Primary and Key , Organizations Partners World bank, UN Category A Bilateral Development Partners Contributor Primary and Key, Embassy of Norway, UK , Ireland, Category A Netherland, DFID, GIZ 93 NGOs SOS Sahel, Farm Africa, Ethio- Wetland, Implementer, contributor Secondary Category B Horn of Africa regional Environment and beneficiary Center and Network (HoAREC&N),World Vision, Environment and Coffee Forest Forum. Religious institutions Churches, mosque Contributor Secondary, Category C Traditio Aba Gada, Sinqe-Ayoo (Oromia), Contributor Secondary, Category B nal Gepitato (Sheko), Edir Associations Forestry society of Ethiopia, Contributor and Secondary, Category D Environmental Society, Biological Beneficiary Society of Ethiopia, Coffee trading association Mass media Contributor Secondary, Category B 94 Figure 19-Matrix to show category of identified stakeholders based on their importance and influence 95 7 Summary of Public Participation and Consultations with Stakeholders in Oromia Public Consultation was conducted as part of the participatory approach aimed at gaining good knowledge of the social issues/risks associated with the program as perceived by the OFLP operation communities. It was also aimed at exploring and soliciting feedback on the operational steps, land acquisition related issues, compensation, grievance redress mechanism, b enefit sharing mechanism, and broader context of implementation arrangements. The consultation was believed to promote community ownership of the OFLP, enhance sustainability and seek their board support for the program implementation in Oromia regional state. Moreover, it provided opportunity for forest dependent communities to make contributions aimed at strengthening the development program while avoiding negative impacts as well as reducing possible conflicts. The consultations will remain open as an ongoing exercise throughout the life span of the OFLP. 7.1 Consultation Approaches These consultation meetings were facilitated mainly by a team of consultants with ORCU environmental and social safeguard officers. The various consultations in sample Woredas of the Oromia Regional State were conducted from June 1 to July 5 2015. The consultations covered 10 Woredas, 20 kebeles reaching 254 men and 93 Women. Consultations were conducted with stakeholders at different levels, communities in focus group discussions and individual interviews to garner broad community support. 7.2 Summary of Issues and Dates of Community Consultation post October 2015 Appraisal of OFLP • OFLP Consultations (May 2016): information on the Program including safeguards was shared with government officials, NGOs, and PFM cooperative representatives (900 people consulted). • OFLP Community Consultations (1-31 August 2016): Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit (ORCU) conducted consultations with forest dependent communities on the overall features of the Program and awareness creation for a total 146,403 people in 49 woredas, 889 kebeles and four zones. • OFLP Benefit Sharing Mechanism Consultation including safeguards instruments (October 2-21 2016): the consultation, participation and negotiation with different stakeholders (4627 people), including forest dependent communities, cooperatives and other community based organizations were held. • Consultations on Environmental and Social Review/Due Diligence of two ongoing REDD+ Projects [(i) Bale Eco Region REDD Project and (ii) REDD+ Joint Forest Management in the five districts of Ilu Ababora Zone) were held in Oromia from (December 17 to 25, 2016 and from January 22 to- February 3, 2017, 612 people were consulted in 7 woredas and 14 kebeles.) The objective of the study has been to identify gaps between the WBG safeguard policy requirements and the projects and propose mitigation action plans as the projects are associated. • The summary of the minutes of consultations is disclosed in the National REDD+ blog- https://reddplusethiopia.wordpress.com/consultation-and-participation/ 96 7.3 Community Consultation and Participation focused on three key agendas, • General discussion and information on concepts, causes, impacts and mitigation options of climate change; • Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Oromia and strategic options to reversing • A background to the OFLP REDD+ Program including the three program components: i) Enabling Investment: Forest land management activities (Participatory forest management, Plantations and Assisted natural regenerations), Agricultural intensifications, Soil and water conservation, Crop and range land management etc. Sustainable household energy, ii) Enabling Environment: strengthening the state wide policy framework for sustainable landscape management, participatory land use planning, land certification, program management, monitoring, emissions verification, including safeguards. 7.4 General level of awareness and understanding on Climate Change, OFLP and REDD+ • The consultation gauged the level of understanding and sense of climate change process, through identification of key signs in their respective localities. The consultation participants identified, temperature increment, rainfall variability, increasing intensity of droughts, irrespective of the efforts diminishing agricultural productivity, clearly witnessing agro- ecological changes, increasing frequency of flooding and soil erosion. • During the interactive consultation and discussions, the participants identified the causes for climate change including, deforestation, agricultural expansion, population density, overgrazing and investment. • Whereas, the impacts covered, diminishing water supply, declining agricultural productivity, flooding and higher risk of drought, health problem, and increasing social tension and conflicts. • Communities and participants suggested mitigation options of climate change through the OFLP intervention; such as, PFM, watershed management, continued consultation and awareness creation, introducing alternative energy sources, improving livelihoods through agro forestry as prime mechanism. 7.5 General Agreements • There is a clear understanding by the local community that forest improves rainfall pattern, provides clean air, and contains wild animals, birds and source of biodiversity, while boosting productivity in honey and traditional medicine. • There is a general understanding that the intervention of OFLP in Oromia regional state will help them sustain natural resources management and biodiversity (flora and fauna) of protected areas as well as increase the forest cover of the region. • Participants of the consultation provided their broad community support through willingness to participate, and commitment to protect their natural environment and address environmental problems and facilitate the implementation of OFLP. 97 7.6 Concerns raised during Consultation • Ever increasing scarcity of land resources for agricultural practices in the region has escalated the problem of encroachment for cultivation, grazing and settlement in and around forested landscapes in the region. • OFLP, once under implementation, should not follow the historical trend of inadequate public participation in the process of demarcation, zoning and managing of designated government owned regional forests • Intensive and frequent consultation with local community should be carried out prior to commencing the implementation of OFLP activities considering the prevailing context and challenges (e.g., high population pressures, over grazing, NTFP, Market). • Parks and protected areas management plans preparation need to involve local communities on demarcation, restriction of access, use and alternative benefits to ensure sustainability and get broad community support • Forest conservation and management may increase the threat of wild animals attack on the people, crops and livestock. • Strengthening and proper utilization of local institutions of natural resource access, use and conflict resolution would increase the viability of OFLP and broader national or other regional state REDD+ interventions. This includes the madda system (a customary grazing land management system associated with well groups for drinking and livestock), the Gadda (political, governance and conflict resolution institution of the Oromo), the Kobbo (a traditional resource access and management system in South Western Ethiopia), Godaanttu (seasonal pasture, water and shelter access and use management system in South Eastern Ethiopia), Seqe-Ayoo (mother sticks) to condemn illegal and non-acceptable, “Sadeta” which helps in conserving the forest by enforcing the traditional rules • Existing cooperative membership although applauded for the sustainable management of the forest resources of degraded forest and micro climatic modification, concerns were raised related with benefit restriction to members only including cut and carry grasses as well as to pasture their livestock in the forest area, looming to become a major source of conflict. 98 • Limited carrying capacity of the forest under existing cooperatives such as WAJIB and WABUB may not sustain the increasing population pressure and the growing livestock population of even member communities. • Community members stressed that lack of sufficient consultation and awareness creation on the basics of PFM with the broader community during the initiation of PFMs is causing conflicts with villagers who are non-PFM members on benefit sharing, use and access right. • Underserved, vulnerable groups and the landless having impoverished families and small land have little livelihood alternative to support their families. • GoE mega projects (agricultural expansion, mining and future fertilizer industry) are identified as threats. • Lack of forest fire management and prevention facilities • The OFLP intervention might further tighten access and supply of traditional energy sources, (i.e., fuel wood) • Community members have concerns that OFLP related activities may take land, and/or property and reduce their access to natural resource without proper consultation, engagement and compensation 7.7 Recommendations • The success of OFLP implementation lies on the due attention given for consultation, participation and engagement of all stakeholders and including local communities. Consultation participants recommended continuous awareness raising programs on drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, watershed management, loss of biodiversity, and consequences of climate change at local level. • Devising alternative approaches (using income from OFLP to introduce diversified income generation schemes) so as to accommodate the emerging problems of benefit sharing. • PFMs should support livelihood of the forest dependent community such as promotion of sustainable forest coffee production, diversification of land use through agro-forestry practices. • Establishment of PFMs should be preceded by continuous community consultation involving the whole forest dependent community, village leaders and community elders and other key persons to increase ownership, inclusiveness, avoid disappointment and ensure sustainability while garnering broad community support. • Improve the supply and distribution network of improved stoves to the community. • Improve marketing and value addition of the products in the OFLP intervention area, including coffee, honey and other NTFP • OFLP enabling investments should consider traditional and modern methods of soil conservation practices in a given district. The traditional method – although not always sustainable -- includes composting, crop rotation, inter-cropping, fallowing, early tillage, contour-plough and hand weeding and among the modern methods: terracing, weed control by chemical and using fertilizer. However, suitable methods have been demonstrated throughout the country including Oromia via the Sustainable Land Management Program and other initiatives. Local soil and water conservation strategies should always be locally defined based on local biophysical conditions; there is no “silver bullet.” 99 • OFLP success in the enabling investment activities depends on establishing equitable benefit sharing mechanisms learning from already existing PFMs. The process should be participatory, respect for the community ideas such as priorities before engaging in actual implementation • The Program will use Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) and Process Framework (PF) for land take and will pay adequate compensation if displacement happens and will provide sustainable livelihood or income generating activities for Project Affected Persons (PAPs) 10 0 8 Environmental and Social Situation of Ethiopia 8.1 General Environmental Situation of Ethiopia The rural environment of Ethiopia reported in good states of condition. Farmlands, lakes, rivers, livestock, forests, woodlands, grasslands, wildlife and open spaces in rural areas are not polluted. The urban environment, however, is characterized by such variables as very high population, high density of housing, crowded market centers and contamination from industrial effluent. Drought amelioration and protection of land degradation are the focuses area of Ethiopia. Though air pollution has become a fairly serious localized problem in Addis Ababa, water pollution as well as domestic and industrial wastes are some of the problems that have resulted from the process of industrial expansion and social transformation taking place in the country. 8.2 Environmental Situation of the Forest Sector of Ethiopia 8.2.1 Historical Forest Management Practices in Ethiopia Prior to 1889 (Prior to Emperor Menelik Period) - Due to the small population size and limited pressure and competition on the then existing natural resources, mainly the land, it is speculated that there was relatively extensive natural resources. Emperor Menelik’s Period (1889-1913): During the rule of King Menelik, there were great strides in addressing the depletion of forest resources by setting aside “Crown Forest Land” and tapping foreign forestry experts in identifying potential exotic tree species to resolve ongoing fuel wood shortages and to counsel in the creation of a Forest Service Organization. Menelik II is responsible for the introduction of eucalyptus for fuel wood and construction materials and establishing laws that protected important native tree species and forests. He provided incentives for citizens to protect “Menelik Tree” species including Juniperus, Hagenia, Podocarpus, Cordia, and Olea. Beyond providing incentives for protection he also provided consequences for illegal tree harvesting including property confiscation and in some cases death (Teketay, 2004; Arechiga, 2014). Land and other environmental resources (e.g. Forest), in this system, were owned hereditarily and can be transferred up to legitimate and rightful inheritance in the blood line. The southern territories were conquered by and incorporated into the Ethiopian empire by Emperor Menelik. Following the expansion of Emperor Meneilik to the south part of Ethiopia, a new land tenure system, the ‘Gult’, was established. This system gives the right to loyal followers to own a portion of produces from his land that has been taken from him by the land lords. This exploitation has severely affected the land management system specifically in the southern part of Ethiopia (Hadera, 2002). After the introduction of Eucalyptus in 1895 to reduce the shortage of construction and fuel wood resources the forest management outlook has significantly improved specifically in the major town of the country. Emperor Haile Sillassie Period (1931-1974): During the period of Emperor Haile Sillassie, the ‘Rist’ system was established as a legal and traditional land tenure system in the country particularly in the northern part. However, the land tenure systems in northern and southern part of Ethiopia before the land reform in 1975 were not uniform. In the southern part state and private ownership had emerged. As argued by Dessalegn Rahmato (1994), that there can be significant variation from region to region depending on exactly how the rist system operates. As indicated in the study by the 101 African Development Bank (2002), lately the traditional land tenure system becomes eroded by the growing population pressure and by the increase commercialization of land and land products. Italian invasion (1936-1941): During the Italian invasion, within the Emperor Haile Silassie period, there were some constructive achievements regarding forest resources development and management (Melaku Bekele, 2003). It was during the Italian occupation that modern forestry activities began in Ethiopia. As noted in Melaku Bekele 2003, the Italians initiated and partly executed a major structural change unprecedented in the country’s forestry, in 1937. The administration constituted what they called a Milizia Forestale (Forest Militia) with branches in many parts of the country. Milizia Forestale (1937/38) indicates that the overriding forestry policy of the administration was to conserve, develop and utilize the extensive forest resource of the Empire (where the greatest part of the forest was granted to chiefs and dignitaries). The nature of forest property rights under the Italian occupation was not clearly stated. The report of the Milizia Forestate pointed out that the Ethiopian constitution praxis all forests were considered Crown lands. However it was clear that the Italians directly controlled and exploited the natural forests without much concern about ownership. They also issued various forestry legislations that were produced in the sense of the invaders profit. Forest maps were produced and estimation of forest areas (the first of its kind) were also conducted including future plan and prospects of forest development for different regions was produced (Melaku Bekele, 2003). After the return of Emperor Haileselasie, the Ethiopian parliament passed three forestry laws in 1965 namely, State Forest Proclamation No. 225, Private Forest Conservation Proclamation No 226 and Protective Forest Proclamation No. 227. The main rationale behind the legislation was the conservation of the soil, preservation of fertility and beauty of the country. During the Derg Regime (1974- 199): Derg had introduced a land reform proclamation of 1975, known as “Land to Tiller”, ended the old feudal land system of the imperial regime and abolished the various forms of tenure in the country. As briefly described in the study by Amogne Asfaw (2013), Derg proclaimed a new law called Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development Proclamation No. 192/1980. The regime, according to Yeraswork Admassie (2001), used natural forest resources as spring boards for plantations that outwardly expanded at the expense of peasant holdings in the course of time, which can be described as not participatory. Afforestation thus posed a threat to many peasants because it encroached on farmland, evicted households living in or near it, and took away lands that were common properties and had economic, social or cultural value. Later on, Derg applied mass mobilization and forced labor campaigns to rehabilitate degraded lands with vegetation and area closure schemes were designed. Such areas were frequently employed for grazing by the community because alternative sources of pasture were not provided (Dessalegn Rahmato, 2001). As explained by Million Bekele (2011), plantation forests during that time were mainly for commercial timber for sawn lumber and poles as well as non-industrial plantations like fuel wood and construction timber. State environmentalism during the Derg era, as argued by Dessalegn Rahmato, 2001), had placed high emphasis on government control of environmental assets on one hand, and the protection of such assets by restricting or prohibiting their utilization by the surrounding community on the other hand. Though great initiatives had been taken by the regime to expand the country’s forest resource base, in general the forest management system during the Derg period can be considered as protectionist in type. 102 The EPRDF Period (1991 –Current): The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia enabled the country manage the forest resource at different administrative tiers. The reform enabled the involvement of non-state actors, including community- based institutions and NGOs into forest governance while the federal government remained mandated to set standards and policy frameworks on affairs concerning environmental and natural resource management. Article 51, sub-article 5 of the 1995 constitution particularly vested the power to enact laws for the utilization and conservation of land and other natural resources, including forestry, to the Federal government. Since 1991, several policies and strategies were designed and issued to increase agricultural productivity but little has been done with regard to forest. The Rural Development Policy and Strategy (RDPS) document drafted in mid-1990s and issued in 2001 on agricultural and rural development undermined forest and is conceptualized as an agro-forestry intervention where trees are grown on agricultural lands to ameliorate soil fertility and thereby boost crop production or to serve as livestock feeds (Alemayehu Negassa, 2014). The CRGE of Ethiopia recognizes the economic and ecosystem value and function of the forest and simultaneously states it is under threat due to agricultural land expansion, degradation from fuel wood consumption and logging and hence, called for intervention (CRGE, 2011). As a result, forestry has become one of the pillars of the CRGE strategy. New institute, MEF (now MEFCC), is established to harness problems that to do with forest with forest as a resource to avert climate change and become a means of livelihood for the million poor of the country. 8.2.2. Main Environmental Issues of the Forest Sector The main environmental issues of the forest sector of the country such as agricultural investment, forest coffee management and forest degradation, enset plantation, mining and deforestation, overgrazing and climate change are described below. 8.2.2.1. Agricultural investment in forest areas Recently both the government and private investors engaged in mechanized agriculture to produce sugar and food crops to the foreign markets. The government invests on large scale sugarcane plantation in different parts of the country. One of these is the Kuraz Sugar Project in South Omo, where the lager plot of forest and woodlands cleared for sugar cane plantation, establishment of factories and living quarters. The agricultural investment takes place dominantly in Gambella, Benishamgul- Gumuz and the SNNPR. A large plot of forest covered land is allocated to the private investors in Masha and Decha Woredas for corporate coffee and tea production and a huge plot of land in Gambela region in Godere and other Woredas is awarded to foreign and domestic companies that engaged in food crop production to export to the international markets. Furthermore, in Oromia region Yayu forest area potash mining and Gold mining in Shakiso area are practiced even though it is not part of agricultural investment. As observations from the field indicate investment is causing a tremendous impact on the forests and environment in general. As the stakeholder, discussion showed in the Omo valley, despite the opposition of environmentalists and conservationists a large portion of forest land which belonged to part of the national park around Omorate is allocated and awarded to a foreign private investor for cotton production. Such cases also indicate the lack of coordination and synergy among different stakeholders and sectors, thus contributes to the process of deforestation. 103 8.2.2.2. Forest Coffee Management and Forest degradation One of the major causes of forest degradation in Ethiopia is forest coffee management. Coffee plantations in natural forest and management of naturally growing coffee has reduced the forest density and species diversity. In the coffee forest, only old trees of shade value are maintained which eventually endangers the functions of the shade value. This is true mainly because at some point in time a significant portion of the shade trees could be lost due to their old age. Moreover, the intensive coffee management under the shade trees and coffee shrubs during coffee harvesting periods heavily affects tree seedlings that could serve as future shade trees. The traditional selective cuttings of some trees species which the farmers believe to reduce coffee harvests also affect the stock and density of shade trees. The intensive coffee trees management and selective tree cuttings in the coffee forests will eventually put at risk the existence of Coffea arabica and its gene resource from Ethiopia coffee forests from which it has originally been discovered. The impact of the intensive coffee forest management is being observed in some places. These days, Albizia and Sesbania tree species are replacing the rich biodiversity of the Western and South astern forests of Ethiopia. REDD+ projects as rescuer of the forest and forest biodiversity need to avert the situation through offering economic incentives to the community equivalent to the benefit the communities are getting from the coffee they managed in the natural forest so that the coffee farmers allow the undergrowth and maintain future shade trees. 8.2.2.3. Enset (Ensete ventricosum) Plantations in the Forest While the high forests of Ethiopia are suffering from the encroachment of coffee plantation, the forest in the South forests (Borana) are additionally suffering from the traditional Enset planting practices. Enset is a stable food in most parts of the Southern Nations Nationalities and People Regional State (SNNPRS) and Borana zone of Oromia forest communities. The plant is taking large parts of the forest just like coffee forests in the south west. However, unlike the coffee forest Enset plantations do not maintain trees. The total clearing of natural forest to establish Enset plantations is contributing to both deforestation and forest degradation mainly in the t w o regions. 8.2.2.4. Mining and Deforestations Ethiopia is said to have high potential reserve for mineral resources though only few of them are underutilization currently. Unfortunately, those explored so far are found in forest areas. Laga- Dembi gold and tantalum as well as Yayu coal and potash mining are the biggest mineral resource reserve of the country found buried under the forest of the country. Yayu forest is recognized and registered by UNESCO as a World Heritage site where coal and potash are going to be mined soon. Yayu forest is also the home of the wild Coffee arabica which the country boasts of as the origin of gift to the World. There are also other small and medium scale mining operations in Gambella and Benishangul- Gumuz regions. Though mining is carried in the forest and will be launched to be in Yayu Forest, information on the coverage of the mining operations and scale of deforestation are not available or are scanty. Concern about mining impacts on forest resources is high. 8.2.2.5. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Invasive alien species or non-native species have been introduced both accidentally and intentionally. Intentional introductions could be due to economic, environmental and social motivation. Ethiopia has long history of introducing alien species of plants. IAS are of great concern in Ethiopia as they are affecting biodiversity and occupying agricultural lands, rangelands, national parks, water ways, lakes, rivers, power reservoirs, roadsides and urban green spaces with great economic and ecological 104 consequences. The reported IAS in Ethiopia are parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), prosopis (Prosopis juliflora), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), cactus (Euphorbia stricta) and lantana weed (Lantana camara). 8.2.2.6. Smallholder Agriculture Over 95 % of the farming households in Ethiopia are subsistence farmers and production is challenged by declining soil fertility, lack of inputs and crop pests. As a result, extensive agriculture is the alternative to cope with declining land productivity. Marginal lands with steep slopes, critical forest ecosystems and important catchments of watersheds are being converted to cultivation by small scale farmers. Expansion of small-scale agriculture is also one of the major driver of deforestation and forest degradation next to fuel wood extraction. In the forest regions of the southwest of the country, small scale farm households respond to declining land productivity by abandoning existing degraded cropland and moving to new lands for cultivation, transforming the forest landscapes into mosaics of patches of farmland and forest ecosystems, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation for many species of flora and fauna. Legal and illegal migrants, landless youth and unemployed urban youth exert claim land from the remaining forest lands and exert significant pressure on remaining forest resources. 8.2.2.7. Overgrazing Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa. Because of its favorable climate, 80 per cent of the livestock are found in the highlands while the balance form an integral part of the lowland livelihoods system of the community. Livestock are critically important asset of the pastoral and semi- pastoral communities in the lowland areas. Maintaining of large size o f livestock is a pride and sign of wealth indicator. Livestock provide milk and meat, draught power and manure for crop production. Maintaining of large size of livestock adversely affects the forests through soil compaction and preventing undergrowth from the soil seed bank and damaging of newly emerged samplings. The browsing behaviors of some animals (such as camel and goat) retards trees to attain their natural size to give their ecological functions in addition to preventing seed setting to ensure the perpetuity of the species. REDD+ project should focus on enabling the community maintain few number of high productive livestock and improving of the fodder availability. 105 8.2.2.8. Fuel Wood Extraction and Charcoal production Fuel wood and charcoal are important sources of energy for cooking for significant proportion of the population in urban and rural areas. Over 90 % of the household energy source is biomass including other types such as crop residues and cow dung. In addition, poor farm households along major roads and highways in rural areas of the forest regions are dependent on incomes from sale of fuel wood and charcoal. Therefore, uncontrolled extraction of fuel wood and charcoal production are critical problems in the forestry sector. Although there are legally recognized charcoal producers associations, and also private businesses exporting charcoal to foreign markets, there is very little control on the source of the charcoal. Often, the open forest resources fall victim of such "legal" excuses for destruction they cause in the woodlands and high forests. 8.2.2.9. Climate Change Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change. Past records show that the temperature has been rising in the past fifty years by about 0.40C every 10 years. The general model predictions also show that the average temperature will rise by about 10C in the next 15 years and by about 20C in the next 35 years. The average annual rainfall is expected to increase by about 4.5 % in the next 15 years and by about 14 % in the next 35 years. The highland regions will generally experience a drop in rainfall and rise in temperature. The rise in temperature will reduce the annual base flow of rivers and will harm the water supply for power generation and agricultural production. The long cycle crops in the highland regions will not get sufficient moisture in the short rainy season and will have to be replaced by other varieties. The impact on human health due to the changing of ecological ranges and climatic variables for vector borne diseases, on biodiversity loss due to habitat change and on hydrological system due to the change on water balance of the critical catchments are imminent. However, the country has designed policy responses at strategic levels by preparing sector based adaptation strategies and resilient economic development paths. 8.2.2.10. Pollution Environmental pollution is a serious issue in Ethiopia. Urban wastes (solid and liquid) are poorly managed and the regulatory systems are malfunctional. Surface water pollution, especially streams and open water bodies (reservoirs and lakes), are poorly regulated and managed. As a result they are sources of human and livestock illnesses in the down- stream areas. Industrial effluents from tanneries, processing factories and oil depots are directly released to streams. In the rural areas, although relatively better in terms of pollution due to solid wastes, there are areas critically affected by chemical pollution from agricultural operations such as the floriculture farms. The industry has been long criticized for not being open on the handling and management of agro-chemicals and pesticides they use. Agro-chemicals used by small scale farmers are also not properly regulated and sometimes they also become threats to human health due to mis- handling. Surface and ground water pollution are results of such chemicals applied in agricultural fields. 8.2.2.11. Urbanization Rapid and unplanned urbanization, commercial development are the typical characteristics of developing countries. In Ethiopia, there is high population migration from the rural to urban and settlements in small towns. The small towns are usually expanding into the nearby towns. Addis Ababa, Jimma, Bonga, Holota, Dolomena and many others are towns cited as an example in this regard. Other than serving for expansion area for urbans, forests primarily serve as energy either as wood or charcoal. In urban located near forest areas, the livelihoods of poor people depends on 106 forest and forest products. Unplanned urbanizations have generally caused forest depletion in Ethiopia during the last century. 8.2.2.12. Forest Fire Forest fires are becoming common in the high forest areas. Earlier, wild fires are natural adaptation mechanisms for the woodlands and bush land ecosystems in the dry lowlands and the Rift Valley. Since the last few decades, fires cause vast destruction of forests in dry afromontane high forest areas, especially in the Southeastern part of the country. Such fires that occurred in the destroyed large areas of forests in the Southeastern highlands of the Oromia region. Usually, openings made by fire are followed by illegal settlements and farming in the heart of the forests. Although there are no actual data, the annual estimates of forest lands devastated by fire are in several hundreds of hectares. The wood lands and shrub lands are adapted to fires and the damage is often reversible. However, in some areas of the lowlands, fires are used land clearing tools for cultivation, especially in small scale and large scale farming areas of the highlands and lowlands, respectively. Often, human caused fires happen due to illegal hunting, honey harvesting, farm land clearing, for rangeland bush control or initiation of new pasture/grass. 8.2.2.13. Infrastructure There were roads constructed that pass through the forests (e.g. Harena, Masha, and Gerjeda and many other forests) but there are no systematically recorded data on the extent and types of forest affected by these road constructions. The National Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) of the country contains plan to construct hydro- dams. Some of the hydro-dams are located lowland and woodland areas that may pose risks on woodlands. Absence of watershed management in the hydro-dam areas will affect the hydro-dam through silt accumulation that may jeopardize the function of their function. High tension electric power transmission line and access road for the maintenances of the line pass through the forest in some cases (e.g. Ethio-Kenya high tension power line). The installation of the line needs approximate width of line corridor of 65m (right of way) while the access road construction needs 5m width. The installation of the line and construction of the access road clears considerable hectarage of forests. REDD+ Secretariat needs to establish synergy with the Ethiopian Road Authority and Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation to avoid environmental impacts through good alignment away from the forest and capturing of important forest data in case deforestation is inevitable due to absence of better road alignment options. 107 8.3. General Social Situation of Ethiopia 8.3.1 Social sustainability and development The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia declared principles of the GoE is revolutionary democracy, which is based on the twin pillars: respect for diverse collective identities (nationalities); and for individual rights (citizens). Under the Constitution, the GoE guarantees equitable access by all Ethiopian people to public goods and services. The constitution articles 14, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 41, 43 provide the core principles and frameworks for subsequent proclamations on issues related with social development. These principles and provisions are summarized below, where the details could be referred from the FDRE constitution attached with this report or could be accessed online. • Social Development 1) Provides economic, social and cultural rights in engaging freely in economic activities, choose livelihoods, create and expand job opportunities for the unemployed including to find gainful employment, 2) Ensure improved living standards and sustainable development to the nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia, 3) Ensures Ethiopians have the right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all natural resources, is exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Land is a common property of the Nation/s, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or to other means of exchange, 4) Every person has the inviolable and inalienable right to life, the security of person and liberty. • Social Inclusion 1) Equal access to public social services, with FDRE obligation to allocate resources to provide to the public health, education and other social services, 2) Vulnerable groups support and assistance encompass the physically and mentally disabled, the aged, and to children who are left without parent or guardian, 3) Ensure Ethiopian farmers and pastoralists receive fair prices for their products, obtain an equitable share of the national wealth commensurate with their contribution, 4) Ensure equal rights to women in marriage, harmful customs, eliminate inequality and discrimination provision of affirmative measures in political, social and economic life as well as in public and private institution, 5) Nations, Nationalities and Peoples”, defined as “a group of people who have or share a large measure of common culture or similar customs, mutual intelligibility of language, belief in a common or related identities, a common psychological make- up, and who inhabit an identifiable, predominantly contiguous territory. The Constitution recognizes their right to self-determination, including the right to secession; speak, write and develop their own languages; express, develop and promote their cultures; preserve their history; and, self-government (including the right to establish institutions of government in the territory that they inhabit and equitable representation in state and federal governments). 108 • Social sustainability, community consultation and participation 1) Ensure participation and meaningful consultation of the nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia to enhance the capacity of citizens for development and to meet their basic needs, 2) Ensure equal opportunities and participation for women with historical disadvantages such as property use, ownership and inheritance, employment, payment, 3) The constitution provides the right to hold opinions without interference to seek, receive and impart information and ideas and freedom of association for any cause or purpose, 4) Protect and preserve historical and cultural legacies, and contribute to the promotion of the arts and sport, • Gender participation and inclusive development 1) The FDRE constitution article 34 and 35 states about the participation of women in leadership and committees to women empowerment enhance communication skills; develop the skills of stress management. 2) The GoE committed to end a historical legacy of inequality and discrimination of women while ensuring participation of women in equality with men in all economic and social development endeavors. It also introduced different packages of affirmative measures (special attention to enable them compete and participate equally (political, social and economic life, public and private institutions). As the supreme law of the land the constitution provided participation of the people (men and women) in national development policies and programs. 3) Therefore, participation of women in REDD+/OFLP initiatives is a constitutional and human right, development right in establishing a socially and culturally inclusive sustainable. Various proclamations on labor, occupational safety and health, education, health, roads and policies on environment, population, health, education provided broad areas of social development legal frameworks in Ethiopia. 8.3.2. Social Development Policy of Ethiopia The national social policy has been issued in 1994 and it was revised again in 1996 with a change in its developmental aspects by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. This policy recognized and upheld that social problems are direct results of misguided policies adopted by the previous regimes. All segments of society were negatively affected by those misguided policies but most importantly, children, youth, women, the elderly, and persons with disability were the most vulnerable. The policy has laid out its implementation strategies to achieve the above listed objectives. These include community participation, working in partnership and coordination, research, capacity building, advocacy and awareness raising, promoting gender equality, enacting social related laws, institutional arrangements and others. In this regards, the policy is comprehensive enough to guide the social development endeavors. 109 Given the provisions of the constitution on underserved groups owing to their limited access to socioeconomic development and underserved status over the decades, the E t h i o p i a n government has designated four of the country’s regions, namely: Afar, Somali, BenishangulGumz, and Gambella as Developing Regional States (DRS). In this respect, Article 89(2) of the Ethiopian Constitution stipulates: ‘The Government has the obligation to ensure that all Ethiopians get equal opportunity to improve their economic situations and promote equitable distribution of wealth among them’. Article 89(4) in particular states: ‘Nations, Nationalities and Peoples least advantaged in economic and social development shall receive special assistance’. The GoE Social Protection Policy (2014) focused on protecting the rights and interests of people susceptible to social risks and vulnerabilities by addressing power imbalances and structural causes that perpetuate economic inequality and social exclusion. This will help the GoE to promote social dialogue in the society which will be supported by budget allocation and legal framework leading to social justice. The term “vulnerable groups” refers to a distinct, social and cultural group possessing the unique characteristics in varying degrees. Basic principles regarding vulnerable peoples are stated in many of the GoE constitution and various proclamations, where the most comprehensive one is the National Social Protection Policy. The policy actions identified vulnerable groups encompassing vulnerable pregnant and lactating women, children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, labor constrained individuals and households, the unemployed, those exposed to natural and manmade calamities, persons living with or directly affected by HIV and AIDS and other chronic debilitating diseases, victims of social problems such as drug users, beggars, victims of human trafficking and commercial sex workers and people with difficulties in accessing basic social services. Parallel developments along with the National Social Protection policy is the training of Community level social service workers, led by Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, through the Social Welfare Workforce Development Taskforce. Since its launch in 2014, the implementing partner Ethiopian Society of Sociologists, Social Workers and Anthropologists through strengthening Public Sector Social Service has trained over 2500 diploma (TVET-level-IV) social service workers in Oromia (680), Amhara (820), SNNP (377), Dire Dawa (61) and Addis Ababa City Administration (67). These are community level social service cadres employed by the respective regional governments to facilitate the success of the National Social Protection Policy. Oromia regional State as a pioneer in establishing the Community Service Workers training center, so far has the largest grass roots presence with over 1300 trainees in all Woredas of the regional state. These group of Community Social Service Workers will be used to explore issues related with underserved and vulnerable groups identified in the OFLP social assessment. It has also five different institutional care centers in different parts of the region, which cater services for the needy, particularly for those with disability, orphans and the elderly. Even though the effort of the bureau for the last 10 or more years is improving in terms of institutional capacity, it is not adequate to address the growing social problems in the region. Similarly, the Addis Ababa City Administration has been trying its level best to address social problems in the city in various ways. The city administration (which Labor and Social Affairs Bureau embraces Social and NGO Affairs Office, Labor Affairs Office, Youth and Sports Commission, 110 Women Affairs Office, and Cooperatives Promotion Office) is engaged in the provision of basic social services. The activities of the bureau are very much constrained by limitation of budget and qualified human resources to address the ever growing social problems in the city. Other than the government structure, there are also various NGOs, FBOs and CBOs working on social development throughout the country. In fact, the social development practices of these organizations have been increasing following the recurrent drought and famine in some parts of Ethiopia particularly in the 1970’s through international and local relief programs. Some of the organizations involved in social development activities have tried to establish good working relationships with the community members, community leaders and traditional institutions such as Edirs. The level of Involvement and participation of the community in all aspects of the social development programs is, however, very low. Their scope of coverage to reduce the existing acute social development problems of the urban community is also very limited. Though there are some efforts by the government in most urban centers of the country, the existing practical interventions in mitigating the apparent social problems is mainly left for the non-governmental organizations. The practical involvement of the existing public organizations and municipalities has been very much limited to facilitating the role- played by other donor organizations, and local and international NGOs. The public institutions usually known as Social Affairs Departments in the urban centers have poor institutional capacity at all levels. 8.3.3. Gender Issues More than half of the Ethiopian population comprises women who are not only reproducers but also producers of wealth. They engage in economic activities from cultivation to petty trading and from animal husbandry to shifting cultivation, in addition to the unpaid labor they spend on making the households. Despite the multifaceted contributions of women in terms of economic, social and human life, they are the oppressed and exploited social group of the Ethiopian society, due to the traditional view and social values towards women. They are denied equal access and opportunities as their men counterparts, in economic, political and social aspects of life, as inequality is structured in the very society in which they are part of it. Despite efforts to ensure gender equality, the field observations in different regions of the Country and from the discussions with stakeholders indicate the gender issues still remain critical that need engagement and commitments of the government, stakeholders and the society at large. The gender inequality in terms of land ownership and access to resources, land tenure systems, education, extension and health is still intact and contributed to low productivity in different sectors and a high level of poverty. The field assessments from Wondogent, Arbaminch Zuria and other sample Woredas indicated the low level of participation of women in watershed management which could be related to the gender inequality in the society. 111 8.4. Forest Related Social Situation in Ethiopia 8.4.2. Key Social Issues in the Forest Sector A key social issue is the relationship between people and forests which is marked in various ways: • Forest areas are the base of the livelihoods of people who have adopted agriculture and livestock-raising as their primary livelihood strategy. Given this, the way they interact with forests has a major influence on their level of poverty • Forest-dependent communities face considerable issues concerning their rights to access forest areas and use forest resources • Both formal and informal social institutions have been established for forest management • There are numerous examples of grievances that are related to forest-based issues • The forestry sector plays a key role in the social development of communities. In addressing the people-forest relationship, the status of people – whether they are locals or new comers or from a particular ethnic group, and gender concerns are important to consider. 8.4.3. Forests and Livelihoods in Ethiopia Livelihood can be thought of as the way people make a living. Income generation opportunities contribute to human well-being, which includes tangibles as assets and goods for consumption. According to Chambers and Conway (1992) livelihood comprises capabilities, assets (both material social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it cope with and recover from shocks and stresses, and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. According to the livelihood framework described by the UK Department of International Development (DFID), there are five types of capital that support livelihoods which includes: 1. Natural capital (such as lands, water, forest and fisheries); 2. Human capital (such as knowledge and skill); 3. Financial capital (such as income opportunities); 4. Physical capital (such as infrastructures), and 5.social capital (such as social networks). Essentially, livelihood holds a central place to human survival and comprise of opportunities for sustainable living. The pursuit of livelihood strategies however, depends on the tangible and intangible assets at the disposition of the people either as possessions or accessibility. These types of capital form the concept of sustainable livelihoods, since they empower the rural poor people in local decision- making and enhancing security, reducing their vulnerability to shocks and increasing their capacity to recover from them. A range of assets is needed to achieve positive livelihood outcomes; no single category of assets sufficiently provides all the many and varied livelihood outcomes that people seek. The long-term contribution of forest resource to the livelihood strategies of the rural poor had long been appreciated as significant (Levang et al., 2005). Forest resources are a safety net to improve livelihoods and quality of life as one of many strategies to avoid falling into destitution (Shimizu, 2006). Wood is the primary energy source for at least 90% of households in Ethiopia (CIFOR, 2005). Forests may also fulfill many ecological functions that are vital to the livelihoods of the rural people; for example, they provide habitat for animals and plants and help in water and soil conservation, which are indispensable to the livelihoods of the people. Furthermore, the multi- functional nature of forests means that they can support and sustain local livelihoods, as well as alleviate poverty in a variety of ways, and also support the country's economic, social, cultural and 110 environmental development especially in rural areas. Natural and planted forests contribute to provide a range of goods, such as wild game, fruits, traditional medicines which can improve health, income from the sales of forest products (such as woods, medicinal herbs, gums, latex, resins and spices), financial capital that can be used as working capital for trading activities. Forest foods and incomes from forest products sustain households over seasonal and unforeseen shortfalls, or provide lump sums for paying off debts. Forest incomes are a vital economic buffer, particularly for women, children and the poorest households and the entire community during periods of stress (such as seasonal shortages, and crop failures) in rural Ethiopia where there are forests. Forests also provide essential environmental services, whose loss often disproportionately afflicts the livelihoods of the rural poor, who have fewer alternatives. Moreover, the contribution of forests is measured not only by the products they provide, but also by the non-tangible services they offer (Warner, 2000). According to Arnold (2001) the role of forests and trees in poverty alleviation is multidimensional. For forest dependent community, the forest forms a dominant part of their physical, material, economic and spiritual lives, but its importance is often undervalued. The forest, as well as providing a wealth of material outputs of subsistence or commercial value, is the basis for livelihood systems based on hunting gathering, or of rotational agriculture systems that depends on the ability of bush fallow to revive the productivity of the land. The forest thus constitutes an integral part of the habitat and of the social and cultural structure of those living within it. However, rather than only evaluating the importance of forest resources based on the number of people depending on them, it is even more important to understand the dependency relationships and its dynamics. The contribution of forests to sustainable livelihoods defines forests to include all resources that can produce forest products. These comprise woodland, scrubland, bush and trees on farm, as well as forests. This definition focuses not on tenure or tree cover as the basis for defining a forest, but on the potential for producing products. Moreover, the contribution of forests is measured not only by the products they provide, but also by the non-tangible services they offer (Warner, 2000). 8.4.4. Women Entitlement to Land and Forest Resources The land reform proclamation of 1975 abolished the various forms of tenure in the country. The military government “Derg” from 1974- 1991 introduced a land reform proclamation, known as “Land to the Tiller”, which abolished the land tenure system of the imperial regime. Without any discrimination of the sexes, the 1975 land reform proclamation declared that any person who is willing to personally cultivate land shall be allotted rural land sufficient for his/her maintenance and that of his/her family. However, in his analysis Hadera (2002) has pointed out that the proclamation essentially allocated land only to those who were able to till it and totally denied the rights of children, the elderly, and those women who were unable to plough land due to cultural constraints with the common view that women must not till. 111 The proclamation gave equal property and land ownership rights to both men and women. However as the land distribution was on the basis of family household head, and as the majority of households are traditionally headed by male, the 1975 land reform significantly affects women’s access to land and control over land through ownership. By using the household as the unit of allocation, the proclamation assumed the households were uniform and thus failed to take intra-household distribution relations into account (Hadera, 2002). Besides being gender biased and discriminatory towards women, it also noted that women in cultures where polygamy was exercised were negatively affected since they were treated as part of a single family headed by their single husband. Critiques have indicated that the 1975 public ownership of rural land Proclamation lack clarity when it comes to the rights of women to land use. It has been emphasized that the proclamation did not put the rights of women to land use in proper perspective, that is, it does not give women direct possessor right to land use. Therefore, women’s benefit from the land has been limited and indirect. The incumbent government, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE), declared that all land including natural resources is the common property of the nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or to other means of exchange and individuals shall have only usufruct right (Article (40). Although the FDRE government has maintained the mixed economy policy of the Derg (March 1990) however, it formulated articles that can address women’s rights. In general, there are much better visible articles that address women issues compared with the last two regimes (the imperial and Derg) in Ethiopia, even though its implementation on the ground was insignificant. Regarding women’s rights to land, the 1995 Constitution article (35) envisaged that: • Women shall, in the enjoyment of rights and protections provided for by this Constitution, have equal right with men • Women have equal rights with men in marriage as prescribed by this Constitution. • The state shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the influences of harmful customs. Laws, customs and practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women are prohibited. • Women have the right to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property. In particular, they have equal rights with men with respect to use, transfer, administration and control of land. They shall also enjoy equal treatment in the inheritance of the property. • Women shall have a right to equality in employment, promotion, pay and the transfer of pension entitlements However, as Ethiopia is a country with a rich variety of traditions, norms and practices of ownership, although the legislation has affirmed women’s basic right to land, resources and employment, the customary and religious practices and laws limit women’s access to various resources and employment than men for legal and cultural reasons that may vary from tradition to tradition and from place to place. For example, in the Oromia and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State (SNNPRS), customary law prohibits women from inheriting land. The Ethiopian Constitution (Article 35) confirmed that men and women have equal rights to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property, and more specifically they gave equal rights 112 with men with respect to the use, transfer, administration and control of land. The Ethiopian action plan describes that: “The national constitution has been developed to protect the fundamental rights of women, their interest of access and control over resources, and equality among women and men in marriage. It recognizes the history of inequality and discrimination women suffered in Ethiopia. Ethiopian women are entitled to remedial and affirmative measures to enable them to compete and participate on the basis of equality with men in political, economic and social life.” Although the National Policy of Women is necessary to achieve gender equity and equality, it is not sufficient enough to empower women in the development programmes since inadequate efforts have been made for its implementation. Much has been done about the National Policy of Women formulation but what remains is the institutional set-up, most important of which is its effective and efficient implementation. It is being realized that implementation of the Women’s Policy is extremely challenging in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian National Action Plan emphasizes that despite the fact of the political commitment, legal support and institutional arrangements, the bureaucratic resistance to accept the gender experts as equal partners and gender equitable integration of women as subject of public policy, has made it more difficult to perform effectively because of the traditional set-up of the society and thinking. Generally, the up-to date implementation of the National Policy of Women (1993) indicates that though it was a major step to achieve gender equity and equality, it is so far from the practice of gender mainstreaming in the different institutions. Therefore, policy-makers must go beyond legal and formal rights to understand the complex way that women get access to decision-making, resource management and development, education, employment and the likes. 8.4.5. Women involvement in the forestry education Until recently the enrollment of women in the forest academy or else is so low due to the socio- cultural factors that hindered the equal access and opportunities to education. However, on the bases of some thirty years experiences, those women who graduated from the forest academy had equal employment opportunities in the forest sectors having equal amount of salaries/payments as men counterparts. The new women’s policy that has been implemented recently promotes the representation of women through affirmative actions. However, due to the organizational, cultural and value setups women forest professionals are less recognized and have lower chances to be appointed in higher positions as forest officials and managers even though they have the same levels of qualification with men. Thus, their opportunities for promotion and further education and training are insignificant and women forest professionals are under organizational and structural domination of men, in terms of their numbers and positions. Their mobility to the higher positions could be hindered by the low level of education and lack of information together with the double burden they carry as mothers and makers of home. To enhance women professionals to the higher leadership and managerial positions capacity building and professional developments are important and would promote gender balance in the forest sector. 8.4.6. Gender and REDD+: Issues for consideration 113 What opportunities are there under the REDD+ implementation programs that would benefit women from poverty reduction perspectives? What kind of attractive financial compensation mechanisms are there to support women (e.g. addressing their energy self-sufficiency)? What are gendered opportunities, challenges and implications of REDD+ projects? How can the benefit sharing mechanism be made equitable avoiding gender biases? What are the gender dimensions and impacts? Questions like these and others have to be clearly addressed in documents like this to give the end users, an overview of their responsibilities and opportunities so that women can get their maximum benefit out of REDD+ projects in their respective area. Accordingly, in Ethiopia, agricultural expansion and demand for fuel wood are considered by the government as the two major causes for the high rate of deforestation. The REDD+ principles and projects in this respect include achieving a major transition in the agricultural sector, including rapidly transforming prevailing subsistence practices into commercial plantations and putting the blame for driving deforestation and climate change on the poor rural agrarian slash and burn subsistence farmers (men and women) who are struggling to survive with small land per household. Large scale plantation has also been sought to address drives of deforestation in countries like Ethiopia. However, the gender findings show that large scale plantations mostly offer jobs to men while the few opportunities open to women reinforce their role in services considered as inferior and less visible. Tasks developed by women are almost insignificant and they may only work as cooks; women have health problems due to chemical products. When men leave to work in the eucalyptus plantations women usually become overburdened as they have to take care of the family and deal with traditional household chores without help. The women and the family are alone for a longer time and need also to assume the tasks in the farm. To clarify the legal ownership and carbon rights, any REDD+ program will be premised upon the exchange of rights, likely in the form of area of forest/volume of trees preserved, for a credit. This exchange can only be accomplished by an individual or institution with rights to the carbon. Then, who has the right to carbon is who owns the land and trees in land. With women’ lack of tenure rights (only access and usage and small land in many cases degraded land) in many African countries including Ethiopia, it is misleading for women to see REDD+ and the carbon market as an opportunity. In general, according to Solagne (2015) the following points can serve as guides for gender consideration in REDD+ implementation: • Design a gender sensitive strategy on REDD+ and CDM in Ethiopia. • Put in place gender focused policies in addressing drivers of deforestation • Design equitable benefit sharing for men and women in REDD+ initiatives • Ensure legal recognition of tenure rights for men and women • Gendered participation and representation in decision making in REDD+ program • Put in place gender safeguards • Go beyond funding and need for equitable forest governance and socially oriented REDD+ that consider gender equity and equality as part of the core principles. 8.4.7. Review of Community Attachment to the Forest Resource The attachment of the communities to the forest and forest resources in Ethiopia varies from region to region depending on ecological conditions, socio-cultural values and economic factors. The 114 agricultural communities in the Ethiopian highlands use the forest resources differently from the communities in the lowlands inhabited by the agro-pastoralists, pastoralists and hunter- gatherers. The communities living close to the forests are usually poor with limited possibilities for living and as group discussants revealed they are highly dependent on timber and non-timber forest products. This is because the local communities in the high forest and remote areas of Oromia, SNNPR, Gambela and BGRS have low access for farming, animal husbandry and to the market. As the observation in Oromia region Harana Buluk Woreda indicated most people use forest to harvest wild coffee, fuel wood, grass for thatching roofs, and to feed cattle, and to harvest honey from traditional beehives. Similar conditions have been observed in the Woredas of the Southern region and other regions. As key informant interviews further revealed the high dependency on the forest is at the time when crops and livestock are insufficient which makes the forest products the indispensable sources of food and income. Such cases indicate that the forest products play important role as source of income generation among many forest communities. 8.4.8. Livestock Seasonal Migration to Forests Pastoralism is a significant socio-economic sector in Ethiopia. It is a tenure system that evolved to meet the constraints of local, often difficult, environments and to facilitate the operation of complex spatial and temporal land use patterns. The communities in the lowland areas keep livestock as a saving investment. The communities in the lowland areas are pastoralists that have a transhumance system for coping seasonal hard times. The transhumance system in the lowland Oromo community has a well-known tradition known as Godaantuu. Godaantuu is moving their livestock seasonally in order to exploit areas away from their permanent settlement sites. Communities from the lowlands of Bale Zone of Oromia Region make influx into the Harenna Forest, and settle for 3-4 months in the dry season (between the months of December and April). Godaantuu system is a customary natural resource use practice regulated by the traditional institution called Abbaa Ardaa. Abbaa Ardaa regulates the opening and closing of dates for seasonal livestock grazing, use area and use patterns of grazing in order to avoid degradation of particular areas, and enable particular groups to control their grazing territory. It appears that the early godaantuu system gradually undermined and the intuition become weak. Hence, through time, the formal Abba Ardaa institution become replaced by the informal institution that lead to free to all seasonal grazing area practice. Livestock in Harena Forest for instance reported to stay longer than the traditionally known 3-4 months causing adverse impacts on the structure and composition of grazing resources and forest vegetation. It is required to support the formal Gondaantuu system by the formal government institution to restore and strengthen this traditional system before it totally disappears. 115 8.4.9. Traditional forest conservation practices in the SNNPR An ancient people speaking an Omotic language, the Gamo protect remnant forests, burial grounds and traditional assembly places across Ethiopia’s vast southwestern plateau. The Gamo culture is bound intimately with the land. The Gamo’s “traditional activities depend on a harmonious relationship with the local environment, which frequently contributes to minimizing environmental disruption and thereby maintaining an overall ecological equilibrium.” In the highlands, the Gamo have protected at least 272 sacred groves along waterways and on the tops of hills, these being the remnant forests of formerly vast Afromontane woodlands. They distribute information to increase awareness of the importance of the forests and other sacred sites to not only the cultural integrity and diversity of southern Ethiopia but also the biological diversity and environmental health of the region. Sacred groves have enormous significance to the people. Local communities have well established traditions, cultural respect and sense of interconnectedness with these groves. Sacred groves also harbor spirits that help families and protect them from any misfortune. Prayers are offered to the deity by the ritual leaders and community elders in the sacred groves (Desalegn Desissa and Healey, 2012). The Custodians believe in the sanctity of sacred groves and the spirits inhabiting them. Ritual leaders known as eqaa perform offerings and make prayers each year to maintain the sanctity of the groves for the wellbeing of the whole community. As a result of the traditional belief systems of the local communities protection is offered to the sacred groves that contrast the protection offered to other natural and semi-natural habitats in the area. It has made these places very important reservoirs of biological diversity. They preserve the highest diversity of plant species compared to other areas. According to a study by Desalegn Desissa and Healey (2012), a botanical survey of six sacred groves recorded 152 plant species in a sample area of 2.24 ha, of which 19 species were endemic to Ethiopia. Two of these were tree species (Cordia Africana and, Hagenia abyssinica) listed as priority species for national conservation and one tree species (Prunus africana) is included in the IUCN red list of threatened species. The biodiversity of the six sacred groves was higher than the four non- sacred forests with which they were compared. In the same study by Desalegn Desissa and Healey (2012), it was reported that all plant species present in the sacred groves were protected through the traditional belief systems and the use of these plant species is carefully managed. While cutting trees is not permitted, limited gathering of non-timber forest products such as fruits (by children), and plants for medicine and ritual initiations (by ritual leaders) is allowed. Grazing is not allowed. The Custodians believe that if anyone enters the sacred groves or especially if someone cuts trees or kills animals in the groves, the spirit will bring wrath to the village. 8.4.10. Ethno-botany Since ancient times, human being used plants for the purpose of disease control and prevention. Ethiopians have diverse culture on ethno-botany, the science and art of using plants for medicinal value. Both higher (trees) and lower forms of plants (herbs) are used to treat both human and animal diseases. Parts used for the purpose can be leaves, seeds, fruits, roots, barks and/or woods. Osmium articifolium (Demakese in Amharic) which is used to treat flue, cold and headache and Hygenia abssynica (Yekoso Zaf in Amharic) used to treat tape worm are the most herbs and trees respectively used by most Ethiopian. There are many other species mentioned during the key informant consultation, focus group discussion and household interview used as human and animal medicine. The problem with the development and use of traditional medicine is by only some community and 116 family members that the transfer of knowledge on the species is restricted to that kinship. 8.4.11. Forest as a Household Food Security Source Rural people of Ethiopia are endowed with a deep knowledge concerning the use of wild plants which are consumed at times of drought, war and other hardship. Elders and other knowledgeable community members are the key sources or ‘reservoirs’ of plant lore. Wild-food consumption is still very common in rural areas of Ethiopia, particularly with children and it is evident that the contribution of forests in providing food for local communities is tremendous. Morninga tree is used both as food and medicine to treat wide range of human diseases. Moringa tree is believed to have high nutritional value and used to purify water. Carissa edulis (Agam in Amharic), Rosa abssynica, Dovialis abssyica, Balaniitesa egypticus, Ziziphus spinachristy, Oputia ficus indica (Belles in Amharic), Syzygum guineasis, Ficus sycamores (shola), adansonia digitata, Cordia africana, tamarindus indica (Roka in Amharic) are some of the common plant species used as a human food in their respective ecological zones where they grow. REDD+ project needs to critically assess and address this issue before implementing its projects. 8.4.12. Forest as Cultural and Symbolic Values Forests provide the venue for many cultural events. In many parts of Ethiopia, particularly the Oromo people, forest areas and specific trees are protected and valued for particular cultural occasions and as historic symbols though each community has its own traditions associated with sacred areas and, as a result, the species that are found in them vary greatly. Sacred and grave areas are planted with trees to symbolify ancestral or family burials. Trees like the Ficus sur (Odaa in Oromo language) are used as a ‘hall’ to get assembled under it when settling grievance. The judicial function of trees and ritual function of forest (trees) include area where social and political values, morals, secrets, and laws are passed on to the younger generation practiced by some of the communities in Ethiopia. 8.4.13. Forest and Forest Product Uses One of the major use of the forest in Ethiopia is for energy purpose. The household energy requirements of this large and fast growing population is supplied still from traditional energy sources. Woody Biomass energy at the national level provides large portion of the total domestic energy consumption. If there is imbalance of demand and supply of woody biomass energy it has severe implications on the natural resource base. In urban areas, fuel saving technology need to be expanded and demand for wood must be reduced. Because of the scarcity of fuel wood many households burn dung and crop residues. The use of dung excludes its contribution of the soil nutrient pool, make worsening declining crop yields due to soil erosion. The burning of crop residues prevents their use as livestock feed for a livestock population. Generally use of fuel wood require balanced on demand and supply in order to have impact barely meeting its energy requirements for maintenance. The consumption of woody biomass for various purpose can be altered by external factors. In Somali Regional State, a significant quantity of wood is used for lighting fires at night to protect livestock against wild animals. Woody biomass energy required to heat houses during the wet season especially in the Highlands increased more than dry season. 8.4.14. Forest and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) 117 The contribution of NTFP to the rural community of Ethiopia is enormous. The rural community gets ropes (hareg), water, gum and resin, fruit, coffee, wild foods and fruits, honey, spice, seed, wild- meat, grass for the livestock, wood-bark for beehive making are some of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) the community enjoys from the forest resources. Some of the NTFP are directly used by the household while others are sold and generate income. While spice is special to the Western parts of Ethiopia’s forest, the other NTFPs are almost common to all the forests. REDD+ in its project design and implementation, needs to give due consideration to the benefits the communities are enjoying from the forest resources as NTFPs so that the well-being of the communities who depend on the forest will not be disrupted. 8.4.15. Settlements wit in the Forest Forests are considered as free, unoccupied area for settling by some people in Ethiopia. As a result, there are rapid illegal settlements in all the forests of the country. Bale, Borena, Illubabor, Sheka, Bonga, etc. forests are settled by people coming from the different corners of the country. The forest management practices of the settlers and the local communities in the area are quite different. The settlers directly engage in clearing the forest and use it for farming. As a result, there are often conflicts between the settlers and the local communities. REDD+ project should focus on the prevention of further settlement in the forest and if resettling of those already found in the forests is needed, it should be done as per the framework guide in the RPF. 8.4.16. Forest Related Grievances In general, grievances related to the natural resources are commonly Africa where the communities usually enter into overuse, conservation and management of forests. However, due to its direct relationship to the livelihood of millions of Africans the forest related grievances are frequent and worth mentioning here. As field reports from different regions and Woredas indicated the forest related grievances take place among the communities, communities with guards or communities with outsiders. For example grievance rises between guards and the community in the Amhara region, Banja Woreda; in the Somail region, Yoo’ale Woreda between the local communities and those who come from the Republic of Somalia to produce charcoal; in Oromia region, Anchar Woreda between the Communities and Oromia Forest and Wildlife enterprise; in SNNPR, in Wondogenet Woreda when the community tried to graze their livestock in the protected conservation areas. Thus, as field observation indicates forest related grievances do exist in different regions of the country in different forms and for various reasons. 118 8.4.17. Cause of the Grievance Literatures assert that grievance commonly arises over disagreement of tenure, access, control and distribution of forest lands or products (Mean and Josayma, 2002). The need to expand agriculture, disagreement on ownership right and community’s dependence on forest are the principal or root causes leading to various forms of grievances. Grievances arise between the government that tries to conserve forest ecosystem and the community that is eager to use forest. There are grievance cases between the government initiative to expand agricultural activity and the need to conserve forest biodiversity at the same area. Grievance on ownership right: The grievance of ownership right is also central to the forest related grievance that can lead to deforestation in the long term. There are various problems arising from the absence of clear ownership right or conflicting ownership rights, which serve as sources of forest related grievances. These include absence of clear ownership right, lack of awareness on legal ownership, de facto ownership of forest by the community and de jure ownership of the government, inability to get certification for the agricultural lands. Local community’s dependence on forest for livelihood: Local community’s dependence on forest for livelihood and other uses mainly for construction materials is another source of grievance. Due to the absence of alternative energy source in the area, people depend on sale of fuel wood. Sale of timber is also a source of income, and people need forest products for agricultural tools. Poverty or absence of alternative means of subsistence also forces people to depend on forest: This breeds grievance when government authorities attempt to restrict access to the forest. Other sources of grievance in forest management include the absence of community participation during demarcation, forest management, prohibition of access to forest and non-timber forest products (NTFP), increasing population pressure, lack of grazing area, and confiscation of peoples’ land during demarcation. 8.4.18. Grievance Management Mechanism Some literatures identify three major grievance management mechanisms (e.g., Engel and Korf, 2005). These include customary grievance resolution comprising negotiation, mediation and arbitration; national legal system that includes adjudication and arbitration; and finally alternative grievance management that mainly includes consensual negotiation. The different grievance management approaches have their own suitability and convenience for different forms of grievance. As data from different field observations indicated there are different mechanisms of grievance management and resolution in the country which are not only used for resolving forest related grievances but also for overall social, economic and political aspects of life. However, given the nature of the Ethiopian society grievance management system could be divided into two; as formal and informal or modern and traditional systems. During key informant interviews and group discussion the participants identified traditional mechanisms of grievance resolution in their respective Woredas and Kebeles. Among these for example, the informants pointed out in the Amhara region the existence of ‘Yehager Shimagile’; in Oromia around Yabello, ‘Abba Allengaa’ which is part of the Oromo Gada system; in SNNPR around Arbaminch Zuria Woreda, there is Moga and Haleqa traditional leadership which plays very vital role in grievance management and resolution. Customary grievance resolution mechanism exists in other areas where field assessment has been carried out and it is indispensable to integrate locally accepted grievance resolution mechanism with formal legal system. 9. Forest Governance 9.2. Overview of Forest Governance System Ensuring sustainable forest management, typified by balancing multiple uses among many different users, is critically dependent on the quality of the governance employed in the forest sector. Forest governance is increasingly being recognized as an essential factor of ensuring long term forest conservation and sustainable forest management. Governance involves the formulation, administration and implementation of policies, legislation, regulations, guidelines and norms relating to ownership, access, rights, responsibilities and practices for sustainable management of forests at the local or national levels. Forest governance generally concerns the qualities of decision making processes in forest management. Good forest governance is achieved by clarifying the relationships, rights, responsibilities and incentives between forest users and government with regard to the basic approaches how forests are developed, conserved and utilized. Forest sector governance is defined as the modus operandi by which people, stakeholder groups, and institutions (both formal and informal) acquire and exercise authority in the management of forest resources, to sustain and improve the quality of life for those whose livelihood depends on the sector. Forest governance has been recognized as one of the key issues that should be addressed to ensure successful implementation of REDD+. Addressing the fundamental drivers of deforestation and ensuring the sustainability of approaches adopted to reduce deforestation and degradation requires strong attention to forest governance. Good governance can promote equitable distribution of forest benefits, honor traditional rights and knowledge, and provide the platform for prior and informed consultations with legitimate stakeholders. Positive outcomes of REDD+ requires good governance that addresses gaps with regard to tenure rights, regulatory safeguards and grievance redress mechanisms. Forest protection has now become increasingly a complex subject that demands a critical shift in governance. This shift is sometimes characterized by a transition from government to governance and reflects the fact that governments no longer are, and in many cases cannot be, the sole source of forest decision making authority. Accordingly, effective forest governance requires different forms of partnership among various stakeholders. It also requires the participation of the public, especially at the local level. The existing federal system of Ethiopia constitutionally recognizes the allocation of adequate powers to the lowest units of government for the purpose of enabling the people to participate directly in the administration of such units (FDRE Constitution, Article 50 (4).) This is also relevant for the forest governance and hence this constitutional rule needs to be sufficiently explored to enhance the effective and collaborative implementation of forest governance in Ethiopia by ensuring the participation of all stakeholders. However, decentralization of forest governance has advantages over non-decentralized systems. 9.3. Historical Perspectives of Forest Governance in Ethiopia Though modern type of sectoral policies are not known to have long histories in Ethiopia, there have been various initiatives to formulate legislations, decrees and guidelines that were aimed at guiding the sustainable management of the forest resources of the country. The evolution of Ethiopian forest policy is a dynamic process which has been influenced by interplay of structural factors such as national political orientation, economic priorities, environmental calamities, and global forest related discourses (Alemayehu Negassa, 2014). Towards the end of the 19th century, one of the decrees of Menelik II stated that: "... Coniferous trees should be utilized only for building houses, not for other purposes. Those trees with flowers and medical trees such as Hagenia abyssinica (Koso) should be handled with the utmost care... As it is necessary to enhance the awareness of the people, explanations should be made... Anyone who violates these rules shall be apprehended and presented before the Emperor..."(Tilahun Dereje, 1996 E.C.) Though they were evacuated from the country before they properly introduce and implement it, historical records show that Italians issued various forest laws and regulations. (Melaku Bekele, 2003). Nevertheless, the first comprehensive and modern forest laws were enacted during Emperor Haile Selassie I in 1965. Three subsequent proclamations were enacted in 1965. These were: (a) State Forest Proclamation (Proclamation No. 225 of 1965); (b) Private Forests Conservation Proclamation (Proclamation No. 226 of 1965); and (c) Protective Forests Proclamation No. 227 of 1965. The State Forest Proclamation had economic as well as ecological uses of forests as its purpose to develop forest resources. It also recognized the rights of the succeeding generations to utilize forest products. Hence, according to that Proclamation, it would be fault or offence to greedily exploit forests by the contemporary generation. That is, the cotemporary generation was imposed with the obligation to act as trustee of forests. All forests which were not owned or possessed by any person were designated by the Proclamation as the State forest. (Article 4). It was the Ministry of Agriculture that was charged with the conservation, protection, management and utilization of State forests. The objectives of having private forests were not different from that of State forests. According to Proclamation No. 226 of 1965, private forests were all forests not owned by the state but owned by a person or a group of persons. Although private forests were owned by individuals or a group of persons (natural as well as artificial persons) they were under strict control of the Ministry of Agriculture. According to Proclamation No. 226/1965, protective forests should be administered and utilized under the general supervision of the Minster of Agriculture and no person should remove, utilize, process or destroy any forest product from a protective forest except in accordance with the relevant provisions of the proclamation and regulations to be issued. In 1968 nine consecutive regulations had been issued for the implementation of all the three proclamations of 1965. Generally, the regulations could be categorized as follows: protection and exploitation of private forests; protection and exploitation of state forests; management of protective forests; establishment of community forests; powers of rangers; powers of forest guards; and trade of saw logs and veneer logs regulations. Because of a radical change in property ownership rights of the Derg regime, several laws were issued to nationalize major public resources. Likewise, the regime issued Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development Proclamation No. 192/1980. The regime repealed the 1965 proclamations and recognized three new forest ownership types; namely, state forests, urban and peasant association forests. Each peasant association was obliged, by the Proclamation, to develop and conserve its own forest by planting trees within its locality in areas to be designated by the Authority. Forest and Wildlife Conservation Authority (FAWCDA), established by Proclamation No. 192/1980, was recognized as the strongest forestry institution in the history of the country (Melaku Bekele, 2003). That era was characterized by a strong emphasis on production forestry driven by fuelwood crisis and a price hike of fossil fuel. These national and international factors had also resulted in an increased flow of funding from donors for plantation of fast growing exotic plantations. FAWCDA was able to increase the area covered by planted trees from 42,300 ha in 1973 to 250,000 ha in 1985 within 10 years. During this period there was significant increase in the number of staff (10 folds) as well as the budget (7 folds) allocated for the sector. Among several regulations enacted in 1968, the 1980 Proclamation maintained the Exploitation of State Forest Regulations No. 345/1968, the Management of Protective Forests Regulations No. 347/1968, the Powers of Rangers Regulations No. 349/1968, the Powers of Forest Guards Regulations No. 350/1968, the Trade of Saw Logs and Veneer Logs Regulations No. 351/1968. Though various plantations had been promoted during the Derg regime through active mobilization of associations, lack of transparent benefit sharing mechanism, pseudo-community participation and lack of shared goals and purposes for the established forests were some of the factors accounted to its failure. Alemayehu Negassa (2014) mentioned that the top down command and control system of the socialist military government did not allow open competition advocating strong production forestry and/or other land use options. Communally owned forests of the Derg regime have also suffered from the syndrome of “the tragedy of the commons.” After the fall of the Derg regime, another new Proclamation, a proclamation to provide for the Conservation, Development and Utilization of Forests Proclamation No. 94/1994 was issued by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia. That proclamation recognized three forms of forest ownership: state, regional and private. The proclamation mainly emphasized on the sustainable utilization of the country’s forest resources through public participation and benefit sharing by the concerned communities in its preamble. During this period of the history of the forest sector a comprehensive four volumes working document, Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP) which was initiated in 1990, and was intended to provide an overall guidance to forest development and conservation utilization was finalized. EFAP was aimed at ensuring sustainable development of production forests, increasing agricultural production by reducing land degradation and increasing soil fertility, conserving forest ecosystems and improving the welfare of rural communities. EFAP was prepared following the general framework of Tropical Forests Action Program that was initiated at the ninth World Forestry Congress held in Mexico in 1985. The EFAP was basically developed from the ten years action plan of FAWCDA (1984-1993) which targeted to increase the forest cover of the country to 24%. The latest forest proclamation is the Proclamation No. 542/2007 which is operational at present. Prior to the enactment of the present forest law, the Ethiopian government issued Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy document in that same year. 9.4. Land Tenure, Carbon Rights and Benefit Sharing 9.4.2. Land Tenure In Ethiopia, currently the issue of land ownership and land tenure rights has been regulated by the Constitution. According to the FDRE Constitution, Article 40 (3), the right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as all natural resources is exclusively vested in the State and in the people’s of Ethiopia. As a result, land is not the subject of sale or other means of exchange. All persons who are using land have the right of using the land and/or deriving the fruits thereof. This is what is called a usufruct right. For any person to have a claim over land in the sense of usufruct, he/she must show that he/she has made an improvement traceable to his/her labor or capital. One cannot lay claim to land without establishing improvements thereon. Unimproved land in this sense belongs to the state. Those who merely extract the bare natural fruits of communal land and landed resources cannot under this approach claim to have usufruct right over those resources for they have not met the requisite condition for claiming such right. (Muradu Surur, 2013) This goes well with the meaning given to private property by the constitution, which states that: “private property shall mean any tangible or intangible product which has value and is produced by the labor, creativity, enterprise or capital of an individual citizen, associations which enjoy juridical personality under the law, or in appropriate circumstances, by communities specifically empowered by law to own property in common.”(Article 40 (2)) Communities can own property in common so long as they are particularly empowered by the law to own property. For instance, the forest laws of some regional states (e.g. Oromia forest law) recognize community ownership of forests. The details of land use rights have been provided by lower laws (proclamations and regulations) enacted by federal as well as regional governments. The Federal Rural Land Administration and Utilization Proclamation No. 456/2005 recognizes the land use rights of private persons, communities, governmental and nongovernmental organizations. These organs can be issued landholding certificates for definite or indefinite period of time. Farmers, semi-pastoralists and pastoralists have the maximum tenure security as their tenure rights have no time limits. (Article 7 (1)). However, others’ tenure rights (e.g. communal holdings) can be limited by the rural land administration laws of regions. (Article 7 (2)). The other aspect that could affect rural land tenure right is the possibility of distribution of land in some instances. In accordance with land administration laws of the regions, farmlands whose holders are deceased and have no heirs or are gone for settlement or left the locality on own wish and stayed over a given period of time shall be distributed to peasant farmers, semi-pastoralists and pastoralists who have no land and who have land shortage. (Article 9 (1)).This can be applicable differently in different regional states based on their prevailing circumstances and they apply land distribution as the last resort. When land distribution takes place, two requirements must be fulfilled and these are: (1) it shall not be less than the minimum size of landholding and in a manner that shall not result in fragmentation of land and (2) the distribution shall not cause degradation of natural resources (Article 9 (3). The other critical aspect of the land tenure right under the federal land law is the right of women. It is on the basis of the FDRE Constitution, Article 35 (7) which states: “Women have the right to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property. In particular, they have equal rights with men with respect to use, transfer, administration and control of land. They shall also enjoy equal treatment in the inheritance of property, “that the land law provides for the rights of women. According to the Proclamation No 456/2005, women who want to engage in agriculture shall have the right to get and use rural land (Article 5 (1), (c)). Moreover, married women have the right to have the landholding certificate jointly with their husbands. (Article 6 (4). The Proclamation allows farmers, semi-pastoralists and pastoralists to transfer their land use rights through inheritance to members of their family. It also allows them to lease their landholdings to investors for a limited period of time, according to the regional land administration and use laws. Even if there is no provision for farmers, semi-pastoralists and pastoralists to present their use rights as collateral, investors who leased rural lands from the former have the right to present the land they leased as collateral. As seen from practice, farmers, semi-pastoralists and pastoralists are not allowed to present their landholding rights as collateral. This federal land law imposes an obligation on the land users regarding land management and protection.15 Moreover, the Proclamation provides for the development and implementation by the competent authority of a guiding land use master plan, which takes into account soil type, landform, weather conditions and plant cover and socioeconomic conditions which are based on a watershed approach.16 There are a number of policy and strategic documents in Ethiopia that show the importance of tenure rights for nature conservation and rural economic development. These include: Rural Development Policies and Strategies (2001), Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (2007), The Food Security Strategy of Ethiopia (1997), Ethiopia’s Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment Framework (PIF) 2010-2020, Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework for Sustainable Land Management, Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP). The discussion on tenure right is relevant for REDD+ implementation as a clear and secure tenure system is one of the conditions that contribute in the success of REDD+. It incentivizes actors to make long-term investments of labor, capital and skill in land use. Secured land tenure increases land productivity due to careful and diligent investment on the land. This in turn contributes to the natural resource protection and management efficiency by reducing the pressure on the natural resources, if effective legal enforcement is in place, to control further encroachment of forests triggered by additional income from land investments. 9.4.3. Carbon Rights There remains a huge concern regarding the presence of a mechanism to implement social and environmental safeguards to protect the rights of local peoples. Carbon emission reduction brings a new property right that may demand policy and legal revisions. Ecosystem service provided by a forest in sequestering carbon is inextricably linked with the sustainable management of that forest, and therefore the principal focus should be placed upon those with rights to manage or control the forests. 15 Article 10 (1) of the Proclamation provides that: “A holder of rural land shall be obliged to use and protect his land. When the land gets damaged, the user of the land shall lose his use right. Particulars shall be given in the land administration laws of the regions.” 16 See Article 13 (1). By this, the Proclamation underlined on the importance of a land use master plan, which is long awaited by many Ethiopians. Until now, the said land use plan has not seen the light of the day. There is no methodological framework as such to identify or provide adequate guidance on how to address the existing ambiguity on carbon rights. For Ethiopia to realize optimized community benefit it is very important to recognize the tenure rights of forest dwelling local people. Setting clearly defined carbon right benefits not only local communities but also encourages the private sector that wishes to deploy capital in support of early-stage demonstration activities and carbon business, as well. As it stands now in Ethiopia, there are no clearly defined carbon rights for those who are engaging in the implementation of REDD+ activities. Even if the carbon rights can be handled through agreements concluded between those who engage in the REDD+ activities on the one hand and the concerned government organs on the other, existence of clear policy and legal directions on the issue is helpful. It is generally understood now that the owner of the forest also owns the carbon. In the Ethiopian setting, all natural forests are owned by the government and hence it is the government which is the bearer of carbon rights. But this does not preclude benefit sharing for local communities or organized groups through agreements. This was also refelcted during the discussions with the stakeholders, particularly those in the forestry sector. The suggestions are to adopt the experience from the A/R CDM initiatives, which refers to organizing participating local community members into cooperatives and share benefits as per agreed upon bylaws to be formed as one aspect of the cooperatives formations. Thus, the Humbo CDM project might serve as a model for learning benefit sharing lessons. 9.4.4. Benefit Sharing In a benefit sharing scheme there is the benefit and the beneficiaries. There is also a mechanism used for recording the benefit and associated obligations as well as distributing the benefits. Technically, benefit sharing should be the sharing of benefits among parties involved. A cursory review of the recent application of the term benefits in the context of REDD+ reveals that it is used to mean incentive, opportunities, additional payments, rents/profits, nonfinancial benefits provided for free in a partnership, compensation, and so forth. (DijiChandrasekharan Behr et al (2012). The success of REDD+ also depends on getting incentives for all stakeholders, including through policy measures such as the forest management rules on local use of forest resources and rights to forest lands. For effective and sustainable REDD+ there needs to be clear principles of benefit sharing which also determine the forms of benefit distribution. In a situation where carbon rights are held by governmental agencies, there should be clearly defined benefit sharing mechanisms. It is also strongly recommended that there should be an institution that safeguards the right of the local people. Inadequate benefit sharing from forest resources have been identified as drivers of deforestation, indicating the importance of communities and equity considerations in successful REDD+ governance. Community participation is a key element of any development endeavor of Ethiopia and it is emphasized in policies and laws. For instance, Forest Conservation, Development and Utilization Proclamation No. 542/2007 makes references to community consultation and participation in the context of forestry governance and management. Despite a strong statement for community participation, the forest law dwells scantly on benefit sharing. In addition to its pre-ambular statement, it provides only once on benefit sharing in its body part. In this regard, Article 9 (3) provides that: “forest development, conservation and utilization plans shall be formulated to allow the participation of local communities in the development and conservation and also in the sharing of benefits from, the development of state forests”. From this it can be seen that the issue of benefit sharing, especially for REDD+, needs to be addressed by taking experiences from best practices from around the world. The national forest law which is under revision and the consequent regulation needs to clearly address benefit sharing mechanisms that ensure the benefits of the local communities dependent on forest products and goods. Successful implementation of REDD+ requires a safeguard system that ensures an optimized and equitable benefit sharing among the local communities while serving as a proactive tool to identify potential and actual risks associated with strategic measures proposed to address drivers of forest degradation and deforestation. Thus, transparent benefit sharing mechanisms should be designed with active involvement of the local communities. Otherwise, it is difficult to address the derivers of deforestation and forest degradation in a sustainable manner and achieve the target set for REDD+. As has been observed from field visits, there have been lots of complaints from forest user groups, who engaged in PFM in that the benefits accrued from conservation activities are meager. If this condition continues without getting effective solution, it could be a challenge for the implementation of REDD+. The problem of benefit sharing should also be addressed to avoid unequal benefit sharing practices. It clearly recognizes the “absence of benefit sharing mechanism e.g., how much for community and how much for the project developer, and how much for the government (Ethiopian Forest Resources, p. 23). Men and women (including youth, the poor, etc.) have different relationship with the forest i.e. different roles, responsibilities, interests, constraints due to social, cultural, economic, and ecological factors. Therefore, any forest mechanism put in place should consider the gendered differences between men and women in relation to resources and institutions (central and local governments, social networks) who serve as channel to access to forest resources. While financial instruments such as REDD+ and CDM are seen as a catalyst for promoting management of forest resource to create sustainable socio-economic development; it is essential to develop alternatives such as community based forest enterprises, social and economic value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in which African women play a key roles but still face the competitive constraints of the global market. 9.5. Law Enforcement Law is meant to solve social, economic and other multitudes of problems of the society. Each one of the numerous relationships between people needs to be managed. A vast variety of legal rules provide for all the different needs were formulated to serve these important purposes. Law enforcement is a difficult task to achieve in many developing countries including Ethiopia. Law enforcement needs the fulfillment of some key requirements. These include: (1) enacting subsidiary laws (such as regulations or other instruments like directives and guidelines) for primary legislation (such as proclamations), as the latter are crafted in a general language; (2) organizing efficient law enforcement organs (like the police, prosecution offices and courts); (3) establishing coordination among various stakeholders for effective functional linkage; (4) enhancing the capacity of various stakeholder institutions including the law enforcement organs; (5) avoiding overlapping of mandates and conflict of interests in different governmental institutions; (6) ensuring institutional stability; and (7) fighting corruption and promoting good governance. When tested for the above requirements for effective law enforcement, there are gaps and challenges in the Ethiopian scenario. For instance, only few of the primary legislation have subsidiary instruments for their implementation. In addition to lacking provisions for specific application, primary legislation give wider discretion for the judges while interpreting them for assessment of penalty of other specific issues. This is one of the gravest hurdles in the law enforcement in Ethiopia. Another problem that seemed to have been resolved at federal level, also at regional level, is lack of institutional stability in the forest sector. The establishment of Ministry of Forest and Environment (MEF) now MEFCC at federal level is expected to bridge the long awaited gap of institutional stability, overlapping of mandates and conflict of interests. When specifically seen, the enforcement of forest laws is in a weak condition. A number of studies have been made on the weaknesses of the enforceability of forest laws in Ethiopia. For instance, Tilahun Dereje (2014) identified; absconding of forest crime suspects when released on bail, acquittal of forest suspects and imposition of insufficient penalty on the criminals, and corruption on top of the problems indicated above, as problems of enforcing forest laws in Ethiopia. While these problems are still persisting, they could pose great challenges for the implementation of REDD+ in the country. Strong efforts need to be done to do away with these problems. 9.6. Good Governance and Anti-Corruption Ethiopia recognizes the need to establish inclusive democratic governance system, fighting corruption and strengthening institutional capacity to effectively implement and monitor national development plans. Thus, the federal government issued the Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (FEACC) through Proclamation No. 235/2001 which was subsequently repealed and replaced Proclamation No. 433 of 2005, as an independent body which is accountable to the Prime Minister for the purpose of creating a society that no more tolerates corruption, preventing corruption offences and other improprieties, and exposing, investigating and prosecuting corruption offences and impropriety (Article 6). Guided by these purposes the FEACC plays useful roles by gathering information on corrupt practices. The Commission is also charged with the duty of studying and recommending changes to the working procedures of public institutions and enterprises and ensuring the implementation of those recommendations. As a result, nowadays, most of government institutions established anticorruption and ethics sections that follow and report corruption and ethical issues to higher level government authorities. These sections play profound roles in establishing good governance by allowing corrective measures before corruption attains an irreversible stage. The FEACC is also empowered to register assets and financial interests of public officers as part of a compulsory asset declaration procedure for public officers as prescribed under Disclosure and Registration of Assets Proclamation No. 668/2010. Ethiopia is a signatory to both the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) and African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (AUCPCC). In the forest sector of Ethiopia there are slots exposed to corruption. As revealed from discussions conducted with law enforcement organs of various regional states in a number of occasions, forest related offences are linked with corruption at various levels. For instance, while there are several forests that are not clearly demarcated and legalized the current forest governance provides conditions at which such forests can be transferred to other parties and allows a permit system. Use of a permit system with huge penalties for violators of the rules and regulations in the absence of formal and legal demarcation is likely to lead to corruption. While it is important to recognize the urgent need to demarcation and legalization of important forests, a strong corruption control system should be in place in particular to government owned commercial forests. Owing to the important position given to forest sector by the CRGE Strategy and other economic and ecological functions of forests including REDD+, the federal as well as regional anti-corruption commissions are required to give due attention to corruption and impropriety in the forest sector. 9.7. Major Forest ownerships and management in Ethiopia 9.7.2. Community-Based Forest Management Community forestry has been promoted during the Derg Regime and several forests have been established. However, those community based forest development initiatives were not successful because of lack of clearly set objectives, absence of defined benefit sharing mechanism and weak community participation. Participatory Forest Managements (PFM) as more successful community based forest management is then introduced in 1990s. PFM involves the participation of the local community living near and in a forest in all aspects of management and sharing of the benefits accrued from the sustainable management of the forest resources. The introduction of PFM as a co- management of forest resources has been promoted and facilitated by NGOs such as FARM- Africa, SOS Sahel, GTZ and JICA. PFM as forest management tool is recognized to bring success in terms of devolving the forest property right from the hands of the state to the community. It has also resulted in improved regeneration and increased forest stock as compared with non PFM forests. Moreover, it contributes to improved livelihoods by facilitating the use of part of the products of the forests. Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy of 2007 provides for the possibility of community forestry on some specified lands. Section 4.4 (b) of this document states that: “Enable the nearby communities, individuals, associations or investors to conserve and make use of natural forests that are not designated/demarcated as protected and productive forests, after the preparation of appropriate management plans drawn based on the directives to be issued.” From this policy and strategy document it can be seen that patches of natural forests outside the designated or demarcated areas can be managed by the local communities. Although communal forests have not been separately recognized under Proclamation No. 542/2007, they became part of private forests.17 Therefore, people who are organized as forest user groups such as PFM or other forms of community organizations can develop forests on lands which are given to them by the government as communal lands.18 The Proclamation No. 456/2005, also provides for the possibility of handing over degraded lands for community forest development. In its Article 13 (9) the Proclamation states that: “rural lands that have gullies shall be made to rehabilitate by private and neighboring holders and, as appropriate, by the local community, using biological and physical works.” These two ways of performing community forestry are recognized by the federal land and forest laws. Both forests will be managed according to the management plan prepared with participation of the local communities. Areas particularly identified within the productive forests of the state can be given to communities to serve as community forests on the basis of concession. Even if concessions are contracts given out to any person (including organized communities) to utilize a given state forest for a defined period of time, it is possible to make the ‘defined’ period of time longer so that members of the community feel sense of security.19 The law fully recognizes the property rights of the concessionaire. In this regard Article 4 (5) of Proclamation No. 542/2007 provides that: “Any person who develops forest on his/her landholding or in a state forest area given to him/her on concession shall be given assurance 17 Private forest has been defined by the Proclamation as: “a forest other than state forest developed by any private person and includes a forest developed by members of a peasant association or by an association organized by private individuals, investors and governmental and non- governmental organizations.” (Article 2 (5). 18 The Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation No. 456/2005 on its Article 2 (12) defines the meaning of communal land as: “rural land which is given by the government to local residents for common grazing, forestry and other social services.” 19 Article 2 (1) of Proclamation No. 542/2007 defines concession as: “a contract given out to any person to utilize a given State forest for a defined period of time.” to his/her ownership of the forest.” When this assurance of forest ownership is accompanied by longer concession period, it would make protection, development and utilization of communally managed forests very effective. Moreover, community forests can be developed on the lands which are given to people by the government for various communal purposes.20 From this it can be seen that there are a number of options for having community managed forestry and is a matter of agreement between the people who are organized for developing community forestry and the concerned government organs. Community-based forest management has a long history in Ethiopia. Many communities have developed culturally how to sustainably manage and utilize forests. Different communities in various parts of the country have different experiences and have found different ways of creating with institutional settings to nurture this participatory way of managing forests. Figure 20-PFM Zones in Ethiopia 9.7.3. Private Forests Investment Incentives and Investment Areas Reserved for Domestic Investors, Council of Ministers Regulation No. 270/2012 provides eight years exemption from income tax for those investors who engage in private forestry investment in Addis Ababa and Special Zone of Oromia surrounding Addis Ababa and nine years exemption from income tax for those who invest in forestry outside this 20 Proclamation № 456/2005, Article 2 (12). area. Successful investments can be made both in the wood and non-wood sub sectors of the forest sector. One of the forest ownership types recognized in Ethiopia is private forest at federal as well as in all regional states which enacted their own forest laws. However, the engagement of the private sector in forestry is negligible. In Ethiopia, forest investments are predominantly in small and medium-sized forest-based enterprises which consist of various sub-sectors from wood based small scale enterprises that produce office and household furniture to non-wood based productions such as herbalists and wild coffee producers and/entrepreneurs. Tree farming by private farm households and entrepreneurs is a growing area of small investment throughout rural and urban Ethiopia (Mulugeta Limeneh and Tadesse Weldemariam, 2010). Forest industrialization is lacking in Ethiopia. Finfinne Furniture Factory, Salvatore de Vita and Family, and Wanza Furniture Industry are the few furniture industries and saw mills probably considered as large scale furniture industries. There are several factors that constrain the involvement of the private sector in forest investment. One of the challenges could be the long investment return and the land security issue. The second constraint is the absence of regulations and guidelines on allocating land for forestry development. The relevant body (MEF) is in the process of putting the right guidelines in place after being approved by the executive body. In the REDD+ the private sector’s role can be expanded from the usual discourse of buyers of emission offsets through carbon markets to directly investing in the forest development. In addition to the income tax incentive, other mechanisms such as secured forest tenure systems need to be introduced to attract private investments to the forestry sector. Without secure rights, private investors lack long-term incentives for maintaining their forest resources or investing in sustainable management of forests. Clear and enforceable land and forest tenure is a precondition for investments in responsible forestry. 9.7.4. Government Managed Forests All natural forests which are not given to any person (private individuals, a group of individuals or business firms) by concession or those natural forests which are being rehabilitated by local communities are under the ownership of the government. The government may administer these forests in different ways that it thinks fit. For instance, two of the regions, Oromia and Amhara Regional States, have established enterprises to administer state owned forests. The regional State of Oromia issued a Regulation No. 84/2007 to establish the Oromia Regional State Forest Enterprises Supervising Agency. The agency is established: to oversee attainment of a sustainable management and utilization of forests, and implementation of forest policies to provide the existing state forest enterprises with guidance and support so as to make them efficient, modern and sustainable; and to establish new forest enterprises that contribute to the realization of the sustainable management of forests and thereby play an appropriate role in the enhancement of economic growth of the population in the region. Oromia regional state is with the largest forest resources in the country. The region vested full authority to the agency and its sub-enterprises to own, develop, utilize and retain revenue generated from forests of their respective concession areas. Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise has so far done commendable achievements in production forestry. On the other hand, the Amhara National Regional State Forest Enterprise was established by the Forestry Enterprise Establishment, Council of Regional Government Regulation No. 70/2009. The enterprise was established with the objectives of extensively developing and producing forest and forest products as well as increasing the value of same, reduce the level of unemployment and thereby ensure sustainable gains of the Regional Community by creating wider job opportunities, narrow the ever growing gap between supply and demand in wood and wood product at regional as well as national levels and enhance saving or generating foreign income by producing forest and forest products, with value addition, exporting same and substituting the imports. At present both state owned enterprises are serving as major timber and round wood producers and suppliers in the local market. Despite the efforts of these state owned enterprises, the gap between demand and supply of forest products is still increasing. However, the value of these enterprises in terms of demonstrating scientific forest management is commendable. This may attract the private sector as well as organized forest and forest products producer associations towards entering into forestry business. Since most of the forests in Ethiopia are government managed, the government is the major stakeholder in the REDD+. As the major stakeholder, the government is expected to strengthen its institutional as well as human capacity for the effective emission reduction from deforestation, forest degradation and forest enhancement. 9.7.5. Traditional Forest Management and Resource Use Systems Communities have developed special skills and knowledge systems how to manage forests through accumulated and handed over experiential learning processes. In many parts of Ethiopia, the local people use indigenous knowledge and well organized indigenous institutions to manage their forest resources and ensuring equitable share of the products from those resources. To mention a few of them, the traditional home garden agroforestry system in the southern and southwest Ethiopia is a widely known practice. In this system, the natural forest is converted to a multistory home garden that constitutes trees in the upper and shrubs and annuals in the middle and lower structures of the system. In addition to trees, the system comprises enset, coffee and other food and cash crops. For instance, the Borena People manage and utilize the rangeland through the Gada governance system. The most important part of the rangeland management system is the obligation that it sets for animal movement to be regulated according to the patterns outlined by elders. The elders determine the use pattern by considering factors such as range availability, rangeland condition and seasonal carrying capacity in to account. The Kobo system in the South Western part of the country is another traditional practice of managing forest resources. According to Mulugeta Lemenih and Tadesse Woldemariam (2010) the Kobo system is a forest (tree) tenure institution that grants first claimers an exclusive use right over a block of forest, usually for collection of forest coffee, hanging beehives and access to other non-timber forest products. Once claimed, the forest block is de facto individual property, respected by fellow citizens of the area, and the owner has the right to exclude others. This way, the system has resolved what could have been an open access system with threat of degradation by one that allows the interests of the ‘owner’ in maintaining a sustained supply of products to also prevent access by ‘outsiders’ and hence prevent degradation. There are traditional practices that the local people use to manage and utilize forest resources. In some areas important indigenous tree species such as Ficus vasta, Podocarpus falcatus, Ekebergia capensis and Ficus sycomorus are conserved by the local people for their ritual purpose. Often the local communities make social meetings and other ritual ceremonies under the shade of big trees. Cutting of these highly valued and respected trees is a taboo. Similarly, several studies have now witnessed that churches retained indigenous tree species highly threatened in other habitats. Trees in the premises of religious institutions are not exposed to illegal cutting. The profound importance of religious institutions and sacred areas in the conservation and development of genetic resources of endangered indigenous tree species of Ethiopia is greatly recognized. 9.7.6. Global Experience on Traditional Forest Management and Resource Use Systems Over the past two centuries the nationalization of much of the world’s forests has eroded and alienated local community forest management systems in many nations. Forest departments, especially in developing countries, with limited financial and human resources, have experienced increasing problems ensuring the sustainable use of millions of hectares of land under their sole jurisdiction. Local communities and indigenous peoples, with few legal rights or responsibilities over the public forest domain, have stood by, while witnessing the rapid commercial exploitation of forests, increasing expansion of large-scale industrial farming and small-scale agriculture. After having observed the difficulties of managing forests effectively, many countries have started reconsidering the transfer of parts of their forests to be owned or managed by local communities or underserved groups. These efforts were started in Latin America in the 1970s and now spread to African and Asian countries. (White & Martin (2002). Some countries undergone legal reforms to recognize community-based property rights by reforming land laws to recognize private community- based property rights of forest-dependent communities (e.g. Uganda, Tanzania). In some others, government devolution of limited rights to underserved and other communities by setting aside public lands for underserved communities (e.g. Brazil). Others (e.g. India) have devolved limited rights to local communities to manage and benefit from forests that are still officially considered public land. This process is actively underway in many of African countries, with more complete transfer of rights present only in Tanzania, Gambia and Cameroon. These arrangements, known by terms such as “joint management” and “co-management,” do not alter state ownership. They represent a much weaker form of property rights than those provided by private community-based ownership. Yet in some others, reforming public forest concession policy has been adopted. Among these countries some (e.g. Guatemala) are beginning to adjust traditional industrial logging concession arrangements to encompass underserved and other local communities. Here a company may transfer its concession rights to a new business venture with a coalition of underserved groups as the lead partner. More transfers of use rights between companies and communities are underway and more joint ventures are being explored in these countries. (White & Martin, 2002). For better results in REDD+ it is better if communities are empowered and get involved in decision- making on forest management, benefits and incentives available for them by equitably sharing the costs and benefits between the government and communities. This can be materialized through effective capacity building of community institutions and members of the community. 10. Legal, Policy and Institutional Framework 10.2. International Convention The 1995 Ethiopian constitution is the supreme law of the land that has laid out the foundations for Ethiopia's commitment to ensure sustainable development, environmental and social safety. As a result, Ethiopia has given due attention to protect the environment and natural resources by ratifying international agreements and preparing national legal frameworks pertinent to environment and natural resources protection. Ethiopia is either a party or signatory of many international forestry and environment related agreements. The country ratified a range of conventions that demonstrate the country’s commitment to global climate change, biodiversity and desertification problems. The country is also an active participant in the global climate change initiatives. Selected relevant international conventions, protocols, and initiatives are summarized as follows: 10.2.2. United Nations Framework Conventions for Climate Change (UNFCCC) UNFCC is an international environmental convention negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The objective of the treaty is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992, after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. It entered into force on 21 March 1994. As of March 2014, UNFCCC has 196 parties. Ethiopia ratified the convention in 1994. The topic of reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries was first introduced at the eleventh session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Montreal (December 2005). The Climate Change Conference in Bali, in December 2007, opened the possibility of developing an incentive mechanism for “reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries” (REDD+). Subsequently some REDD+ projects have been developed, which already feature in the voluntary carbon markets. 10.2.3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) UNCCD is established in 1994 with an aim of linking development and environment to ensure sustainable management. The fact that the Convention specifically targets arid and semi-arid areas makes it pertinent to the national goals set to the pastoral and semi-pastoral communities. In the 10- Year Strategy of the UNCCD (2008-2018) that was adopted in 2007, Parties to the Convention further specified their goals: "to forge a global partnership to reverse and prevent desertification/land degradation and to mitigate the effects of drought in affected areas in order to support poverty reduction and environmental sustainability”. The Convention’s 195 parties work together to improve the living conditions for people in dry lands, to maintain and restore land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of drought. The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification and land degradation. Ethiopia ratified the convention in 1997. The UNCCD invites all Parties to adopt and scale up sustainable forest management policies and practices to prevent soil erosion and flooding, to increase carbon sinks, and to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity (decision4/COP.8). The UNCCD, being the sole legally-binding instrument on land and soil, recognizes the importance and potential for REDD+ in drylands to contribute to land degradation neutrality, sustainable economic growth, poverty eradication and other urgent goals pledged at the Rio+20conference .Moreover, the UNCCD is one of the founding institutions of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF), a policy forum and partnership on all types of forests, including dry forests. In collaboration with other organizations of the CPF, the UNCCD facilitates the UNFCCC, UNFF and other processes related to REDD+. 10.2.4. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has 3 main objectives. The Convention is aimed at the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The CBD provides a global legal framework for action on biodiversity. It brings together the Parties in the Conference of the Parties (COP) which is the Convention’s governing body. Ethiopia ratified the convention in 1994. The COP for the CBD (COP 10) in its Decision X/33 recognized the importance of REDD+ activities in developing countries in collaboration with various stakeholders, including the UN organs and the national focal points for the CBD with the participation of underserved and local communities, so that actions are consistent with the objectives of the CBD and avoid negative impacts. (Paragraph 9 (g)) It also deals with the assessment of the contribution of REDD+ in achieving the objectives the CBD (Paragraph 13). COP 11 which took place from 8 to 19 October 2012in Hyderabad, India conducted important negotiations on REDD+. These include: • Keeping the Convention’s implementation under review; adopting indicators on the Aichi targets; allocating financial resources for the forest biodiversity work program, rather than focusing on non-binding guidelines for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+); • Strengthening REDD+ initiatives, geo-engineering and knowledge on linkages between biodiversity and climate change; • Focusing on safeguards, considering means of monitoring and assessing the impacts of REDD+ on biodiversity; • Understanding that the issue of forests is not reduced to REDD+; • Develop indicators to monitor compliance by developing countries with REDD+ safeguards aimed to prevent negative impacts on biodiversity and underserved and local communities; • Outlining a “roadmap” authorizing the next CBD COP to consider a progress report on REDD+ safeguards that can hopefully feed into the subsequent climate COP and allow for further review at CBD COP 13; From these COP decisions and discussions it can be discerned that the relevance of REDD+ activities in developing countries to achieve the objectives of the CBD has been given due attention. Moreover, the issue of impacts on the biodiversity and the human society, particularly on underserved peoples and local communities has been repeatedly emphasized. 10.2.5. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) CITES is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. CITES is initiated because of the crosses borders nature of the trade in wild animals and plants which necessitates international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. CITES provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level. It has about 180 parties. Ethiopia ratified the convention in 1989. 10.2.6. Convention for the Safeguards of Intangible Heritage Intangible cultural heritage refers to traditions and living expressions that passed from one generation to the other that includes oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals and other traditional knowledge and practices concerning nature and the environment. The major purposes of the convention are to safeguard the intangible cultural heritage, to ensure respect for the tangible cultural heritage of the communities, groups and individuals concerned, to raise awareness at the local, national and international levels of the importance of the intangible cultural heritage, and of ensuring mutual appreciation thereof to provide for international cooperation and assistance. 10.2.7. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into force on 11 September 2003. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. Ethiopia ratified the convention in 2000. 10.2.8. Pan African Agency for the Great Green Wall (PAGWW) The Great Green Wall Initiative of the Sahara and the Sahel was conceived as a sound initiative towards ensuring sustainable environmental management to African countries. It is anticipated that it could help in strengthening efforts made to arrest loss of biodiversity, control desert encroachment, and improve resilience of the local community to climate change impacts. The GGWSSI is an initiative with a broader target of increasing food security; reduce poverty by diversifying livelihood opportunities through climate resilient development approaches. This initiative was emerged to protect the expansion of the Sahara desert via planting a wall of trees which stretches from Dakar to Djibouti with a width of 15 kilometers and a length of up to 7000 kilometers. The wall envisioned by 11 African countries (Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Eretria, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan and Chad) on the southern border of the Sahara, and their international partners, is aimed at preventing the expansion of the Sahara desert into the Sahel. Ethiopia ratified the “Convention related to the Creation of The Pan African Agency of the Great Green Wall Ratification Proclamation No. 842/2014” in July 2014. 10.3. National Policies, Laws and Strategies Forest sector of Ethiopia has been paid considerable national policy and strategy emphasis over the last two decades. There is a national policy and strategy document specifically formulated to this sector. There are also policies and strategy measures relevant to the forestry sectors which are amalgamated into the broader rural development policy frameworks. Some policies and strategies of other sectors have also significant link to the forest sector. These policies and strategies play crucial roles that determine the extent at which the sector addresses the social, economic and ecological needs of the community to forest goods and services. Although these policy, legal and strategy documents do not directly refer to the issues of REDD+, they have provisions which are relevant for its implementation. It is important to analyze such legal frameworks in the context of understanding the existing policies, strategies and action programs in view of social and environmental safeguards emanating from the application of REDD+ programs. Among others, the major policy and strategy provisions that are directly and indirectly related to the forest sector include Rural Development Policy and Strategies (RDPS), Forest Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy and the Forest Proclamation, the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, Productive Safety Net Program and Sustainable Land Management, the GTP and CRGE Strategy of Ethiopia. An overview of these legal frameworks and programs are provided below. 10.3.2. The Rural Development Policy and Strategy, 2001 The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia issued a national rural development policy and strategy in November 2001 which is an overarching policy and strategy document that comprised statements in relation to rural development, agriculture and natural resource interventions. The policy underscores agriculture-led economic development as a pathway feasible to Ethiopia in order to ensure rapid economic growth, optimize public benefits, reduce poverty and promote market economy. The major policy directions include efficient use of land resources and formulation of area-specific development packages. Under the pillar stating the need to formulate area-specific development packages, the document underscores the need to rehabilitate degraded lands and forests. The policy suggests that natural resource development and conservation interventions should also serve as source of income to the local community. Especially it underlines on the income which should be accrued from forest development and management activities. REDD+ projects are relevant with this policy statement in that one of the objectives of REDD+ is fetching additional income for the local people. It also stresses on the need to promote target oriented tree planting programs. Specifically, the policy addresses that afforestation interventions should be focused on agroforestry, which allows farmers harvest wood products and fruits that can be sold in the local market and satisfy household demands. The document further deals with increasing agricultural productivity to reduce pressure as output per landholding increases, farmers will be less likely to expand into forests. Despite this strong policy provisions successes so far are limited. Implementation of this policy is constrained, among others, by lack of implementation instruments, such as, directives or sector- specific guidelines. Moreover, proper amount of financial and human resources have not been allocated for the implementation of afforestation and reforestation programs. For example, Mulugeta Limeneh and Tadesse Weldemariam (2010) reported that forestry sector received less than 10% of the overall budgets allocated to the Ministry of Agriculture both at the federal and regional levels during the last decade. The same is true in the allocation of extension personnel and airtime and print space in the media. 10.3.3. Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation 2007 The Forest Development Conservation and Utilization Proclamation No.542/2007 is the latest forest law presently under implementation. This proclamation attempts to provide legal grounds to the Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy of 2007. The proclamation recognizes two types of forest ownerships, state and private forest ownership. The proclamation puts communal forest ownership under the category of private forest ownership. The proclamation is criticized for consisting of penalty articles that lack clarity to lawyers’ interpretation. The lack of act and concrete implementation directives have been mentioned as a bottleneck hindering the effective implementation of this proclamation. Though communal ownership right is integrated in private ownership it provides strong accounts to community participation in the development and management of forests. The proclamation has been in effect since September 2007 but has yet seen regulations or directives/guidelines for its implementation. This includes the directives necessary for the utilization of private forests in general and the preparation of management plans in particular. Communities and small enterprises rarely respect the boundaries of state forests, as they are not consulted in the demarcation process. This is without considering that most of the forests are not demarcated until now. In most cases, no maps or management plans exist and they have not been gazetted due to lack of resources human, financial and material. 10.3.4. Forest Conservation and Utilization Policy and Strategy, 2007 The adoption of this policy by the council of ministers, which is the first in the history of the country, reflects the government’s commitment to improve the economic, social and ecological contributions of the forest resource base. The main objective of the policy and strategy is improving the economic contribution of the forest sector and meeting the communities’ demands for forest products. Moreover, the policy envisages enhancing the forest sector economic contribution by promoting the engagement of the private sector and farmers. The policy substantiates the need to certifying forest use right which is an important provision to enhance the engagement of farmers, communities and the private sector. The policy also provides statements on the support that should be provided to create market opportunities for forest products. The policy statements in the document are comprehensive enough to promote sustainable forest management and enhance the social and economic contributions of the sector. This policy and strategy document can be utilized for the implementation of REDD+ as it provides for: possibilities of income generation from forests for the communities; the establishment of participatory forest management schemes by engaging the local people; issuance of forest ownership certificates for individuals, associations (e.g. forest use groups) and private investors. 10.3.5. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE), 1997 Currently, MEFCC is preparing a revised version of this policy, though a draft document is not ready yet. This is one of the policies developed in the country that has direct relation to forest development and conservation, approved in 1997. The policy aims at improving the quality of life of the people through sustainable development and utilization of natural resources. It also aspires to conserve traditional resource management practices. The policy included soil management and sustainable agriculture, forest and tree resource management, genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity conservation and management. The EPE has a strong element of encouraging peoples’ participation in forest management. The policy addresses the complementary roles of communities, private investors and the state in forestry development. The policy emphasizes the need to restrict forest resources utilization to the regeneration capacity. Thus, the policy attempts to ensure sustainable supply of forest products without disrupting the social, economic and ecological services. This policy document also provides for, tenure security on land, investing in SLM technologies and conducting intensive agriculture. Moreover, the Policy stresses the uninterrupted and continuing access to the same land and natural resources (e.g. trees, water, wildlife and grazing) on the part of farmers and pastoralists. It also recognizes the customary rights of access to and use of land and natural resource which are constitutionally acceptable, socially equitable and are preferred by local communities. These provisions of the Policy have shown their relevance for REDD+ as they underline on the security of land tenure; agricultural intensification; sustainable utilization of natural resources; traditional resource management by using local knowledge; communities’ participation in forest management; and access rights of local people to natural resources such as forests. From these policy statements it can be understood the rights of local people are not limited to only the landholdings to which they have been provided with the title deeds but could be extended to the forests. 10.3.6. Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (EIA) No. 299/2002 The proclamation prohibits implementation of any project that requires environmental impact assessment without authorization from the federal or regional environmental agency. The provisions of this proclamation emphasize on the importance of conducting environmental impact assessment for all development projects and programs which fall in any category listed in any directive issued pursuant to the EIA proclamation. The proclamation indicates that environmental assessment is essential to predict and manage the environmental effects of proposed developmental activities; to harmonize environmental, economic, cultural and social considerations into a decision making process; to implement environmental rights and objectives enshrined in the Constitution; and to bring about administrative transparency and accountability. The definition of EIA in the proclamation includes both project and strategic level assessments and there is no separate law for strategic environmental assessment in Ethiopia. These features of the proclamation make it relevant for the implementation of REDD+. EIA is the most significant law as far as SESA is concerned. Protecting the environment and society from the negative impacts of a proposed project or program by devising safeguard mechanisms (e.g. mitigation measures) is a major purpose of the EIA law. EIA processes hence result in environmental and social safeguards. Irrespective of its relevance for the REDD+, the enforceability of EIA in Ethiopia is facing a number of challenges. The most significant challenge in the country with respect to implementation of EIA law is the disproportionate emphasis on development projects and programs as compared to their social and environmental impacts. The other challenge that needs to be mentioned is the delegation of the power of reviewing of EIA study reports by the former EPA to the sectoral ministries. The delegation of EIA report reviewing powers of EPA to sectoral agencies has been found to contradict the basic principle of avoiding conflict of interests in assigning the roles and responsibilities of regulation of environmental protection on the one hand and resources development on the other. This federal level delegation was not accepted by the regional states and in no regional state such delegation has been made. Some regional states (e.g. Oromia) have enacted their own EIA laws. The Oromia Regional State has issued the EIA Proclamation No. 176/2012 on 30 November 2012. It includes both project level and strategic impact assessments. The proclamation is applicable on all projects and programs to be undertaken in the territories of Oromia Regional State. This implies that even federal projects and programs are subject to the proclamation. According to Article 5 (1) of the proclamation, no person shall commence implementation of a project that requires environmental impact assessment without authorization from the Bureau. There have been improvements in the enforcement of EIA in Ethiopia including in the Oromia Regional State since the adoption of the EIA proclamation in 2012. All projects are required to assess their potential environmental and social impacts before implementation and operation especially since 2012/13. Project proponents, both from the public and private sectors have to submit their EIA report to Oromia Bureau of Land Administration and Environment Protection for review and approval. They cannot implement projects without EIA certificate from the Bureau. There has been attitude change towards increased awareness on EIA. Irrespective of these improvements, there are still problems in enforcing EIA law in Oromia. The problems are mostly related to: • Proponents usually fail to construct/apply the proposed mitigation measures by using the technology they prescribe in the EIA study report to mitigate or eliminate the negative impacts of their projects; • As many of the federal projects are located in the territory of Oromia Regional State and as the delegated federal sectoral ministries are not actively exercising their monitoring and evaluation tasks, there is institutional gap in the effectively enforcing EIA in Oromia; • Lack of effective cooperation among the stakeholders indicated in the Oromia EIA law; • Lack of efficient mechanisms for dispute resolution and insufficient compensation payments for displacement; • Still the awareness level on EIA is small in the general public and even in the decision making organs; • Lack of or weaknesses of sectoral environmental units in the RS; • Weak institutional capacity; • Persisting insufficiency of political willingness to EIA. This can be explained as disproportionate urge for rapid economic growth at the cost of the environment. 10.3.7. Productive Safety Net and Sustainable Land Management Program Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP), which is an operational program targeted to ensure food security was initiated in 2005. The program is now in its fourth phase. The program aims to improve access to safety net and disaster risk management mechanisms, diversified livelihoods and nutrition support for food insecure households in the rural areas. The program recognizes the importance of tackling environmental degradation through sustainable natural resource management as a key tool of sustaining food security. The program intends to promote community based degraded lands rehabilitation initiatives through public works and direct support. Public works are labor-intensive activities that are conducted to restore degraded landscapes. The direct support scheme facilitates the flow of financial or food support to vulnerable households with no able-bodies to participate on public works. The Ethiopian government also launched Sustainable Land Management (SLM) project i n October 2008 with the aim of combating land degradation problems. It was envisioned to contribute to the UNCCD and global action against climate change. The second SLM project aims at reducing land degradation and improve land productivity in selected watersheds in six regions of the country. The watershed management component of the SLM program has been witnessed to bring commendable changes through scaling-up of best land management practices and technologies for smallholder farmers. Farmers are now realizing the benefits of conserving natural resources including forests not only in terms of sustaining increased agricultural productivity but also in terms of livelihood diversification which boosts landscape productivity and enhance resilience. Because of its participatory nature, integrating social and environmental safeguards in watershed approaches is simple. Such integration further guarantees the sustainability of degraded land restoration interventions. 10.3.8. The Growth and Transformation Plan and CRGE Strategy of Ethiopia The Ethiopian government launched the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) for the period 2010/11-2014/15 with the vision to propel Ethiopia into middle income country status by 2025. The GTP is an ambitious plan that envisages the country’s GDP per capita would grow from 378 USD in 2010 to 1271 USD in 2025. The four pillars in GTP are: (i) sustaining faster and equitable economic growth; (ii) maintaining agriculture as a major source of economic growth; (iii) creating favorable conditions for industry to play a key role in the economy; and (iv)building capacity and deepening good governance. The GTP is a strategic framework which builds on strategies which precede it. These are the Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI) Strategy (1993) and Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) (2006-2011). It targets 8.1% agricultural growth per year and doubling production of key crops over five year period. It also seeks to reduce degradation and improve natural resource productivity. During the plan period the rural electrification program aimed to increase the number of towns and rural villages. Moreover, as a result of distribution of improved energy saving biomass it was estimated that about 26,176 ha of forest have been conserved from deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions have been mitigated by about 36,575 tons. In order to promote and realize the country’s Green Development Strategy, ongoing initiatives to generate electricity from hydro power and other renewable energy sources has been the strategic directions during the GTP period. In addition new technological innovations have been promised to be utilized to ensure that the energy sub-sector does not emit additional carbon-dioxide. To promote and sustain rural alternative energy development activities, efforts have been made to enhance the capacity and knowledge in this regard of regions, producers and consumers. The distribution of wood saving materials and technologies throughout the country has continued. The GTP is a key plan as far as REDD+ is concerned owing to its contribution to the emission reduction targets from the forestry sector by adopting various mechanism, ranging from agricultural intensification to production and distribution of energy saving cook stoves. Its second phase, GTP II, is currently under public consultation. It is envisaged that the achievement of this plan will enable the country to reach its Millennium Development Goals. In order to achieve the GTP goals, the government initiated new programs and institutions such as the Agricultural Growth Project (AGP) and the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA). The Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) of Ethiopia is another overarching economic development strategy that was declared to the international community in Durban in 2011. Ethiopia has initiated the CRGE strategy to safeguard the country from the adverse effects of climate change and to build a green economy that will help realize the goals set in the GTP. The CRGE is based on four pillars one of which is protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services, including as carbon stocks. The strategy aims at reversing land degradation, protecting existing forests and increasing forest cover. The fact that the CRGE adopts the forest sector as one of its four pillars provides an enabling environment for the development of the forest sector. As part of the green economy strategy, the government has selected four initiatives for fast-track implementation in the CERG Strategy document: exploiting the vast hydropower potential; large- scale promotion of advanced rural cooking technologies; efficiency improvements to the livestock value chain; and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). These initiatives are expected to have the best chances of promoting growth immediately, capturing large abatement potentials, and attracting climate finance for their implementation. REDD+ is embedded in CRGE Strategy, which envisions bringing the country to middle income status by 2025 through an environmentally sustainable and climate resilient economy while maintaining zero net greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). The government established the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MEF) in July 2013 with the mandate of facilitating the implementation of the CRGE Strategy, including through development programs in environmental management and forestry. Ethiopia is receiving international support to achieve REDD+ readiness and prepare the country for receiving results-based payments for emission reductions in the forestry sector. The national REDD+ Readiness program - coordinated under the REDD+ secretariat at MEF - intends to serve as a vehicle through which the CRGE objectives on land use and forestry sector. The CRGE Strategy is closely related with the GTP. 10.4. Regional Legal Framework Article 51 (5) of the FDRE Constitution states that the federal government shall enact laws for the utilization and conservation of land and other natural resources, historical sites, and objects. Likewise, article 52 (2) (d) states that regional states shall have the functions of administrating land and other natural resources in accordance with federal laws. Regional states can enact their own laws facilitating the administration of the natural resources. For instance, the Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation No. 542/2005 in its Article 8(3) provides that: “The designation and demarcation of a state forest … shall be proclaimed by the legislation of the concerned regional state. “This is in addition to the power bestowed upon the regional states by the federal forest law, Article 18 (1), which states that “each Regional State shall have the power to administer any state forest in the region in accordance with this proclamation.” The FDRE Constitution also provides the regional states with the power to formulate their respective policies, raise their own revenue as well as plan and execute their own forest development activities in accordance with the framework of the overall policies of the federal government. Some of the major laws and regulations of selected regions are indicated in the following ub-sections: 10.4.2. Amhara National Regional State • Forest Resources Protection, Control and Utilization guideline (No. 002/2007) • Natural incense and Gum Development, Protection and Utilization Guideline (No 001/2006), • Rural Land Administration and Use proclamation (No- 133/2006) • Forestry Development and Protection Task Forces Implementation guideline (July, 2006) • Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project January, 2002 • Amhara Forestry Action Program (AFAP, 1999) • Regional Conservation Strategy (1999) • Rural Land Distribution Guideline for Forestry Investment (Amhara Regional State Executive Committee January, 1997) 10.4.3. Tigray National Regional State • Tigray Forestry Action Program (1996) • Management guidelines for developing natural gum and olibanum resin bearing trees species (1998) • Strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation and management of woody biomass resources (2004) 10.4.4. Oromia National Regional State • Oromia forest proclamation no 72/2003, • Regulation to Provide for the Establishment of the Oromia Regional State Forest Enterprises Supervising Agency, No 84/2007. 10.4.5. Southern Nations and Nationalities and Peoples Regional State • Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Land Administration and Use Proclamation No. 110/2007 • SNNPRS Rural Land Administration and Use Regulation” No 66/2007 issued to implement Proclamation No. 110/2007 • The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation No. 147 /2012 10.5. Institutional and policy challenges in the forest sector The forest sector of Ethiopia is known as a victim of frequent institutional restructuring that has been made over the last three decades. During the 1980s, the forestry department consisted of around 60 staff. Having the biggest institutional setup over the history of the country before 2013, it had been re-organized as a Ministry in 1995 having about 300 employees. Downsized during the structuring in 2014 when it was merged with the Ministry of Agriculture it had less than 10 foresters. It was structured as a case team in the Natural Resource Management Directorate of MoA. This structuring could not allow provision of technical supports to regional bureaus besides its clear impacts on resource allocation and emphasis. Moreover, such weak institutional arrangement constrains effective coordination of regional activities towards national goals and international commitments. Inter-regional learning platforms and experience sharing forums can also be best planned and utilized with a strong federal institution put in place. Above all, equitable development of the community necessitates strong capacity building support to regions that need special support. Recognizing all these benefits and the potential of the sector to the national economic goals and in particular its key roles in sustaining food security, the government of Ethiopia established MEF in 2013. It can be said that MEF is now an institution with adequate institutional setup to run the sector achieves the expectations. However, the present lack of regional complementary institutions remains a challenge that should be underlined. Generally, there are as such no criticisms that blame lack of policy as a challenge against forest development and conservation in Ethiopia’s. When sectoral and cross-sectoral policies r e l a t e d to natural resources are taken together, there are several documents largely waiting for implementation. Benefiting from inputs of senior expertise through series of workshops, the policy documents and programs are comprehensive enough to effectively and efficiently guiding the sector. However, some scholars raise some issues lack clarities. Some argue that the policies, strategies and implementation programs either lack monitoring and evaluation framework or they are not properly implemented. The Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation No. 2007 enlists the provisions of incentives (provision of land for lease free, income tax waiver for a grace period of one cycle of harvest) for private investors in fo res t ry. The Rural Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation no. 456/2005 defines land use plan as "rural land use "practice whereby the options that give greater economic benefits without causing land degradation and environmental pollution are, determined and implemented from among the different use options a rural land can be given on the basis of physical, economic and social information” and stating the need to develop a guiding land use master plan, ground level implementations are lacking. Absence of land use plan is one of the bottlenecks that have led to the conversion of huge forest lands into agricultural lands. Though the Environment Policy puts some conducive policy elements that support the development of the forest sector, its weak implementation has not allowed that. REDD+ by its nature requires strong and coordinated institutions that perform their REDD+ duties in a concerted manner to oversee various activities affecting the forestry sector across the different levels of government. This functionally linked institutional structure needs to effectively administer a decentralized program that involves multiple sectors and numerous local participants. Institutional arrangements will need to integrate government oversight and implementing institutions, decentralized at regional, zonal, and local (Woreda and Kebele) levels, with functions for multi- stakeholder and technical consultation. 10.6. Other Policies related to REDD+ Implementation 10.6.2. National Energy Policy -1994 This policy targets at ensuring energy self-sufficiency or meet national energy security. The policy underlines that all energy development activities should be environmentally friendly. It recognizes the promotion of alternative energy sources in order to increase energy supply that has to meet the country’s growing demand. It also accounts to the pressure on the biomass energy source and states on the need to increase the biomass energy source through afforestation, re-forestation and agroforestry schemes. The policy indicates that Ethiopia’s energy consumption predominantly based on biomass energy sources, which led to massive deforestation and the resultant land degradation in the country. To overcome these problems, the policy provides for the importance of devising mechanisms to arrest deforestation to increase the reliability of energy supply and to control environmental pollution resulting from energy use. It also emphasizes on the participation of the private sector and communities, particularly women in the development of energy and payment of due and close attention to ecological and environmental issues during the development of energy projects. Alternative energy development from solar, geothermal, wind energy sources are among the renewable energy sources with the view to relieving pressure on wood resources. The National Energy Policy is a relevant policy instrument for the application of REDD+ in that it focuses on the renewable energy sources and in energy efficiency approaches. The materialization of the policy will have a positive contribution in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. It will also contribute in the enhancement of forest development. 10.6.3. Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy-1999 The policy states the need to ensure sustainable supply of water which necessitates natural resources development interventions in the upper catchments. In line with ensuring the sustainability of water supply the policy clearly states that “Ensure that water resources management is compatible and integrated with other natural resources as well as river basin development plans and with the goals of other sectoral developments in health, mines, energy, agriculture, etc.” In its section of the provision on cross cutting policy issues the document addresses environmental issues with two statements. Section 2.2.2-A states that: • Incorporate environment conservation and protection requirements as integral parts of water resources management. • Encourage that Environment Impact Assessment and protection requirements serve as part of the major criteria in all water resources projects. Moreover, section 2.2.2-B which deals about watershed management states that: • Promote practices of efficient and appropriate watershed management to maximize water yields and quality. • Ensure that watershed management practices constitute an integral part of the overall water resources management. Thus the water policy can be understood as well aligned with the natural resource management activities including the present massive public mobilization schemes of the government targed to implement integrated watershed management development initiatives. 10.6.4. Proclamation for Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife Proclamation No 541/2007 recognized that the unplanned and inappropriate utilization of wildlife and the hitherto protection measures were found to be unsuccessful. The aim of the proclamation is to enhance the contribution of the sector to the national economy and the local community by putting sustainable wildlife resources management in place. It states that the management and utilization of wildlife resources should be in line with the international conventions and agreements the country made. It also recognizes the need to enact laws in conformity with the federal arrangement. Moreover, it provides adequate provisions to the engagement of the local people and the private sector. The Proclamation vests the power of wildlife administration in both the Federal and Regional Governments. National parks that are nationally and globally significant and known to have representative ecological zones and embrace great diversity of wildlife; national parks and wildlife sanctuaries that are inhabited by the country’s endemic and endangered species; any wildlife conservation areas geographically situated within two or more regions; any trans-boundary wildlife conservation areas that may be established in accordance with agreements with neighboring countries shall be designated and administered by the Federal Government. The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy of 1999 got a more detailed strategy, the Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy, in 2001. This strategic document provides for afforestation to enhance water infiltration into the soil and reforestation to ensure long life of hydro dams by minimizing siltation. In addition to these positive provisions for REDD+, the strategy also provides for draining of all wetlands in the country. (4.1.1 (8))Drainage of wetlands is not only destructive ecologically but also will negatively impact on REDD+ programs as their drainage would lead to further carbon emissions. 10.6.5. Law on Expropriation of Landholdings for Public Purposes and Payment of Compensation The Federal Rural Land Administration and Utilization Proclamation No. 456/2005 recognizes the land use rights of private persons, communities, governmental and nongovernmental organizations. These organs can be issued landholding certificates for definite or indefinite period of time. Expropriation of landholdings for public purposes and payment of compensation proclamation 455/2005 gives power to lower level administrative institutions such as Woredas to seize rural or urban holdings for public purposes. The law includes statements on how land can be leased to investors. The law issues compensation mechanisms not for the land as such, as the land belongs to the state, but for property situated on the land and for permanent improvements made to the land. The Compensation Proclamation is issued with the view to defining the basic principles that have to be taken into consideration in determining compensation to a person whose landholding is going to be expropriated. The Proclamation is applicable on both rural and urban lands. The general condition for which land and property can be expropriated is for public purpose defined as use of land by the appropriate body or development plan to ensure the interest of citizens to acquire direct or indirect benefits from the use of the land and to consolidate sustainable socio- economic development. According to the Compensation Proclamation, a landholder is an individual, government or private organization or any other organ that has legal personality and in lawful possession over the land to be expropriated and owns property situated thereon. (Article 2 (3)) Compensation is paid to those who have legally occupied the land and those who have property on such land developed through their labor and capital. Lawful occupants are expected to produce evidence for their legal landholding. The most important evidence for this could be the landholding certificate. However, all rural landholders may not produce landholding certificates as the issuance of such certificate has not yet covered all rural landholders in the country. In the regional states where landholding certificates have not been issued for all of the rural landholders, those who occupied land customarily or other legal means are eligible to compensation payments. A rural landholder whose landholding has been permanently expropriated (where substitute land is not available) shall be paid displacement compensation, in addition to compensation payable for property situated on the land and for permanent improvements made to such land, which shall be equivalent to ten times the average annual income s/he secured during the five years preceding expropriation of the land. On the basis of Proclamation No. 455/2005 Article 7 for expropriation of landholdings for public purposes, compensation will be made at replacement cost. With this method of valuation, depreciation of structures and assets will not be taken into consideration. Compensation rates and valuation of properties are based on a nationally set formula based on data collected from local market assessments. Valuation of property is done by certified institutions or individual consultants on basis of a valuation formula determined at the national level or, where such capacity does not exist, by a committee composed of five persons (in rural areas) designated by the Woreda or city administration. Procedures for valuation are to be determined by specific regulations or directives. To this end, the Council of Ministers issued a Regulation No. 135/2007 Payment of Compensation for Property Situated on Landholding Expropriated for Public purposes. Some regional states also issued further details through directives. Regarding procedures for expropriation, the law requires that the expropriation order has to be given prior to relocation. Such order shall not be less than 90 days before relocation; however, if there is no crop or perennial plant, farm land could be expropriated within 30 days of receipt of the expropriation order. The law regulates that compensation has to be paid before relocation. With respect to grievance redress, complaints are addressed by a grievance committee established by a Woreda or city administration. The second level of grievance is a Woreda or municipal appellate court and the decision of the court will be final. According to the law, execution of an expropriation order will not be delayed due to complaint regarding compensation payments. Both the proclamation and the regulation can serve as safeguard systems as determined by the Cancun Agreement. (Decision 1/CP.16, Appendix 1)The Cancun safeguard principles include, addressing transparency, participation of stakeholders, protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and respect for rights of underserved and local communities. The expropriation and compensation proclamation and regulation can be applied by implementing these safeguard principles, especially in the respect and protection of the rights of underserved and/or local communities during the implementation of REDD+. 10.6.6. Access to Genetic Resources and Community Knowledge, and Community Rights Proclamation No. 482 /2006 This proclamation deals with access to genetic resources (by communities), community knowledge and protection of these rights with the objectives to ensure the communities right to the benefits accrued from genetic resources and community knowledge. It provides communities with the right to regulate access to their community knowledge; an inalienable right to use their genetic resources from their surroundings. The proclamation addresses key issues such as access rights, obligations, and types of benefit and benefit sharing principles. The proclamation recognizes that ownership of community knowledge is vested in the concerned local community. The recognition of the right of knowledge of communities on genetic resources can also be applicable in the forest management. As at is been indicated in a number of studies, the full and effective engagement of local communities and the incorporation of their traditional forest knowledge in forest management strategies are crucial for REDD+ success in curbing climate change. It is widely accepted that local communities have developed significant bodies of knowledge on how to cope with local climatic shifts including agricultural techniques for managing and conserving forests, water, and soil resources. These practices can guide the REDD+ projects and programs. 10.6.7. Gender Mainstreaming Policies and Strategy Women constitute a significant segment of the general population of Ethiopia. However, because of the socio-political oppression and the dragging cultural practice imposed upon them for centuries, they were marginalized from participating and benefiting from the economic development of the country. Nevertheless, the government has been making steady affirmative actions and achieved remarkable results. There has been made steadily be gender mainstreaming recognized as a strategy for making concerns and experiences of women and men to be an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres. Cognizant of their roles in tackling gender inequalities, The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia entered into commitments to implement different international conventions and protocols on women’s rights. It has adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women /CEDAW (1979), Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women /DEVAW (1993), the International Conference on Population and Development / ICPD (1994), and the Beijing Platform for Action /BPA (1995). Moreover, broad and specific polices, legal frameworks, and strategies have been put in place along with defined objectives. The constitution of Ethiopia states several provisions in support of gender mainstreaming. Article 25 of the constitution states that all persons are equal before the law and discrimination on grounds of sex is prohibited. Similarly, Article 35(8) stipulates men’s and women’s equality in employment, promotion, pay, transfer, and pension entitlement. Furthermore, Article 35(3) of the constitution identified itself with women’s historical legacy of the past and clearly states the retroactive positional truth by way of prescribing an affirmative action as a remedy to the women’s discrimination. Article 42 (1) (d) of the constitution stipulates women workers right to equal pay for equal work. The National Policy of Women which is enacted in 1993 puts multi- sectoral development strategies that address the needs of women. The policy also shows the government’s commitment to abolish all discriminatory laws and regulations as well as creating enabling environment for the full participation of all members of the society in the socio- economic and political sectors, with special focus on the subordinated position of women. The Ethiopian government has also issued several proclamations that safeguard the rights of women. For instance, the labor law proclamation N0.377/2003 has clearly stipulated different provisions to safe guard women’s right upon the formation of employment contract. The section of the proclamation that deal with working conditions of women and young workers, article 87, prohibits discrimination of women on the basis of their sex on payment and employment. Article 88 grants maternity leave without deducing her wages. The entitlement for affirmative actions and maternity leave for civil servant women is covered by the civil servant proclamation N0.515/2007. The Developmental Social Welfare Policy was formulated by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs in November 1996. The Policy acknowledges that war, famine and the economic crises of the past decades have harmed vulnerable groups, i.e., women, the elderly, children, youth and the disabled. It also explains that women are underrepresented in every sphere, including education, employment, politics and other key decision-making positions. The Policy also highlights the significance of gender mainstreaming in all programmes, projects and services. Ethiopian Women’s Development and Change Package (EWDCP) 2006 is a strategy document designed to implement the ideals provided in the FDRE constitution. The package clearly states the commitment of the government to enhance women’s socioeconomic benefits and puts that the major forces to women’s problems are women themselves. The first GTP of Ethiopia has also provided adequate provisions to address women and youth issues to accelerate gender issues. With these several policy and legal provisions to gender mainstreaming it is legitimate to formulate a safeguard system that guarantee equal benefit sharing for the women and the youth from all interventions made in the forest sector. 10.6.8. Legal Framework for Underserved and Vulnerable Groups meeting OP4.10 requirements The GoE, under the constitution and in the various policies and strategies stemming from these constitutional rights, including the GTP, also recognizes a number of disadvantaged groups who face particular challenges in accessing their rights and entitlements as citizens, including basic services. (MoFED 2010, WaterAid, 2013). These include pastoralists and other designated disadvantaged nations and people living with disabilities or HIV/Aids. Disadvantaged Nations, Nationalities and Peoples, Pastoralists, and National Minorities: The Ethiopian Constitution18 recognises the presence and rights of many ethnic groups, as well as vulnerable groups, including Nations, Nationalities and Peoples, pastoralists, and national minorities. Article 39 recognizes the rights of groups identified as “Nations, Nationalities and Peoples” and defines them as “a group of people who have or share a large measure of common culture or similar customs, mutual intelligibility of language, belief in a common or related identities, a common psychological make-up, and who inhabit an identifiable, predominantly contiguous territory.” This represents some 75 out of the 80 groups who are members of the House of Federation, the second chamber of the Ethiopian legislature. The Constitution recognizes 18 http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=234349 the rights of these Nations, Nationalities and Peoples to: self-determination, including the right to secession; speak, write and develop their own languages; express, develop and promote their cultures; preserve their history; and, self-government, which includes the right to establish institutions of government in the territory that it inhabits and equitable representation in state and Federal governments. In addition, as a signatory of the African Charter of Human Rights, Ethiopia has committed to protecting the rights of all peoples to progress social, cultural and economic development of their choice in conformity with their identity (Articles 20 and 21)21. A significant proportion of these groups live in the emerging regions and locations which are particularly underserved by WaSH services (NWI, 2013; Social Assessment Report for WaSH, 2014). The Government of Ethiopia recognises another group called “national minorities”. Article 54 of the Constitution explains that: “Members of the House (of Peoples Representatives), on the basis of population and special representation of minority Nationalities and Peoples, shall not exceed 550; of these, minority Nationalities and Peoples shall have at least 20 seats.” These groups have less than 100,000 members and most live in the Developing Regional States and pastoralist areas. This is the case for the Opuo and the Komo in the Gambella region, and the Bacha and the Birale in SNNPR. The Ethiopian Constitution also recognises the rights of pastoralist groups (Articles 40 and 41). This includes the right to “free land for grazing and cultivation as well as the right not to be displaced from their own lands” and the right to “receive fair prices for their products, that would lead to improvement in their conditions of life and to enable them to obtain an equitable share of the national wealth commensurate with their contribution. This objective shall guide the State in the formulation of economic, social and development policies.” Additionally, Article 89 of the Constitution states that the “Government shall provide special assistance to Nations, Nationalities and Peoples least advantaged in economic and social development.” This includes people in the emerging Regions, as well as the social and spatial peripheries of two developed states (SNNPR and Oromia). The pastoralists comprise approximately 12-15 million people that belong to 29 groups of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples22. Pastoralist regions/areas recognized by the government are: Afar; Somali; Borena Zone and Fentele Wereda (Oromia); South Omo Zone, Bench-Maji Zone, and parts of Decha Wereda in Keffa Zone (SNNPR); and, Nuer Zone (Gambella). Whilst government policies have strengthened and resource allocations increased over the last decade23, pastoralist areas are still amongst the least served by WaSH services, as the discussion above on spatial disparities highlighted. The environmental challenges in securing water on a continuous basis are compounded by poor infrastructure and low institutional capacities. Particularly in Somali and Afar where water resources are considered the highest priority development activity, due to both the scarcity of water in the region and the importance of water to the livelihood of pastoralist communities (Nassef et al., n.d). Access to water is contentious: it can trigger or feed other conflicts such as disputes over land or grazing and can exacerbate tensions during periods of drought or water stress. (McGregor et al, 2012; Social Assessment Report for WaSH, 2014). 10.6.9. World Bank Safeguard Policies 21 http://www.humanrights.se/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/African-Charter-on-Human-and-Peoples-Rights.pdf 22 Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/about.html 23 PASDEP (2005 -2010), the previous five year poverty reduction plan to GTP promoted more targeted assistance to underserved areas – the emerging regions and pastoralist/agro-pastoralist areas (MOFED 2010). The World Bank safeguard policies are designed to help ensure that programs proposed for financing are environmentally and socially sustainable, and thus improve decision-making. The Bank’s Operational Policies (OP) are meant to ensure that the Bank does not finance projects that will have irreversible major adverse impacts or cause significant harm to the people and their environment. The Safeguard Policies are lumped into Environment, Social and legal. These operational policies include: Environmental Assessment OP/ BP 4.01. In World Bank operations, the purpose of Environmental Assessment is to improve decision making, to ensure that project options under consideration are sound and sustainable, and that potentially affected people have been properly consulted. Natural Habitats OP/BP 4.04. To promote environmentally sustainable development by supporting the protection, conservation, maintenance, and rehabilitation of natural habitats and their functions. Use a precautionary approach to natural resources management to ensure opportunities for environmentally sustainable development. Determine if project benefits substantially outweigh potential environmental costs. Op 4.36: Forest The objective is to realize the potential of forests to reduce poverty in a sustainable manner, integrate forests effectively into sustainable economic development, and protect the vital local and global environmental services and values of forests. Ensure that forest restoration projects maintain or enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functionality and that all plantation projects are environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable. OP 4.09: Pest Management Support integrated approaches to pest management. Identify pesticides that may be financed under the project and develop appropriate pest management plan to address risks. If pesticides have to be used in crop protection or in the fight against vector-borne disease, the Bank-funded project should include a Pest Management Plan (PMP), prepared by the borrower, either as a stand-alone document or as part of an Environmental Assessment. OP 4.10: Indigenous People; the Ethiopian government recognizes that all people in Ethiopia are indigenous and there are only underserved communities. The World Bank ensures that any project financed by it is not against the underserved peoples’ dignity, rights, economic benefit and cultural practices. The Bank further wants to ensure that there is free, prior and informed consultation with the underserved people before endorsing the project. There is a complex relation between local underserved people and natural resources, which they depend on for their livelihoods, spiritual and cultural practices and hence the Bank recognizes this relationship with due regards. OP 4.11: Physical Cultural Resources Investigate and inventories cultural resources potentially affected. Include mitigation measures when there are adverse impacts on physical cultural resources or avoid if possible. OP 4.12: Involuntary Resettlement Assist displaced persons in their effort to improve or at least restore their standards of living. Avoid resettlement where feasible or minimize. Displaced persons should share in project benefits. The policy aims to avoid involuntary resettlement to the extent feasible, or to minimize and mitigate its adverse social and economic impacts. The policy prescribes compensation and other resettlement measures to achieve its objectives and requires that borrowers prepare adequate resettlement planning instruments prior to Bank appraisal of proposed projects. 10.6.10. International Commitments Ethiopia declared its Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy (CRGE) to the international community in Durban in 2011. The CRGE strategy envisages promoting enclosures via rehabilitation of degraded pastureland and farmland, leading to enhanced soil fertility and thereby ensuring additional carbon sequestration. Moreover, the CRGE set afforestation and re- forestation targets of 3 million ha and sustainable management of 4 million ha of high forests and woodlands by 2030. Another recent international pledge that Ethiopia committed to the rest of the World is the New York Pledge. In the New York declaration of 2014, Ethiopia pledged to restore 15 million ha of land by 2030. Realizing these international commitments require robust governance mechanisms that address environmental and social safeguards and ensure equitable community benefit sharing. As it was also mentioned in other sections of this study Ethiopia is a signatory or member of several international commitments. 11. Institutional Review Under institutional review, pertinent institutions that are directly or indirectly working in the REDD+ process particularly and have major role in implementing the safeguard instrument were reviewed. The reviewed institutions were from government, non-government, and partner organizations. 11.2. Federal Institutions Review 11.2.2. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) In 2013, the former Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) and the forest sector, which was housed in a team at the Ministry of Agriculture joined together and MEF is established as a new Ministry. The Ministry is mandated to implement the Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy (CRGE) through coordination of environment and forest development programs and related issues. The first 5 years CRGE strategy which was prepared and deployed since 2011 by the Federal Government of Ethiopia has given a due emphasis to the reduction of greenhouse gases emission and promotion of non-carbon emitting technologies. To this effect, among others, protection of the existing natural forests and promotion and development of new forests through afforestation/ reforestation schemes and enhancing their economic and ecosystem services, including carbon stock are deploying through various means including reduce land-degradation and watershed management throughout the country. REDD+ is also selected as one of the tools designed to ensure the attainment of the desired goal (FDRE, 2011). The REDD+ process is undergoing since 2008 with the activities being executed by former Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). The Authority has hosted REDD+ process until July 2013 and the National REDD+ Secretariat Office was housed in the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). In July 2013, the National REDD+ Secretariat is transferred into the newly established Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MEF). Currently, MEF through its REDD+ Secretariat coordinates and facilitates the REDD+ process and programmes in the country by bringing all stakeholders on board. As a member country of the World Bank Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), and as an official observer of the UN-REDD Programme Policy Board Ethiopia has benefitted from the national REDD+ programme fund through the FCPF Readiness Fund and capacity building support and funding from the UN-REDD programme. The REDD+ Secretariat which is mandated to undertake the coordination and implementation of the National REDD+ activities already finalized and made approved R-PP (Readiness Preparation Proposal) and other related issues by FCPF. The REDD+ Secretariat is organized under the Forest sector of the two major technical wing of the Ministry. 11.2.3. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR) The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources is the main institution for managing the agriculture sector. The agriculture sector is the largest sector in Ethiopia as more than 80% of the population is agrarian. The Ministry was also responsible for the forestry sector until July 2013. Since 1991, the MoANR has been leading the government policy of Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) aimed at accelerating national development and reducing poverty and food insecurity in rural parts of the country. In 2011, the MoANR took over the responsibility for planning and implementing the national REDD+ program from the Environment and Protection Authority (EPA) and it was a sit for the REDD+ Secretariat. Ministry of Agriculture is one of the key institutions involved in implementing the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE), as agriculture and forestry are the two main sectors to be targeted by the CRGE for reducing current and future emissions levels, and also for sequestering carbon emissions. As per Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Proclamation No. 691/2010, the Ministry, among other things, formulates and facilitates the implementation of a strategy for natural resources protection and development through sustainable agricultural development; follows up and provides support in the establishment of a system involving rural land administration and use, and organize a national database; and ensures the proper execution of functions relating to agricultural research, conservation of biodiversity and the administration of agricultural investment lands entrusted to the federal government on the basis of powers of delegation obtained from regional states. At this time in point, the Ministry is undertaking the preparation of the national master land-use planning by establishing the national land use planning committee. The functions of the committee include: formulating and updating the national land policy; preparing the national land-use master plan; coordinating land-use planning activities between and among national and regional levels; and defining land-use needs and priorities. MoANR is considered as a key actor and important stakeholder for the implementation of the REDD+ process in Ethiopian context as its crosscutting functions, especially its roles on enhancing land productivity, land-use planning, land certification and natural resources management such as watershed management have a direct implication on the REDD+. 11.2.4. Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation (MoFEC) The Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation (MoFEC) is a pivotal institute mandated to govern the economic and financial sector of the country. It initiates policies that ensure sustainable and equitable economic development in cooperation with the concerned organs, manage the economy by monitoring the implementation of such policy and submit reports on the performance of the economy. The Ministry manages and coordinates the bilateral economic cooperation as well as the relationship with international and regional organizations setup to create economic cooperation; follows up the impact of the same on the performance of the country’s economy; mobilizes, negotiates and signs foreign development aid and loans, and follows up the implementation of the same. (Federal Negarit gazette. Proclamation No. 691/2010). It also administers national and international accounts, including bilateral aid funds. It is the authoring institution behind the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) 2010/11-2014/15 and it developed the Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy (CRGE) together with the Prime Minister’s Office and the Environmental Protection Authority since 2009-2011. It is also mandated to administer and oversee the CRGE Facility and is a member of the REDD+ Steering Committee. 11.2.5. Ethiopian Agricultural Investment Land Administration Agency (AILAA) This is a newly established agency, Ethiopian Agricultural Investment Land Administration Agency, by a regulation of the Council of Ministers (Regulation No. 283/2013). The main objective of the Agency is transferring land for large-scale commercial agriculture. The amount of land it is going to transfer is 5000 ha or more. But it can also transfer even less than 5000 ha if administering that land seems to be feasible. Fertility, topography, its access to road, etc. are some of the parameters for the feasibility. Other major objectives of the Agency include: • Administering agricultural investment lands entrusted to the federal government on the basis of power of delegation obtained from regional states. The delegation was made by the regional states through a contract signed by each regional state and the federal government as contracting parties. • Organize and administer agricultural economy zone24. The most significant challenge in the functions of this Agency regarding forest is – there is a big gap of forest demarcation. In principle, the Agency does not even ‘touch’ certain land if it is demarcated as forest land. But the concerned organ needs to demarcate forests. The problem in this country is most of the forests are outside the demarcated boundaries. Even in the so called demarcated forests, it is difficult to find the boundaries. From this, it can be realized that demarcation can save forests from being cleared for agricultural purposes. This can also mean that – if forests are left without demarcation, there is a risk that they can be included in the agricultural land bank. The problem here is “what to do with the logs when forests are cleared by investors?” There is no clear direction as what to do with the logs. The investors usually demand to convert it into forest products. This Agency does not allow any value adding process on the logs. Until there is a clear direction on the fate of the logs and other parts of the forest, now the choice is to use them as hedgerow to demarcate some boundaries. The laborers and other workers of the investment projects use the logs as firewood. It is observed and reported that investors also use the logs for various construction works. As there is no clear direction, the Agency does not stop them from doing so. The identification of the land to be transferred to large-scale agricultural investors is made by a group of experts from various sectors. The experts study the land suitability for agriculture. This includes the collection of socioeconomic and biophysical data. The sectors which contribute experts include: • Ethiopian Investment Agency • National Soil Laboratory • Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research • Investment commissions of regional states • Regional agricultural bureaus • Environmental protection and land administration and use bureaus of regions • MEFCC • MOANR • Woreda agricultural and other offices After the lands are identified by these experts, they are registered in the land bank. When investors come, they are informed about the availability of the lands with their respective locations. After 24 Agricultural economy zone is a land furnished with infrastructures necessary to create conducive atmosphere for investors. (Article 2 (6) of Regulation No. 283/2013) receiving the land, an investor is expected to produce the EIA study report within three months. The EIA study reports are reviewed by the Agency staff. For the questions as to their capacity to conduct the review, their response were in the affirmative i.e. they claim that they can effectively conduct the review. But for the questions of how many staff and the specialization of the same, they declined to give sufficient information. They generally responded that they have now a better capacity as compared to the bygone times as far as reviewing EIA is concerned. In the review process, they check the EIA document for considering issues like: • The farming activities should be 500 meters far from river banks; • How the slope areas are going to be managed (according to the land laws of the federal as well as the concerned regional state); • Camp sites for workers need to be far from the local people’s settlement areas; • The number of trees that should be left on the farms (but in a manner that does not disrupt the activities of machines); • Investors need to respect local culture; • Provide training for their workers on safety precautions; etc. Even if the investors are smart enough in including such criteria in their EIA study report, there is serious problem in actually implementing as they have stated in the EIA document. This is the biggest challenge as far as EIA is concerned. The Agency periodically sends its staff to the agricultural investment sites for monitoring and evaluation. However, the weak enforcement problem on the side of investors is not yet solved. The AILAA has significant roles in the REDD+ process as it is a major organ in administering vast tracts of land allocated for investment purpose. For effective implementation of REDD+, the forest lands and the lands allocated for agricultural investment need to be clearly distinguished. As indicated under Article 6 (1) of Regulation No.283/2013, AILAA has to exercise its powers in seriously identifying the lands which are going to be transferred to its jurisdiction are free from other activities, like the REDD+ activities. 11.2.6. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute The Biodiversity Conservation Institute is initially established to rescue the country’s p l a n t genetic resources from adverse impacts of various human activities and natural disasters and supporting crop improvement programs. Broadening its mandate and duties reestablished to implement Ethiopia’s obligation to the CBD. As part of the CRGE Strategy, REDD+ is a policy incentive aimed at promoting forest and biodiversity conservation and enhancing carbon stocks. Hence, the implementation of REDD+ in the country help the institute to realize its target of conserving the forest genetic resources and the institute with its expertise and experience can support in capacity building and other fields. 11.2.7. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) is one of the stakeholders for the implementation of the REDD+ process in Ethiopia. It is a governmental organization under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The Authority is given the mandate to work on conservation and sustainable utilization of wildlife in Ethiopia. Hence, EWCA works closely with national and international stakeholders on wildlife conservation. In its present form and organizational structure the Authority was established in accordance with Ethiopian Wildlife Development and Conservation Authority Establishment Proclamation No. 575/2008. 11.2.8. Environmental Protection and Forestry Research Institute The Environmental Protection and Forestry Research Institute is a government research institution, established by the Council of Ministers Regulation No. 327/2014, mainly focusing on scientific research concerning forestry science. The forestry wing of the institute has 35 Permanent Research Stations in the country. The forestry research wing of the institute is expected to be involved in research for the national REDD+ program and in the implementation of the REDD+ Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) Roadmap. The Forestry Research Centre is a member of the REDD+ technical committee and playing significant professional role in the REDD+ process supporting the secretariat office. 11.3. Regional and Zonal Government Institutions 11.3.2. Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) is a government enterprise which is established by Oromia Regional State Forest and Wildlife Enterprise Establishment Regulation No. 122/2009 to administer forest and wild life resources that exist in Oromia region which is the largest region in Ethiopia. The enterprise owns and manages 1,752,489.32ha of forest in 43 forest areas. It is expected that this figure will increase significantly as OFWE is currently conducting demarcation of more forests including woodlands. The forest types managed by the enterprise are both commercial/cultivated forests and natural forest. The enterprise works with communities and NGOs to make the forest resource conservation efforts more effective. The enterprise is playing significant role in implementing Participatory Forest Management (PFM) that harmonizes community and forest enhancing the livelihood of communities in different parts of the region. Thus, the enterprise works to ensure conservation, sustainable development and the use of forest and wildlife resources in its concession areas through community participation; to ensure supply of forest products to domestic and international markets by enhancing the forest industry; and subsequently contribute to regional and national socio-economic development endeavors. The enterprise is dedicated for REDD+ process implementation in the country and is becoming exemplary for other regions. The government of Ethiopia recognized “The Oromia Forested Landscape Project” as a Jurisdictional REDD+ pilot Program under auspices of its national REDD+ readiness process. OFWE has also been selected to host the Oromia REDD+ jurisdictional program, which is also known as Oromia Forested Landscape Project. To facilitate the implementation of the Oromia REDD+ program, a semi-autonomous unit, the Oromia REDD+ Coordination Unit is established which is accountable to the Office of the President of the Oromia Regional State. Even before the establishment of the Unit at the sub-national level, the first national REDD+ pilot project known as the Bale Mountains Eco-Region REDD+ project, was implemented by the Enterprise, in collaboration with Farm Africa and SOS Sahel with lots of success stories. 11.3.3. Regional Agriculture and natural Resources Bureaus Regional Agriculture bureaus and the respective zonal departments are important government organization that REDD+ secretariat and the regional REDD+ coordination unit acquire their collaboration for the success of REDD+ implementation at grassroots level. The agriculture bureau plays significant role in promotion and dissemination of agricultural inputs that enhance the livelihood of communities both encompassed in REDD+ scheme and out of REDD+ scheme. The bureau and the zonal department as well as experts at Woreda level can provide technical support and capacity building training and can facilitate coordination among role players. It also play significant role during environmental & social assessment large scale agricultural investment. 11.3.4. Regional Rural Land Administration Bureaus In most of regional structures the bureau is delegated to administer rural lands of the region and to undertake environmental protection issues in the region. Watershed management which is a priority agenda for the government of Ethiopia is implemented by these bureaus in collaboration with agriculture bureaus. Investment activities in regions require environmental and social impact assessments and the environmental impact assessment study reports need to be reviewed and endorsed by these bureaus and/or the respective zonal offices. These bureaus may be used to commence climate change mitigation and adaptation issues in the regions. Thus, the bureaus and respective offices at Woreda level play significant roles in the implementation of REDD+ process. Rural land administrations, including the issuance of landholding certificates are handled by the Woreda rural land administration and environmental protection offices in most regions of the country. During REDD+ implementation at grassroots level forests and other lands, community ownership certification is processed by the respective Woreda office. 11.3.5. Women, Children and Youth affair Bureau Women and children are the most vulnerable community groups especially in rural parts of Ethiopia. It has become clear that any development endeavor that doesn’t participated women is unsustainable. Regional women, children and youth affair bureau with its respective office at Woreda level is involved in assisting these community groups. The REDD+ process benefits the women and children through livelihood opportunities that will arise from the REDD+ implementation. Thus, office coordinates the participation of women that involve in the REDD+ implementation at different level (from regional to Kebele levels). 11.3.6. Cooperative Promotion Agency Cooperative Promotion Agency is a government structure in the regions. It is mandated to organize and certify cooperative societies within the respective regional states. In relation to REDD+, the agency and its respective Woreda offices assist in providing technical supports including awareness creation during cooperative societies’ establishment. The office prepares cooperatives’ guidelines, issues certificates and approves bylaws. Now, most of the forest user groups organized under PFM are organized on the form of cooperative societies. 11.3.7. Woreda/District Level Government Organizations Woreda administration is the top political government structure at district level. All the government offices are serving the people of the Woredas are under the political leadership of the Woreda administration. Woreda has given decision making power on local affairs closer to the people with a view to enhance democratic participation, capacity to make development plan and administer finances. Every Woreda (district) is further divided in to Kebeles/villages which is the lowest government structure at Woreda (district) level. The Kebele administration and development agent at Kebele level are the main government bodies to directly communicate with the community at grassroots level. Within the Woreda administration, the agriculture office’s natural resource management team is responsible in supporting natural resource management and development activities including forest resources. Within the same office, rural land administration team is responsible to administer and issue legal certificate including cooperative land use right certificate. Women, children and youth affair office is mandated to address gender issues. The office support women in the Woreda to participate and contribute in any development activities. With regard to the REDD+ process, the office play its role in addressing and coordinating women associations. The Woreda cooperative promotion office is an important government body in organizing cooperatives in the Woreda. The office provide trainings to cooperative members on issues related to organizing cooperatives, administration issues, privileges and diversifying income generating mechanisms and enhancing profit through value chain development. Furthermore, the office prepares cooperative guidelines, forest cooperative establishment, issue legal cooperative certificate and approve bylaws. 11.3.8. Local Level Indigenous Institutions (LLII) Local level indigenous institutions are important for the implementation of REDD+ milestones. Already existing local institutions if capacitated will support the wise use and management of the forest resources. Local traditional institutions such as Aba Gada, Sinqe-Ayoo (Oromia), Gepitato (Sheko people practice), Edir and Debo are known for their role in coordinating and resolving conflicts among community members. They are important in settling conflict. Harmonizing of local institutes with modern forestry management approach will make the REDD+ project successful. These local institutions will ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem moving the forest resource into a multiple-asset approach, which recognize the wide variety of values of the ecosystem and diversifies revenue streams and capitalizing ecosystem values. Thus, these institutions play significant role in realizing the REDD+ at grassroots levels. Similarly, religious institutions like churches and mosques can involve in forest protection through awareness creation in preaching. These institutions have better acceptance by the community in settling of conflict. There are also some indigenous institutions specifically working on forest management. WAJIB and WABUB in Oromia Regional State of Bale Zone (Dodola Woreda) and Jima Zone (Gera Woreda) respectively. 11.3.9. WAJIB WAJIB (Waldaa Jiraatota Bosonaa) is an acronym in Oromo language for forest dwellers association. WAJIB assist to make certain that local people can share the responsibilities and the benefits of forest conservation and can take decisions about forestry issues that affect their lives. The major purpose is to ensure that forest management makes a real contribution to make safe local livelihoods thereby securing also the future of the forest resources. WAJIB recognizes that the forest dwellers are no longer marginal, instead, accepts that they are partners with a right to have a say in the management of the local forests and who expect professional services and assistance from the foresters. The process leads to collaboration and a relationship of equals. Most importantly, it demonstrates that if people can get secure access to the forests that have long been “protected” by the state alone, there is a huge potential for forests to play a substantial role in contributing to food security and transforming people’s lives. 11.3.10. WaBuB WaBuB is an acronym for “Waldaa Bulchiinsa Bosonaa” in Oromoo language, meaning “Forest Management Association.” The name was originally given by a community which established the first WaBuB. WaBuB is also used as an area administrative unit which overlaps the administrative boundary of village or sub-village or a group of sub-villages. A WaBuB becomes effective once a Forest Management Agreement (FMA) is signed by the chairperson of the WaBuB Executive committee and the Jimma Forest Enterprise. The members of the WaBuB are thereby granted an exclusive right to use forest products within the demarcated forest area defined in the FMA. The first phase of the Belete-Gera Participatory Forest Management Project (PFMP) established two WaBuBs in “Chaffee” and “Afalo” sub-villages in the Belete and Gera RFPAs. The second phase of the Belete-Gera PFMP aims to expand WaBuBs to other sub-villages within the Belete- Gera Regional Forest Priority Area (RFPA). 11.4. Institutional Review of other REDD+ Stakeholders 11.4.2. Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity The Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity of Ethiopia is a Ministry that is engaged in the management of Water and Energy resources of Ethiopia. The Ministry undertakes development, planning and management of water and energy resources. It is mandated to set polices, strategies and programs, develop and implement water and energy sector laws and regulations, conduct study and research activities, provide technical support to regional water and energy bureaus and offices and make international agreements. With regard to the energy sector, among others the Ministry is mandated to undertake studies concerning the development and utilization of energy; and promote the growth and expansion of the country’s supply of electric energy and promote the development of alternative energy sources and technologies. Hence, the Ministry is one of the stakeholders in the implementation of the REDD+ process in Ethiopia. Besides electrifying parts of the country, the Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center, established by Proclamation No. 269/2002, plays significant role in reduction of the biomass used for energy purpose in the country through promotion of improved technologies. This goes with the major objective of the center, which is making conditions conducive for the development and promotion of rural energy resources and technologies. As one of the functions of the center is working on the efficient energy sources and technologies with due regard to the protection the environment. This function of the center makes its contribution to the REDD+ conspicuous. Rural energy efficiency is hoped to give additional impetus to the REDD+ system. 11.4.3. Ministry of Transport The Ethiopian Roads Authority is an authority under the Ministry of Transport that is responsible for roads construction in the country. It is established in 1967 and since then has constructed 46812 km of roads throughout the country (ERA 2009). This figure does not include roads that join townships constructed by other bodies in rural parts of the country. In the coming five years, the Road and Transport Authority has planned to construct additional roads. Though there is no clear evidence on the size of areas deforested so far to construct roads, it is believed that significant amount of the forests have been cleared. Due to lack of knowledge on significance and value of forests the road construction activities was focusing on development of the road only. However, very recently the authority has started undertaking environmental impact assessment before construction of roads and implementing projects which are climate resilient. In relation to REDD+, the Authority can plan together with MEF and the secretariat in order avoid unnecessary deforestation to appropriately implement the REDD+. The Road Authorities at regional level are responsible for constructing all weather road and road networks within Woredas. Hence their engagement is crucial for proper implementation of the REDD+ in the country. 11.4.4. The Ministry of Federal and Pastoralist Affairs One of the purposes for the establishment of the Ministry of Federal and Pastoralist Affairs is to provide assistance to the regional states particularly to those deserving special support. It also coordinates, integrates and follows up supports given by other federal organs to regional states deserving special support. The Ministry handles religious affairs in order to maintain sustainable peace and security by ensuring tolerance and understanding among different religions targeting the overall development of the country. It is playing a pivotal role in bringing equitable development in the emerging regions, to prevent and resolve conflicts, by strengthening the federal system, to uphold Federal – Regional relations in the country, and to maintain good relations, peace and tolerance among different religions and beliefs. During REDD+ implementation the ministry will have significant role in resolving potential conflicts between regions. Moreover, its coordination role can be a good source of lesson for coordinating REDD+ implementation. 11.4.5. Higher Educational Institutions Higher Educational Institutions are now involving in the REDD+ technical working group and they are members of the different task force. These institutions are helping the Secretariat in producing trained manpower who will be engaged in REDD+ implementation. Particularly the manpower will involve the wider implementation of the safeguard instrument of REDD and other safeguard tool. In addition to that the institutions will involve in REDD+ research. Moreover, two academic institutions Haramaya University and Hawassa University College of Forestry and Natural resource are working to integrate REDD+ in their under Graduate and Post Graduate course syllabus respectively. The integration of REDD+ in the course syllabus at higher learning institution will fill the capacity gap of implementing REDD+ at full scale. 11.4.6. HoAREC&N The Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Network (HoA-REC&N) is an autonomous institution under Addis Ababa University. It was established in 2006 and has grown into a network of 42 member organizations. The organization focuses on environmental concerns and on options for sustainable development within the Horn of Africa region. It works with over 40 local member organizations, CSOs, and research institutions to facilitate learning and knowledge exchange, in order to enhance environmental governance and management, contribute to sustainable development, and improve livelihoods within the region. It is recruited as a member of REDD+ technical committee and contributed to the development of the R-PP and other technical issues. It is engaged in building carbon credit project directly working on the ground with REDD+ projects. 11.4.7. FARM Africa FARM Africa is an international NGO that started working in Ethiopia since 1988. It is engaged in supporting agrarian communities. The UK based organization assists farmers, pastoralists and forest dwellers by providing material as well as training on how to sustainably manage their resources. The idea of participatory forest management (PFM) also was initiated and implemented in Ethiopia by FARM Africa and SOS Sahel. One focus area of Farm Africa adaptation and climate change impacts. Together with SOS Sahel, the organization has done great jobs directly related to PFM. The Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Program (BERSMP) and the Bale Mountains REDD+ Project and the ‘Strengthening Sustainable Livelihoods Forest Management Program (SSLFMP) are worth mentioning. Hence, the organization is actively participating in the implementation process of the national Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) initiative and the REDD+ program. It is a member of the REDD+ Steering Committee. 11.4.8. SOS Sahel SOS Sahel is an international NGO working with smallholder farmers and pastoralist people of rural communities and government. It is engaged in activities that enable poverty alleviations through Sustainable Natural Resources Management and Value Chain Development. The organization together with Farm Africa has taken the initiation of PFM and played significant role in protection of the forest resources of Ethiopia. To this effect, the organization together with Farm-Africa has implemented projects that enabled harmonization of forest dwellers with the biodiversity and ecology in Bale zone of the Oromia region by introducing sustainable utilization and management of natural resources. The organization works on climate change impacts adaptation and mitigation. SOS Sahel Ethiopia is a member of the REDD+ technical committee. 11.4.9. World Vision World Vision Ethiopia started working in Ethiopia since 1975 and contributed to the well-being of vulnerable children in partnership with the church, civil society and the government on area of education, food security, health, HIV, water, sanitation, and hygiene, and environment and climate change. With regard to supporting community livelihood and degraded habitat rehabilitation through carbon revenue schemes World Vision Ethiopia (WVE), in collaboration with World Vision Australia (WVA) has achieved valuable result with the Sodo and Humbo communities. World vision has supported environmental training and education programs, site rehabilitation, forest establishment, job creation for local community members and collaboration with the zonal government during project implementation. The rehabilitation of degraded habitat providing much needed adaptive and environmental resilience for communities exposed to flooding, drought and food security risk. World vision has facilitated the establishment of cooperatives and land ownership right The Ethiopian Government has endorsed that ownership of carbon rights, and therefore revenues derived from carbon offsets, are owned by the community. The organization is working to scale up benefiting communities in other parts of the country through carbon revenue generating mechanisms. Hence the experience of the organization can support the REDD+ process in Ethiopia. 11.4.10. Donor Institutions 11.4.10.1. The Government of Norway The Norwegian government is supporting global attempts to reduce climate change impacts that occur by ensuring deep cuts in global greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries. To this effect, at COP-13 in Bali, the Norwegian Government pledged to provide up to US$600 million annually towards REDD efforts in developing countries. To enable the deep cut of global greenhouse gas emission the government of Norway has become one of the main bilateral donors of the national REDD+ programme and related efforts. Till now Norway’s International Climate and Forest Initiative (NICFI) is financing the implementation of the R-PP (USD 5 million) and the development of the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) Roadmap (USD 2 million). It is also funded the Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme (BERSLMP) together with the Government of Ireland and the Government of the Netherlands, which will build the foundation for the Bale Eco-region REDD+ project). The government will also provide additional 50 million USD in multi annual support bases for the implementation of the Oromia REDD+ pilot. Hence, the Government of Norway is playing and continues to play significant role in implementation of the REDD+ processes in Ethiopia. 11.4.10.2. DFID-Ethiopia The Department for International Development (DFID) is a UK government sector established to help countries to come out of poverty through its international investment scheme in poor countries. The money allocated by UK government to spend on international development until March 2016. DFID helps to build strong and investable business environments in developing countries and improving access to finance for entrepreneur especially giving priority for girls and women in developing countries. DFID helps more to countries that are at higher risk of natural disasters to become more resilient. DFID has encouraged and continues to encourage development actors to work together and use internationally agreed principles for aid and development effectiveness. DIFD works to can e n d aid dependency for good and build a better, more prosperous world. DIFD works on building capacity of the Government of Ethiopia, the private sector and civil society to adapt to future climate change and benefit from opportunities for low carbon growth. Hence, started to support climate change adaptation attempts since 2011/2012 with the government and played great role in supporting REDD+ R-PP process. 11.5. REDD+ Management Arrangement 11.5.2. Federal REDD+ Management Arrangement The implementation of REDD+ program requires a coordinated effort. The Federal level REDD+ Management arrangement (as described in section 2.7) is established and it is fully operational. The Federal level management arrangement includes a steering committee, a technical working group and 3 REDD+ task forces (REDD+ SESA TF, RLMRV TF and REDD+ Strategy TF), each with defined ToR. The REDD+ management arrangement is gradually moving to embrace the regional state level REDD+ unit led by regional coordinators. Regional steering committee and regional technical working group have been functional in Oromia region, with representatives from the forest- dependent peoples and civil society organizations. In other regional States similar arrangements are being followed. REDD+ Coordination Units at region level are playing the role of the REDD+ Secretariat at Regional Level, and now the units are in place in three more (SNNPR, Tigray and Amhara) regional states. 11.5.3. The Federal Level REDD+ Steering Committee (RSC) The federal REDD+ Steering committee constitutes different relevant federal and regional high level decision makers. The State Minister for the Forest Sector chairs the National REDD+ Steering committee, a decision making body providing oversight for REDD+ Readiness. Members of the REDD+ Steering Committee are drawn from key REDD+ government institutions such as MEF, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy, Ministry of Children, Women and Youth, Deputy Director Generals of Regional Forest Enterprises, Representatives of Forest Cooperatives and Academic Institutions, and the Media. The major function of the Steering Committee is to give guidance and advice for the secretariat. The steering committee will meet biannually and approve the annual plan and evaluate the progress. 11.5.4. National REDD+ Technical Working Group The secretariat works with support by the Federal Level REDD+ Technical Working Group (RTWG). The primary mandate of the National REDD+ Technical Working Group is to advise the REDD+ implementation agencies and to help build capacity among the entities involved in REDD+ issues. The REDD Technical Working Group is composed of professionals engaged in the REDD+ field, working research and academic institutes, government, NGOs and other development organizations. These technical experts provide technical support in the implementation of the REDD+ process. The REDD Technical Working Group also important in coordinating other sectors to implement activities related to REDD+. These technical experts are responsible for the management of the REDD+ strategy development. The RTWG also plays a key role in ensuring efficient and close coordination between the activities related to REDD+ and the other sectors, especially related to the activities under the “Climate Resilient Green Economy” initiative. The RTWG draws members from government institutions, civil societies and donors. Three task forces focused on REDD+ Strategy, MRV system and Safeguards regularly meet and actively engage in providing technical support to REDD+ readiness. 11.6. REDD+ Task Force Three Federal level task forces were established by drawing from Federal Technical Working group. The task forces are Federal Strategy task force, Federal MRV task force and federal level SESA/ESMF and Consultation and Participation task force. This three task force are working closely for successful accomplishments of the three REDD readiness millstones. 11.6.2. The SESA and Consultation and Participation Task Force (SESACP) The establishment of a SESACP Task force is aimed at ensuring that the SESA and C&P process gets a clear oversight. In addition, the Task Force will also monitor the implementation of various ongoing REDD+ readiness activities and REDD+ pilot projects, aiming at establishing good governance. 11.6.3. The MRV Task Force Ethiopia’s vision on MRV is to develop a multi-scale and multifunction forest monitoring system that takes full advantage of the existing national forest inventory along with regional or local inventories to monitor carbon stocks with low uncertainty. The MRV team propose and put in place a system and road map for monitoring changes in forest cover or forest degradation. The MRV team will assign the number of sample in each forests to determine the carbon stock and the resources as well. The team will be expected to play key role in the effective implementation of the MRV road map and Reporting and Verification aspects of the MRV system. 11.6.4. National REDD+ Secretariat The REDD+ Secretariat is mandated to facilitate the REDD+ activities in order to execute the REDD+ processes in the country. The REDD+ Secretariat was situated at the Federal Environmental Protection Authority (FEPA) during the R-PP development phase (2009-2011). It was moved to the Natural Resources Management Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) in accordance with the agreement between the Government of Ethiopia and Development Partners at the November 2011 mission for the R-PP assessment The State Minister of Natural Resource Sector to oversee the development of REDD+ Readiness Process and since July 2013 housed at the new Ministry of Environment and Forestry. 11.6.5. Focal Persons Focal persons have been nominated by the regions to facilitate the REDD+ activities in their respective regions where REDD coordination unit is absent. Focal persons were hired to coordinate the REDD+ readiness processes. These focal persons are working as liaising the region with the secretariat and also working by facilitating the REDD+ capacity building activities. 11.6.6. Regional REDD+ Management Arrangement In order to implement the REDD+ readiness program at regional level in addition to focal persons, regional REDD+ coordination units was established in Oromia region. The Coordination Unit is now fully staffed and operational with responsibilities of coordinating the design and implementation of the Oromia Forest Landscape Program and of supporting the regional capacity building activities. Besides, three other REDD+ Coordination Units are being established in Amhara, Tigray and South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples regional states for planning and implementation of regional REDD+ pilots and regional capacity building activities. 11.6.7. Coordination among Ministries The Ministry of Environment and Forest is assigned to manipulate the REDD+ process which is considered as valuable tool for a resilient economic growth of the country. On the other hand the Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation (MoFEC) is an institution that is deployed to facilitate the CRGE. The Ministry manages the finances for Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) initiatives, which will involve channeling funds towards REDD+ and manages the selling of expected project generated carbon credits. Thus, the two ministries need to have strong coordination for the successful accomplishment of the REDD+ process. The agriculture sector, which is the major deriver of deforestation in Ethiopia, is a prominent actor in the national REDD+ activities implementation. Forest dependent communities need to be properly addressed and supported by the major sectors particularly agriculture, energy and forestry. Nonetheless, apart from the inter-ministerial CRGE steering committee that looks into the cross- sectoral mitigation efforts and evaluates the progress, there seem to be limited forum for bringing important actors on board for coordinated effort. A strong coordination among MoANR, MEFCC, Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity is crucial for the realization of REDD+ in the country. Planning and implementation of REDD+ strategies need bringing governmental, nongovernmental, community based organization, religious and traditional institutions together. For smooth implementation of REDD+ activities, there should be a fertile ground for establishment of institutional partnership among the responsible ministries with MEFCC. There should also be a strong coordination with stakeholders at the federal, regional and local levels including intergovernmental coordination among different regions or zones as well. SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia 11.7. A Template for Organizational structure of REDD+ pilot projects22 MEFCC Federal REDD+ State minister of Environment Sector State minister of forest sector Steering Committee Federal REDD Federal REDD+ Technical Secretariat Group FRS Technical FRS Administrative Team Team Higher Regional Bureau for REDD+ Regional REDD+ Coordination Unit Regional REDD+ Steering RRCU-Technical RRCU- Administrative Team Team Regional REDD+ Woreda Cabinet Technical Working Group Woreda REDD Woreda REDD+ implementing Technical Unit Working Group Kebele executive committee Kebele DASs Community User Groups 22 Institutional arrangements may change under GTP-II and will this template. SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia 12. Analyses of the Potential Impacts, Risks and the Mitigation 12.2. Measures for the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options The potential positive impacts and risks of the strategic options presented in the following sub- sections are extracted from the views of the key experts, consultation carried out at different levels (from national to Kebele), focus group discussion, household interview and keen observations of the key staffs during the field assessment. The issues are identified, assorted into relevant strategic options and then analyzed. 12.3. Review of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options to Address the Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation 12.3.2. Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation (D-DD) Forests are vulnerable to decrease in spatial coverage, selective felling, and replacement by alien species and decrease in biodiversity due to several interplaying factors or drivers, thus contributing to release of CO2 into the atmosphere. These activities or drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are classified as either direct (proximate) or indirect as described in section 2.4. After extensive review of the available literature, the most common direct and indirect drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia are synthesized and discussed in this SESA to effectively address them in the strategic options scenarios. Proper analysis and understanding of the drivers is crucial for designing interventions specifically to target the drivers, thereby increasing the likelihood of reducing emissions through REDD+. 12.3.2.1. Direct Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation As discussed in section 2.4 earlier, direct drivers are human activities that directly alter or impact on forest cover leading to forest decline and loss of carbon. Unlike the indirect drivers, the direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation can be quantified by spatial analysis. For strategic interventions, the prevalent direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation affecting the different forest ecosystems in the country are described in Table 16 below and each of them is discussed subsequently. Table 16: Description of the anthropogenic and natural direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia. SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Factors Types of Drivers Impacts Affected forest ecosystems Anthropogenic Small-scale agriculture Deforestation High forests and woodlands Large-scale agriculture Deforestation Woodlands and high forests Fuel wood extraction Degradation Woodlands and high forests Charcoal production Degradation Woodlands Logging (legal and illegal) Degradation High forests and Construction wood extraction Forest coffee planting Degradation High forests Livestock grazing Degradation High forest, woodlands Mining (small and large Deforestation Woodlands scale) Degradation High forests Roads and infrastructure Deforestation High forests Degradation Woodlands Invasive alien species Degradation High forests and woodlands Fires Degradation Woodlands, high forests, bush lands Natural Wild Fire Degradation Woodlands, high forests, bush lands Climate change/Drought Degradation Woodlands Pests and diseases Degradation High forests, plantations Floods Degradation Woodlands Table 23-Description of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation Drivers Description Small-scale agriculture: Small-scale agriculture is vital for livelihoods in Ethiopia and it accounts for significant proportion of the rural employment and food production. Deforestation is driven by permanent and shifting cultivation by smallholder farmers in high forest and woodland area of the country. Large-scale permanent Large-scale permanent agriculture is promoted and expanded as part of the agriculture: agricultural growth program of the country to increase food production and export earnings. Foreign direct investment and local investors are main players in large-scale permanent agriculture. Although land for such investments are studied and identified, the actions in some areas aggravate deforestation in the high forests and woodland resources. Fuel wood extraction and Ethiopia is highly dependent on biomass energy that includes fuel wood, charcoal production: charcoal, agricultural residues, animal dung that account more than 90% of the total domestic energy demand. Although electricity production dramatically increased, significant proportions of urban households use charcoal for cooking. The high biomass energy consumption, along with inefficient utilization, has aggravated deforestation, biodiversity loss and land degradation. SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Logging (legal and illegal) State forest enterprises carry out logging in some natural forests in the for timber and lumber country. Private small and large wood-based industries carry out timber production: extraction. Squatters and trace-passers also carry out illegal logging in high forests. Such practices are not guided and regulated because of weak law enforcement, and thus result in forest ecosystem degradation in the country. Forest coffee plantations: Forest plantations take place in large and small scale both legally and illegally in the high forest areas. This is done at commercial and subsistence level. Coffee trees are planted after removing the forest undergrowth in the lower strata (only leaving the high canopy shades) and cause significant loss of biodiversity and disrupt the ecosystem functions, services and reduce the forest productivity. Livestock grazing: Increasing number of livestock population and continued shrinking of grazing lands promoted increased use of forestlands (high forest and woodlands) as grazing areas. Access to forests is not regulated and they are open for free grazing. This is hampering the regeneration potential, the biodiversity of the forest and exposing the surface for soil degradation. Mining (small and large The country has huge deposits of mineral resources. In most cases, these scale) deposits are buried under dense vegetation of high forests and woodlands. For instance, Gold mining, coal mining, other industrial minerals (potash, tantalum, etc.) mining are currently important drivers of deforestation in the high forest and woodland forest ecosystems. Infrastructure: The country has embarked on ambitious growth program and the road network expansion, rail network expansion, power infrastructure and industrialization are some of the important planned drivers of deforestation in high forest and woodland ecosystems. Although EIA is being done for such mega-scale projects, conversion of forestland often is unavoidable (e.g., in the case of hydro-dams). Fire (wild and human Deliberate fire is used as a management tool in rangeland ecosystems. Wild caused): and deliberate fires commonly rage in woodlands and high forest areas. In all cases, fire causes degradation by affecting the diversity and composition of species, structure and primary productivity of the forests. Droughts: Droughts are common phenomena in the lowland woodland areas. Droughts affect vegetation diversity, composition and structure. Extreme dry climate causes fires, exposes the soil for erosion and culminates in ecosystem degradation. Pests and diseases: The experience in Ethiopia shows there have been very few incidences of forests being massively affected by pests and diseases. However, there are historical evidences that disease attacks happened in isolated cases in high forest areas and in plantation forests (e.g., in Cupressus and Eucalyptus stands). 12.3.2.2. Underlying causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation The underlying or indirect causes of deforestation and forest degradation are complex interactions of fundamental social, economic, political, cultural and technological processes that SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia influence the direct drivers and the human activities- often distant from their area of impact. The indirect drivers can operate at local, national or global levels and are often difficult to assess and quantify. Drawn from the review work in section 2.4 and from consultations with stakeholders, the underlying causes are categorized under the root factors as shown in Table 18. Each of the underlying cause is discussed below. Table 24: Table 18: Description of the root factors and underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopian Root Factors Underlying causes Scale of operation Economic Commodity markets International Investment National Urbanization National/Local Unemployment National/Local Social Poverty Local Livelihoods Local Conflicts National/ Local Gender National/Local Awareness/education National/Local Political Equity National Resource allocation National Demographic Population National Migration National/Local Resettlement National Cultural Attitudes Local Values and beliefs Local Governance and Institutional Policy (land and forest) National Institutional structure National/Local Law enforcement National/Local Benefit sharing National/Local Tenure and use rights National/Local Corruption National/Local Sectoral synergy National Capacity National/Local SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Table 25-Description of underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation Underlying causes Description in the Ethiopian context Economic causes Commodity market Commodity prices for major cash crops such as coffee, khat and oil seeds affect local production systems often leading to policy adjustments at the national level and triggering land use changes at the local level, encouraging deforestation and forest degradation Investment Favorable policies for agricultural and industrial investments are attracting foreign direct investments and boosting domestic investments increasing the demand for large tracts of land. This triggers clearing of forests in high forest and woodland areas Urbanization Economic development in urban centers and industrial expansion in the peripheral areas of urban centers push urban limits to forest landscapes and initiate deforestation Unemployment Extreme fragmentation of land in rural areas is causing increasing rate of unemployment. The rural unemployed youth in forest resource areas will either migrate to urban centers or resort to forest resource extraction for living or conduct deforestation to claim land. Social causes Poverty Because of the weak state of law enforcement, access to the forest resources is open and the rural poor rely on selling of forest products for living. The poor are the landless, the unemployed, the underserved and the resource poor community members. Livelihoods Charcoal, fuel wood, timber and non-timber forest products are main sources of livelihoods for certain community groups in the forest areas. Forest dwellers and those who live at the forest margins heavily depend on the forest resources continue to exploit the resources, resulting in degradation and deforestation. Conflicts Conflicts (internal and external) cause displacement of people and results in deforestation and forest degradation. This is very common in the border areas with countries that have internal conflicts. Gender Gender disparity and resource entitlements (land, capital, and material) inequality result in increased deforestation. Women in rural Ethiopia are disadvantaged and resources ownership is entirely in the male domain. Thus, women tend to rely on free access resources such as forests for their income. Awareness/education There is awareness gap in the understanding of the inter-generational benefits of forest resources, and their role in sustaining food production in agricultural landscapes. This is largely due to the lack of education. Political causes Equity Faire distribution of national resources is often lacking (either due to misguided policies, or for lack of impartiality or for lack of the proper political instruments), and thus significant segments of the population will be left out and remain poor. Resource allocation Resources are allocated for sectors that are deemed essential to drive the economic development. The forestry sector is sidelined since long in allocating the necessary resources and thus, the development of forestry and the potential contribution to the national GDP is undermined. Demographic SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Underlying causes Description in the Ethiopian context Population growth The Ethiopian population is growing at a faster rate, which is more than 2.9 % per annum. This exerts pressure on the forest resource to claim more land to produce the required food. In the rural areas, population growth is driving deforestation (especially in the vast forest resource areas) Migration Both internal and external factors are contributing to migration of people to the forest regions. In the border areas, the woodlands are suffering extreme deforestation from migrants of neighboring countries. The south and southwest forests are under pressure from internal influx of people. Resettlement Resettlement is still a national policy option to address food insecurity and environmental degradation. Areas where resettlements took place, deforestation is rampant due absence of proper guideline on land and forest resource use. Cultural Attitude In some areas, people have negative attitude towards trees and forests as being source of pests and harboring harmful animals (that attack crops). Thus, clearing the forest is seen as preventing those pests and harmful animals. Governance and institutions Policy (land and At the national level, the land use policy and forest policy are not fully forest) implemented. Lands that are not suitable for cultivation are still being used for crop production. There is no national land use plan, which is critical for defining and allocating land according to its capability and suitability. This has hampered forest development. The forest policy lacks implementation guidelines. The proclamations decree private forest ownership but in practice, the private sector is not involved in the forest development. Investment policy encourages forestry development but due the risk and longer rate of return, investment in forestry is Institutional structure The forest sector governance has gone through frequent structuring and restructuring causing poor institutional memory. Though the new ministry is formed, its structure is limited at the top level. Forestry in the regional structures is treated differently. In some cases, the representation is at expert level while some have formed enterprises to harness conservation and utilization. Such structural adjustments have also created mandate overlaps and gaps, leaving the resources exposed to further destruction. Law enforcement Due to lack of implementation guidelines, absence of experience in handling criminal offenses in the sector, and sometimes due to corruption, forest law enforcement is weak. Trace-passers/offenders are not penalized as per the law. This causes precedence for increased deforestation. Benefit sharing Local communities are natural guardians of forest resources since they have multiple attachments to the resources. Whatever forms of forest conservation or management projects are planned, it should consider possible forms of benefit sharing mechanism for local communities. There are good experiences from PFM and JFM initiatives but still there are no SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Underlying causes Description in the Ethiopian context proven models for benefit sharing. Lack of such mechanism is contributing to deforestation and degradation. Tenure and Use rights Forest and forestland ownership is defined as state and private in the federal forest proclamation. Community ownership is considered as private ownership. Some regions recognize community or collective ownership separately as a third type of ownership. However, use rights are not properly defined and “owners” or users are not able to protect their user rights. There are no mechanisms to prevent non-owners. The notion that forests being “open access resources” still reigns. Clear definition of use rights with implementation/right protection instruments is necessary, especially for forest-dependent community groups so as to protect the forests. Corruption Corruption in the sector is contributing to deforestation and forest degradation by issuing forestland for coffee plantations and agricultural investments. Illegal logging and free movement of timber products from illegal sources is carried out through corruption. Sectoral synergy Cross-sectoral synergy in policy, joint planning and implementation is rare. Lack of coordination among the relevant institutions (investment, agriculture, environment, energy, forestry) is contributing to increased deforestation. Capacity Financial capacity is limited both for increased development and improving protection and conservation. There is annually meagre allocation of resources for seedling planting at small scale. However, the sector needs large-scale intervention both in plantation and protection of the same. At the local level, human and material resources are needed in the required quantity. 12.4. Proposed Strategic options to address the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation and Legal 12.4.2. Institutional framework The draft national REDD+ Strategy identified comprehensive range of strategic options for this SESA, which could be broadly grouped into three major categories, namely policy and institutional measures, targeted sector-based measures and crosscutting issues. These strategic options are inclusive of the different options identified in the national strategic documents such as the CRGE and the R-PP document as well as the regional pilots. However, while the options identified in the R-PP were proposed within the existing legal, policy and institutional frameworks, the proposed national strategy options in the draft REDD+ strategy require changes and adjustments in the current legal and regulatory frameworks. In this SESA, the proposed strategic options and the identified activities under each strategic option in the Table 20 below are applied to scrutinize how each of the direct and indirect drivers are addressed in those strategies and what social and environmental risks and impacts will emanate from the implantation of these strategic options. Table 26-The proposed strategic options and the identified activities under each strategic option Strategic options and main levers in the draft national REDD+ strategy Strategic Option Main levers of the Strategic Options Activities of the strategic options categories (SO) Policy and • SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Revisit existing policies and strategies of key sectors (agriculture, institutional synergies and stakeholder investment, energy and other relevant sectors) measures participation • SO1b: Put in place inter-regional coordination institutional arrangements • SO1c: Put in place joint planning among core sectors (agriculture, energy and forestry • SO2: Ensuring effective forest • SO2a: Protecting natural forest governance and law enforcement • SO2b: Adequate financing of forestry institution • SO2c: Strengthening of regional and local level governance structures • SO2d: Develop skilled manpower • SO2e: Capacity building of legal practitioners at all levels Strategic options and main levers in the draft national REDD+ strategy Strategic Option Main levers of the Strategic Options Activities of the strategic options categories (SO) • SO3: Ensuring clear forest tenure • SO3a: Establish stable and equitable forest property right structures and property rights • SO3b: Make legal and institutional reforms that warranty the forest ownership and use rights • SO3c: Formulation of fair carbon rights for stakeholders • SO4: Promoting Land Use Planning • SO4a: Develop national level land use planning framework guideline • SO4b: Formulate broader regional land use plan Targeted sector SO5: Ensuring Sustainable Forest • SO5a: PFM and traditional/ customary forest management practices based measures Management (in high forest as well as • SO5b: Optimizing outputs without compromising the biodiversity of the (Focusing on forest, woodlands) forest in coffee growing areas agriculture and • SO5c: Prevent forest fire with the participation of relevant stakeholders and energy sectors) communities • Enhancement of Forest Carbon • SO6a: Agroforestry Stock (SO6) • SO6b: Area closure on degraded lands • SO6c: Afforestation/reforestation • SO6d: Integrate physical and biological conservation measures with afforestation and reforestation • SO6e: Integrated carbon enhancement activities in existing watershed areas • SO7: Agricultural intensification • SO7a: Agricultural intensification • SO7b: Adopt climate smart agriculture • SO7c: Assist natural regeneration (ANR) of degraded areas • SO7d: Implement irrigation • SO8: Reducing Demand for fuel • SO8a: Dissemination and usage of fuel efficient stoves in urban centers and wood and charcoal through forest areas/villages increased efficiency and providing • SO8b: Use of feasible alternative energy sources (LPG, biogas, biofuel) in off- alternatives grid areas Strategic options and main levers in the draft national REDD+ strategy Strategic Option Main levers of the Strategic Options Activities of the strategic options categories (SO) • SO8c: Adopt energy saving techniques for public institutions (prisons, army barracks, universities, hospitals) • SO9: Increasing supply of wood • SO9a: Commercial tree planting and charcoal through increased • SO9b: Encourage on-farm tree planting afforestation and reforestation • SO9c: Produce charcoal from both sustainably managed natural forests and plantations • SO9d: Promote modern charcoal production technologies • SO9e: Promote charcoal as an export commodity • SO10: Improving Livestock • SO10a: Increase animal value-chain efficiency Management • SO10b: Improve cattle productivity (i.e., output per head of cattle via higher production per animal and an increased off-take rate) • SO10c: Improve the health of livestock • SO10d: Substitute meat protein consumption with protein from poultry to significantly reduce emissions from domestic animals • SO10e: Replace about 50% of animal draft power by mechanical equipment for ploughing/tillage • SO11: Promoting supplementary • SO11a: Forest related income generation (NTFP harvesting, PES mechanisms, income generation options etc.) • SO11b: Promote forest-based enterprises based on wood products • SO11c: Promote other income generation (e.g. mushroom, poultry, silk production, etc.) other than forest • SO11d: Increase the product value chains of forest Strategic options and main levers in the draft national REDD+ strategy Strategic Option Main levers of the Strategic Options Activities of the strategic options categories (SO) Cross-cutting Issues • SO12: Capacity Building • SO12a: Provide material support to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12b: Provide technical trainings to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12c: Provide local and international experience sharing to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO13: Inter-sectoral coordination • SO13a: Create and ensure strong coordination among relevant stakeholders on planning and implementation • SO14: Demand-driven research and • SO14a: Evaluate models for private public partnership extension linkage • SO14b: Valuation of forests and their contribution to national GDP • SO14c: Build in-country research capacity • SO14d: Ensure linkage between research and extension • SO15: Ensure full participation and • SO15a: Main stream gender in REDD+ process to benefit equitable benefit sharing for • SO15b: Develop women-specific knowledge on natural resource women management • SO16: Benefit Sharing • SO16a: Equitable distribution of the costs and benefits • SO16b: Solicit stakeholders to participate in REDD+ actions • SO16c: Share benefit to eligible ones accrued from REDD+ action • SO16d: Assists bylaw development of CBOs for benefit share among individual members 12.4.3. Strategic Options to address the direct drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation The analyses Table 21 below shows that the direct drives are addressed under the different strategic options and relevant activity measures are identified. Table 27-Analysis of the strategic options vis-à-vis the direct drivers of deforestation and forest degradation Direct Drivers Strategic options Relevant activities under the strategic options Small scale agriculture SO7: Agricultural intensification • SO7a: Agricultural intensification • SO7b: Adopt climate smart agriculture • SO7d: Implement irrigation Large scale permanent SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Revisit existing policies and strategies of key sectors agriculture synergies and stakeholder (agriculture, investment, energy and other relevant sectors) participation • SO1b: Put in place inter-regional coordination institutional arrangements • SO1c: Put in place joint planning among core sectors (agriculture, investment energy and forestry) SO4: Promoting Land Use Planning • SO4a: Develop national level land use planning framework guideline • SO4b: Formulate broader regional land use plan SO13: Inter-sectoral coordination on • SO13a: Create and ensure strong coordination among planning and implementation relevant stakeholders Fuel wood extraction and SO8: Reducing Demand for fuel wood • SO8a: Dissemination and usage of fuel efficient stoves in charcoal production and charcoal through increased urban centers and forest areas/villages efficiency and providing alternatives • SO8b: Use of feasible alternative energy sources (LPG, biogas, biofuel) in off-grid areas • SO8c: Adopt energy saving techniques for public institutions (prisons, army barracks, universities, hospitals) SO9: Increasing supply of wood and • SO9a: Commercial tree planting charcoal through increased • SO9b: Encourage on-farm tree planting afforestation and reforestation Direct Drivers Strategic options Relevant activities under the strategic options • SO9c: Produce charcoal from both sustainably managed natural forests and plantations • SO9d: Promote modern charcoal production technologies • SO9e: Promote charcoal as an export commodity SO15: Ensure full participation and • SO15a: Main stream gender in REDD+ process to benefit equitable benefit sharing for women • SO15b: Develop women-specific knowledge on natural resource management Logging (illegal and legal) for SO2: Ensuring effective forest • SO2a: Protecting natural forest timber and lumber governance and law enforcement • SO2b: Adequate financing of forestry institution production • SO2c: Strengthening of regional and local level governance structures • SO2d: Develop skilled manpower • SO2e: Capacity building of legal practitioners at all levels SO11: Promoting supplementary • SO11a: Forest related income generation (NTFP harvesting, income generation options PES mechanisms, etc.) • SO11c: Promote other income generation (e.g. mushroom, poultry, silk production, etc.) other than forest • SO11d: Increase the forest product value chains Forest coffee plantations SO5: Ensuring Sustainable Forest • SO5a: PFM and traditional/ customary forest management Management (in high forest as well as practices woodlands) • SO5b: Optimizing outputs without compromising the biodiversity of the forest in coffee growing areas Livestock grazing SO10: Improving Livestock • SO10a: Increase animal value-chain efficiency Management • SO10b: Improve cattle productivity (i.e., output per head of cattle via higher production per animal and an increased off- take rate) • SO10c: Improve the health of livestock • SO10d: Substitute meat protein consumption with protein from poultry to significantly reduce emissions from domestic animals Direct Drivers Strategic options Relevant activities under the strategic options • SO10e: Replace about 50% of animal draft power by mechanical equipment for ploughing/tillage Mining SO13: Inter-sectoral coordination on SO13: Create and ensure strong coordination among relevant planning and implementation stakeholders SO6: Enhancement of Forest Carbon • SO6b: Area closure Stock • SO6c: Afforestation/reforestation • SO6d: Integrate physical and biological conservation measures with afforestation and reforestation Infrastructure SO13: Inter-sectoral coordination on • SO13a: Create and ensure strong coordination among planning and implementation relevant stakeholders Fire (wild and human SO5: Ensuring Sustainable Forest • SO5c: Prevent forest fire with the participation of relevant caused) Management (in high forest as well as stakeholders and communities woodlands) Droughts (climate change) SO6: Enhancement of Forest Carbon • SO6b: Area closure on degraded lands Stock • SO6c: Afforestation/reforestation • SO6e: Integrated carbon enhancement activities in existing watershed areas Pests and diseases SO12: Capacity Building • SO12a: Provide material support to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12b: Provide technical trainings to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO2b: Adequate financing of forestry institution 12.4.4. Strategic Options to address Underlying causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation The analysis in Table 22 below shows that although most of the underlying causes are addressed under the different strategic options, there are gaps in the strategic options in addressing some of the root factors and the underlying causes. The alternative options and relevant activity measures are identified and included in the analysis. Table 28-Analysis of the strategic options vis-à-vis the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation Underlying causes Strategic options Relevant activities under the strategic options Economic Commodity market SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Revisit existing policies and strategies of key sectors synergies and stakeholder (agriculture, investment, energy and other relevant sectors) participation Investment SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Revisit existing policies and strategies of key sectors synergies and stakeholder (agriculture, investment, energy and other relevant sectors) participation • SO1b: Put in place inter-regional coordination institutional arrangements • SO1c: Put in place joint planning among core sectors (agriculture, investment, energy and forestry) Urbanization SO4: Promoting Land Use Planning • SO4a: Develop national level land use planning framework guideline • SO4b: Formulate broader regional land use plan Unemployment SO11: Promoting supplementary • SO11a: Forest related income generation (NTFP harvesting, income generation options PES mechanisms, etc.) • SO11c: Promote other income generation (e.g. mushroom, poultry, silk production, etc.) other than forest • SO11d: Increase the forest product value chains Social Poverty SO11: Promoting supplementary • SO11a: Forest related income generation (NTFP harvesting, income generation options PES mechanisms, etc.) • SO11c: Promote other income generation (e.g. mushroom, poultry, silk production, etc.) other than forest • SO11d: Increase the forest product value chains SO16: Benefit Sharing • SO16a: Equitable distribution of the costs and benefits • SO16b: Solicit stakeholders to participate in REDD+ actions • SO16c: Share benefit to eligible ones accrued from REDD+ action • SO16d: Assists bylaw development of CBOs for benefit share among individual members Livelihoods Diversifying livelihoods with non- • Providing high value crops, improved breeds and skill forest based options development trainings to the youth and forest dependent communities in forest areas Conflicts Implementing forest resource • Strict regulation and control of resource utilization in internally utilization and management displaced people (IDP) and refugee areas guidelines in refugee and IDP areas Gender SO15: Ensure full participation and • SO15a: Main stream gender in REDD+ process to benefit equitable benefit sharing for women • SO15b: Develop women-specific knowledge on natural resource management Awareness/education SO12: Capacity Building • SO12a: Provide material support to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12b: Provide technical trainings to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12c: Provide local and international experience sharing to those engaged in REDD+ process Political Equity Ensuring fair distribution of • Improve access to social services (education, health, clean water, resources among citizens through inputs, finance, etc…) fair and balanced development opportunities Resource allocation Ensuring balanced allocation of • Ensure sufficient financing to the forestry sector resources to the key sectors including forestry Demographic Population growth Implementing actions to regulate • Promote measures to family planning in areas of high the high rate of population population density, especially in forest areas growth, including policy review Migration Implement measures that regulate • Work closely with relevant sectors to halt spontaneous migration of in-migration to forest regions people from inside and outside the country to the forest areas (refugees and IDPs) Resettlement Ensure there is no geographic • Preclude and manage any perceived risk associated with the interface between the OFLP and the CDP by incorporating the Alignment of Operation procedure Government financed Commune in the regular training of city/werada staff (responsible for Development Program (CDP) environmental and social management) to ensure that the OFLP is not knowingly in CDP like activities or in any potential CDP area. Attitude Ensure communities have the right • Increase education and awareness on environmental, and positive attitude towards economic and social values of forests and their habitats forests Values and Beliefs Increased local community awareness on the intergenerational • Conduct awareness creation trainings in forest areas and ecosystem wide benefits of forests Policy (land and SO4: Promoting Land Use Planning SO4a: Develop national level land use planning framework guideline forest) SO4b: Formulate broader regional and local land use plan Institutional structure SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Design collaborative forums to align sectoral engagements in synergies and stakeholder joint planning and implementation including policies and strategies of key participation sectors (agriculture, investment, energy and other relevant sectors) • SO1b: Put in place inter-regional coordination institutional arrangements Law enforcement SO2: Ensuring effective forest • SO2a: Protecting natural forest governance and law enforcement • SO2b: Adequate financing of forestry institution • SO2c: Strengthening of regional and local level governance structures • SO2d: Develop skilled manpower • SO2e: Capacity building of legal practitioners at all levels Benefit sharing SO16: Benefit Sharing • SO16a: Equitable distribution of the costs and benefits • SO16b: Solicit stakeholders to participate in REDD+ actions • SO16c: Share benefit to eligible ones accrued from REDD+ action • SO16d: Assists bylaw development of CBOs for benefit share among individual members Tenure and Use rights SO3: Ensuring clear forest tenure • SO3a: Test models for community forest tenure and property rights • SO3b: Formulation of fair rights for stakeholders Corruption Implement sustainable measures to • Ensure improved forest governance, accountability and stop corruption transparency through citizen engagement, community led development planning, timely resolution of grievances. Sectoral synergy SO1: Enhancing cross-sectoral • SO1a: Revisit existing policies and strategies of key sectors synergies and stakeholder (agriculture, investment, energy and other relevant sectors) participation • SO1b: Put in place inter-regional coordination institutional arrangements • SO1c: Put in place joint planning among core sectors (agriculture, energy and forestry Capacity SO12: Capacity Building • SO12a: Provide material support to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12b: Provide technical trainings to those engaged in REDD+ process • SO12c: Provide local and international experience sharing to those engaged in REDD+ process • Enhance financial, human, structural and material capacity in the sector at the different levels 12.4.5. Potential Environmental and Social Benefits of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options Table 29-Analyses of environmental and social benefits of the proposed strategic options Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits SO1: Enhance cross-sectorial • Help for sustainable reduction of deforestation and forest • create coherent vision that outlines a path synergies and stakeholder degradation towards sustainable forest management participation- • Increase natural habitats for biodiversity, and protect water • policy will be harmonized and key stakeholders will sources and water ways participate on implementation of the harmonized sectoral policy, • create legal framework among key stakeholder to reduce deforestation SO2: Forest governance and • Ensure the continuous recruitment of potential crop trees by • Enhance forest ecosystem service to the local law enforcement- protecting browsing & grazing in the existing forest community, regional and global • put restriction on expansion of farm land into forest • Increase the contribution of forestry to the • Enhance carbon sequestration/ maintain carbon stock total GDP • Improve forest fire management • Enable the local community to have • Increase contributions of forests to watershed management, soil detailed knowledge of the forest resource in and water conservation and forest products utilized in other their vicinity economic sectors such as health, food, and manufacturing and • Increase Forestry’s contribution to construction activities employment generation in Ethiopia • Encourage biodiversity Conservation • Help hydro power and irrigation dams not to be silted and make them sustainable SO3: Forest tenure and • Enhance natural resource conservation and local community • Improve incentives or abilities to invest in property right involvement on reduction of deforestation and forest forest sector degradation • Help community to use their labour, wealth, and creativity in forest management • Help underserved community to access forest resource benefits SO4: Land use planning • Help reduction of deforestation due to conversion of forest land • increase productivity of agricultural land into other land use. • reduce conflict between different key actors on land resource Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits • make sustainable and long-term land improvement and • management practices SO5: Ensure Sustainable • Enhance sustainable forest development, • Create partnership between government and Forest Management- • Create sustainable forest use community • Help to create healthy regeneration, Forest boundary • create access and benefit from forest resource for respected, Enrichment plantings, Open access regulated, Re- local community appearance of wildlife, Forest fire incidence minimized • help respect rights, Change attitudes/ changing • Help establishment of forest monitoring system roles, • all silvicultural treatments could take place with low • help to address resource use conflicts, financial input Democratic functioning • Improve biodiversity and forest quality, • Enhance participation of local community in • Enhancement of ecosystems services (water availability and forest management other erosion control) in a sustainable manner • Create partnership between state forestry • Reduce deforestation and forest degradation, service and organized villagers • Strengthen the existing traditional community based natural resource management institutions such as the Gada system of Oromo pastoralist • Help to engage the forest dependent community to participate in Forest Resource Assessment, • enable the local community to have detailed knowledge of the forest resource in their vicinity • Help to sustain the flow of benefits which are to be fairly shared primarily between the communities and the state forest agency • sustain and/or increase income opportunities from improved natural resource management and diversified livelihood • Make sure the interventions are socially inclusive (gender and inter generationally) of use to underserved peoples and vulnerable groups Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits SO6: Enhancement of forest • Improved soil fertility and yields • Increased income and savings carbon stock • Reduce pressure on forest resource for fuel wood • Increased knowledge and experience related to • soil conservation, erosion control and water conservation agroforestry • trees planted in agricultural land will help as wind breaks • Improved food security and nutritional status • It help to hold soil in place during and after harvest of farm • Help diversification of income crops. This allows for ground moisture levels to remain regular, • Increased firewood supply reduces soil degradation and erosion. • enhance ecosystem service for local community • ensure the continuous recruitment of potential crop trees by • forest product provision for local community protecting browsing & grazing in the existing forest enhanced • Encourage regeneration of flora diversity • communities access a number of non-timber • Enhance biodiversity Conservation forest products for household needs like grass • Enhance carbon stock in the forest area • Increasing local economic opportunities including • Help maintenance of landscapes and scenic views where possible jobs for people from local • Contribute reduced deforestation, forest degradation and communities and deliberate use of local services. carbon emissions • The fall in prices of forest products such as • Natural and ecological forest will be protected from destroying firewood and charcoal availably, and the ecological environment will be improve and • Supply for forestry products of lignum and fodder will protect indirectly. increase • Increase the capacity of water conservation, • reduce time and energy required to access forest • Increase habitat of wildlife, form the biological corridor, be in product favour of biodiversity protection. • improve human settlements and quality of life • Improvement in ecosystem services • Increase forest resource coverage SO7: Agricultural • Enhanced land & crop management • reduce poverty which led forest extraction for sale intensification- • Enhance conservation of agro-biodiversity • Enhance income of the community • reduce expansion of agriculture into forest land • Create job opportunity • improve agricultural practices • Improved household food security and diet • • Productivity of small scale agriculture will be enhanced Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits • Reduce Expansion of small scale agriculture in to forest area • Livelihood of the local community will be • Agricultural practices will be improved enhanced • Increase crop diversification • reduce expansion of agriculture • Reduce forest degradation pressure on forest • improve agricultural practice • diversify crop production and nutrition SO8: Reduce demand for fuel • Provide alternative energy • saves time when collecting wood, wood and charcoal- • Reducing emissions of carbon monoxide by more efficient • saves money, burning • Create additional income for small and micro • Reduce loss of forests and thus increased potential for enterprise stove producers biodiversity conservation and maintenance of ecosystems • reduce health impact of smoke from three stone services open fire stoves • Reduce in environmental pollution Conserve the forest • Reduction of child labour for fuel collection • Reduce fuel expenditure • reduce exposure to indoor air pollutants (IAP) such as carbon monoxide and particulate matters which affect women and children SO9: Increase wood and • More carbon sequestration • Drive of economic development charcoal supply • Micro-climate improve • Encourages the creation of wood industries • Recurrent drought experienced by the country halt • create multiplier effects on the local economy through • Reduce non-sustainable and high rates of wood fuel extraction creation of employment opportunities at that destroy forests and woodlands and the environmental services each value chain levels these provide including soil and water conservation • improve household income and socio-economic • decreases deforestation and forest degradation on other well-being of farmers forests (such as high forest) • Encourages the creation of wood product • increase on farm species diversity • Improves wood self sufficiency • enhance soil fertility • source of supplementary income or as women’s • avoid deforestation by overharvesting of charcoal work production • reduce migration from rural or forested areas and improve people’s incomes Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits • help to conserve resources, • charcoal makers would produce charcoal as their • Reduce fuel wood consumption and then reduction of CO2 main activity emissions from biomass • Increase foreign income, • reduce impact on endangered species since it will be done on • create job opportunity for youth and landless invasive species like Prospois Juliflora people • reduce impact of invasive species on range land and farm land SO10: Improved livestock • change impact of large crowd of livestock on regeneration or • Effective, market-oriented livestock management- recruitment of seedlings by reduce number of livestock production increase output • reduce pressure on the available resources quantity, quality and prices • reduce poor range management • Identify opportunities for the poor, involving overgrazing practices that increase soil erosion and especially women, to participate in value added increase amount of poor pasture and invasive plant species on production of livestock and livestock the natural pasture products, thereby capturing a greater share of • reduce loss of livestock genetic resources additional value within the livestock production • Significantly reduce emissions from domestic animals. and marketing chain • reducing the pressure on fragile ecosystems •Improve livestock sector infrastructure and • reduce pressure on natural resource by keeping animal draft provide greater incentives for market for ploughing participation and productivity • increase income of the local community, • create job opportunity for landless community members • reduce farmers economic loss • Increase productivity of livestock • secure sustainable household income • increase animal protein supplies to match human needs • Since it is initial investment cost is small it involve young, women and other community in poultry production Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits •Mechanization leads to food self sufficiency • improve livelihoods of smallholder farming communities SO11: Promote supplementary • improve the value of source of NTFP, thus reducing the risk of • substantial contributions to the security of food and income generation deforestation while still obtaining sustainable benefits nutrition in drought periods, and main from these forest for the local communities foods and supplementary diets in normal times • Enhance sustainable management and use of NTFP source of • contribute towards food security, improving trees, health and nutrition, medicinal treatment, • substantial amounts of carbon will be stored both in the income generation, cultural heritage above ground and below ground biomass • safeguard non-timber Forest resources and user • Increase substantial amount of carbon stock sequestration, rights • forest resources will be sustainably managed • communities will be able to sustain and improve their • Soil erosions will be substantially reduced livelihoods without the destruction of the NTFP • reduce pressure on natural forest resources, water • plantation forests will serve as a buffer zone of natural high Sources or ecosystems. forests and woodlands • Improve product supply, value chain dynamics and marketing. Communities will experience increased • Regular forest resource monitoring system will be food security and household income, enabling them established to invest in diversification, education, healthcare and • reduce pressure on natural forest , better living conditions. • reduce illegal logging on natural forest • When crops and livestock are insufficient, NTFP • help for sustainable management of the forest become essential for food and income. • The national foreign expenditure for importing wood products will substantially decrease, and this will increase the national income • The existing huge gap between demand and supply of forest products will be minimized • poor people would have increased adaptive capacity to climate shocks by increasing their Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits house hold income from direct selling of forest products • create job opportunity for underserved community, • Enhance household income • diversify nutrition of the community • increase contribution of the forest resource for the national GDP, • increase involvement of different stakeholders in the value chain process SO12: Capacity building • strengthen conservation and rehabilitation of forest • incentivize stakeholders to forest resource resources in a sustainable manner management and involvement of different • help to establish strong forest administration system capable of stakeholders arresting the rapidly increasing rate of deforestation as well as • Strengthen government and community in controlling and preventing the disruption of the various management and introducing forest and other related ecosystems livelihood alternatives • forest management knowledge will be created • increase capacity to tackle technical issues related to forest resource • share experience and help to scale up best experience of forest management SO13: Inter-sectoral • strengthen sustainable forest rehabilitation • reduce conflict among stakeholders working on land coordination on planning and resources implementation- • harmonize policy conflict • create linkages with different stakeholders SO14: Demand-driven • enhance forest cover and conservation of the existing forest • encourage private sector to involve and invest in the Research and extension resources sector linkage • help to enhance government budget for forest governance and • policy makers give proper attention for forest establishment of better intuitional set up for the sector sector • create knowledge to be shared scale up for the sustainable benefits of the community Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits • help promoting technologies of forest management, renewable • establish data base system on forest resources energy and agroforestry to meet the needs and • analyze gaps and provide solution for social sustainable implementation of REDD+ problems • help sustainable afforestation and restoration of forest resources SO15: Ensure full participation • help sustainable conservation of forest resources • women participation in forest use and and equitable benefit for women • help sustainable conservation of forest resources management will be enhanced • Women’s concerns of tree planting will be addressed • Improve security of tenure for women by planting boundary trees • it has the potential to positively affect women’s roles and status in relation to land ownership and management • Women‘s knowledge of landscapes and ecosystems can help REDD+ projects succeed • women’s inclusion exhibits the likelihood to improve forest conditions • Women’s inclusion in REDD+ is itself a crucial safeguard issue that warrants immediate attention • Help to compensate women equitably for their engagement in forest protection and carbon monitoring activities. • Women organizations may get information in all phases of REDD+ Implementation • Women can play an essential role in forest monitoring • enhance women involvement in and influence over decision-making processes that define their Proposed Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social access to forest rights and resources, and rights to assets, including land and other SO16: Benefit sharing • enhance conservation and rehabilitation of forest resources property • Help to organize community groups and • enhance participatory conservation of forest resources regional government/forest services share • ensure the participation of communities in forest protection and the benefits, conservation • ensure poor and underserved/disadvantaged • help conservation of the forest resources by the forest local • groups have equal chance to participate community • Create relevant stakeholder and local community ownership to the forest • Increase off-farm income generating activities for • communities living adjacent to protected areas • Membership developed bylaw clearly specifies duties and responsibilities of the CBO members. This enable to resolve their problem themselves 12.4.6. Potential Environmental and Social Risks of the Proposed REDD+ Strategic Options and the Mitigation Measures Table 30-Analyses of environmental and social risks of the proposed strategic options and the mitigation measures Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO1: Enhance cross- • Increased deforestation • Coordination unit to be • Inefficient social service • Enhance synergy sectorial synergies and forest degradation assigned at higher (education, health, water, • Go for alternatives for the and stakeholder due to absence of full Level (Prime Minister market information, etc) forest product and NTFP participation- collaboration of sectoral Office) that check synergy from the sectoral office • Develop community institutes with MEFCC of the sectoral institutes due to absence or little reporting system for the (e.g. law enforcement • Assign counterpart (focal synergy inefficient service from weakness) person) in each sectoral each sectoral services office that links MEFCC with them • Less likely collaboration of sectoral institutes for joint planning on forest issues O2: Forest • May bring increased • Avail forest products and • Restriction over livestock • Let the community use governance and law forest degradation from non-timber forest pasture resource grass in cut and carry enforcement- organized illegal cuttings products which the • Restriction over expansion system • May call for total community depends on of farmlands • Intensify productivity per environmental the forest from other • Restriction over fuel, unit area through improved destruction from mass sources construction and farm input use so that areal mobilized cuttings and • Share benefit to the implement forest resources expansion of agriculture setting of forest fire community from the • Conflict between local land halts income accrued due to the communities and • Supply improved cooking protection of forest protecting agents and baking stoves to the • Increase the awareness of • Restriction over member of community which depends the community through communities that on forest for energy source training and education traditionally use the forest • Materialize the second • Law enforcement should for religious rituals phase growth and be in place • Obstruction of routes that transformation plan (GTP- • Allow community use the connect communities living II) of Ethiopia that gives resource without cutting on either sides of the forest due emphasize to the trees e.g. for ritual, • Hosts wild animals that renewable energy sources cultural practices, may frequently attack • Enhance woodlots which • Educate and train the livestock of surrounding would increase community on the value of communities smallholders access to the forest Strong institutions may wood products (in the • Prepare enough through override community based medium term) capacity building (human institutes that protected • Ploughing system shift to forest for centuries low-tillage that is more sustainable, more resilient, more low carbon. Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures & material) to suppress • Use customary conflict fire incase fire is set redress mechanism • Empower underserved • Enhance the benefit of the grievance redress community from the mechanisms enclosed area as per the PF provisions • Compensate as per the market and the RPF provisions • Allow communities to practice the ritual and religious practices in the forest as far as these do not affect the forest • Area enclosure should leave access routes for communities to move freely as per the PF • If obstruction of access route is a must, transport facility to use the other route must be arranged as per the PF Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Strengthen CBOs like that that of government institutes SO3: Forest tenure • Attractive forest tenure • Implement effective law • Small holder farmers may • Organize community in and property right and property right may enforcement to deter land be evicted from their CBO/PFM and let them increase land grabbing grabbing holdings for forest have their own forest opportunity • Government should investment • Compensate as per the • May increase the value of implement land use • Loss in land ownership may replacement cost and forest land over planning be induced (e.g. from as specified in the legal agriculture land • Synchronize traditional private to government or framework in the RPF • Disrupts traditional and modern land use vice versa) tenure and forest system get the best out of • Coffee forest farmers may management systems the combination be affected by the change • Change in land use type • Compensation planting of the forested coffee to may be induced (e.g. required if change is from pure stand of forest from agriculture to forest forest to agricultural lands or vice versa) SO4: Land use • Change in land use type • Compensation planting • Loss of land ownership may Adequate compensation to be planning may be induced (e.g. required if change is from be induced (e.g. from paid by Government both in from agriculture to forest forest to agricultural lands private to government or kind and other means as per or vice versa) vice versa) the RPF (Note: the World Bank cannot finance land compensation) SO5: Ensure • Create economically • Hybrid of PFM and Intervention of PFM if not PFM should be supported by a Sustainable Forest driven forest Traditional forest managed may lead to legal framework and Management- mismanagement that management with problem of acceptance by all acceptable policy as well as scientific management so since the approach does not directives may lead to forest that forests utilized based have legal support under • Educate and train degradation on forest management the Ethiopian law communities in the areas • May instigate plan • PFM experiences in about PFM deforestation from • PFM should encompass all Ethiopia is mainly in a high • Assist communities in the marginalized local community members with forests this may have low land areas to carry- communities and/or little agreed benefit sharing negative impact to adapt in out experience sharing benefiting PFM members mechanism low land woodland areas visit in high land areas • Low economic value • Enhance the economic where there is different • Encourage self-reliance of forests in lowland areas value of the lowland socio-economic and the PFM groups through may not attract PFM forests through forest ecological conditions enabling them generate organization industry installation • Creates dependency their own income from the • Coffee farming in the • Strict control over the syndrome on local forest management forest has already expansion of coffee communities because of activities degraded biodiversity planting in the forest long term incentivization by • All community members and further permit of • Put in place where the implementing projects to should have a chance to be coffee farming in the undergrowth and natural protect the resource PFM members forest may worsen the regeneration of tree • Conflict over benefit • The PFM bylaw and the condition species allowed to grow sharing and marginalization legal framework should • Stakeholder and • Put in place the urges of certain segments of define the power of the community may not be maintenance of minimum local community PFM leaders mobilized as required number of indigenous • Conflict over skewed power • The leader should be sued • Tragedy of the commons tree species where coffee relationship in case of default is farmed • PFM may involve the • Equal access rights to all • Build own capacity of fire exclusion of previous forest members of the prevention system users from accessing forest community need to be • Educate people resources granted • Select appropriate species • The PFM bylaw should for the purpose ensure equal opportunity to all community members Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO6: Enhancement • Quarantined agroforestry • Establish strong • Existing fragmented land • Increase productivity per of forest carbon species may become quarantine centers at use types of an individual unit area through improved stock invasive and damage the national and all regional household may end up in input use (seed, fertilizer, natural environment government levels reduced productivity etc.). • Mono culture practices • Integrate several crops • Difficult to introduce due to • Integrate several types of may be less effective in and tree species in the long gestation period of the agroforestry crops and dissected landscapes agroforestry practices trees trees to get increased • Where the tree and crop • Integrate in the • Intensive care for the products from diversified or livestock components agroforestry system crops various agroforestry crops and trees overlap in their use of with low moisture demand practices consumes the • Opt for fast growing tree resources, competition • Harvest water during the time and energy of species may lead to reduced rainy water for dearth household members • Research centers should productivity( e.g. period use • Physical relocation of local work on improving Competition for water • Firebreak structure and communities (shortening) of the long between tree and crop equipment should be in • Restriction over livestock gestation period of local components is likely to place pasture resource tree species limit productivity) • Educate and enhance the • Restriction over expansion • The agroforestry system • Aggravate environmental awareness of community of farmlands should integrate at least 2 degradation from setting • Fence to exclude • Conflict between local and above 2 tree species of fires, if some fire encroachment communities and with other crops susceptible tree species • Do not come close to the protecting agents • The household should are planted habitat/breeding place of • Obstruction of routes that manage the size of the land • Aggravate illegal cuttings wildlife use to connect that can be managed by and destruction of • communities living on the family members regenerating biodiversity either sides of area closure • Use mechanized/ improved if not managed with the • High costs of seedling technology for time and community production to carry out energy efficiency reason • Increase conflict between plantation relative to • Compensate in kind or wildlife & humans enrichment plantings other means Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Risk of monoculture • Use integrated crop pest • Increase conflict between • Use cut and carry system plantation management practice wildlife & humans increase crop • Share benefit from the • Compromise to local • Plant mixed species where pests (birds, mammals) wildlife hunting/ biodiversity monoculture stands are • Brings loss of economic ecotourism so that • Risk of harbor of crop intercropped with crop lands; benefits community feels pests in reforested area • Allow natural regeneration • Create access restriction ownership over the • Some soil impacts can be under the monoculture for resource utilizations resource expected as a result of species so that the • Create land computation • Proportionate the plantation forests regenerated species with local community number of livestock with operations, including overtake the planation • Can prevent human and the available resource erosion, decreasing • Plant local/underserved livestock mobility amount surface runoff and the tree species • From previous experience • Intensify productivity per development of a • Allow natural regeneration of large scale plantation unit area through improved protective forest floor under the monoculture people feel fear of loss of input use so that areal • Poorly designed and mass species so that the land ownership expansion of agriculture mobilized conservation regenerated species • Fire is a concerns that fire land halt measures aggravate soil overtake the planation will increase and could • Use customary conflict erosion •Use modern silvi-culture affect neighboring redress mechanism methods such as forest properties • Enhance the benefit of the residue management, • Some soil impacts can be community from the mosaic planting, different expected as a result of enclosed area tree density on steep plantation forests • Compensate them enough slopes, etc. operations, including • Area enclosure should • Use integrated crop pest erosion, decreasing surface leave access routes for management practice Run-off and the communities to move • Allow undergrowth development of a freely through wider space protective forest floor. • If obstruction of access planting route is a must, Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Enforce landuse plan to • collect seed from local come into force sources and raise them in community owned nursery • Compensate for what the community will lose from the land that to be devoted to reforestation/ afforestation • Ensure benefit sharing from the reforestation/ afforestation through their active involvement in the activities including through out grower schemes • Allow cut and carry practice for the grass use • Allow the utilization of NTFP • Implement reforestation/ afforestation on land with no competing interest (e.g. previously forested land or marginalized land) with the community • reforestation/ afforestation should leave access routes for communities to move freely • If obstruction of access route is a must, another “reasonably convenient” route must be arranged Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Plant mixed species to minimize the risk of fire setting naturally or deliberately • Train the community on forest fire risk and forest fire management • Construction fire break line between the forest and the properties of the community • Get prepared suppressing the fires though availing fires suppressing tools and equipment • Plant with wider spacing to allow undergrowth so that erosion will be prevented or minimal • Empower women and youth to play the role Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO7: Agricultural • Siltation of reservoirs • Implement watershed • Create farmers to depend • Encourage agriculture intensification- • Fertilizer runoff and management practice to on agricultural inputs like intensification by the use of leaching; eutrophication protect reservoirs fertilizer compost than fertilizer and effect on human • Protect the farmlands with • Reduces farmers' ability to especially for smallholder health integrated soil & water use natural pest cycles, farmers • Runoff of pesticides and conservation (biological & leading to increased need • Use integrated pest similar agricultural physical) measures for pesticides management system which chemicals • Use of inputs (fertilizers • affects human health due proved best than single • Eroded agricultural and other chemicals) to agricultural chemicals types of pest management genetic resources based on soil and plant • Lack of awareness about practice essential for food security tissue analysis for nutrient appropriate use of • Give awareness creation on in the future. • Treat water before using chemical health and safety of agro- • Increased pesticides • Protect the farmlands with fertilizers/pesticides due to chemicals harms animal and human integrated soil & water lack of education and • Use of Personal health by accumulating in conservation (biological & knowledge of community, Protective Equipment soils and leaching into physical) measures especially women whenever applying water bodies • Never erode the local • Limited purchasing capacity agro-chemicals • Stalinization and regimes genetic resource; work of inputs(improved seeds, • Offer continuous and of underground water side by side on both local fertilizers seedlings) can sustained education & • Inadequate drainage and and improved crop limit potential gains awareness creation on the over-irrigation causes varieties to enhance food • CSA sometimes need appropriate use of water logging security adopting new farming chemicals • Lowering of water tables • Use personal protective system and technology • Government needs to • Water diversions for equipment whenever which may not be both encourage sustainable agriculture are a major applying chemicals accepted earlier and agricultural production by problem for many aquatic • Protect animal from entry afforded financially small holder farmers and species. into the farm area until respectively large holdings by the chemicals dilute and • Only rich farmers may community. assimilated by the crops benefit from CSA Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Continuous leaching of the • Conflicts between • Educate and train farms with water neighboring communities community on the benefit • Irrigate the farms based over water resource of CSA on the soil water utilization • Assist poor farmers requirement analysis technically and materially • Use drip irrigation to avoid through extension services both under and over • Harvest excessive water irrigating during the high moisture • Implement practices that seasons for the later recharge ground dearth period use water(watershed management, soil & water conservation structure) • Diversion of water to only the threshold level beyond which aquatic live do not affected Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO8: Reduce • Increased use of energy • Go for alternate energy • Incur cost to poor local • Supply of energy efficient demand for fuel efficient stove may sources (such as solar, communities cooking and baking gadgets wood and charcoal- indirectly lead to high wind, hydropower, • Difficult to adopt the at subsidized price biomass energy demand geothermal) technology due to cultural • Avail electricity at and consumption which barriers (e.g. Preference of affordable price by the in turn cause open over closed stoves for community deforestation fumigation reasons) • Encourage farmers build • Difficult to adopt the corrugated/bricks roof technology in abundant house over hatch house so forest resource areas that there will be no • May be difficult to supply fumigation energy efficient cooking • Educate and enhance the stoves, biogas and awareness of the electricity over short period community on modern of time style of living • May be difficult to supply • Educate and give sustained the stoves in high demand training on the relative areas due to long advantage of Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures production-marketing electricity/fuel efficient chain stove over the traditional • Stoves in high demand stove areas due to long • Avail electricity and production-marketing cooking/baking stoves at chain very attractive price • Exploitation by middle men • Solicit fund for the soonest in the market chain project implementation • Time taking: long e.g. fuel efficient awareness creation and cooking/baking stoves technology adoption catering process • Begin with the few number of farmers and gradually increase it • Build the capacity of community members for own community demand making of the stoves • Begin with the few number of farmers and gradually increase it SO9: Increase wood • Exotic species may • Researching on fast • Market problem may be a • Look for potential local and and charcoal supply dominate as these are growing indigenous tree challenge overseas forest products fast growing than the species • high transport, operation • improve road network in indigenous • Employ semi-mechanized and maintenance costs and the coming GTP2 years • Environmental system during harvesting the length of time it takes impact on forest degradation during • Harvest based on the to reach commercial • create wood market harvesting and rotation period (do not centers centers at optimum transporting time harvest all at a time) Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures • Adverse micro-climate • Sequestrate the emitted • May brings food insecurity distance from the modification after carbon by planting trees of as farm lands devoted to plantation area harvesting environmental value (e.g. plantation • Transport food from • The act induce more for carbon financing, • Labor may be a problem for surplus production area numbers of charcoal ecosystem protection) the family to harvest the • Incorporate NTFP (such as users which means more • Use charcoal gadgets with forest products honey) in the system carbon emission chimney and lid that • Transporting to the market • Hand operated simple • Environmental pollution prevent entry of center may be a problem machine catering to tree by particulate matters particulate into the due to farmers financial farmers at subsidized price from the use of charcoal environment capacity • Organize in CBO and pull • High calorific value wood • Allow natural regeneration • Loss of livestock due to the resource together to plantation leads to under the plantation communal land (such as solve financial problem monoculture that brings • Have different planation grazing lands) allocation for • Encourage tree plantings about loss in biodiversity sites for biodiversity and tree planting on marginal lands and own • Fire risks from some environmental protection • Animal protein plot tree species planted • Construct fire breaks malnutrition (meat & milk) • Transport from met and for charcoal between blocks of forest due to loss of livestock s milk surplus areas production as they are • Build capacity (human and grazing lands go for tree • Assess the feasibility of susceptible to material) to suppress fire plantings charcoal market before ignition in case it sets • Charcoal market problem embarking on it may be encountered • Educate on the health • Indoor air pollution that impacts of indoor charcoal may cause acute and pollution chronic respiratory • Ventilate rooms whenever diseases, malignancies of using charcoal the aero-digestive tract and lungs, burns, eye diseases Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO10: Improved • Solid wastes expected • Use the waste for • Market problem of the Identify local and oversea livestock from poultry farm fertilizing soil in farm land products of livestock may markets for the products management- • Nuisance odor expected • Poultry farm to be be a challenge • Maintain milk cows from poultry farm performed far from the • Milk malnutrition • Purchase and transport • Mechanization leads to residential areas especially to the kids milk from surplus area intensive use of • Implement the EMP • Bird diseases that is • Sanitation to be maintained agricultural inputs that recommended in the ESIA communicable to human 24 hours a day, 7 days a results in pollution of the project whenever may be a problem week available • Loss of assets (livestock) to • Bio-safety measures to be • Test for soil and water be used for emergency taken samples regularly to check case by selling • Educate farmers on saving the environmental of what is earned (from the pollution standards of main income generating or Ethiopia not breached and alternative income sources also rectify problems activities) earlier if any • Maintain few livestock to be used as an asset SO11: Promote • Large number and • Provide increased access • Conflict arise if unfair • Provide fair access to supplementary frequent entry into the to collect NTFP from the access or use right on NTFP community members, income generation forest for NTFP collection forest prevail within the especially the underserved affects soil seed bank, • Opt for/expand other community and women regeneration and sources of energy biodiversity • Distribute fuel efficient • Fuel wood collection as cooking/baking stoves NTFP affects the carbon • Utilize the forest resource stock of the forest based on the management • Some NTFP expand at the plan of the source clearance of forest (e.g. Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures coffee forest of the • annual increase in volume country) of the forest must • More number of forest matches with the harvest enterprises put the forest • Marginal profit of the under pressure participants of the value • May aggravate chain involver to be deforestation and forest determined degradation with the increase of the prices of forest products and NTFP parallel to increase in value chain SO12: Capacity • Capacity building may • Inclusion of all relevant • Participation of women and • Ensure the participation of building only focus on entities that experts in the forestry wider stakeholder groups women is prioritized and all have direct linkage to sector at different levels may be neglected stakeholders have the REDD+ • Capacity support should • Support may be shared by opportunity to participate • Soft capacity may not include facilities and those who already have the • Support should prioritize reduce deforestation financial support to forest needed capacity those with serious capacity unless financial and sector offices problem material support is provided SO13: Inter-sectoral • Lingering decision making • Put in place a workable • Stakeholders may not • Establish stakeholder coordination on process may result in mechanism that facilitates collaborate as desired coordination and planning and further destruction of with checks and balance in mobilization unit for the implementation- forest resources making timely decisions daily follow up • Inaction may weaken law • Increased accountability enforcement and cause and transparency in the loose control over decision making process uncontrolled extraction Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures SO14: Demand- • High priority • Research needs • Community needs may not • Maximize local stakeholder driven Research and environmental issues may identification and be properly addressed involvement in need extension linkage be neglected prioritization should be • Underserved communities identification • Research results may not carried may not benefit from the • Ensure inclusiveness by lead to action on the • Academics and forestry research and extension involving underserved ground sector experts should communities in the work together to apply research process and research outputs benefit sharing SO15: Ensure full • Loss of cultural, • Allow all community • Weak collaboration of • Build and strengthen participation and medicinal, etc. value segment (men & women, sectoral institutes in institutional capacities of equitable benefit for species may occur while youth & elders, etc.,) mainstreaming gender implementing partner women disregarding others than contribute available • Disregard/ marginalize organizations (IPOs) in women knowledge for the knowledge and expertise of gender and REDD+ issues management of the others (other area skill & • Allow all community natural resource knowledge will be eroded segment (men & women, overtime) youth & elders, etc.,) contribute available knowledge for the management of the natural resource , • REDD+ implementation • Devise mechanism where • Community may refuse to • Devise mechanism where may results in more the REDD+ project absorbs accept costs that REDD+ the REDD+ project absorbs deforestation and forest its costs associated with project brings to them its costs associated with its degradation if it carries its implementation • Lack clear mechanisms for implementation cost to the community • Give opportunity for the sharing benefits may result • There should be policy, • Late recognizer of the late adopters to become in grievances strategy and bylaw that benefit of the REDD+ the member and enjoy the • Overridden stakeholders define clear benefit sharing project may adversely benefit adversely affect the mechanism Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures affected the REDD+ implementation of REDD+ • Institutionalize and project forest project implement REDD+ • Income difference may be grievance redress created between the mechanism REDD+ project members • Exhaustively involve and non-members stakeholders based on their • Unequal participation in degree of contribution the development of bylaw • Create alternate income may bring disparities in generating opportunities implementing the bylaw for the non-members of the REDD+ projects, e.g., by providing off job opportunities • extend membership to non members • Let all community members participate in the 12.4.7. Suggested Alternative Strategic Options for Further Consideration in line with the environmental and social situations Table 31-Analyses of the environmental and social benefits of the suggested alternative Strategic Options Suggested Alternative Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits ASO1: Diversifying local Livelihoods to Non- • Reduced dependence on forest resources • Increases access to alternative income forest based Options for communities in and around forestland sources for local communities and forest areas will decreased the risk of dependent communities deforestation and forest degradation • Improve food security and health, creates job opportunity, increase income ASO2: Promoting pro-poor development • Reducing poverty decreases the pressure on • Pro-poor development activities will lift plans and targeted measures to reduce forests and reduces deforestation by forest significant proportion of the population poverty (to benefit the poor segment of dependent communities from absolute poverty and will increase their society) participation in local development initiatives. ASO3: Promoting participation and • Underserved communities have little access • Promotes social inclusion and fair empowering of underserved communities to services and largely rely on natural distribution of services to the needy and resources deemed “open access” resources. more disadvantaged groups of society. Thus, empowering through provision of • Increases accountability, reduces illegal services (education, credit, health, etc…) and activities and corruption increasing their participation will reduce their dependence on natural resources and reduced degradation. ASO4: Design strategies and revise policies to • Designing strategies and implementing • Strict regulation and control of resource address the impacts of internal and external forest resource utilization and management utilization in internally displaced people social conflicts on forest resources guidelines in refugee and IDP areas (IDP) and refugee areas will create opportunities for alternative livelihoods ASO5: Ensuring fair distribution of resources • Ensuring equity and faire distribution of • Ensuring equity improves access to social among citizens through fair and balanced resources will reduce the dependence on services (education, health, clean water, development opportunities inputs, finance, etc…) Suggested Alternative Strategic options Environmental Benefits Social Benefits natural resources and avoids the risk of • Improves governance and democracy deforestation and degradation ASO6: Ensuring fair and balanced allocation of • Providing the required financial resource to • Financial capacity will increase employment resources to the sector the forestry sector will improve policy opportunities in the sector and will also implementation, law enforcement and increase the contribution of the sector the enhance protection and conservation of national GDP forest resources ASO7: Implementing actions to regulate the • Regulating and managing population growth • Measures that facilitate family planning in high rate of population growth, including will reduce the risk of expanding agriculture areas of high population density, especially policy review to marginal and forest resource areas in forest areas will improve quality of life ASO8: Implement measures that regulate in- • Reducing the rate of in-migration from • Controlling spontaneous migration of people migration to forest regions (refugees, IDPs internal and external sources to the forest from inside and outside the country to the and squatters) regions reduced the rate of deforestation forest areas will avoid social conflicts and and forest degradation completion over resources ASO9: Ensure a well-regulated and managed • Revising the policy and enforcing Resettlements are implemented only resettlement program implementation of GoE legal frameworks of according to implementation according to the to spare forestlands from being used for reviewed legal and policy frameworks of GoE resettlements and reduce deforestation and the World Bank as part of the RPF and PF AOS10: Ensuring communities have the right • Providing environmental education to • Increased local community awareness on and positive attitude towards forests communities will reduce the degree of the intergenerational and ecosystem wide deforestation, forest fires, and agricultural benefits of forests clearing • Increased awareness on the environmental, economic and social values of forests and their habitats ASO11: Implement radical measures to stop • Reducing and stopping the practice of • Stopping corruption will ensure good the root causes of corruption corruption in the sector and in the other governance, accountability and transparency sectors will reduce the rate of deforestation • Zero tolerance to corruption will nurture democracy 12.4.8. Potential environmental and social risks of the proposed Alternative Strategic Options and mitigation measures Table 32-Analyses of environmental and social risks of the proposed alternative strategic options and the mitigation measures Alternative Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures ASO1: Diversifying local • The non-forest based The REDD+ management • The uneducated and • Ensure inclusiveness and Livelihoods to non-forest based options might lead to arrangement is also disadvantaged groups of support activities with Options increased need for wood encompassing the regional the community might be community’s needs and products and land, which states level REDD+ units, left out from the interests might indirectly increase regional steering opportunities • Options should provide the risk of deforestation committee and regional • Forest dependent priorities to the needs of technical working group communities may find it forest dependent have been functional in difficult to resort to new communities. Oromia region, with options and might face • Provide the necessary representatives from the challenges, such as lack training and awareness forest of skills, difficulty with on proposed alternatives adopting new skills ASO2: Promoting pro-poor • Development plans and The REDD+ management • Development • Put in place a mechanism development plans and programs targeting the arrangement is also opportunities are often to ensure the resource targeted measures to reduce poor could lead to more encompassing the regional end up benefiting the poor and the poverty (to benefit the poor exploitation of resources, states level REDD+ units, resource rich and the disadvantaged groups segment of society) especially forest resource regional steering elite groups are targeted and committee and regional included technical working group have been functional in Oromia region, with representatives from the forest Alternative Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures ASO3: Promoting participation • Delegating power The REDD+ management • Misuse of power might • Fair representation and and empowering of without the checks and arrangement is also favor few members of accountability should be underserved communities balances may lead to encompassing the regional the community and lead ensured corruption and further states level REDD+ units, to illegal activities • Social groups from the degradation of the regional steering underserved resources committee and regional communities need to be technical working group equally represented have been functional in Oromia region, with representatives from the forest ASO4: Design strategies and • Lack of implementation • Ensure guidelines on • Leniency by local groups • Impartiality in revise policies to address the of such policies further resource utilization are towards displaced implementation of the impacts of internal and increase rate of implemented and persons and indifference strategies and strict external social conflicts on deforestation seriously followed to the destruction of control over forest resources • Lack of inter-regional • Establish inter-regional resources incompliance is needed coordination on the issue coordination and and absence of operational framework harmonized strategy when conflicts happen among the regions may and result in create implementation displacement of people gaps and result in forest degradation ASO5: Ensuring fair distribution • High disparity in income • Ensure wealth is fairly • High taxation may • Distribution of wealth of resources among citizens and increasing gap distributed among discourage investment can be achieved not only through faire and balanced between the haves and citizens and trickled and slow down through taxation but fair development opportunities have-nots will result in down to the poor development, causing distribution of increased reliance on through services increased unemployment development projects provision and taxation across the nation Alternative Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures forest resources for income ASO6: Ensuring faire and • Lack of resources results • Allocate sufficient • Other social sectors • Base resource allocations balanced allocation of in poor management of resource for the sector (health and education) on proper analysis of the resources to the sector forest resources. and consider the might be constrained and development needs, the Sufficiently available potential of forestry for the growth of those gaps and priority level of resource increases the growth of GDP in the sectors might be affected the particular sector capacity to stop illegal country (financially and human activities resource) ASO7: Implementing actions to • Absence of sufficient • Strategies should take • Some religious and social • Support implementation regulate the high rate of labor might also affect into account specific groups might oppose the with sufficient awareness population growth, including forest management and local conditions and moves creation trainings and policy review protection activities population dynamics, • Controlling population through full participation needs and availability might reduce labor force of social groups • Interventions take into account local needs ASO8: Implement measures • Controlling in-migration • Evaluate Drought and • The resource poor and • The necessary support that regulate in-migration to may increase pressure in land degradation the weak might not be should be provided to forest regions (refugees, IDPs affected areas (e.g., affected areas for able to make ends meet the poor in areas where and squatters) drought) leading to development potentials out-migration is resource degradation before out-migration discouraged ASO9: Ensure a well regulated • Unplanned and • Ensure resettlements are • Absence of guidelines • Ensure proper guidelines and managed resettlement unregulated implemented using and exertion of pressure are put in place program resettlement results in approved guidelines on on resettled extensive deforestation land and resource use communities lead to social conflict AOS10: Ensuring communities • Negative attitude • Educate local • Changing attitudes may • Take into account and have the right and positive towards forests being communities on the antagonize local values work through social attitude towards forests Alternative Strategic options Environmental Social Risks Mitigation measures Risks Mitigation measures seen as harboring pests wider ecological roles and beliefs for some values and beliefs when leads to deforestation and benefits of forests groups teaching ASO11: Implement radical • Corruption may not • Measures need to stem • Measures might disfavor • Ensure that measures are measures to stop the root easily be stopped unless from root sources and or favor certain social applicable regardless of causes of corruption systemic measures are actions be systemic than groups status, power, or taken and thus the case treatment connections moves might even aggravate further deforestation 13. OFLP Potential Environmental and Social Benefits and Risks and Mitigation Measures This section aims to briefly present the Potential Environmental and Social Benefits as well as potential implementation risks and challenges 13.2. OFLP Potential Environmental and Social Benefits The OFLP intervention will have economic, environmental and social benefits to the communities. Some of the key anticipated benefits to the community include, 1. Community Participation and Citizen Engagement. OFLP would focus on increasing community engagement and participation in forest management and decision-making. It would do so by seeking to: a) increase capacity of the forest communities and citizens to make their own decisions about community-led planning process; b) increase the capacity and responsiveness of regional and Woreda administrations to respond to citizens demand, and c) support channels where citizens and various levels of government can work together in the context of implementation and monitoring of community-led forest management. Citizen feedback and a series of consultation with community members, government officials, and representatives of CSOs were conducted in the design of OFLP and feedback on the sub-project process would continue during implementation. 2. Livelihood Assets/Human Capital: the knowledge, skills and experiences coming directly and indirectly from the OFLP enhances their livelihood assets and improve human capital which is a key aspect of wellbeing for better life. Developing sustainable livelihoods for the communities in the OFLP intervention areas provide new job opportunities (unlocks new livelihood opportunities such as NTFPs, adoption of new agri-business models, community based tourism, hunting as a leisure sport), improved agricultural productivity and access to agricultural extension services, better education and health, protection, preservation and sustainable use of traditional medicinal plant species. 3. Financial capital: the OFLP on the ground investments activities will build financial assets using PFMs and cooperatives through savings and dividends in membership shares. The income from the non-forest timber products will improve the financial status of the communities. Finance is accumulated in liquid form it will help communities withstand shocks through converting in to different livelihood requirements unlike without OFLP scenarios. 4. Physical capital: OFLP will build communities capacity to access clean and affordable energy, securing better quality shelter, ability to afford agricultural equipment for improved productivity through agricultural intensification, and other basic infrastructure. 5. Social capital: networking within their communities, membership to PFM and other OFLP related cooperatives which often bring about adherence to mutually agreed rules, norms and sanctions enhances the community’s connectedness. Besides, it will help communities develop trust and cooperation in accessing or use of forest and non-forest resources that strengthen social capital. It also enhances their capacity to negotiate, consult and decide about the matters that affect their livelihoods and living contexts. The quality and frequency of community consultations and empowerment activities will determine the development of good forest governance system, transparency in resource management and avert the risk of corruption (elite capture). OFLP will make use of local institutions of grievance redress and resource management, which in turn enhances social capital. 6. Gender: The OFLP will mainstream gender equality in sharing program benefits and strengthen grievance redress as part of citizen engagement aimed at listening to stakeholders and seeking their consensus on OFLP-related activities. OFLP activities would be gender sensitive, including such aspects as household energy demand management, household livelihoods support activities, community forest tenure piloting, and the scaling up of PFM structures. The OFLP benefit sharing mechanism design process, safeguards implementation, community participation and citizen engagement issues, would also include efforts to ensure and enhance female involvement. M&E indicators would be disaggregated by gender to inform OFLP’s adaptive management. 7. Policies and institutions: the benefits on this dimension could be explored at two levels, region and community. At the regional level, the OFLP will support the enabling environment establishment/strengthening of institutions, legal frameworks, fair play rules on forest related resources, benefit sharing mechanisms, safeguards, MRV, etc. The community based membership institutions gives the communities planned land use through agricultural intensification and enhances tenure security. PFMs serve as institutional systems for the local community to enhance the forest governance and building social cohesion. The cooperatives and affiliated institutions will give communities a bargaining power to negotiate on tenure security and influence the policy environment. The cooperative bylaws set rules and legally binding provisions among members alike to manage, protect, prevent and use the resources sustainably. 13.3. Potential Implementation Risks and Challenges 13.3.2. Land Governance Risks • Land tenure risks at Household and Community level: New global research is emerging that shows that community managed forests around the world tend to be more carbon-rich than other forests; as such, recognizing and enforcing the legal rights of forest communities presents an enormous opportunity to fight climate change (WRI, 2014) yet also presents a risk. Communities and landholders still face a perception of land tenure insecurity in Ethiopia. This is particularly important in forested areas, since individual land certificates are not issues. Although, PFM goes some way in addressing this perceived lack of security by transferring forest management rights to communities through contracts, this could be strengthened through individual land certification in forest areas (although OFLP is not financing this). The GoE, meanwhile is aiming to allow community tenure of forests if anticipated legal reforms in 2015 are realized. The GoE’s effort to improve individual land tenure is being supported outside OFLP through activities to improve land certification financed by the WBG-financed SLM Program and the new UK-financed LIFT program. • Commune Development Program (CDP) Perceived Risk: Although there is no geographic interface between this project and the Government financed Commune Development Program (CDP). There may be substantial risk, if the OFLP is perceived to be supporting the Commune Program in communities in which the Program has not been well implemented. In agreement with Government and based on the ongoing Alignment Study, an approach will be applied to ensure that the OFLP is not knowingly supporting commune centers/communities. To preclude and manage any perceived risk associated with the CDP, the Alignment of Operation procedure will be incorporated in the regular training of city/werada staff who are responsible for environmental and social management to ensure that this project is not knowingly CDP like activities or in any potential CDP area. • Land to Investors Risks: GoE has developed an attractive agriculture land policy which is encouraging many private investments (both foreign and domestic) in large-scale commercial farms to invest in Ethiopia. This policy is anchored on favorable land acquisition process; provision of infrastructure, and improving labor supply. Thus, the Federal GoE and regional administrations coordinate efforts and work together to this end. The Ministry of Agriculture has established “Agricultural Investment Land Administration Agency (AILAA)” under the Council of Ministers Regulation No. 283/2013 for facilitating agricultural investment along with land administration and transfer processes. AILAA has 3.6 million ha land to grant for investors in Oromia (almost one third 1,057,866 ha), Benishangul Gumuz, Gambella and the Southern regions. (Desalegn, 2011, Fortune, DEC 30, 2012 [ VOL 13 ,NO 661]) Thus, it is likely that OFLP may face land to investors’ risk. Community Consultation Identified Risks • Existing and potential PFMs Inclusiveness: While PFM is inherently participatory there may be concerns due to population explosion, demand for agricultural land and livestock stock increase in the PFM arrangement. This would lead to limited participation and little or no benefit for the community. The PFMs may exclude resource poor and vulnerable forest dependent communities might. • Inadequate attention to underserved and vulnerable groups: OFLP might likely face social concerns related to the existence of underserved and vulnerable groups in its intervention areas. These might be exacerbated by inadequate implementation capacity and understanding of relevant social issues. • OFLP Related Grievances and Resource use Conflicts: Communities and individuals in OFLP related operational sites may believe that they are adversely affected by the Program. OFLP might be challenged by the weak institutional capacity of traditional grievance redress and resource management institutions. In addition, restriction of access to natural resources due to OFLP intervention might induce resource use conflict among traditional seasonal migrant forest users including pastoralists. • Forest Governance and Corruption Concerns: OFLP may encounter forest governance and corruption challenges if the Program development opportunities end up benefiting the powerful, resource rich and the elite groups. At times, indifference of the local people including the leadership towards displaced persons and destruction of resources could be another area requiring improved governance during OFLP lifetime. Moreover, absence of guidelines and exertion of pressure on resettled communities might lead to social conflict. 13.4. Social Development Plan (SDP) for OFLP This Social Development Plan, as outlined below, will ensure that the OFLP implementation will respect the dignity, rights and culture of groups meeting the OP 4.10 requirements and ensure that these people benefit from the Program in a sustainable manner. The SDP could be revisited during OFLP implementation and further consultation undertaken for the underserved groups to ensure their full participation. With respect to the anticipated key risks and mitigation section outlined, the matrix below provides the summary of potential risks and challenges as well as recommendations. Table 33-Social Development Plan (SDP) for OFLP OFLP Potential Risks and Challenges Recommendations Component/Issues Component 1: Enabling Investments (US$ 10.8 million RE grant, 5-year period) 1.1 Land Use Land Tenure • OFLP should promote PFM to address Planning • OFLP could face challenges perceived lack of tenure security by support at related with existing weak transferring or promoting joint forest Woreda and land tenure at individual and management rights to communities using Community community levels due to the defined contracts Levels perception of land tenure • OFLP as a coordination platform will insecurity, mainly in the forest complement the GoE’s effort on rural land sector certification by encouraging other projects to • Forest demarcation if any (as finance, outside the scope of OFLP, the first part of the Integrated Land Use steps toward individual land certification in Planning) may induce conflict forested areas and result in relocation of • OFLP will address restriction of access people and restrict access to through its Process Framework resources 1.2 Extension • OFLP may encounter • OFLP Coordination Staff including Services resistance and low capacity to safeguard team at all levels should conduct adopt new technologies and intensive consultation and participation to practices in forest, agriculture, create awareness water, and energy sectors • Build capacity of actors at all levels to understand, promote and adopt improved technologies. 1.3 Forest • OFLP may face concerns in • OFLP-supported PFM promotion should Management existing PFMs due to draw lessons from ongoing PFM Investment in population explosion, demand interventions, ensure that the process remains Deforestation for agricultural land and consultative and participatory, and capitalize Hotspots (49 livestock stock increase on mechanism of non-forest based resources Woredas) benefits • The achievements of OFLP • Ensure broad based consultation and might be compromised by mobilization of communities during the limited participation and little formation phase of PFM groups to make sure or no benefit for the that communities draw proportional benefits community in conservation from forest resources and sustainable forest initiative such as PFM management • Conflicts may arise between • Allocate quota for vulnerable and PFM and non-PFM community underserved groups in PFM establishment members • Ensure establishment process of PFM groups is equitable, fair and participatory • OFLP implementation may • OFLP should be inclusive of relevant serve as a fertile ground for stakeholders, CBOs, GOs, NGOs, local external actors and influential institutions and influential individuals individuals for instigating conflict and/or disagreement • Restriction over natural • OFLP should allow communities to have resources, spiritual exercise, access for spiritual exercise use and ownership rights may create social instability • OFLP on the ground • OFLP on the ground investments should investments may obstruct allow communities to use the routes or community walking routes establish/identify reasonably convenient living on either side of the alternative routes. forest due to PFM area closure and conservation • OFLP may face challenges • Provide the necessary training and awareness in enhancing or introducing on enhancing existing, new livelihood and new livelihoods as resource alternatives alternative options to forest • Promote community based tourism (where it degradation and depletion is economically and financially viable, noting that OFLP is not directly financing tourism), and other nature-based or conventional small and medium enterprises for alternative livelihoods • Support the design of Forest Community based initiatives on sustainable forest management that will last beyond the grant periods • OFLP may encounter forest • Put in place a mechanism to ensure the governance and corruption resource poor and the disadvantaged are challenges targeted and included i. The Program development • Ensure fair representation and accountability opportunities may end up in forest related institutions such as PFMs benefiting the powerful, including underserved communities resource rich and the elite • Ensure that mitigation measures are applied groups impartially regardless of status, power, or ii. Indifference of the local connections people including the • Ensure that all forest related OFLP leadership towards guidelines reflect the issues and concerns of displaced persons and underserved and vulnerable groups destruction of resources iii. Absence of guidelines and exertion of pressure on resettled communities lead to social conflict • OFLP operation may induce Use context specific conflict resolution • conflict due to traditional mechanism such as, the Gadda system and/or resource access and utilization Awlia • Support traditional resource access and use mechanisms in different parts of the OFLP operation, including Godantu, Qobbo • ‘Illegal migrants’ or • Address the issue of squatters or illegal Squatters: OFLP may face migrants as a concern through the OFLP RPF challenges related with illegal and PF provisions: including compensation, migrants or squatters in its resettlement assistance, alternative livelihood operation area support and rehabilitation assistance Component 2. Enabling Environment (US$ 6.4 million RE grant, 5-year period) • Institutions • OFLP would likely face • OFLP should dedicate a safeguards sub • Incentives social concerns related to component to address operational risks • Information the existence of • OFLP need to carefully design safeguards • Safeguards underserved and capacity building measures Management vulnerable groups in its intervention areas • Ensure direct and all-inclusive community • OFLP may face inadequate consultation about OFLP understanding of relevant • Use OFLP communications and social issues participation strategies to sensitize the • OFLP may operate in underserved and vulnerable groups weak capacity and expertise within the government structures to deal with both social and environmental risks, properly mitigate and document the process • Communities and • Community consultations and participation individuals in OFLP should create awareness about the OFLP operation sites may believe Grievance Redress Mechanism to support that they are adversely citizen’s complaints or grievances in a affected by the Program formalized, transparent, cost-effective, and • OFLP might be challenged time bound manner by the weak institutional capacity of traditional • Use the Gadaa system in case grievance grievance redress and occur (Abbaa Allenga/Lagaa/Abbaa resource management Ollaa are the institution that serve the institutions community to resolve conflicts rather • Restriction of access to than the formal court) natural resources due to OFLP intervention might inflict conflict among traditional seasonal migrant forest resource users including pastoralists Vulnerable and underserved • OFLP will promote CDD-approach, groups whereby communities prioritize • The resource poor and the development activities and promote vulnerable forest socially-inclusive, participatory processes dependent communities might be excluded for planning, sub-project implementation, • OFLP measures might monitoring and learning. include or exclude certain In this way, the people directly affected social groups through the by the project activities will be treated process fairly and equitably; and project funds will be shared in a socially inclusive manner among different groups within communities, particularly the underserved and vulnerable. • Use the OFLP citizen engagement and participation plans to engage communities in the OFLP design, implementation and follow up process • OFLP operations may not • OFLP enabling environment and investment be gender sensitive and will mainstream gender and be gender women might be affected sensitive to address the strategic and differentially practical while ensuring equity in the OFLP process and screening of subproject activities will be done through the gender lens. • The OFLP benefit sharing mechanism design process, safeguards implementation, community participation and citizen engagement issues, would also include efforts to ensure and enhance women’s participation. Awareness and • OFLP would focus on increasing community communication engagement and participation in forest • The illiterate and management and decision-making of all disadvantaged groups of forest dependent groups and social class. the community might be • Boost capacity of forest dependent left out from the program communities to make their own decisions opportunities about community-led planning process • Some religious and social • Support channels where citizens and various groups might oppose the levels of government can work together in OFLP operation the context of implementation and • Changing attitudes may monitoring of community-led PFM antagonize local values • Support implementation with sufficient and beliefs for some awareness creation trainings and through full groups participation of social groups • OFLP should ensure that all consultations and awareness creation meetings respect the values, beliefs and identity of the people • Potential perception of • Ensure that the GoE apply WBG linkage between OFLP and safeguard policies in managing this the potential involuntary resettlement if and when it occurs resettlement in Bale Mountains National Park. Component 3. Emissions Reductions (ER) Payments (US$ 50 million ERPA, 10-year period) • Incentive for • Benefits associated with • Develop a well-consulted and equitable BSM greater uptake of emissions reductions for carbon payments to help incentivize sustainable land payments may not reach forest communities conserve and rehabilitate use actions the stakeholders (elite forest (An approved BSM is a requirement • Adoption and capture, exclusion of some for signing the ERPA) implementation of stakeholders, particularly • OFLP should preclude and manage safeguard a BSM by GoE- underserved and vulnerable risk through establishing a robust safeguard Oromia groups) system in the Grant period, and strengthened Government • OFLP during the ERPA during the ERPA period to ensure that the period may not maintain program’s citizen engagement, equitable the safeguards system or sharing of Program benefits, GRM and BSM established during safeguards risks management steps are the Grant period sustained beyond the Grant period; and GoE will allocate adequate resources (human and financial) for safeguards implementation/due diligence. 14. Observations and Recommendations 14.2. General The REDD+ program has full package of the right instruments to address the prevailing social and environmental problems entangling the forest sector in Ethiopia. It is the right instrument to effectively reverse the millennial process of deforestation and forest degradation in the country, if rightly implemented with the required institutional reforms. The causes of deforestation are deeply rooted in the economic, social, institutional, cultural, and political and governance layers of the country. The strategic options are designed to address these drivers at the respective scales and the impacts of those options are largely positive. However, in order to achieve the expected positive changes in the forest governance system, there must be commitment and strong will at the political level and work strategically to bring social behavioral change. As it is made clear in the assessment, there are very diverse array of stakeholders in the sector. Thus, for a successful implementation of the REDD+ program, continued engagement and dialogue with the stakeholders is essential to bring about appropriate reforms in the legislative and policy instruments and the implementation mechanisms. The level of awareness on REDD+ is generally low in the regions. Conducting awareness creation workshops, distributing promotional materials, and expanding support for local capacity building on forest sector development and law enforcement should be part of the preparedness process. In line with this, those areas that require capacity building support are educating the wider community about the intergenerational significance of forests and their habitats in general and the long-term environmental stability and agricultural productivity at the local level. In addition, issues in the awareness creation and education program to educate the local governments, investors and the wider public should include the role of forests in mitigating the looming climate change impacts, in enhancing local livelihoods and on the significance of law enforcement. There is sufficient and accumulated positive experience in the country on the practices of area ex-closures for environmental rehabilitation and biodiversity restoration. In some cases, farmland ex-closures are also introduced and successful results are reported. However, the practice of free grazing is a serious challenge for sustainability. Grazing management and control is essential to ensure sustainable forest conservation and degraded are restoration. Agricultural intensification is feasible in the current context, according to the information collected from the field observations. Nevertheless, availability of inputs and technology (equipment for line seeding or row planting and fertilizer application) are critically lacking. The other barrier will be the availability and cost of inputs, particularly improved seeds and capital. As the rural mass largely depends on biomass energy source (particularly fuel wood and charcoal) for cooking and lighting. Much of this is extracted from the natural vegetation including high forests and woodlands. From the regional assessment, the team has learned that there is increasing interest to initiate and be engaged in commercial tree planting such as community forests and industrial plantations. However, there are challenges in management and benefit sharing in the forest sector. Thus, such initiatives have to start with piloting with interested groups, farmers associations and local administrations. Positive results from such pilots can be scaled up later. 14.3. Environmental As learned from the field assessment, the views of great majority of stakeholders, road construction and mining activities are believed to have caused extensive deforestation in different parts of the country. However, there are no proper records and accounts on the magnitude and extent of deforestation caused by such activities. This requires to closely work together with the Roads and Transport Authority and the Ministry of Mines, Petroleum and Natural Gas in order to have accurate estimates of the destruction and thus, to avoid such destruction in the future. This also requires joint planning and implementation among the respective institutions. Invasive Alien species are serious environmental and social threats in most parts of the country, particularly in Afar and Borana areas, causing biodiversity degradation and loss. Therefore, the strategic interventions should consider controlling the expansion and dissemination of such species into new environments and support the eradication efforts. In addition, the quarantine system of the country need to be revisited and strengthen in order prevent the introduction of new IAS into the country. Forest demarcation is essential to protect and conserve the existing forests from further deforestation and forest degradation. However, the field assessment result revealed that some of the recently demarcated forests under the jurisdiction of the Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) are being cleared at an alarming rate and changed to ‘coffee and enset’ farms (e.g., in Odo Shakiso Woreda of the Oromia region). It has been a great challenge for OFWE to exercise law enforcement by the respective legal apparatus and the failure of the local administration to take corrective actions at the local level. Thus, forest demarcation has to be done very cautiously. It is generally recommended that the regional forest enterprises (OFWE, Amhara Region Forest Enterprise) have to get strong legal support to rightly administer the forest concessions. 14.4. Social The experience in the country for benefit sharing is scanty. There is no good model of such a mechanism to build on for the REDD+ process. The proceeds collected from different sources in different types of forest conservation associations (e.g., PFM and JFM), are not properly shared to those who have formed the legal associations. Therefore, the benefit sharing mechanisms in those existing forest management initiatives are subject to further tests before adoption. Gender disparity is a reality when it comes to resource ownership and entitlement for women and men, especially in the rural areas. Hence, women are economically and culturally disadvantaged groups, which often lead to women being engaged in exploiting “free access” resources to generate their own income (e.g., fire wood and other forest products). Therefore, gender mainstreaming in development plans and programs (that can benefit both women and men equally) is essential for the success of REDD+ Program. The program’s anticipated social impacts have triggered OP/BP 4.12 and OP/BP 4.10, and the program has put in place mitigation mechanisms acceptable to the World Bank to mitigate these impacts. For impact on land and properties, the Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) will be used and for restriction of access, Process framework will be used to address any potential impacts, which are expected to be site specific. The Bank’s OP 4.10 is triggered based on the screening conducted by the World Bank and reinforced by the constitution of Ethiopia, which indicate that the majority of the target population identify themselves as having the characteristics defined under OP 4.10. Therefore, issues relating to PAPs meeting the OP 4.10 requirements is defined in detail through “Enhanced Social Assessment and Consultation,” (part of this SESA) which identified social issues and economic opportunities for the underserved groups. Key stakeholders have been consulted in the Woredas, Kebeles and communities, including identified vulnerable and undeserved groups to seek their broad support for the program and the importance of the program to themselves and their families. The findings of the enhanced social assessment and extensive consultations, including measures to ensure the provision of grievance redress, and benefit sharing issues, and the identified mitigating measures are incorporated in the design of OFLP. 14.5. Legal, Institutional and Policy The Federal forest proclamation designates forest ownership as state (government) and private. Community forest is considered as part of the private forest and is not treated separately. Whereas, the regional proclamations recognize community ownership separately with different provisions (e.g., Oromia region). Community ownership creates suitable opportunity to organize local farmers into user associations and beneficiary groups. Thus, there is a need to review the Federal forest proclamation clearly define and recognize community forest ownership as different from private ownership, which is crucial for involvement of the community in the development of the sector and for the implementation of REDD+. The GoE (2014) revised forest definition has a short coming that might instigate further deforestation in one particular vegetation type. The revised definition excludes shrubs land (less than 2 meter height), which covers quite extensive area in the country and this might instigate clearing such vegetation for other land uses or it might lead to the replacement of such natural vegetation exotic plantation forest species. Therefore, it might be beneficial if the height of a tree in the definition be lower than five meters so that important shrub vegetation species, which often have a height of less than five meter, and such vegetation types will be saved from destruction. Although REDD+ is recognized as an instrument in the CRGE to achieve the forestry sector emission reduction objective, other sectoral project formulations and implementations need to be aligned with the CRGE to reduce emissions and maximize a carbon neutral development gains. Review of the existing environmental instruments and discussions with stakeholders revealed that Ethiopia has no proclamation on strategic environmental and social assessment (SEA), other than the project based EIA proclamation (Proc. No. 299/2002). This may pose a challenge in the proper implementation of the SESA/ESMF in the future. There is a need to formulate strategic environmental and social assessment policy and guideline. This was also a concern shared by the Federal stakeholders such as the Agency dealing with issuing of agricultural investment lands. • • • • • • Review of the national draft ESIA (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment) guideline has revealed that it has essentially missed concepts on REDD+. Since MEFCC is currently reviewing the existing environmental law, it will be an opportunity to include concepts of REDD+ (e.g., the purposes and linkages of REDD+ to environmental sustainability) in the revised document. • • • • • Based on the discussions with stakeholders and the client as well as reviewing the relevant available documents it was learned that Ethiopia has no ESA (Environmental and Social Auditing) guidance. It is recommended the country should develop its own ESA guideline for carrying out environmental and social audit later after implementing the REDD+ projects. In the EIA Proclamation No.299/2002, development projects including agricultural investments that have impact on forest resources are required to undertake EIA and the EIA report to be reviewed by the competent agencies (regional or federal environment offices). The proclamation mandated the competent Federal agency and Regional environment bureaus to review the EIA reports to avoid conflicts of interest. Against this legal provision, the Federal agency (now MEFCC) transferred its mandate to the implementing and/or investment licensing sectoral Minsters to provide environmental clearance to projects. This violation of the proclamation needs to be reviewed and corrective measures have to be taken accordingly. Proclamation No. 691/2010 vests power to the MoANR to protect natural resources and conserve biodiversity. There is no clear definition of natural resources that it is mandated to protect and conserve. This is an example of overlap in mandates with the other sectors like MEFCC and will create gap in addressing key problems around the forest resources. Strong synergy is needed among the relevant institutions and organizations not only the traditional vertical relationship but also horizontal. Inclusion of traditional local institutions (e.g., Aba Gadaa, in Oromia, Gepitato in Sheo) will contribute to the successful implementation of REDD+ projects. The adoption of forest conservation experiences from the indigenous forest user associations such as WAJIB and WaBuB will significantly contribute to the successful implementation of REDD+ projects. There is a clear gap in cross-sectoral coordination in joint planning and implementation of projects and programs. This needs to be seriously looked at and synergy coordination office should be established and be accountable to a higher level of government. The national REDD+ program needs to build on the experience gained by some NGOs, such as FARM Africa, SOS-Sahel and World Vision Ethiopia and Ethio-Wetlands, in preparing and implementing pilot REDD+ and CDM projects, closely work with them in future projects. Though regional states (governments) seem to have their own laws and regulations, their implementations were observed as very weak because of poor institutional structures with responsibilities to handle the forest sector. Inadequate awareness of legal institutions has also contributed to the poor implementation of regional legal frameworks. As land is one of the major natural resources, it is not surprising that it has got the most regional concerns. Regional states such as Amhara, Oromia, SNNPRS, Tigray, Gambela and Benishangu-lGumuz established land administration offices to implement the Federal and regional land laws. In most of these regions, the land administration section was within the agriculture bureau. Later on, the Amhara and Oromia regions have established it as a separate bureau merging with environmental protection authority. Tenure right can be better ensured through strong land administration institutions that oversee equitable and transparent resource use. This requires improving the organizational structure and building the human power capacity in the fields of land registration, cadastral surveying, land laws, communications, land valuation and compensation. 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Ecological functions of bamboo forest. J. Forestry Res., 16(2): 143-147. 16. Annex Annex 1: Terms of Reference Terms of Reference (ToR) for the Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) and Environmental Social Management Framework (ESMF) formulation for the REDD+ Process in Ethiopia Part I. Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) 1. Introduction Ethiopia was selected as a REDD+ country participant in the FCPF in 2008. The Government started preparation of a Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) in April 2010, involving various analyses of the current issues around forest cover loss in the country through a highly participatory process. The final R-PP of Ethiopia, which was approved in Vietnam in March 2011, will cost about US$14 million to implement. The World Bank, as Trustee of the FCPF, has provided US$3.6 million for the implementation of key activities identified in the R-PP Assessment Note, leaving a financing gap of about US$11 million that would have to be secured from other sources. The activities include support to the national readiness management arrangements, support to the design of the national REDD+ strategy and preparation of the national REDD+ implementation framework. It should be noted that REDD+ is a key pillar of Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient and Green Economy Vision. The REDD+ Readiness process should ensure that implementation of proposed programs and activities will not cause adverse social and environmental impacts, while striving to enhance benefits for local communities and the environment. Countries participating in Readiness activities with support from the FCPF are required to undertake a Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) to assess the potential impacts from national REDD+ programs and policies, formulate alternatives and develop mitigation strategies. SESA offers a platform for consultation to integrate social and environmental concerns into the policy-making process of REDD+. SESA is complemented by an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF), which establishes the principles, guidelines, and procedures for reducing, mitigating, and/or off-setting potential adverse environmental and social impacts, enhancing positive impacts and opportunities, and otherwise guiding potential investments to-wards compliance with relevant safeguards. The SESA is a tool that seeks to integrate social and environmental considerations into policy-making processes, leading to more sustainable REDD+ policies and programs. It supports the design of the national REDD+ policy framework, including the National REDD+ Strategy. Objectives SESA aims to ensure that environmental and social issues and risks are ad-dressed from an early stage in the process of formulating REDD Policy and programs, and incorporated throughout this rocess. The specific purpose of the SESA is to identify opportunities that: Facilitate an understanding of the operating environment for REDD+ programs, including stakeholder analysis and the socio-environmental dimensions of the forestry sector in Ethiopia; Identify potential environmental and social impacts related to REDD+ programs in Ethiopia; (the SESA process should ensure full coherence and coordination with the ongoing institutional and legal assessment, including benefit sharing for REDD+ in Ethiopia, led by the WB) Design enhanced stakeholder’s consultation and participation approach to mitigate and/or enhance the identified impacts; Suggest methods and measures to mitigate environmental and socioeconomic risks during REDD+ strategy implementation; Scope of Work The Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA) will encompasses stakeholder analysis, a description of the initial social and environmental situation of the forestry sector in Ethiopia, an analysis of the possible impacts of different REDD+ strategy option scenarios, an analysis of impacts of different REDD+ alternatives and the verification of compliance with World Bank policies. 3.1. Major tasks Task 1: Identifying key issues and assessment of key stakeholders The consultants shall review and update the comprehensive list of stakeholders identified during R- PP development that are directly linked with the social and environmental impacts of the REDD+ readiness and implementation process, giving attention to the underserved populations and other forest dwellers. The consultants shall prepare a map of the stakeholder’s landscape including the positions and views of various stakeholders in the forestry sector, with a particular focus on REDD+ programs. The consultants shall identify and focus on those stakeholders who have been most actively engaged in the process so far and critically assess if any group of stakeholders has been left out of the process due to lacking awareness and capacity to engage with REDD+ discussions. Task 2: Initial description of the social and environmental situation of the forestry sector in Ethiopia This task provides an update of the diagnostic already done for the R-PP and draws on the detailed studies of environmental and social issues regarding REDD+. The consultants will collect, analyze and present basic data relating to the current environmental and social situation of the forestry sector in Ethiopia, including: A map of the forest dependent communities and under-served groups accessing forest resources (following the lines of the stakeholder analysis); Review of forest dependent community relationship to the forests from an ethnic, historical, cultural and economic perspective. Analysis of their attachments, access to and use of forest resources, including the formal/ informal institutions and internal mechanisms regarding the use of forests and equitable distribution of benefits from this utilization; Assessment of issues and options related to land tenure and land rights, conflict resolution mechanisms, and natural resource management and benefit sharing mechanisms; A summary of their views, concerns and recommendations for REDD+ program. Task 3: Outline the legislative, regulatory, and policy regime The outline of the legislative, regulatory, and policy regime (in relation to forest resources management, land use, forest-based enterprises, etc.) should draw from the assessment described in Section 2c of the R-PP template with a focus on any proposed reforms to this regime as part of the REDD+ strategy implementation. This part of the analysis must include: A review of relevant Environmental impact assessment guidelines, regulations and government policies regarding gaps for addressing environmental and social impacts/ effects including conflict and grievance redress mechanisms; Task 5: Formulation of arrangements for implementation The consultants shall prepare a description of the required arrangements for implementation modalities with a focus on the procedures for (i) screening and assessment of site-specific environmental and social impacts; (ii) the preparation of time-bound action plans for reducing, mitigating, and/or offsetting any adverse impacts; (iii) Coordination, facilitation, monitoring the implementation of the action plans, including arrangements for the participation of relevant stakeholders in such monitoring. The consultants will seek guidance from the REDD+ Coordination office, with inputs from the SESA, Consultation and Participation Working Group. Task 6. Review particular institutional requirements within the REDD+ implementation framework Review the influence and ability of institutions at different administrative levels (e.g. Kebele, Woreda, Zonal, regional, and Federal), also in view of their capacity to manage and monitor ESMF implementation. The analysis should draw mainly from the R-PP template but may propose new acts, rules and regulations, new agencies or agency functions, staffing needs, inter-sectoral arrangements, management procedures, operation monitoring and maintenance arrangements, budgeting and financial support. Particular attention should be paid to the new safeguard policies and requirements arising from the CRGE Facility. Task 7: Analysis of the possible impacts of different REDD+ strategy option scenarios The consultants will analyze the social and environmental impacts of each strategic option. This will help the implementing agency to move the program in the right direction for poverty reduction, environmental protection, socioeconomic development and the protection of traditional rights and biodiversity. TASK 8: Preparation of final SESA documents Compiling of a SESA consultation reports process report that provides the findings and recommendations that have emerged from the SESA process. This will be an inclusive documentation of the SESA specific consultations; This report would, at a minimum, achieve the following: Identify the key REDD+ social and environmental impacts emerging from the SESA analyses and consultations. Based on analyses and consultations, describe the policy, legal, regulatory, institutional, and capacity gaps to implement REDD+ and to manage the key environmental and social issues relevant to REDD+. Identify, analyze, evaluate and mitigate/enhance impacts of policy options so as to maximize the positive impacts and avoid or minimize the negative ones. Present recommendations for REDD+ policy design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation (including legal and policy reforms) based on the results of the SESA. Formulate policy recommendations for a policy framework to address key environmental and social impacts, and for addressing institutional and governance weaknesses. Identify any gaps in knowledge where additional data-gathering and analysis may be needed. Refine REDD+ Strategy options as outlined in the Ethiopia R-PP. Prepare an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF). The ESMF would apply to future REDD+ activities in the country financed through UNFCCC, the FCPF, UN-REDD or by other donors willing to use safeguards governing programs developed under the three processes. Task 9: Present preliminary findings on Environmental & social risks and gaps Present preliminary findings on Environmental &Social risks and gaps from the assessment work and analytical work undertaken. The preliminary findings will be presented to the stakeholders to stimulate a discussion and further en-rich the document. Task 10: Enhanced and targeted stakeholder consultation The consultants should seek to carry out targeted consultations on the REDD+ strategy options for Ethiopia, paying particular attention to the forest dwellers and the under-served populations. These consultations should be culturally appropriate, taking into account the diversity of Ethiopia people, regions and languages. These consultations should target all relevant stakeholders, including in the Woredas, and Kebeles. 4. Methodology According to the scope of work, the ToRs outline a SESA process which should be followed in delivering the required work. The SESA process includes six stages, namely, Preparation for the SESA; Collecting and analyzing baseline; Scoping; Developing alternatives; Assessing the alternatives; Developing management and monitoring plans. The Six stages of the SESA process may have to be followed in an iterative manner. However, the SESA Task Team shall maintain all assessment activities systematically and consistently. Preparation for the SESA; Preparation works include finalizing the SESA ToR; securing the support from relevant government agencies and the National REDD+ Steering Committee; setting the objectives of the SESA; and identifying stakeholders and interested groups. During this stage, the SESA Task Force and SESA consultants should also be able to establish a basic understanding of the current situation regarding REDD+ policies/strategies in Ethiopia, their linkages with other relevant policies/regulations, as well as environmental and social development objectives. Collecting and analyzing baseline data Based on the understanding of the context, the consultants/firm will start collecting and analyzing the baseline information that is necessary to identify the relationship between REDD+ policies and land use; existing environmental and social issues related to REDD+ policies; policy and institutional gaps; and key stakeholders that are associated with these issues. This can be achieved by re-viewing all previous studies carried out or other sources identified by the SESA Task Team, including the study on the drivers of forest deforestation and degradation. Scoping The scoping process is to establish pertinent (key) issues for the next detail assessment i.e. SESA, identify relevant criteria for assessment, and conduct stake-holder analysis/mapping. At this stage, extensive consultations shall be held with key stakeholders and interested groups. A scoping report should be pre-pared to record these findings to inform the remaining stages of assessment. Developing alternatives and proposing mitigation measures With the input from scoping and adverse issues/risks identified, work at this stage will identify alternatives for the REDD+ policies/ strategies and proposing mitigation measures where alternatives may not be feasible. Assessing the alternatives and mitigation measures This stage will conduct scenario analysis for the alternatives identified. The purpose of the analysis of these possible options is to inform the formulation of REDD+ policies/strategies by identifying opportunities to enhance benefits for local communities. This will also involve summarizing the key challenges/gaps in implementing new REDD+ policies/strategies, and discussing possible trade- offs. The SESA Task Team will propose recommendations on the institutional capacity needed, formulation and implementation of REDD+ policies/strategies. Developing management and monitoring plans This stage will formulate an ESMF that will be implemented to follow up on the recommendations and issues/risks found from the preceding stages. By the end of this stage, the SESA process report, which includes the ESMF, will be formulated and consulted. PART II. Terms of Reference of Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) Background For all REDD+ activities, it will be important to ensure that potential negative environmental and social impacts are minimized, while striving to enhance benefits for local communities and the environment. The Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) will help to provide a comprehensive framework on how to address potential adverse social and environmental impacts for future UNFCCC, FCPF and WB-financed REDD+ activities. The ESMF will describe the risks and potential impacts associated with projects and activities and will include adequate safeguard measures. While preparing the R-PP Assessment Note for Ethiopia, several World Bank (WB) safeguards were highlighted in the Integrated Safeguard Data Sheet (ISDS) to be triggered by the REDD+ activities in Ethiopia: Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01) Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) Forests (OP/BP 4.36) Pest Management (OP 4.09) Physical Cultural Resources (OP/BP 4.11) Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12) OP/BP 4.10 2. PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES The ESMF supports an examination of the risks and potential impacts associated with one or more projects or activities that may occur in the future. The Framework sets out the principles, guidelines, and procedures to assess environmental and social risks, and proposes measures to reduce, mitigate, and/or offset potential adverse environmental and social impacts and enhance positive impacts and opportunities of said projects, activities, policies and /or regulations The ESMF incorporates procedures for: In-depth voluntary consultations with concerned stakeholder groups to seek their broad support; culturally-appropriate capacity building measures; Environmental and social impact screening, assessment, and monitoring; and The inter-institutional arrangements for the preparation of time-bound action plans for mitigating adverse impacts. ESMF will provide the overall framework for addressing social and environ-mental risk management issues in REDD+ activities that are implemented be-yond the readiness preparatory work. The measures recommended by the ESMF apply to future REDD+ interventions financed by the World Bank as well as by the Government or other Donors willing to use World Bank safeguards. 3. Scope of the work Task1. Development of an Environmental and Social Management Frame-work (ESMF), and a Resettlement Policy Framework The consultants will use the information produced by the SESA to describe the potential risks and safeguard issues for future REDD+ investments. In particular, it will include a description of: Indicative REDD+ strategy option(s), its main social and environmental considerations, and the various risks involved in its implementation; Legislative, regulatory, and policy regime (in relation to forest re-sources management, land use, indigenous rights, etc.) that the REDD+ strategy options will be implemented within; Potential impacts, both positive and negative, deriving from future activities associated with the implementation of the emerging strategy, and the spatial distribution of these impacts; Arrangements for implementing the specific activities. Prepare a Resettlement Policy Framework to indicate how the cases of resettlement (including restriction of access to natural resources) should be dealt with. This should be a stand-alone document from the ESMF. Task 2. An outline of capacity building actions for the entities responsible for implementing the ESMF The consultants will present a Learning Plan‟ that provides a detailed capacity-building strategy with measures to ensure that the ESMF can be effectively implemented. The consultants will recommend public and/or civil society institutions likely to conduct this capacity-building work and define the necessary budget. This capacity-building process could include institutional adjustments or procedures, recruitments or new assignments and training for national, local and regional institutional leaders and civil society organizations. Task3. Required technical assistance The consultants will identify required technical assistance by public- and private-sector institutions, communities, and service providers to support implementation of the ESMF. Task 4. Outline of the budget for implementing the ESMF The consultants shall provide estimated costs of the ESMF shall be evaluated for each measure recommended above. If there is no specific estimate, a methodology for estimating costs should be suggested. This estimate includes the needs for institutional improvement and training to apply the given safeguard measures. The consultants will present the ESMF in the form of measures incorporated directly into the REDD+ process activities (e.g., methodological improvements, supplements to recommended activities) so that it does not duplicate or overlap with the REDD+ process. Task 5. Provisions for Monitoring and Evaluation The consultant will design monitoring and evaluation system for the social and environmental impacts of the REDD+ process, with monitoring indicators and a corresponding evaluation procedures and methodology. Task 6. Dispute resolution mechanism The SESA process should identify key environmental and social risks that need to be addressed using a grievance mechanism that is accessible transparent, and culturally designed to consider local, and existing mechanisms in Ethiopia. A feedback and grievance redress mechanisms will be developed for REDD+ pro-gram in Ethiopia. Task 7. Preparation of a final draft ESMF and the Resettlement Policy Framework The final draft will have to be consistent with and contain specific sections ad-dressing the requirements of applicable safeguard policies. These sections will draw on information generated by the SESA and will take the form of free-standing chapters within the ESMF that will resemble the frameworks provided for in the policies themselves, including: Environmental Management Framework (EMF) to address any potential environmental impacts and necessary mitigation measures; Process Framework (PF) for situations of restriction of access to natural resources within legally designated parks and protected areas, as required by the World Bank Involuntary Resettlement policy (OP 4.12); and A stand-alone Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) should be prepared to address any potential land acquisition and/or physical relocation and restriction to access to natural resources, as required by the World Bank Involuntary Resettlement policy (OP 4.12); Public consultations on the ESMF and RFP will be integrated into the FCPF consultation processes in the country. Consultations should extend from the national level to the lowest level where site- specific projects and activities, if any, will be proposed, and implemented. III. Schedule and Deliverables The consultant will prepare a detailed work plan within two weeks of taking up the assignment. Summaries of the outputs of the various SESA tasks will be prepared to later be included in the SESA section of the R-Package. Initial drafts of the ESMF will be submitted within four months after taking up the assignment. Final versions of the ESMF (including the „Learning Plan‟ for capacity building) are expected within six months from contract signature. The two documents will include the outcomes from all the steps listed above. The presentation of the SESA and the ESMF will be complemented by annexes containing all supporting data, supplementary analyses, consultation reports with summaries of key issues identified, suggested mitigation measures, as well as lists of participants in specific activities. Past Experience in conducting Environmental and Social Assessment in Ethiopia. Process/approach considerations Building on from what exists The Oromia Welfare state is already in the process of designing an Emissions Reductions program. The National REDD+ process, will heavily borrow, and learn from that process, as a pilot to inform the SESA process in the National program. In addition to international best practices, there are also various examples with-in Ethiopia that will be used as starting point in creating a safeguards system for REDD+. The Federal Environmental Protection Authority (FEPA) has developed a set of environmental impact assessment guidelines which will be re-viewed to assess which aspects are relevant and can be adapted to a REDD+, SESA, ESMF. The Government of Ethiopia and the donor partners of the, including the World Bank, have undertaken an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on various projects and programs including the Humbo Natural Regeneration project, which is a CDM project. This included social aspects with the aim of generating lessons to build sustainable community assets. In addition to this there are various EIA and social impact studies from different projects which will also be re- viewed. Of more direct relevance to REDD+ are a number of studies in the Bale Mountains on the feasibility of forest carbon activities. These studies included elements of social and environmental impact assessments and have been completed as part of a REDD+ pilot project development by the implementing NGO: Farm Africa/ SOS Sahel. This pilot project has carried out a legal due diligence report including information on the ownership of emission reductions. This NGO has also undertaken feasibility studies for the Bale REDD project for which they modeled household use of forests (e.g. biomass needs) so that a baseline for social impacts can be developed. The Humbo project, run by the local community and mediated by World Vision Ethiopia and supported by the World Bank, and a grass land carbon sequestration project, ran by Save the Children US, both conducted various environmental and social feasibility assessments. This has generated many useful lessons not only in terms of the findings of the social and environmental impact assessments, but also with regards to designing and implementing appropriate mechanisms for impact assessment. Annex 2: Sampled Sites and GPS Points Region Zone Woreda Kebele Easting Northing Afar Zone-3 Gewane Gelela Dura 674801 1123452 Gebeyabora 676998 1129652 North Shewa Tarmaber/ Wofwasha 583208 1081256 Debre-Sina Debre-Meaza 582412 1084475 Gondar Metemma Das Michael 192946 1410810 Amhara Metemma LemlemTerara 208019 1402314 Banja-Shikudad/ Askuna abo 250534 1215129 Awi Senkessa 254418 1213287 Kosober Asosa Bambasi Mender 40 694140 1095181 Benihangul- Mender 42 670424 1067037 Gumuz Asosa Amba 14 669115 1112816 Asosa Amba 17 668795 1096227 Anuak Abobo Okunu 678274 871991 Chobo Ker 672822 871954 Gambela Goshine 727173 812551 Mezenger Godere Gelisha 750933 821595 KelemWollega Anfillo Ashi 685759 956722 Duli 683836 957000 Gachi 692982 1084304 Yayo Wabo 696472 1085436 Illubabor Gordomo 779796 883239 Didu Kochi-Gechi 777730 877020 Harena Bulk Shawe 575138 710914 Bale SoduWelmel 571293 710622 Dinsho (BMNP) Hora Soba 586779 784856 Zolo-Ababo 582558 785464 Oromia West Arsi Dodola Deneba 519526 768382 Berissa 525233 772244 Jima Gera GuraAnfallo 193448 844807 Genji Chella 197933 857216 Guji Odo Shakiso Suke Kuto 470646 652948 Hangedi 470757 652861 West Shewa Jibat Maru Jibat 329154 965496 AbeyiReji 321184 963234 West Midgdu 635324 953245 Anchar Hararghe Dindin 640279 959740 Region Zone Woreda Kebele Easting Northing Arba Minch Kechema Gamo-Gofa 338155 657381 Zuria Ocholo Zeyise Eligo 324098 645038 Kafa Decha Awrada 190038 788248 Gedam 198301 796776 Bench-Maji Sheko Giz Meret 768722 784922 SNNPR Shimi 768129 782386 Wesha Soyama 477373 783056 Sidama Wendo Genet Wetera 457393 781688 Kechema Sheka Masha Ouwa 105531 866798 Keja 107948 868476 Jarar Yu’ale Dusmo 382396 907738 Somali Afweyne 381535 916706 Misraqawi AtsbiWemberta Barka-Adisbha 579455 1532916 Kelishalmini 583559 1508607 Tigray Mirabawi Wolkayit-Tegede Adi Jamus 332000 1528389 Mogue 336978 1552136 Annex 3: Summary of Field Assessment of other Regions Afar Most communities in Afar region are pastoralists. Pastoralists travel with their herds of camel and livestock where there is fodder and grass. But now days, people are starting to establish permanent settlement. According to the participants, such permanent settlements of pastoralist communities encourage forest development initiatives in the region. The livelihoods of the pastoralist communities in the region were severely affected by the widespread invasion of Prosopis juliflora. The invasion of Prosopis juliflora of the grazing lands has created shortage of grass for livestock which significantly reduced the livestock production in the region. On the other hand, some communities were benefited from charcoal trade in some woredas. In addition to the attempt to control prosopis through charcoal making, there is a Prosopis management initiative called Gewane Community-led Prosopis Management initiative working on physical eradication of prosopis. The Prosopis controlling initiatives like using the species for charcoal and other income generating schemes has significantly reduced the pressure on the existing natural forests and woodlands in the region. Key informants mentioned that there are conflicts that occur in relation to grazing land uses especially when resources are scarce. They indicated that conflicts are resolved traditionally by the clan leaders. There is traditional institution called Mada'aa which owns woodlands, shrublands and grasslands of their respective areas. Woodland and grasslands in the Afar community belongs to the clan members and hence every member has the right to use the resources. Grazing lands are divided into grazing reserves (called Deso in Afar language) and open rangelands to rationally use it. The division of the grass land into Deso and open areas is to feed particular groups of the livestock on different types of the divided grasslands. The region has rich mineral resources like salt, potash, sulfur, manganese, aluminum, marble, and gypsum which could be tapped as potential for non-forest job opportunity for forest dependent communities in the region. Although, the region also has tourist attraction sites such as the Awash National Park, Yangudi-Rasa Natural Reserve and the Dallol Depression do not benefit the community to the extent required and expected. There is very littel Awareness on REDD+ by the local communities and the local administration. They iterated that if the REDD+ iniative imposes grazing restriction in the rangelands, it will be very difficult to implement it unless there is a viable and acceptable option for livestock grazing. Amhara Community consultation, Focus group discussions, key informant interviews and household interviews were carried out with experts and communities at regional level, in three selected Woredas namely, Tarmaber, Metema, and Banja Woredas and 6 Kebeles of Amhara Regional State. Consultations at regional and Woreda level were done with experts from environmental office, agricultural office, NGO, energy, religious leaders, and local elders. Kebeles which are located near the natural forest of the respective Woredas were identified and two Kebeles from each woreda were selected for the survey. Group discussion (male and female groups) at the selected kebeles were done. In addition, interview with Kebele administrators, elders, key informants and three household interviews were made in each kebele. Gender and age category were considered for the consultations and group discussions made at all levels. The region has both high land and low land types. The high land forest of the region is dominated by dry afromontane forest characterized by Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falcutus and Olea europae whereas the low land part of the region is broad leaved deciduous woodland. The woodland forest include Anogeissus leiocarrpa, Boswellia papyrifera, Combretum collinum, Combretum molle, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Diospyros abyssinica, Ficus sycomorus, Ficus thonningii, and Gardenia ternifolia. The key informants at Tarmaber Woreda indicated that there are areas where the forest degradation level is high in the Woreda. However, the natural forest (Wofwasha Forest) is relatively in a better condition. On the other hand, the key informants at Metema had indicated that the forest in the area is at high risk due to high incidences of fire, encroachment of seasonal pastoralists from neighboring Woreda (Dembia, Chilga and far from other places) large scale agricultural investment for sesame and cotton farming and dwellers inside the forest expand their farm land. Moreover, the key informants and the discussants explained that Boswellia Papriffera, a plant species used for frankincense extraction, is under severe threat because of technical inefficiency during tapping for the extraction of frankincense. Dalbergia melanoxylon is also said to be under threat as it is smuggled to Galabat (Sudan). Consultation results at Banja Woreda also indicated that forest degradation in the Woreda is high due to additional and new land demand for agricultural expansion. To maintain the remaining forest and rehabilitate degraded areas, forest conservation initiatives such as PFM, NTFP cooperatives, were initiated in Tarmaber Woreda by the local NGO called SUNARMA. SUNARMA is working to transfer the existing forest practice to PFM practice for a better management of the resource. At Metema Woreda, ORDA (Organization for the Rehabilitation and Development of Amhara) has established PFM and all the PFM are planned to involve in alternative income generation activities. Some of the PFM groups already began the production of improved stove production (woman), poultry, goat and sheep rearing and ox fattening. It is indicated that there are cases when conflicts occurred between forest guards and individuals while trying to use prohibited forest resources illegally but did not remember any conflict rose between community members or among the members of the community regarding the use of forest resources. On the contrary, key informants and focus group participants had mentioned that there were conflicts in Metema areas between the local communities and the pastoralists, locally called “Mofer-Zemet”, on the use of the forest resources. It is also reported in Metema areas that there were conflict between investors and local community when the former tried to expand their land without the consent of the community. The local administration mediates (plays arbitration role) in cases of similar incidents with investors and local communities. Most of the conflicts were resolved through government intervention at different level. Communities had called for the long term resolution of the problem by government trough obliging the investors not to obey the rules of the country and checking the movements of the community from other areas. Finally, all the participants of the consultations and discussants at all level identified possible environmental and social benefits and risks of implementing REDD+ program and they also suggested the possible mitigation options to address the risks. These are already presented in the main report section. Benishangul-Gumuz The land cover of the region is identified as cultivation, grassland, shrub land, woodland and bamboo forest. Informants indicated that the region has the highest lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) cover that occurs as extensive pure stands or as clumps in shrub land and woodland in the region. They also elicited that the lowlands have extensive areas of woodland and shrub land with high deforestation pressure from agricultural investment and presence of patches of shifting cultivation. In a number of areas, the original vegetation was cleared in the late 1970’s for large scale resettlement, particularly around Pawe in the northern lowlands and around Asossa on the southern plateau. The key informant from the region mentioned that the region is endowed with different natural resources distributed in the zones of the region. Asossa Zone has the largest proportion of closed and open bamboo of the region compared to the other two Zones while Metekel Zone has the largest proportion of woodland and shrub land. Kamash is the second zone in terms of its forest coverage. The region’s forest coverage is degrading at an alarming rate as a result of population pressure, investment (private and government mega projects-e.g. Renaissance dam), illegal settlement, and agricultural expansion. There are forest dependent communities in the region. The implementation of the forest proclamation in the region is mentioned weak. There is an attempt of coordination of the sectoral offices of the region but this is not a written and binding or enforcing the coordination. There are problems of structural arrangement for the forest related management and working on forest. The population in the region largely depends on biomass for their energy needs which is one of the factors that put pressure on the existing forest coverage. Wide spread distributions of tse– tse fly the region largely affected the animal husbandry. There is a concern that investment in the region doesn’t follow the environmental requirements of the region as well as the country in general. Investment is one of the threats to the forest resource of the region. Illegally occupying forest lands, clearing and cultivating are activities being practiced by individuals within the region or those coming from outside of the region. Results of the key informants (KI) interview analyses indicated that the region’s forest resource management practice through PFM approach is found as a good approach because the approach made the forest dependent community involved in the PFM process and gave the benefit accrued from the resource. The PFM believed will also boost the production of honey in the region. Experiences of the FARM Africa in the region can be used as a spring board for REDD+ to easily tackle challenges the former faced. It is suggested that REDD+ should begin its projects with self- mobilized community for the management of the resources. The discussants in Assosa and Bambassi Woredas mentioned that the forest areas have not been managed and utilized properly and exposed to frequent fires. Land use change to agriculture is on the increase in both woredas. Bamboo forest encroachers in Assosa Woreda cut bamboo with no due regard to the maintenance of the stand. They further pointed out that forest fire is one of the prevalent problems, particularly in the dry season affecting the forest resource including the bamboo. In most of the traditions cutting trees is indecent and is traditionally prohibited. However, it was mentioned by discussants that forest resources have been destroyed in the areas, especially in relation with the resettlement programs (e.g., in Pawe Woreda). The participants of the discussions agreed that wildlife and tree cover and other related resources were destroyed and exploited beyond the rate of natural regeneration. It was mentioned that people draw their livelihood from freely available bamboo. Bamboo is everything for them and it is the only resource base for the Berta ethnic group. They stated explicitly that they have been using bamboo as the main livelihood for house construction, fencing, making tools for storage of crops, rope, making, fuel wood, household tools, and food. Bamboo is used to generate income for the community which the money is used for clothing, school fee coverage of their children medical fee. Local communities in the region always utilize the bamboo forest selectively and never exercise clear felling practice. Gum and raisin tree species are dominantly found in the region which is creating income to the local community and if it is properly managed to generate more income and help to conserve the forest resource of the region. REDD+ must work in creating awareness and provide chance for the local community to benefit from the existing natural forest and trigger how to promote forest friendly investment in the region. Partakers mentioned that if REDD+ wants to conserve the forest of the region, it should give emphases first on rescuing of existing forests in the region through integrated and participatory forest management system and also active engagement of the local community by equitable benefit share from the income generated from the forest resource. They believe that this helps to ensure sustainable forest management. Consulted experts explained that REDD+ needs to collaborate with existing initiative working on forest resource management of the region. The existing FRAM Africa forest related activities such as PFM , NTFP value chain that are carried out with the full participation of the forest dependent communities, will help REDD+ to achieve its goals through collaboration and experience sharing. The key informants further mentioned that REDD+ needs to respect and exploit the indigenous knowledge on conserving the natural forest. Finally the partakers in both Woreda concluded that addressing use right, fire control mechanism and proper land use are the prim issue to implement and achieve REDD+ goals in the Woreda as well as in the region. Gambella Region The forest proclamation of the Gambella region is similar to that of the national with the only difference of inclusion of lists of few trees that exist in the region alone (like Loplop, Thow and Rir). At present, agricultural investments are becoming threat for the rare, threatened and endemic plants of the region. In order to conserve those trees and other wild plants of the region, the key informant and participants of consultations recommended a thorough identification of the species and deploying a conservation mechanism in the region. Gaps also identified on capacity of human resource and institutions to effectively implement the forest policy and laws in the region. It was indicated that NGOs such as PACT Ethiopia introduced PFM in Godere Woreda but that were not successful due to the weak project exit strategy as reported by the participants. There is a fear that new attempt of PFM installation in the Woreda may be futile; hence, they suggested strong community involvement from the very beginning. At present, Global Climate Change Alliance in Kabo kebele is working on conservation of forest resource. Participants of the consultations and key informants acknowledged the effort of Melka Mahiber to register the forest of the woreda as UNESCO Biosphere reserve. In the region, trees that grow around grave yards of clan leaders are protected by all community members and do not allow to cut. Thus, similar practices can be scaled up to support conserve endemic rare and threatened plants. The region has no land use plan so far but currently working on the preparation of regional level land use plan with the federal government institutions (Ministry of agriculture, EWCA) and other stakeholders such as Horn of Africa Regional Environmental Center and Network (HoAREC&N). Settlement has been practiced in the region since the Derg regime and woredas are still working on settling forest dweller communities in villages (e.g., the Messenger). The participants appreciated the settlement program as it helps to protect the forest. They also mentioned that resettlement in a village will enable them to access infrastructures like electricity, potable water in the future. Therefore, resettlement is considered as an opportunity that supports the forest development attempts in the region. There were and are large numbers of refugees from South Sudan migrated and being migrating to the region. The migrants totally rely on the forest resources. They cleared forests to make shelters, get construction materials and fuel wood mentioned as the major cases of deforestation and forest degradation. Hence, it was suggested by participants that the government should consider resettlement of migrants and refugees to be carried out in non-forest areas and simultaneously supply them with alternatives for shelter and fuelwood uses. There is no forest fire protection system in the region. Communities involve in suppressing forest fire whenever the incidences occurs. UNHCR has adopted a system of fire protection around the Refugee settlement areas within 10 km radius of the Refugee centers. It is recommended that the following income generation options to be implemented in Gambella region: 1. The Shea tree Wudo (Vitellaria paradoxa) fruit is used to produce expensive ointment and detergent. Community cooperative establishment on the value addition and value chain will help as good income source to the community. 2. Farmers in Godere Woreda do not use inorganic fertilizer. Hence, market opportunity creation for the organic agricultural products will create opportunity that farmers will not move to the forest for additional land acquisition when what they owned exhausts of nutrient. 3. Develop and enhance the fishing business in Alwero Dam and Baro Rivers. Somali Region The Somali communities are highly structured and anchored in the system of clans, sub-clans, and sub-sub clans. The systems forms the basis of much of the core social institutions and norms of traditional Somali society, including personal identity, rights of access to local resources, customary law (xeer), and support systems. This traditional and cultural system is very important for the protection, management, and proper utilization of the natural resources including grazing lands. In Somali region, small woodlands are administered by private household while large forests are administered by the clan leaders. The clan leaders and elderly people of the community make decision on the utilization, protection, and timing of grazing, browsing of grazing land, bush land or woodlands. It is indicated clan leaders/elders and community members began involving in joint planning of natural resource management. There are reported cases when conflict arose between communities on the use grazing land which traditional clan leaders, who are highly respected members of the Somali community, resolved the cases. In Somali region, erratic rain fall and water scarcity are the major challenges the natural resource development has faced which this in turn will affect the implementation of the REDD+ projects. To overcome the water scarcity problem of the region, there is a traditional water harvesting practices known as birkads. This might be one entry strategy for the REDD+, supporting this local efforts and providing other possible alternatives to address the problem. In a concluding remark, it was indicated that the social structure in Somali region is used for almost all social, cultural and resource management system. Any members of the community strongly respect the rules and regulations of the clan leaders. Thus, the clan system is very important for the protection, management, and proper utilization of the natural resources as well as implementation of the REDD+ projects. SNNPR Stakeholder consultations, focus group discussions, key informant and household interviews were carried out during the preparation of this report. Administrators, experts from governmental and non-governmental organizations, representatives of community members (i.e. community leaders, elders, religious leaders, women, minorities groups and youth) were invited and take parts at all levels. During the Community consultation/ meetings various aspects of the REDD+ program, REDD+ strategic options to reduce deforestation and forest degradation, benefits and risks of implementing REDD+ strategic options as well as community related issues were discussed and the finding of the consultations were summarized as follows: 1. Both the key informants from the region and the selected Woredas results had indicated that the combined effects of population pressure, drought, migration and settlement from the other regions, large number of livestock, large scale agricultural investment and coffee plantation in the forest were identified as the major drivers of deforestation in the region. 2. According to the information obtained during focus group discussion and key informant interview, in most of the forest area of the region, the livelihoods of people are closely linked to the forests that provide a range of benefits for energy and construction materials, to grazing and sources of (edible fruits) foods. Moreover, the information indicated that the livelihoods of forest dependent communities relay on none - timber forest product (NTFP). 3. The Key informants from regional offices explained that all the above phenomena exerted pressure on the forest resources as result forest resource of the region is found at risk. To overcome these problems Participatory forest management (PFM) arrangements which engage local community on forest resources management and share the benefit from the forest with the government is increasingly gaining popularity and being adopted in the forest area of the region for the effective implementation of sustainable forest management by some development support organizations. 4. Key informants in Decha, Masha and Sheko Woredas further indicated that Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is implemented in 8, 9 and 12 Kebeles respectively by NABU, FARM Africa and German Environmental Organization (GEO), Wild Coffee Conservation (WCC) and Ethio-Wetland and Natural Resources Association. They help the conservation activities through awareness raising to the community, assist rehabilitation of degraded land and afforestation programs and supporting the PFM association in creating market link for some of the Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) such as honey, Piper capense (timiz in Amharic), forest /wild coffee, cardamom and etc. 5. Discussion with regional and woreda agricultural office experts indicated that, the major perennial crops are Coffea arabica, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Citrus sinensis, Enset and Musa abyssinica. Maize, teff, wheat, sorghum, pea and bean are some of the annual crops grown in the Woreda. They also discussed the usage of improved agricultural practices like fertilizer, improved seed, sowing in lines is implemented in the Woreda. The major problems encountered in using these inputs is the high cost of improved seed and fertilizers. There is also problem to accept and adapt to new technology by the community. 6. Information from focus group discussions in some of the Woredas (e.g. Sheko, Masha and Decha) showed that the major sources of conflict arose usually at the beginning of PFM implementation due to problems of benefit sharing mechanism/planning. Conflicts are usually solved through negotiation between community elders. They also suggested that equal sharing of forest resources will help conflict not to be arise over forest resources utilization. 7. Focus group discussion with Menja community indicated that their live is so tied to the forest and any interference against the practice will disrupt the social system of the community. They acknowledged PFM is a good forest management practice and hoped REDD+ projects will also the same in valuing their attachments to the forest. 8. Household interview from the selected Kebeles of the region shows that livelihoods of the SPNN Regional State is of diversified type. The most characteristic product of SNNPR is enset (Ensete ventricosum) which sometimes integrated into agroforestry practice, a food unique to Ethiopia. Coffee (both forest coffee and home garden as an agroforestry practice) is the most valuable income generating crop for most of the people of the region. On farm and forest sources spices are also important commodity for the livelihoods of the people of the region. Livestock, forest and petty trading are some of the activities which the people in the region earn their livelihoods. 9. Finally, all the participants at all level identified all the possible environmental and social benefits and risks of implementing REDD+ program and they also suggest possible mitigation options to address the risks. These are already included in the relevant section of this SESA. Tigray Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is increasingly gaining popularity in some woredas of the region. PFM is initiated and implemented by SLM and GIZ in the region. Communities in some woredas are already benefiting from NTFP through harvesting high quality honey. Others are also extracting incense from the natural forests. For instance in Wolkait Woreda, 17 cooperatives produce about 2,000 ton of incense and generate 60,000,000 Birr per year. These cooperatives are playing significant role in conservation of degraded lands and forest protection. There are activities in the woredas to maintain the existing forest resources as well as rehabilitate the deforested areas. Farmer managed natural regeneration which includes area closure is considered as typical strategy to encourage rehabilitation of degraded land. Afforestation /reforestation practices for construction and fuel wood production under the ownership of individual farmers and community has been mentioned as another strategy for the forest conservation initiatives. The deterioration of supplies from natural forests and the increasing demand for wood products have encouraged farmers to grow fast-growing trees such as eucalypts in some woredas as woodlots. In sloppy degraded lands, perennial grasses such as Phalaris aquatica, Rhodes, tree Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania sesban were planted around and between terraced lands. Napier grass was introduced into irrigated sites. Cut and carry feeding system was introduced in all the intervened sites. The community set bylaws to protect forage development sites and was responsible for land preparation and planting. In the region, communities are engaged in watershed management interventions through biological and physical soil and water conservation works for 40 days of free labor a year for rehabilitation of natural resources, stabilize gullies, assist recharge of ground water, reforestation of upper catchment, reducing soil erosion and associated downstream siltation, regenerations of plant resources for increased agricultural productivity and improved biodiversity. Such community mobilization practices enables enhancement of forest resources. Despite the fact and all the efforts made in managing the natural resource, there are some members of the communities who engaged in clearing forest for agriculture. In some of the Kebeles, it was observed in Wolkait Woreda that fire was used to clear the forest to make ready for cultivation. It is understood that the Region has no forest fire controlling system in case of incidence of it. At the Woreda and Keblele levels, there are established conflict resolving committee composed of clan and religious leaders. The committee is active in Desa’a forest areas where there are conflicts between communities over the use of the forest resource. There has been a conference held to resolve such conflict with participants of being from Woreda of Afar and Wolkait woreda of the Tigray regions. In the conference, it is concluded that Tigray and Afar regional governments should make discussion to have clear border demarcation to resolve such problems permanently. There is a demand for land by the communities in the region suggested to be acquired by sharing from those who have excess. Sample photographs from the regions The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. Woreda Level Consultation (Sheko) Woreda Level Consultation (Arbaminch) The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. FGD with men group-Gambella FGD with Women group-Gambella The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. Key informat inerview-Gambella Forest land set in fire (left) and deforested (right) for cultivation in Tigray region The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. FGD with youth group-Gambella FGD with women group-Gambella The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. Consultation in Benishangul-Gumuz(left) and Tigray (right) SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 4: Field Assessment Summary of Environmental and Social Issues by Regions Region Environmental situation Social situation Prosopis juliflora became a threat to the environment (displaced Agricultural activity is very recent phenomenon. People woodland and range land). Gewane Community-led Prosopis are pastoralist Management initiative launched to tackle the problem Reported decline both in the livestock umber and productivity due Livelihoods in the region report that it is under high to prosopis juliflora pressure due to recurrent drought and famine, flash floods, disease outbreaks, bush encroachment, decline in livestock productivity, pastoral conflict, population growth. People mostly live on safety-net due to the problem in the region Deforestation and forest degradation is due to fuel wood There is no road infrastructure to go through the shrub Afar collection, grazing and browsing, and illegal charcoal production land and bushland No Conservation initiatives (PFM, NTFP) 90% of the Afar region is dominated by pastoralism as a way of life Afforestation/Reforestation Human settlement is determined by the availability of Has focused on neem tree feed sources for the livestock No land use plan No Community participation in the watershed management reported Traditionally, the grazing land is divided into grazing reserves woodland, shrub land and grassland are managed by (locally called-Deso) and open rangelands. traditional institution called Mada'aa Land management and ownership is by the clans of the community Plantation is mainly composed of exotic species (Eucalyptus spp. Subsistence agriculture is the major livelihood of the and Cupresus lustanica) and indigenous species (Juniperus rural community Amhara procera) Community greatly mobilized for watershed management to There is no infrastructure inside the natural forest. rehabilitate degraded areas Community initiated road and lodge constructions observed at Wof-Washa Forest 243 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Region Environmental situation Social situation PFM initiatives launched by a local NGO( SUNARMA) in the region Community around the forest observed utilizing non- (Wof-Washa Forest) timber forest product (mainly honey) but no other forest products. Annual afforestation/reforestation carried out in the region by the Fuelwood is the main source of household energy Amhara Region Forest Enterprise, community and individuals. Agricultural extensification was reported the main threat to forest Grievance between forest guards and community in the region reported over the use of forest resources. Grievance redressed mostly in traditional way-Shimgilina Livestock grazing inside the forest is a common activity There are traditional institutions such as Edir, Kere, Shimglina,Mahiber, Debo, in differetn parts of the region The region has 80,557 ha natural high forest and 494,564 ha The livelihood of the community is generally from woodlands, shrubs and bamboo forest traditional and undiversified source which mostly aim to meet daily needs and consist of traditional gold mining, Benishangul Gumuz sell of fuel wood, gathering wild honey, hunting, farming through slash and burn system. The natural resource degradation in the region is the result of Forest is owned by government, private and community state sponsored resettlement program (during Derg regime), in the region. investment, Sudanese migrants, encroaching highland neighbors, spontaneous immigrants, forest fire and absence of well-defined land use policy. There is Participatory Forest Management introduced and run by Animal husbandry is limited by Tse–tse fly FARM Africa Deforestation and forest degradation is found due to agricultura The livelihood of the community depends on fishing, investment/expansion, refugee settlement from Sudan and South wild meat hunting, Shea butter tree utilization and Gambella Sudan and forest fire. Shifting cultivation is practiced in the region organic farming. and hence thought of affecting the forest situation. Livestock als o re causing forest degradation-pastoralists coming from neigbouring and other countries in search of grass and refuge th harsh climate 244 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Region Environmental situation Social situation No PFM is experience so far in the region but an NGO Household energy for the rural community is from (Mekaneyesus church ) to launch at Godere forest fuelwood and charcoal No land use plan but Ministry of Agriculture began preparing it with HoAREC coordinating Agricultural investments are converting forest lands into agricultural lands There are PFM groups at different parts of the region (WAJIB, The livelihoods of the community in the region is so WaBuB, and others at Chilimo, Ilubabor, Gerjeda and other diversified. Agriculture, livestock and coffee are the forests) main ones. Coffee plantation in the West, South and South East and Enset Traditional grievance redressing mechanism is through plantation in the South East parts of the forest of the region highl Gadaa System- a system that developed well and used fo affected the forest both in quantity and quality (deforestation and hundreds of years. In case grievance occurs, the forest degradation) community opts for the traditional arbitration than government institutes such as court. Abbaa Lagaa/Abbaa Ollaa is the institution that serves the community as a traditional court. Oromia Mining in Shakiso (gold) and Illubabor (coal-under construction) Private forest exists in the region (West Wollega) have brought deforestation The major problems observed in the region are, deforestation, soil Limited participation of the community in conservation erosion nd siltation, forest fire, decline in land productivity, drying initiative such as participatory forest management due of rivers and springs and gully formation. to no or little benefit from the resource The main drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are The communities in the region values forest most. They fuelwood collection, high demand for construction materials, do not cut without replacement. expansion of agricultural land, extraction of timber and charcoal making. Most of the forest of the country found in this region (about 70% Communities in the region strongly claim that they are of the forest of the country). not benefitted from the resources they have been protecting for years. 245 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Region Environmental situation Social situation The livelihood of the community is based on coffee It is the second most forested region, after Oromia. Deforestation due to coffee and enset plating in the forest is found a seriousfarming, agriculture and livestock husbandry. Enset problem the forest are facing in the region. (Ensete ventricosum) is an important food crop in the region. Spice production (from the forest and garden) as Agricultural extensification was also found a threat to the forest well as non-timber forest products support the livelihood of the community. SPNNR Chat (Catha edulis) has been an increasingly planted product in recent years. NGOs (such as World Vision, FARM Africa/SOS Sahel Ethiopia, Peoples like Menja, Surma, Sheko, etc. are so much tied Ethio-Wtlands, Melka-Mahiber) were found collaborating with the with the forest for their livelihood-called forest government institutes to rehabilitate degraded areas dependent community It is the region that is most densely populated (more than 100 people per square) n The region is endowed with vast area of woodland forestsThe livelihood of the community is dependent o Deforestation in the region is due to charcoal making for localivestock husbandry (pastoralist community). Charcoa e consumption nd export to Somali Land. making as a livelihood business is becoming an attractiv Commencement of small scale farming, high number of livestoc business. Chat (Catha edulis) business is substantiall and refugees living in the area threatened the woodland forest o support the livelihood of the people of the region Somali the region. High sand invasion is also found a threat to the fores and the people as well. Recurrent drought and shortage of rainfall characterize the region With the irrigation scheme installation, people began cultivating crops and vegetables. Huge market for livestock and their products but there is acute market problem. Drivers of deforestation and degradation in the region is reported Livelihood depends on agriculture and animal husbandry to come from high fuel wood consumption, illegal settlers cameIncome from the NTFP (mainly incense and honey Tigray from the Welkait sugar project area, Illegal logging, absence of landsupports people living near and adjoining the fores use plan and land tenure system problem. areas. PFM organized with men and women participation in forest The 1991/92 GC (1994 EC) land redistribution in the business (NTFP, i.e. incense) for income generation. region generously apportioned large size of land to the 246 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Region Environmental situation Social situation then few number of population. This has left now many people landless Afforestation/reforestation undertaken to rehabilitate deforested Majority of the community depends on wood biomass for areas their house hold energy sources Environmental rehabilitation with area closure is a well know Grievance redressed through religious institution, youth practice in the region and women affair and local peace and security desk. No report of deforestation due to road infrastructure 247 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 5: Stakeholder Analysis Checklist The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. 248 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 6: Lists of Participants (partial) Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Alemneh Asfa Male 0916014143 SNNPR Wondo Genet Dawit Dorimi Male 0916030221 " " Tamiru Tefera Male 0916098820 " " Mulugeta Muse Male 0911959997 " " Yisak Harkiso Male 0916868838 " " Fikre Haile Male 0923876575 " " Eneho Berhanu Male 0916130606 " " Girma Hankana Male 0937269899 " " Agegnew Ermias Male 091613902 " " Asnske Mengistu Male 0916131094 " " Konse Anno Male 0926174954 " " Mekonen Sarmela Male 0911044811 " " Selamawit Abera Female 0916380094 " " Bezaye Girma Female 0912006171 " " Sindu Bogale Female 0911075128 " " Saba Admasu Female 0913189864 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Tadele Sebsibe Male 0911905502 " " Wesha Soyama Kebede Kuyano Male 0911359234 " " " Yonas Eyamo Male 0926879790 " " " Jemayinesh W/Gebrel Female 0926237388 " " " Tigist Arshine Female 0927002570 " " " Betelhem Abiyu Female 0916665514 " " " Markos Shita Male 0912257857 " " " Donka Doyamo Male 0916614410 " " " Mateos Shoso Male 0916128063 " " " Abera Kebede Male 0934617411 " " " Didamo Hamara Male 1926591897 " " " Getachew Taye Male 0913538799 " " " Atnafu Lema Male 0916014685 " " " Meskerem Mulatu Female - " " Wetera Kechema Fikre Sarmiso Female - " " " Nigisti Nuguse Female - " " " Emesh Takele Female - " " " Tuse Lelamis Male - " " " Gosaye Tefera Male 0949157733 " " " Wondimu Goboro Male - " " " Sanbako Feyisa Male - " " " Lenidamo Leglamo Male - " " " Matiwos Fiche Male 0911789288 " " " 249 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Demesa Duuse Male - " " " Niguse Tuse Male - " " " Engidalem Tuse Male - " " " Fikre Beta Male - " " " Kirubel Ashebir Male - " " " Gezahegn Geremew Male 0917919133 " Decha Ashebir Wolde Male 0912328634 " " Zekarias Mekuria Male 0913502030 " " Shimelis Getachew Male 0911533706 " " Atinafu Abate Male 0917477316 " " Lisanework Geleta Male 0917936440 " " Kemal Muhye Male - " " Admasu Adaro Male 0935129297 " " Tamiru W/Gebrel Male 0917919910 " " Marino Piosagot Male 0917405011 " " Tilahun Asfaw Male 0916120310 " " Abiyo Atte Male 0917103991 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Asres Ademo Male 0910157018 " " Endale Keekamo Male 0912686664 " " Abuye Wodajo Male 0917060153 " " Yohanisi Alemu Male 0937145308 " " Melaku Mekuri Male 0910829624 " " Ayele Tefera Male 0913629766 " " Amina Hasen Female 0917384684 " " Zemzem Hasen Female 0910156527 " " Ayelech Mamo Female 0931094303 " " Almaz Bimirgni Female - " " Tesfanesh Mekuria Female 0917748734 " " Mekonen Uta Male - " " Gedam Brhanu W/ Mical Male - " " " Alemayehu G/ Mical Male - " " " Mitiku G/ Silase Male - " " " Belachew G/ Silase Male - " " " Getachew Wuleta Male - " " " Alemayehu Adelo Male - " " " Girma Mekonein Male - " " " Ayalew Kebede Male - " " " Brhanu Teka Male - " " " Kochito Belete Male - " " " Ademu W/ Senbet Male - " " " Aregash Ago Female - " " " 250 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Aregash G/ Mical Female - " " " Aregash Asefa Female - " " " Wuditu Wudeno Female - " " " Abebech Kasa Female - " " " Ejgayehu Bekele Female - " " " Alemitu Ado Female - " " " Azalech Abebe Female - " " " Wuditu Tasfaye Female - " " " Aselefech Asefa Female - " " " Tarikua Haile Female - " " " Azalech Tadese Female - " " " Bekelech Belete Female - " " " Felekech Mekonen Female - " " " Fikre Sisay Male 0917383939 " " " Tadese Wolde Male 0917477323 " " " Gezahgne W/Giorgis Male 0917608271 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Teshale Shiferaw Male 0924119559 " " " Abate Sisay Male 0935134181 " " " Geremew W/Mikel Male 0922746674 " " " Mesfin Mekonen Male - " " " Adamu Tafese Male 0939319378 " " " Zingbu Gero Male 0935171689 " " " Asaminew Maro Male 0927584735 " " " Ayalew Tafese Male 0928250191 " " " Gizachew Asefa Male 0943594511 " " " Bogale Gizaw Male 0923346929 " Masha Amsalu Haile Male 0917111455 " " Berhanu Zeleke Male 0917830831 " " Tamru Digo Male 0917830240 " " Aweke Gallo Male 0917101587 " " Tekle Shauleno Male 0947094842 " " Kifle Gebre Male 0917058534 " " Adisu Ambelo Male 0920518001 " " Amare Choro Male - " " Adinew Shetano Male 0917830829 " " Tewodros Sahile Male 0910976850 " " Tekaligne Achame Male 0924808690 " " Dejene Deseno Male 0917302934 " " Mesfin Abera Male 0912410356 " " Tekaligne Achono Male 0917111554 " " Abiyu Kasa Male 0917753436 " " 251 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Yewbnesh Mamo Female 0912446436 " " Asnakech Kodo Female 0910296234 " " Mesay Kebede Female 0910652676 " " Zenebech Zeleke Female 0917830222 " " Achamyelesh Ambcho Female 0917111547 " " Girma Senbeto Male - " " Uwa Wasihun Mamo Male - " " " Biritu Mamo Female - " " " Asefa Daino Male - " " " Sibatu Merga Male 0917310913 " " " Azene Haile Male - " " " Ayele Gobena Male - " " " Haile Gelito Male - " " " Tariku Awash Male - " " " Asrat Asres Male 0923428145 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Firehiwot Emru Female 0917831624 " " " Astarekech Tadese Female 0923346478 " " " Mulugeta Dessu Male 0923346554 " " Keja Endeshaw Shajo Male - " " " Emo Bishacho Male - " " " Awassho Harito Male - " " " Debebe Eshetu Male 0923070604 " " " Shibru Tola Male 0933220719 " " " Eshetu Deseno Male 0925285257 " " " Teshome Digo Male 0925717821 " " " Gizaw Gebre Male 0945641622 " " " Girma Fekadu Male 0917310911 " " " Alemayehu Gebito Male 0923346973 " " " Abezash Mekuria Female - " " " Asnakech Tekaligne Female - " " " Tadelech Gebo Female - " " " Mohammed Ahmed Male 0917152002 " Sheko Tatek Asefa Male 0912376864 " " Ermias Tosset Male 0917333056 " " Akalie Mekonen Male 0949013582 " " Argaw Sulamo Male 0927539772 " " Endale Belayneh Male 0924690782 " " Teshome Abraha Male 0917310404 " " Goji Kaisa Male 0913821046 " " Mengistu Mekonen Male 0917328593 " " Ali Shukralah Male 0921214238 " " 252 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Zerihun Kelbi Male 0910970655 " " Belachew Abiko Male 0911762508 " " Alemayehu Gebre Male 0924129522 " " Tegenu Gizaw Male 0919142182 " " Wendmagegne Atimo Male 0917331334 " " Alemayehu Getachew Male 0934268030 " " Serkalem Muhie Female 0912381671 " " Ibtistan Getahun Female 0935174309 " " Messaye Mohammed Female 091356029 " " Sintayehu Muche Female 0918641398 " " Asefu Gizachew Female 0918318725 " " Almnesh Ejigu Female 0917154225 " " Aster Tsegaye Female 0928255111 " " Giz Meret Mulu Hasen Female 0934788086 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Askal Abebe Female 0940260268 " " " Ali Adem Male 0927556309 " " " Birara Adese Male 0917330317 " " " Legese Tefera Male 0917310006 " " " Alemu W/ Mariam Male - " " " Ibrahim Seid Male 0917536142 " " " Bila Haile Male 0917347087 " " " Tesfaw Gebeyehu Male 0932022339 " " " Zelalem Takele Male 0917865980 " " " Dereje Bayu Male 0913732662 " " Shimi Pawlos Markos Male 0916559664 " " " Abebe Andarge Male 0917598567 " " " Lukas Domo Male 0931028363 " " " Samuel Gomerka Male - " " " Dachu Zilu Male 0921214233 " " " Daniel Baykif Male - " " " Zan Paulos Male 0928575396 " " " Alemayehu Haile Male - " " " Temesa H/Mariam Male - " " " Werkit Arega Female - " " " Fantanesh Yimer Female 0936092470 " " " Asegedech Abegaz Female - " " " Sisay Abera Male 0911166077 Oromia Anchar Yehualshet Male 0922772424 " " Mohammed Yuye Male 0912782433 " " Ababu Tasew Male 0915242882 " " Yeyis Takele Male 0927866581 " " 253 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Ednana Ushra Male 0910420203 " " Gashaw Haile Male 0935655753 " " Abaynesh Hailu Female 0922073922 " " Almaz Markos Female 0935835794 " " Gelila Jemal Female 0911549799 " " Ashu Tamirat Female 0924103836 " " Muliye Tilaye Female 0927306608 " " Mohammed Hasen Male 0924013700 " " Tadesse Jimas Male 0910746931 " " Abdurahman Dadi Male 0922772443 " " Ibrahim Kasim Male 0934923966 " " Alfanur Ahmed Male 0931286382 " " Sultan Hussien Male 0923972411 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Tilahun Shimelis Male 0970693458 " " Musa Mohammed Male 0921758998 " " Ziad Ahmed Male 0921184012 " " Hamid Hawaso Male 0923752177 " " Abdurahman Kedir Male 0937662476 " " Yidnek Wondimu Female - " " Dindin Alemnesh Gebre Female - " " " Tateme Fikre Male 0919557746 " " " Wegayehu - Female " " " W/Semaiat Ahmed Mohammed Male - " " " Nunesh Zeleke Female 0937483486 " " " Gosa Tamrat Male - " " " Yehualashet Roge Male - " " " Mohammed Sheke Male 0927306576 " " " Ibsa Abdelle Male - " " " Mohammed Ahmed Male - " " " Abiyi Ode Male - " " " Bayush Gisile Female - " " Midgdu Demeke Boni Male - " " " Amsale Haile Female - " " " Yesunesh Leul Female - " " " Selamawit Lule Female 0922045033 " " " Hasen Hussen Male 0931458408 " " " Ayele Nigatu Male - " " " Mesfin Lule Male 0928206619 " " " Neguse Abate Male - " " " Dagnachew Yosef Male - " " " 254 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Sinke Abate Female - " " " Hide Hullo Female - " " " Dinku Bekele Male - " " " Weynehareg Antewen Female - " " " Hasen Bedeso Male 0916005935 " Dodola Hasen Woliyi Male 0920355535 " " Maruf Mesud Male 0921359719 " " Sultan Genemo Male 0913467343 " " Mustafa Guye Male 0910959889 " " Yilma Zeleke Male 0920171078 " " Birhanu Wabe Male 0915830419 " " Bezabih W/Samayat Male 0926509987 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Kebede Aman Male 0912083126 " " Debebe Mekonen Male 0913624255 " " Gizaw Mengiste Male 0929446561 " " Tegenie Mulugeta Male 0933850242 " " Jemal Gerchu Male 0925724294 " " Leyla Neguse Female 0910089324 " " Genet Bekele Female 0920068189 " " Hajo Haji Female 0912265042 " " Fozia Kedir Female 0920067974 " " Jemila Mengistu Female 0920174404 " " Imayu Ayano Female 0924560742 " " Deneba Mituwat Taso Female 0927292569 " " " Jamarya Funi Female 0925391716 " " " Almaz Sobaga Female 0922671882 " " " Ansha H/Mikail Male 0920068434 " " " Goriba Herbo Male 0912975318 " " " Barso Dube Male 0928038272 " " " Ibrahim Jarso Male 0926473066 " " " Duba Gero Male 0910254087 " " " Gabayo Simes Male 0929324998 " " " Shibru Bariso Male 0916018251 " " " Eribo Guye Male 0921358779 " " " Kubri Fato Male 0912757123 " " " Umer Haju Male 0922701912 " " " Kadir Imiy Male 0916063730 " " " Jamal Jarse Male 0924935911 " " " Mohamommed Amin Male - " " " Hamdicho Guyyee Male 0949294687 " " " Hamu Fato Male - " " Berisa 255 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Muhammed Biftu Male 0910821193 " " " Ibrahim Anfote Male 0910976951 " " " Aman Roba Male 0938112106 " " " Ahmed Galato Male 0913895328 " " " Aman Haji Male 0923720874 " " " Kediro Gelgalu Male 0922701896 " " " Abdurazak Aljalil Male 0921711759 " " " Keki Hasen Male 0945814466 " " " Kemaria Koji Female 0912097511 " " " Amane Gamado Female - " " " Taiba Judo Female - " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Husen Kalilo Male 0921089258 " Dinsho Zalo Abebo (02) Abdure Kalil Male - " " " Ibrahim Kalil Male 0921394981 " " " Birka Kadir Male - " " " Aliyi Sheko Male 0916864427 " " " Abas Adamo Male 0921451137 " " " Ahmad K/Adam Male 0939519015 " " " Mohammed K/Adam Male 0912767166 " " " Aman Mohammed Male 0912315412 " " " Kadi H/Adam Male 0912315321 " " " Rukia Abda Female - " " " Hawa Abdo Female - " " " Muslima Mahmud Female - " " " Kemar H/Adam Male 0912315306 " " Haro Soba Kasim Wagritu Male 0913926716 " " " Amino H/Hussen Male 0921089736 " " " M/Jemal H/Said Male 0913968680 " " " H/Kadir Tufo Male - " " " Shlfaho Abdo Male 0922050436 " " " Mohammed Kadir Male 0910362386 " " " Alo Abdo Male 0920357895 " " " Locho Sube Female - " " " Amane Hagahiyi Female - " " " Yeshi Yesuf Female 0937822645 " " " 0960959587 Arba Minch Asefa Adeto Male SNNPR Zuria Kasahun Degeta Male 0923859857 " " Tamiru Tesfaye Male 0916277771 " " Asini Adamu Male 0913849745 " " Tobe Yemo Male 0920977998 " " 256 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Dawit Hencho Male 0913604442 " " Sisay Welda Male 0910653060 " " Addisu Getu Male 0910413322 " " Abel Boriza Male 0910726809 " " Hareguwa Tesfaye Female 0916064142 " " Muluken Gobena Male 0910094177 " " Degife Demisse Male 0913066729 " " Daniel Karma Male 0926386616 " " Solomon Wanke Male 0934238843 " " Bekele Amha Male 0939808286 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Maledworku Tumato Female 0913785359 " " Tesfu Abire Male 0916301023 " " Debalke Bocho Male 0923488558 " " Moges Markon Male 0936495841 " " Engida Yigezu Male 0910451940 " " 0916854433 Kanchema Ayele Adamu Male " " Ocholo Kama Kajuro Male 0916854433 " " " Bogale Koso Male 0913518916 " " " Mesfin Armacho Male - " " " Guza Gushe Male 0924704564 " " " Gobeze Bushe Male - " " " Matios Sherko Male 0910403509 " " " Goleze Gule Male 0921223478 " " " Misrak Tobe Female 0913688533 " " " Sheruru Seefu Female - " " " Kesemua Mohamed Female 0924705962 " " " Mulunesh Ticharo Female 0934760363 " " Zeise Elgo Workinesh Asefa Female - " " " Aselefech Koto Female - " " " Mulunesh Charkos Female - " " " Wolega Wodajo Male 0912781789 " " " Mengistu Gudisa Male - " " " Eyasu Baygo Male - " " " Shibru Gebre Male - " " " Tadesse Kungo Male - " " " Tegegn Tuchaso Male - " " " Wormale Wosso Male - " " " Abayneh Yilma Male - " " " Ojul Awthe Male 0917050026 Gambella Abebo Biyi Ogetu Male 0917486603 " " " 257 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Omod Kwot Male 0912489116 " " " Alebachew Tesema Male 0917486478 " " " Teketel Haile Male 0919114838 " " " Abang Obang Female 0948943707 " " " Andualem Misganaw Male 0913852529 " " " Othow Agwa Male 0917486522 " " " Othow Okello Male 0917834215 " " " Okugn Odol Male 0917939057 " " " Ojulu Ojulu Odolla Male 0925850239 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Didumo Oguol Male 0923347847 " " " Othow Obang Male 0927548167 " " " Othow Ochan Male 0917834854 " " " Will Otwelo Female - " " " Ajulu Uriaw Female - " " " Abenba Aliye Female - " " " Ajulu Uman Female - " " " Acacho Ubang Female - " " " Uman Omod Male - " " " Omod Ubanba Male - " " " Omod Ojulu Male 0927544445 " " " Omod Omo Male - " " " Adi Ololu Male - " " " Obangi Ojulu Male - " " " Umad Ojulu Alara Male - " " " Ugad Oujulu Ogado Male - " " " Abagera Ulok Male - " " Choboker Obangi Uman Male - " " " Ojulu Ublong Male - " " " Koronela John Male 0924906124 " " " Achemo Umad Male 0935143820 " " " Ojulu Ojulu Male 0945031112 " " " Ojora Ofom Male 0946517415 " " " Awele Giro Guware Female - " " " Ariadi Ofow Female - " " " Abiwo Opity Female - " " " Ajulu Chala Female - " " " Esamu Umer Male 0913223452 Oromia Harena Buluk Kalid Rube Male 0913394099 " " Muhammed Adem Male 0922510258 " " Isa Kaso Aman Male 0940313699 " " Hussen Muhammed Male 0926136826 " " 258 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Abebe Bekele Male 0920943409 " " Merga Geda Male 0916841749 " " Ramates Ulariyo Male 0925661031 " " Hussen Aliyu Male 0932312131 " " Kadir Adem Male 0920381915 " " Mohammed Hussen Male 0919264464 " " Ayenew Bekele Male 0912451152 " " Sufian Abdo Male 0922758285 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Abdu Ahu Male 0926627374 " " Taiba Abdulahi Female 0932143352 " " Nagasso Luke Male 0912812604 " " Shewangizaw Haile Male 0913601216 " " Tigist Milku Male 0921097559 " " Aman Ahmed Male 0913352066 " " Sodo Welmel Usman Mume Male - " " " Derga Hussien Male - " " " Derga Hassen Male - " " " Aman Abdulkadir Male - " " " Mesfin Merga Male - " " " Seyfu Adem Male - " " " Redwan Abafita Male 0922763126 " " " Jemal Abdulwahid Male 0927909065 " " " Gursuma Kedir Female 0932322092 " " " Fatuma Aliye Female - " " " Hawa Kedir Female - " " " Teyiba Teyib Female - " " " Zubeyda Hashim Female - " " Shawe Amane Adem Female - " " " Shemsia Ansha Female 0946583935 " " " Temima Hunde Female - " " " Esmael Adem Male - " " " Umer Kedir Male 0915745531 " " " Mahmud Adem Male 0927314010 " " " Ahmed Adem Male 0922672263 " " " Malim Hussen Male - " " " Umer Buta Male - " " " Hussien Roba Male 0924327520 " " " Husseinh/Mohammed Male - " " " Getaneh Asefa Male - Gambella Godere Kedir Yesuf Male - " " Sahle Biza Male - " " 259 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Tesfa Gefersu Male - " " Bekelech Tezera Female - " " Etagegnehu Chane Female - " " Bekelech Angelu Female - " " Mohamed Seid Male - " " Dejene Tarekegne Male - " " Tesfaye Abera Male - " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Genet Nigusea Female - " " Tesfa Gerso Male - " " Mesfin Kasa Male - " " Dejene Abebe Male - " " Dagim Tinte Male - " " Fantaw Wolde Male - " " Bizuayehu Siraw Female - " " Dechasa Gudeta Male - " " Yirgalem Wudu Female - " " Adisu Kasu Male - " " Gelesha Markos Wonji Male - " " " Enkias Lemket Male - " " " Petros Giltot Male 0948941646 " " " Aslot Bukoy Male - " " " Samuel Koresh Male - " " " Yakob Wagnat Male - " " " Zeinba Aron Female - " " " Gerna Wadiyo Female - " " " Merima Ayta Female - " " " Bereket Adisu Female - " " Goshini Tinbit Ramati Female - " " " Tseon Teshome Female - " " " Liya Markos Female - " " " Tobel Tekele Male 0946511373 " " " Enkasie Yohanes Male 0920333348 " " " Selamawit Werke Female - " " " Tut Dawit Male - " " " Libridos Bombom Male 09489441147 " " " Kibreal Equrke Male - " " " Daniel Kuamila Male - " " " Yona Kamila Male - " " " Gorume Wodajo Male Oromia Yayu Wobo Kebede Hordofa Male - " " " Teka Dabola Male - " " " 260 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Yadata Doba Male - " " " Fetene Bulcha Male - " " " Geremwe Nuru Male - " " " Firdi Kena Male - " " " Nuru Gebeyhu Male - " " " Adugna Gebeyhu Male - " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Tekalegn Lema Male - " " " Getachew Tesema Male - " " " Getu Befirdu Youth - " " " Yeshi Tesfaye Female - " " " Almaz Nura Female - " " " Rabiya Befekadu Female - " " " Bruktawwit Hailu Female - " " " Shitaye Debisa Female - " " Gechi Asiya Nasir Female - " " " Birhane Jenber Female - " " " Tafesu Worku Female - " " " Denku Oljira Female - " " " Zumera Dhisa Female - " " " Amirasa Eliyas Female - " " " Mitiku Tiruneh Male - " " " Habtamu Tafese Male 0919122784 " " " Asefa Amente Male 0948969076 " " " Ibrahim Kedir Male 0919105619 " " " Bekum Nurfath Male 0919119085 " " " Atinafu Tadesse Male - " " " Tamsgene Ayana Male - " " " Bula Bekele Male 0932459849 " " " Adisu Etefa Youth 0917964494 " " " Sisay Tarekegn Youth 0923336604 " " " Nisro Hussen Youth 0917464371 " " " Sukare Abdu Female - " " Yoye 01 Birhane Morke Female - " " " Birhane Tariku Female 0921061558 " " " Ayahush Tesema Female - " " " Aster Gizaw Female 0917310081 " " " Tadalech Fita Female 0913292664 " " " Melese Manfo Male - " " " Tesfa Belay Male 0917806452 " " " Fikadu Hailu Male 0912319299 " " " Temegnu Borena Male 0917117248 " " " 261 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Meressa Geisa Male 0917026616 " " " Tesfaye Kebede Male 0911756394 " " " Tesfaye Yadesa Male 0917025595 " " " Fedesa Feyesa Male 0912117086 " " " Etenesh Abedeta Youth 0932439106 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Tahir Siraje Youth 0917118452 " " " Laila Kali Youth 0912528522 " " " Tayitu Mulegeta Female 0927577836 " Gera Chira Kedeja Abagojam Female - " " " Taju Kedir Female 0928302996 " " " Dejene Kebede Youth 0917062215 " " " Mohammed Aba Oli Youth 0949004275 " " " Nasir Aba Lulisa Youth 0917263752 " " " Sherif Abagaro Youth 0917263690 " " " Awol Abagidi Youth 0917258715 " " " Sahili Abagidi Youth 0917325103 " " " Jafar Kemale Youth 0927570787 " " " Sultan Saman Youth - " " " Getu Tesfaye Youth 0917056383 " " " Faris Abafogi Male 0917505082 " " " Dega Ababugu Male 0917905660 " " " Regas Chala Male 0917066695 " " " Nurseman Shehshafi Male 0924493840 " " " Hafiz Shehe Shafi Male 0937175067 " " " Nasir Abamecha Male - " " " Temam Abadilbo Male 0917259221 " " " Husien Ali 0917104207 Male " " " Mohammed Bederu Abaoli Male 0945669290 " " " Abaoli Abakedir Male 0917313921 " " " Sultan Ahemed Male 0917899403 " " " Nasir Lemicha Male - " " Genji Challa Al Giddi Al Jobir Male - " " " Al Daga Al Kabe Male - " " " Terefe Kumsa Male 0917202270 " " " Temam A/Gero Male - " " " Al Biyya A Mecha Male - " " " Abdo Aloli Youth - " " " Waji Sehe Abedela Youth - " " " Ferdi Al Lulesa Youth 0917751336 " " " 262 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Mohammed Amin 0940567883 Youth " " " Almacha Teshome Gezahegn Male 0917108302 " " Gura Afalo Al Nega Al Dura Male - " " " Abdulqadir Al Gidi Male 0927571357 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Birhanu Ayele Male - " " " Nasir Al Fogi Male 0917616877 " " " Sultan Al Fira Male 0917913472 " " " Yimam Ahimed Male - " " " Zinabu Katema Male - " " " Jihad Aldura Male 0917244122 " " " Altemam Algaro Male 0935117901 " " " Algidi Algero Male - " " " Ahimed Alfita Male 0910203768 " " " Abeba G/Senbet Female - " " " Fatuma Algaro Female - " " " Jimiti Almacha Female - " " " Aster Kefyalew Female - " " " Birtukan Tesma Female - " " " Asnaku Gebre Female - " " " Zeyneba Almecha Female - " " " Zahara - Female " " " Shehmohammed Hikma Yimam Female - " " " Fatuma Alsimal Female - " " " Zahara Alfosi Female - " " " Hawa Algero Female - " " " Kasahun Ketema Youth - " " " Kedir Altemam Youth - " " " Mudare Algero Youth - " " " Engeda Tefera Youth - " " " Nasir Temam Youth 0933726418 " " " Shifera Jiru Male Oromia Didu Yesuf Mammo Male " " Shafi Kedir Male 0923347309 " " Kebede Abdu Male 0934256733 " " Ebrahim Bazen Male " " Asfaw Yebo Male " " Birhanu Degafu Male 0943211532 " " Teka Zebenu Male 0935174974 " " Bayush Ashenafi Female 0917340763 " " 263 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Tsehaynesh Gelane Female 0912754907 " " Zara Zewde Male 0919441139 " " Nayime Sherif Male 0932029353 " " Ayana Guddeta Male 0941519856 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Nezif Mohamed Male 0934676037 " " Mohamud Husen Male 0917995703 " " Buli Gudeta Female 0919111880 " " Dagitu Abera Female 0917612978 " " Rahmet Temam Female 0917276583 " " Almaz Abera Female 0934073464 " " Melkamu Kebede Male 0961878933 " " Shitaye Ayele Female 0917995705 " " Miskiya Nuru Female 0917781957 " " Birhane Tadese Male 0917883172 " " Bekelech gezahagn Female 0935174701 " " Miskiya Wedajo Female 0917781940 " " Reyima Kedir Female 0939330146 " " Kifle Merdasa Male 0931637142 " " Gordomo Kebede Wadajo Male 0932029077 " " " Beliyu Kebeda Female " " " Bekele Gamta Male " " " Abdisa Danu Male 0917277626 " " " Bahru Anbecha Male " " " Biratu Hika Male " " " Gelana Kumsa Male " " " Teshome Gemta Male 0934256666 " " " Amare Adem Male " " " Tesema Kuma Male " " " Mulu Mekonnen Female " " " Bekelu Bishura Female 092307522 " " " Chaltu Adme Female Oromia Didu Gordomo Wuditu Birhanu Female " " " Girma Abdisa Male 0921213456 " " " Birhanu Abdisa Male 0913529032 " " " Gezahegn Ayana Male 0986154990 " " " Gobana Tekuma Male " " " Eshetu Dibessa Male 0923340555 " " " Abadir Kedir Male " " " Alemayo Galana Male " " " Abdi Hussen Male " " Kochi Abebe Ayele Male 0935137430 " " " 264 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Taju Kedir Male 09310698 " " " Dessalegn Befkadu Male 0917276988 " " " Birhanu Befkadu Male 0917995787 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Badiruu Kemal Male 0917613072 " " " Temam abdu Male " " " Tadese Gobu Male " " " Ebrahim Sheussen Male 0917995781 " " " Haile Awajo Male " " " Aliyi Azabi Male " " " Awalu Kedir Male 0943212159 " " " Shafi Kalifa Male 0917272711 " " " Kemale Abdu Male 0917218095 " " " Shibiru Workineh Male 0937176497 " " " Hussen Dawud Male 0928290099 " " " Girm Tadese Male " " " Birhanu Mekonnen Male 0917358497 " " " Hussien Jimaa Male " " " Eshetu Tadesse Male 0931064683 " " " Yasin Warraqi Male " " " Aberash Firisa Male 0941192179 " " " Yirga Berhe Male 0914176566 Tigray Wolkaite Mugetabia Hiwot Mahari Femal " " " Teshome Eshetu Male 0914363560 " " " Miruts Tsehye Male 0939233386 " " " Nigusse G/her Male 0939225336 " " " Alek G/egziabeher Male 0934202563 " " " Guoush Giday Male " " " Asmelash Behone Male 092262081 " " " Sahele Eredae Male " " " Maesha Abay Male 0914227976 " " " Lemlem G/Silase Femal 0964224287 " " " Betre K/Mariam Male 0933060568 " " " Abreha H/Mariam Male 0914278663 " " Mebrhit G/Medhin Female 0942666872 " " Letealif G/Giorgis Female 0914150746 " " Worku Shiferaw Male 0914222771 " " Muze Hailu Male 0914197683 " " Birhan Teferi Female 0913624150 " " Birhanu Gidey Male 0914020466 " " Kidane Tadesse Male 0914392979 " " Haftu G/Wold Male 0938136938 " " 265 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Tsegaye Tsehaye Male 0914212581 " " Alemu Anagaw Male 0914391816 " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele T/Mariam G/Giorgis Male 0914413644 " " T/Mariam Nega Male 0939112814 " " Mekonnen Mezgebe Male " " Ataw Sisay Male " " Muze W/Gebreal Male 0914476830 " " Redieat Hailu Female 09141476850 " " Haftom Girmay Male 0914228745 " " G/Medhin 0914094435 Male " " Mugetabia G/Egziabher Kassahun Meresa Male 0914167990 " " " Haftu Amare Male 0914369020 " " " Dawit Fitsum Male " " " Mulugeta Teka Male " " " Haftu G/Hawariya Male 0914109555 " " " Alem Abreha Female 0925057046 " " " G/Silassie Kahissay Male 0914001576 " " " Hadush T/Haimanot Male 0919009576 " " " Hailay G/Here Male " " " Hiwot Kahissay Female 0914800820 " " " W/Silassie G/Medhin Male 0914858416 " " " Abreha Areaya Male 0914253428 " " " Teklay Belay Male 0914158172 " " " Abeba Beriha Female " " " Birhane Itey Male 0914780962 " " " Dawit Mamo Male 0914109915 " " " Kese Yadel G/Hiwot Male 0914245573 " " " Ymaneh Mahiri Male 09387902 " " " Hafity Grase Male 0914571434 " " " Kassay Gebire Male " " " Gergis Berihe Male " " " Atsbiha G/tkilay Male " " " Kassya Hadus Male " " " Giday Hailu Male " " " Birhane Hagos Male 0945503445 " " " Giday G/Mariam Male " " " Kahisa Hadera Male " " " Hiodagi Birhane Male " " " Kiros Kahissi Male " " " Grmay Negusse Male " " " 266 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia G/Egiziabher Hadera Male 0914690585 " " " Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele H/Arayi Asefa Male " " " H/Giday Hagos Male " " " G/Egiziabher Gaitat Male " " " Kassyi G/ Silama Male " " " H/Gebire Redaei Male " " " Negusse Atsbiha Male 0931099122 " " " G/Mesikel Tsegaye Male 0914857152 " " " Tekele G/medihne Male " " " Abirha Abadi Male " " " Fitsum Mezgebo Male " " " G/Hiwot G/Kiros Male " " " Desta Berhe Female " " " P/Desta Teferi Male " " " A/Gebire haile Male 0914397516 " " " Aregawi Tekilay Male 0925329270 " " " Hadgu Tewelde Male " " " Mehari Kehasum Male " " " Kindya p/Berihe Male " " " Yohanse Hailu Male " " " Zenebu Gebire Female " " " TSiry Halefom Female " " " Teumay negusse Female " " " Desta G/Hiwot Female 0914163685 " " " Haftu Asbiha Male " " " Abadi Teka Male " " " Gatllauk Reath Thoal Male 0943-209952 Gambella Thichiiot Makuach Male 0917-779305 " Kang Monyjouok Male 0932-004641 " Asmare Tekalegn Male 0912-153846 " Fiseh Mamo Male 0921-763879 " Tewabe Mekonen Male 0911-319910 " Kang Mindiko Male 0930-004641 " Getachew Chaka Male 0911-449845 " Yeshiwek Eba Male 0911-375460 " Bayisa Aga Male 0917-301445 " Birknesh Yirga Female 0923-430245 " Mamaye Tsedale Male 0912-094060 " Amelwork 0911-003287 Female SNNPR G/Egziabher Asfaw Zewdie Male 0911-674217 " 267 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Atrag G. Michael Male 0911-772064 " Teshale 0941-6822346 Male " Woldeamanuel(Dr.) Emebet BizuAyehu Female 0916-027096 " Melesse Maada(Dr.) Male 0941092546 " Siraj Dano Male 0911-387178 " Solomon Mengesha Male 0926-451650 " Zerihun Zena Male 046-220-1077 " Mulugeta Tesfaye Male 046-220-1316 " Terefe Teka Male " Mulugeta Feleke Male 0924-742998 " Tesfaye Oyida Male 0911-855775 " Abrrah H/Mariam Male 0914-278663 Tigray Mebrhatu G/Medihn Male 0942-666872 " Letalef G/Gergis Male 0914-130746 " Worku Shiferaw Male 0914-222771 " Muez Hailu Male 0914-197683 " Berhane Tareke Male 0913-624150 " Berhne Giday Male 0914-020466 " 0914-392974 Welkait Kidane Tadesse Male " Woreda Hafte G/Wold Male 0938-136938 " " Tsegaye Tsehaye Male 0914-212581 " " Alemu Angaw Male 0914-393016 " " T/Mariam G/Gergis Male 0914-415615 " " T/Mariam Nega Male 0939-112850 " " Mekonen Mezgebe Male - " " Asfaw Sisay Male 0914-937951 " " Muez H/Gebriel Male - " " Rediet Hailu Female 0914-194072 " " G/Hiwot Gidey Male 0933-281980 " " Hailu Girmay Male 0914-228749 " " Gashaw Kiflu Male 0910-981809 " " Abraha mezgebu Male 0946-892104 Tigray " Akilu Giday Male 0910-661612 " " Fekede mebrahtu Male -- " " Zenebe atsebha Male -- " " Aweke adis Male -- " " Luley hfte Male -- " " Wegihuley gidey Male -- " " 268 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Name Sex Mobile Number Region Wereda Kebele Kasa solew Male -- " " Berihun wekl Male -- " " Tikuay abohoy Male -- " " Fantu yabgew Female -- " " Tadla tarecke Male -- " " Yishak girmay Male -- " " Muge Tabia 269 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 7: Sample Attendance sheet from Decha Woreda Women FGD, SNNP Region 1.2: Kebe No 270 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 8: Sample Attendance sheet for Dodola Woreda Men FGD, Oromia Region The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. ?--,:A.::() GEC.J} PLC Form 1.2: Men Attendance sheet for SESA-ESMF Date_s_J_LQS l _ _ ' J[_ _ Name of Woreda_.Q I.a.-------- Kebele_..Q.e.neP_a _ Agenda: .!& _ _.![j C:_f=.\,kf___ v.e .Q_ f:.cd-:i.LL.-1.------- Lists of Participants No Name 271 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 9: Sample Attendance sheet from Decha Woreda Youth FGD, SNNP Region Form Youth Attendance Sheet for Name of _ Lists of Partic No e Signature Remark 272 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 10: Sample Attendance sheet from Arba-Minch Zuria Woreda Consultation, SNNP Region The image part wit h relati o nshi p ID rId106 was not f ou nd i n t he file. 273 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Annex 11: Glossary Afforestation: The act or process of establishing a forest especially on land not previously forested. Agroforestry: A dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management practice that, through the integration of trees and other tall woody plants with agricultural plants on farms and in agricultural landscape, diversifies production for increased social, economic, and environmental benefits. Benefit distribution system: A mechanism, which may be legally enforceable, which allows for the dispersal of benefits (financial or otherwise) derived from REDD+ project activities to stakeholders in these activities, i.e. to forest owners responsible for undertaking actions to reduce deforestation and forest degradation. Benefit Sharing: The action of ensuring eligible stakeholders involved in REDD+ project implementation receive an equitable portion of the non-financial and/or financial benefits derived from REDD+ project activities. Biodiversity: the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biofuel: Fuel produced from plants’ biomass, seen as replacement for fossil fuel for transportation, which is known to be a major contributor to climate change; also known as agrofuel. Carbon Credit: Part of the cap and trade carbon pricing system whereby an overall carbon emission cap is set and tradable allowances that grant businesses the right to emit a set amount of carbon are issued. Those who can reduce emission cheaply can sell their tradable allowance (carbon credit). Carbon Trade: Carbon trading is a market approach to mitigate global warming that is leading to climate change by trading carbon credits. Co-benefits: The non-carbon benefits arising from REDD+ policies and projects such as alleviating poverty, enhancing biodiversity, improving forest governance and protecting other environmental services. Community Forestry: The governance and management of forest resources in designated areas or landscapes by communities for commercial and noncommercial purposes to further their own livelihoods and development. Community forestry incorporates the practice, arts, science, policies, institutions, and processes necessary to promote and support all aspects of sustainable community-based forest management. Community-based Property Rights: The principles of land entitlement derived from and enforced by communities which often include. These rights can also encompass group- held rights to ancestral land and many traditionally used forest resources. They are not necessarily contingent on formal documentation or dependent on government creation and are seldom recognized by national or international laws. Conservation: management of natural resources substantially as well as their protection and restoration. Customary rights: Traditional entitlements, that are not always supported or recognized by national or international laws, which encompass forest resource use. They have evolved 274 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia and become established through community consensus on local usage patterns and gain authority and are enforced by locally acceptable institutions. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: A UN General Assembly Declaration for the treatment of indigenous peoples which identifies key substantive and procedural collective rights to protect indigenous peoples from discrimination and marginalization. REDD+ programmes have an obligation to ensure that this Declaration is upheld throughout REDD+ implementation. Deforestation: Clearing of forests, or intentional destruction or removal of trees and other vegetation for agricultural, commercial, housing, or firewood use without replanting (reforesting) and without allowing time for the forest to regenerate itself. Deforestation is one of the major factors contributing to the greenhouse effect and desertification. Environment: Includes the surrounding living and nonliving things and their interactions. Equity (law):The balanced and fair distribution of the costs and benefits of REDD+ projects and activities as well as the equal opportunity for participation of all stakeholders in the decision-making process throughout REDD+ implementation. Forest Degradation: long-term changes within the forest which negatively affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products (wood, biodiversity and other products) and/or services. Forest Tenure: The right, whether defined in customary or legal terms, that determines who can hold and use forest lands and resources, for how long, and under what conditions. Forest-dependent Communities: Communities that rely on forest resources for subsistence, medicine and livelihoods. Such communities are inextricably linked with the forest and its resources and are dependent on a healthy forest. Free, Prior and Informed Consent: A key concept in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. It refers to the obligation of outside entities to ensure that communities can grant or decline consent to a project or activity without coercion or intimidation, in advance of project planning or implementation and with access to all relevant information. Governance Safeguards: Policies and measures that aim to ensure aspects of good governance in REDD+ implementation, such as transparency, genuine participation of all state and non- state institutions and actors and effective enforcement and compliance with laws. Land Tenure: The set of laws and policies that determine locally how the land and its resources are accessed, who can hold and use its resources, and for how long and under what conditions they may be used. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests (LULUCF): Part of the Kyoto Protocol for land-use-based activities that have the potential of impacting carbon stocks and emissions. Leakage: Any increase in GHG emissions occurring outside the project boundaries that result from project activities Livelihood: The capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining its natural resource base. Livelihoods: The ways in which people make a living. Livelihoods contribute to human well-being, which includes spiritual and aesthetic values. 275 SESA report for the implementation of REDD+ in Ethiopia Protected Area: The International Union of Conservation of Nature defines a protected area as “an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and/or natural and associated cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means”. Reafforestation: The reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting) where trees were used to grow. REDD+: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation, forest Degradation, conservation of stocks, sustainable management and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Safeguard Information System: A tool or database that collects and/or provides country-level information on how safeguards are being addressed and respected by forest carbon projects. SESA: A tool that uses a range of analytical and participatory approaches to integrate environmental and social considerations into policies, plans and programmes and evaluates the potential risks of REDD+ interventions and other mitigation options. Social and Environmental Impact Assessment: The process of monitoring, analyzing and managing the intended and unintended social and environmental consequences of REDD+ projects and activities and any resulting social changes catalyzed by those interventions. Stakeholders: The public, including individuals, groups or communities affected, or likely to be affected, by any proposed REDD+ project activity or actions leading to the implementation of an activity. Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Traditional Knowledge: A concept that encompasses tangible and intangible creations, cultural manifestations, technologies, sciences, agricultural knowledge, designs, literatures, and visual and performance arts derived from oral and written traditions. Traditional Ownership: Informal rights to access and use forest land and resources upheld and enforced through established social structures. These rights are not necessarily contingent on formal documentation and are seldom recognized by national or international laws. Wildlife: All flora, fauna, and microorganisms existing in their natural state within a forest ecosystem. 276