Ghana SABER Pilot Country Engaging the Private Sector in Education Report 2015 Policy Goals for Independent Private Schools Status 1. Encouraging Innovation by Providers Policies allow independent private schools to make their own decisions on appointing, deploying, and dismissing teachers; schools determine teacher salary levels; schools set class size standards and determine the curricula. The only restriction placed on independent private schools requires them to follow centrally-mandated teacher certification standards to maintain active registration. 2. Holding Schools Accountable Standardized exams are administered to select grades on an annual basis. However, no current policy stipulates that the results of these exams should be disaggregated. No standardized exams are administered at the primary level. Public and private schools are to be inspected on a “periodic basis.” As captured by current policy, schools are not required to submit improvement plans following an inspection. 3. Empowering All Parents, Students, and Communities Although Ghana administers standardized exams at the junior and senior high school levels, there are no policies in place to guarantee parents access to the results of these exams. Likewise, parents are not provided information on the results of school inspections. Currently, students are interviewed as part of the school inspection protocol, but parents’ feedback is not included. The government does provide tax relief to parents for children to attend independent private schools. 4. Promoting Diversity of Supply All types of providers—community, not-for-profit, for-profit and faith-based organizations— can operate private schools. There are neither standardized school fee schedules nor explicit restrictions on tuition; however, fees must be approved by the Ministry. Current policy allows the government to provide tax relief and/or subsidies to duly registered private education institutions. Public and private schools must meet relatively equivalent operating standards. GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Overview of SABER-Engaging the Private Sector .................................................................................................................... 2 Benchmarking Education Policies: The SABER-EPS Methodology .......................................................................................... 4 Education in Ghana ................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Private Education in Ghana ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Benchmarking Ghana’s Independent Private School Policies................................................................................................. 9 Goal 1: Encouraging innovation by providers ..................................................................................................................... 9 Goal 2: Holding schools accountable ................................................................................................................................ 10 Goal 3: Empowering all parents, students, and communities .......................................................................................... 12 Goal 4: Promoting diversity of supply ............................................................................................................................... 13 From Analysis to Action: Policy Options for Ghana .............................................................................................................. 14 Policy Option 1: Strengthen policies to ensure private independent schools are more accountable for student learning outcomes. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Policy Option 2: Provide greater incentives for a diverse number of private school providers while ensuring equitable access ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17 Policy Option 3: Encourage innovation in schools through greater flexibility in managing schools, service and staff .... 18 Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................................................. 20 References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20 2 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Introduction in Ghana and the education sector. The analysis draws on the Engaging the Private Sector (EPS) Framework, a In recent years, private sector engagement in education product of the World Bank’s Systems Approach for —which includes a vibrant mix of non-profit, for-profit Better Education Results (SABER). SABER collects and and faith-based organizations—has grown significantly analyzes policy data on education systems around the around the world. In the last two decades, the world, using evidence-based frameworks to highlight the percentage of students in low-income countries policies and institutions that matter most for promoting attending private primary schools doubled, from 11 learning for all children and youth. percent to 22 percent (figure 1). This growth in private provision is closely connected to the boom in access that SABER-EPS research in Ghana has found that enrollment has taken place in low-income countries over the same rates for primary and secondary education have two decades: primary net enrolment increased from 55 increased significantly. At both the primary and percent to 80 percent between 1990 and 2010. secondary levels, quality and equity remain challenges. The private sector plays an increasingly significant role in As countries redouble their efforts to achieve learning education at both levels. Based on a review of existing for all at the primary and secondary levels, the private policies, SABER-EPS offers the following sector can be a resource for adding capacity to the recommendations for Ghana to enhance private sector education system. By partnering with private entities, engagement in education and meet the challenges of the state can provide access to more students, access, quality, and equity: particularly poor students who are not always able to 1) Strengthen policies to ensure independent access existing education services (Pal and Kingdon 2010; private schools are more accountable for Patrinos, Barrera-Osorio, and Guáqueta 2009; Hossain learning outcomes. 2007). Additionally, evidence shows that governments have been successful at improving education quality and 2) Provide greater incentives to support a diverse student cognitive outcomes in many countries through number of private school providers while effective engagement with private education providers ensuring equitable access. (Barrera-Osorio and Raju 2010; French and Kingdon 3) Encourage innovation in schools by ensuring 2010; Barrera-Osorio 2006). greater flexibility in managing schools, services, and staff. Figure 1. Private enrolment as a percentage of total The rest of the report provides an overview of the SABER- primary enrolments, by country income level EPS tool, followed by a description of the basic education Low-income countries system in Ghana that focuses on the private sector and government policies related to the private provision of education. The report then benchmarks Ghana’s policy environment utilizing the SABER-EPS Framework and offers policy options to enhance access and learning for Middle-income countries all children in primary and secondary school. High-income countries Source: Baum et al (2014). This report presents an analysis of how effectively policies in Ghana engage the private sector in basic (primary and secondary) education. Given that data collection for this report took place in 2013, potential policy options may either have diminished or have varying relevance, depending on current circumstances 1 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Overview of SABER-Engaging the Private Box 1. Key Private Sector Engagement Policy Goals Sector 1. Encouraging innovation by providers. Local decision making and fiscal decentralization can have positive In many countries, the extent and activity of the private effects on school and student outcomes. Most high- sector in education is largely undocumented and achieving countries allow schools autonomy in unknown. SABER-EPS is working to help change that. managing resources (including personnel) and educational content. Local school autonomy can SABER-EPS assesses how well a country’s policies are improve the ability of disadvantaged populations to oriented toward ensuring that the services of non-state determine how local schools operate. providers promote learning for all children and youth. 2. Holding schools accountable. If schools are given The aim of SABER-EPS is not to advocate private autonomy over decision making, they must be held accountable for learning outcomes. Increases in schooling. The intention is to outline the most effective autonomy should be accompanied by standards and evidence-based policies specific to each country’s interventions that increase access and improve quality. current approach toward non-state provision of The state must hold all providers accountable to the education. SABER-EPS assesses the extent to which same high standard. policies facilitate quality, access, and equity of private 3. Empowering all parents, students, and communities . education services. Data generated by SABER-EPS can When parents and students have access to information further the policy dialogue and support governments in on relative school quality, they can have the power to engaging private providers to improve education results. hold schools accountable and the voice to lobby governments for better-quality services. For Four policy goals to engage the private sector empowerment to work equitably, options for parents SABER-EPS collects data on four key policy areas that and students should not depend on wealth or student international evidence has found effective for ability. strengthening accountability mechanisms among 4. Promoting diversity of supply. By facilitating market citizens, policymakers, and providers (box 1). These entry for a diverse set of providers, governments can policy goals were identified through a review of rigorous increase responsibility for results, as providers become research and analysis of top-performing and rapidly directly accountable to citizens as well as to the state. improving education systems. The four policy goals enable a government to increase innovation and strengthen accountability among the critical actors in an education system (figure 2). Empowering parents, students, and communities enhances the ability of parents to express their voice and hold policymakers accountable for results. Additionally, when parents are empowered, in most contexts, they can have greater influence over provider behaviors. Increasing school accountability strengthens the quality- and equity-assurance mechanisms between the state and education providers. Encouraging innovation and promoting diversity of supply can allow providers to respond to local needs. Increasing school-level autonomy in critical decisions improves the services provided to students. Allowing a diverse set of providers to enter the market can increase client power and enable citizens to choose from a wider range of models. By developing these policy goals, a government can improve the accountability of all providers in an education system and, subsequently, have a positive impact on educational outcomes. 2 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Figure 2. Relationships of accountability for successful government or non-government providers or service delivery both, depending on the system. SABER-EPS analyzes laws and regulations to: (1) identify the types of private engagement that are legally established in each country and (2) assess each education system’s progress in achieving the four policy goals. The aim of the SABER-EPS Framework is to provide policy guidance to help governments establish strong incentives and relationships of accountability among citizens, governments, and private education providers, with the goal of improving education results. Source: Adapted from the World Bank (2003). SABER-EPS recognizes that the four policy goals outlined in box 1 can assist governments in raising accountability for the education services provided in their countries. The tool allows governments to systematically evaluate their policies and implement practices that are effective across multiple country contexts. Four types of private provision of education Across the world, governments can implement numerous strategies to improve educational outcomes by supporting non-state education provision. SABER-EPS benchmarks key policy goals across the four most common models of private service delivery: 1. Independent private schools: schools that are owned and operated by non-government providers and are financed privately, typically through fees. 2. Government-funded private schools: schools that are owned and operated by non- government providers, but receive government funding. 3. Privately managed schools: schools that are owned and financed by the government, but are operated by non-government providers. 4. Voucher schools: schools that students choose to attend with government-provided funding; these schools can be operated by the 3 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Benchmarking Education Policies: The The hypothetical country’s overall score for this policy goal would be: (2+3+4+4)/4 = 3.25. The overall score is SABER-EPS Methodology converted into a final development level for the policy goal, based on the following scale: The World Bank has developed a set of standardized questionnaires and rubrics for collecting and evaluating Latent: 1.00 – 1.50 data on the four policy goals for each type of private Emerging: 1.51 – 2.50 school engagement established in a given country. Established: 2.51 – 3.50 Advanced: 3.51 – 4.00 The policy goals are benchmarked separately for each type of private engagement. A point of emphasis here is The ratings generated by the rubrics are not meant to that these tools only assess official and established be additive across policy goals. That is, they are not policies governing private education provision. added together to create an overall rating for engaging Additional tools determine on-the-ground the private sector. implementation of these policies. The SABER-EPS information is compiled in a comparative database that interested stakeholders can access for detailed reports, Use of the SABER-EPS tool background papers, methodology, and other resources; SABER-EPS is not intended to be used as a prescriptive the database details how different education systems policy tool, but rather, as a tool to generate an informed engage with the private sector. assessment of a country’s policies vis- à-vis current knowledge about effective approaches. The results of For each indicator associated with the respective four this benchmarking exercise serve as a good starting point policy goals, the country receives a score between 1 and to discuss potential policy options that could be 4 (figure 3), representing four levels of private sector considered, based on the nuances of the local context engagement: 1 (latent), 2 (emerging), 3 (established), or and national education system. Education systems are 4 (advanced). likely to be at different levels of development across indicators and policy goals. While intuition suggests it is Figure 3. SABER Rubric Benchmarking Levels probably better to be as developed in as many areas as possible, the evidence does not clearly show the need to be functioning at the advanced level for all policy goals. National education priorities lay at the center of recommended policy options; countries may prioritize higher levels of development in areas that contribute most to their immediate goals. For more information on the global evidence underlying EPS and its policy goals, see the SABER framework paper, “What Matters Most for Engaging the Private Sector in Education” (Baum et al. 2014). Source: Baum et al. (2014). The overall score for each policy goal is computed by aggregating the scores for each of its constituent indicators. For example, a hypothetical country receives the following indicator scores for one of its policy goals: Indicator A = 2 points Indicator B = 3 points Indicator C = 4 points Indicator D = 4 points 4 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Education in Ghana students from the wealthiest households nearly three times as likely to attend senior high school, compared to Ghana is a lower-middle-income country in Sub-Saharan their peers in the lowest wealth quintile—63 percent Africa. GDP per capita is US$ 1,570 (current US$). The versus 22 percent (GSS 2011). While significant gains country’s average annual economic growth from 2001 to have been made, late initial attendance in primary 2011 was 4 percent, although growth in 2011 reached school, especially in rural areas, continues to be a over 14 percent (World Development Indicators). To challenge. Official primary-school-entrance (P1) age in sustain this impressive growth and further the goal of Ghana is six years old. However, almost 60 percent of poverty reduction, Ghana recognizes the need to children that age in rural areas and 45 percent in urban improve access to and the quality of basic education. areas are not in school (UNICEF 2010). Children who enroll late are more likely to be from poor families, Education in Ghana is regulated by the Education Act of demonstrate lower learning achievement, and have a 2008 (Act 778), which requires all children to complete a higher primary dropout rate (World Bank 2010). free and compulsory cycle of basic education: two years Improving “age in grade” has a significant effect on of kindergarten, six years of primary, and three years of primary completion and learning (Akyeampong et al. junior secondary schooling. In 2011 there were more 2007; Lewin 2011; Darvas and Balwanz 2014). than 3.8 million children enrolled in primary schools and more than 2.1 million in secondary schools in Ghana Every year an estimated 350,000 to 400,000 pupils (65 (Edstats). percent of sixth-grade students) leave primary school without reaching proficiency in English or mathematics. The country raised its primary net enrollment rate from The majority of these pupils are from Ghana’s northern 61 percent in 1999 to 84 percent in 2011. Between 1990 regions and deprived districts, poor and rural and 2010, average years of schooling for those over the households, or ethnic and linguistic minorities (Darvas age of 15 increased by nearly one-and-a-half years: from and Balwanz 2014). 5.9 to 7.3 mean years of schooling (Barro and Lee 2012). In the same time period, the secondary net enrollment There is also an inequitable distribution of resources in rate increased from 34 to 46 percent. the country in terms of per pupil spending and teacher allocation across regions. In the Western, Upper East, Ghana has made substantial progress in expanding Northern, and Brong Ahafo Regions, around 40 to 50 access to basic education services due, in part, to the percent of the teaching force is comprised of trained country’s financial commitments to education. In 2011, teachers, compared to 70 to 90 percent in the Ashanti, the country spent 8.2 percent of its gross domestic Volta, Eastern, and Greater Accra Regions (Ghana MOE product (GDP), or 24 percent of total government 2012). In terms of per child expenditure (PCE), the expenditures, on education (Edstats). This is substantially bottom one-third of districts receive 72 percent of the higher than the OECD average of 6.2 percent (OECD average PCE across Ghana at the primary level and 68 2012). percent at the junior secondary level (World Bank 2010). However, despite considerable investment and progress, In 2005, the government of Ghana began providing Ghana still faces a long path towards equitable learning capitation grants to cover the school fees of all students for all children and youth. Although there have been in public primary and junior high schools. This program major gains in improving access to education in the dramatically increased enrollments in public schools, but country, over 300,000 school-age children are not in placed a disproportionate strain on the education school (Darvas and Balwanz 2014). Children from poor system’s infrastructure. The result was an unequal households, living in the northern regions, or who are distribution of educational access and decreased school orphaned or living with a relative or guardian are most quality (Dawuda 2012; Ghana MOESS 2006). likely to be out of school (UNICEF 2010). Furthermore, students in public schools are still required to pay fees for food, uniforms, textbooks, and The primary net attendance rate for pupils from the examinations (Akaguri and Akyeampong 2010). wealthiest households is 85 percent, compared to 61 percent for students from the poorest households. The The government has implemented several programs to difference at the secondary level is even greater, with promote equity in the system, including both demand- 5 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 and supply-side interventions. Demand-side been completed (World Bank 2010). The complexity of interventions include the Ghana School Feeding Program the financial sources and delivery systems of the and the Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty education system further complicate efforts to improve Program. The programs distribute either money or food accountability (Darvas and Balwanz 20141). to support the school attendance of children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Supply-side interventions include complementary basic education, the Capitation Grant Scheme and District Grant (which targets children in rural and marginalized areas to improve their access to quality basic education), and the Untrained Teachers Diploma in Basic Education and the Trained Teacher- Community Assistant Programs (which aim to expand the number of qualified professionals in the system). The National Literacy Accelerated Program (NALAP) is a transitional bilingual literacy program in 11 Ghanaian languages for implementation in grades KG–P3. The NALAP curriculum and materials focus on improving literacy through mother-tongue instruction in kindergarten through third grade, with an early transition to English. Many of these programs have been hampered by inconsistent resource targeting to the poorest students. For example, in the case of the school feeding program, only 21 percent of the outlays benefit the poor (Wodon 2011). Supply-side programs have also suffered from program management issues (Darvas and Balwanz 2014). A number of research studies find that poor accountability in the public sector is a substantial barrier to student learning. This includes problems such as teacher tardiness, absenteeism, and limited instructional time (Fobih, Akyeampong, and Koomson 1999; CARE International 2003; World Bank 2004). As part of a 1993 decentralization, school management committees (SMCs) were introduced. However, these bodies focus on overseeing the use of capitation grants, not on educational issues such as teacher absenteeism and pedagogy. Recent efforts to implement school report cards, school performance improvement plans, and school performance assessment meetings show promise, but evaluation of their effectiveness has not yet 1 This source (World Bank’s Basic Education beyond the Millennium Educational and Learning Outcomes) provides a comprehensive discussion of Development Goals in Ghana: How Equity in Service Delivery Affects Ghana’s education system. 6 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Private Education in Ghana out of necessity if available places at public institutions have not kept pace with demand. The private sector is playing an increasingly significant role in basic education service delivery in Ghana. Private A recent survey of parents and youth in Ghana found that enrollments at the primary level increased from 7 they differ in their consideration of the long-term percent in 1991 to 19 percent in 2011. At the secondary educational impacts when choosing schools. Parents level, private enrollments increased from 7 percent to 15 were concerned with the instrumental and intrinsic percent over the same period (Edstats). In a 2005 study benefits of education, while youth emphasized the of private schools in Ga, one of Ghana’s roughly 140 experience of schooling and the need to have a stronger districts at the time, Tooley and Dixon (2005) found that process-based understanding among the parental 65 percent of students were enrolled in private schools. generation (Fennell, Agbley, and Irfan 2010). In 2011 there were 5,292 private and 14,431 public Public primary schools in Ghana have much higher known primary schools in Ghana (Ghana MOE 2011b). proportions of trained teachers (i.e., teachers who have Between the 2010 and 2011 school years, the number of been trained and certified in teacher-training colleges) private primary schools in Ghana increased by 11.6 than private primary schools: 63 percent compared to 11 percent, while the number of public primary schools percent in 2011. However, private primary schools have, increased by 4.3 percent. Trends are similar for junior on average, smaller class sizes. In 2011, pupil-teacher high schools. Between 2010 and 2011, there was 16 ratios were 34:1 in public and 26:1 in private primary percent growth in private schools versus 6 percent schools. At the junior high school level, 78.4 percent of growth in public schools at the junior high school level. public and 20.3 percent of private school teachers were trained. And in 2011, pupil-teacher ratios were 17:1 in The distribution of students enrolled in private schools public and 13:1 in private junior high schools (Ghana varies across Ghana. Private enrollment as a share of MOE 2011b). total primary enrollment stood at 30 percent and 27 percent in the Greater Accra and Ashanti Regions, Research on the comparative quality differences respectively, compared to less than 7 percent in the between the public and private education sectors in Northern Region. The Education Sector Performance Ghana is sparse. On the 2011 National Education Report of 2012 notes that the private sector share of Assessment, private schools outperformed public enrollment in kindergarten, primary, and junior high schools and National Literacy Accelerated Program schools in deprived districts is half the national average schools (Ghana MOE 2012). One study comparing (Ghana MOE 2012). However, education management achievement differences between public and low-fee information system data may not capture all private private schools in rural Mfantseman District found no institutions in operation, particularly if they are new and systematic differences in student performance, after yet to be certified. controlling for student background characteristics (Akaguri 2011). A Tooley and Dixon (2005) study Evidence suggests that private schools in the country reported higher raw test scores for students in private may not be providing services only to the wealthiest schools in the Ga District. However, these results failed students. Data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey- to account for any differences in student characteristics Round Five in 2005–2006 shows that 14 percent of poor between sectors. As such, they do not present reliable and 8 percent of extremely poor students were enrolled estimates of the true achievement difference between in private schools (Akyeampong and Rolleston 2013). public and private schools. Despite the lack of substantial Additionally, 13 percent of all school enrollment in rural hard evidence of a private sector achievement areas is in private schools. This is not to suggest, advantage, parents in Ghana cite school quality as the however, that private schooling is an affordable option primary motivation for sending their children to private for all students. On the contrary, findings from Akaguri schools (Heyneman, Stern, and Smith 2011). The (2010) suggest that the poorest families in Ghana may government’s “Towards a Ghana Education Coordination spend up to 30 percent of their household income on Strategy Retreat” in 2010 also recommended greater private school costs, compared to 16 percent on public monitoring of private sector learning outcomes, school costs. In areas of Ghana with rapidly growing particularly in deprived districts (Government of Ghana populations, parents may also choose a private school 7 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 and USAID 2010). More research is needed to investigate owned, operated, and financed completely by non- the quality effects of private schooling in Ghana. Such government providers. The policy context is less clear, research could also investigate the operating and however, regarding the policy intent and institutional financial models of private providers to determine both arrangements for government financing of private their effectiveness and efficiency. schools. Ghana’s private education policies While policies establish the ability of the government to Ghana’s Education Act of 2008 establishes the role of provide tax subsidies, textbooks, and in-service training private providers in the education system and states that to private schools, no stipulations determine which tax relief or subsidies may be provided to “duly schools should or should not receive support. In addition, registered private education institutions.” However, no no legal standards require schools that receive financial policy is outlined that defines under what circumstance and/or material support from the government to act any private schools are to receive these subsidies. The differently than unfunded schools. In short, policies do Education Act also specifies that the education minister not officially recognize any government-funded private is responsible for the regulation of schools that are schools. Given this lack of policy distinction between owned by a community and for “private participation in funded and unfunded private schools, this report education,” although the term “private participation” is classifies all private education providers in Ghana as not specifically defined. independent private schools. Ghana’s Education Strategic Plan (ESP) 2010–2020 outlines the importance of the private sector in supporting the government provision, and more particularly, the financing of education services: “The ESP identifies several areas where increased efficiency, cost sharing, and decentralization provide cost-savings to the Government of Ghana…. Increased need to secure finance[ing] via fundraising at decentralized levels, cost sharing at government- funded public schools (especially at the post-basic levels), and increased growth of private schools will likely be features of a system, realizing significant enrollment expansion in all sub-sectors over the next decade.” (Ghana MOE 2010). As part of its efforts to tap into the financial resources of the private sector, the ESP specifies that support will be provided “to primary and JH [junior high] schools by providing non-salary inputs (e.g. textbooks) and in- service training” (Ghana MOEYS 2004). The Ghanaian government also subsidizes fees for the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE) in private as well as public schools. This exam is used to determine which students are eligible to proceed from junior to senior high school. In 2012, the combined cost of these public and private subsidies was US$ 4.2 million (Ghana MOF 2013). Private education policies in Ghana establish a legal basis for independent private schools, i.e., those that are 8 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Benchmarking Ghana’s Independent and Sawada 2003; Gertler, Patrinos, and Rubio-Codina 2012). Private School Policies This section of the report presents the results of SABER- Box 2. International Best Practice – Encouraging Engaging the Private Sector analysis of laws, policies, and Innovation by Providers regulations governing independent private schools.2 The The following decisions/processes are made at the school report discusses the benchmarking results against the level: established recommended practices. For more  Establishment of teacher qualification standards. information on the global evidence underlying these  Appointment and deployment of teachers  Teacher salary levels policy goals, see the SABER framework paper, “What  Teacher dismissals Matters Most for Engaging the Private Sector in  The way in which the curriculum is delivered Education” (Baum et al. 2014).  Class-size decisions  Management of the operating budgets The main policies, laws, and official documentation used to benchmark Ghana’s private education sector include:  Education Act 778 of 2008 Development level:  Ghana Education Service Act of 1995 In Ghana, education policies allow independent private  Education Strategic Plan 2010–2020 schools a high degree of school-level autonomy. Based  Quality Indicators for Evaluating School on current policies, laws, and other official Performance at the Pre-Tertiary Education Level in documentation, an overall score of established is Ghana (National Inspectorate Board, Ministry of achieved, reflecting that current policies meet the Education) standards of good practice.  Guidelines for School Inspection and Code of Policies allow independent private schools to make their Conduct for School Inspectors (National own decisions on appointing, deploying, and dismissing Inspectorate Board, Ministry of Education) teachers; determining teacher salary levels; setting class size standards; and delivering the curriculum. Goal 1: Encouraging innovation by providers The most critical regulation is Education Act 778, which The highly particular and contextualized nature of accommodates independent private schools. Its sole education delivery necessitates decision making at the restriction is that independent private schools are school level. To be aware of and adapt to changing required to follow centrally mandated teacher student needs, school leaders require autonomy over certification standards in order to maintain an active the most critical managerial decisions. registration. According to this regulation, at least one- The methodologically rigorous studies assessing the third of the teaching staff of a private school must be impacts of local school autonomy on student learning professionally certified, that is, they must have an official outcomes generally find a positive relationship teacher training diploma. It is worth noting that although (Hanushek and Woessmann 2010; Bruns, Filmer and this regulation does restrict the autonomy of private Patrinos 2011). A few studies find evidence that local schools, it is less rigid than the requirement mandating autonomy for school leaders is associated with increased that all teachers in public schools be professionally student achievement, as well as reduced student certified. repetition and failure rates (King and Özler 2005; Jimenez 2 This report presents an analysis of how effectively policies in Ghana engage circumstances in Ghana and its education sector. This report offers a snapshot the private sector in basic (primary and secondary) education. Given that data in time that the team believes still has relevance today and can inform policy collection for this report took place in 2013, potential policy options may dialogue. either have diminished or have varying relevance, depending on current 9 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 To encourage innovation by providers, the suggested Table 1. Goal 1: Encouraging Innovation by Providers policy option for Ghana’s private schools is: Item Score Justification  Encourage innovation in schools by ensuring Central government has Who has legal authority Latent greater flexibility in managing services and staff. to set teacher legal authority to set  minimum standards for Ghana’s policies currently meet the standards of standards? teachers international good practice for encouraging provider The school has the legal innovation. The country’s independent private providers Who has legal authority Advanced authority to appoint to appoint and deploy have a high level of autonomy in critical decision-making  teachers without teachers? processes. A number of studies find evidence that local government review autonomy for school leaders is associated with increased The school has the legal student achievement, as well as reduced student Who has legal authority Advanced authority to determine repetition and failure rates (King and Özler 2005; Jimenez to determine teacher teacher salary levels  salary levels? without government and Sawada 2003; Gertler, Patrinos, and Rubio-Codina review 2012). This local autonomy needs to extend to staffing and resourcing decisions. International evidence The school has the legal Who has legal authority Advanced authority to dismiss suggests that teacher credentials—including years of to dismiss teachers?  teachers without experience, certification, and education—have no government review consistently significant effects on student achievement The school has the legal (Goldhaber and Brewer 2000; Goldhaber and Anthony Who has legal authority authority to determine Advanced 2007; Hanushek 1997; Hedges, Lane, and Greenwald to determine how the how the curriculum is  1994; Dobbie, Fryer, and Fryer 2011). By easing the curriculum is delivered? delivered without current restriction on teacher qualification standards, government review the country could further enhance the ability of The school has the legal Who has legal authority Advanced providers to determine their own teacher standards to authority to determine to determine maximum best meet the needs of their individual school  class sizes without class size? government review circumstances. A school leader’s role in a school would then to act as an instructional leader, providing direction and support to improve instructional practice at the school level. In addition, capable school leaders can help Goal 2: Holding schools accountable attract and retain competent teachers (Boyd et al. 2009; Ingersoll 2001a, 2001b). On average, students perform better in schools with higher levels of accountability to the state (Abdulkadiroğlu et al. 2011; Carnoy and Loeb 2002; Woessmann et al. 2007; Hanushek and Raymond 2005). For non-state providers, when government funding is tied to accountability standards, schools are incentivized to perform more efficiently (Barrera-Osorio and Raju 2010; Patrinos 2002). A strong accountability system requires that the government, parents, and educational professionals work together to raise outcomes. The government must play a role in ensuring that superior education quality is delivered by schools. SABER-EPS assesses multiple policy indicators to determine non- state provider accountability. A list of the key indicators is provided in box 3. 10 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Box 3. International Best Practice – Holding Schools of a school, thus providing the basis for critical school- Accountable specific interventions required to improve quality. The  The central government sets standards regarding what current policy details that schools are not required to students need to learn, including deadlines for meeting submit improvement plans following an inspection. these standards.  Students are required to take standardized In terms of school accountability, Ghana’s education examinations; exam results are disaggregated by policies presently show little engagement in setting school, socioeconomic status, gender, etc. standards for student learning or applying sanctions for  Schools are required to report on the use of public school underperformance, regardless of ownership type. funds as a condition of continued funding. Informed by the results of the benchmarking procedure,  The central government or an external agency performs school inspections as determined by school the following suggested policy options could help Ghana need. increase the accountability of independent private  Schools produce school improvement plans. schools:  School performance is tied to sanctions and/or rewards.  Establish and enforce standards on what students need to learn and by when. Development level:  Continue to strengthen the National Inspectorate Board to ensure schools are Ghana’s policies for holding independent private schools reviewed for school leadership, teaching and accountable demonstrate some instances of good learning, and student outcomes. practice, receiving a score of emerging. The score is a  As part of the inspection process, require result of the benchmarking of policies, laws and other schools to submit improvement plans outlining official documentation. their strategy for addressing recognized Ghana’s policies pertaining to standardized exams and weaknesses. school inspections demonstrate good practice.  Establish standards for disaggregating Standardized exams are administered to select grades on standardized exam results by important an annual basis. The National Education Assessment is characteristics, such as school, socioeconomic carried out by the National Education Assessment Unit background, gender, and other types of student within the Ghana Education Service; the exam measures disadvantage. student competency in math and English in primary  Establish appropriate sanctions on independent classes 3 (class 4 in 2016) and 6. The Basic Education private schools for underperformance on Certificate Examination (BECE) and the West African standardized exams and/or school inspections. Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) determine student eligibility to advance to upper secondary and tertiary education levels. All students in the final grades of junior and senior high school sit for these exams annually, in both public and private institutions. As such, these exams have the potential to act as strong accountability mechanisms for schools. However, no current policy stipulates that the results of these exams be disaggregated by important characteristics, such as school, socioeconomic background, gender, and other types of student disadvantage. As captured in the Education Act 778 of 2008, public and private schools are to be inspected on a “periodic basis” by the National Inspectorate Board, an independent inspection agency within the ministry of education. Inspections should outline the strengths and weaknesses 11 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Table 2. Goal 2: Holding Schools Accountable Goyal, and Sundararaman 2009; Björkman 2007; Item Score Justification Reinikka and Svensson 2005); increasing parental influence in the school (Skoufias and Shapiro 2006; King Does the and Özler 2005; Jimenez and Sawada 1999; Gertler, government set The government does Patrinos, and Rubio-Codina 2012; Di Gropello and standards on what Latent not set standards on Marshall 2005); and implementing demand-side students need to what students need to  interventions, such as scholarships, vouchers, or cash learn and by learn and by when when? transfers, to help the most vulnerable students (Orazem and King 2007; Filmer and Schady 2008; Lewis and Are students required to take Standardized exams are Lockheed 2007; Patrinos 2002; Barrera-Osorio 2006). Established administered annually, Effective policy practices for non-state providers include standardized but policy does not exams, with  require disaggregation some of the indicators listed in box 4. results of results disaggregated? Box 4. International Best Practice—Empowering All Are school The government Parents, Students, and Communities requires schools to  Information on standardized tests and school inspections Established undergo inspections, performed as inspections is made available by multiple sources. but according to a determined by  standard term instead of  Parents and students are included in the school need? inspection and improvement-planning processes. need  Admission processes for entry into publicly funded Inspection reports schools are not based on student background; a include strengths and lottery is used in cases of oversubscription. Does the inspection report weaknesses of a school,  School choice is not hindered by mandatory as well as specific financial contributions. outline the Established priorities for strengths and improvement, but policy  Tax subsidies, scholarships, or cash transfers are weaknesses of a  available to families whose children attend does not require schools school? independent private schools. to submit an improvement plan Are sanctions Development level: administered based on either There are no sanctions In Ghana, the policies in place to empower parents, school inspection Latent in place for students, and communities are emerging—they results or  underperformance exemplify some good practice, but additional policy performance on standardized strategies could increase the client power of parents and exams? allow them to hold providers accountable for results. Although the country administers standardized exams at Goal 3: Empowering all parents, students, and the junior and senior high school levels, no policies are in communities place that guarantee parents access to the results of these exams. Likewise, parents are not provided Empowering parents, students, and communities is one information on the results of school inspections. of the foundations for creating quality learning Currently, students are interviewed as part of the school opportunities for all students. Poor and marginalized inspection protocol, but the voices of parents remain children, together with youth, disproportionately lack unheard in this quality assurance instrument. Lastly, the access to quality education services. To overcome this government does provide tax relief for parents whose obstacle, governments need to increase providers’ children attend independent private schools, but does accountability to all clients, particularly underserved not provide targeted cash transfers. groups. Educational access and the performance of schools and students can be substantially impacted by openly disseminating comparable school performance information (Andrabi, Das, and Khwaja 2009; Pandey, 12 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 Table 3. Goal 3: Empowering all Parents, Students, and order to facilitate quality improvements through Communities increased school competition and choice, governments can (i) allow multiple types of providers to operate; Item Score Justification (ii) promote clear, open, affordable, and unrestrictive Are standardized No policies guarantee certification standards; and (iii) make government exam results and Latent parents access to funding (and other incentives) available to non-state inspection reports standardized exam schools. This policy goal aims to increase the ability of  provided regularly to results or inspection diverse providers to provide education services. In order parents? reports to do so, a number of policy indicators are suggested, as Are parents and Students (but not outlined in box 5. students interviewed Established parents) are as part of the  interviewed as part of Box 5. International Best Practice—Promoting inspection process? the inspection process Diversity of Supply  The central government allows different types of Does the providers to operate schools. government provide Established The government does  Certification standards do not prohibit market tax subsidies or cash provide tax relief, but entry. transfers to families  not targeted cash  Information on market-entry requirements is whose children transfers attend independent available from multiple sources. private schools?  Regulatory fees do not prohibit market entry.  Publicly funded non state schools and public schools receive equivalent student funding; Informed by the results of the benchmarking exercise, funding is increased to meet specific student the following suggested policy options could help needs. empower parents and students:  The central government provides incentives for  Guarantee parents access to comparable market entry, such as access to start-up funding, information on the quality of schooling, such as public land, and public buildings. standardized exam results and school inspection  Schools are able to plan budgets six months in reports. Exam results should be disaggregated by advance of the academic year.  Privately managed schools are not restricted by school, socioeconomic background, gender, and student numbers, school numbers, or location. other types of student disadvantage. This could be  The central government does not restrict tuition done through school report cards. levels at private independent schools.  Interview parents as part of the school inspection process. Development level:  Offer targeted cash transfers to low-income families for their children to attend private schools. In Ghana, the policies in place to promote diversity of supply are established, representing systematic good Goal 4: Promoting diversity of supply practice. Overall, government policy supports the market entry and relatively unburdened operation of multiple By opening education to a more diverse set of providers, providers. governments can increase client power and make providers directly accountable to students and parents All types of providers—community, not-for-profit, for- for results. Although the public sector will always remain profit and faith-based organizations—are allowed to an important (and, in most cases, the predominant) operate private schools in the country. There are no provider of education services, educational choice can be standardized school fee schedules and no explicit used as part of a package of reforms to improve restrictions on tuition; however, fees must be approved education access and quality in both the public and by the education minister. Education Act 778 allows the private sectors (Hoxby 2003; Levin and Belfield 2003; De government to provide tax relief and subsidies to duly la Croix and Doepke 2009; Carnoy and McEwan 2003; registered private education institutions. Public and Himmler 2007; Angrist et al. 2002; World Bank 2003). In private schools experience relatively equivalent 13 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 operating standards. Official policy specifies a few From Analysis to Action: Policy Options for minimal operating requirements, such as legal incorporation, minimum curricular standards, safe Ghana facility requirements, and submission of an annual report Ghana has made great progress towards providing to the Minister. These operational guidelines are not equitable access to education. However, there are still made publicly available, but can be obtained upon large disparities in service delivery that lead to individual request or through private school associations. inequitable learning outcomes. The private sector is Private schools are subject to less stringent teacher playing a growing role in providing education services in certification standards: only one-third of teachers are Ghana, enrolling approximately 15 percent of primary required to be professionally qualified in these schools students nationally, with much higher enrollment (as opposed to all teachers in public schools). However, rates—sometimes as high as 65 percent—in specific each private school must provide an annual report on the localities. A number of policy options are suggested here: school’s program and activities to the Minister, which is 1. Strengthen policies to ensure independent not required of public schools. private schools are more accountable for Table 4. Goal 4: Promoting Diversity of Supply learning outcomes. Item Score Justification 2. Provide greater incentives to support a diverse The government number of private school providers while Does the government allows community, ensuring equitable access. allow multiple types of Advanced not-for-profit, faith- 3. Encourage innovation in schools by ensuring providers to operate a  based, and for- profit providers to greater flexibility in managing schools, services, school? operate schools and staff. Schools set their Are private schools Established own tuition fees, These policy options are supported by international able to set their own but these are evidence and/or examples of countries that have used tuition fees?  subject to such interventions to strengthen their systems and government review Are operating improve service delivery. The country examples include Private and public international best practices, systems that have standards less Established schools are subject stringent for private to equivalent continued to improve from a variety of starting points, than for public  operating standards and countries that have adopted innovative approaches. schools? Guidelines for Are guidelines that establishing a Ghana recognizes the need to encourage public-private outline requirements Established school are clear and partnerships (PPPs) as a means of leveraging both public for school registration and private resources and expertise for improving  made available clearly publicized by upon request from multiple sources? national infrastructure and public services (Ghana MFEP a single source 2011). The Ministry of Education is currently exploring Are schools able to Advanced Schools are able to PPP options, including different types of funding and operate without operate without contractual arrangements, to support the government’s paying fees?  paying fees commitment to expand access to secondary education. Partnering with the private sector is one option to Informed by the results of the benchmarking exercise, support this expansion. Models could include the following suggested policy options could help government-funded private schools, privately managed promote a more diverse supply of independent private schools (charters), or school vouchers. Programs could schools in Ghana: be targeted to marginalized groups (e.g., low-income students, girls, rural areas, etc.), with providers held  Ensure that school registration guidelines are readily accountable for learning outcomes. Increasing provider available, preferably online, and also available from diversity will also empower parents and students to multiple sources. choose the school that best meets their needs. The  Allow schools to set their own tuition fees without government would still be required to provide a strong review or approval by the Ministry. stewardship role, but need not be the sole provider. 14 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 In British Columbia, Canada, the top-performing A number of policy options can ensure that the services Canadian province on international assessments, the provided by independent private schools contribute to Education Standards Order (ESO) requires all children responding to the needs of all children and youth in educated by independent private providers to reach Ghana. expected intellectual, human, social, and career development goals. The ESO also sets standards for Policy Option 1: Strengthen policies to ensure education delivery for students with special educational private independent schools are more accountable needs. Schools are expected to implement Individual for student learning outcomes Student Education Plans to support them (British Columbia 2013). Currently, the policy framework in Ghana does not adequately hold independent private schools B. Provide comparative information on school quality accountable for delivering specific results. Granting at all levels of the education system that parents schools autonomy in local decision making is insufficient can access and use to adequately deliver learning for all. Evidence suggests that the effect of autonomy on student achievement is Based on current policies, the government of Ghana closely tied to the level of accountability in a school could increase the information provided to parents on system (Abdulkadiroğlu et al. 2009; Woessmann et al. school quality. Central governments should not be the 2007; OECD 2009). That is, for school autonomy to have only ones monitoring school performance. Access to the strongest positive effect on student performance, it comparative information could enable parents and must be accompanied by strong mechanisms of students to influence school quality through direct voice accountability. Local decision making works best in to providers. This information could include school contexts where schools are held accountable for their report cards, classroom assessment results, examination results (Hanushek, Link and Woessmann 2013). In results, and/or inspection reports. In Ghana, public Ghana, improvements in school accountability could be schools are required to complete school report cards achieved through the following policy approaches: (Darvas and Balwanz 2014). It is important that the parameters and indicators used to measure progress in A. Set clear student standards educational access also measure progress in achieving The government does not explicitly outline student educational equity (Rolleston et al. 2010). To ensure that standards for independent private schools, although as school choice decisions are accurate reflections of the noted earlier, schools do take part in the Basic Education quality of a school’s educational provision, private Certificate Examination (BECE) and the West African providers should make information available to parents, Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) at particularly those who have minimal schooling the secondary level. The government could set standards themselves. This will support parents’ ability to use for what students at private independent schools should selection criteria (Fennell, Agbley, and Irfan 2010). know at each stage of the learning process, in line with expectations of public schools. These standards could be Country examples. In Punjab, Pakistan, providing school established with respect to individual grades or the end report cards to parents, communities, and teachers of each school level: kindergarten, primary, junior high improved student performance by 0.15 standard and senior high school. deviations and reduced fees in high-quality private schools by over 20 percent. The largest learning gains Country examples. In Namibia, following an evaluation (0.34 standard deviations) were for initially low- of the adequacy of the education and training system in performing (below median baseline test scores) private supporting national development goals, new learning schools (Andrabi, Das, and Khwaja 2009). standards were put in place to define the core knowledge and skills to be acquired at the end of each Another early adopter of school report cards was Parana school phase. The knowledge and skills were explicitly state in Brazil. Between 1999 and 2002 SRCs were chosen to support Namibia’s goal of being a knowledge introduced to inform school communities and stimulate based economy by 2030 (Namibia MOE 2007). greater involvement in the school improvement process. The SRCs were disseminated to a wider range of 15 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 stakeholders including all schools, PTAs, municipal independent body empowered to carry out its quality education authorities and all 70,000 state education assurance duties. employees including 46,000 teachers. Overall results were reported in the state education secretariat’s Country example. In Thailand, the Office for National monthly newsletter, used in teacher and PTA workshops, Education Standards and Quality Assessment (ONESQA) disseminated via press releases and press conferences was established in 1999. ONESQA is an independent (EQUIP2 2013). agency, ensuring its neutrality and integrity. External quality assessments measure to what degree the quality In the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, of education meets desired standards and efficiency Honduras, and Nicaragua, a USAID-funded program – required by learners, society, and the state. 3 ONESQA Civic Engagement for Education Reform in Central itself is monitored on its performance effectiveness, America (CERCA) — implemented a school report card quality of service, and the efficiency of its financial and that focused on indicators in four areas: budgetary administration (Thailand ONESQA 2010). 1. Context: basic profile information (e.g., number of D. Require schools to implement a school students in each grade, etc.) and access to services at the school (e.g., sanitation, electricity, etc.) improvement plan and review progress against the plan 2. Inputs: class size, access to resources (i.e., notebooks, pens, etc.), and access to social Unlike public schools, private independent schools in services (e.g., school meals, health programs, etc.) Ghana are not required to submit school improvement 3. Processes: student and teacher attendance, school plans. School improvement plans, if implemented plan implementation, and parent participation effectively, are a key tool for developing capacity and 4. Results: coverage and efficiency (the latter is addressing school needs. Changes at the school level, tracked through repetition and retention rates) however, will only occur when relationships within the school are strengthened. School leaders must ensure The results of the school report card are used by that improvement plans are meaningful to all communities to develop and monitor implementation of stakeholders and that purposeful actions are taken school action plans (CERCA 2006). throughout the school (Fullan 2007). Expanding the use of school improvement plans to independent private C. Continue to strengthen the National Inspectorate schools would support these schools in achieving their Board desired goal of providing high-quality education to all students. The school inspection process and Ghana established the National Inspectorate Board (NIB) performance on standardized tests can then be used to in 2008. As noted earlier, on average, students perform confirm plan implementation and school progress. better in schools with higher levels of accountability to the state (Abdulkadiroğlu et al. 2011; Carnoy and Loeb Country examples. In Brazil, the Ministry’s Plano de 2002; Woessmann et al. 2007; Hanushek and Raymond Desenvolvimento da Escola (PDE) project required 2005). Previous recommendations of the World Bank schools to identify their most serious problems and fully backed the NIB, which requires full funding and develop their own school improvement plans. The PDE autonomy in setting and overseeing standards for also required schools to focus their plans on two or three educational attainment and performance, as well as in effectiveness factors (EF), one of which must be effective conducting oversight of district inspection and teaching and learning. The other EFs are chosen from a supervision activities (Darvas and Balwanz 2014). The list of general areas detailed in the PDE manual. Students government should ensure that the NIB is an in PDE schools saw greater increases in grade passing 3 See ONESQA website, Government of the Kingdom of Thailand, http://www.onesqa.or.th/en/home/index.php. (accessed September 2013). 16 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 rates than students in non-PDE schools (Carnoy et al. organization, and other sanctions as the result of 2008). underperformance, they have strong incentives to make school improvements. Any sanctions would need to take E. Interview parents as part of the inspection process into account the local context and how to best meet the As previously noted, the school inspection process in needs of students. Ghana includes interviews with students, but not parents. When students and parents are empowered as Country examples. In the Netherlands, if a school fails to key actors in the school inspection and school improve after an improvement plan is implemented, improvement planning processes, they can identify areas school management receives an official warning. of need and set priorities for improvement. The Research Subsequently, if the school still fails to improve, it is Consortium on Educational Outcomes and Poverty of the reported to the Minister, who can then impose University of Cambridge also recommends that parents administrative sanctions (Netherlands Onderwijs be more informed on school operations and processes Inspectie 2010). (Fennell, Agbley, and Irfan 2010). The inspection process should thus be revised to include parent interviews. In Bogotá, Colombia, the government has successfully increased accountability for quality standards by Country examples. In Denmark, parents are engaged in allowing non-state organizations to manage public the quality assurance of schools in a number of schools. The state mandates certain academic innovative ways. Parents draw up annual evaluation requirements and holds schools accountable for poor plans. In some schools, parents are invited to observe performance, imposing sanctions or even ending lessons and can even elect an external inspector to contracts for failure to reach determined standards review the school (Denmark Inspectorate of Education (Patrinos 2002). 2013). Policy Option 2: Provide greater incentives to In England, the Office for Standards in Education support a diverse number of private school (OfSTED) has launched an online portal, Parent View, providers while ensuring equitable access which asks parents for their opinion on twelve aspects of A. Allow schools to set their own tuition fee rates their child’s school, such as the quality of teaching and that respond to the market dealing with poor behavior. The information provided by parents is available on the website so parents can Private independent school tuition fee rises are subject compare schools. The data is also used to inform the to review by the minister of education. Restricting sequencing and timing of school inspections.4 private schools’ ability to set their own tuition fees negatively impacts school autonomy and discourages F. Impose sanctions on consistently low-performing new providers from entering the market. Tuition schools restrictions and caps may, in fact, act as a mechanism for rationing (Nechyba 2009). The government’s main role There are currently no sanctions imposed on with respect to non-subsidized schools is to balance the underperforming independent private schools. As noted incentives for market entry by different types of earlier in this report, the use of sanctions for poor school providers against the need to monitor the quality of performance is a policy intervention that has helped these private independent schools through standardized raise the quality of education in many countries (Patrinos tests and inspections. (As noted earlier, information 2002; Barrera-Osorio and Raju 2010; Chiang 2009; gained from the latter should be provided for parents to Rockoff and Turner 2008). When schools face closure, re- 4“Parent View,” n.d., webpage, OfSTED (Office for Education Standards in Education), Manchester, UK, http://parentview.ofsted.gov.uk/ (accessed September 2013). 17 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 make informed choices.) program to target effectively and manage efficiently. Future education policy needs to target marginalized Country examples. In Dubai of the United Arab Emirates groups more purposefully and avoid further flat-rate (UAE), tuition rate increases are dependent on the subsidies to all households in favor of directing subsidies performance of a school. The aim of this innovative to the poorest families (Rolleston et al. 2010). This option framework is to regulate school fees to protect students has budget implications for the government and requires and their parents as beneficiaries of educational services, further analysis before a detailed policy discussion can as well as to provide a favorable environment for take place. investors in the education sector and encourage them to improve the quality of education (Dubai KHDA 2012). Country examples. The Right to Education Act in India is the largest school voucher program in the world. The Act In Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, and the Philippines, tuition outlines that all children between the ages of 6 and 14 fees are determined by the market rather than decided shall have the right to free and compulsory elementary by the government. The market is therefore allowed to education at a neighborhood school. There is no direct determine the price, resulting in differentiated school (school fees) or indirect cost (uniforms, textbooks, mid- models that meet the demands of individual citizens. The day meals, transportation) to be borne by the child or the government in each country maintains a stewardship parents to obtain elementary education. The role to ensure learning for all (Patrinos 2012). government will provide schooling free-of-cost until a child’s elementary education is completed. In order to B. Offer incentives for the poorest students to increase access to education, the Act outlines that 25 attend private schools percent of places in private schools must be allocated to Ghana offers tax credits to parents of children who economically weaker section (EWS) and disadvantaged attend private schools. However, this financial incentive students.5 is restricted to families who work in the formal sector and pay income tax. The desire to limit private school Policy Option 3: Encourage innovation in schools tuition is understandable, as the regulation is likely by ensuring greater flexibility in managing aimed at protecting families who cannot afford to pay schools, services, and staff high fees. However, other redistributive mechanisms can protect poorer students without negatively impacting As noted, Ghana requires at least one-third of teachers the growth of the private education sector. By providing employed by independent private schools to be officially additional financial benefits, such as cash transfers, to trained. International education research shows that families that enable their children to attend private teacher credentials—including factors such as years of schools, the state can protect marginalized groups while experience, certification, and education—fail to predict simultaneously promoting a diverse supply of quality student learning (Dobbie, Fryer, and Fryer 2011; providers. Governments can thus offer targeted Goldhaber and Anthony 2004; Goldhaber and Brewer opportunities to families that may not be able to afford 2000; Hedges, Laine, and Greenwald 1994; Hanushek private schooling, which also empowers students and 1997). Based on existing evidence and more general parents. evidence supporting the positive potential of school autonomy to improve student learning outcomes, local The Government is already using the Livelihood school decision making is advocated over centralized Empowerment against Poverty (LEAP) program to teacher credential standards (Baum et al. 2013). implement conditional cash transfers (CCTs) in deprived Moreover, regulations on teaching credentials may limit areas of Ghana. Lessons from LEAP will guide any future the potential for private providers to operate and 5 “Right to Education,” n.d., website, Department of School Development, Government of India, New Delhi, India, Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource http://mhrd.gov.in/rte (accessed September 2013). 18 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER PILOT COUNTRY REPORT |2015 expand, as certain schools may be unable to employ a sufficient number of qualified teachers. Country examples. In England, private independent and privately managed schools (known as Free Schools and Academies) are able to adopt their own teaching standards. Some schools opt to use government standards, while others tailor these standards to meet the needs of the local community (U.K. Department for Education 2013). 19 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER COUNTRY REPORT |2016 Akyeampong, K., and C. Rolleston. 2013. “Low-Fee Private Acknowledgments Schooling in Ghana: Is Growing Demand Improving Equitable and Affordable Access for the Poor?” In Low- This pilot country report presents data collected using Fee Private Schooling: Aggravating Equity or Mitigating the SABER-EPS policy intent data collection instrument. Disadvantage? ed. Prachi Srivastava, 37-63. Oxford The report was prepared in consultation with the Studies in Comparative Education. Oxford, U.K.: Government of Ghana. This SABER-EPS country report Symposium Books. was prepared by members of the SABER-EPS team at Andrabi, T., J. Das, and A. Khwaja. 2009. “Report Cards: The World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C., including Impact of Providing School and Child Test Scores on Husein Abdul-Hamid, Donald Baum, Laura Lewis, and Oni Educational Markets.” Unpublished manuscript. World Lusk-Stover, in collaboration with Leslie Tettey (principal Bank, Washington, DC. investigator) in Ghana. Critical edits and updates were Angrist, J., E. Bettinger, E. Bloom, and E. King. 2002. “Vouchers made by Minju Choi. Guidance and inputs were provided for Private Schooling in Colombia: Evidence from a by Inuwa Abubakar, Fahma Nur, and Harry Patrinos. Randomized Natural Experiment.” American Economic Review 92 (5): 1535–58. The SABER-EPS team gratefully recognizes the support, Barrera-Osorio, F. 2006. “The Impact of Private Provision of suggestions, and feedback of the World Bank Ghana Public Education: Empirical Evidence from Bogotá’s education team: Eunice Yaa Brimfah Ackwerh (Senior Concession Schools.” World Bank Policy Research Education Specialist), Deborah Newitter Mikesell (Senior Working Paper 4121. Education Unit, Human Education Specialist), and Peter Darvas (Senior Education Development Network, World Bank, Washington, DC. Economist). The SABER-EPS team acknowledges the Barrera-Osorio, F., and D. Raju. 2010. 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Resch. 2013. “KIPP Middle Schools: Impacts on 23 GHANA ǀ ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN EDUCATION SABER COUNTRY REPORT |2016 www.worldbank.org/education/saber The Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) initiative collects data on the policies and institutions of education systems around the world and benchmarks them against practices associated with student learning. SABER aims to give all parties with a stake in educational results—from students, administrators, teachers, and parents to policymakers and business people—an accessible, detailed, objective snapshot of how well the policies of their country's education system are oriented toward ensuring that all children and youth learn. This report focuses specifically on policies of engaging the private sector in education. This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 24