The Water and Sanitation Program is an Improving Water Utility Services For February 200 Private Operator Models for international partnership for improving water The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply and sanitation sector policies, practices, and Management capacities to serve poor people Field Note Rural Water Supply Series 56557 A global review of private operator experiences in rural areas Private Operator Models for Community Water Supply Poor cost recovery and the `feast or famine' project approach to funding have hurt the sustainability of rural water supply and impeded scaling up coverage. This Field Note highlights findings from a global review of private operator experiences in rural areas. The current rural water supply paradigm may be best described as `feast or famine' project-based funding linked with community management of the installed infrastructure. Summary a significant advantage over international firms, as the scale of operations decreases. As more and more small towns come under In cities and towns, private firms and individuals receive contracts to build, improved local private sector management regimens, it is expected that PPP in the operate, and maintain municipal water supplies as an alternative to day-to- disperse rural context will expand as well. day management by local government or user organizations. A literature review has uncovered a wide variety of approaches from around the world The current rural water supply paradigm for establishing such Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in rural areas as well. may be best described as `feast or famine' project-based funding linked with Within the past seven years, several authors have completed reviews on community management of the installed private operators managing rural water supplies and other public services. infrastructure. This approach has a number In Aguateros, Paraguay, a consensus was found among these reviews that: of significant problems that are increasingly markets exist for high quality services in rural areas; policy changes in support becoming troublesome: of private operator models can follow from successful pilot projects, if at the · Funding is unpredictable from one year outset there exists a legal basis for contracting a private operator to supply to the next, with periods of massive water services; contracts using local government and communities to monitor investment interspersed, with periods of little or no investment, therefore making private operator compliance are a more practical approach to regulation than even short-term sector planning almost utilizing a dedicated regulatory body; and financing and subsidies will almost impossible; surely be necessary for capital investment in the short to medium-term. These early lessons learned have led the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) · Poorer, dispersed, and less organized communities tend to be excluded; to conceptualize a more comprehensive approach to PPP in the rural context. The concept is surprisingly simple. · Post-construction follow up is minimal or A private firm or individual would receive a long-term government-let contract non-existent; to design, build or rehabilitate, operate and/or maintain water supplies within · The management capacity of local water a defined geographical area. This aggregated service area would include committees, despite intensive initial both small towns and remote villages. This concept has coined the acronym training, drops dramatically over time as FRUGAL, for Forming Rural Utility Groups and Leases. trained people lose interest, lack access to skills upgrading, or simply move away; · Operations and maintenance cost Background quality services for which in many cases, recovery is spotty - either too much is they are willing and able to pay for. raised and a large surplus fund attracts The need for new approaches to water the unscrupulous, or more often than service delivery responds to the substantial In addition, the participation of the not, too little is raised and when repairs changes taking place today in rural domestic private sector in water supply are needed there is a shortfall; areas around the world: incomes are projects has been growing rapidly over rising; transport, communications, and the past decade, as suggested by the · As rural water supply systems become commercial networks are expanding; and Asian experience reflected in Figure 1. more technologically complex or rural people are demanding access to The domestic private sector in fact holds as the number of users increases, 2 Improving Water Utility Services For Private Operator Models for The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply Management reforms can follow from successful Figure 1. Water coverage pilot projects, especially if they have a donor or other champion. However, there should at least be a legal basis BOT or concession contracts* for contracting a private operator to supply water services, and performance standards should be flexible rather than nationally uniform; · Contracts using local government and communities to monitor compliance are a more feasible approach to regulation, than utilizing a dedicated regulatory body; and, Source: IIED. Coverage: Asia - Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, China, India; Scope: Contracts with · Financing and subsidies for capital minimum duration of 0 years and 0,000 customers. Note: BOT stands for Build, Operate, Transfer. investment will almost surely be necessary. Contracts incorporating Output-Based Aid can be an effective customer-operation becomes more of a way to deliver subsidies. In addition, challenge; Recent Literature on financing from users paying for their connections is a good way to raise Private Operators in capital for expansion. · Investment cost recuperation characteristically stops completely once Rural Water Supply a symbolic up-front payment has been Valfrey-Visser et al (2006) make an made; and, Within the past seven years, several additional point worth emphasizing: the authors have completed reviews of private political will of government to encourage · Spare parts for routine maintenance, operators managing rural water supplies private operators is a significant variable trained mechanics and equipments (Econ One Research 200; Kariuki and to success. In Ghana, the government for handling major repairs may be Schwartz 2005; Requena and Triche 2006; created the Community Water and difficult to find, which may result in Triche, Requena and Kariuki 2006; Vezina Sanitation Authority with a mandate largely the infrastructure sitting idle for long 2002; Valfrey-Visser et al 2006; WSP-AF to support community management. periods of time. and AFD 2006). In Mauritania, the government created Agence Nationale D'Eau Potable et These problems mean that increases in The following findings were reported in two D'Assainissement, Mauritanie (ANEPA), coverage are limited to what government or more of the preceding studies: whose role is to supervise and support line departments and aid agencies can management by local operators. finance and implement, which is never · Markets exist for high quality services enough to meet the demand, and failure that cater for rural customers' lifestyles rates are high, because sooner or later, a and preferences; 1 Output-Based Aid (OBA) is an approach used to promote the particular repair or spare part is required effective use of public funds for the delivery of infrastructure but is beyond the reach of the local user · National legislation, policies, regulatory services. Governments normally delegate service delivery to a private sector firm under contracts that tie the disbursement of group. This leads to infrastructure break- agencies, and so forth, may not be public funds to actual service delivery to targeted groups. This performance-based subsidy is generally applied where service down, water stops flowing, and arduously a necessary first step in promoting affordability is a critical issue requiring public funding to complement gained coverage is lost. local private operators. Further, sector or replace user fees. Demand for basic services from rural households is not only strong, but is characteristically backed-up by a strong culture of payment. A very different example comes from South Africa. In 997, the central government began to decentralize to local governments the responsibility of constructing and managing water supplies. Local governments, however, in most cases, lacked the capacity to handle these new responsibilities. The central government therefore awarded Build-Operate-Train-Transfer (BOTT) contracts, under which a private consortium would win the contract to act as the Project Implementing Authority (PIA) in a province. Acting as the PIA, the private firms develop in coordination with local governments, technical and institutional plans for water and sanitation services that would then be submitted to the central government for approval and funding. Once approved, the PIA then assists the local government with construction supervision and provides training and Water tank in Paraguay planning for operation and maintenance. Upon completion, the infrastructure is transferred to the local government, as Small town water supplies today perform operators. Instead, private firms provided envisioned in the decentralization act better in Mauritania than in Ghana as a services and support that previously the (Trémolet and Browning 2002). result (Ibid, p. ). government would have extended to the local institutions or organizations managing II - Private Operators the water supplies. Mali provides a good Project and Policy example of this. A German-assisted Many projects and policies covered in project in the 990s established a central the literature survey employed the private Experiences government office to provide technical and sector as some type of operator, and Table financial support to piped water networks indicates the variety of ways in which Box gives a summary of how rural in small towns (the smallest of which have this was done. For instance, in Gabon, households make good customers. Other populations of under 2,000 inhabitants). Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire, contracted types of experiences are explored below in Later, the government contracted this large domestic firms are wholly or partially- more detail. function out to two firms. The local user owned by international firms to manage associations still manage their schemes, the piped water networks in urban areas, I - Private Services and Support but the firms give the associations technical as well as small towns and rural growth advice on problems, review repair invoices, centers (Trémolet and Neale 2002; A few of the reviewed projects or policy and audits the associations' books (Vezina Trémolet, Browning, and Howard 2002). initiatives did not use the private sector as 2002; WSP-AF 2006). Ecuador and India provide examples where Improving Water Utility Services For Private Operator Models for The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply Management case, the design of the component had operators in the rural water sub-sector. Box 1: Rural Households Make two noteworthy innovations. An Output The new policy developed out of a Good Customers Based Aid approach was used, and firms pilot project, Régefor (La Réfome de la had to bid on the size of the subsidy that Gestion des Forages) under which each Investigators have consistently they would require per connection from the participating user association hires a been surprised to discover that government in order to build the specified private operator to manage a scheme, demand for basic services from systems. The firms then had to recoup consisting of a motorized borehole, the non-subsidized portion of costs and elevated water tank and distribution rural households is not only strong, profit through collecting water charges and network. The operators depend on a but is characteristically backed-up connection fees. national firm that has been awarded the by a strong culture of payment, as maintenance contract for repairs and an shown by examples from countries The second interesting feature is that annual preventative maintenance check- as diverse as Bangladesh, Vietnam, construction firms which were awarded up (WSP-AF 2005, 2006). Mauritania has Paraguay, Cote d'Ivoire, and South the contracts had to partner with small taken a similar approach, with a national Africa. Experience from Senegal scale independent providers aguateros government agency being responsible of and Cote d'Ivoire has in addition who then operated the schemes on repairs, except for solar pumps, which are shown that when compared to urban behalf of the consortia (Drees-Gross et delegated to a national private firm (WSP- al 2005b; Requena and Triche 2006). AF 2006). customers, rural customers are not A special category of local scheme only better at paying their bills, but operators are those who entirely or are less likely to engage in theft or largely raised the financing for scheme service fraud (Econ One Research, construction by themselves. In Tien Box 2: Relating technology Inc. 200, pp.8-9). Giang Province, Vietnam, this happened choices and management without any project intervention (WSP-EAP choices 200). In Cambodia and Laos, a French NGO supported and facilitated scheme Rural water supply commonly private firms have been contracted to construction that local entrepreneurs had subscribes to the Village-Level provide bulk water to villages within which initiated on their own (Ibid; Salter 200; Operation and Maintenance, operation and maintenance of the network GRET 2005). The World Bank Social or VLOM concept. VLOM-type falls under the responsibility of local Investment Project in Bangladesh is handpumps are designed to be governments or water boards (Drees-Gross attempting to get communities and local repaired and maintained locally et al 2005a; Srivastava and Sharma 200). using a minimum of specialty tools government to raise on their own, at least and services so that village-based Many projects have contracted with 50 percent of the financing for rural piped caretakers can address most if not the private sector to manage the water water schemes that would then be run by all service problems. As a result, supplies - usually a piped network - in one private operators. handpumps are not only simple to or a few settlements of the size envisioned repair, but tend to frequently break in FRUGAL. In several instances, this is The Rural Development Academy has down or require maintenance. simply the result of extending the small implemented rural multipurpose water town model to very small rural settlements. schemes through NGO or private operators A private operator would not tolerate repeated breakdowns as expected in which consumers pay 00 percent of under VLOM, and would prefer to The World Bank project in Cambodia capital costs over a period of 0 to 5 specify more robust (though more is such an example (Requena and years (excluding financing charges) through complex to repair, and normally Triche 2006). So is the World Bank pilot their monthly water bills. more expensive to install) handpump component in the Paraguay rural water Senegal is just beginning to implement models. and sanitation project, except that in this a national policy which favours private 5 FRUGAL represents a potential response to problems associated with the `project approach' to rural water supply coverage, in which periods of massive investment are followed by periods of little or no investment. Burkina Faso is now testing in provinces private operator to manage each system 2002). The French firm Vergnet, had a a new strategy under which a private firm (www.reforme-aep.org). less successful experience with offering is awarded a handpump maintenance or Other reviewed projects which involved maintenance contracts of its installations, a handpump installation and maintenance handpump maintenance contracts were whether for preventive maintenance only contract, in one or more communes either unsuccessful or less promising. or for a comprehensive plan of preventive (districts). Smaller firms get the handpump The Côte d'Ivoire utility company, Societe maintenance, repairs, and spare parts. maintenance contracts covering one or de Distribution d'eau de la Cote d'ivoire The company established that such two neighboring commune, while larger (SODECI), had a contract from 972 to contracts require village committees firms get the handpump installation and 986 to maintain rural handpumps, but that are willing and able to collect user maintenance contracts covering several the company neither did a very good job payments, manage the funds responsibly, communes in a region. In the case of piped of this, nor found the activity profitable carry out ordinary pump upkeep, and water schemes, the commune contracts a (Trémolet, Browning, and Howard control disputes within the committees. Table 1. Private Sector Participation in the Maintenance of Improved Water Supplies in Small and Dispersed Rural Settlements* Types of Private Sector Descriptions Examples Participation I. Services and Support Provide services formerly performed directly by government. (a) Planning and Construction Assist local government or community groups to plan Programa Nacional de Agua y Saneamiento Services/Community and design infrastructure, supervise construction; Rural, Peru (PRONASAR), Peru Training provide training and planning for operation and Build-Operate-Train and Transfer (BOTT), maintenance. South Africa (b Post-Construction Provide technical advice, auditing services, preventive Suivi Technique et Financier, Mali (STeFi), Services maintenance, and/or repair services to government or Mali community organizations managing water supplies. (c) Handpump Maintenance Private contract to maintain handpumps. Management Reform Project, Burkina Faso, Contract Vergnet Basic and Total Warranties, Catholic Diocese Project, Kenya* II Operations Private sector operates and maintains supplies; or in the case of handpumps, maintains supplies. (a) National Utilities Private contract to manage schemes in urban Société d'Electricité et d'Eaux du Gabon (SEEG), centers and small towns, some of which under 2,000 Gabon population. Societe de Distribution d'eau de la Cote d'ivoire (SODECI), Côte d'Ivoire Société Nationale des Eaux du Sénégal (SONES), Senegal 6 Improving Water Utility Services For Private Operator Models for The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply Management Continuation Table 1. Private Sector Participation in the Maintenance of Improved Water Supplies in Small and Dispersed Rural Settlements* Types of Private Descriptions Examples Sector Participation (b) Bulk Water Supply Private contract to manage production and Songaon-Mekhali scheme, India transmission of water in network serving multiple Proyecto de Agua Potable y Saneamiento para settlements; local government or community Comunidades Rurales y Pequeños Municipios, organization handles distribution within (PRAGUAS), Ecuador settlement. (c) Piped Scheme Operator Private contract to operate and maintain Rural Water and Sanitation Project, Paraguay supplies in one or more settlements. Régefor, Senegal Village Operators, Mauritania Management Reform Project, Burkina Faso District Government Contracts, Rwanda (d) Piped Scheme Owner- Private operator also owns all or part of supplies. Mini Research D'eaux Potable - Cambodia- Laos Operator (small scale piped water system under public-private partnership - MIREP), Cambodia and Laos Tien Giang Province schemes, Vietnam Social Investment Project, Bangladesh Water Health International (c) Handpump Maintenance Private contract to maintain handpumps. Management Reform Project, Burkina Faso, Contract Vergnet Basic and Total Warranties, Catholic Diocese Project, Kenya* (e) Mixed Piped Scheme Operator of piped scheme in small town SODECI, 972-86, Côte d'Ivoire Operator/Handpump has handpump maintenance contracts for Huila Province Water Brigades, Angola* Maintenance neighboring villages. Nkana Water and Sewerage Company, Zambia (NWSC), Zambia Note: *Kenya and Angola experiences do not use the private sector, but have It also does not cover private sector participation that is limited to design or interesting similarities to other aspects of the FRUGAL model. construction. `Private sector' does not include NGOs, community organizations, cooperatives, and so forth. `Small, dispersed rural settlements' means that Other Notes: This typology does not include the types of private sector the populations are about 2,000 people, and that the villages are far-removed participation envisioned in the usual community management models or for self physically from small towns or rural centers to be considered settlements in their supply. own rights. 7 The FRUGAL concept is an effort that attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to PPP in rural areas. Majority of village committees did not display these traits2. Similarly, other experiences with handpump maintenance contracts have either failed or not yet shown promising results. Given the fact that nearly half of all Africans living in rural areas obtain their drinking water from handpumps (RWSN 2007), finding a mechanism for keeping widely dispersed handpumps functioning over time is critical to meeting the MDG targets in the continent. The FRUGAL Concept FRUGAL represents a potential response to problems associated with the `project approach' to rural water supply coverage, in which periods of massive investment Water operator using a motorcycle cart are followed by periods of little or no investment. At the same time, the FRUGAL model is conceived to improve coverage within the service zone, as a way of A local operator with an entrepreneurial and sustainability by improving cost creating scale in the rural context; orientation might also be expected to better recovery, as well as addressing problems respond to consumers' needs and desires, that the community management model · Legal ownership of all infrastructure and to create synergies over time for the has experienced in some situations. A few would be maintained by government or bundling of additional services, such as initiatives, as described in the literature, communities; power or telecoms. At its heart, FRUGAL is conform to the FRUGAL concept quite an approach which is designed to improve closely, particularly the private operator · State investment funds (and other rural water supply scalability, functionality, model being developed in Burkina Faso. private funds) for the construction of and cost recovery over the long-term. new infrastructure, and the rehabilitation Table 2 demonstrates that there is wide As an emerging model, FRUGAL would or reconstruction of pre-existing latitude in establishing a FRUGAL-type have the following key characteristics: infrastructure, would gradually be arrangement, in response to local laws, channeled through the local operator of national policies, and social conventions. · An aggregated service delivery area the service area making funding levels would be created for the long-term more constant and predictable; and, The National Utility in Gabon (SEEG), provision and/or maintenance of water for example, is characterized by the supplies, including everything from · Users would regularly pay for high- elements highlighted in green. By way of small towns to the smallest village quality service, leading to full operation contrast, the Community Management and maintenance cost recovery, and model is characterized by the elements 2 Personal communication with Dominique Bouzerma, Vergnet significant investment cost recovery highlighted in orange. Any combination of Hydro. This is not to conclude that the users themselves are primarily responsible for system breakdowns! over time. elements that includes aggregation might 8 Improving Water Utility Services For Private Operator Models for The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply Management Table 2. Rural Water Supply elements that can be combined to form a unique management model Service Scale Type Scope Client Base Service Level Aggregation Provider UtilityA · National · Public · Single Service · Urban + Rural · Piped Supply · No, a single system · Regional · Private · Multiple Services · Rural only · Non-Piped Supply · Yes, multiple, discrete systems · Local · Hybrid, Public- · Piped + Non-Piped Private Non-UtilityB · Regional · Public · Single Service · UrbanB + Rural · Piped Supply · No, a single system · Local · Private · Multiple Services · Rural only · Non-Piped Supply · Yes, multiple, discrete systems · Hybrid, Public- · Piped + Non-Piped Private A `Utility' is defined here as a highly-organized, professionally-staffed, water service B In the Non-Utility case, `Urban' is more likely to refer to small towns, and not large provider, normally regulated by a fully independent government agency. There is no urban centers. The exact point of differentiation between the two may be difficult to complete exclusive definition of `utility', and some arrangements could conceivably clearly define. be difficult to classify with confidence. The definition above, however, should be able Source: Adapted from Water for People. to accommodate over 95 percent of all cases. be considered feasible under a FRUGAL staff working under them (WSP-AF 2008). The fact that such a variety of efforts can framework. The possible combinations System management is not the only core be documented suggests that the search are therefore many, though not all may be element that needs to be examined in order for alternatives to community management practical. It is unlikely, for example, that to describe the possible universe of rural is a natural and growing response by a national- private - rural - utility would water supply approaches. communities and policy-makers to improve be formed. But it is feasible for a local- Other critical components, including rural water supply services. The FRUGAL private-service-provider to be formed, for financing, subsector planning and policy concept is an effort that attempts to supplying water both to small towns and making, research, technical assistance, and develop a more comprehensive approach disperse rural areas. capacity building must also be considered. to PPP in rural areas. Nonetheless, the most distinguishing This categorization is fluid as one element of FRUGAL is some level of service While it is clear that new approaches are combination of elements may lead into aggregation. being explored, it is also clear that a more another over time. In Rwanda, for example, rigorous assessment needs to be made for certain critical elements of these initiatives, individual entrepreneurs have been managing rural water systems through Conclusions - further including: dealing with low-population- contracts with the local government. Some development of the density areas; developing an effective regulatory framework in the rural context; entrepreneurs are now managing several discrete systems and are overseeing in FRUGAL concept correctly estimating the cost recovery many cases, the expansion of service potential across a service area; creating delivery by adding house connections viable service areas across multiple local This brief literature review demonstrates in order to increase their receipts and government jurisdictions; understanding a wide range of private sector and PPP incomes, while augmenting the number of relationships between technology choices initiatives underway around the world. 9 PPP and service area aggregation appear to be major new policy elements in achieving improved and sustainable rural water supply services. and management choices; assuring a steady flow of investment funds over time; setting and collecting tariffs; identifying the types of consumer safety nets and operator risk mitigation that might be needed; and, understanding and utilizing the existing legal framework. Of the world's population that currently has no access to improved water supplies, more than 80 percent live in rural areas. This makes the search for improved service delivery models to the rural populations not only a global imperative for meeting the MDG targets, but is key to providing a long-term solution for water service delivery to the world's poorest citizens. PPP and service area aggregation appear to be A water treatment plant in rural Cambodia major new policy elements in achieving improved and sustainable rural water supply services. As a follow-up to this literature review, several case studies of domestic private sector participation in rural water supply are on-going in six countries: Burkina Faso, Senegal, Niger, Rwanda, Paraguay, and Cambodia. Final results are expected to be reported by February 200. Along with these case studies a series of workshops are planned in order to draw out the latest lessons learnt and to assist in drafting the guidelines for developing the FRUGAL concept on a pilot basis in interested countries. Water quality control is a requirement for private operators 0 Improving Water Utility Services For Private Operator Models for The Poor Through Delegated Community Water Supply Management References and further reading Drees-Gross, Franz, Luis Andrade, and Beatriz Schippner. 2005a. Trémolet, Sophie and Joanna Neale. 2002. Emerging Lessons in Lessons from small municipalities in Ecuador: Delegating water Private Provision of Infrastructure Services in Rural Areas: Water and sanitation to autonomous operators. Field Note. February. and Electricity Services in Gabon. PPIAF. Washington D.C.: Washington D.C.: Water and Sanitation Program-Latin America World Bank. and the Caribbean Region. Trémolet, Sophie, Sara Browning, and Charlotte Howard. 2002. Drees-Gross, Franz, Jordan Schwartz, Maria Angelica Emerging Lessons in Private Provision of Infrastructure Services in Sotomayor, and Alexander Bakalian. 2005b. Output-Based Aid Rural Areas: Water Services in Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal. PPIAF. in Water: Lessons in Implementation from a Pilot in Paraguay. Washington D.C.: World Bank. OBApproaches. Note No. 7. GPOBA. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Triche, Thelma, Sixto Requena, and Mukami Kariuki. 2006. Engaging Local Private Operators in Water Supply and Sanitation Econ One Research, Inc. 2003. Emerging Lessons in Private Services: Initial Lessons from Emerging Experiences in Cambodia, Provision of Rural Infrastructure Services. PPIAF. Washington Columbia, Paraguay, The Philippines, and Uganda. Volume 1: D.C.: World Bank. Overview of Experience. Water Supply and Sanitation Working Notes No. 12. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board. GPOBA. 2005. Multisector Project for Basic Services in Rural Washington D.C.: World Bank. Areas in Bangladesh: Improving infrastructure and social services for the poor through small-scale community-driven projects and Valfrey-Visser, Bruno, David Schaub-Jones, Bernard Collignon, OBA. April. GPOBA Project Brief. Washington D.C.: World Bank. and Emmanuel Chaponnière. 2006. Access through Innovation: Expanding Water Service Delivery through Independent Network GRET. 2005. Mirep Laos: Programme eau potable et Providers. London: Building Partnerships for Development in assainissement dans les gros bourgs ruraux du Laos (2006 à Water and Sanitation. 2009). Project document. November. Laos. Vezina, Marc. 2002. Water Services in Small Towns in Africa: Kariuki, Mukami and Jordan Schwartz. 2005. Small-Scale Private The Role of Small and Medium-Sized Organizations. Field Note. Service Providers of Water Supply and Electricity: A Review of Nairobi: Water and Sanitation Program - Africa. Incidence, Structure, Pricing and Operating Characteristics. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3727. Washington D.C.: Water and Sanitation Sector Board. 2005. Scaling Up Support World Bank. to Water Supply & Sanitation in Ethiopia. Water Supply and Sanitation Feature Stories #01. August. Washington D.C.: World Requena, Sixto and Thelma Triche. 2006. Engaging Local Bank. Private Operators in Water Supply and Sanitation Services - Emerging Experiences in Five Countries. Volume II: Case Studies. WSP-AF. 2006. Analyse comparative des systèmes de délégation Washington D.C.: Water and Sanitation Program. de gestion de réseaux d'adduction d'eau potable en milieu rural. Rapport intermédiare par pays. Reports on Mali, Mauritania, and RWSN (Rural Water Supply Network). 2007. Sustainable Rural Senegal. Nairobi: Water and Sanitation Program - Africa. Water Supply Flagship Strategy Paper and Three-Year Work Plan. www.rwsn.ch WSP-AF and AFD (Agence française de développement). 2006. Analyse comparative des systèmes de delegation de gestion de Salter, Dan. 2003. Private Sector Financing of Rural Water Supply réseaux d'adduction d'eau potable en mileu rural: Rapport de in Vietnam and Cambodia. unpublished report to WSP-EAP. synthèse: Mali-Mauritanie-Sénégal-Burkina Faso-Niger-Ghana. www.wsp.org. February. June. Dakar: Water and Sanitation Program -Africa. Srivastava, Vivek and Pooja Sharma. 2004. Focus on WSP-EAP. 2004. Private Sector Engagement in Rural Water Maharashtra: Alternative Management Approaches for Village Supply in the Mekong Region: Tapping the Market. Field Note. Water Supply Systems. Field Note. January. New Delhi: Water and January. Jakarta: Water and Sanitation Program - East Asia and Sanitation Program - South Asia. the Pacific Region. Trémolet, Sophie and Sara Browning. 2002. The Interface between Regulatory Frameworks and Tri-Sector Partnerships. Water and Sanitation Cluster. April. London: Building Partnerships for Development. WSP The World Bank Hill Park Building Upper Hill Road PO Box 0577 - 0000 Nairobi, Kenya Phone: +25 20 22-6 Fax: +25 20 22-686 E-mail: wspaf@worldbank.org Web site: www.wsp.org About the authors February 200 WSP MISSION: Elizabeth Kleemeier is a Senior Water Supply and Sanitation Specialist with the World WSP's mission is to support poor people in Bank. She is specialized in the social, institutional and policy aspects of water supply and obtaining affordable, safe, and sustainable sanitation, and has more than 20 years experience of working in rural Sub-Saharan Africa access to water and sanitation services. and South Asia. Elizabeth has been involved in studies on the sustainability of community- managed water supplies, whose findings were published in international journals. FINANCIAL PARTNERS: Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Joe Narkevic is a Senior Water and Sanitation Consultant with Water and Sanitation France, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Program - Africa, and has vast experience in strategic planning, sustainability analysis, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, alternative service provision, and management models. He previously led WSP's Rural Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United Thematic Team for Africa Region, and continues to provide support to work related to States, and the World Bank. Forming Rural Utility Groups and Leases (FRUGAL), as well as Sustainable Handpumps Flagship. Joe previously worked in the Mozambique and Bolivia WSP county offices. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Prepared by Elizabeth Kleemeier and Joseph Narkevic. About the series TASK MANAGERS: Joe Narkevic and Jerome Rihouey. WSP Field Notes describe and analyze projects and activities in water and sanitation that PEER REVIEW: provide lessons for sector leaders, administrators, and individuals tackling the water and Zahra Ayadi and Maria Arveström (WSP-AF), sanitation challenges in urban and rural areas. Mark Ellery (WSP-SA), and Chris Cormency (UNICEF). The criteria for selection of stories included in this series are large-scale impact, demonstrable sustainability, good cost recovery, replicable conditions, and leadership. EDITORIAL: Chief-Editor Mindy Stanford. Sub-Editor and production coordination by Lucy Wariara. Photographs courtesy of Groupe de recherche et d'echanges technologiques (GRET) and WSP - (Joe Narkevic and Jerome Rihouey). Cover photograph by Ph. Castermans - WEConsult, Rwanda, The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in Southern Province, September 2007. any manner to The World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the Design and Layout by Eric Lugaka. companies they represent. 2