WATER KNOWLEDGE NOTE Mitigating Floods for Managing Droughts through Aquifer Storage An Examination of Two Complementary Approaches Paul Pavelic1 Interventions that are robust, cost effective, and scalable are in critical demand throughout South Asia to offset growing water scarcity and avert increasingly frequent water-related disasters. This case study presents two complementary forms of intervention that transform water hazards (floodwater) into a resource (groundwater) to boost agricultural productivity and enhance livelihoods. The first intervention, holiya, is simple and operated by individual farmers at the plot/farm scale to control local flooding in semiarid climates. The second is the underground transfer of floods for irrigation (UTFI) and operates at the village scale to offset seasonal floods from upstream in humid climates. Rapid assessments indicate that holiyas have been established at more than 300 sites across two districts in North Gujarat since the 1990s, extending the crop growing season and improving water quality. UTFI knowledge and experience has grown rapidly since implementation of a pilot trial in western Uttar Pradesh in 2015 and is now embedded within government programs with commitments for modest scaling up. Both approaches can help farmers redress the multiple impacts associated with floods, droughts, and groundwater overexploitation at a range of scales from farm plot to the river basin. The potential for wider uptake across South Asia depends on setting up demonstration sites beyond India and overcoming gaps in technical knowledge and institutional capacity. © Faseeh Shams / International Water Management Institute. The information in this case study was prepared as part of the South Asia Water Initiative (SAWI) technical assistance project, “Managing Groundwater for Drought Resilience in South Asia.” SAWI is a multidonor trust fund supported by the United Kingdom, Australia, and Norway and administered by the World Bank. See also acknowledgement of the sponsorship for the primary work at the end of this paper. Problem Statement and Case Study snow and ice may create conditions for more-frequent, higher- Contribution magnitude floods in the upper reaches of the receiving river basins (Sharma and de Condappa 2013). The consequences of climate The South Asia region covers only about 3 percent of the change are extreme and complex across the region, and most of the world’s land surface area but supports approximately 24 rural population depends on agriculture, most of which is rainfed percent of the world’s population. Despite steady progress in and heavily dependent on monsoons. Communities are affected agriculture and rural development, poverty and food insecurity differently by climate variability and climate change according to are endemic across much of the region. South Asia is also one social structures associated with class, caste, ethnicity, and gender of the most water-stressed regions of the world. According to (Sugden et al. 2014). the AQUASTAT database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the average water endowment for Farmers rely on groundwater from the highly productive 2013–17 is only 1,100 cubic meters per capita per year (cubic alluvial aquifers of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and from the meters per person per year)—well below the corresponding hard rock aquifers that underlie much of peninsular India statistic for Sub-Saharan Africa of 3,900 cubic meters per as a drought adaptation measure. Year-round reliance on person per year. South Asia is also a region of immense contrast groundwater for agricultural production has led to significant in water resources, with Bhutan most endowed at an impressive overexploitation. India’s 2013 national groundwater resource 101,000 cubic meters per person per year and the Maldives assessment revealed that a high proportion of administrative least endowed at only 80 cubic meters per person per year blocks are classified as overexploited, and the situation (for the same five-year period). Water resources management continues to deteriorate (GoI 2017). Similar trends are also is challenged by the inherent variability in rainfall, which, emerging more widely across the region (Qureshi et al. 2010; together with the high level of water demand, brings recurring Saha et al. 2016). droughts that severely undermine progress toward Sustainable Development Goals for the region. South Asia, and India in particular, has rich experience in The highly seasonal, monsoonal-driven rainfall patterns that managed aquifer recharge (MAR) to harvest runoff waters and characterize the region lead to regular flooding. The region store the water underground, thanks to watershed development has an extensive history of devastating floods driven by high projects and programs by government and nongovernmental seasonal rainfall or major storm events. Areas badly affected by organizations (NGOs) (Sakthivadivel 2007). States such as seasonal flooding are the downstream reaches of the Ganges Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu are actively basin in eastern India and western Bangladesh and along the promoting MAR to replenish depleted aquifers. Such forms of length of the Indus floodplain in Pakistan. During the dry MAR development have been targeted for drought-prone regions season, the same areas face critical water shortages when poor of the country with little or no attention given to the wetter, flood- monsoons result in drought. prone regions. As groundwater use has significantly expanded throughout the region in recent decades, signs of overexploitation The average combined cost of floods in Bangladesh, India, and have emerged even in flood-prone regions of the Ganges basin in Nepal is estimated at US$1.53 billion per year, affecting 31 Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (Saha et al. 2016). million people from 1971 to 2008 (World Bank 2010). The corresponding figures for drought are US$62 million per year New approaches to adapt and mitigate against climate change and 26 million people impacted. The costs of groundwater impacts on water supply, agriculture, food security, and overexploitation in the region do not appear to have been livelihoods must be identified and put into practice. There is a estimated, but the value of the groundwater economy for the pressing need to test and promote evidence-based approaches agricultural sector alone in the three countries was estimated that are cost effective, socially inclusive, and scalable. There is at US$10 billion per year about a decade ago (Shah 2007). great scope for innovation leading to integrated solutions that contribute positively toward improved flood, drought, and There is already clear evidence of climate change in the region, groundwater management and potentially have far-reaching and it is likely to become more pronounced in coming decades cobenefits for communities in both rural and urban areas. To (IPCC 2014; Sharma et al. 2010). Perhaps most significantly, the be successful, these approaches must be pragmatic, affordable, intensity and duration of rainfall will continue to change, altering and developed together with, and owned by, vulnerable the hydrologic cycle, exacerbating extremes in water variability, farming communities to enhance their adaptive capacity. This and leading to more floods and droughts with associated impacts case study examines the opportunities and constraints of two on farmers. In addition, accelerated melting of Himalayan such approaches by: WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 2 • Introducing and giving a brief conceptual analysis of a scarcity of water at another time or place. The first, known as each approach; the holiya, is a small-scale intervention at the individual farm level • Detailing the state of knowledge for each, focusing to address problems related to extreme seasonal water variability. mainly on performance- and impact-related aspects; and The second approach, UTFI, is an off-farm intervention to address • Outlining the challenges, gaps, and ways forward for the same types of water management issues at a community or wide-scale implementation. river basin level. An overview of the characteristics of the two approaches is shown in figure 1 and table 1 and described below. The two approaches presented in this case study were developed independently in different states in India (Gujarat and Uttar Although MAR approaches have been applied around the Pradesh) and have been brought together here for the first time. globe over the past six decades (Dillon et al.2018), holiyas and UTFI are novel and have yet to be mainstreamed into Introducing the Two Approaches development plans, strategies, and MAR guidelines (CGWB 2000). Mainstreaming is unlikely without policy research There are two simple yet innovative approaches that address that demonstrates a solid proof of concept and a viable problems associated with a surplus of water at a time or place and business case. FIGURE 1. Schematic Representations of the Functioning and Implementation Design for Holiyas and UTFI Without holiya With holiya A A concrete pit lcpe with perforated bottom end subsoil strata Without UTFl With UTFl B C C brick structure filled with pea gravel B slotted gravel-filled inner pipe outer pipe Source: Top Pane: adapted from Bunsen and Rathod (2016). Bottom Pane: adapted from Pavelic et al. (2015). Note: UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 3 TABLE 1. Overview of the General Characteristics of Two Interventions Characteristic Holiya UTFI Source of water Local field runoff Upstream catchment runoff diverted from rivers or irrigation canals during high flows Issues addressed Local flooding/inundation (either event-based Seasonal flooding from high flows upstream or seasonal), waterlogging, groundwater and groundwater depletion depletion, and groundwater salinization Aquifer targeted Upper 8 to 10 meters of alluvial deposits, Upper (25 to 30 meters) unconfined alluvial sometimes extending to depths of 25 meters aquifer (upper sequence of the Indo- Gangetic Plain aquifers) Climatic conditions Semiarid Humid subtropical Scale of consideration Farm level Community level through river basin level when scaled up Recharge technology Collection pit and perforated pipe to drain Retrofitted community ponds through pond local fields by gravity floor or recharge wells depending on the stratigraphic conditions Recharge timing Largely monsoonal (based on rainfall Strictly monsoonal based on flow (requires patterns) constraining); pond is dormant during the dry season Recovery technology Pipe fitted with electric or diesel pump to No specific infrastructure; utilizes existing recover water locally pumps in nearby wells O&M activities Groundwater pumping, pit desilting, pipe Activating and deactivating recharge; unclogging, and pump repair desilting pit, pond, filters, and recharge wells Investment model Either farmer-funded or shared costs Investor-driven with in-kind community between farmer and NGO investor support Institutional Individual farmer Community-managed through water use arrangements committee linked to high-level institutions Initiation Mid-1990s, ramping up in mid-2000s with the Conceived in mid 2010s in Thailand and involvement of several NGOs piloted in the Gangetic Plain of India since 2015 Sources: Bunsen and Rathod 2016; Garg 2016; Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015; Reddy, Pavelic, and Hanjra 2017. Note: NGO = nongovernmental organization; O&M = operation and maintenance; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. Holiyas A holiya system is typically composed of little more than a perforated pipe with the top end housed in a square-shaped Holiyas, also referred to as bhungroo, emerged in North concrete collection pit with side lengths of 1 meter or less Gujarat in the mid-1990s at the grassroots level through (figure 1). The pipe diameter is about 100 millimeters (4 inches), spontaneous farmer-to-farmer transmission (Bunsen and and the depth of penetration is usually 8 to 10 meters, though Rathod 2016; Garg 2016). NGO-driven efforts since the some may be as deep as 25 meters. Ideally, the holiya is positioned mid-2000s have boosted implementation to more than 100 within the lowest point in a farm field where it can be most systems constructed by NGOs and nearly 200 by farmers. It is effective in draining monsoonal rains that accumulate from the likely that water scarcity is one reason behind their emergence topsoil’s low-infiltration capacity. The holiya acts to reduce or because the Patan and Banaskantha districts where holiyas avoid water inundation that damages field crops. Perforations can be found are among the most groundwater-depleted in in the lower part of the pipe enable surface water to recharge Gujarat (Shah 2014). The shallow aquifers in the Patan district shallow groundwater by gravity alone and be held within the are alluvial deposits composed of coarse sand, gravel, pebbles, pore spaces of the alluvial layers. The rate of movement (drift) and fine and clayey sand of moderate to high productivity of infiltrated water within the aquifer is believed to be low, so (CGWB 2014). Naturally occurring saline deposits and the recharged water adds to local groundwater storage and can hydrogeological complexity in the area leads to high variability be recovered during the winter or summer months to irrigate where saline groundwater is encountered. crops or for livestock. Little technical knowledge is required for WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 4 holiya construction. The total depth and slotted intervals of the under the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)- pipe as well as the method of pipe completion at the surface are TATA program in 2015–16 (table 2). The studies were similar among the few critical elements of good design. Costs related to in seeking to empirically deduce the holiya functioning as well operation and maintenance (O&M) are incurred in pumping as socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Bunsen and out water, desilting the pit, unclogging the pipe, and repairing Rathod (2016) surveyed 41 farmers across multiple villages and replacing the pump. with detailed work in one village (Ekalva). Focusing solely on this village, Garg (2016) conducted almost 50 interviews with UTFI farmers, including owners and non-owners of holiyas, laborers involved with holiya construction, and NGO representatives. UTFI recharges depleted aquifers with wet-season high flows, adding to local groundwater storage and mitigating flooding The evidence base for UTFI is drawn from research for in downstream areas (figure 1). The stored recharge water may development project that began in 2015. Studies have focused later be recovered via existing local wells for domestic supplies on pilot testing and evaluation using multidisciplinary and irrigation. approaches at the village scale supplemented by modeling studies at the basin scale (table 2). The scope of activities UTFI can enhance the ecosystem with flood control, includes site suitability assessments, pilot testing and groundwater recharge, and dry-season water availability. demonstration, hydroeconomic modeling, institutions The socioeconomic and environmental benefits of UTFI and policy analysis, community mobilization, and capacity are most apparent in large-scale projects that involve building. For this assessment, the findings from those upstream-downstream linkages. Clustering individual UTFI activities are separated into two sets. One relates to village- interventions within a local community enables scaling up to level pilot testing and evaluation, and the other includes the small watershed or catchment scale (from tens to thousands analyses at the basin scale to assess opportunities for scaling of square kilometers). up. Various project documents have been utilized for this analysis (Brindha and Pavelic 2016; Chinnasamy et al. The idea behind UTFI emerged in the early 2010s from MAR 2017; CSSRI 2017; Gangopadhyay, Sharma, and Pavelic trials and desktop analysis in the Chao Phraya basin, Thailand 2017; Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015; Reddy, Pavelic, and (Pavelic et al. 2012). UTFI implementation has so far focused Hanjra 2017). on the Ganges River basin and has had some similarities to the Ganges water machine concept, which was developed in the Technical Performance and Beneficial 1970s and revisited in the 2010s (Amarasinghe, Mutuwatte, Impacts et al. 2015; Revelle and Lakshminarayana 1975). Holiyas Evaluation Approaches Holiyas were evaluated for their technical performance, Knowledge of holiyas is based exclusively on two rapid as well as for their beneficial impacts from an economic, assessment studies carried out in North Gujarat by students environmental and social perspective. TABLE 2. Site Details and Evaluation Methods Holiya UTFI (P) UTFI (B) Site(s) evaluated Banaskantha and Patan Jiwai Jadid village, Rampur Ramganga basin, India districts, Gujarat, India district, Uttar Pradesh, India Evaluation methods Interviews and surveys of Field testing of one Hydrologic, hydraulic, and applied holiya owners and non- pilot trial site and group economic modeling owners, laborers, and NGO discussions representatives in multiple villages Note: B = basin-scale intervention; NGO = nongovernmental organization; P = pilot-scale intervention; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 5 Technical Performance holiyas in averting inundation. Well-off tubewell owners used to sell water to poorer farmers, but this practice has declined The majority of the holiyas examined functioned effectively. since holiyas have been built, easing pressure on groundwater Some did not work well because of poor setting of the pipe resources and averting the need to deepen tubewells every few depth, inappropriate siting, overextraction leading to high years. groundwater salinity, low-quality construction materials, pipe clogging from high suspended sediment content, and Farmers in the area have a good understanding of the inadequate attention to structure maintenance. groundwater system and the role of holiyas in augmenting groundwater resources. Owners of holiyas gain direct benefits The hydrogeological conditions at a selected location are from their endeavors and thus tend to learn from their experience critical to the performance and long-term functioning of and that of other farmers on ways to improvise and improve the holiyas. For example, holiyas that intercept highly saline design. Simplicity is critical to successful farmer adoption. For deposits face constraints in recovering adequate quantities example, establishing a pair of holiyas near each other means of fresh water because even low levels of mixing between growers can use a single pump and save on capital costs. Farmers recharged and native water is a major issue. The specific ways rejected NGO attempts to improve the design by adding a in which hydrogeologic variables influence the capacity to gravel layer to the collection pit to filter water prior to recharge infiltrate and recover water remain unclear. because it added cost and effort with limited perceived benefit. One NGO reportedly assigns ownership to women farmers, Economic and Environmental Aspects but it is not clear whether this achieves the goals of women’s empowerment and stronger social outcomes (for example, by Most holiya owners claim to benefit from extended water greater investments in farm improvements and education). access during the growing season and improved drought resilience. In some cases, greater water availability enabled crop diversification. Estimates given by interviewees suggest UTFI that agricultural production rose by about 20 to 25 percent, boosting income and improving farmers’ drought resilience. Implementation of UTFI in the field has focused on pilot Although the capital cost of the structures is reasonable, demonstration and testing on the Gangetic Plain in western particularly when farmers organize construction with local Uttar Pradesh in India. The pilot trial site at the Jiwai Jadid contractors, some farmers claim that the cost is a major village was selected after regional mapping, desktop studies, disincentive. In the Ekalva village, the recent introduction of and field surveys to examine the biophysical conditions and canal water at a cheaper cost than holiya water could have local communities’ need for UTFI as outlined in Pavelic, disincentivized farmers’ use of holiyas. However, holiyas Brindha, et al. (2015). remained relevant because canal water is not available year- round or throughout the village. The Jiwai Jadid village in the Rampur district relies almost entirely on agriculture. About 90 percent of the area is under cultivation Social Aspects supported by good alluvial soils and full irrigation coverage from tubewells and canals. A diverse mix of castes resides in the Most farmers interviewed believe the introduction of holiyas village, and government data show 17 percent of households to be a success, but this belief is understood only in general have below-poverty-line ration cards. Paddy and wheat are the terms. No specific type of holiya (either self-constructed or major crops grown. Small and marginal farmers account for 77 NGO-constructed) was thought to be better than another. percent of the village. More than 90 percent of households in Holiya water used for domestic purposes is also perceived to the village own private tubewells for domestic and irrigation provide health benefits (such as reduced joint pain, stomach supplies. Although small and moderate floods occurred in pain, and indigestion), presumably when compared to higher- the decade prior to implementing the trial, overabstraction of salinity tubewell water. groundwater is the village’s most critical water resource issue. Further detail of the biophysical and socioeconomic context for Most owners claim to benefit from flood mitigation the village and wider area are available in the baseline studies improvements as well as reduced soil erosion. Other positive (IWMI 2017; LNRMI 2017; TERI 2017). externalities emerge where holiya owners drain away problematic flows from neighboring fields. However, during The UTFI pilot rehabilitated a single abandoned village extreme rainfall events, there are limits on the effectiveness of pond with 10 recharge wells (figure 1) sunk into the base WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 6 to depths of 25 to 30 meters. The wells encountered fine to Health Organization drinking water standard in recharged medium sand layers, with occasional clay lenses, that form groundwater and all monitored groundwater, including far the upper unconfined aquifer, which is the source of much from the pilot site where impacts from recharge operations are of the groundwater pumping in the area. Water is siphoned not expected. This strongly suggests that microbial and some into the pond from an adjacent canal that receives river flows heavy metal contamination existed in the Jiwai Jadid village in the monsoon period. Water, filtered through the wells, pond prior to the pilot and is unrelated to the intervention, recharges the aquifer. In the dry season, the stored flood water though geochemical reactions stimulated by the recharge is recovered via existing domestic and irrigation wells. An activities may have contributed to the mobilization of these upper blanket of 6 to 7 meters of heavy clay soil meant that contaminants. The microbial pollution of groundwater is not well-recharge methods had to be applied. It also accounts for surprising because the village has poor wastewater management the negligible levels of seepage observed beneath the base of and microbial contaminant inputs that appear to exceed the the canal. High population density and intensive year-round natural capacity of the aquifer for attenuation. cultivation make land availability a constraint. However, ponds owned by the community are often abandoned because Environmental Impacts farmers have switched from ponds and canals to private groundwater wells as the dominant source of irrigation water. Integrated hydrological modeling has been used at the Ramganga basin scale (19,000 square kilometers) to examine Technical Aspects the biophysical implications of scaling up and to explore alternative options (Chinnasamy et al. 2017). The model The UTFI system operates in recharge mode during the considered a distributed arrangement of UTFI interventions monsoon months when water in the adjacent Pilankar minor across the basin, capturing between 10 and 50 percent of canal is high, signifying an excess of surface water flows as the cumulative outflow that would otherwise discharge out the canal diverts water from the nearby Pilankar River. In of the basin under baseline conditions. The results show that, the first full season of operation in 2016, total recharge was with 50 percent capture, groundwater level declines could be 40,000 cubic meters over 85 days of operation. A wetter year slowed and then reversed with a 7-meter rise in levels across in 2017 resulted in 60,000 cubic meters of water recharged. the basin within the 11-year simulation period considered With modest refinements in operational management, the (1999–2010). The increase in groundwater levels over that attainable volume would be about 70,000 cubic meters same period brings cobenefits in terms of an increase in base per year. Recharge water is silt-laden, with total suspended flow contribution to the Ramganga River. The reduction in sediment values in the pond water measured at 300 to 400 net basin outflow would reduce peak discharge, lowering the milligrams per liter. Intraseasonal declines in recharge rates are magnitude (that is, the return period and inundated area) of observed as a result of siltation from turbid water. Desilting current floods. For example, a 20 percent reduction in peak of the pond floor and gravel filter is performed annually, and flows at the outlet of the basin converted a 15-year flood peak the recharge wells have been desilted on one occasion using an to eight years, a five-year peak to three years, and a two-year airlift pump. peak to just more than one year. The modeling affirms that, in theory, with appropriate basinwide UTFI implementation, A series of piezometers around the structure measure flood impacts can be mitigated and both groundwater storage groundwater-level changes in the vicinity of the pond. and river base flow enhanced. Water-level buildup attributable to UTFI appears to be small because of the physical properties of the aquifer (high Based on the trial results (CSSRI 2017), an estimated 17,000 aquifer diffusivity) and further masked by the more dominant village ponds would need to be converted to reduce outflow influence of natural recharge. by 20 percent of the mean annual July to September flow of about 6,000 million cubic meters (based on the design recharge Detailed water quality monitoring indicates that nutrients, volume indicated below). In Rampur district alone, where arsenic, and pesticide levels in the recharge water and the mapping has taken place, there are 1,800 ponds, indicating a receiving groundwater have been detected, but their levels are high potential for scaling up within the basin. The high degree not a concern relative to the Indian drinking water standard of extrapolation from the one trial pond to basin scale suggests (BIS 2012). However, following recharge, fecal coliforms and a high degree of uncertainty in the scaling-up parameters, so some heavy metals, such as arsenic and mercury, are detected these parameters provide only a tentative indication of the at higher levels than both the Indian standard and the World scaling potential. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 7 Economic Performance Although the economic incentive offered by MGNREGA is sufficient to mobilize the community to address the hardware Estimates of the UTFI-attributed agricultural output are components of UTFI, it is not sufficient to address other based on a design recharge volume of 70,000 cubic meters, of components that are needed to ensure effective and sustainable which 75 percent is used for agriculture and the remaining 25 functioning over the long term. One of the key challenges is percent added to environmental flows. The quantity is enough that the village is institutionally weak. There are no self-help, to irrigate either 8 hectares of summer rice or 11 hectares of water user, or farm groups or NGOs. The local government maize (table 3). Net economic returns range from US$66 (or Panchayati Raj) is the only functioning institution in this per hectare for dry season rice to US$158 per hectare for village and many surrounding villages. maize. IWMI is presently undertaking a more comprehensive assessment of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts The institutional arrangements for UTFI are under at the household and village scales. development. Responsibility for the management of the UTFI intervention at the Jiwai Jadid village is being handed over to Institutional Aspects the district authorities, with links to the Panchayati Raj and the local community. The project team is working to increase the Community participation in the pilot has been formally capacity of district officials and the local community to operate registered under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural and manage the system effectively over the longer term. Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), a long-standing national flagship program focused on natural resource Community Perceptions management and livelihood improvement administered by India’s Ministry of Rural Development. This provides The local community perceives the benefits of UTFI to be a formal mechanism for ongoing resourcing to support increased availability of water, especially during the monsoon annual maintenance of the infrastructure. In the two years and winter months. Farmers said they spent less time irrigating of implementation to date, MGNREGA provided the fields, and householders spent less time and effort collecting water mechanism to involve the community to desilt the basin from hand pumps. The community also values the cleanliness but was unable to handle the redevelopment of the wells, in the pilot area, which previously was used for village waste which required capital costs for specialist equipment (an air disposal. However, some farmers say the system adds little value compressor). Future efforts will seek to further mobilize the because natural recharge already takes place in the wet season, community and instead use cheaper, locally available pumps whereas water shortfalls are greatest during summer months. In for maintenance. their view, using canal water for recharge in summer would be most beneficial. This view is contentious because it would create direct competition and risk avoidable conflict with surface water TABLE 3. Quantitative Technoeconomic irrigators. Some farmers also perceive floods as having a beneficial Performance effect on soil fertility, reaffirming the view that trading off UTFI with other potential benefits must be given appropriate attention Holiya UTFI (P) and analysis before larger-scale implementation. Installation costs (US$ per structure) 40–540a 2,700b Gender Dimensions Maintenance costs (US$ per structure per year) Unknown 550b UTFI is in theory a gender-neutral approach that benefits Net economic return (US$ per 721– men and women equally. However, examination of gender structure per year) Unknown 1241b across socioeconomic groups in the village reveals a complex Volumes of water stored (x 103 m3 situation. In this village, and throughout the region, women per structure per year) Unknown 70c are less visible than men within the public sphere because of Potential area irrigated during dry deeply entrenched social and cultural barriers. Women do not season (hectare) Unknown 8–11c participate in Panchayat meetings, nor are they engaged in Reduced No net managing community assets. Their social capital and networks Water quality changes salinity impact are highly constrained compared to men. Sources: a. Alam and Pavelic, forthcoming; b. Bunsen and Rathod 2016; c. pilot trial results. Note: m3 = cubic meter; P = pilot-scale intervention; The direct role for women in UTFI is also limited and UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. reflects their degree of inclusion in village agriculture. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 8 Where caste-related rules allow, women largely act as laborers. North  Gujarat. It is unclear why MAR has boomed in the Women believe that UTFI is a domain for men, so few would Saurashtra and Kutch districts to the south and east but not in be willing to maintain the infrastructure, even if financial the Banaskantha and Patna districts, all of which are equally incentives were offered. Women from upper caste communities groundwater stressed. NGO-led promotion of the holiya are unwilling to undertake O&M or be part of the water has reportedly led to uptake in the Indian states of Andhra committee. Men, on the other hand, are largely willing to Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha (Naireeta undertake O&M and contribute to minor maintenance, but Services 2018). Similar efforts are believed to be underway they are not ready to organize themselves to take complete in Bangladesh, Madagascar, and Togo, though publications responsibility or ownership for UTFI. They prefer that the on this topic are not available. Some documentation from Panchayat own the project and MGNREGA be responsible a research project in Ghana’s northern region is available for maintenance. The village’s modest economic status means (Owusu et al. 2017), but field findings have yet to emerge. it has little ability to directly contribute to infrastructure, and external financial and technical support is needed. UTFI Comparative Analysis There have been modest successes in plans for scaling up UTFI, concentrated in areas closest to the pilot site. Table 4 summarizes the comparative impacts of sustainability UTFI has been adopted as a key intervention within the indicators, and an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, district irrigation plan (DIP) for Rampur, prepared under opportunities, and threats (SWOT) in table 5 highlights the national flagship program, Pradhan Mantri Krishi the advantages and disadvantages associated with the two Sinchayee Yojana (Prime Minister’s Irrigation Program approaches. Holiyas may be the intervention of choice where [PMKSY]). Fifty sites are proposed under the DIP with local benefits are sought and where a low level of residual risk a capital investment of US$1.2 million (₹7.5) over five is preferred. UTFI, on the other hand, addresses larger issues to seven years. The geographic focus is on the subdistricts and may achieve more widespread benefits at a commensurately categorized as having critically overexploited groundwater. higher level of risk. This risk is largely a reflection of the challenges A similar process is anticipated to emerge in the Etah associated with participatory management of common pool district, 150 kilometers south of Rampur. Opportunities resources. Local farmers know they receive only indirect benefits to scale up have been facilitated through close engagement from UTFI because enhanced recharge for these projects is and support provided by district officials and by having a intended to increase groundwater availability for several farmers project team member sit on the committee of the district in the immediate area. This presents a challenge for effective nodal agency of PMKSY. community participation and highlights the reliance of the Over the longer term, successful scaling up of UTFI depends community on higher-level institutional linkages to provide on its convergence with government policies and development capacity, knowledge, and financial resources. programs taken forward by state and local governments, NGOs, and the private sector. Some potential entry points The SWOT analysis illustrates that the spatiotemporal and to include UTFI in Indian policies and programs include the climatic domains of suitability of the two approaches are following: different (figure 2). Holiyas can capture only small volumes of water and may be better suited to drier climates than UTFI. • Sustainable groundwater management is a thematic Holiyas may harvest both storm-related or seasonal floods, priority area of the government linked to various whereas UTFI is better suited to larger-scale and longer-lasting national programs including the National Aquifer floods than those that are rapid or localized. Mapping and Management Programme, Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water, and others. Scaling-up Status and Theoretical Potential • Integrated Watershed Management Program is The two techniques, themselves being at different scales, have implemented under the flagship program, PMSKY slightly different potential profiles for scaling-up. (Watershed Development Component). • Corporate social responsibility contributions from the Holiyas private sector are required under a 2014 law mandating that 2 percent of average net profits be invested in critical There is little documented evidence to suggest that holiyas social needs such as education, gender equality, and have been successfully implemented in areas beyond hunger. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 9 TABLE 4. Comparative Impacts of Sustainability Indicators Factors and associated indicators Holiya UTFI (P) UTFI (B) Technical performance Flood water recharge achieved Largely yes, but specific Yes Yes details unknown Soil erosion reduced Largely yes n.a. Unknown Groundwater quality improved or at Unknown Yes Unknown least maintained Recharge structure maintained Unknown Yes (with external Unknown support thus far) Economic performance Agricultural production increased Largely yes, by about 20 to Yes (inferred thus Yes 25 percent far) Food security or farm incomes Largely yes, but specific Yes (inferred thus Yes enhanced details unknown far) Form of benefits for farmers Direct Indirect Indirect Opportunity costs Likely small for farmers Small apart from because capital and O&M limited farmers costs are minimal; water who see flooding as ponds in fields would beneficial for crop not otherwise be used production productively Environmental impacts Dry-season groundwater storage Largely yes Limited because Declining groundwater enhanced of high aquifer level trends can be diffusivity reversed Domestic or livestock water supplies Largely yes Yes Yes enhanced Pumping costs (energy consumption) Unknown Likely to be Yes reduced negligible Baseflow to surface water bodies Unknown Difficult to establish; Yes enhanced likely to be negligible Flood risk reduced Largely yes, except for Difficult to establish; Yes extreme events likely to be negligible Community perceptions Concept and rationale understood Sufficiently well Partially Unknown Intervention operated correctly and Unknown Yes, with external Unknown potential conflicts avoided support Mechanism for O&M cost outlay Unknown Under development Unknown developed Infrastructure maintained Unknown Yes, with external Unknown support Sources: Bunsen and Rathod 2016; Garg 2016; Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015. Note: B = basin-scale interventions; n.a. = not applicable; O&M = operation and maintenance; P = pilot-scale interventions; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 10 TABLE 5. SWOT Analysis for the Two Intervention Types Holiya UTFI Strengths Simplicity; low cost; direct benefits for Simplicity, good cost benefits, and positive impacts participating farmers; and greater farmer if scaled; strong evidence base to underpin empowerment, which potentially includes engagement at policy levels women Weaknesses Localized nature, dependence on year- Dampened groundwater response because to-year climate in saline environments of aquifer characteristics, opportunity costs as minimal buffering created below (mitigating beneficial floods), and benefits are ground, and lack of verifiable evidence indirect for the participating farmers; more on performance and functioning; limited complex institutional management evidence base Opportunities Vast potential likely throughout much of Vast potential throughout much of the region (see the South Asia region (see “Scaling-up “Scaling-up Status and Theoretical Potential”); Status and Theoretical Potential”) some uptake by government to date Threats Sustainability and contamination by Risk of poor local governance, conflicts with fertilizer and pesticide residues downstream water users, and potential for contamination Note: SWOT = strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. FIGURE 2. Spatio-Temporal and Climatic Domains of Suitability for Holiyas and for UTFI Holiya UTFl Storm Seasonal Increasing duration of floods Holiya UTFl Arid Semiarid Humid Increasing rainfall Holiya UTFl Local Upstream Increasing runo capture area Holiya UTFl Plot Village District Basin Increasing scale of implementation Note: UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation (UTFI). WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 11 Regional Suitability Analysis prioritize steps needed to move forward. A high degree of heterogeneity and local contextual considerations means that The relatively brief duration since the two interventions were within any given region, more-detailed assessments would be initiated, particularly in the case of UTFI, has contributed to the needed to narrow the best-suited areas and develop plans for limited level of take-up. At such an early stage, it is worthwhile implementation (Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015). to explore the geographic areas where there is potential scope for implementation within India and the wider region. Both Knowledge Gaps and Outlook forms of intervention have prerequisite conditions that must be met before proceeding with implementation. Many of Holiya these conditions are common to both (table 6). More detailed exploration of holiyas is warranted based on the The potential for UTFI has been assessed throughout South rapid assessments’ generally positive findings, revealing more Asia as part of a global-scale assessment, which is likely than 300 sites established in two districts in North Gujarat. applicable to holiyas as well by default. Alam and Pavelic Gaps in knowledge and capacity remain as follows: (forthcoming) provide specific details of that assessment. In brief terms, a spatial analysis was undertaken at a 0.5-degree • Recharge capacity of holiya structures under different grid-scale resolution with results aggregated to the country hydrogeological conditions level. The analysis relied on publicly available data sets of • Potential water quality–related health risks for farm the key indicator parameters for three areas related to floods, households using holiya water for domestic purposes droughts, and aquifer characteristics. Ranks and weights (such as microbial quality or mobilization of arsenic) were applied to each parameter followed by overlay analysis. • Long-term performance and viability of maintaining holiya structures The results suggest widespread prospects for UTFI • Economic viability and life cycle costs across different throughout South Asia. A total area of 169 million hectares settings of crop land is assessed to have moderate to high potential • Gender- and equity-related benefits for UTFI across the seven countries considered (table  7). • Local capacity to undertake scientifically based These potentially suitable areas are home to about 80 implementation percent of the region’s population (1.4 billion people). The country with the highest potential in terms of land area is Knowledge in these areas, combined with reconnaissance India, followed by Pakistan and then Bangladesh. studies over wider areas, would shed light on the constraints to wider uptake of holiyas in Gujarat and potentially other regions. For potential investors and proponents, maps and data of this kind help form the basis for screening and first-level decision An interesting parallel to the holiya approach has emerged making about the feasibility of these interventions and help in the more humid conditions of eastern India, which floods TABLE 6. Checklist of Minimum Prerequisites and Enabling Conditions for Successful Implementation Factor Holiya UTFI Regular flooding with negative socioeconomic impacts such as crop or property damage and livestock or human casualties ¸ ¸ Short- or long-term droughts leading to domestic or irrigation shortfalls in water supply ¸ ¸ Suitable aquifers in terms of permeability, low salinity, and sufficiently deep groundwater levels ¸ ¸ Absence of nearby major pollution sources that may contaminate the floodwater or groundwater ¸ ¸ Land for conversion to recharge structures that is close to a flood water source (river, canal, and so on) n.a. ¸ Interest and participation of local farmers and institutions to facilitate effective and sustainable use of the interventions ¸ ¸ Note: n.a. = not available; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. The conditions reflected in the top three rows are included in the UTFI mapping assessment. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | MITIGATING FLOODS FOR MANAGING DROUGHTS THROUGH AQUIFER STORAGE 12 TABLE 7. South Asia Populations and Land Key Messages Going Forward Area with Moderate to High UTFI Prospects The findings presented here suggest that holiyas and UTFI offer affordable, practical, and effective ways for individual and groups Country Area (million Population hectares) (millions) of farmers to respond to floods, droughts, and groundwater overexploitation. The two techniques offer a range of scales (farm Afghanistan 1.6 12.9 to basin) and contribute to a compelling narrative regarding the Bangladesh 8.6 138.6 transformation of a water hazard (floodwater) into a resource Bhutan 0.1 0.6 (groundwater). They present an opportunity for South Asian India 137.2 1,088.8 farmers to boost agricultural productivity and diversity, thereby Nepal 2.5 32.3 improving livelihoods and drought resilience. Further, the two Pakistan 18.0 157.8 approaches offer highly desirable, nature-based solutions that are Sri Lanka 1.4 11.4 environmentally benign and do not require large infrastructure or Total 169.4 1,442.4 transportation of water across great distances. Source: Adapted from Alam and Pavelic, forthcoming. Note: UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation. In principle, there is a clear scope to implement these interventions more widely across much of South Asia, but regularly, and where groundwater dependence is low and the geographic scope of both approaches has so far been water tables are shallow. The shallow water tables preclude limited to India. To scale up the approaches, South Asian consideration of holiyas and UTFI. Instead, the vertical drain countries need to improve enabling conditions through policy has been tested experimentally in the Vaishali district in Bihar dialogues, build awareness among stakeholders, and support (Prathapar et al. 2018). Results show that the drain bypassed operational, technical, and institutional capacity building a 6-meter layer of clay and better connected the floodwater to effectively manage holiyas and UTFI. Policy makers and to the aquifer, draining 26 cubic meters per day on average investors can consider the two approaches when making when groundwater levels started to recede. The vertical drain investment decisions related to sustainable development goals, shortened the duration of seasonal waterlogging in time for water-related disasters, climate change adaptation, watershed the winter wheat crop. It would be useful to examine the management, and rural livelihood development. scaling-up potential for this approach as well. Acknowledgments UTFI The UTFI work reported in this case study was undertaken The state of knowledge and experience on UTFI in the Ganges with support from the Consultative Group on International basin is at an intermediate level, though under a limited set of Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Research Programs on biophysical and social conditions. As the research progresses, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the evidence base for UTFI will be further strengthened. Future Water, Land and Ecosystems. The project is a collaboration research, building upon the existing work described in this case of IWMI, Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management study, should focus on the following gaps and challenges: Institute, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, and Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rampur, India. The contribution made by • Enhancing village participation and ownership through team members from these institutions to the ideas and data local institutions to ensure effective functioning and presented is noted with thanks. performance over the long term • Establishing how climate change will affect water The inclusion of the holiya systems of western India was made availability and demand and how this would affect the possible through the rapid assessment studies undertaken by performance of UTFI and parameters for scaling up the IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program. Doctors Shilp Verma • Developing practical, comprehensive guidelines, and and Tushaar Shah from IWMI-TATA are greatly appreciated operating procedures for successful rollout of UTFI for bringing this work to the author’s attention. programs on the Gangetic Plain • Creating a larger number of demonstration sites NOTE to test other hydrogeological, agroecological, and socioeconomic conditions in India and potentially other 1. 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