75574 Dimensions of Sustainable Development Toward Industrial Countries Sustainable Development Poor Countries Rapidly Industrializing Countries Population and Human Development Food and Agriculture Forests and Rangelands Wildlife and Habitat Atmosphere and Climate Nongovernmental Organizations WORLD RESOURCES DATA BASE ON DISKETTE Indispensable data on global conditions and trends in an easy-to-use software pack This time-saving research and reference tool contains all of the vital economic, population, natural resource and environmental statistics found in this book, plus 20-year time-series for many variables, and more. You won't find this extensive collection of authoritative, up-to-date global data available anywhere else. The World Resources Data Base on Diskette lets you search, chart, and manipulate thousands of key variables and export the data into your favorite spreadsheet, wordprocessing, and desktop publishing programs. 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QTY DISK FORMAT PRICE 3.5" IBM compatible _ J a t t a c n purchase order no. high-density $119.95 _ I enclose my check for: $ 5.25" IBM compatible _Please bill my VISA / MasterCard / high-density $119.95 American Express (circle one) Subtotal $ Account # Ex Shipping & Handling $ P- D a t e ($1.50 for one diskette pack; Signature 75 cents for each additional pack) PA SL M r rnciriontc Please note: all orders from individuals must be aHH caloc t a t gCouitrtM — Chita Developlno Countries have been largely unregulated in Chile. 3,000- 160- Thick smog frequently settles over Santi- ago due to prevailing winds and the city's 2.500- A 2,000- location surrounded by mountains on 100- 1,500 three sides. Produced by the combination / of automobile and bus exhausts, industrial 1,000- 50- emissions, and dust particles from the se- soo verely eroded surrounding hillsides, air pollution often reaches dangerous levels 1B70 1975 1980 IMS 1970 1076 1960 18B5 1990 during winter months. Although 90 per- cent of Santiago is served by sewage lines, Source: The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Wash- Source: United Nations (U.N.), Mortality of Children Under 5: World none of the sewage is treated. Sewage is ington, D.C., 1991). Estimates and Projections (U.N., New York, 1988), pp. 30-31. discharged into a river from which irriga- tion water is taken—a situation that has Figure 2 Total Fertility Rate Figure 4 Energy Consumption caused outbreaks of typhoid fever (5). Per Capita The government has estimated that nearly three fourths of the harmful ele- ments in Santiago's smog come from the (glgajouie8 per capita) city's fleet of roughly 14,500 privately — Chile — Developing Countries owned and operated diesel-engine buses. 80- To address the problem, the new Aylwin 50- government decided to remove 2,600 40- buses from the streets by buying them. The government also has instituted a li- 30- ^ - \ - — ^ _ _ _ / / cense plate system that on any given day 20- bars one fifth of the city's private cars 10- — ___—- — — " " from coming downtown (6). 970 1875 1980 1866 Source: The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Source: United Nations Statistical Office, UN. Energy Tape (United Washington, D.C., 1991). Nations, New York, May 1991). World Resources 1992-93 50 Rapidly Industrializing Countries 4 to exported wood products, the government imposed Table 4.1 Change in Per Capita Commercial a tax on log exports in 1979, then banned the export of Energy Consumption 1950-89 raw logs in 1985 (61), and, finally, levied a high tax on sawn timber (except in Irian Jaya) that effectively (percent change per year) banned export of such products. Nevertheless, the de- forestation rate has increased in recent years. (62). Country 1950—60 1960—70 1970—80 1980—89 The Malaysian government has sought to limit defor- Brazil 5.4 3.6 5.8 0.7 estation since introducing the National Forestry Policy Chile 1.6 5.1 -1.2 2.0 Mexico 4.1 3.8 4.8 0.4 in 1978. Under government regulations for the Malay Indonesia 9.3 -0.5 6.8 2.6 Malaysia X X 6.2 3.6 Peninsula, where about 30 percent of the country's tim- Thailand 11.3 11.9 7.2 6.5 ber is harvested, sections of forest are harvested on a World Total 3.2 3.0 0.9 0.4 cycle of 30 years or more, some areas are protected Sources: United Nations (U.N.), Energy Statistics Yearbook 1982 (U.N., New and only mature trees are felled. According to Mikaail York, 1984)., Table 2, pp.50-97, United Nations (U.N.) Energy Statistics Yearbook 1989 (U.N., New York, 1991), Table 2, pp. 32-61 Kavanagh of the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the Note: Commercial energy consumption calculated on oil equivalent basis. Malay Peninsula, use of the forests is closer to being X= not available. sustainable than it is in most other tropical rainforests (63). In the outlying Malaysian states of Sabah and factories, and dust that rises from surrounding eroded Sarawak, however, where control is in the hands of hillsides (72). (See Box 4.5, Chile.) local officials, deforestation is rampant: Sarawak is now the source of one half of the world's hardwood ENERGY CONSUMPTION logs (64). If the pace of logging there is not slowed, ac- cording to a 1990 report by the International Tropical Energy consumption in the six RICs has skyrocketed, Timber Organization, all the primary forests open for as is usually the case during the industrialization logging in the region will be gone in 11 years (65). phase of a country's economic development. Table 4.1 In June 1991, Brazil's President Fernando Collor de shows that per capita commercial energy consumption Mello permanently suspended tax subsidies that en- has increased at a much higher rate than the world av- couraged clearing the Amazon rainforest for cattle erage over the past 40 years. All six RICs are still be- ranching or farming. Brazil has also agreed to allow low the world average per capita consumption of 57 $100 million of its debt every year to be exchanged for gigajoules in 1989. (See Chapter 21, "Energy and Mate- financing of environmental projects such as training rials," Table 21.2.) park guards or surveying park boundaries (66). As a country modernizes, consumption of electricity Governments can also subsidize reforestation, as tends to rise. Recent growth in consumption and pro- Chile does. Since 1974, the government has paid a di- jections of future growth in demand have reached rect cash subsidy for reforestation that covers 75 per- daunting proportions in the RICs. In Indonesia, for ex- cent of the planting costs. The result has been the ample, electricity use grew 16 percent annually from establishment of more than 70,000 hectares of pine 1980 to 1987, more than twice the average rate in Asia plantations per year (67). (73). Yet, the Far Eastern Economic Review reports that "a power shortage is now a major concern for the govern- ment and would-be investors" (74). In Brazil, the equiv- Air Quality alent annual rates were 12 percent from 1970 to 1980 and 6.5 percent from 1980 to 1988 (75). Malaysia re- Air quality is another part of the resource base that is cently raised its forecast of electricity consumption in- being degraded in many countries, especially in urban creases through 1995 from 8 percent per year to 12-13 areas. The severe pollution that envelops Mexico City percent (76). In Thailand, electricity demand nearly tri- nearly year-round can be traced to 36,000 factories and pled in the 1980s, growing almost twice as fast as gov- 3 million motor vehicles that spew some 5.5 million ernment planners had forecast (77). metric tons of contaminants into the air each year (68). A 1988 study showed that over half the newborns in Policies that increase the efficiency with which elec- Mexico City had lead levels in their blood high enough tricity is used help to moderate this growth demand. to impair neurological and motor-physical develop- One such policy is to reduce or eliminate government ment (69). To attack this problem, a pollution control subsidies. In oil-exporting countries, for example, en- system limits the number of days individuals can ergy prices are often kept below the world market drive, but the initial benefits have disappeared in dirty level. In a step away from this practice, Indonesia has air as the fleet size continues to grow (70). now reduced subsidies for domestic fuel prices (78) to encourage efficiency. Kuala Lumpur is starting to experience similar pollu- tion hazes, partly as the result of industrialization and growing motor vehicle fleets. Car sales in Malaysia USING MORE EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGY were expected to reach 80,000 in 1990, up from 35,000 In a rapidly industrializing economy, there is a natural just three years earlier. So far, the government has es- tendency to focus first on expanding output and only tablished pollution emission standards only for diesel later on such seemingly secondary concerns as effi- trucks (71). Santiago, too, is experiencing dangerous ciency or pollution control. Yet attention to such mat- levels of air pollution in the winter as a result of cars, ters is critical to "technological leapfrogging" and to World Resources 1992-93 51 4 Rapidly Industrializing Countries Box 4.6 Mexico Mexico enjoyed steady economic growth contend that new firms will face strict en- in the four decades through 1980. In the vironmental codes (8). Others are concerned 1969-79 period, for example, real gross na- with equity issues, such as the fate of 30 mil- tional product (GNP) increased by an aver- lion campesinos (small farmers), who will age 9.2 percent annually, helped to a large not be able to compete with North Ameri- extent by the discovery and development can grain producers (9). of oil in the late 1970s in the Gulf of Cam- peche and the states of Tabasco and References and Notes Chiapas 0). (See Chapter 15, "Basic Eco- nomic Indicators," Table 15.1.) However, 1. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), the fruits of economic growth were not Mexico Country Profile 1990-91 (EIU, Lon- evenly distributed among the population don, 1990), p. 4. and the environmental costs (including 2. Eliot Kalter and Hoe Ee Khor, "Mexico's urban pollution and deforestation) were Experience with Adjustment," Finance and substantial. Development, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1990), p. 22. In the early 1980s, economic problems living conditions (6). In response, the Mexi- 3. Nora Lustig, "Economic Crisis, Adjust- became apparent. Massive borrowing can environmental agency (SEDUE) has ment, and Living Standards in Mexico, 1982-85," World Development, Vol. 18, No. drove Mexico's external debt to unman- worked with the U.S. Environmental Pro- 10 (1990), pp. 1336-1338. ageable levels. This, combined with other tection Agency (U.S. EPA) to develop a 4. Op. at. 2, pp. 24-25. factors such as economic slowdown in in- Comprehensive Mexico-United States En- dustrial countries, high international inter- vironmental Border Program. Under the 5. Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE), Mexico: Towards a Better Environ- est rates, and high fiscal deficits at home, program, the Mexican Government plans ment (SEDUE, Mexico City, 1991), pp. 12- led to a crisis in 1982. The government de- to spend $460 million in 1992-94 in the 14 and 20-21. clared that it was unable to service the border region on water treatment plants 6. Larry Reibstein, Tim Padgett, Andrew country's external debt and subsequently and enforcement actions such as tracking Murr el al., "A Mexican Miracle?" News- imposed strict exchange and trade con- movements of hazardous wastes (7). week (May 20,1991), pp. 42-45. trols. Inflation accelerated rapidly, ap- Mexico is working towards a free trade 7. Patrick) Chirinos, "Mexican Integrated En- proaching almost 100 percent in 1982 (2). agreement with the United States and Can- vironmental Border Plan," speech in Ciu- The retrenchment efforts instituted in ada. This agreement could stimulate Mexi- dad Juarez, Mexico (Secretaria de the mid-1980s had mixed success. During can growth by attracting investment and Desarrollo, Urbano y Ecologia, Mexico the 1982-85 period, real wages were re- opening rich new markets. Environmental City, October 23,1991), pp. 1-13. duced by 30 percent, forcing wage earners groups are concerned that the agreement 8. Op. cit. 6. to work longer hours or find additional could encourage U.S. companies to move to 9. Aaron E. Zazueta, Senior Associate, World sources of income, and social expenditures Mexico to take advantage of lax environ- Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., fell on average by 19 percent. Middle-class mental regulations, but Mexican officials 1991 (personal communication). families, which were most reliant on wage Figure 3 Mortality of Children income, may have proportionately lost the Figure 1 Gross National Product most, but the incidence of poverty rose as Per Capita Under Age 5 well. There was a rise in infant illness asso- ciated with nutritional deficiencies, and (US. dollars) (dea hs per 1000 births) more students dropped out of school (3). From 1979 to 1989, real GNP growth in- 3,000 • — Mexico Developing Countries Mexico Developing Countries creased a dismal 2 percent annually. (See 2,500 - / \ 150- Table 15.1.) However, there were substan- / \ tial improvements in broad health indica- 2.000 • 100- tors such as child mortality rates. (See 1.500 • Figure 3.) 1,000 • 50' Since the new administration of Presi- 600- dent Carlos Salinas de Gortari took office in mid-1988, the government has made 1970 1075 19B0 1965 070 1976 I960 1985 1990 progress in controlling inflation and re- structuring its external debt (4). The econ- Source: The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Wash- Source: United Nations (U.N.), Mortality of Children Under S: World Estimates and Projections (U.N., New York, 1988), pp. 30-31, omy is beginning to respond to the most ington, D.C., 1991). recent program, which includes some so- Figure 4 Energy Consumption cial and environmental components. For example, some polluting industries have Figure 2 Total Fertility Rate Per Capita been closed or fined. From 1988 to January 1991,77 new national regulations were is- (to al fertility rat B) (glgajoules per capita] sued on environmental matters. Some $2.5 billion will be invested to control air pollu- e- -Mexico - Developing Cou Irlaa 60- — - Mexico Developing Countries tion in Mexico City, with 42 percent of the 6- 50- money provided by foreign governments and multilateral banks (5). 40- Environmental groups are pressuring 3 30- — — ' " Mexico to toughen enforcement of envi- 2- 20- ronmental standards. Already a mush- 10- " " " rooming of unregulated assembly plants along the U.S.-Mexican border has pro- 970 1975 1960 19B5 1970 1876 1980 1985 duced serious pollution and substandard Source: The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Wash- Source: United Nations Statistical Office, U.N. Energy Tape (United ington, D.C., 1991). Nations, New York, May 1991), World Resources 1992-93 52 Rapidly Industrializing Countries 4 avoiding expensive retrofits or cleanups at a later date. Paulo, Brazil, suburban rail systems that had been When a country's industrial base is expanding rapidly, abandoned in recent years have been upgraded (88). policies that encourage adoption of the most efficient New industrial pollution control technologies can be technologies and manufacturing systems minimize encouraged by changes in regulatory procedures. What waste and pollutants and can have enormous cumula- is needed are policies that do not entrench existing con- tive benefits—improving a nation's economic competi- trol technologies at the expense of long-term innovation tiveness, sharply reducing capital needs, and and that encourage pollution and waste prevention protecting its environmental quality. rather than "end-of-the-pipe" cleanup technologies (89). There is much room for improving energy efficiency Growing urban pollution problems in many RICs in the RICs. In Indonesia, preliminary audits in plants have increasingly forced governments to confront found that 23 percent of current energy consumption them. Mexico, for example, is planning to spend $2.5 could readily be saved and that energy use in new billion to counteract environmental deterioration in buildings in Indonesia could be reduced by 50 percent the Mexico City region over the next four years (90). with investments that would pay for themselves in President Carlos Salinas de Gortari has also strength- less than two years on average (79) (80). In Thailand, ened enforcement of pollution control laws since 1989. one assessment of potential savings found that if all in- (See Box 4.6, Mexico.) A new Constitutional Law for dustrial plants were as efficient as the best of similar Ecological Equilibrium and Protection of the Environ- plants elsewhere, the country's industries could save ment has been passed, unleaded petrol has been intro- 24 percent of current energy consumption (81). In Bra- duced, and the huge Azcapotzalco refinery in Mexico zil, which has already made considerable progress in City and other industrial plants have been closed to conservation in the last five years, a study found that improve air quality. According to the air pollution co- investing $20 billion in economy-wide efficiency im- ordinator of Mexico City, cleanup efforts will attempt provements could cut in half the planned expansion of to use the latest technologies so as to leapfrog the stan- new generating facilities by 2010, at an estimated sav- dards of industrial countries (91). ings of $32 billion (82). In Chile, one assessment found In Cubatao, Brazil, a city long known as the Valley of that there had been little industrial investment in en- Death, state and local officials finally cracked down on ergy efficiency except at the very largest firms, such as industries that had been flouting pollution control regu- copper companies, and that 70 percent of the homes in lations. Since the mid-1980s, these efforts have cut par- Santiago are insufficiently insulated (83). ticulate emissions by 72 percent, organic waste by 93 A number of countries are making efforts to intro- percent, and heavy metal discharges by 97 percent (92). duce efficiency standards for buildings and appli- ances, to require industries to have energy manage- NEW MARKETS, NEW PRODUCTS ment programs, to provide tax reductions and low-in- South Korea, Taiwan, and other NICs followed a de- terest loans for the purchase of more efficient equip- velopment path that depended on access to markets in ment, and to set targets for improved efficiency (84). industrialized countries, first for clothing and later for Yet a 1990 review of this field by the International Insti- electronic equipment. For the RICs, however, the eco- tute for Energy Conservation (IIEC) concluded that nomic conditions of the 1990s and the emergence of re- "most governments of developing countries, while gional trade blocks may necessitate somewhat differ- supporting the notion of end-use energy efficiency, are ent trade patterns. One example of the new patterns more supportive of conventional energy approaches emerging is the negotiations among Canada, the and have not made major commitments of staff or re- United States, and Mexico for a continent-wide free sources to end-use efficiency" (85). trade zone (93). Several groupings of Latin American In Thailand, an Energy Conservation Center was es- countries are seeking to liberalize trade among them- tablished by the government in 1988, and in late 1989 selves (94). senior officials from all the agencies concerned with en- In the past, cooperative associations of developing ergy use took a study tour of the United States organ- countries have not done much to increase trade among ized by IIEC. As a result, IIEC reported, "there has themselves. Even the Association of Southeast Asian been a marked increase in interest throughout the Thai Nations (ASEAN)—consisting of Malaysia, the Philip- government in pursuing energy efficiency" (86). In Feb- pines, Singapore, Thailand, and Brunei—has been prin- ruary 1990, the Cabinet approved a conservation cipally successful in trade negotiations with the Euro- scheme for industry, with limits on electricity use pean Community and in lobbying for greater flows of based on the amount that is needed to produce vari- development aid (95). One theme that runs throughout ous goods (87). the South Commission's Challenge to the South is the Transportation is another area where policies can need to change this situation: "South-South co-opera- have major energy and environmental impact, particu- tion can provide important new opportunities for de- larly in encouraging alternatives to automobiles and velopment based on geographical proximity, on simi- trucks such as light-rail vehicles like trams or street- larities in demand and tastes, on relevance of respec- cars. Commuter rail networks can also relieve conges- tive development experience, know-how, and skills, tion in central cities. In Jakarta, Indonesia, and Sao and on availability of complementary natural and fi- World Resources 1992-93 53 4 Rapidly Industrializing Countries nancial resources and management and technical • Information technologies are spreading rapidly skills" (96). throughout the world, creating new business opportu- Because of the increasing integration of global mar- nities—both manufacturing and assembly plants, and kets and the mobility of investment capital, the RICs new services, such as neighborhood cable television face no shortage of industrialization options. By start- networks hooked to a satellite receiver and cellular ing with medium-tech products and specializing in phone- or facsimile-based message services. labor-intensive products and commodity production industries, industrializing countries can secure niches in global markets from which their industrial base can CONCLUSION grow. Such an industrialization strategy may well stimulate rapid job creation, be more environmentally Rapidly industrializing countries face extraordinarily benign than a strategy based on heavy industry, and difficult challenges. At the same time, as they explore require lower infrastructure costs. new paths to development, they represent the hopes of The bicycle industry offers a prime example of a the developing world—particularly if they can indus- mid-tech export product. The potential market for bicy- trialize and improve living standards while conserv- cles and motorbikes is large. Assembly is labor-inten- ing irreplacable natural resources. Because each sive, and manufacturing facilities can be widely dis- country varies in its resources and culture, there are tributed within a country. The product has more than likely to be a number of models and approaches to sus- 1,000 parts. Factories producing frames thus need to tainable development. The countries discussed in this be supplied by numerous smaller industries that pro- chapter do not exhaust the possibilities but may illu- vide seats, tires, inner tubes, lights, and so on (97). One strate both the challenges and a number of creative at- study in Patna, India, found that $12,000 created two tempts to find solutions. Nonetheless, a number of new jobs if invested in a conventional bus system, but common elements stand out. six jobs in motorized rickshaw firms and 75 jobs in the Countries such as South Korea and Taiwan have cycle rickshaw industry (98). Repair shops constitute demonstrated that investing in human development— another form of local industrial development that fol- for example, by funding education and health pro- lows logically from a greater supply of bicycles. Tai- grams and providing for equitable income distribution wan and China already export significant numbers of and land reform—is vital to combating poverty, con- bicycles (99), and other RICs could emulate their suc- trolling population growth, and getting development cess with similar products. started. But as the development process gathers mo- There are also likely to be many new opportunities mentum, countries need to design policies to minimize for industrial development in the changed global envi- the environmental impacts of development so clearly ronment of the 1990s, and perhaps new forms of tech- seen in the NICs and the industrial nations and invest nology cooperation and joint efforts between the RICs in cleanup programs earlier rather than later. Efforts to and industrial countries. For example: install efficient, clean technologies can pay off in a big • Pharmaceutical companies have yet to tackle many of way in the future. the diseases prevalent in developing countries. Tropi- Governments in rapidly industrializing countries cal countries, which host most of the world's un- can do a great deal to steer development in a sustain- tapped genetic resources, could license those resources able direction by adopting appropriate policies— in return for revenues to support biodiversity conser- many of which are discussed in this and preceding vation (as Costa Rica recently has) or undertake joint chapters. Governments in industrialized countries also efforts with multinational companies to develop phar- have an important role to play by offering the neces- maceuticals, cosmetics, and agricultural varieties. sary technical and financial assistance to support this • Industrial pollution control is an area of growing con- kind of development. cern throughout the world, and the RICs could work to develop not only state-of-the-art technologies for An initial draft of this chapter was prepared by Linda Starke, a their own facilities but also export markets for cleanup Washington-based editor ana writer specializing in environment and equipment and services, building on their superior development topics; additional contributions came from several senior WRI staff members ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ knowledge of conditions in developing countries. References and Notes 1. Marcus Noland, Pacific Basin Developing (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Colo- 9. Walden Bello and Stephanie Rosenfeld, Countries: Prospects for the Future (Institute rado, 1989), p. 53. Dragons in Distress: Asia's Miracle Economies for International Economics, Washington, 4. Steering Committee, Taiwan 2000 Study, in Crisis (Institute for Food and Develop- D.C., 1990), p. 15. Taiwan 2000 (Academia Sinica, Taipei, ment Policy, San Francisco, 1990), p. 179. 2. Ibid., Table 1.1, p. 4. 1989), pp. 11 and 41. 10. "Victim of Its Own Success," Newsweek 3. Carl J. Dahlman, "Structural Change and 5. Ibid., p. 22. (June 4,1990), p. 76, cited in Walden Bello Trade in the East Asian Newly Industrial 6. Ibid., p. 19. and Stephanie Rosenfeld, Dragons in Dis- Economies and Emerging Industrial Econo- 7. "Are You Really Going to Eat That?" Bang tress: Asia's Miracle Economies in Crisis (Insti- mies," in The Newly Industrializing Countries (Taipei, March 1988), p. 13. tute for Food and Development Policy, San in the World Economy, Randall B. Purcell, ed. 8. Op. cit. 4, p. 20. Francisco, 1990), p. 204. World Resources 1992-93 54 Rapidly Industrializing Countries 4 11. "Trillions of Won' Needed for Clean-Up," 34. The World Bank, unpublished data (The 59. "Logging Ban Move Described as Failure," Yonhap (August 10,1989), reproduced in For- World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991) (Bangkok) Business Times (August 22,1990), eign Broadcast Information Service: East Asia 35. Op. cit. 25, p. 8. p. 49. (August 10,1989), pp. 26-27. 60. Op. cit. 53, p. 30. 36. Op. cit. 29, p. 8. 12. Mark Clifford, "Kicking Up a Stink," Far 37. Op.cit.3A. 61. Op. cit. 56. Eastern Economic Review (October 18,1990), 62. Directorate General of Forest Utilization, p. 72. 38. United Nations Fund for Population Activi- ties (UNFPA), The State of World Population Ministry of Forestry; and Food and Agricul- 13. Cooperative Energy Assessment (Republic of 1991 (UNFPA, New York, 1991), p. 22. tural Organization of the United Nations, Korea Ministry of Energy and U.S. Depart- Situation and Outlook of the Forestry Sector in ment of Energy, Argonne, Illinois, Septem- 39. Op. cit. 31, pp. 14-15. Indonesia, Volumel: Issues, Findings and Op- ber 1981), p. 126, cited in Walden Bello and 40. Ben Ross Schneider, "Brazil Under Collor: portunities (Government of Indonesia, Ja- Stephanie Rosenfeld, Dragons in Distress: Anatomy of a Crisis," World Policy Journal karta, September 1990), p. 10. Asia's Miracle Economies in Crisis (Institute (Spring 1991), p. 339. 63. "Forestry: The Industry Strikes Back," Asi'fl- for Food and Development Policy, San Fran- 41. James Brooke, "Rural Union Chief is Slain week (April 6,1990), pp. 56-57. cisco, 1990), p. 102. in Brazil," New York Times (February 5, 1991), p. A8. 64. Op. cit. 49. 14. Op. eft. 9, p. 97. 65. Anthony Rowley, "Logged Out," Far 15. Op. cit. 9, pp. 98-99. 42. Anthony L. Hall, "Land Tenure and Land Reform in Brazil," in Agrarian Reform and Eastern Economic Review (December 13, 16. Global Environment Monitoring System, As- 1990), p. 72. Grassroots Development, Roy L. Prosterman, sessment of Urban Air Quality (United Na- 66. James Brooks, "Brazilian Leader Acts to Pro- Mary N. Temple, and Timothy M. Hanstad, tions Environment Programme, Nairobi, tect the Amazon," The New York Times (June eds. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, and United Nations Development Pro- 26,1991), p. A9. Colorado, 1990), p. 206. gramme, Geneva, 1988), pp. 15 and 24. 43. Ibid., pp. 222-223. 67. Op. cit. 58, pp. 8-9 and 18-19. 17. Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periph- 44. Theodore Panayotou, "Natural Resources 68. World Resources Institute in cooperation ery (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New and the Environment in the Economies of with U.S. Agency for International Develop- York, 1990), p. 240. Asia and the Near East: Growth, Structural ment, Latin America and Caribbean Bureau, 18. World Resources Institute and International "Toward an Environmental Strategy for Change, and Policy," Harvard Institute for Institute for Environment and Develop- Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues International Development, Harvard Uni- ment, World Resources, 1987 (Basic Books, and Options Paper" (draft), World Re- versity, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July New York, 1987), Table 16.1, p. 249. sources Institute, Washington, D.C., Novem- 1989, pp. 27 and 38. 19. Richard Grabowski, "Taiwanese Economic ber 30,1990, p. 27. 45. John P. Lewis and Devesh Kapur, "An Up- Development: An Alternative Interpreta- 69. Stephen J. Rothenburg, Lourdes Schnaas- dating Country Study: Thailand's Needs tion," Development and Change, Vol. 19 Arrieta, Irving A. Perez-Guerrero et al., and Prospects in the 1990s," World Develop- (1988), p. 61. "Evaluation del Riesgo Potencial de la ment, Vol. 18, No. 10 (1990), pp. 1364 and 20. Op. cit. 9, p. 183. 1373. Exposition Perinatal al Plomo en el Valle de 21. Pak Ki-Hyuk, "Farmland Tenure in the Re- Mexico," Perinatologia y Reproduction Hum- 46. Op. cit. 30, p. 275. public of Korea," in Land Tenure and Small ana, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1989), pp. 49 and 56. 47. Op. cit. 24, p. ix. Farmers in Asia, FFTC Book Series, No. 24 70. David Scott Clark, "Mexico City Curbs Fuel- (FFTC, Taiwan, 1983), pp. 113-116, cited in 48. Op. cit. 30, p. 328. ish Ways," The Christian Science Monitor (Oc- Walden Bello and Stephanie Rosenfeld, 49. "The Dwindling Forest Beyond Long San," tober 29,1990), p. 13. Dragons in Distress: Asia's Miracle Economies The Economist (August 18,1990), p. 23. 71. "Malaysia: Merchants of Gloom," Far in Crisis (Institute for Food and Develop- 50. Op. cit. 30, pp. 277 and 332. Eastern Economic Review (September 20, ment Policy, San Francisco, 1990), p. 79. 51. The World Resources Institute, Toward an 1990), pp. 12 and 13. 22. Song Byung-Nak, "The Korean Economy," Environmental and Natural Resources Manage- 72. Op. cit. 58, p. 33. unpublished paper, Seoul, 1989, p. 27, cited ment Strategy for ANE Countries in the 1990s 73. Adam Schwarz, "Power Struggle," Far in Walden Bello and Stephanie Rosenfeld, (World Resources Institute, Washington, Eastern Economic Review (November 8, Dragons in Distress: Asia's Miracle Economies D.C., 1990), pp. 26 and 27. 1990), p. 42. in Crisis (Institute for Food and Develop- 52. Robert Repetto, Skimming the Water: Rent- ment Policy, San Francisco, 1990), p. 37. 74. Op. cit. 27, p. 40. Seeking and the Performance of Public Irriga- 23. Op. cit. 17, p. 227. 75. Howard S. Geller, "Electricity Conservation tion Systems (World Resources Institute, in Brazil: Status Report and Analysis," pre- 24. The World Bank, Indonesia: Poverty Assess- Washington, D.C., 1986), p. 1. pared for U.S. Environmental Protection ment and Strategy Report (The World Bank, 53. Dhira Phantumvanit and Theodore Agency, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Washington, D.C., 1990), p. xiii. Panayotou, Natural Resources for a Sustain- Assessment, Electrobras, and Universidade 25. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Indo- able Future: Spreading the Benefits, Synthesis de Sao Paulo, American Council for an En- nesia: Country Profile 1990-91 (EIU, London, Paper No. 1, The 1990 Thailand Develop- ergy-Efficient Economy, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 11. ment Research Institute (TDRI), Year-End 1990, p. 1. Conference, Industrializing Thailand and its 26. The World Bank, World Development Report 76. "For the Record," Energy Economist, No. 106 Impact on the Environment (TDRI, Bang- 1991 (Oxford University Press, New York, ( (August 990) p. 32. 1990), 1991), Table 29, pp. 260-261. kok, Thailand, 1990), p. 74. 54. Op. cit. 51, p. 119. 77. Eric D. Larson, ed., Report on the 1989 Thai- 27. Adam Schwarz, "Growth Strains Super- land Workshop on End-Use-Oriented Energy structure," Far Eastern Economic Review 55. Robert Weissman, "Rich Land, Poor People: Analysis (International Institute for Energy (April 18,1991), p. 36. The Economics of Indonesian Develop- Conservation, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. i. ment," Multinational Monitor (October 1990), 28. Op. cit. 26. 78. Op. cit. 27, p. 40. p. 19. 29. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Ma- 79. Office of Energy, Bureau for Science and 56. Peter Halesworth, "Plundering Indonesia's laysia: Country Profile 1990-91 (EIU, London, Technology, U.S. Agency for International Rainforests," Multinational Monitor (October 1990), p. 11. Development, Energy Inefficiency in the 1990), p. 8. 30. The World Bank, Trends in Developing Econo- Asia/Near East Region and Its Environmental 57. Theodore Panayotou and Chartchai Implications (RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc., mies 1990 (The World Bank, Washington, Parasuk, Land and Forest: Projecting Demand Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 5.3 and 5.7. D.C., 1990), p. 103. and Managing Encroachment, Research Re- 31. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Mex- port No. 1, The 1990 Thailand Development 80. Gregory H. Kats, "Slowing Global Warming ico: Country Profile 1990-91 (EIU, London, Research Institute (TDRI), Year-End Confer- and Sustaining Development," Energy Pol- 1990), p. 8. ence, Industrializing Thailand and its Im- icy (January /February 1990), p. 30. 32. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), Thai- pact on the Environment (TDRI, Thailand, 81. Deborah Lynn Bleviss and Vanessa Lide, land Burma: Country Profile 1990-91 (EIU, Bangkok, 1990), Appendix B, p. 75. eds.. Energy Efficiency Strategies for Thailand London, 1990), p. 6. (University Press of America, Lanham, 58. Walter Arensberg, Mary Louise Higgins, Ra- 33. The World Resources Institute and Interna- Maryland, 1989), p. 49. fael Asenjo et al., "Environment and Natural tional Institute for Environment and Devel- Resources Strategy in Chile" (draft), pre- 82. Op. cit. 75, pp. 144-156 and 168. opment in collaboration with the United pared for United States Agency for Interna- 83. Michael Philips, Energy Conservation Activi- Nations Environment Programme, World Re- tional Development/Chile, World ties in Latin America and the Caribbean (Inter- sources 198S-89 (Basic Books, New York, Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., No- national Institute for Energy Conservation, 1988), Table 15.7, pp. 258-259. vember 8,1989, p. 21. Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 16. World Resources 1992-93 55 4 Rapidly Industrializing Countries 84. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 89. George Heaton, Robert Repetto, and Rod- can 1990 Report (IDB, Washington, D.C., ment, Energy in Developing Countries (U.S. ney Sobin, Transforming Technology: An 1990), pp. 10-13. Government Printing Office, Washington, Agenda for Environmentally Sustainable 95. Op.cit.l, pp. 140-141. D.C., 1991), p. 39. Growth in the 21st Century (World Resources 96. South Commission, The Challenge to the 85. Michael Philips, "Alternative Roles for the Institute, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. ix. South (Oxford University Press, Oxford, Energy Sector Management Assistance Pro- 90. "Tlatelolco Declaration: Who Pays the Bill?" U.K., 1990), p. 16. gram in End-Use Energy Efficiency" (work- Development Forum (May-June 1991), p. 9. ing draft), International Institute for Energy 91. Robert Reinhold, "Mexico Proclaims an End 97. Riccardo Navarro, Urs Heierli, and Victor Conservation, Washington, D.C., October to Sanctuary for Polluters," New York Times Beck, "Bicycles, Intelligent Transport in 1990, p. 17. (April 18,1991), p. Al. Latin America," Development (No. 4,1986), 86. Mark J. Cherniack, Thailand Electricity Mis- p. 47. 92. James Brooke, "Signs of Life in Brazil's In- sion (International Institute for Energy Con- dustrial Valley of Death, New York Times 98. Michael Replogle, "Transportation Strate- servation, Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 5-6. (June 15,1991), p. A2. gies for Sustainable Development," paper 87. "South East Asia: Moving Too Fast for Com- 93. Mark A. Uhlig, "Canada is Expected to Join presented at the 5th World Conference on fort?" Energy Economist (August 1990), p. 18. U.S.-Mexico Trade Talks," New York Times Transport Research, Yokahama [or Yoko- 88. Marcia D. Lowe, Alternatives to the Automo- (January 30,1991), p. Dl. hama], Japan, July 10-14,1989. bile: Transport for Livable Cities (Worldwatch 94. Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) 99. "Ways to Turn the Wheels of the Bicycle In- Institute, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 20. Economic and Social Progress in Latin Ameri- dustry," China Daily (March 14,1990). World Resources 1992-93 56 Regional Focus 5. Central Europe The industrial regions of Central Europe are so choked next 25-30 years. The costs of pollution abatement, ex- by pollution that the health of children is impaired cluding industrial and energy restructuring, have been and the lives of adults shortened. The most notorious estimated at $70 billion (9). example is the extensive coal belt that includes south- The situation is somewhat reminiscent of the indus- western Poland, northwestern Czechoslovakia, and trialized areas of the Ruhr Valley in Western Europe the southeastern part of (East) Germany. (See Box 5.1.) and the steelmaking regions of Indiana and Pennsylva- Within this area lies much of Central Europe's heavy nia in the 1950s and 1960s. Those areas, however, were industry—especially steel, cement, chemical, and pet- favored with settled political institutions and mature rochemical works—and a phalanx of inefficient coal- market economies. The nations of Central Europe burning power plants spewing forth massive amounts must simultaneously contend with fledgling political of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and soot. The region contains systems, slowly emerging market economies, under- numerous environmental horror stories, including developed service and technology sectors, and unset- Katowice, Poland (l); Usti, Czechoslovakia (2); and tled government bureaucracies. Unemployment is Most, Czechoslovakia (3). Dangerous conditions also rising rapidly and most governments have very little have been reported in many other towns in Central Eu- money. Devising comprehensive and realistic environ- rope, including Copsa Mica, Romania (4); Bitterfeld, mental cleanup plans is proving difficult. Public pres- (East) Germany (5); and the Borsod County Industrial sure to force environmental cleanup could be easily Region in Hungary (6) (7). (See Figure 5.1.) overwhelmed by pressure to create jobs. Conditions are also serious in some large cities. Dur- There are, however, important signs of hope. The ing Prague's air inversions in January 1982 and Febru- emerging parliamentary democracies in Hungary, Po- ary 1987, the 24-hour SO2 concentrations exceeded land, and Czechoslovakia have attracted considerable 3,000 micrograms per cubic meter (8), more than 20 support from other industrialized governments and in- times the admissible 24-hour limit and comparable to ternational lending institutions. Poland has a huge the infamous London smog of December 1952. market, Czechoslovakia a well-developed industrial in- Cleanup costs are staggering. In Poland alone, it is frastructure, and Hungary a well-developed private estimated that cleanup could cost $260 billion over the sector. The region's workforce is well-educated and World Resources 1992-93 57 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Figure 5.1 Central Europe's Coal Belt Box 5.1 The Region There is no consensus about the name of this region or which countries should properly be included in it. The term "Eastern Europe" is considered old fash- ioned and somewhat derogatory. Many residents of the region—especially in Po- land, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia— prefer the term Central Europe. This report uses the term Central Europe. Usti The countries of the region tradition- Most—~ o ally included the six full Central Euro- o pean members of the Council for Chomutoiy Prague Mutual Economic Assistance: Poland, zechoslovaki s Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Ro- mania, and the eastern part of Germany Germany > ^ —\ Ostrava (formerly the German Democratic Re- public). A broader interpretation would include Albania and Yugoslavia; broader still (and by some definitions the "real" Eastern Europe) would in- clude the Baltic republics and Byelorus- sia, the Ukraine, and Moldavia in the Soviet Union. This chapter includes Al- bania and Yugoslavia, but does not in- clude Soviet republics. Because few environmental data are available for Romania, Bulgaria, Alba- nia, and Yugoslavia, most of this discus- sion is devoted to Poland, Hungary, (East) Germany, and Czechoslovakia. References to the Soviet Union assume the borders prior to the breakup of the Source: Compiled by the World Resources Institute. eager for consumer goods, better services, and a better Bieschady Mountains, the Tatra Mountains, Lake environment. Foreign private investors, though ini- Balaton in Hungary, and the Carpathians in Romania. tially cautious, are planning to invest billions of dol- The end of the Cold War also has brought an end to lars in the region over the next five years. The eastern the unpopulated, zealously guarded "no man's lands" part of Germany—the former German Democratic Re- along state borders, opening up many new opportuni- public—has the unique advantage of its integration ties for creating protected areas. (See Box 5.2.) into the Federal Republic of Germany, one of the most dynamic economies in the world. (The former German Democratic Republic is here referred to as (East) Ger- HOW DID IT HAPPEN? many; the former Federal Republic of Germany as Conventional wisdom says that Central Europe's envi- (West) Germany.) ronmental problems all began in the late 1940s with Some other nations in the region, notably Romania, the establishment of socialist regimes and the imposi- are less advanced politically and have attracted less in- tion of the Stalinist model of industrial growth. In ternational interest. Yugoslavia faces difficult ethnic di- many areas, however, the patterns of industrial devel- visions that threaten its political stability. opment were in evidence well before the political Although Central Europe's environmental problems changes of the late 1940s. Katowice, for example, was a are massive, they have not enveloped the entire re- center of heavy industry long before World War II. gion. In Poland, the government in 1983 designated 27 Czechoslovakia was a relatively advanced industrial "areas of ecological hazard" that comprise about 11 country after World War II. percent of the country's total land area and include 35 Nor have these countries followed identical eco- percent of its population. Of these 27 areas, the 5 most nomic paths. Hungary's 1968 package of economic re- serious "areas of ecological disaster"—Gdansk, on the forms (the "New Economic Mechanism"), which freed Baltic coast; Legnica-Glogow, in west-central Poland; economic organizations from obligatory production and the linked areas of Upper Silesia, Krakow, and targets, allowed cooperatives to become more genu- Rybnik in the southwest—cover about 4.4 percent of inely independent and improved the private sector's the country's total land area (10). ability to work with the state sector (11). Some East Eu- Many areas in the region remain relatively unpol- ropean governments—notably Poland and Czechoslo- luted and attractive, including the northeastern quar- vakia—began to express official concern about envi- ter of Poland (the "green lung of Poland"), the ronmental problems by the 1970s and 1980s (12). Many World Resources 1992-93 58 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 Box 5.2 New Opportunities for Nature Conservation The political transformation of Central Eu- Natural and Cultural Inheritance—that nia and the Soviet Union); the Bavarian rope has created a major new opportunity could spearhead the effort and facilitate fi- and Bohemian forests (Germany, Czecho- for the conservation of natural areas. nancing. The region could take advantage slovakia, and Austria); Lake Scutari (Yugo- Many lands along state borders have re- of "debt-for-nature" swaps between West slavia and Albania); the Finnish-Russian mained largely unpopulated for the past European (creditor) states and Central Eu- woodland areas (Finland and the Soviet four decades. Some of these areas could ropean (debtor) states. Union); and the Bialowieza virgin forest now be preserved as parks or managed in A rapid initial survey identified 24 (Poland and the Soviet Union) 0). a way that would protect their biological major conservation areas. Major areas in- diversity and recreational values. This clude the Rhodope Mountains, Nestos idea, originally devised in early 1990, has Delta, and adjoining areas (Greece, Bul- References and Notes been embraced by about three dozen local garia, Yugoslavia, and Turkey); the flood- and international conservation groups. plain areas of the Danube, Thaya, and 1 "Ecological Bricks for Our Common These groups have also proposed creating March rivers (Austria, Czechoslovakia, House of Europe," Politische Okologie (Oc- a new organization—a European Trust for and Hungary); the Danube Delta (Roma- tober 1990), pp. 16-17. Figure 1 Forgotten Lands—Future Preserves? Key Sweden 1. Finnish-Russian Woodland Area 2. Biebrza Marshes 3. Bialowieza Virgin Forest Finland 4. Schorfheide/Chorin Area 5. Spreewald ' , Norway 6. Sachsische Schweiz 7. Karkonosze Area 8. Tatra Area 9. Pieniny Area 10. Bieszczady Region 11. Slovakian Karst U.S.S.R. 12. Floodplain Areas of the Danube, Thaya, and March 13. Thaya Valley 14. Trebonsko Pond Region 15. Bavarian Forest, Bohemian Forest Area 16. Lake of Neusiedel 17. Mur Floodplain 18. International Karst Park 19. Lower Reaches of the Drau and Kopacki-Rit 20. Sava Floodplain 21. Danube Delta 22. Lake Scutari 23. Prespa Area Italy Bulgaria 24. Rhodope Mountains, Nestos 23 24 Delta, and Adjoining Areas Greece Turkey Source: "Ecological Bricks for Our Common House of Europe," Politische Okologie (October 1990), pp. 16-17. World Resources 1992-93 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe of these governments also enacted environmental pro- istries and industries included the cost of fines for pol- tection laws in the 1970s and 1980s, about the same lution as part of the regular budgetary process (23). time as their West European counterparts (13). • Central control did not allow localities to devise poli- Nevertheless, four decades of socialist rule took a di- cies based on local needs. Communities affected by sastrous toll on the region's environment. Many expla- pollution had no right to improve their environmental nations have been advanced for this failure. quality or to receive financial compensation from the Early theories of socialism reasoned that state owner- polluter (24). ship of the means of production would remove the mo- • The emphasis on heavy industry was hampered by tives for pollution because there was no reason for the shortages of hard currency to invest in new machinery state to contaminate itself and reduce its own wealth. and technology and the necessary skills to operate In practice, however, factory managers were pressed new machinery properly (25). As machinery became to commit all their resources to meeting production tar- outdated, maintenance costs increased and industrial gets, rather than reducing or cleaning up waste (14). efficiency declined. The problem was worsened by a There was also strong political support for indepen- frequent lack of spare parts. dent, self-reliant economic systems that did not de- Finally, the public was left largely uninformed and pend on international markets. Those pressures cre- could protest environmental conditions only at great ated a bias in favor of domestic resources such as coal personal risk. Central Europeans did receive warning and against imported energy from other countries. signals about the environment in the 1960s and 1970s, Socialist economies used energy inefficiently. A pri- and there were early intellectual efforts, including pa- mary reason, according to Hungarian economist Janos pers and books published on the subject. Relatively Kornai, was that industries operated under "soft bud- weak environmental movements emerged in the 1970s get constraints," which allowed cost increases to be in Hungary and Bohemia; there were even a few in- passed on, and under which industries could rely on stances of environmental protest actions (26). But inhi- governments to bail them out rather than lose the bitions on public discussion and speech left little room firm's production or create unemployment (15) (16). for the public expression of those concerns; instead, Hungarian economist Gabor Hovanyi has also argued ecologists in the region had to become information that socialist policies tended to reduce trade, limit for- sleuths, ferreting out data and transmitting what they eign exchange, distort wages, and reduce investment, learned via underground journals. The authoritarian all of which critically affected innovation (17). Western regimes of the period, though not totally immune to nations contributed to the problem by blocking access popular pressures, were generally unresponsive. to advanced technologies and credit (18). This situation began to change with the political Other components of socialist systems have affected transformation of the 1980s. Recognition of the Solidar- the region's environmental deterioration: ity trade union in 1980 reawakened Polish political life • The governments of Central Europe set prices of en- and sparked an environmental movement. In Septem- ergy and natural resources at relatively low levels, and ber 1980, the Polish Ecological Club—the first fully in- the prices were kept low even when the costs of min- dependent environmental group in the region—was ing and energy grew because of worsening mining founded in Krakow (27). The club actually formed a for- conditions (19). Prices did not take into account the mal part of the "Round Table" negotiations to end costs of controlling pollution. The same was true in the communist power (28). In the early 1980s, the move- Western industrialized countries until regulations ment—a coalition of trade unions, scientists, local began to force industry to internalize these costs. West- members of the Polish Ecological Club, and the press— ern industrialized countries made further dramatic im- convinced the State Ministry of Metallurgy to close provements in energy efficiency following the oil price down the Skawina aluminum works, a heavy emitter shocks of the 1970s. of toxic fluoride emissions located just nine miles • Low prices led to overconsumption, both by industry southwest of Krakow (29). and by consumers. Residents in apartment buildings, Environmental movements played a significant role for instance, typically had no incentive (or individual in the revolutions that toppled communist govern- means) to conserve heat or water because apartments ments throughout the region in 1989 and 1990. There lacked individual thermostats and water meters (20). are by now numerous independent environmental ad- • State enterprises received a bonus for increasing their vocacy groups in the region and a Green party (or par- output, but they bore no penalty for depleting re- ties) in each country (30). Many of these groups remain sources and therefore had no reason to treat resources relatively weak, however (31). as a valuable asset. Inputs were also part of the plan target, and had to be used up to maintain the same Industrial Development and Energy Efficiency quantity in the next five-year plan. Resources were Overall energy intensity—energy consumption per often wasted, and there was little incentive to find sub- dollar of gross national product—has been much stitutes or improve technology (21). higher in the planned economies of Central Europe • Most countries established elaborate systems of anti- than in market economies. The energy required to pollution fees, but they were weakly enforced (22). make steel in Central Europe has been two to three • State enterprises had little incentive to control pollu- times greater than in Western Europe. Steelmaking in tants. The state owned and paid for everything, so min- the region also tends to use older, less efficient technol- World Resources 1992-93 60 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 Table 5.1 Commercial Energy Consumption in Central Europe, 1989 Consumption (petajoules) {a} Consumption by Fuel Type as a Percent of Total Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Country Total Fuels {b} Fuels {c} Gas {d} Electricity {e} Fuels Fuels Gas Electricity Albania 119 42 50 16 11 36 43 13 9 Bulgaria 1,291 662 355 238 36 51 28 18 3 Czechoslovakia 2,733 1,702 513 403 114 62 19 15 4 Germany (Dem Rep) 3,648 2,753 539 303 53 75 15 8 1 Hungary 1,136 306 313 427 90 27 28 38 8 Poland 5,062 4,040 605 397 20 80 12 8 0 Romania 3,047 944 683 1,346 74 31 22 44 2 Yugoslavia 1,771 810 609 239 113 46 34 13 6 U.S.S.R. 54,958 14,510 16,049 22,970 1,429 26 29 42 3 Source: United Nations Statistical Office, U.N. Energy Tape (United Nations, New York, 1991). Notes: a. Consumption is defined as domestic production plus net imports, minus net stock increases, minus aircraft and marine bunkers, b. Solid fuels include bituminous coal, lignite, peat, and oil shale burned directly, c. Liquid fuels include crude petroleum and natural gas liquids, d. Gas includes natural gas and other petroleum gases, e. Electricity includes primary production from hydro, nuclear, and geothermal sources. ogies; for example, the open hearth process accounts ered over the past four decades have been either spot- for about 55-60 percent of steel production in Central ty or of uncertain quality. The region's political trans- Europe and the Soviet Union, while it is virtually out formation has prompted much greater interest in envi- of use in Western Europe and accounts for only about ronmental monitoring, and the availability and quality 8 percent of U.S. output (32). of data will probably improve over the next few years. Greatly contributing to the region's environmental In general, however, environmental conditions are problems has been the general failure to maintain in- considered poor in the entire region. Conditions in Po- dustrial plants and equipment, to replace or update land, (East) Germany, and Czechoslovakia are usually machinery, or to introduce new technology, manufac- judged somewhat worse than the regional average; turing processes, and operating practices (33). The con- conditions in Hungary may be somewhat better. There tinued dominance of heavy industry in Central Europe is considerable evidence to suggest that environmental also contrasts with the typical pattern in most industri- conditions have seriously affected the health of people alized market economies, where the mix of economic living in the region. (See Box 5.3.) activity eventually tends to shift from heavy industry to lighter industry and services. Atmospheric Pollution The region's reliance on hard and brown coal has in- Dependence on Coal flicted a heavy toll on the atmosphere, especially in After World War II, both Western and Central Europe southern (East) Germany, the northern Bohemia re- relied primarily on domestic coal resources. But the gion of Czechoslovakia, and the Silesian industrial re- two regions have diverged sharply since then. Western gion in southwest Poland. Sulfur dioxide emissions Europe prospered with cheap oil imports in the 1950s have been estimated at about 5.2 million metric tons in and 1960s, while Central Europe had to wait until oil (East) Germany and 3.9 million metric tons in Poland and gas became available from the Soviet Union in the in 1988. On a per capita basis, emissions in East Ger- early 1970s. Western Europe also developed domestic many were estimated at 313.3 kilograms, compared oil and gas resources, which now provide about 28 per- with 24.2 kilograms in West Germany. (See Table 5.2.) cent of total energy consumption; coal, meanwhile, has As a result of these emissions, several regions in shrunk to about 14 percent of consumption (34). (See Czechoslovakia have average annual sulfur dioxide World Resources 1988-89, pp. 117-121.) concentrations that exceed the World Health Organiza- Domestic coal has continued to be the primary fuel tion (WHO) limits. (See Table 5.3.) The Chomutov re- in Central Europe, especially in (East) Germany, Po- gion typically exceeds the WHO daily limit of 150 land, and Czechoslovakia. (See Table 5.1.) Much of the cubic meters for 117 days a year (38). coal resource in the region is brown coal, or lignite, Coal burning also produces large quantities of partic- which has a high ash content, a sulfur content that var- ulates. In 1985, East Germany emitted between 5 and 6 ies considerably from region to region (0.7 percent in million metric tons of particulates and Poland nearly 3 some power plants in East Germany (35), up to 5 per- million metric tons (39). Sweden, in contrast, had esti- cent in some other regions (36)), and an energy yield mated annual emissions in 1982-84 of 40,000 metric that may be only half that of hard coal. As a result, a tons (40). great deal more brown coal has to be burned to meet a The region also emits significant amounts of nitro- given energy demand. This increases emissions of sul- gen dioxide. (See Table 5.4.) Other contributors to air fur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and de- pollution include carbon monoxide, ammonia, fluo- stroys more land because most brown coal is rine, chlorine, volatile hydrocarbons, phenol, hydro- surface-mined (37). gen sulfide, arsenic, and lead (41). THE EXTENT OF THE DAMAGE Low Stacks: An Important Source Precisely describing the extent of environmental dam- Although the high smokestacks of industries are com- age in Central Europe is difficult because the data gath- monly thought to be the principal source of air pollu- World Resources 1992-93 61 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Box 5.3 Environment and Health in Central Europe The health prospects of people living in other disorders) and safety hazards in the Although there is some seasonal varia- Central Europe are the bleakest in the in- workplace, on the road, and at home. tion in pollution levels in these areas, the dustrialized world. Among 33 industrial- Serious environmental health hazards in long-term pollution of air and water is so ized countries, life expectancy is the Central Europe include the following: severe that it has affected the health of peo- shortest in Central Europe and the Soviet • High levels of sulfur dioxide, oxides of ni- ple in the region. For example, a study of Unionfl).(See Figure 1.) The average Jap- trogen, lead, and other hazardous chemi- army inductees in Poland revealed that anese man, for example, will live about a cals in the ambient air, resulting mainly chronic bronchitis rates were more than decade longer than the average Hungarian from power plant, factory, and automobile three times higher at army recruitment man (75.8 years, compared to 66.1 years). emissions; centers in areas with high ambient sulfur Infant mortality, while far less than in de- dioxide levels than in those with low lev- veloping countries, nevertheless is high • Contamination of groundwater and soil els, and that asthma rates were four times relative to other industrialized countries. by nitrogenous fertilizers, pesticides, and higher in high-level than in low-level In 1988, for example, it was 11.9 per 1,000 toxic metals; areas 03). Data from northern Bohemia in live births in Czechoslovakia, 15.8 in • Contamination of rivers by sewage and in- Czechoslovakia reveal that very high am- Hungary, and 16.2 in Poland; while in the dustrial waste; and bient levels of sulfur dioxide (SO2) com- same year, (West) Germany's rate was 7.5 monly occur in the air, with levels greater • A variety of chemical, physical, biological, than 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter and Japan's was 4.8 (2). Available data on morbidity suggest high rates of acute and and psychosocial health hazards in the sustained for over a day at a time (14). The chronic respiratory disease (3) (4), child- workplace. World Health Organization recommends hood lead poisoning (5), occupational inju- Exposure to toxic and carcinogenic that SO2 exposure should not exceed 150 ries (6), and, among exposed workers, chemicals can lead to a variety of acute micrograms per cubic meter on more than noise-induced hearing impairment (7). and chronic health problems. For example, seven days a year. (See World Resources childhood exposure to lead—even at lev- 1990-91, p. 356.) These high SO2 levels These East-West differences began to els previously regarded as safe—can re- emerge in the mid-1960s; until that time, have been accompanied by a fivefold in- tard normal intellectual development; crease in respiratory disease among pre- Central Europe had approached other in- exposure to volatile organic compounds dustrialized regions in infant mortality schoolers and a threefold increase among and certain other chemicals can lead to school-age children compared to the rest and life expectancy (8) (9) uo). neurotoxic effects in children and adults; The leading causes of death in Central of western Czechoslovakia. In both north- and exposure to certain dusts, fumes, and ern and central Bohemia, studies have re- Europe are cardiovascular disease and can- gases can cause or contribute to acute and cer; death rates in both categories have in- peatedly demonstrated that removing chronic respiratory disorders. What is children from areas of heavy air pollution creased in recent years. In Hungary, death often not known in Eastern Europe is the rates for cardiovascular disease have in- for three-week periods in winter will re- level and duration of human exposure to duce rates of anemia and improve the creased for men 30 and older, and rates for these chemicals. almost all types of cancer increased sub- functioning of their immune systems. One stantially for both men and women be- The impact of environmental factors on study also demonstrated increases in the tween 1960 and 1986 01). health is particularly acute in the region's children's breathing capacity after a three- environmental "hot spots," especially in week removal (15). the Katowice-Krakow area of Poland, where there has been intense industrial Studies comparing mortality among dis- ENVIRONMENTAL AND pollution of the groundwater and soil for tricts in Czechoslovakia have demon- WORKPLACE FACTORS strated relationships between mortality as much as 200 years, and in the contigu- ous mining and industrial district of north- and certain parameters of air pollution. To what extent are environmental fac- Strong relationships also exist between tors the cause of this deteriorating health ern Bohemia in Czechoslovakia. In parts of the Katowice area, lead levels in soil mortality and certain social factors, such situation? The answer is not known. Envi- as a low educational level, a high divorce ronmental factors appear to be one of sev- reach as high as 19,000 parts per million— about 50 times the acceptable level. Chil- rate, or a high percentage of Gypsies (who eral important contributing factors. Others have poorer health status, on average) in include high-fat diets (which contribute to dren have been exposed through soil contact, house dust, and crops grown in the district (16). However, no studies have the development of coronary artery dis- been done to adequately assess the joint ef- ease and to certain types of cancer) and contaminated soil. One study in a hot-spot area showed a 13-point difference in IQ be- fects of environmental and social factors the high percentage of people smoking on health status. high-tar, high-nicotine cigarettes (which is tween children with the highest and low- associated with cancer of the lung and est blood-lead levels, as well as increased The policy response to date has varied other body organs). Other social and occu- rates of anemia, digestive problems, and from country to country. In general, gov- pational factors include stress (a contribut- chromosome damage consistent with long- ernment environmental protection and en- ing factor in coronary artery disease and term poisoning (12). vironmental health programs are likely to tants, coal-burning low stacks—from households, to health and materials is estimated to be more than 10 small-scale industry, and district heating plants—are times greater from low-stack sources than from high significant contributors. In Katowice, for example, low stacks (42). stacks contribute about 46 percent of all soot and dust emissions. Auto Emissions: A Growing Problem Like the London smogs of the early 1950s, the worst air pollution episodes are typically associated with Although not yet very numerous in the region, motor temperature inversions during the winter, which tend vehicles are rapidly increasing in number. As shown to trap particulate emissions from low-stack sources in Figure 5.2, motor vehicles in Poland account for close to ground level. The cost of particulate damage about 30 to 40 percent of the country's emissions of car- World Resources 1992-93 62 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 Box 5.3 be strengthened, but programs in the re- Figure 1 Life Expectancy at Birth, 1985-90 gion that are concerned with health and safety in the workplace face an uncertain future. NATIONAL POLICIES Japan National occupational health programs North America (such as Poland's, which places physicians Europe in factories to provide diagnostic, curative, and preventive services) may be weak- ened or eliminated during the current pe- Western Europe riod of political and economic transition. Central Europe With increasing privatization of industry, occupational health researchers are likely to have less access to workers, workplaces, U.S.S.R and information on chemical exposures and related health effects among workers. Hungary Privatization also may lead to less report- Romania ing of occupational disease and injury as cost-conscious private sector management Czechoslovakia styles emerge. Desperate to provide jobs Poland and gain access to hard currency, some na- Albania tions in the region may import hazardous industrial processes such as hazardous Bulgaria waste management from Western indus- Yugoslavia trial countries. If such new processes are Germany (Dem Rep) introduced, they may worsen environmen- tal quality and cause environmental and i i 1 "1 60 65 70 75 80 occupational health problems. (years) The countries of the region must make Source: Adapted from United Nations (U.N.), World Population Prospects 1990: on Diskette choices that could lead them down differ- (U.N., New York, 1991). ent paths toward improved health status, better quality of life, and longer life expec- 5. Ibid., pp. 13-15. (Central Statistical Office, Budapest), pp. tancy or toward further deterioration of 22-31. the environment and worsening health. 6. Gyorgy Ungvary, "Occupational Health in Hungary: Occupational Safety, Hygiene, 11. Op. cit. 1, pp. 3-4. and Health Care," in Environment and 12. B. Hager-Malecka, paper presented at the References and Notes Health in Eastern Europe (Management Sci- Academy of Medicine, Zabrze, Poland, encesforHealth, Boston, 1990), p. 76. Sept. 8,1989. 1. Matyas Borzsonyi, "Environment and 7. Danuta Koradecka, "Health, Work, and 13. Op. cit. 4, pp. 9-10. Health in Hungary," in Environment and the Economy in Poland," in Environment 14. Clyde Hertzman, "Environment and Health in Eastern Europe (Management Sci- and Health in Eastern Europe (Management Health in Czechoslovakia" (University of ences for Health, Boston, 1990), p. 2. Sciences for Health, Boston, 1990), p. 80. British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 2. World Health Organization (WHO), World 1990), p. 12. Health Statistics Annual 1989 (WHO, Ge- 8. Dhruva Nagnur, Longevity and Historical Life Tables 1921-1981: Canada and the Prov- 15. Ibid., pp. 13-23. neva, 1989), pp. 160-162,412-428. 16. Dagmar Dziirova, Jan Kara, and Karel inces (Canadian Ministry of Supply and 3. Peter Rudnai, "Environmental Epidemiol- Services, Ottawa, 1986), pp. 70-71. Kiihnl, "Environment and Health in ogy Research in Hungary," in Environment Czechoslovakia," paper presented at the and Health in Eastern Europe (Management 9. Institute of Health Information and Statis- Conference on Public Health and the Envi- Sciences for Health, Boston, 1990), p. 125. tics (IHIS), Health Care and Health Service in ronmental Crisis in Central Europe, Wood- 4. Clyde Hertzman, "Poland: Health and En- Czech Republic in Statistical Data (IHIS, row Wilson International Center for vironment in the Context of Socioeconomic Prague, 1990), p. 5. Scholars, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- Decline" (University of British Columbia, 10. Peter Jozan, Recent Mortality Trends in ington, D.C., April 30-May 2,1990, Vancouver, Canada, 1990), pp. 14-17. Eastern Europe, unpublished manuscript pp. 15-20. bon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of ni- leaded, only about 1 percent of petrol sales were un- trogen (NOx), and lead (Pb). The number of passenger leaded in 1990 (44). cars in Poland—currently estimated at about 5 mil- Several countries in the region have substantial num- lion—is expected to double over the next 20 years, and bers of automobiles—Trabants and Wartburgs— the number of kilometers driven annually per vehicle equipped with outmoded two-stroke engines that emit is expected to increase from the current 7,000 kilome- relatively high levels of hydrocarbons, particles, and al- ters per year to 8,000 by 1995, 9,000 by the year 2000, dehydes. About 35 percent of Hungary's autos, for ex- and 10,000 by 2010 (43). ample, have these engines (45). Most vehicles in Poland operate on leaded petrol av- Cities such as Budapest exhibit some of the pollution eraging 0.3 to 0.56 grams of lead per liter. With un- problems characteristic of Western cities with large ve- leaded petrol priced about 30 to 40 percent higher than hicle populations. For example, carbon monoxide, World Resources 1992-93 63 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Table 5.2 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions, 1989 Total Emissions Per Capita Emissions Per (000 metric tons of Emissions Dollar GNP Country SCVyear) (kilograms) (grams) Central Europe and the U.S.S.R. Albania {a} 50 15.6 13.2 Bulgaria 1,030 114.6 49.4 Czechoslovakia 2,800 178.9 22.7 Germany (Dem Rep) 5,210 313.3 32.7 Hungary 1,218 115.2 45.0 Poland 3,910 103.3 58.4 Romania 200 8.6 2.5 Yugoslavia 1,650 69.6 27.9 U.S.S.R. {b} 9,318 32.4 3.5 Western Europe and the United States Austria 124 16.3 1.1 Belgium 414 41.5 2.6 France 1,520 27.1 1.5 Germany (Fed Rep) 1,500 24.2 1.2 Italy 2,410 41.9 2.8 Sweden 220 25.9 1.2 United Kingdom 3,552 62.1 4.3 United States {c} 20,700 83.2 4.0 Sources: 1. Chapter 24, "Atmosphere and Climate," Table 24.5. 2. Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indicators," Table 15.1. 3. The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., June 1991). Notes: a. Estimated emissions. b. Emissions data for European part of U.S.S.R. only. Per Capita and per dollar emissions calculated using population and GNP data for entire country. c. 1988 emissions data. which frequently exceeds healthy levels, tends to be Table 5.3 Average Annual Concentrations of highest during the morning and evening peak traffic Sulfur Dioxide in Selected Regions of times. Photochemical smog or ozone, which is caused Czechoslovakia in part by vehicle emissions of hydrocarbons and ox- (micrograms per cubic meter) ides of nitrogen, frequently exceeds acceptable levels in Budapest (46). The problem is compounded in the Region 1970 1975 1980 1985 older cities, which have narrow, winding streets that Chomutov 53 71 94 126 were never intended to accommodate cars and cannot Most 57 60 102 132 easily handle heavy traffic. Teplice 51 77 93 110 Ostrava 36 36 46 55 Water Pollution Prague/Karlov 100 100 128 155 Bratislava 49 67 55 60 Raw sewage and industrial effluents laced with heavy metals and toxic (and sometimes radioactive) chemi- Source: J. Vavrousek, The Environment in Czechoslovakia (State Commission for Science, Technology and Investments, Prague, 1990), cals are the two principal contributors to the deteriora- p. 23. tion of water quality in Central Europe's rivers. In Note: a. The admissable annual concentration limit is 40-60 micrograms per cubic meter. Upper Silesia in Poland, for example, some 950,000 cubic meters of saline water is pumped daily from coal mines, of which about 650,000 cubic meters—contain- In Czechoslovakia the quality of surface waters has ing about 7,000 metric tons of salt—is fed daily into shown a similar trend. Figure 5.3, for example, shows the tributaries of the Oder and Vistula rivers. The im- that the water quality of some rivers in Czechoslova- pact on the ecology of these rivers has been devasta- kia deteriorated drastically from 1940 to 1980. Only ting, making much of the water useless either for about 27 percent of the major river lengths have been drinking or industrial purposes (47). classified in the worst pollution category (incapable of The condition of Polish surface waters has deterio- sustaining fish or containing inedible fish) (51). About rated dramatically over the last quarter-century. Class 40 percent of Czechoslovakia's wastewater is ade- I water, defined as drinkable after disinfection, was quately treated. Sewage sludge, which was once present in 33 percent of the total length of monitored sought after as a fertilizer, is now a toxic waste in rivers in the country in 1967; by 1986, Class I water many industrial areas because of contamination by was found in only about 4 percent of the country's heavy metals, especially cadmium. Groundwater con- total river length. Unclassed water, which is virtually tamination also has increased sharply: over the past 30 unusable even for industrial purposes, rose from 23 years, average nitrate levels in groundwater in the percent in 1967 to 39 percent in 1986 (48). About half of built-up areas of cities and towns rose from 30 to 120 Poland's cities, including Warsaw, and 15 percent of milligrams per liter (52). its industrial facilities have no wastewater treatment An analysis of five rivers in Hungary (the Kapos, systems, and about 32 percent of wastewater needing Zala, Zagyva, and border sections of the Danube and treatment is left untreated (49) (50). Tisza) found steady deterioration in water quality over World Resources 1992-93 64 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 Table 5.4 Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions, 1989 Total Emissions Per Capita Emissions Per (000 metric tons of Emissions Dollar GNP Country NO2/year) (kilograms) (grams) Central Europe and the U.S.S.R. Albania {a} 9 2.8 2.4 Bulgaria 150 16.7 7.2 Czechoslovakia 950 60.7 7.7 Germany (Dem Rep) 708 42.6 4.4 Hungary 259 24.5 9.6 Poland 1,480 39.1 22.1 Romania {a} 390 16.8 4.9 Yugoslavia {a} 190 8.0 3.2 U.S.S.R. {b} 4,190 14.6 1.6 Western Europe and the United States Austria 211 27.7 1.8 Belgium 297 29.8 1.8 France 1,688 30.1 1.7 Germany (Fed Rep) 3,000 48.4 2.4 Italy 1,700 29.6 1.9 Sweden 301 35.4 1.6 United Kingdom 2,513 43.9 3.0 United States {c} 19,800 79.6 3.8 Sources: 1. Chapter 24, "Atmosphere and Climate," Table 24.5 2. Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indicators," Table 15.1. 3. The World Bank, unpublished data (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., June 1991). Notes: a. Estimated emissions. b. Emissions data for European part of U.S.S.R. only. Per capita and per dollar emissions calculated using population and GNP data for entire country. c. 1988 emissions data. Figure 5.2 Air Pollutants Contributed by Figure 5.3 Water Pollution Trends in Vehicles in Poland, 1989 Czechoslovakia, Selected Rivers, 1940-80 (percent of emissions contributed by vehicles) (percent of river polluted) (a) 100 | 80- 60- 40- / / — Labe / / ~Jisera jr s' Vltava 20- / ^__^^""^ -" Berounka -—•"•"""''^ Ohre Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Hydrocarbons Lead 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 Source: Michael P. Walsh and Hans Apitz, "Motor Vehicle Pollution in Poland: Source: Czechoslovak Academy of Science (CSAV), "State of the Develop- The Problem at Present and a Strategy for Progress," draft paper prepared ment of Environment in Czechoslovakia" (CSAV, Prague, 1989), Table 2.13; for The World Bank (October 1990), Figure 5. cited in James R. Newman, "Draft Joint Environmental Study: Volume 2 Technical Report," prepared for the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ment and the World Bank (KBN Engineering and Applied Sciences, Gaines- the 1971-85 period. Budapest is responsible for the ma- ville, Florida, 1991), Table 5-1, p. 5-2. Note: a. Includes rivers with water quality classifications of III and IV, defined jority of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the as strong to heavy pollution. Danube (53). (BOD, the amount of oxygen removed from the water as the organic matter in it decays, is a Agricultural Sources common water quality measurement.) Some industries are heavy contributors of danger- Agricultural activities are a significant source of water ous pollutants. A coal gasification plant in Espenhain, pollution in the region. For example, in eastern (East) Germany, discharges 4,000 cubic meters of Czechoslovakia, fertilizer and animal waste runoff wastewater daily, containing 20 metric tons of phenol, from farms is considered the primary cause of surface 2 metric tons of ammonia, and heavy metals (54). Large and groundwater nitrate pollution. It is estimated that amounts of water pollutants in the region are carried 80 percent of the surface water in rivers in eastern into the Black and Baltic seas, both of which are now Czechoslovakia is polluted by animal waste products heavily polluted. (See Chapter 12, "Oceans and (55). (See Chapter 7, "Food and Agriculture," and Chap- Coasts," Box 12.4.) ter 11, "Freshwater.") Worm Resources 1992-93 65 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Table 5.5 Forest Defoliation in Europe, 1989 Figure 5.4 Transboundary Pollution in (percent of trees affected) Central Europe, 1987 (metric tons of sulfur) Moderate to Severe No Defoliation Country(a) (Classes 2-4) (Class 0) Imports of Sulfur Exports of Sulfur Byelorussia (R) 76.2 15.0 1500- Kaliningrad (R) 35.0 26.9 Czechoslovakia (N) 33.0 26.0 Poland (N) 31.9 22.0 1000- United Kingdom (N) 28.0 41.0 Denmark (N) 26.0 48.0 Bulgaria (N) 24.9 40.5 500- Slovenia (R) 22.6 60.3 Finland (N) 18.0 60.1 German Dem Rep (N) 16.4 45.7 Germany, Fed Rep (N) 15.9 47.1 Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Norway (N){b) 14.8 57.0 Bulgaria Germany Poiand Yugoslavia (Dem Rep) Sweden (N){b} 12.9 51.9 Hungary (N) 12.7 63.6 Source: Adapted from data in "Emissions are Falling...But is it Enough," Acid Magazine (September 8,1989), p. 5. Switzerland (N) 12.0 57.0 Italy (N) 9.1 75.8 France (N) 5.6 and cadmium in the soil of the Upper Silesian towns 79.3 Austria (N) 4.4 74.6 of Olkusz and Slawkow are the highest ever recorded Spain (N) 3.3 78.0 in the world (58). The effects on the land are particularly evident in the industrial regions. In Poland, just 3 of the country's 27 Source: Christer Agren, "Forest Decline Continues," Acid News (December 1990), p. 5. identified "ecological hazard" zones account for 67 Notes: percent of the nation's stored waste and 75 percent of a. Based on nationwide (N) or regional (R) figures for all tree species, unless wastes generated annually: Upper Silesia, with 304 mil- noted. lion metric tons stored and 55 million metric tons gen- b. Conifers only. erated annually; Legnica-Glogow, with 203 million metric tons stored and 26 million metric tons gener- Forest and Soil Damage ated; and Rybnik, with 175 million metric tons stored Forest damage surveys conducted in Europe in 1989 and 32 million metric tons generated annually (59). indicate that defoliation damage has increased, espe- cially in the mountainous regions of Germany (both Transboundary Pollution East and West), Czechoslovakia, and Poland. Damage Substantial quantities of air and water pollutants gen- to Norway spruce appears to have remained stable or erated in one country are transmitted to others. (See even decreased slightly in most of Europe, but serious Figure 5.4.) According to data compiled by the Euro- deterioration was reported in Czechoslovakia and Po- pean Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), land. The condition of Scots pines was generally un- Czechoslovakia emitted about 1 million metric tons of changed, but older trees were deteriorating in sulfur in 1987, but only about 36 percent of that Bulgaria, Hungary, and (East) Germany. The defolia- amount was deposited in Czechoslovakia. Much of the tion of oaks worsened; in Czechoslovakia, more than rest came down in countries such as Poland and the 60 percent of older oaks were moderately to severely Soviet Union. In Sweden, only about 12 percent of sul- damaged. Bulgaria reported that 25,000 hectares of sil- fur deposition is from Swedish sources (60). ver firs, out of a total of 35,000 hectares, are severely damaged or dying (56). Transboundary pollution—such as the chlorine emis- sions from a Romanian factory that blow across the Overall, Czechoslovakia and Poland both reported Danube to Ruse, Bulgaria—has often been a politically that roughly one third of their forests were moderately sensitive issue in the region. Similarly, pollutants to severely damaged. With the exception of Byelorus- dumped into a river in one country can affect down- sia and Kaliningrad in the Soviet Union, this is the stream users in other countries (61). most extensive reported damage in the continent. (See Table 5.5.) Soil degradation—caused by factors such as acid de- NEXT STEPS: WEIGHING THE OPTIONS position, mining operations, and the dumping of in- Central Europe's political and economic transforma- dustrial, residential, and agricultural waste—is a tion provides an important new opportunity to assess serious problem in some parts of the region. In Bul- the region's true environmental conditions and to garia, for example, 300 square kilometers of land adja- begin tackling its problems. The region's governments cent to metallurgical plants are severely polluted by face tight spending constraints and must carefully as- heavy metals (57). In Poland, measurements of lead sess how to use their limited resources. Energy policy, World Resources 1992-93 66 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 especially as it relates to the use of coal in the northern 1990, Poland became the first country in the region to group of countries, is a particularly critical issue. Until approve a comprehensive national environmental pol- market systems gather momentum, government poli- icy. The policy recommends the following actions: cies that manage markets effectively—requiring pollut- • Closing or restructuring the 80 worst polluting enter- ers to pay, for example, and encouraging them to prises in the country, as well as 500 additional plants reduce the quantity of pollutants, coupled with effec- to be included in a list prepared by provincial govern- tive enforcement—could have significant long-term ments; benefits. • Increasing the size of the coal washing program; For most inhabitants of the region, the question of • Noticeably reducing low and dispersed emissions of jobs currently takes precedence over environmental dust and gases and; protection. Nevertheless, a continuing effort to assess • Improving drinking water supplies for urban areas. conditions in the region and accurately describe their By the year 2000, the plan targets reductions in air impact on human health and economic growth will pollution (reduce SO2 emissions by 30 percent from play a crucial role in any effort to improve environ- 1980 levels, NOX emissions by 10 percent, and particu- mental conditions in the coming decade. Scientists, lates by about 50 percent) and water pollution (reduce educators, policymakers, and nongovernmental orga- pollution loads into rivers by 50 percent) (63). nizations all have roles to play in this effort. For the immediate future, the most critical issues Managing Market Forces seem to be the following: managing market forces (i.e., using efficiency and market incentives to benefit the Market forces can be brutal judges of economic effi- environment); devising environmental policies that ciency. For example, Poland's 1990 stabilization pro- provide the greatest benefits for the least cost; and gram, which began to phase out energy-related budget building realistic, enforceable systems of laws and reg- subsidies and institute market-oriented energy prices, ulations. As Box 5.4 indicates, a variety of Western gov- resulted in a substantial decrease in industrial output ernments, lending institutions, and private organi- and thus in a reduction in emissions. The main reduc- zations are eager to help the countries of the region ad- tions are thought to have been in water pollution (as dress these problems. measured by biochemical oxygen demand), which may Of the many environmental problems in the region, have dropped about 33 percent, and in particulate the most significant seems to be the impact of coal emissions, which are down about 20-25 percent (64). burning on air pollution and subsequently on public The most polluting industrial facilities are often the health. Many options are available to reduce emissions most inefficient, so market forces will result in the clo- from coal burning. Given the region's lack of funds, sure of many of the worst polluters. This already is the the best choices seem to be the following: using higher case, for example, with part of (East) Germany's chemi- prices to force efficiency improvements; investing in cal industry (65). Unlike other nations in the region, energy conservation; switching to cleaner fuels, such however, East Germany's integration with West Ger- as natural gas; investing in relatively inexpensive pol- many provides some economic resilience, which lution control devices such as electrostatic precipita- makes the closure of plants somewhat easier to absorb. tors (to control particulates); and coal washing (a pro- Market forces, however, are a mixed blessing for the cess in which finely ground coal is suspended in a liq- environment. Competition from the European Com- uid medium and denser, foreign material sinks to the munity and the desperate need for foreign investment bottom, thus reducing the amount of sulfur and ash). could make these countries pollution havens. Eventually, economic growth will bring about bene- Bronislaw Kaminski, Poland's former minister of envi- ficial structural changes, but it will also substantially ronmental protection, has noted that "one of the first boost energy demand and put additional stress on the effects of relaxing the straight-jacket that hampered environment. For example, if Central European in- the spirit of entrepreneurship in Poland [was] private comes grow to match Western levels, living area (floor imports of hazardous wastes (disguised as 'raw space) per person could grow from the current 15 materials') from West European countries .... Inci- square meters to an estimated 37 square meters by 2025 dents like that have forced us to design effective policy (in the case of (East) Germany, to 50 square meters). In- tools as quickly as possible" (66). Such incidents appar- come growth will also create demand for household ently are not isolated: a Greenpeace International re- amenities such as appliances. Similarly, car ownership port found evidence of 64 trade schemes in which per capita could more than double by 2025 (62). Poland was targeted to receive Western hazardous How all of this growth is regulated—what kind of waste (67). fuel economy new cars will achieve, whether house- There are signs that the governments of the region hold appliances and new residential buildings will be are considering the environmental impacts of new en- energy efficient—will make a great difference in the en- terprises. The Polish government stopped a contract vironmental quality of the region. Environmental pro- between (West) German and Polish firms to reprocess tection must be linked to growth through effective 60,000 metric tons of zinc concentrate per year; the ar- laws and regulations. rangement would have left Poland with less energy Many of the region's countries are beginning to and more waste product. Hungary passed a decree in tackle these problems. For example, in November October 1990 prohibiting imports and exports based on differences in environmental standards. The envi- World Resources 1992-93 67 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Box 5.4 Building New Partnerships Central Europe's effort to restore and man- $150 million for modernization of district vakia, and the European Community have age its environment is being helped by heating networks. The Bank has $398 mil- signed an international treaty to protect new partnerships with Western govern- lion in loans to Hungary, primarily for the 1,500-kilometer Elbe River, which rises ments and institutions. three energy conservation projects, a petro- in Czechoslovakia and flows through the leum project, and a power project. Addi- German cities of Dresden and Magdeburg tional environmental loans are anticipated before emptying into the North Sea. The INTERNATIONAL LENDING to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia (5). same model could be applied to other riv- INSTITUTIONS ers, such as the Oder and the Danube (8). GOVERNMENT AID PROGRAMS Banking institutions are actively building new bridges to the region. The new Bank Government-to-government aid programs REGIONAL INITIATIVES for European Reconstruction and Develop- also are growing. A World Wildlife Fund- ment (BERD), with 42 charter members International survey estimated that, The cooperative effort to clean up the Bal- and an initial appropriation of $12 billion, through 1990, Western governments had tic Sea is being revived. The Baltic Marine was established in 1990 specifically to committed $728 million for environmental Environment Protection Commission (also channel funds for projects to rebuild Cen- projects, including $123 million through known as the Helsinki Commission, or tral Europe. BERD, which began opera- the European Community (EC), $105 mil- HELCOM), which was originally estab- tions in 1991, is required to devote 40 lion from the United States, and about lished in 1980, met in 1988 and agreed to percent of its loan portfolio to infrastruc- $500 million from other industrialized na- reduce emissions of pollutants to 50 per- ture projects and 60 percent to private sec- tions (6). cent of 1987 levels by 1995. That commit- tor initiatives. Provisions for environ- Activities in Europe are coordinated by ment was reinforced by a declaration in mental protection and sustainable develop- the European Commission through the EC September 1990 that was signed by Den- ment were incorporated directly into the Phare Programme (Poland/Hungary Aid mark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, bank's enabling legislation (l). for Restructuring of Economies, which the Soviet Union, Norway, Czechoslova- Other banks are also helping. The Nor- now also includes Bulgaria, Czechoslova- kia, and the European Commission. An ac- dic Investment Bank—jointly owned by kia, Yugoslavia, and (East) Germany). In tion plan will identify 100 priority sites. the governments of Denmark, Finland, Ice- July 1990, the Commission produced an The declaration commits the countries to land, Norway, and Sweden—will support "Action Plan" that attempted to give some install the best available technology for all commercial joint venture projects in the re- overall direction to the diversity of aid pro- important industries (including chemical, gion that will also help clean up the Nor- grams of G-24 countries to the region. The fertilizer, and pulp and paper industries) dic environment (2). The European EC Phare Programme also administers EC and to promote the installation and im- Investment Bank has been active in Po- funds for the region. provement of municipal sewage treatment land, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, lending plants. The World Bank, European Invest- Hungary money for the modernization of TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEMS ment Bank, European Bank for Reconstruc- their power grid and supporting im- tion and Development, and Nordic provements in domestic gas production Many other European governments are ac- Investment Bank have all taken an active in Poland (3). tively assisting Central European govern- role in the initiative (9). The World Bank has provided an $18 ments with their environmental problems. A variety of other new relationships are million loan to Poland to identify and help Finland is interested in reducing air and springing up. For example, five coun- address the highest priority environmen- water pollution in Poland and the Soviet tries—Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, tal problems in Poland and to help estab- Union. Sweden has allocated $180 million Italy, and Yugoslavia—have started the lish a decentralized system of environ- for assistance to the region, including $40 "Pentagonal Initiative." The group will be mental management (4). Additional World million to Poland for sewage treatment on working cooperatively to harmonize envi- Bank loans to Poland include $250 million the Vistula and Oder rivers and for air pol- ronmental monitoring and data systems, to increase domestic production of natural lution control equipment (7). waste management, and nuclear safety gas and support energy price reform, an The countries of the region are looking (10). The United Nations Development Pro- estimated $100 million to help the heavy for regional and international partners to gramme and United Nations Environment chemicals and coal-mining sectors with en- participate in the effort to reduce water pol- Programme also have participated in pro- vironmentally sound restructuring, and lution. For example, Germany, Czechoslo- jects in the region. ronment ministry is preparing an act on the environ- Poland, for example, has instituted higher energy mental regulation of imported technology (68). prices and substantial shifts in the relative prices of various fuels. The most dramatic change should be a large increase in the price of coal relative to oil and The Impact of Higher Prices gas. The price changes vary from industry to industry, but, in general, the price of liquid fuels relative to solid Countries with higher energy prices generally use en- fuels should be reduced by 33-50 percent. ergy much more efficiently than those with lower en- The changes in relative prices of fuels should create ergy prices. Among the industrialized (OECD) major new incentives for fuel switching, although ini- countries, roughly 50 percent of intercountry differ- tial responses may be slow because managers are not ences in energy intensity can be explained by prices. used to operating under hard budget constraints or re- A comparative study of energy conservation in the sponding to price signals (70). OECD countries and Central Europe found that prices Increased coal prices should encourage mines to pro- were the principal reason for Central Europe's higher duce higher quality coal, which will improve energy ef- energy intensity (69). ficiency and reduce emissions. If pollution charges are Wortd Resources 1982-93 68 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 Box 5.4 INFORMATION EXCHANGE written by the U.S. Environmental Protec- 3. World Wildlife Fund-International (WWF- tion Agency, Central Europe was singled I), "Who Knows Where the Money Goes? Western governments also are moving rap- out as an area where technology transfer A Survey of Investments in Central and idly to provide the information needed for Eastern Europe" (WWF-I, Brussels, 1991), could have potential impact and where pp. 30-31. improved environmental management in there was an indigenous capability to uti- the region. One element of this effort is the lize the technology. The study also recom- 4. "Hungary, Poland Said at Top of List For Regional Environmental Center for Cen- U.S. Aid to Stem Environmental Damage," mended that U.S. policymakers encourage International Environment Reporter (June tral and Eastern Europe, which is located all nations to adopt environmental stan- in Budapest and opened in September 1990), p. 231. dards, both health- and performance- 5. Richard Ackerman, Senior Policy Analyst, 1990. Start-up funding of $12 million was based, covering imports and exports ot provided by the United States, the Euro- Environment Division, The World Bank, products, equipment, and processes 03). Washington, D.C., 1991 (personal commu- pean Community, Austria, Hungary, Can- ada, Finland, the Netherlands, and The U.S. Environmental Protection nication). Norway. The center is operated indepen- Agency and others have provided seed 6. Op. cit. 3, p. vii. dently and gives high priority to the role money to help the government of Poland 7. Op. cit. 3, pp. 2,17,22. of nongovernmental organizations. It start independent, nonprofit energy effi- 8. "International Treaty to Protect Elbe serves as a clearinghouse for the dissemi- ciency centers. The centers will identify Signed by Germans, Czechs, EC Official," nation of information about Western envi- ways to increase energy efficiency, help in- International Environment Reporter (October ronmental technologies and management digenous industries develop their own en- 24,1990), pp. 436-437. strategies, helps area governments estab- ergy efficiency programs, and expedite 9. Baltic Marine Environment Protection lish environmental institutions, and medi- private initiatives for the introduction of Commission, "The Ad Hoc High Level ates between environmental groups and energy conservation technologies (U). In Task Force: First Meeting," press release local governments (li). May 1991, the U.S. Department of Energy (November 1,1990) and Conference Docu- awarded a $7.7 million contract to a U.S. ment No. 1, Annex A, pp. 5-6. Western environmental groups and company to supply emissions control tech- 10. "Five Nations Urge Regional Role in Ad- foundations have been active in the re- nology to retrofit a boiler at the Skawina dressing Environmental Issues," Interna- gion. The U.S. World Wildlife Fund/Con- power plant in Krakow, Poland. The retro- tional Environment Reporter (August 1990), servation Foundation has started a pro- fit project is intended to demonstrate a p. 337. gram that includes an effort to describe U.S. technology that could be duplicated 11. "Eastern, Central Europe To Get Help the role of environmental groups in the for other Central European coal-fired boil- From New Center on Environmental Clean United States. The U.S. National Academy ers 05). Other U.S. projects in Krakow will Up," International Environment Reporter of Sciences has held joint workshops with target reduction of low-level emissions (September 1990), p. 357. its Polish and Romanian counterparts on from heating systems and small industry. 12. World Wildlife Fund and The Conserva- topics such as energy efficiency and natu- tion Foundation (WWF/CF), Central and ral resource management. The Institute for In October 1990, the European Parlia- Eastern Europe Environmental Newsletter European Environmental Policy, Friends ment approved ECU 30 million ($36 mil- (WWF/CF, Washington, D.C., January 15, of the Earth International, World Environ- lion) from the EC Phare budget for the 1991), pp. 1-6. ment Center, Management Sciences for transfer of technology to Central Europe. 13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Health, Environmental Law Institute, The program is intended as a prelude to (EPA), Final Report to the Administrator of Rockefeller Brothers Fund, World Conser- two larger technology transfer projects (16). the Environmental Protection Agency from the International Environmental Technology vation Union, Ecological Studies Institute, Transfer Board (EPA, Washington, D.C., De- International Institute for Applied Systems References and Notes cember 1990), pp. 13-15. Analysis, and many other groups also are 14. "Energy-Saving Center Planned To Help actively interested in the region (12). 1. Tamara Raye Crockett and Cynthia B. Solve Poland's Environmental Crisis," In- Schultz, "Environmental Protection Issues ternational Environment Reporter (Septem- TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER in Eastern Europe," Internationa! Environ- ber 1990), p. 359. ment Reporter (June 1990), p. 261. 15. Peter Cover, Program Manager, Technol- The governments and industries of the re- 2. "First NIB Environmental Investments in ogy Exports, Office of Fossil Energy, U.S. gion face many critical choices about the Eastern Europe May Be Approved by Department of Energy, September 1991 kinds of environmental technologies they Fall/' International Environment Reporter (personal communication). should choose. In a recent study under- (July 1990), p. 299. 16. Op. cit. 3, p. 6. increased and enforced, new incentives will be created pollutants by 1993, compared to a projected increase of to use high-grade coals and clean low-grade coals (71). 22 percent without this change (73). Effective price reform of the energy sector depends on more general changes in the structure of incentives Managing Growth: The Case of Motor Vehicles and constraints under which all enterprises operate. Management training may be an important facet of this The rise of market economies will almost certainly cre- overall change. For example, devising a program of en- ate substantial new demand for automobiles. ergy audits—designed to highlight possibilities for The possibility of a major new market for auto sales achieving greater fuel efficiency—could help give man- in Central Europe has not escaped the attention of agers the skills to respond to the new pattern of price Western auto makers. By early 1991, Fiat had projects incentives (72). in Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Union totaling The environmental benefits of energy price reform $8 billion and Volkswagen won a competition to ac- should be significant. Overall, it is estimated that quire a substantial stake in Czechoslovakia's Skoda Poland's policy of increasing energy prices to world plant for $6.4 billion. Ford, General Motors, and price levels should lead to a 15 percent reduction in air Suzuki also had made investments in the region (74). World Resources 1992-93 69 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe The net result may be creation of a new pan-European public health. The options include selected pollution production base (75). The growth hasn't been trouble- controls, fuel switching, and investments in energy free, however; automakers have often found them- conservation and energy efficiency, and—in a few selves frustrated by problems with unusable plants, carefully selected cases—the installation of flue gas inadequate parts suppliers, unmotivated workers, and desulfurization equipment. uncertain free-market reforms (76). Most assessments, nevertheless, suggest that auto Coping with Coal: Low-Cost Options sales should grow rapidly in the region over the com- Among air pollutants from coal, particulates are usu- ing decades. In Poland, for example, new car sales will ally considered at least as damaging to health as sulfur probably rise from the current 150,000 cars per year to dioxide. Particulates are also relatively less expensive over 300,000 cars in the next few years if the country's to remove: in the case of high stacks, cutting particu- economy develops (77). This increase will likely cause a late emissions by 60 percent from 1980 levels in Poland substantial increase in air pollution, especially in would cost about $500 per metric ton; whereas reduc- urban centers such as Warsaw. ing sulfur dioxide by 50 percent would cost about Effective government policies can substantially re- $1,900 per metric ton. For large energy consumers, one duce the environmental impact of new cars. For exam- relatively low-cost option would be to install and/or ple, Poland's environment minister has decided that properly operate electrostatic precipitators to remove all new cars sold in Poland within five years will be re- particulates (83). About 50 percent of sulfur dioxide quired to meet the emission limits of the European emissions could be removed by coal washing, a rela- Community (EC). EC standards require catalytic con- tively low-cost option (84). verters on virtually all new cars by the end of 1992. In Millions of Poland's homes and buildings are heated addition, all new cars will be fueled with unleaded gas- with small stoves that burn bituminous coal; flue gases oline, and diesel vehicles will be required to gradually from these stoves are the predominant contributor to lower particulate emissions (78). air pollution in towns (85). Poland and the other na- Periodic inspection and maintenance of all vehicles tions of the region could save a great deal of energy has proven effective in Western countries, where it and substantially reduce emissions by expanding dis- eventually can reduce emissions of hydrocarbons and trict heating systems and using combined heat and carbon monoxide by about 25 percent and NOX by power (CHP) production in major urban centers. Even about 10 percent. Well-run programs in Central Eu- when burning low-quality coal, modern CHP sta- rope should be able to achieve similar reductions (79). tions—such as one built in Stockholm that uses a rela- In view of the health problems associated with lead, tively expensive pressurized fluidized bed combustion Central European countries may consider an aggres- technology—can eliminate about 90 percent of sulfur sive program to phase out lead in petrol. Options in- emissions, provide district heating for large urban clude reducing the lead content of leaded petrol to 0.15 areas and still provide the same efficiency for electric- grams per liter as rapidly as possible, increasing the ity production as a normal Polish lignite-fired plant availability of unleaded petrol (either through rela- (86). Using natural gas to power CHP plants would pro- tively expensive adjustments in refining capacity or vide even more substantial environmental benefits. through increased reliance on imports), and adjusting There are several obstacles to CHP development, how- prices so that unleaded petrol is cheaper (or no more ever, including cost and a lack of practical mainte- expensive) than leaded. Several European countries nance experience (87). have increased the tax on leaded fuel and decreased it Modern CHP plants in urban areas would reduce on unleaded fuel, so that overall taxes remain the same the need to transmit electricity over long distances. (at least initially) but the economic incentive to use un- During long-distance transmission, Poland's national leaded fuel increases (80). grid loses power equivalent to about 10 percent of the Cars in Central Europe are now relatively energy-ef- country's entire electricity output. Cutting losses to the ficient, consuming about 8.7 liters per 100 km (27 miles (West) German level could annually save about 6 mil- per gallon) (81). That figure could easily decline in the lion metric tons of bituminous coal and reduce sulfur coming years if demand for larger cars increases. Nev- dioxide emissions by about 120,000 metric tons (88). ertheless, improvements in automobile fuel economy could yield substantial energy savings. Increasing fuel Flue Gas Desulfurization: A High-Cost Option. An economy to 5 liters per 100 km (47 mpg), in combina- important but costly option for major plants in the re- tion with other energy saving measures, could reduce gion is to install flue gas control technologies that transportation energy demand in 2025 by 30 percent would substantially reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (about 1.5 exajoules). Even with this effort, the in- and nitrogen oxides. This option seems realistic in creased number of cars in the region could increase en- (East) Germany. In 1983, the West German Bundestag ergy demand by 50 percent over current levels (82). passed a law requiring all large power plants to install flue gas cleaning equipment. Most major electricity suppliers have reduced their sulfur emissions by 70-75 Looking for Least-Cost Solutions percent from 1983 levels and have a similar goal for ni- In ordering priorities for environmental cleanup, the trogen oxides. countries of the region generally are looking for the Even emissions from plants using low-quality lignite lowest-cost options that will do the most to improve can be dramatically reduced. When one (West) Ger- World Resources 1992-93 70 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 man plant burning low-quality lignite was fitted with cidents or operations experiences, a process consid- wet flue gas desulfurization equipment in 1988, the ered vital to the safety of Western reactors (96). plant's sulfur dioxide emissions were cut by 85 per- It was not until 1990, for example, that (East) Ger- cent, to 20,000 metric tons per year (89). Although ex- many revealed that the Bruno Leuschner nuclear plant pensive and complex, the long-term benefits of this near Greifswald suffered a near-disaster in 1975, when technology could be dramatic. Eight power stations in 11 of 12 cooling pumps at the reactor failed during a (East) Germany emit about 2.1 million metric tons of fire (97). The German government has closed down all sulfur dioxide annually (90), or about 40 percent of the five Soviet-built reactors at Greifswald and a pilot total from that region (91). plant in Rheinsberg; Chancellor Helmut Kohl told the Installing flue gas controls on existing plants in German Bundestag in October 1990 that it was "irre- other countries may not be practical because of the sponsible to operate them after Chernobyl" (98). high cost. They may be practical for new plants (or The Chernobyl disaster created great anxiety over plants under construction) such as Belchatow in Po- the safety of nuclear power plants in the region. The land. By mid-1991, the Polish government had signed government of Austria, for example, is seeking the clo- a contract to install desulfurization equipment in 2 of sure of the Czechoslovak nuclear station at Borovnica. the 12 blocks at Belchatow, using a Dutch wet-lime Austria has offered technical advice on decommission- method; negotiations on other blocks were continuing. ing and compensation for the electric power that Polish officials estimate the installation will cut total would be lost by closure of the plant (99). Nevertheless, SO2 emissions from 337,000 metric tons to 277,000 met- Czechoslovakia is going ahead with the construction ric tons, or about 18 percent from 1990 levels (92). of two plants (Temelin 1 and 2) and probably with two more (Temelin 3 and 4) (100). In addition, the state- Adjusting the Fuel Mix owned Electricite de France has also proposed the Once environmental factors are taken into account, building of two 900-megawatt nuclear plants in Hun- switching to natural gas fuel appears to be a cost-effec- gary (101). tive option, especially for the hundreds of small- and medium-sized coal-fired industrial and building heat- ing systems. The Soviet Union has been a substantial Energy Conservation supplier of oil and gas to Central Europe in the past, but those sales were under soft-currency trading terms Energy efficiency improvements hold great promise in that are no longer available. Soviet oil and gas to Cen- the region. In Poland, for example, conservation op- tral Europe must now be paid for in hard currency and tions in industry include: in the iron and steel indus- at world market prices, a major new economic burden try, replacement of the open hearth furnace with the for the region. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union has the basic oxygen furnace; and in the chemicals industry, pipelines in place and the spare capacity to export sub- modernizing refinery and petrochemical equipment. stantial volumes of gas to Central Europe (93). Opportunities in the residential sector include insulat- Converting a boiler from coal to gas fuel eliminates ing buildings, metering individual houses and apart- all emissions of sulfur dioxide and nearly all particu- ments, market pricing of energy, and district heating. lates, reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides by about 45 In the public transportation area, use of mass transit percent, and emits about 57 percent less carbon diox- could be encouraged and fuel efficiency rates main- ide (a major greenhouse gas) per unit of energy (94). In tained (102) (103). addition, it provides substantial savings over coal in The most cost-effective investments, according to the maintenance requirements of a power plant. one study of Poland, would be improving space heat- As a possible supplement to imported natural gas, ing management, reducing electricity transmission Central Europe could exploit reserves of coalbed meth- and distribution losses, insulating buildings, produc- ane. Coalbed methane would be a competitively ing better automation and measurement devices, im- priced fuel that would benefit the environment by re- proving existing industrial equipment, and cogen- ducing emissions of methane (also a major greenhouse erating electricity and heat. Greater energy savings gas). Extracting coalbed methane would also increase could be achieved, at a net cost, through such options mine safety by lowering methane concentrations in the as railway electrification, improved coal quality, and mines (95). new industrial technology (104). (See Table 5.6.) Nuclear Energy: A High-Cost Option. Nuclear energy If Poland were to aggressively implement an energy holds the attraction of emitting few pollutants into the conservation strategy, it could save about 40 percent of atmosphere; but it is costly, technically difficult to op- current total energy demand by the year 2005. To do erate, creates a dangerous waste product, and—as the that, it would have to invest about 1.25 percent of its Chernobyl disaster vividly demonstrated—carries gross domestic product annually into energy effi- grave risks for the public. Over the past two decades, ciency, but that would be less than the cost of supply- 23 nuclear plants—using either Soviet technology or ing the same amount of energy (105). design—were built in the region. Considerable con- An effective, comprehensive effort to improve en- cern has been expressed about the quality of the mate- ergy efficiency could hold energy demand in the re- rials in those plants. Until recently, there was virtually gion at the current annual level (about 18 exajoules) no exchange of information among operators about in- through the year 2025. Without such an effort, energy World Resources 1992-93 71 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe Table 5.6 Monetary Savings/Cost of Selected ers; and reequipped about 5,000 government vehicles Energy Saving Options in Poland, 2005 to reduce lead emissions. The government was also planning to devise a new tax or fee system to stem the Net Savings Potential further degradation of air and water resources and a Per Gigajoule Saved Energy Savings freedom-of-information act that would allow public ac- Energy Savings Options (in1984zlotys) (petajoules) cess to government data and allow the government to Options That Save Money publish material on polluting enterprises (109). Heating efficiency improvements 325 56 • In Czechoslovakia, three environmental agencies are Reduction in distribution actively drafting new legislation, despite uncertainties and transmission losses 223 206 Building insulation 207 426 about the distribution of power between the federal Automation and measurements and republic governments. The three agencies have improvement 138 562 Existing industrial equipment 68 835 collectively drafted a general environmental law that Cogeneration 45 908 anticipates command-and-control laws and environ- Options That Cost Money mental taxes; gives citizens the right to get information Railway electrification (187) 968 about the environment and makes companies obliged Coal quality improvement (427) 1,115 to provide it; allows citizens to claim rights under the Source: S. Sitnicki, K. Budzinski, J. Juda, etal., "Poland: Opportunities for environmental laws in court; and requires environmen- Carbon Emissions Control," paper prepared for the U.S. Agency for tal impact assessments before the initiation of any con- International Development (Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Washington, 1990), p. 15. struction activity, use of natural resources, or pro- Note: 1 gigajoule = 1,000,000,000 joules = 947,800 Btus; duction of products. The agencies have also produced 1 petajoule = 1,000,000 gigajoules. a draft air pollution law that contains both taxes and command-and-control requirements, and a draft waste demand can be expected to increase by 70 percent (to law similar to the U.S. and European Community pro- about 31 exajoules annually) by 2025 (106). grams (110). The drafting of new environmental laws has been Water Pollution difficult. For instance, the laws anticipate giving the Cost is a daunting problem that limits efforts to reduce public access to information, but there is, as yet, little water pollution in the region. As part of the German experience with developing and using that informa- government's initial attack on environmental prob- tion. Similarly, there is little experience in preparing lems in the five new eastern states, a $1.6 billion pilot environmental impact assessments and little ability on program was approved in late 1990 that included 15 the part of local governments or private organizations projects designed to improve industrial wastewater to analyze and respond to such assessments (ill). handling and sewage treatment (107). • East Germany became subject to the environmental In the short run, industrial processes could be care- laws of West Germany and the European Community fully examined for opportunities to reduce the amount when it formally joined West Germany in October of waste generated. To reinforce that strategy, govern- 1990. The European Commission's waste manage- ments could create funding mechanisms and economic ment, water quality, and air pollution provisions will incentives for investments in pollution control equip- be enforced in East Germany in 1996 (112). ment. Alternatively, they could impose substantial, en- In addition to laws, new regulations that provide in- forceable fees on emissions, making it more cost- centives to invest in pollution control equipment or effective for industries (or municipalities) to invest in stronger penalties for polluters are being developed. waste minimization or treatment facilities rather than Poland provides incentives for environmental protec- continue to pollute. tion, including a three-year tax exemption for joint ven- In Poland, the discharge of saline minewater pol- tures to manufacture pollution control equipment and lutes rivers. Proposals to divert the minewater through a 100 percent tax deduction for the purchase and instal- pipelines or build a desalination plant may be too ex- lation of pollution control equipment (113). pensive. Removing price subsidies, which would force Many of the countries in the region already have inefficient mines to close, and phasing in a system of fees elaborate systems of fees and fines in place, but regula- on discharges may prove to be the best answer (108). tions have been weakly enforced or fines too small to be effective. Beginning January 1,1991, the Polish Min- istry of Environment increased fees for resource use 15- Developing Effective Laws and Regulations fold and fines 27-fold, with further adjustments for Led by Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, the inflation. The success of these new fees and fines may countries of the region are slowly beginning to over- depend on the reform of enterprises (including greater haul existing laws and regulations. For example: competitive pressures and the use of "hard" budgets • In Hungary, 1991 laws required firms building or ex- that do not allow managers to pass on the cost of fines panding plants to submit environmental impact assess- to customers or the state) and the creation of local gov- ments before receiving construction permits; required ernmental units with reasonably broad tax bases and all vehicles to undergo annual emission inspections; of- the staff and legal resources to enforce the regulations fered tax incentives to vehicles with catalytic convert- (114). World Resources 1992-93 72 Regional Focus: Central Europe 5 This Chapter was written by World Resources Senior Editor Rob- ton; and Clyde Hertzman, Director, Division of Occupational and ert Livernash. The box on environment and health in Central Eu- Environmental Health in the Department of Health Care and Epi- rope was written by Barry S. Levy, Director of the Program for demiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Environment and Health at Management Sciences for Health,Bos-1 References and Notes 1. Marlise Simons, "Rising Iron Curtain Ex- 20. Ibid., p. 11. ports: 1988/1989, Vol. 1 (IUCN, Gland, Swit- poses Haunting Veil of Polluted Air," New 21. Ibid., p. 8. zerland and Cambridge, U.K., 1990), p. 106. York Times (April 8,1990), p. 14. 22. Richard Ackerman, Senior Policy Analyst, 48. Op. cit. 12, pp. 16-17. 2. Marlise Simons, "Pollution's Toll in Eastern Environment Division, The World Bank, 49. Op. cit. 10, p. 48. Europe: Stumps Where Great Trees Once Washington, D,C, 1991 (personal communi- 50. Jerzy Janota-Bzowski, Air Component Man- Grew," New York Times (March 19,1990), p. cation). ager, Ministry of Environmental Protection, 9. Warsaw, Poland, 1991 (personal communi- 23. Op. cit. 12, p. 22. 3. Marlise Simons, "Central Europe's Coal cation). 24. Op. cit. 19, p. 39. Wasteland: Progress, Yes, but at What 51. James R. Newman, "Draft Joint Environ- Cost?" New York Times (April 1,1990), p. 1. 25. Duncan Fisher, East European Project Coor- dinator, The Ecological Studies Institute, mental Study: Volume 2, Technical Report," 4. Celestine Bohlen, "Through a Thick Veil of prepared for the U.S. Agency for Interna- London, 1991 (personal communication). Soot, Romanian City Faces Future," New tional Development and The World Bank York Times (March 5,1990), p. 1. 26. Miklos Persanyi, Senior Advisor, Hungar- (KBN Engineering and Applied Sciences, ian Ministry for Environment, Budapest, 5. Marlise Simons, "New Taint on East Ger- Gainesville, Florida, 1991), p. 5-1. 1991 (personal communication). man Pollution," New York Times (September 52. Op. cit. 8, pp. 28,33. 9,1990), p. 20. 27. Zygmunt Fura, "Institutions: The Polish Ecological Club," Environment, Vol. 27, No. 53. Op. cit. 6, pp. 70, 75. 6. The State of the Hungarian Environment, Don 54. Op. cit. 30, p. 17. 9 (November 1985), pp. 4-5. Hinrichsen and Gyorgy Enyedi, eds. 28. William U. Chandler, Senior Scientist, 55. Op. cit. 51, p. 5-6. (Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Ministry for Environment and Water Management, Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific North- 56. Christer Agren, "Forest decline continues," and the Hungarian Central Statistical Of- west Laboratories, Washington, D.C., 1991 Acid News (December 1990), p. 4. fice, Budapest, 1990), p. 51. (personal communication). 57. Op. cit. 12, p. 20. 7. World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation 29. Jean Pierre Lasota, "Darkness at Noon: 58. Op. cit. 10, p. 87. Foundation (WWF/CF), Central and Eastern Time is Running Out for Poland's Environ- 59. Op. cit. 10, p. 58. Europe Environmental Newsletter (WWF/CF, ment," The Sciences, Vol. 27 (New York Academy of Sciences, New York, July-Au- 60. "Measuring Deposition...and Calculating Washington, D.C.January 15,1991), p. 4. Where it Comes From," Acid Magazine, No. gust 1987), p. 28. 8. Josef Vavrousek, The Environment in Czecho- 8 (September 1989), pp. 7-8. slovakia (State Commission for Science, Tech- 30. Hilary F. French, Green Revolutions: Environ- mental Reconstruction in Eastern Europe and 61. Op. cit. 30, pp. 16-17. nology and Investments, Prague, May the Soviet Union: WorldWatch Paper No. 99 62. Stanislav Kolar and William U. Chandler, 1990), p. 22. (Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., "Energy and Energy Conservation in 9. The World Bank, "Poland Environment Eastern Europe: Two Scenarios for the Fu- November 1990), pp. 6,32- 33. Strategy Study," draft summary, conclu- ture," paper prepared for the U.S. Agency sions and recommendations (The World 31. Op. cit. 28. for International Development Global En- Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. iii. 32. Op. cit. 10, p. 12. ergy Efficiency Initiative (Battelle Memorial 10. The World Bank, "Poland—The Environ- 33. Op. cit. 12, p. 22. Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, ment," draft (The World Bank, Washington, 34. Randolf Granzer, "Perestroika in Energy: Washington, D.C., n.d.), pp. 12-14. D.C., 1989), pp. 59,68. The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe," The 63. Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natu- 11. Stanislaw Gomulka, Growth, Innovation and OECD Observer (December 1988-January ral Resources, and Forestry, "National Envi- Reform in Eastern Europe (University of Wis- 1989), p. 27. ronmental Policy" (Ministry of Environ- consin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1986), 35. Stefan Bjorklund, "Big Sacrifices Needed to mental Protection, Natural Resources, and pp. 34-35. Cut East German Sulphur Emissions," Acid Forestry, Warsaw, 1990), pp. 12-13. 12. Jeremy Russell, "Environmental Issues in Magazine, No. 8 (September 1989), p. 20. 64. Op. cit. 9, pp. vii-viii. Eastern Europe: Setting an Agenda" (Royal 36. Bedrich Moldan, Environmental Scientist, 65. Op. cit. 12, p. 30. Institute of International Affairs and World Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1991 (personal Conservation Union, London, 1990), p. 21. 66. Bronislaw Kaminski, "Poland's Environ- communication). mental Problems and Priorities," paper pre- 13. Zbigniew Bochniarz, "Economic Instru- 37. Op. cit. 12, p. 7. pared for the International Environment ments of Environmental Policy in East Euro- 38. Op. cit.S. Forum Meeting, World Environment Cen- pean Countries" (Hubert H. Humphrey ter, New York, March 13,1990, p. 6. Institute of Public Affairs, University of 39. Op. cit. 12, p. 10. Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1989), 40. World Resources Institute in collaboration 67. "Greenpeace Says Poland Being Used As pp. 1-4. with the United Nations Environment Pro- Dump for Industrialized Nations' Waste," gramme and the United Nations Develop- International Environment Reporter (October 14. William U. Chandler, The Changing Role of 24,1990), p. 438. the Market in National Economies: WorldWatch ment Programme, World Resources 1990-91 Paper 72 (WorldWatch Institute, Washing- (Oxford University Press, New York, 1990), 68. World Wildlife Fund-International (WWF- ton, D.C., 1986), pp. 6-7. p. 352. I), "Who Knows Where the Money Goes? A 41. Op. cit. 12, p. 13. Survey of Investments in Central and 15. Ibid.,pA7. Eastern Europe" (WWF-I, Brussels, 1991), p. 16. Janos Kornai, Contradictions and Dilemmas: 42. Op. cit. 9, p. vi. 41. Studies on the Socialist Economy and Society 43. Michael P. Walsh and Hans Apitz, "Motor Vehicle Pollution in Poland: The Problem at 69. Mark Kosmo, Money to Burn ? The High Costs (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, Present and A Strategy for Progress," draft of Energy Subsidies (World Resources Insti- 1986), pp. 33-51. paper prepared for The World Bank (Octo- tute, Washington, D.C., 1987), p. 29. 17. Op. cit. 14, p. 19. ber 1990), p. 2. 70. The World Bank, "Poland Energy Market 18. Zbigniew Bochniarz, Visiting Professor, Hu- Development," Energy and Environment bert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Af- 44. Ibid., p. 4. Operations Division Report No. 8224-POL fairs, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 45. Michael P. Walsh, "Motor Vehicle Pollution (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991), Minnesota, 1991 (personal communication). in Hungary: A Strategy for Progress," paper pp. 23-24. 19. Piotr Wilczynski, "Environmental Manage- prepared for The World Bank (June 1990), p. 3. 71. Ibid., p. 26. ment in Centrally-Planned Non- Market 46. Ibid., p. 4. 72. .19. Ibid., p Economies of Eastern Europe," World Bank Environment Working Paper No. 35 (The 47. International Union for Conservation of Na- 73. Op. cit. 9, p. viii. World Bank, Washington, D.C., July 1990), ture and Natural Resources (IUCN), East 74. Op. cit. 68, pp. vii, 35-39. p. 9. European Program, Environmental Status Re- 75. Op. cit. 25. World Resources 1992-93 73 5 Regional Focus: Central Europe 76. Bradley A. Stertz and Terence Roth, "To 91. United Nations (U.N.) The State of Trans- west Laboratories, Richland, Washington, Western Industry, East Bloc Auto Market is boundary Air Pollution: 1989 Update (U.N., 1990), p. 13. Losing Some Luster," Wall Street Journal (No- New York, 1990), p. 17. 103. Op.tit.25. vember 14,1990), p. 1. 92. Op.tit.50. 104. Op. cit. 102, pp. 14-15. 77. Op.tit.43, pp. 2-3. 93. Op.tit.12, p. 28. 78. Op.tit.43, p. 13. 94. Op.tit.84, p. 2. 105. Op. cit. 102, pp. 13-14. 79. Op. tit. 43, pp. 14-15. 95. Raymond C. Pilcher, "Opportunities for the 106. Op.tit.62, pp. 18, 24. 80. Op.tit.45, p. 14. Development and Utilization of Coalbed 107. "Government Approves 35 Projects to Moni- 81. Op.tit.62, p. 14. Methane in Poland," abstract of paper pre- tor, Clean Up Pollution in East," Interna- sented at conference on Global Perspectives tional Environment Reporter (November 7, 82. Op.tit.62, p. 14. on Coalbed Methane, the Coalbed Methane 1990), p. 463. 83. Op. tit. 9, pp. xx-xxi. Forum (Lakewood, Colorado, May 9,1991). 84. American Gas Association, "An Evaluation 108. Op. cit. 9, p. xxiii. 96. Marlise Simons, "At East Europe Nuclear of Alternative Control Strategies to Remove Plants, Blame for Soviets," New York Times 109. "Environment Impact Assessment, Vehicle Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides and Car- (June 24,1990), p. 6. Emission Requirements Planned," Interna- bon Dioxide at Existing Large Coal-Fired Fa- tional Environment Reporter (December 5, 97. Ibid. cilities" (American Gas Association, 1990), pp. 503-504. Arlington, Virginia, 1989), pp. 3,6. 98. Jeffrey H. Michel, Consulting Engineer, Schuttertal/Dorlinbach, Germany, 1991 110. Margaret Bowman and David Hunter, "En- 85. Op.tit.25. (personal communication). vironmental Law-Drafting in Czechoslova- 86. Stefan Bjorklund, "Inefficient energy use at 99. Op.tit.68, p. 16. kia" (Environmental Law Institute, root of Poland's environmental problems," Washington, D.C., 1991), pp. 9-10. 100. Stanislav Kolar, President, Kolar Associates, Acid Magazine (September 1989), p. 11. Washington, D.C., 1991 (personal communi- 111. Ibid., pp. 6-7. 87. Op.cif.50. cation). 88. Op.tit.86. 112. "European Community Gives East Ger- 101. Op. cit. 68, p. 19. many Until 1996 to Comply with Regula- 89. Stefan Bjorklund, "West German coal and 102. S. Sitnicki, K. Budzinski, J. Juda, et al., "Po- tions," International Environment Reporter lignite power stations come clean," Acid land: Opportunities for Carbon Emissions (September 1990), p. 355. Magazine (September 1989), pp. 12-13. Control," paper prepared for the U.S. 90. Bo Thunberg, "Air pollution in the GDR," Agency for International Development 113. Op. cit. 102, p. 17. Acid Magazine (September 1989), p. 19. (Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific North- 114. Op. cit. 9, pp. xi-xiii. World Resources 1992-93 74 6. Population and Human Development People are a precious, yet often neglected, resource. In its recent series of Human Development Reports, the To a large extent this is because their sheer numbers United Nations Development Programme has asserted strain the systems designed to serve them. The world that although economic development generally im- population has doubled in the past 40 years and may proves the well-being of a population, other factors are double again in the next century, perhaps approaching also important—specifically, increased schooling and stability at about 11 billion by the year 2100. Most of health care. This gives hope to low-income countries this increase will take place in the developing world. and countries suffering economic stagnation that they Without a great deal of effort and ingenuity, many of can improve their citizens' lives by directing limited fi- these new citizens will degrade natural resources and nancial resources into primary education and health not be offered the health and educational resources care programs. necessary to reach their potential. Of the roughly 37 million people who died in devel- Humanitarian concerns aside, building a healthy, ed- oping countries annually in the mid-1980s, almost 37 ucated, stable population makes economic sense and is percent were children. This shocking figure compares a chief component of sustainable development. (See to developed countries where only 3 percent of the an- Chapter 1, "Dimensions of Sustainable Develop- nual deaths are of children. Mortality figures—used as ment.") The newly industrialized countries—Asia's the most reliable measure of health—show only the four tigers—made remarkable economic progress by most severe cases of ill-health and do not indicate a developing an educated workforce as the basis for a much larger population of sick, malnourished, and list- manufacturing boom. Short on natural resources, less children. Most of these children are sickened by South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan diseases that can be easily prevented or cured with used their human resources to bound out of poverty. proper sanitation, nutrition, and vaccines. However, Other developing countries are following suit; ideally, these basic needs are still unavailable to many children they will avoid some of the environmental pitfalls ex- in developing countries. Striking progress has been perienced by Asia's tigers. (See Chapter 4, "Sustain- made in vaccinating children and in providing simple able Development Case Study: Rapidly Industrializing treatment for diarrhea, the biggest cause of death Countries.") World Resources 1992-93 75 6 Population and Human Development Table 6.1 Estimated and Projected Population Size by Region, 1950-2025 Population (millions) Percent Share of World Population Region 1950 1970 1990 2000 2025 1950 1970 1990 2000 2025 World Total 2,516 3,698 5,292 6,261 8,504 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Industrialized countries 832 1,049 1,207 1,264 1,354 33.1 28.4 22.8 20.2 15.9 Developing countries 1,684 2,649 4,086 4,997 7,150 66.9 71.6 77.2 79.8 84.1 Africa 222 362 642 867 1,597 8.8 9.8 12.1 13.8 18.8 North America 166 226 276 295 332 6.6 6.1 5.2 4.7 3.9 Latin America 166 286 448 538 757 6.6 7.7 8.5 8.6 8.9 Asia 1,377 2,102 3,113 3,713 4,912 54.7 56.8 58.8 59.3 57.8 Europe 393 460 498 510 515 15.6 12.4 9.4 8.1 6.1 Oceania 13 19 26 30 38 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 U.S.S.R. 180 243 289 308 352 7.2 6.6 5.5 4.9 4.1 Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects 1990 (United Nations, New York 1991), pp. 226-233, 244-245, 252-255,264-265,274-275, and 582-583. among children of the developing world. (See Focus with a slight bulge among the postwar baby-boom On Children's Health, below.) generation, which is now 30^15 years old. In the devel- Although it might seem that reducing child mortal- oping countries, far more people are in the young age ity would increase population growth, the opposite is groups, which will swell the number of children born the case if countries also develop economically. As each year as the increasing number of young women countries develop, they go through a process called de- of childbearing age have children. (See World Resources mographic transition in which living standards are 1990-91, pp. 51-55.) raised, child mortality is reduced, and fertility de- clines. This transition can be speeded by policies that Declining Growth Rates, Increasing Numbers promote education, health care, and use of contracep- For several decades, population planners have focused tives. on reducing population growth rates in developing countries. In many regions, that effort has been rela- CONDITIONS AND TRENDS tively successful, as Figure 6.1 suggests; the major ex- ception has been Africa, where growth rates since the Global Trends mid-1960s have increased. Declining birth rates, however, belie the immense POPULATION TRENDS momentum already built into the system; that is, each woman is having fewer children, but many more The different prospects for the industrialized and de- women are giving birth. By the year 2000, over 90 mil- veloping countries are nowhere more evident than in lion people—more than Mexico's current population— their respective population sizes. By 1990, of the will be added annually to the population of the dev- world's 5.3 billion people, 4.1 billion—77 percent— eloping countries (l). (See Figure 6.2.) Thereafter, the lived in the developing world; 1.2 billion inhabited the number of people added each year will decrease industrialized countries. (See Table 6.1.) slowly with world population probably stabilizing at The difference in growth rates of developing and in- a projected 11.2 billion in 2100 (2). dustrialized countries is even more dramatic. Popula- tion growth in the industrialized countries has been relatively modest, rising about 15 percent over the Fertility and Contraception Trends 1970-90 period. In those same two decades, the popu- As Figure 6.3 indicates, total fertility rates in the indus- lation of developing countries grew by almost 55 per- trialized countries have remained roughly at or below cent, from 2.65 billion to 4.1 billion. The disparity in 2 during the 1980s and into 1990. (The fertility rate is numbers will widen by 2025, when population in in- the average number of children women bear in their dustrialized countries is projected to be 1.35 billion lifetime.) Within Asia, the experience has been varied. and 7.15 billion in developing countries (or about 84 Largely because of China's strong population control percent of world population). programs, which resulted in a total fertility rate of 2.3, This burst of population growth in the developing rates in East Asia have declined dramatically over the world is easily explained. Before World War II, both past four decades. Some countries in South and South- birth rates and death rates were high in these coun- east Asia—especially Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, tries, which kept growth low. Since then, rapid im- Sri Lanka, and India—also have made significant prog- provements in health care and sanitation have caused ress. Fertility rates in Latin America followed a similar death rates to plummet, while birth rates have re- path, but rates in Africa have remained virtually un- mained high. changed since the 1950s (3). Large differences in the age structure of populations With large numbers of women now in or entering in the industrialized and developing worlds help ac- their reproductive ages, the downward trend in birth count for the projected widening of the population dis- rates will be enormously difficult to maintain. Popula- parities. In the industrialized countries, the propor- tion assistance programs can play an important role in tions of people in each age range are roughly equal, developing countries. Because of past investments in World Resources 1992-93 76 Population and Human Development 6 Figure 6.1 Average Annual Population Figure 6.2 Projected Annual Increment to the Growth Rates, 1960-65 and 1985-90 Population, 1950-2020 (percent) (millions) 100- 1960-65 1985-90 — Industrialized Developing 3- 2.5- 2- 1.5- 1 - 0.5- Industrialized Africa Latin America Europe Developin North America Asia Oceania 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects 1990 Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects 1991 (United Nations, New York, 1991), pp. 112-115. (United Nations, New York, 1991), pp. 228-231. Note: Excludes U.S.S.R. Figure 6.3 Total Fertility Rates, Figure 6.4 Trends in Contraceptive Use in 1950-85 Developing Regions, 1960-90 (perc ent of married couples (births per woman) usin 3 contraception) 100- — Industrialized Developing — Africa Africa —South Asia - East Asia - - Latin America - - Latin America Asia 8- 80- __-- 6- 60- / 4 - 40- / 2 - 20- o- 1950 1960 1970 1980 1960 1970 1980 1990 Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects 1990 Source: Thomas Merrick, U.S. Population Assistance: A Continued Priority for (United Nations, New York, 1991), pp. 176-193. the 1990s? (Population Reference Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 17. Notes: South Asia includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. East Asia includes China, Hong population programs, the world already has 400 mil- Kong, Korea (Dem. and Rep.), Macao, and Mongolia. lion fewer people than it otherwise would, according to one study, and will have 4 billion fewer people dur- however, in many African countries (5). (See Figure ing the next century than it would have had without 6.4.) such programs (4). Investments in the welfare of women can have a Increased access to effective contraception has been striking impact on population and health trends. In an important factor in fertility declines in developing Thailand, female literacy has reached 90 percent, while countries, most notably in Asia and Latin America. In the fertility rate has declined significantly, and the pop- China, an estimated 71 percent of married women are ulation growth rate has dropped to 1.5 percent a year. using contraception, a figure that matches the rate in (See Chapter 16, "Population and Human Develop- Europe and is far higher than the estimated 44 percent ment," Tables 16.1 and 16.5.) Investments in family rate in the rest of the developing world. Contraception planning and health services also can greatly benefit also is now widely used among married women in rap- women: in Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, Botswana, and else- idly industrializing countries such as Thailand (68 per- where, government efforts to encourage participatory, cent), Republic of Korea (77 percent), Taiwan (78 per- community-based health programs have helped to re- cent), and Brazil (66 percent). It is still rarely used, duce maternal mortality substantially (6). World Resources 1992-93 77 6 Population and Human Development Table 6.2 Mortality of Children Under Age 5 by Table 6,.3 Infant Mortality by Region, Region, 1965-90 1965-90 Percent Percent Change Change from from 1965-70 1965-70 Under 5 Mortality Rate {a} to Infant Mortality Rate {a} to Region 1965-70 1970-75 1975-80 1980-85 1985-90 1985-90 Region 1965-70 1970-75 1975-80 1980-85 1985-90 1985-90 World Total 161 144 131 118 105 -35 World Total 102 93 86 79 70 -31 Industrialized Industrialized countries 32 26 24 19 17 -47 countries 26 22 19 16 15 -42 Developing Developing countries 184 164 149 134 119 -35 countries 116 105 97 89 78 -33 Africa 261 233 203 182 163 -38 Africa 149 137 126 116 103 -31 North America 26 21 17 13 11 -58 North America 22 18 14 11 10 -55 Latin America 131 115 99 88 78 -40 Latin America 91 81 70 61 54 -41 Asia 171 151 139 124 108 -37 Asia 110 99 91 83 72 -35 Europe 35 28 22 17 15 -57 Europe 30 24 19 15 13 -57 Oceania 67 52 47 40 33 -51 Oceania 48 41 35 30 26 -46 U.S.S.R. 36 34 37 31 27 -25 U.S.S.R. 26 26 28 26 24 -8 Source: United Nations (U.N.), Mortality of Children Under Age 5: World Source: United Nations Population Division, World Population Prospects 1990 Estimates and Projections 1950-2025 (U.N., New York, 1988), pp. 30-35. on Diskette (United Nations, New York, 1991). Note: a: Under-five mortality rate is defined as the annual number of deaths of Note: a: Infant mortality rate is defined as the annual number of deaths of children under five years of age per 1,000 live births. Mortality rates are the infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births. Mortality rates are the annual average for each five-year period shown. annual average for each five-year period shown. Some governments have begun to recognize that Acute pesticide poisonings are a major health prob- men are an important audience for family planning in- lem in developing countries. The World Health Orga- formation and education. The Republic of Korea began nization (WHO) estimates that worldwide each year to focus on men in the 1970s, and the number of men there are more than 1 million accidental acute pesti- taking responsibility for family planning has risen dra- cide poisonings and more than 20,000 accidental matically since then (7). deaths. An additional 2 million cases and 200,000 deaths are thought to be suicides rather than accidents (10). HEALTH TRENDS The broadest measures of human health—life expec- Major Causes of Death and Disease tancy at birth and mortality among children under age 5 and among infants under age 1, for example—show On a global level, about 48 million people died annu- improvement in all developing regions (although not ally during the mid 1980s, including about 11 million all countries) over the past few decades. Reductions in in the industrial world and about 37 million in the de- under-five and infant mortality have been impressive veloping world. Three fourths of all deaths in the in- in all regions; both have dropped by about one third in dustrial world were caused by diseases of the circula- developing countries as a whole. (See Tables 6.2 and tory system (54 percent) and cancer (21 percent) (11) (12). 6.3.) Statistics on causes of death in developing countries In absolute terms, nevertheless, stark contrasts re- are often unavailable or unreliable. Using available main in the health prospects of people living in the data and indirect methods, WHO has estimated that of world's poorest and richest nations. In Africa, mortal- the nearly 37 million people (23.3 million adults and ity of children under 5 is now roughly 147 per 1,000 13.5 million children) who died in developing coun- live births, which is nearly 15 times higher than the tries in 1985,44 percent (16 million) died of infectious rate in the United States and Canada (8). and parasitic diseases (13). (See Table 6.4.) Environmental pollutants pose hazards to human health. Human exposure to chemical contaminants in food, indoor air pollutants, hazardous wastes, and ion- izing radiation all have significant health effects Deaths of Children throughout the world. Moreover, in the developing world, malnutrition, inadequate water supplies and Of those who died annually in developing countries sanitation, poor hygienic practices, and overcrowded around 1985, almost 37 percent (13.5 million) were chil- living conditions all contribute to the incidence of diar- dren under age 5 compared to about 3 percent in in- rheal and infectious diseases. dustrialized countries (14) (15). For 1990, WHO esti- Chemical, industrial, and nuclear accidents pose po- mated that about 12.9 million children were dying an- tentially serious health hazards. The most tragic recent nually in developing countries. Infectious and para- examples have been the chemical accident at Bhopal, sitic diseases in 1990 killed about 9.8 million children India, and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in the So- before their fifth birthday. The most common causes of viet Union. Overall, it is estimated that more than 200 death in developing countries are respiratory infec- serious chemical accidents occur annually in the indus- tions, neonatal and perinatal complications, and diar- trialized countries alone (9). rhea (16). World Resources 1992-93 78 Population and Human Development 6 Cancer and AIDS Table 6.4 Estimated Causes of Death in There has been less progress, and occasionally regres- Industrialized and Developing Countries for sion, in the fight against some diseases. For example, Adults and Children over Age 5, mid-1980s cancer, which causes more than 20 percent of the (in thousands) deaths in industrialized countries, is increasing primar- ily because of an increase in the average age of the pop- Number of Deaths ulation, improved control of other health problems, Cause of Death Industrialized Developing and increased use of tobacco (17). Infectious and Parasitic Diseases 506 6,500 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), first Diarrheal diseases X 1,000 Tuberculosis 40 2,700 recognized in 1981, has rapidly become a major global Acute respiratory diseases 368 2,000 health problem. AIDS is caused by the human im- Malaria X 250 Schistosomiasis X 200 munodeficiency virus (HIV). Some 15-20 percent of all Chronic Obstructive Lung Diseases 385 2,300 those infected are expected to develop AIDS within 5 years; within 10 years, about 50 percent of those in- Circulatory and Other Degenerative Diseases 5,930 6,500 (heart disease, cerebrovascular fected will develop the disease. By early 1990, an esti- disease, diabetes) Cancer 2,293 2,500 mated 5-10 million people were infected with HIV worldwide—about half in sub-Saharan Africa and half Other 1,931 5,500 in Europe and North America—and about 600,000 clin- All Causes 11,045 23,300 ical cases of AIDS had occurred in adults. The number Source: Alan D. Lopez, "Causes of Death: An Assessment of Global Patterns of cases was expected to reach 1 million by the end of of Mortality Around 1985," World Health Statistics Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 2 (1990), pp. 93, 98. 1991 and several million by the end of the century (18). Note: The total for industrialized countries includes 355,000 infant-and-child deaths below age 5 (3.2 percent of the total), 275,000 of which occurred Vector-Borne Diseases among infants. Most of these infant deaths were due to various perinatal and congenital conditions. Many vector-borne diseases—those carried by other or- X = not available. ganisms—are pervasive problems in some regions of the developing world. The most serious diseases in- million people are infected; about 85-90 million people clude malaria, schistosomiasis, and other diseases such are at risk (25). Distribution of the drug ivermectin may as lymphatic filariasis, and onchocerciasis. be a breakthrough in the fight against this disease (26). • Malaria occurs in some 100 countries or areas; clinical cases are estimated at 107 million a year and deaths at Key Issues about 1 million a year, with about three quarters of all deaths occurring among children under 5. Data on the number of malaria cases and malaria mortality are HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: A NEW MEASURE OF sketchy; there appears to be an upward trend in the GROWTH number of cases in the Americas and some Asian coun- The United Nations Development Programme tries (19). WHO estimated that malaria claimed 800,000 embarked in 1990 on a new effort to measure human children in 1990, up about 7 percent from its 750,000 development that emphasizes progress in human estimate for 1985 (20). The increase is partially due to health and literacy. The centerpiece of the Human De- the growing resistance of malaria-carrying mosquitos velopment Report 1990 and Human Development Report to insecticides and of the Plasmodium parasites to anti- 1991 is the human development index, which ranks malarial drugs (21). countries using a combination of three indicators—life • Schistosomiasis is caused by schistosome parasites, expectancy, literacy, and living standards as measured which multiply in snails and are disseminated into by gross domestic product per capita. The report as- freshwater and thence into humans, where they cause serts that while economic growth is a critical compo- hemorrhaging and tissue damage in the bladder and nent of human development, it does not capture the intestine. The disease is endemic in 76 countries. broader picture of human welfare. Programs that trans- About 200,000 people die of schistosomiasis each year; late economic growth into education and health care about 200 million are infected; and about 600 million are essential to produce a better life for a nation's peo- are at risk (22). ple (27). • Filariasis is a group of disorders caused by infection The 1991 report adjusted the index slightly by broad- from a filarial worm transmitted by bloodsucking flies. ening the literacy factor to include mean years of The infection leads to inflammation of the lymph sys- schooling (28). In addition, separate indexes were pre- tem. The disease affects 76 countries. About 90 million pared for: people are infected; about 900 million people are at • Women and men for 30 countries, indicating that, in risk (23). areas such as life expectancy, adult literacy, wage • Onchocerciasis—also known as river blindness—is rates, and mean years of schooling, there are wide gen- caused by infection by the filarial worm Onchocerca vol- der disparities in many developing countries. vulus. Symptoms include dermatitis and eye lesions • Income distribution in 53 countries, indicating that in that can lead to blindness (24). The disease is endemic several countries—Nepal, Brazil, and Cote D'lvoire, in 26 countries in Africa, 2 in the eastern Mediterra- for example—uneven income distribution has ad- nean, and 6 in Latin America. An estimated 17.6-17.8 versely affected overall human welfare. World Resources 1992-93 79 6 Population and Human Development Recent Developments NEW LONG-RANGE POPULATION shortly after 2200. There would be an 89 ures for the highest and lowest projected PROJECTIONS percent increase between the years 1990 outcomes. In 1982, the outcomes ranged be- and 2050, with an additional 12 percent be- tween 7 billion and 15 billion in the year In late 1991, the United Nations was ex- tween 2050 and 2100 and 3 percent be- 2100; the new projections range from 6 bil- pected to release new long-range popula- tween 2100 and 2150. lion to 19 billion for the same year. tion projections with a 10 percent higher However, global population could vary The age structure of the population is mid-range scenario for global population. greatly depending on fertility rates. Under projected to change dramatically. The The new estimates vividly demonstrate the a medium-high rate, with fertility stabiliz- share of the population aged 65 and over, crucial role of fertility rates in estimating ing at 2.17 children (5 percent higher than which now stands at 6 percent, would rise the ultimate size of the world's population. replacement level), world population to about 24 percent in 2150. The share of Revised for the first time since 1982, the would be nearly 21 billion by 2150. At a those aged 15 or under, now 32 percent, new long-range projections make a num- higher fertility stabilization rate (2.5 chil- would drop to 18 percent by 2150. (See Fig- ber of changes in assumptions. For exam- dren), world population would reach 28 ure 2.) The percentage of those aged 80 or ple, the upper limit for life expectancy at billion in 2150. If fertility stabilized at 5 per- over, now 1 percent of the total, would in- birth was raised to 82.5 years for men (up cent below the replacement level, popula- crease to 9 percent (l). from 73.5 years) and 87.5 years for women tion would peak at 7.8 billion in 2050 and (up from 80 years). The forecast also made then fall to 5.6 billion by the middle of the some changes in assumptions about popu- following century. Under an even lower References and Notes lation size in 2025, the "take-off" point for fertility assumption (1.7 children), world the projections, and about the pace of fertil- population would peak at 7.8 billion in United Nations Population Division, Long- ity change after 2025. 2050 but then fall to 4.3 billion 100 years Range World Population Projections: Two Cen- later. (See Figure 1.) turies of Population Growth, 1950-2150 Under the medium fertility projection, (United Nations, New York, forthcoming), which assumes fertility ultimately will sta- The U.N. medium-fertility projected pop- executive summary. bilize at a replacement level of about 2.06, ulation of 11.2 billion is 1 billion (10 per- global population will reach 10 billion in cent) higher than that calculated by the 2050,11.2 billion in 2100,11.5 billion in U.N. in 1982. The new projections also 2150 and ultimately stabilize at 11.6 billion have a much wider range than the 1982 fig- Figure 1 Projected Population of the World, Figure 2 Changing Age Structure of World 1990-2150 Population, 1990-2150 (billions) (percent) 30- 35- High -Medium-high Medium Medium-low Under age 15 Aged 65 or older 1990 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 2125 2150 1990 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 2125 2150 Source: United Nations Population Division, Long-Range World Population Source: United Nations Population Division, Long-Range World Population Projections: Two Centuries of Population Growth, 1950-2150 (United Projections: Two Centuries of Population Growth, 1950-2150 (United Nations, New York, forthcoming), executive summary. Nations, New York, forthcoming), executive summary. Note: Based on medium fertility projection in Figure 1. • Human freedom in 88 countries, showing that high • The most effective means of sustained human develop- levels of human development tend to be achieved ment is growth accompanied by an equitable distribu- within the framework of high levels of human free- tion of income (as occurred in the Republic of Korea). dom (29). • Even in the absence of rapid growth or equitable in- The index reveals that some countries—Sri Lanka, come distribution, countries can make significant im- Chile, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Tanzania, and Thailand, provements in human development through well- among others—seem to have been far more successful structured social spending (Botswana, Malaysia, and than others in translating economic progress into Sri Lanka). broad welfare gains for their people. • Well-structured government social spending can gen- In assessing the various country cases, the 1990 re- erate dramatic improvements in a relatively short pe- port came to several conclusions: riod, not only for countries starting from a low level of World Resources 1992-93 80 Population and Human Development 6 human development but also for those starting at a The outbreak in Peru is a side effect of the rapid ur- moderate level (Chile and Costa Rica). banization of the country together with a proliferation • Setbacks in economic growth can seriously disrupt of crowded urban slums that lack adequate safe water human development (Chile, Colombia, Jamaica, and sanitation facilities. People living in these slums Kenya, and Zimbabwe). typically are poorly educated and poorly nourished, • Targeted government interventions can help maintain with little access to medical and health services. Chol- human development during recessions and natural di- era is treatable with oral rehydration salts, but the ulti- sasters (Chile, Zimbabwe, and Botswana). mate solution in countries such as Peru requires im- • In countries experiencing economic growth, human de- provements in water and sanitation, health and educa- velopment may not improve if income distribution is tion, and food safety (39). uneven and social expenditures are low (Nigeria and Pakistan) or most of the wealth is appropriated by those who are better off (Brazil) (30). FOCUS ON CHILDREN'S HEALTH The 1991 report suggests ways to improve human development efficiently. In health care, for example, The 1.7 billion children under age 15 who inhabit the governments could make large savings by using the earth today represent one third (32 percent) of the least expensive treatments rather than high-tech alter- planet's population; 82 percent of these children (1.4 natives, buying generic rather than brand-name drugs billion) live in the developing world. Moreover, dur- and purchasing them through competitive bidding, im- ing the 1990s, the largest generation ever will be born, proving the storage and distribution of drugs, and em- with nearly 90 percent of the expected 1.5 billion births ploying health-care personnel with fewer formal to occur in developing countries (40). These are the qualifications (31). same countries in which large numbers of children still die needlessly from malnutrition and disease caused by inadequate drinking water, poor sanitation, and CHOLERA EPIDEMICS IN LATIN AMERICA AND other environmental ills. Nearly all deaths of children AFRICA under age 5 (97 percent) and maternal deaths (99 per- The threat to human health posed by environmental cent) are in developing countries (41) (42) (43). deterioration was dramatically evident in early 1991, The environmental conditions in which these chil- when, for the first time in this century, a cholera epi- dren live pose a serious threat to their current health demic struck six countries in Latin America. Several and future prospects (44) (45). As the most fragile mem- African countries were also plagued with this disease. bers of society, they are most vulnerable to disease and As of late September 1991, the World Health Organiza- environmental stress; their long-term well-being de- tion had received reports of 300,000 cases of cholera pends on the sustained ability of the Earth's resources and 3,200 deaths, primarily in Peru and to a lesser ex- to support this still expanding population. tent in Ecuador, Colombia, Mexico, Guatemala, and At a rhetorical level, recognition is growing that soci- Brazil (32). Worldwide, the number of new cases of eties have responsibilities not only to their current citi- cholera (177,000) in the first four months of 1991 zens, but to future ones as well. At the World Summit nearly equaled the total for all of 1971, when a cholera for Children, held at the United Nations in September pandemic was at its peak in Africa and Asia (33). By 1990, leaders from 71 countries committed themselves late 1991, the epidemic in Latin America appeared to to "promoting the survival, protection, and develop- be stabilizing. However, the arrival of warmer weather ment of the present generation of children and all gen- could cause a resurgence in affected countries as well erations to come" (46). For those concerned about as the spread to countries previously unaffected (34). In sustainable development, the concept of "inter- Africa, the disease continued to sweep through The generational equity" suggests that the welfare of fu- Gambia, Nigeria, Ghana, and other West African coun- ture generations—including the children already tries, with more than 45,000 cases and nearly 3,500 born—should be an implicit consideration in today's deaths reported (35). decisionmaking (47). Despite the rhetoric, however, the Cholera is an acute intestinal infection caused by Vib- economic, social, and environmental conditions in rio choleme bacterium. The first cases in Latin America which many children live put them at serious risk for were reported in Peru in January 1991, appearing al- ill health, malnutrition, life-long disability (both physi- most simultaneously in communities along a 1,200 ki- cal and mental), and early death. lometer length of coastline (36). The bacterium res- Progress has been made. Worldwide, the annual ponsible for the world's outbreak was of the same bio- number of deaths of children under 5 declined by 4.7 type (El Tor) that started the seventh pandemic in million between 1965-70 and 1985-90. Developing 1961, spreading through Asia and the Middle East in countries have improved their children's health consid- the 1960s and invading West Africa in 1970 (37). erably. Between 1965-70 and 1985-90, the infant mor- Cholera is transmitted primarily through contami- tality rate declined by 33 percent in developing nated water and food, especially raw vegetables and countries, from 116 per 1,000 live births to 78. (See seafood. It can spread rapidly, especially in overpopu- Table 6.3.) The mortality rate of children under 5 years lated communities with poor sanitation and unsafe of age shows a similar trend: a 35 percent reduction, drinking water. Children are particularly susceptible from 184 to 119 deaths per 1,000. Under-five mortality to the disease (38). in industrialized countries during this time period World Resources 1992-93 81 6 Population and Human Development Figure 6.5 Estimated Causes of Death not. In Guatemala, the mortality rate among infants Among Children Under Age 5 in Developing due to influenza and pneumonia is estimated to be Countries, 1985 and 1990 1,000 per 100,000 live births; this is 8 times higher than Argentina (120 per 100,000), 10 times higher than Cuba (97 per 100,000), and 125 times higher than Canada (8 (millions) per 100,000) (53). 1985 1990 One important contributing cause to acute respira- tory infections (as well as to other diseases) in children are the particulates released when wood and animal dung are used to fuel traditional stoves. (See Chapter 13, "Atmosphere and Climate.") WHO estimates that 400-500 million people (including many women and young children) are affected worldwide, with rural homes having levels of particulate pollution ranging from 300 to 14,000 micrograms per cubic meter. The WHO maximum recommended level is 100-150 micro- grams (54). Bacterial pneumonia occurs far more frequently in developing countries than viral pneumonia (represent- Respiratory Neonatal and Diarrhea infections perinatal ing two thirds to three quarters of pneumonia cases), Source: Division of Epidemiological Surveillance and Health Situation and making oral antibiotics the treatment of choice (55). Be- Trend Assessment, World Health Organization (WHO), Global Estimates for cause their administration has been considered the pre- Health Situation Assessment and Projections 1992 (WHO, Geneva, forth- serve of medical doctors, antibiotics have been diffi- coming). Notes: cult to dispense widely in developing countries. But as a. WHO attributes 400 million deaths in 1985 and 180 million deaths in 1990 to a combination of diarrhea and measles. Totals for diarrhea and measles a result of a series of pilot studies, WHO estimates that both include deaths from combined diarrhea/measles. deaths from acute respiratory infections can be re- b. Perinatal deaths refer to deaths from four weeks before delivery up to one month after birth; neonatal deaths refer to deaths after birth up to one month duced by at least 30 percent if community health work- of age. ers are trained in a standard protocol that involves dispensing antibiotics when certain clear indicators are dropped 47 percent, but the number of deaths per present (56) (57) (58). There already is some evidence of 1,000 was already far lower, dropping from 32 to 17. improvement; WHO estimated that respiratory infec- (See Table 6.2.) In the developing world, 37 percent of tions claimed 4.3 million children in 1990, down about total deaths are children under 7; in the developed, 3 10 percent from the 1985 estimate of 4.8 million (59). percent (48) (49). A baby born in a developing country today is seven times more likely to die before its first Diarrhea birthday than one born in the industrialized countries. Among developing countries, disparities in child mor- In almost every developing country, diarrhea and res- tality have widened; in the early 1960s, the differences piratory infection are the first and second most com- between the best and worst rates were 7 to 1; by the mon causes of illness and death among children under early 1980s, they had increased to 15 to 1 (50). Unfortu- 5 years old (60). Diarrheal disease causes about 3.2 mil- nately, recent reports show that progress in children's lion child deaths annually (61). In some countries, chil- health has slipped in the United States. (See Box 6.1.) dren suffer an average of eight or nine diarrheal episodes a year (compared with a global average of three per child per year) (62). As much as 13 percent of MAJOR CAUSES OF DEATH IN CHILDREN a child's life may be spent ill with diarrhea. Repeated In the developing world, 12.9 million children under and prolonged bouts contribute to undernourishment, age 5—more than 35,000 a day—died in 1990 of dis- which in turn increases the severity and duration of fu- eases, most of which were once as common in devel- ture diarrheal episodes (63). oped countries (51). In other words, these children are The most serious aspect of diarrhea is the dehydra- dying of diseases for which effective means of preven- tion that usually accompanies it—a condition that can tion, as well as effective treatments, are available. (See be prevented if parents and health care workers have Figure 6.5.) access to, and know how to use, oral rehydration ther- apy (64). In this simple technique, vital fluids and ions Acute Respiratory Infection lost during diarrheal episodes are restored through the Respiratory infections are responsible for some 4.3 mil- administration of either a prepared packet of oral rehy- lion childhood deaths annually. About 17 percent of dration salts (ORS) or a home-prepared solution. Oral these deaths are a consequence of pertussis (whooping rehydration has been called one of the most important cough) and measles and are thus preventable through medical breakthroughs of the century in terms of num- immunization; the vast majority—roughly 75 per- bers of lives affected, providing a less expensive and cent—are caused by pneumonia (52). more accessible means of treatment than intravenous In the developed world, most children recover from rehydration (65). Promoted by WHO since 1978, oral re- pneumonia; in developing countries, they often do hydration is now theoretically accessible to about 60 World Resources 1992-93 82 Population and Human Development 6 Box 6.1 The Troubled State of U.S. Children's Health Despite its enormous wealth, the United While developing countries have made mature birth, or infection. Increasingly States still contains a large and apparently spectacular progress in immunizing chil- common conditions include respiratory growing number of children living in pov- dren against six major childhood diseases, diseases, mental and nervous disorders (at erty and poor health. While dramatic prog- with average immunization levels improv- least 10 percent of children suffer from seri- ress was made in the 1960s in reducing ing from 15 percent to about 80 percent, ous mental health disorders, including au- child poverty, progress halted in the 1970s, this has not happened in the United States. tism and depression), and orthopedic and and child poverty rates increased in the In 1990, only about 70 percent of U.S. chil- sensory impairments. An estimated 12 mil- 1980s d). The U.S. Census Bureau an- dren were immunized against measles, lion American children, mostly poor chil- nounced in late 1991 that 20.6 percent of mumps, and rubella; in many inner cities dren, are at risk of lead poisoning (5). U.S. children were living in poverty in only about one half of young children 1990, up from 19.6 percent the previous were protected. In 1990, more than 26,000 year. The high percentage of impoverished cases of measles were reported, sharply References and Notes children is driven mainly by the increasing higher than the 3,000-case average in 1. Clifford M. Johnson, Leticia Miranda, Arloc numbers of female-headed households (2). 1981—88; most cases were among children Sherman, et al.. Child Poverty in America Poverty and illness are particularly se- in poor, inner-city families. Cases of ru- (Children's Defense Fund, Washington, vere problems for black children in the bella and whooping cough also have in- D.C., 1991), pp. 1, 4. United States. The U.S. infant mortality creased. Immunization rates for diseases 2. Jason DeParle, "Poverty Rate Rose Sharply rate is higher than those of 21 other indus- such as whooping cough are unknown be- Last Year as Incomes Slipped," New York trialized countries; black babies in the U.S. cause the federal government suspended Times (September 27,1991), p. Al. are twice as likely to die as white babies. data collection in 1985 (4). 3. National Comm ission on Child ren, Beyond Since 1980, no progress has been made in Rhetoric: A New American Agenda for Chil- At least 10 to 15 percent of children in dren and Families (Government Printing Of- reducing the incidence of low birthweight the United States suffer from chronic or fice, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 119. babies; for blacks, the rate has actually in- disabling conditions such as genetic or met- 4. Ibid., pp. 119-121. creased (3). abolic disorders, birth defects, trauma, pre- 5. Ibid., p . 121. percent of the children in developing countries, but is children against six major childhood diseases—mea- actually used to treat about 30 percent of the children sles, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, and tubercu- who contract diarrhea. According to UNICEF, this losis. This commitment has produced one of the most treatment saves an estimated 1 million young lives a spectacular public health successes of the past decade. year (66) (67). Today, average immunization levels of children in de- Because it is important for children to continue to re- veloping countries are at least 80 percent for all vac- ceive nutrients during diarrheal episodes, oral rehydra- cine-preventable diseases except measles (78 percent) tion therapy is increasingly considered to involve both and neonatal tetanus (which requires the immuniza- the administration of fluids and continued feeding. On- tion of women, only 38 percent of whom were im- going research suggests that cereal-based oral rehydra- munized by 1990) (72). The United Nations Children's tion therapy, although still somewhat controversial, Fund (UNICEF) estimates that these successes are pre- may have the potential to be more effective than the venting at least 2.5 million child deaths each year. All standard ORS solution, which prevents dehydration, told, more than 12 million lives have been saved and but does not actually prevent diarrhea nor reduce its more than 1.5 million cases of polio prevented (73). duration or amount. Cereal-based therapy can reduce Despite this progress, more than 2.1 million children fluid losses by 30-50 percent as well as shorten the du- died of vaccine-preventable diseases in 1990 (74). Ex- ration of diarrheal episodes (68). panding immunization coverage further will be more Even more important than treatment of diarrhea, difficult, because those not yet reached tend to be from however, is its prevention. Most diarrhea is caused by the poorest families, among whom disease and malnu- bacterial, viral, and parasitic infestations transmitted trition are both more common and more likely to be through water, food, and contact with fecal matter. fatal. The international community has committed it- Preventing diarrhea requires better sanitation and self to achieving 90 percent coverage by the year 2000, more abundant, cleaner water supplies, as well as with a particular emphasis on reducing measles deaths health education aimed at promoting breastfeeding, by 95 percent and on eliminating tetanus and polio en- immunization, improved personal hygiene and food tirely (75). handling practices, and the penning of farm animals Measles and neonatal tetanus are the biggest killers such as chickens and cattle (69) (70). Exclusive breast- among vaccine-preventable diseases and also those for feeding in the first six months of a child's life, for ex- which immunization lags furthest behind. Measles ac- ample, can dramatically reduce the incidence of counts for some 900,000 deaths a year (76); it also diarrhea; the addition of even water or tea to the in- causes malnutrition, further illness, and loss of vita- fant's diet has been found to double or sometimes tri- min A. The incidence of illness and death in the period ple the likelihood of diarrhea (71). after a measles outbreak can be 10 times greater among children who had the disease than among Vaccine-Preventable Diseases those who did not (77). Immunization against measles At the end of the 1970s, the international community can have a significant effect on child mortality, helping made a major commitment to immunizing the world's to reduce deaths from all causes. In Bangladesh, for ex- World Resources 1992-93 83 6 Population and Human Development ample, children who were vaccinated against measles locally and regionally specific. Simple administration experienced at least 40 percent lower mortality than of even a very effective drug such as chloroquinine is those who were not (78). not enough to combat the disease; when used in the ab- Neonatal tetanus could be eliminated if all pregnant sence of an effective primary health care system, women were immunized and delivered their babies chloroquinine has in fact contributed to the resurgence under hygienic conditions. Tetanus currently kills of malaria by increasing parasite resistance. (See World some 560,000 newborns each year and an estimated Resources 1990-91, p. 58.) Nevertheless, when used in 15,000-30,000 mothers; it is an excellent barometer of combination with strategies appropriate to local condi- the health status and well-being of mothers and new- tions, the drug can still provide a clinical cure in large borns (79) (80) (81). areas of the world (89). The eradication of smallpox through immunization A ministerial level meeting to review the global ma- in the 1970s provides a telling example of both the pos- laria situation and develop new strategies is scheduled sibility and the cost-effectiveness of such efforts—ap- for October 1992 in Amsterdam. Organized by the proximately $1 billion a year is saved in vaccine and World Health Organization, the meeting is to be pre- surveillance costs (82). Another success story is the ceded by a series of regional meetings in Africa, Asia, near-total eradication of polio from the Americas. In and Latin America. 1985, bilateral, multilateral, and private voluntary agencies joined with the Pan American Health Organi- Malnutrition zation in an intensive campaign to rid the hemisphere of polio. The campaign involved high immunization Although data are incomplete, a 1990 UNICEF survey levels, enhanced surveillance to document and investi- suggests that more than one third of the developing gate each case, and measures to stop transmission world's children under 5 years of age (excluding whenever a new case occurred. In 1990, there were 18 China) are malnourished (90). Of these 150 million chil- new cases, compared with 1,050 in 1986; as of July 1991, dren, at least one in six—25 million—is severely mal- there were only 3 confirmed cases for the year. Com- nourished. Most of the world's malnourished children plete eradication is anticipated in the near future (83). reside in Asia—60 percent (91) excluding China, 80 per- cent including China (92). In sub-Saharan Africa, the in- cidence of malnutrition appears to be increasing (93). Malaria How frequently malnutrition is an immediate cause Approximately 40 percent of the world's population is of death is unknown (94). UNICEF, however, estimates at risk of malaria, which occurs in more than 100 coun- that it is a contributing cause in approximately one tries (84). It is most endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, third of child deaths (95). In Latin America, malnutri- where often more than 50 percent of the population in tion was found to be the underlying or related cause in rural areas is infected (85). Because of widespread un- more than half of all childhood deaths (96). derreporting, the exact number of deaths due to ma- Malnutrition shows up quickly in young children, laria is unknown but is estimated to be about 1 million acting as an early warning sign of distress, ill health, annually (86), mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and most- and famine. The appearance of malnutrition in young ly in the younger age groups (an estimated 800,000 children is believed to reflect the health and nutri- children under 5 die from malaria each year) (87). tional situation of all members of the population (97). Those children who survive may acquire immunity Malnutrition can lower a child's immunity, making against the most severe manifestations of the infection, the child more susceptible to diseases such as diarrhea, but often the remnants of the disease adversely affect measles, and respiratory infections. These in turn re- their growth, physical fitness, and educational achieve- duce appetite, cause nutrient loss, inhibit absorption, ment (88). and alter the body's metabolism, thereby resulting in Environmental conditions contributing to the spread inadequate dietary intake and further malnutrition. of malaria include stagnant waters around homes and This vicious cycle of malnutrition and infection has construction sites; irrigation projects; industrial, hydro- been termed the "most prevalent public health prob- electric projects requiring impoundment of water; lem in the world today" (98). changes in ecosystems caused by widespread defores- Often the cycle begins even earlier when malnour- tation, soil erosion, and flooding; overcrowding and ished women give birth to babies with low birth unsanitary living conditions. Overuse of pesticides in- weight (2,500 grams or less). Some 350 million women creases the mosquito's resistance and further aggra- are estimated to have nutritional anemia (99). These vates the problem. women are more likely to die in childbirth as well as to Combatting the disease requires controlling the mos- have babies too small to thrive. Between 12 and 15 per- quito population through appropriate use of chemical cent of all babies in developing countries are born with or biological means, preventing mortality through case low birth weight and these babies account for 30^10 management, and implementing a range of environ- percent of all infant deaths (100). Low birth weight ba- mental management techniques depending on the pre- bies are seven times more likely than other babies to dominant vector species. Malaria is transmitted die of respiratory infections and three times more through a complex of technical, political, social, cul- likely to die of diarrhea (101). In the 1980s, nearly 1 of tural, environmental, and economic factors; to be suc- every 10 babies in Latin America had low birth weight cessful, measures to reduce malaria mortality must be which was a factor in 78 percent of early neonatal World Resources 1992-93 84 Population and Human Development 6 deaths (i.e., those deaths that occur in the first week of iodized salt or administering iodine in oil either orally life) (102). Measures to reduce low birth weight—such or through injection can remedy the deficiency (116). as improved nutritional health for women and girls, more food and rest during pregnancy, and increased spacing between births—could significantly reduce in- IMPROVING CHILDREN'S HEALTH fant deaths. The international community has committed itself to There is no direct measure of a population's general halving the incidence of severe and moderate malnutri- health, well-being, and productive potential. Although tion among children by the year 2000. If that target is mortality figures measure only the extreme outcome to be met, parents and community health workers of ill-health—death—they also indicate the extent of must be given basic nutrition information and trained health problems in a population. Obviously, wide- to monitor children's growth. For example, exclusive spread health problems can affect a country's produc- breastfeeding for the first few months of life can im- tivity and development potential. prove child health significantly. As noted above, it re- Both infant and under-five mortality rates are consid- duces diarrheal morbidity and provides newborns ered to reflect levels of nutrition (especially among with the best possible nourishment as well as antibod- pregnant women, infants, and children), education (es- ies against common infections. UNICEF estimates pecially female literacy) (117), general socioeconomic breastfeeding could save 1.5 million lives a year. Be- status, and access to health services (118). Of the two cause breastfeeding acts as a natural contraceptive by measures, the under-five mortality rate is considered a inhibiting ovulation, it lowers fertility rates and helps better technical indicator, both because data collection lengthen birth spacing, thus improving the health of is better and because it is one of the few social indica- both mother and child (103). tors for which long-run time series are available. Two other widespread nutritional problems-vita- Reducing child mortality is possible at various levels min A and iodine deficiency—require attention. Some of national income. It can be achieved through broad 40 million children under 5 suffer from vitamin A defi- social and economic development or through direct ciency (104). Every year, 250,000 children are perma- targeted interventions—interventions that for a num- nently blinded by the disease and another 250,000 ber of reasons are also direct investments in sustain- have their eyesight partially impaired. At least 100,000 able development. of these die within a few weeks of contracting the dis- First, as previously discussed, over the long run, re- ease (105). In addition, lack of vitamin A has been asso- ducing child deaths slows down the rate of population ciated with other diseases, including diarrhea and growth. In most countries, this change from high mor- respiratory infection (106) (107). Vitamin A supplementa- tality-high fertility to low mortality-low fertility is not tion has been found to reduce measles-associated mor- evident until under-five mortality rates fall to 150—or tality by up to 50 percent (108) (109). even 100—deaths per 1,000 live births. From initial Improvements in vitamin A status, either through child mortality rates of 300 or more, many countries supplementation or dietary changes, are expected to now have reached this critical point where further de- save the sight of 250,000-500,000 children in develop- clines in child mortality can be expected to be accom- ing countries each year, and the lives of 1 million chil- panied by steep declines in fertility. Where strong dren annually (110). In the longer term, adding foods family planning programs exist, the decline in births is rich in vitamin A such as green leafy vegetables and likely to take place even more quickly (119). Figure 6.6 yellow fruits to diets is the best means of overcoming shows a strong association between lower child death vitamin A deficiency (ill). In fact, it has been argued rates and the use of contraceptive measures in 67 coun- that supplementation is a diversion of resources from tries for which data on both indicators are available. the necessary task of improving diets (112). However, Second, the environmental conditions that are both a the mounting evidence on the benefits of adequate vi- symptom and a result of underdevelopment cause tamin A consumption, combined with the difficulties much of the ill health and disease affecting today's in bringing about dietary changes and the seasonal or children. Measures that simultaneously address the re- general lack of foods rich in vitamin A in many areas, lated issues of poverty, ill health, and environmental is providing growing support for vitamin A supple- degradation include providing adequate water sup- mentation for children and mothers to alleviate short- plies, safe sanitation facilities, and small-scale irriga- term or particularly severe deficiencies (113) (114) (115). tion (which can increase household food supply and As a result of iodine deficiency disorder (IDD), 200- income as well as avoid the negative environmental 300 million people are afflicted with goiter, 20 million and health effects of large-scale irrigation). with mental retardation, and at least 6 million with cre- Third, healthy children who grow into healthy tinism. IDD is most prevalent in mountainous regions adults are more likely to make productive contribu- and flood-prone areas; when iodine is washed from tions to their communities and their countries, as well the soil, whole communities may suffer, with children as to pass on positive health practices to the next gener- the most affected. Without iodine, they grow up stunt- ation. Sustainable development depends on a produc- ed, retarded, apathetic, and incapable of normal devel- tive, healthy, educated population. (See Chapter 1, opment, speech, or hearing. Ensuring that diets include "Dimensions of Sustainable Development.") World Resources 1992-93 85 6 Population and Human Development Health and Poverty areas and 27 per 1,000 live births in rural areas (126). Such large gaps can be found even within communi- A society's overall level of income is not necessarily a ties. In Guatemala City, 1976 data showed that the good indicator of its children's life chances as mea- mortality rate for children under age 2 was 113 per sured by infant and child mortality rates. Compare, for 1,000 live births for poor illiterate women, compared example, Sri Lanka and Brazil. At an average annual with 33 per 1,000 live births for middle-class women per capita income of only $430, Sri Lanka has one of with secondary education (127). the lowest child mortality rates of all developing coun- tries (36 per 1,000). Brazil, with an average annual per Water and Sanitation capita income five times higher than Sri Lanka's ($2,550), has a child mortality rate twice as large (77 Universal access to safe drinking water and to sanitary per 1,000). (See Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indica- disposal of excreta are two of the major international tors," Table 15.1, and Chapter 16, "Population and targets for improving the health and well-being of chil- Human Development," Table 16.3.) With an average dren. These goals were set during the International annual per capita income of $182, the state of Kerala in Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade of the India is poorer than India as a whole; yet in 1986, the 1980s and endorsed again at the 1990 World Summit state had an infant mortality rate of 27 per 1,000, while for Children. As of 1990,81 percent of urban areas and India's was 86 per 1,000 (120). 58 percent of rural areas had access to safe water sup- plies; 71 percent of urban areas and 48 percent of rural As the Human Development Report points out, social areas had access to sanitation (128). programs aimed at improving literacy and health care can have a bigger effect on child mortality than simply A 1990 review of 144 community-level studies con- increasing GNP. Figures 6.6 and 6.7 show that child cluded that when water and sanitation are made avail- mortality is inversely correlated with the use of contra- able to people, substantial health impacts can be ception and with female literacy. There is only a small achieved. In particular, the review found that water correlation between GNP and child mortality within and sanitation was associated with a median reduction developing countries (121). However, in the absence of in child mortality of 55 percent. These community concentrated health and education programs, poorer studies also suggest that, particularly for diarrheal dis- children do suffer more health problems than wealth- ease, improvements in excreta disposal and water ier children. In the poorer Northeast of Brazil, for ex- quantity have even greater health impacts than im- ample, the 1986 infant mortality rate of 116 per 1,000 provements in water quality (129). live births is comparable to many African countries The gains to be made from improving water sup- and more than twice that in the rest of Brazil (52 per plies (both quantity and quality) and sanitation are not 1,000) (122). After Sri Lanka changed its food subsidy automatic, however. Simply installing water taps, pit policies in the late 1970s, the infant mortality rate in latrines, hand pumps, and other hardware is not 1980 was twice as high among the poorest agricultural enough; their success depends as well on community workers (100 per 1,000) as it was for the country as a participation and changes in behavior (130). Studies whole (50 per 1,000) (123). have found, for example, that handwashing can re- duce the incidence of diarrheal disease by 14-48 In developed countries as well, it is the poorest seg- percent (131). ments of society whose children suffer most. In the United States, the Department of Health and Human The cumulative effect of reducing a number of water- Services has found that poor children are more likely and sanitation-related diseases may be significantly both to be ill and to have many more risk factors for greater than the measurement of any one disease poor health than children in families with higher in- would indicate; child mortality, for example, may be comes. One quarter of all children under age 6 are reduced more than the incidence of diarrhea (132). members of families living below the government- Moreover, improvements in water and sanitation may defined poverty level. These children are more likely reduce the severity of disease even more than the inci- to suffer from prematurity, low birth weight, birth dence. defects, and infant death. They are twice as likely, There are also indirect benefits that follow initial im- between the ages of 1 and 2, to have iron deficiency provements. Difficult to quantify, these benefits are anemia. They are also at greater risk of growth retarda- nonetheless significant. Well-designed investments in tion and impaired mental and physical development, water and sanitation bring socioeconomic, educa- and they experience more sickness from infectious and tional, and nutritional benefits. Additionally, by reduc- other debilitating conditions. In 1980, U.S. children ing illness they improve productivity and the ability to from families with incomes under $5,000 had slightly learn, which in turn increase general well-being, mak- more than nine disability days, compared with four ing water and sanitation measures even more cost- disability days for children from families with incomes effective (133). of $25,000 or more (124). In the United Kingdom, a child born to professional The Role of Women parents can expect to live more than five years longer An estimated three quarters of all health care takes than a child born to parents who perform unskilled place at home, where women—particularly in their manual labor (125). In the Soviet Union, infant mortal- role as mothers—generally have responsibility for pro- ity rates in 1987 were 19 per 1,000 live births in urban moting their families' health and nutrition (134). Much World Resources 1992-93 86 Population and Human Development 6 Figure 6.6 Under-Five Mortality by Percent of Figure 6.7 Under-Five Mortality by Degree of Parents Using Contraception Adult Female Literacy Under-five Mortality Under-five Mortality (per thousand) (per thousand) • 300- 300- 250- 250- r 200- 200- 150- 150- 100- 100- ' • • " ' . ' " • " •*•" 50- ". • . • . 50- •• • • * • '• 1 - ( 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1t 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent of Parents Using Contraception Percent of Adult Females Who are Literate Source: Chapter 16, "Population and Human Development," Tables 16.3 and Source: Chapter 16, "Population and Human Development," Tables 16.3 and 16.6. 16.6. Note: Based on data reported by 67 developing countries. Each dot repre- Note: Based on data reported by 89 developing countries. Each dot repre- sents data from one country. sents data from one country. has been learned recently about which factors help or sible and the administration of oral rehydration ther- hinder women in improving their children's health. apy easier may be key to their ability to raise healthy Women's education is closely related to child health, children (144). whether health is measured in terms of infant and child mortality or children's nutritional status (135) Health Care (136). Figure 6.7 shows a high correlation between fe- The technologies—such as immunization and oral re- male literacy and child mortality rates. Detailed stud- hydration therapy—that have made a significant differ- ies of 28 countries show a nearly consistent inverse ence in child health depend on a well-informed parent relationship between child mortality and mothers' edu- supported by an accessible health worker. The parent, cation (137). usually the mother, must recognize the initial symp- Women's education can improve children's health toms in time to provide home care or seek outside as- through a variety of mechanisms: increased use of sistance. She must also be able to turn to someone who health services and better knowledge of nutrition; can immunize children, take other steps to prevent ill- more decisionmaking power within the family and the ness, and treat children who do fall ill. This person community; and greater earning power. Women with need not be an expensively educated physician; a well- higher levels of education are more likely to plan their trained health worker, preferably one with roots in the families and thus to increase birth spacing, reducing a community and opportunities for both further educa- major mortality risk factor (138). tion and support, can handle most situations. Access Increased education of mothers often is associated to such community health workers is essential if the with higher education levels of fathers, higher levels of opportunities for significantly reducing child deaths household income, the availability of water and sanita- are to be realized. tion, and the availability of other health inputs—all fac- Almost three quarters of the health expenditures of tors that also tend to be associated with improved developing countries are devoted to urban hospitals child health. The net effect of either mother's or that provide expensive, Western-style curative care to father's education on health is difficult to determine a minority of the population. UNICEF estimates that precisely (139) (140). Education of a mother is estimated reducing this amount to 45 or 50 percent of total gov- to be twice as effective as education of a father in low- ernment expenditures on health would release enough ering infant and child mortality (141). It is not necessar- funds to train the 1 million health workers needed to ily the content of the education that makes a difference provide health services to the poorest 1 billion people in children's health but the mother's increased access in the developing world (145). to information, including health information (142). Lack of education is not the only problem constrain- ing mothers from protecting their children's health. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION Poor rural women in developing countries often work Although most environmental causes of poor health in 60 to 90 hours per week gathering wood, collecting developing-country children are related to poverty water, growing and cooking food, contributing to the and a lack of modern development—lack of water and family income, and caring for their children (143). For sanitation, poor housing, indoor air pollution resulting these women, steps to make immunization more acces- from the burning of wood and dung—some parts of World Resources 1992-93 87 6 Population and Human Development the developing world face health hazards from indus- and the incidence of respiratory and pulmonary dis- trial pollutants and urban development. Aggregate eases in children, who inhale about twice as many pol- data are scarce, but evidence is mounting that industri- lutants per unit of body weight as do adults, is well- alization and urbanization are combining to expose demonstrated (154) (155). some populations to a variety of toxic chemicals con- taminating the air, water, soil, and food. It is an area in Lead Poisoning which the need for more research and better data gath- ering is urgent. Lead is a particular problem for children under 6. Ex- cessive exposure impairs intelligence, growth, ability Industrial Pollutants to hear and perceive language, and concentration (156). Pollution in whatever form affects children more than Even exposure to low levels seems to be associated adults, and poor children—who are exposed to more with subsequent intellectual deficiencies (157) (158). The kinds and higher levels of pollution—are affected level of what is considered toxic has been continually most of all. Children's smaller body weights and devel- reduced in the last 10 to 15 years as a result of new re- oping organs put them at greater risk. So do their hab- search showing how severe the consequences of lead its: infants suck indiscriminately on contaminated exposure can be (159) (160). objects; older children play on streets filled with car Lead-based paint and exhaust fumes from leaded fumes and lead exhaust, on sewage-polluted beaches, gasoline are two major sources of lead exposure; how- or on open spaces that collect hazardous wastes. Mal- ever, some children may be dangerously exposed from nourished and disease-prone children are even more other sources as well. Lead workers bring home lead vulnerable (146). dust on their clothes, shoes, and hair (161). Painting, The fetus is perhaps most vulnerable. Methyl mer- pottery glazing, jewelry making, stained glass work, cury, pesticides, polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs), metal sculpting, and other cottage craft industries that carbon monoxide, and such self-administered contami- use lead or products that contain lead may involve the nants as alcohol and tobacco have been shown to have whole family; in Mexico, children whose families man- adverse health consequences for exposed fetuses (147). ufactured pottery were found to have higher blood- Although no aggregate data exist on the extent of the level concentrations and lower mental performance problem, selected data provide a good indication. than children from families of similar socioeconomic background but who were employed in other occupa- Mercury in seafood ingested by pregnant women tions (162). has been linked to cerebral palsy in infants. On aver- age, mercury levels in these babies' blood is 47 percent While airborne lead concentrations from industrial higher than those of their mothers (148). Children emissions and automobile exhaust are declining in whose mothers ate foods contaminated with PCBs most industrialized countries, they are increasing in have suffered various forms of retarded growth (149). developing-country urban areas (163). High levels of Carbon monoxide, which WHO has found regularly airborne lead have been found along busy roads in reaches unhealthy levels in many cities, can result in Delhi, Kuala Lumpur, and Zimbabwe (164) (165) (166). A decreases in fetal weight, increases in perinatal mortal- survey of children living near a lead-smelting plant in ity, and brain damage, depending on the length of Brazil found high levels of both zinc protoporphyrin time a pregnant woman was exposed and the concen- and lead in their blood; the levels correlated to the tration in the air. Here, too, the concentration in the children's age, their proximity to the plant, and length fetus generally exceeds that in the mother (150). of residence (167). In Mexico City, 7 out of 10 newborns were found to have lead blood levels higher than the WHO norm (168). Air Pollution Even in the United States, where the lead content of Air pollution—once a problem only in the industrial- paint used for residential structures, toys, furniture, ized world—now affects most large urban centers in and eating utensils has been limited since 1971 (169) developing countries; the number of vehicles, poor ve- and unleaded gasoline has been required for new auto- hicle maintenance, industrial growth, the absence of ef- mobiles since 1975,3-4 million children are estimated fective air-quality regulations, and the burning of to have lead blood levels above the maximum thresh- charcoal, wood, and paraffin by growing slum popula- old defined by the Environmental Protection Agency tions for fuel and cooking combine to create some of for neuropsychological impairment. Approximately 17 the dirtiest cities in the world (151) (152). Although envi- percent of all children living in metropolitan areas ronmental improvements there have been remarkable have blood levels in this range; among poor black chil- in recent years, the city of Cubatao, Brazil in 1980 re- dren, the rate is 62 percent (170). ported grim statistics regarding health effects of air pollution. In the industrial city, 40 out of every 1,000 babies were stillborn; another 40, mostly deformed, Water Pollution died in the first week of life. In the same year, with a In many developing countries, urban water sources population of 80,000, Cubatao had some 10,000 medi- used for drinking, washing, and cooking are threat- cal emergencies involving tuberculosis, pneumonia, ened by biological pollution from human waste and bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, and other nose and chemical pollution from industrial toxic wastes. South throat ailments (153). The link between air pollution America, for example, pollutes nearly 11 times more World Resources 1992-93 88 Population and Human Development 6 Box 6.2 World Summit for Children: Declaration and Plan of Action At the World Summit for Children, held in • Protecting the environment. Toward these ends, some 25 specific September 1990, the leaders of 71 countries I Alleviating poverty and revitalizing eco- goals were adopted that included increas- committed themselves to taking high-level nomic growth. ing levels of child immunization to at least political action to assure the well-being of To achieve these broad goals, the Sum- 90 percent, eradicating polio by 2000, elimi- children 0). This commitment involves: mit adopted a Plan of Action with a num- nating neonatal tetanus by 1995, reducing • Ratifying and implementing the Conven- ber of specific goals, many of which had measles deaths by 95 percent by 1995, re- tion on the Rights of the Child. previously been endorsed in a variety of in- ducing by one third the deaths due to • Promoting prenatal care and reductions in ternational settings: acute respiratory infection, elimination of infant and child mortality. • Reduction of the 1990 under-five mortality iodine deficiency disorder and vitamin A • Eradicating hunger, malnutrition, and fam- rates by one third or to a level of 70 per deficiency, and access by all couples to in- ine. 1,000 live births, whichever is the greater formation and services to prevent pregnan- • Strengthening the role and status of reduction. cies occurring too early, too late, too close, women. • Reduction of maternal mortality rates to or too often. • Supporting the role of the family, as well half the 1990 levels. as support for children separated from • Reduction of severe and moderate malnu- their families. trition among children under 5 to half the References and Notes • Providing educational and training oppor- 1990 levels. tunities for children. • Universal access to safe drinking water • Addressing the plight of children in espe- and to sanitary means of excreta disposal. The "World Declaration on the Survival, cially difficult circumstances— including B Universal access to basic education, with at Protection and Development of Children," victims of apartheid and foreign occupa- leas) 80 percent of primary-school-age chil- and "Plan of Action for Implementing the tion; orphans; street children; migrant and dren completing primary education. World Declaration on the Survival, Protec- refugee children; displaced children and tion and Development of Children," both • Reduction of the adult illiteracy rate to at adopted at the World Summit for Children, victims of natural and man-made disas- least half its 1990 level, with emphasis on September 30,1990, are reprinted in United ters; and disabled, abused, socially disad- improving female literacy. Nations Children's Fund, The State of the vantaged, and exploited children. • Protection of children in especially difficult World's Children 1991 (Oxford University • Protecting children from conflict. circumstances. Press, New York, 1991), pp. 51-74. freshwater per capita than Europe, largely because less In addition, the conditions of their poverty put these than 10 percent of its sewage is treated (171). urban children at increased risk of accidents, crimes, Infants, who need more fluids in relation to body violence, and psychological harm. A growing number weight than older children and adults, are particularly of children live in the streets—without shelter, adult vulnerable to health hazards caused by water pollu- supervision, or income. tion. Nitrate in ground water is a growing cause of con- cern in several countries, as the use of nitrate fertilizer and manure increases. Not in itself dangerous, nitrate BUILDING A GLOBAL CONSENSUS combines with bacteria in the mouth to become nitrite, which can induce methemoglobinemia (a reduction in Dramatic declines in infant mortality took place in the the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood), especially industrialized countries in the early 20th Century, not in infants who drink baby formula mixed with water primarily as a result of advances in medicine, but as a containing nitrates (172). direct result of advances in overall living conditions, including better nutrition, improved hygiene and sani- Hazards of Urbanization tation, and voluntary birth limitation (176). The ques- tion today is whether further mortality decreases must Although urban areas have lower infant and child wait for overall economic development or whether mortality rates in the aggregate than rural areas, the they can be achieved—even in advance of overall im- health status of urban subpopulations varies widely. provements in the economy—by pursuing concerted The poorest urban populations—often living in illegal strategies to improve food supply, water and sanita- squatter settlements—suffer from overcrowding, inad- tion, education, and health care. equate housing, contaminated water supplies, poor or For the last 10 years, WHO, UNICEF, and other mul- nonexistent waste disposal and sanitation, and expo- tilateral agencies have urged the international commu- sure to industrial pollutants. Large cities tend to have nity to pursue an aggressive "child survival" strategy. the highest concentrations of water, sanitation, and The program has focused on promoting wide-spread health care facilities, but as many as 30-60 percent of acceptance of several "technologies"—including oral the poorest people do not have access to them (173). rehydration therapy, breastfeeding, improved wean- Numerous studies show that children living in these ing practices, and immunization—and on providing in- conditions have higher rates of diarrhea, respiratory in- creased access to food, family planning, and female fection, tuberculosis, malnutrition, and death than chil- literacy. dren in other urban communities or even in surround- The strategy has had some outstanding successes. ing rural areas (174). Children in squatter settlements UNICEF in 1991 calculated that child survival interven- may be 50 times as likely to die before age 5 than those tions were saving 3.2 million young lives each year (177). born in developed countries (175). But high mortality rates still prevail in many countries, World Resources 1992-93 89 6 Population and Human Development and growing problems such as pediatric HIV and adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child, AIDS threaten the gains that have been made. which sets standards for children's survival, health, In the 10 countries of Central and East Africa, for ex- and education and seeks to protect children who are ample, HIV/AIDS could cause 250,000 to 500,000 addi- exploited, abandoned, or abused. As of August 1991, tional deaths a year among children under age 5 by 95 countries had ratified the Convention; another 45 the year 2000. These children will be extremely sick be- had signed (but not yet ratified) it (179). fore they die, putting severe strains on health care re- Meeting the goals set at the world summit will cost sources. Additionally, by the year 2000, HIV/AIDS is approximately $20 billion a year, according to expected to orphan as many as 5.5 million children— UNICEF estimates, and will require commitments 11 percent of all the region's children under age 15 (178). from both developing and developed countries (180). The World Summit for Children brought together Developing countries will have to reallocate some mili- representatives from 159 countries, including 71 heads tary spending to social spending and divert some fund- of state or government. In a Declaration on the Sur- ing from hospitals and secondary education to pri- vival, Protection and Development of Children, these mary health care and primary education. Additional representatives made a commitment to reduce child support from industrialized countries will also be nec- death rates by one third and malnutrition rates by one essary to achieve these goals. half by the end of the decade. The accompanying Plan The status and progress of children's health and nu- of Action for meeting those goals contains detailed tar- trition is a telling measure of society's overall develop- gets for specific diseases, nutrition, immunization, fam- ment. Children must not only survive but be given the ily planning, breastfeeding, water and sanitation, and opportunity to thrive. education. (See Box 6.2.) The world summit epitomized the growing global Conditions and Trends was written by World Resources Senior Editor Robert Livernash. Focus On Children's Health was written by consensus that a commitment to children is important Rosemarie Philips, a writer and editor on environment and develop- both in itself and as an investment in the sustainability ment issues in Alexandria, Virginia. Dirk Bryant, World Re- of the planet. In November 1989, the United Nations sources research assistant, contributed to this chapter. References and Notes 1. Thomas W. Merrick, U.S. Population Assis- 11. Alan D. Lopez, "Causes of Death: An As- 30. Op. cit. 26, p. 42. tance: A Continued Priority for the 1990s? sessment of Global Patterns of Mortality 31. Op. cit. 28, p. 63. (Population Reference Bureau, Washington, Around 1985," World Health Statistics Quar- D.C., April 1990), p. 16. terly, Vol. 43, No. 2 (1990), pp. 92-93. 32. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), "Update: The Cholera Situation in 2. United Nations Population Division, Long- 12. Division of Epidemiological Surveillance the Americas," Epidemiological Bulletin, Vol. Range World Population Projections: Two Cen- and Health Situation and Trend Assess- 12, No. 3 (PAHO, Washington, D.C., 1991), turies of Population Growth, 1950-2150 ment, World Health Organization (WHO), Table 1, p. 11. (United Nations, New York, 1991), p. vi. Global Estimates for Health Situation Assess- ment and Projections 1992 (WHO, Geneva, 33. World Health Organization (WHO), "Chol- 3. Population Reference Bureau, 1991 World era: Ancient Scourge on the Rise," WHO Fea- Population Data Sheet (Population Reference forthcoming). tures, No. 154 (WHO, Geneva, April 1991), Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1991). 13. Ibid. p.l. 4. John Bongaarts, W. Parker Mauldin, and 14. Op. cit. 11. 34. Renate Plaut, Epidemiologist, Health Situa- James F. Phillips, "The Demographic Im- 15. Op. cit. U. tion and Trend Assessment Program, Pan pact of Family Planning Programs," Studies 16. Op. cit. 12. American Health Organization, Washing- in Family Planning, Vol. 21, No. 6 (Novem- 17. Division of Epidemiological Surveillance ton, D.C., September 1991 (personal commu- ber/December 1990), p. 305. and Health Situation and Trend Assess- nication). 5. Op. cit. 3. Note: These rates refer to the per- ment, Global Estimates for Health Situation As- 35. Lawrence K. Altman, "'Catastrophic' Chol- cent of currently married or "in union" sessment and Projections 1990 (World Health women of reproductive age (15^19) who era Is Sweeping Africa," New York Times, Organization, Geneva, 1990), pp. 14-29. use any form of contraception. July 23,1991, p. C 2. 18. Ibid.,p. 18. 6. United Nations Population Fund, formally 36. Pan American Health Organization 19. Ibid., p. 25. (PAHO), "Cholera Situation in the Ameri- the United Nations Fund for Population Ac- 20. 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Op. cit. 44, p. 28. Menores de dos Anos, 1968-1976 (Ministry of Report (Centre for Science and the Environ- Economics, Directorate General of Statistics, 147. Op. cit. 44, pp. 18-20. ment, Delhi, 1983), cited in World Health Republic of Guatemala and CELADE, San 148. S. Skerfvig, "Mercury in Women Exposed to Organization (WHO), Urbanization and Its Jose, Costa Rica, 1984), Series A/1044, cited Methylmercury through Fish Consumption, Implications for Child Health: Poten tial for Ac- in Pan American Health Organization and in Their Newborn Babies and Breast tion (WHO, in collaboration with the United (PAHO), Health Conditions in the Americas: Milk," Bulletin of Environmental Contamina- Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, 2990 Edition, Vol. I, Scientific Publication tion Toxicology, No. 41 (1988), cited in 1988), p. 30. No. 524 (PAHO, Washington, D.C., 1990), United Nations Environment Program 165. S. Sani, "Urbanization and the Atmospheric p. 47. (UNEP) and United Nations Children's Environment in Southeast Asia," paper pre- Fund (UNICEF), Children and the Environ- sented at the Seminar of Development, Envi- 128. Op. cit. 56. ment: The State of the Environment, 1990 ronment and the Natural Resource Crisis in 129. Steven A. Esrey, James B. Potash, Leslie Rob- (UNEP and UNICEF, Nairobi and New erts, et al., "Effects of Improved Water Sup- Asia and the Pacific, Penang, Malaysia (Oc- York, 1990), p. 19. tober 1983), cited in World Health Organiza- ply and Sanitation on Ascariasis, Diarrhoea, Dracunculiasis, Hookworm Infection, Schis- 149. Walter J. Rogan, Beth C. Gladen, Kun-Long tion (WHO), Urbanization and Its Implications tosomiasis, and Trachoma," Bulletin of the Hung, et al., "Congenital Poisoning by Poly- for Child Health: Potential for Action (WHO, World Health Organization, Vol. 69, No. 5 chlorinated Biphenyls and their Contami- in collaboration with the United Nations En- (World Health Organization, Geneva, forth- nants in Taiwan," Science, Vol. 241 (July 15, vironment Programme, Geneva, 1988), coming). 1988), p. 334. p. 30. 130. Ibid. 150. Op. cit. 44, pp. 19-20. 166. P.T. Achayo Were, "The Development of 151. Op. cit. 44, p. 28. Road Transport in Africa and Its Effects on 131. Richard G. Feachem, "Interventions for the Land Use and Environment," Industry and Control of Diarrhoeal Diseases Among 152. World Health Organization (WHO), Urban- ization and Its Implications for Child Health: Po- Environment, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1983), pp. 25-26, Young Children: Promotion of Personal and cited in World Health Organization (WHO), Domestic Hygiene," Bulletin of the World tential for Action (WHO, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Pro- Urbanization and Its Implications for Child Health Organization, Vol. 62, No. 3 (World Health: Potential for Action (WHO, in collabo- Health Organization, Geneva, 1984), pp. gramme, Geneva, 1988), p. 18. ration with the United Nations Environ- 467-476, cited in Branko Cvjetanovic, 153. W. Hoge, "New Menace in Brazil's Valley ment Programme, Geneva, 1988), p. 30. "Health Effects and Impact of Water Supply of Death Strikes Unborn," New York Times, and Sanitation," World Health Statistics Quar- 167. Fernando M. Carvalho, Annibal M. Silvany- September 25,1980, cited in World Health terly, Vol. 39 (World Health Organization, Neto, Tania M. Tavares, et al., "Lead Poison- Organization (WHO), Urbanization and Its Geneva, 1986), p. 111. ing Among Children From Santa Amaro, Implications for Child Health: Potential for Ac- Brazil," Bulletin of the Pan American Health 132. Op. cit. 129. tion (WHO, in collaboration with the United Organization (PAHO), Vol. 19, No. 2 Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, 133. Branko Cvjetanovic, "Health Effects and Im- (PAHO, Washington, D.C., 1985), p. 168. 1988), pp. 17-18. pact of Water Supply and Sanitation," 168. Hilary F. French, "Clearing the Air," State of World Health Statistics Quarterly, Vol. 39 154. W. Dassen, B. Brunekreet, G. Hock, et al., the World, 1990 (WorldWatch Institute, (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1986), "Decline in Children's Pulmonary Function Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 103. p. 116. During an Air Pollution Episode," fournal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 36, 169. Op. cit. 160, pp. 53-54. 134. Joanne Leslie, Margaret Lycette, and Mayra 170. Paul Mushak and Annemarie F. Crocetti, No. 11 (1986), p. 1,223. Buvinic, "Weathering Economic Crises: The The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Crucial Role of Women in Health," in David 155. Ayana I. Goren and Sarah Hellmann, "Prev- Children in the United States: A Report to Con- E. Bell and Michael R. Reach, Health, Nutri- alence of Respiratory Symptoms and Dis- gress (U.S. Department of Health and tion, and Economic Crises: Approaches to Policy eases in Schoolchildren Living in a Polluted Human Services, Agency for Toxic Sub- in the Third World (Auburn House, Dover, and in a Low Polluted Area in Israel," Envi- stances and Disease Registry, Washington, Massachusetts, 1986), p. 307. ronmental Research, Vol. 45, No. 1 (1988), D.C., 1988), pp. 1-11,1-12. p. 24. 135. Susan H. Cochrane, Joanne Leslie, and Don- 171. Op. cit. 53, p. 221. ald J. O'Hara, "Parental Education and 156. Herbert L. Needleman, "The Persistent 172. Op. cit. 44, p. 26. Child Health: Intracountry Evidence," Threat of Lead: A Singular Opportunity," Commentary, American Journal of Public 173. Op. cit. 152, p. 65. Health Policy and Education, Vol. 2 (1982), p. 213. Health, Vol. 79, No. 5 (May 1989), p. 644. 174. Op. cit. 152, pp. 18-31. 157. Herbert L. Needleman, Alan Schell, David 175. Op. cit. 152, p. 7. 136. Op. cit. 134, p. 313. Bellinger, et al, "The Long-Term Effects of 176. Op. cit. 100, p. 37. 137. Shea Oscar Rutstein, "Levels, Trends and Exposure to Low Doses of Lead in Child- 177. United Nation's Children Fund, The State of Differentials in Infant and Child Mortality hood: An 11-Year Follow-Up Report," New the World's Children, 1992 (Oxford Univer- in the Less Developed Countries," paper England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 322, No. 2 sity Press, New York, forthcoming). prepared for the "Child Survival Interven- (January 11,1990), p. 83. 178. Elizabeth A. Preble, "Impact of HIV/AIDS tions: Effectiveness and Efficiency" seminar, Institute for Resource Development, June 158. Herbert L. Needleman and Constantine A. on African Children," Social Science Medi- 1991, p. 5. Gatsonis, "Low-Level Lead Exposure and cine, Vol. 31, No. 6 (June 1990), p. 679. the IQ of Children: A Meta-Analysis of Mod- 179. Per Miljetieg-Olssen, Public Affairs Officer, 138. Op. cit. 134, p. 313. ern Studies," Journal of the American Medical Division of Public Affairs, United Nations 139. Op. cit. 134, p. 313. Association, Vol. 263, No. 5 (February 2, Children's Fund, New York, August 1991 140. Op. cit. 135, pp. 213-214. 1990), p. 673. (personal communication). 141. Op. cit. 135, p. 247. 159. Op. cit. 156, p. 643. 180. Op. cit. 58, p. 15. World Resources 1992-93 92 7. Food and Agriculture Global food production has increased substantially Farmers in the industrialized world face a different over the past two decades, but factors such as popula- set of pressures. They are increasingly aware of the en- tion pressures and environmental degradation are un- vironmental toll taken by conventional farming prac- dermining agriculture's current condition and future tices, which can rapidly erode farm soils and wash prospects. fertilizers and pesticides into surface waters. To solve Measured in absolute terms, global production in- these problems, some farmers are using a variety of al- creases have been impressive. But in some regions, no- ternative practices that help reduce pollution and tably Africa, farmers have not been able to keep pace maintain farm resources. with rapid increases in population. Africa also is heav- Governments in industrialized countries have ily burdened by poverty, which deprives people of the tended to forge agricultural policies that support con- purchasing power to buy food, and by wars, which ventional farming and ignore its environmental costs. disrupt food production and distribution. But some government policies are beginning to change As population increases, how will farmers in the de- as awareness of environmental degradation grows, veloping world keep up? Higher yields, not expanded giving farmers new incentives to adopt resource-con- area, have been responsible for most of the recent pro- serving alternative practices. duction increases. To continue that production surge A change in thinking also is underway. Policymak- will require new economic advantages such as higher ers only now are beginning to integrate the environ- prices or new physical advantages such as additional mental costs of farming with its economic structure. irrigated land or increased use of inputs. Yet, prices Soil erosion, for example, costs farmers money by re- have not provided much incentive in developing coun- ducing future production, yet this kind of loss never tries, investment in irrigation has lagged, and in some appeared on farmers' books. When such losses are regions water is being withdrawn at unsustainable quantified, resource-conserving practices can be both rates. Furthermore, adding inputs such as fertilizers economically and environmentally superior to conven- carries substantial environmental risks. tional practices. World Resources 1992-93 93 7 Food and Agriculture CONDITIONS AND TRENDS Figure 7.1 World Production of Selected Food Crops, 1970-89 Global Trends (million metric tons) Prospects for global food and agriculture are at once 2000- promising and troubling. On the one hand, global food production has increased since 1970 and has gen- erally been able to meet the demands of a growing world population. In addition, bumper harvests in the 1990-91 crop year exceeded global consumption and helped reverse a three-year decline in world cereal stocks (1). It is unclear whether production increases can con- tinue indefinitely. Some factors augur well for global production—for example, improvements in the emerg- Cereals — Pulses, Friuts, — Meat, Root ing market economies of Central Europe and possibly Vegetables, Milk & Crops Melons & Oils Fish a multilateral agreement to liberalize agricultural trade. In the longer term, improvements in the Soviet Union's farm economy are certainly possible. Better control of diseases (human and farm animal) could also open up large areas of potentially productive Sources: 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Quarterly farming and grazing land in Africa. Bulletin of Statistics, Vol. 2 (1990), p. 37. On the other hand, most agricultural production in 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1988 Fish- ery Statistics: Catches and Landings, Vol. 66 (1990), p. 83. the world uses farming practices that are environmen- Note: Data are measured in five-year intervals for 1970-80, and in single-year tally unsustainable. New efforts are underway in the intervals for 1983-89. industrialized countries to encourage more sustainable practices, but these efforts are as yet quite modest. (See have contributed heavily to famine in many African Focus On Agriculture in the Industrialized World: To- countries in recent years (2). Drought, poor distribution ward Sustainability, below.) and marketing, and ineffective government policies In developing countries, however, population also have been important factors. Sudan and Ethiopia growth and poverty subvert efforts to introduce sus- are in a particularly perilous condition; famine threat- tainable practices and encourage agriculture to expand ens millions of people in these two countries (3). But in ways detrimental to the environment. Population the problem is wider than that: maintaining per capita growth causes marginal land to be cultivated and con- cereal consumption in 55 low-income countries at the tributes to environmental problems such as soil ero- 1980-89 level required an estimated 16 million metric sion and deforestation. Population growth also poses tons of food aid in 1990-91, yet only about 10 million an immense challenge to farm productivity: it is far metric tons were available (4). from certain that farmers will be able to adopt sustain- Estimates of the number of people in the world who able practices and still grow enough food to feed a pro- are undernourished range from about 500 million to jected world population of 10 billion or more people in about 1 billion. The absolute number of undernour- the next century. ished people may be increasing slightly, although the In the industrialized countries, food supplies are ade- proportion of the population that is undernourished quate, populations are relatively stable, incomes are appears to be declining in all regions except Africa. relatively high, and—although poverty still exists— (See World Resources 1990-91, p. 88.) most people are able to buy all the food they require. Beyond a certain point, increases in income do not pro- duce much additional demand for food. Instead, addi- PRODUCTION TRENDS tional production—due mainly to technological innovation and farm policies—tends to generate sur- The world's output of major food crops—including ce- pluses. reals and the main noncereal crops such as roots and In developing countries, agriculture varies consider- tubers, pulses (peas, beans, and lentils), groundnuts, ably from region to region. In general, production is in- and bananas and plantains—has expanded signifi- creasing in all regions. But in many regions, including cantly over the past 20 years. The most dramatic in- Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia, demand is se- crease occurred in the production of cereals, which verely restrained by lack of purchasing power. Short- rose about 50 percent, from about 1.2 billion metric ages of foreign exchange during the recession of the tons in 1970 to about 1.8 billion metric tons in 1989. 1980s further depressed food imports in Africa and Fruit and vegetables have also made gains, as have Latin America. meat, milk, and fish; production of root crops has re- In Africa, production increases have not kept up mained stable. (See Figure 7.1.) Much of the year-to- with population growth, and famine continues to be a year variation in world production has been due to serious problem in some areas. Wars—which can dis- weather- or policy-induced fluctuations in the indus- rupt food production, markets, and relief efforts— trial countries (5). World Resources 1992-93 94 Food and Agriculture 7 Figure 7.2 Index of Food Production in Figure 7.4 Index of Food Imports into Developing Regions, 1970-90 Developing Countries by Volume and Value, 1970-89 (inde> numbers, 1970=100) (index numbers, 1979-81=100) 140- Far East 200- ~ Asia, Centrally Planned Economies J^, - ~ Latin America y / 180- — Near East y' yA . Ar f c i a / • / ' ,-v 160- 140- 120- Total Volume — Unit Value 100- — Total Value 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), un- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), un- published data, March 1991. published data, March 1991. Notes: a. Far East = Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, East Timor, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Lao People's Democratic Republic, creases in yield rather than increases in cropland. (See Macao, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singa- Figure 7.3.) pore, Sri Lanka, Thailand. b. Asia, Centrally Planned Economies = Cambodia, China, Democratic Imports of food into developing countries have also People's Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Viet Nam. c. Near East = Africa. Egypt, Libya, Sudan. Asia: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Cy- grown, helped by slight declines in prices from 1980 to prus, Gaza Strip (Palestine), Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, 1987. (See Figure 7.4.) In some South American coun- Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, tries, however, both the volume and value of food im- Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arab Republic, Democratic Yemen. ports dropped over the past decade. (See Chapter 18, Every region of the developing world has substan- "Food and Agriculture," Table 18.4.) Food exports by tially increased its food production since 1970. Produc- developing countries have also risen substantially tion in the Asian centrally planned economies has since 1970, although the increase was primarily driven roughly doubled, while the Near East (Egypt, Libya, by increases in volume in the 1980s. (See Figure 7.5.) Sudan, and the Middle East) and Latin America have registered increases in the 60-80 percent range. Produc- Livestock and Fisheries tion in Africa is up over 40 percent. (See Figure 7.2.) Livestock populations have risen about 18 percent Most of these production increases came from in- over the past 20 years. India now has about 200 mil- Figure 7.3 Index of Grain Production, Figure 7.5 Index of Food Exports from Cropland Area, and Yields in Developing Developing Countries by Volume and Value, Countries, 1970-90 1970-89 (index numbers, 1970=100) (index numbers, 1979-81=100) 140- — Cropland Area Yield — Production uo- Total Volume — Unit Value — Total Value Source: Kim Hjort, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agricul- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), ture, Washington, D.C., 1991 (personal communication). unpublished data, March 1991. World Resources 1982-93 95 7 Food and Agriculture Figure 7.6 Index of Per Capita Food even with population, and in Africa population Production in Developing Regions, 1970-90 growth outstripped production increases. In many African countries, per capita production de- (index numbers, 1970=100) clined significantly. The index of per capita production 160 -i compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization of Far East the United Nations (FAO), using the 1979-81 period as ~~ Asia, Centrally Planned Economies a baseline of 100, shows that 35 of 47 countries - - Latin America dropped below 100 in 1989, with the worst declines in ~ Near East countries such as Angola, Botswana, Gabon, Mozam- Africa bique, and Rwanda. Per capita production fluctuated dramatically in several countries during the 1980s: in Sudan, for example, the index fell to 75.87 in 1987, jumped to 94.50 in 1988, and then dropped back to 74.30 in 1989 (10). Many factors contribute to these fluc- tuations, including variations in rainfall, rapidly changing prices, and civil and ethnic unrest. 1970 Population Density and Agriculture Largely because of population growth, per capita crop- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), unpublished data, March 1991. land has declined in all regions. If current population Notes: projections are accurate, the world average of 0.28 hect- a. Far East = Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, East Timor, Hong ares of cropland per capita is expected to decline to Kong, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Lao People's Democratic Repub- lic, Macao, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sin- 0.17 hectares by the year 2025. In Asia, cropland per gapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand. capita is expected to decline to 0.09 hectares. There are b. Asia, Centrally Planned Economies = Cambodia, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Viet Nam. large areas of uncultivated land in sub-Saharan Africa c. Near East = Africa: Egypt, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Sudan. Asia: Afghani- and Latin America, but in much of this area the soil is stan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Gaza Strip (Palestine), Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Syrian marginal or rainfall is unreliable. (See World Resources Arab Republic, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Arab Republic, Demo- 1990-91, pp. 87-88.) cratic Yemen. In many countries, severe population pressure on lion cattle and about 12 million hectares under perma- marginal lands contributes to deforestation, soil ero- nent pasture; the United States and the Soviet Union sion, and the loss of biodiversity. each have cattle populations of about 100 million or In the Philippines, for example, population growth more. Pig populations are up about 57 percent, with of about 2.5 percent per year is outpacing the job-creat- much of that increase occurring in China, which, with ing capacity of the Philippine economy. Unemploy- some 340 million pigs, now has roughly 40 percent of ment has increased from below 5 percent in the early the global total. The global population of chickens has 1970s to almost 10 percent by the end of the 1980s (ll). doubled since 1970, rising from 5.2 billion to 10.4 bil- With limited opportunities in urban areas, and with lion (6) (7). the limits of lowland agriculture now nearly reached, The average annual world catch of fish increased 67 farmers have been moving into upland areas. By 1987, percent from 1969 to 1989. However, preliminary data an estimated 30 percent of the country's population— indicate that the global fish catch declined about 4 per- 18 million people—were living in upland areas. This cent in 1990, the first decline in 13 years (8). Increased movement into the uplands was inadvertently encour- catches have severely stressed many species: catches of aged by government logging policies that reduced the Atlantic cod, haddock, Atlantic herring, capelin, South- cost of migration and settlement: logging roads made ern African pilchard, Pacific Ocean perch, King Crab, forest lands accessible, and logging cleared the land, and Peruvian anchoveta have all declined. Aquacul- thus saving upland farmers as much as 60 percent of ture—the farming of aquatic organisms—has grown the total labor associated with upland production (12). substantially and now represents about 13 percent of (See Chapter 8, "Forests and Rangelands.") total fish production (9). (See Chapter 12, "Oceans and Coasts.") ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS Soil Degradation PER CAPITA PRODUCTION TRENDS Farming activities are major contributors to soil ero- sion, salinization, and loss of nutrients. A global assess- Production increases in the developing countries since ment of human-induced soil degradation, prepared by 1970 are much less dramatic when population growth the International Soil Reference and Information Cen- is taken into consideration. As Figure 7.6 indicates, the tre in the Netherlands, found that 1.96 billion hectares Asian centrally planned economies managed to in- of soils were degraded to some degree, and that 300 crease production fast enough to stay well ahead of million hectares of this total have suffered strong to ex- population growth. In Latin America and the Near treme degradation. (See Chapter 8, "Forests and East, however, production barely managed to stay Rangelands.") Agricultural activities accounted for 28 World Resources 1992-93 96 Food and Agriculture 7 percent of this degradation overgrazing about 34 per- Figure 7.7 Index of International Farm cent, and deforestation another 29 percent. Most of the Commodity Prices, 1970-89 damage has been done by wind and water erosion; other forms of degradation include salinization, loss of (constant prices, 1979-81=100) nutrients, compaction, and waterlogging (13). Most of 160-1 the land damaged by agriculture and overgrazing is in Asia and Africa. A study of an irrigation district in eastern Uttar Pradesh in India found that 87 percent of the farmers reported problems with alkalinity, salinity, or water- logging that forced 29 percent of cropland out of pro- duction. The study found that rice yields decreased by more than 50 percent on salt-affected soils, and that waterlogging reduced wheat yields by about 78 per- cent. The study recommended two remedial actions: — Food Nonfood Agricultural Commodities promoting horizontal as well as vertical drainage, and preventing canal seepage (14). 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 Inputs of Fertilizers, Pesticides, and Freshwater Source: Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indicators," Table 15.4. Synthetic fertilizers are needed to take full advantage Note: Food commodities include beverages (coffee, cocoa, tea), cereals of the high-yield crop varieties developed during the (maize, rice, wheat, grain sorghum), fats and oils (palm oil, coconut oil, Green Revolution. Global fertilizer use has increased groundnut oil, soybeans, copra, groundnut meal, soybean meal), and other food (sugar, beef, bananas, oranges). Nonfood agricultural commodities in- dramatically since 1970, especially in Asia and particu- clude cotton, jute, rubber, and tobacco. larly in China. (See Chapter 18, "Food and Agricul- ture," Table 18.2.) There is now considerable evidence 15.4.) This decline has significantly affected the econo- that the runoff of fertilizers into rivers and estuaries is mies of many nonindustrialized nations that depend a significant source of water pollution. (See Focus On, on commodity exports. below, and Chapters 11, "Freshwater," and 12, "Oceans and Coasts.") Over a longer term, prices of nonfood agricultural commodities—e.g., cotton, jute, wool, and natural rub- Available data also indicate large increases in the ber—have shown a pronounced decline. The substitu- use of pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, and fungi- tion of petroleum-based synthetic products in the mid- cides) over the past two decades; currently, increases 1950s depressed prices of natural rubber and natural fi- are mainly in developing countries. These substances bers. This price decline continued through the 1960s enhance production, but they also pose risks to farm- and even through the two oil price shocks of the 1970s. workers and the general public. The incidence of unin- (See Figure 7.7.) tentional pesticide poisoning is poorly documented Agricultural food prices have also declined, but not but is considered significant, causing perhaps 20,000 always uniformly. In the 1984-86 period, for example, deaths and 1 million illnesses per year worldwide. Pes- prices of tropical beverages (coffee, tea, and cocoa) ticide poisonings occur primarily in developing coun- were relatively stonger than cereals, providing an ad- tries (15). vantage to countries that exported beverages. Develop- Freshwater withdrawals—most of which are used for ing countries that exported tropical beverages, agriculture in developing countries—have increased especially those that were large net importers of most steadily since the 1960s. Agriculture accounts for 86 per- other foods, were helped by this difference (17). After cent of water withdrawals in Asia, with most of the 1986 beverage prices also dropped. water used for irrigation. In many countries—in North The decline in real agricultural commodity prices Africa and the Middle East, for example—water with- has complex causes that are generally thought to in- drawals appear to be occurring at unsustainable rates clude the inelasticity of demand for foodstuffs in in- (16). (See Chapter 11, "Freshwater," Key Issues.) dustrialized countries, increased supplies due to increases in productivity and technological innova- ECONOMIC TRENDS tion, prolonged protection of producers in the industri- alized market economies, and slow income growth in Trends in Agricultural Commodity Prices the developing countries. Export subsidies in industri- International agricultural commodity prices have de- alized countries designed to dispose of these surpluses clined in real terms in recent decades. By 1989, most have increased the supply produced for export, thus farm commodity prices had dropped to about 60-70 further weakening prices (18). percent of their 1970 levels. Prices for cereals in the late Falling commodity prices have hurt some countries 1980s were about half the level of the 1970s and early more than others. In Southeast Asia, which has diversi- 1980s. Rice prices, which in real terms generally stayed fied its exports into manufactured goods, the change above $350 per metric ton in the 1970s, collapsed in the has been less difficult than in Africa, which is increas- 1980s to around $200 per metric ton (in 1980 dollars). ingly dependent on traditional commodity exports. (See Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indicators," Table Production increases in many developing countries World Resources 1992-93 97 7 Food and Agriculture helped offset the decline in value of agricultural com- nues of food-exporting developing countries. The modities (19). As Figure 7.5 indicates, the total value of dumping of surpluses has particularly depressed the food exports from developing regions has risen consid- prices of highly protected commodities (dairy prod- erably since 1970, thanks primarily to continuing in- ucts and beef, for example) that have smaller interna- creases in export volume. tional markets (23). Most analyses argue that trade liberalization in in- Declining Investment in Irrigation dustrialized countries would reduce food supplies and increase market prices in the short term. However, lib- The expansion of irrigation has slowed considerably eralization that includes developing countries could over the past 25 years. The growth rate of irrigated counteract price rises by stimulating increased produc- area in the world has declined by about 60 percent tion among developing country farmers (24). In addi- globally and by 72 percent in Asia since the mid-1960s. tion, improved productivity due to technological Lending and assistance for irrigation by the four main advances could counteract higher prices. financial donors—the World Bank, Asian Develop- In the short term, higher prices would redistribute ment Bank (ADB), U.S. Agency for International Devel- wealth throughout the world. Food-exporting develop- opment (U.S. AID), and the Japanese Overseas Eco- ing countries would benefit (25). For example, it is esti- nomic Cooperation Fund (OECF)—was 50 percent mated that if industrial countries were to lift nontariff lower in 1986-87 than during the 1977-79 period (20). barriers, developing countries' earnings from exports In Asia, this slowdown appears to be related to the of fruits and vegetables could rise by as much as 24 to decline in demand for rice, the increasing real costs per 36 percent (26). In addition, farmers throughout the de- hectare of new irrigation, the debt loads carried by veloping world—the vast majority of the world's some countries in the region, and the declining share poor—would benefit (27). Higher food prices would im- of undeveloped land that can be irrigated. prove rural wages and slow rural-urban migration (28). Some countries, such as India, have responded to Higher food prices would hurt other groups, how- the decline in international lending by increasing do- ever, especially food-importing countries and urban mestic spending; but most countries—including Indo- consumers. Many of the world's poorest countries rely nesia, the Philippines, and Thailand—have reduced on subsidized food imports from the industrial coun- their own spending. The continuing decline in the tries. To minimize shocks to consumers, liberalization maintenance and quality of existing irrigation infra- would have to be phased in slowly (29) with compensa- structure has also had an adverse effect on farm pro- tion negotiated for these countries (30). Higher prices ductivity (21). could also hurt urban consumers in food-exporting World Bank Lending countries, although their losses might be offset by higher national income (31). World Bank lending to agriculture and rural develop- With liberalization, food production would shift to ment projects fell by almost one fifth between 1977-79 producers with comparative advantages in land, labor, and 1986-88. The share of such projects in total World and climate. In the long term, the resulting gains in Bank lending declined from 30 to 17 percent during economic efficiency could produce a substantial divi- this period. The decline has been attributed to several dend for the world economy (32). From an environmen- factors including lower world rice prices, which have tal perspective, adapting cropping patterns to the lowered the anticipated rate of return of some pro- underlying productive capacities of the land would be posed projects below acceptable levels; the below- an important step in the evolution to sustainable agri- average rates of return of previous projects, especially culture (33). in sub-Saharan Africa; and the World Bank's new em- The impact of multilateral liberalization on three im- phasis on economic restructuring loans (22). portant tropical agricultural commodities—coffee, tea, and cocoa—could be quite different from that on tem- Key Issues perate-zone commodities. Most importing nations im- pose low-to-moderate tariffs, which, if removed, TRADE LIBERALIZATION AND THE GATT would increase revenue to producer nations. Most pro- NEGOTIATIONS ducing countries, however, have imposed large taxes on producers. Removing those taxes would create a Reluctance to reduce agricultural subsidies and import substantial incentive to increase production. Higher barriers nearly caused the Uruguay Round of the Gen- production, in turn, could depress international prices, eral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to and the value of trade in coffee, tea, and cocoa could founder early in 1991. Agricultural trade liberalization decline substantially (34). in a new GATT agreement could have a major impact on commodity prices and on prospects for agriculture in developing countries. FOCUS ON AGRICULTURE IN THE Many industrialized countries protect their agricul- INDUSTRIALIZED WORLD: TOWARD tural sectors with price supports, thus stimulating do- mestic production and creating surpluses. These SUSTAINABILITY surpluses, shipped abroad as subsidized exports, de- Farming in the industrialized countries has success- press international prices and reduce the trade reve- fully produced food and fiber, yet it also has caused World Resources 1992-93 98 Food and Agriculture 7 environmental degradation, creating serious problems U.S. National Research Council, in an important study for farmers (such as soil erosion) and, even worse, off- entitled Alternative Agriculture, defined alternative agri- farm problems (such as groundwater contamination). culture as any system of food or fiber production that: These problems, epitomized by a concern that cur- • Systematically incorporates natural processes, such as rent agricultural practices are not sustainable, have led nutrient cycles, nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator re- many agricultural scientists, economists, and farmers lationships, into the agricultural production process; to rethink conventional farming practices. (A similar • Reduces the use of chemicals and fertilizers with the rethinking process is underway in the developing greatest potential to harm the environment or the countries, but this discussion is limited to the industri- health of farmers and consumers; alized world. Farmers in the industrialized and devel- • Makes greater use of the biological and genetic poten- oping worlds face very different situations—in terms tial of plant and animal species; of climate, soils, size of holdings, available technolo- • Improves the match between cropping patterns and gies, etc.—and space precludes considering the issue the productive potential and physical limitations of ag- in both contexts.) ricultural lands in order to ensure the long-term sus- What seems to be emerging is a range of environ- tainability of current production levels; and mentally beneficial farming practices—a synthesis • Emphasizes improved farm management and conserva- based on both old, proven ideas and a new under- tion of soil, water, energy, and biological resources (35). standing of natural nutrient cycles and ecological Other definitions approach the issue from an eco- relationships. nomic perspective, in which the principal goal is to These practices must prove themselves in the com- maintain the stock of natural resources indefinitely. In plex world of farm economics, which in all industrial- this approach, natural resources, such as soil and ized countries is a maze of incentives, subsidies, price groundwater, are considered as forms of capital that distortions and other factors. In the end, however, provide a flow of economic benefits over time. Soil ero- farmers operate in a world of profit and loss and must sion may not affect a farmer's short-term agricultural consider how new practices will affect the profitability practices or income; however, farmers should include of their farms. The world of profit and loss has largely a depreciation allowance for erosion, because it jeopar- ignored the world of the environment until quite re- dizes the future productivity of their land and thus cently. For example, farm soils in many areas have their future income (36). Sustainability, in this ap- been eroding, yet that erosion has often been physi- proach, is concerned with measuring whether stocks cally subtle and offset by greater use of fertilizers. In of natural resources are appreciating or depreciating. any case, soil erosion does not show up on farmers' (See Box 7.1.) balance sheets, nor have farmers been held responsible for the cost of off-farm pollution, such as fertilizer run- Different Perspectives and Open Questions off that pollutes rivers or bays. (See Chapter 11, "Fresh- water," and Chapter 12, "Oceans and Coasts.") The question of definitions is further complicated by Each farmer's planting and operating decisions are different perspectives among the industrialized coun- influenced by government policies that provide a mix tries. Much of the European discussion concentrates of incentives and guarantees to manipulate farm pro- on organic farming, or systems that rely heavily on nu- duction. In industrialized countries, farm policies have trient recycling and try to avoid all use of synthetic fer- generally tried to maintain stable incomes for farmers tilizers and pesticides. Europeans, perhaps more than by keeping farm commodity prices high. This has pro- Americans, also question whether "low-input" and vided a powerful incentive for farmers to use chemical other alternative systems may be a short-term solution fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery to produce more that is no more sustainable than the intensive use of crops. However, as the environmental cost of those agrochemicals (37). In the U.S. debate, there has been a policies becomes more evident, many governments are tendency to lump reduced-input and organic systems looking at a variety of ways to encourage farmers to together as resource-conserving "alternative" prac- adopt resource-conserving practices. tices, in which the principal tests are environmental protection and long-term sustainability. Many of these issues are being addressed by policy- makers and research institutions. For example, a re- Organic farming is growing, but it remains a minor cent comparison of the economics of conventional and part of agriculture. In the European Community (EC), alternative systems by the World Resources Institute for example, organic farming accounts for less than 1 (discussed in more detail below) considers the impact percent of the industry (38), and it will probably con- of various U.S. government policies and incorporates tinue to play a small role in industrialized countries. the economic cost of soil erosion. This chapter focuses on a greater range of alternative practices that may become widespread and on how government policies encourage or discourage such practices. DEFINING TERMS The debate about alternative farming is connected to The complex relationship between environmental and wider social issues in many countries. In the United economic considerations also shows up when defining States, some groups link alternative farming with the terms such as "alternative agriculture." Different defi- preservation of small farms and small towns in rural nitions emphasize different environmental factors. The areas (39). In Japan, one large organic farming associa- World Resources 1992-93 99 7 Food and Agriculture Box 7.1 Glossary of Terms Traditional Agriculture. Practices such as chanical/biological weed control, integra- to alternative practices. crop rotation, returning animal manures tion of livestock with crops, reduced use Intensive Agriculture. Maximizing the to the soil, fully tilling the soil, and using or no use of chemical fertilizers and pesti- amount of product per unit of land, gener- horse- or ox-drawn cultivation. cides, integrated pest management, and ally with increased use of chemicals, labor, Conventional Agriculture. Full use of provision of nutrients from various or- and machinery. chemical fertilizers and pesticides, continu- ganic sources (animal manures, legumes). Extensive Agriculture. Maximizing the ous cropping or rotations, full tillage, and Low-input systems generally involve re- amount of land used in agricultural pro- extensive use of machines. Conventional duced use, rather than no use, of chemical duction. In Europe, extensification also im- approaches emphasize high yields. fertilizers and pesticides. plies substituting greater land area for Alternative Agriculture. Practices such as Organic Agriculture. No use of chemical chemicals to maintain production. crop rotation, reduced tillage or no-till, me- fertilizers and pesticides; otherwise similar tion has negotiated cooperative agreements between Is alternative agriculture merely a matter of reducing, farmers and consumers in which consumers agree to eliminating, or changing some inputs? Switching from buy all the produce of a group of organic farms and to chemical fertilizers to animal manures is not invari- help with its distribution (40). In Europe, the preserva- ably better environmentally because animal manures tion of rural landscapes and wildlife habitat has been that are poorly stored, improperly applied, or over- an important part of the discussion (41), as have the applied can also cause environmental problems (46). storage and disposal of animal manure from the inten- Other changes, such as switching from pesticides to sive livestock operations concentrated in northwest mechanical weed control (which requires additional Europe. implements and fuel), may also involve environmental Apart from different perspectives and priorities trade-offs (47). among the industrialized countries, many questions re- main unsettled, including: CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE AND Is a given practice conventional or alternative? For ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE example, crop rotation has been used for centuries and is widely regarded as a conventional practice. How- Conventional agriculture has been a stunning produc- ever, some less common rotations are specifically de- tion success over the past few decades. In the early signed for resource conservation and thus could be 1960s, for example, farmers in Guthrie County, Iowa, considered alternative. Likewise, integrated pest man- could barely produce enough maize (corn) to feed agement, improved methods for storing and applying local cattle herds. Maize, the principal food stock for livestock manures, and various types of reduced till- the U.S. cattle industry and the U.S. farmers' best-pay- age could be considered conventional practices, but ing crop, took so much nitrogen out of the soil that it they are often discussed as alternative practices. All could only be grown every other year. By 1963, fertil- are included here as alternative practices. izer salesmen convinced farmers to replenish the nitro- gen with chemical fertilizers such as anhydrous If alternative practices are so good, why don't more ammonia, which they said could allow them to grow farmers use them? First, alternative systems often re- maize every year. The chemical fertilizer worked: quire more management time to organize; many are Guthrie County's maize production jumped 50 percent mixed crop-animal operations, with the animals pro- over an eight-year period (48). viding both a "market" for the soil-building crop and a However, the impact of maize "monoculture" on the supply of organic nutrients to further build the soil (42) health of the soil was not well understood. Soils under (43). Second, conventional systems are commonly intensive monoculture tend to lose organic matter and thought to out-yield alternative systems. Third, skep- their ability to retain moisture, thus becoming more tics argue that alternative systems generate lower net susceptible to erosion and ultimately losing their fertil- returns per hectare than conventional systems (44), ity and productivity (49). Growing the same crop year mainly because crop rotations force farmers to leave after year also allows the pests and diseases that attack part of their land in a low-value "green manure" crop that crop to prosper (50). In 1967, maize stalks in to restore the soil, and also because herbicides are a Guthrie County began collapsing under an assault more effective and economical way to control weeds from root worms. Local farmers solved the problem than alternative techniques such as mechanical cultiva- with heavy doses of insecticides. tion and crop rotations. But recent studies have shown The production success also had unwelcome eco- that net returns do not always suffer. (See The Econom- nomic effects. By the mid-1980s, U.S. production had ics of Alternative Agriculture, below.) Finally, alterna- created huge surpluses, leading to government poli- tive systems have an image problem: they are asso- cies that idled millions of hectares. In Guthrie County, ciated with traditional practices, such as crop rotation, 25 percent of the land was idled. Environmental con- whereas conventional agriculture is considered mod- cerns also began to mount: traces of pesticides were ern and scientific (45). found in drinking water and nitrates (a form of nitro- World Resources 1992-93 100 Food and Agriculture 7 gen) in farmers' watering troughs. Water supplies con- and increase yields. In combination, these practices taining high levels of nitrate have been linked to met- help to suppress plant diseases and pests and lead to hemoglobinemia (lack of oxygen in the blood) in more efficient cycling of nutrients from the soil into children (51). The state of Iowa imposed a tax on fertil- plants and back into the soil. (See Box 7.2.) izers, with the proceeds used to encourage the reduced These systems do not eliminate all use of chemical use of chemicals. By the late 1980s, farmers in areas fertilizers or pesticides, nor are they simply a return to like Guthrie County had begun to cut back on their old-fashioned practices. They incorporate modern use of chemical fertilizers (52). farm machinery, hybrid seeds, and the latest in plant The Guthrie County experience mirrors the experi- cultivars, particularly legumes. Modern alternative sys- ence of most industrialized countries, here limited to tems also involve careful management of crop resi- the nations belonging to the Organisation for Eco- dues and other organic materials (60). In addition, they nomic Co-operation and Development (OECD), includ- usually require more labor than conventional practices ing North America, Western Europe, Australia/New (61) and a greater knowledge of farm ecosystems. Zealand, and Japan. Agricultural production in OECD Higher labor costs are partially offset by lower input nations increased by 20-30 percent over the past de- costs (62). cade, except in Japan, where output has been roughly Precisely characterizing a generic "sustainable" farm constant (53). The area of land devoted to agriculture is difficult, because each farm ecosystem, as each field has declined about 1 percent since 1970, and the num- within a farm, has different requirements. There is no ber of farms has declined (54). Average farm size has in- recipe for sustainable farming. It is also difficult to say creased, accompanied by increased specialization and how many farmers now use alternative methods. Less the substitution of machines and purchased inputs (fer- than 1 percent of total farmland is devoted to organic tilizers and pesticides) for labor and land. In Japan and farming (63), but a much greater number of farmers— to a lesser extent in Europe, farming is still relatively in some cases, majorities or near-majorities—may be labor-intensive, despite the increasing number of ma- using some alternative practices (64). chines used per square kilometer of arable land. The advent of machines has increased the amount of en- ergy used by agriculture; for the OECD countries, total PROBLEMS WITH THE CONVENTIONAL MODEL energy use per square kilometer rose 39 percent over the 1970-88 period (55). On-Farm Impacts OECD farmers have also relied on heavy doses of ag- ricultural chemicals. Fertilizer consumption continued Conventional agriculture can have a variety of destruc- to rise slightly during most of the 1980s in Europe and tive impacts on farms. The cost of these impacts is Japan but may have leveled off for the industrialized borne by the farmer. For example: countries as a whole. The use of nitrogenous fertilizer • Conventional agricultural practices, such as deep intensified in the 1970s but stabilized in most OECD plowing and removing crop residue, reduce the countries in the 1980s (56). Pesticides are used inten- amount of organic matter in the soil. This in turn re- sively in OECD countries. Although data are scant, ap- duces soil fertility and rooting depth. Studies have plication rates of pesticides seem to have dropped found that alternative techniques can dramatically (except for insecticides) during the 1980s (57). Declin- alter the loss of organic matter: for example, switching ing rates may be somewhat misleading, however, be- from conventional clearing to stubble-mulching, cause many new pesticides have higher potencies that which leaves residues on the soil surface, can reduce require relatively lower application rates (58). organic matter losses by as much as 50 percent over 25 years (65). Some no-till or reduced-tillage methods are thought to require the use—often heavy use—of herbi- Alternative Approaches cides, but a recent study of maize production in the In the 1970s and 1980s, a few farmers began taking a United States found no real difference in herbicide use different approach. For example, at the 290-hectare between tillage systems (66). crop-livestock farm of Glen and Rex Spray in Knox • Many conventional practices—growing shallow- County, Ohio, no herbicides have been applied in over rooted crops, using heavy machinery, or removing or- 15 years and no lime or fertilizer has been purchased ganic matter from the soil—encourage soil compac- since 1971. Yet in the 1981-85 period, the Sprays had tion, which restricts root growth, water retention, and yields of maize that exceeded the county average by 32 air exchange (67). This problem may affect as much as percent. Soybeans were 40 percent above average; half the intensively cultivated row-crop and small- wheat, 5 percent; and oats, 22 percent (59). grain cropland in North America (68) (69). Soil compac- The Sprays and other farmers are achieving a synthe- tion can be reduced through reduced tillage, rotation sis of alternative farming practices. This synthesis may with grasses or other crops with fibrous root systems, vary from farm to farm, but it usually includes crop ro- and the use of crop residues and manures to increase tations that conserve resources; tillage practices that soil organic content (70). conserve water and benefit soil health; legume crops • Soil salinization, which is primarily caused by faulty or animal manures that add nutrients to the soil and re- irrigation, can lower crop yields and ultimately make duce chemical inputs; and new ways to manage biolog- land unsuitable for cultivation. Salinity is estimated to ical interactions in the soil that reduce plant diseases affect 1.2 million hectares of cultivated soils in Sas- WorW Resources 1992-93 101 7 Food and Agriculture Box 7.2 Building Alternative Farming Systems Some farmers have experimented with al- duce erosion, particularly when combined cides, recent studies have challenged this ternative techniques to reduce their costs, with contour plowing. Rotations that in- belief (6). others because of growing awareness of clude rye (which contains a chemical that Ridge tillage—building seedbeds up the on- and off-farm environmental dam- suppresses the growth of other plants) can into ridges—is a particularly promising al- age caused by conventional practices. reduce the need for herbicides (2). ternative system that overcomes some of They have developed a variety of alterna- Many other innovative cultural tech- the weed control problems of unfilled sys- tive techniques, the most promising of niques show promise, including systems of tems. During spring planting, ridge-till which include crop rotation, improved nu- strip intercropping using two crops; un- planters remove a layer of soil from the trient management, and alternative ways dersowing with a legume or other crop; top of the ridge. This provides a relatively to control pests and weeds. mixtures of varieties or species to create dry, warm seedbed that facilitates crop greater crop diversity; trap crops to attract germination; weed germination is reduced pests away from the main crop; and double- because weed seeds are disturbed only on ALTERNATIVE PLANTING row cropping to facilitate weed control (3). the top of the ridge. Soil erosion is slowed METHODS because the soil and crop residues be- A survey of crop rotation in the United States found that the practice is relatively tween the ridges are not disturbed (7). Crop rotation—successive planting of dif- ferent crops in the same field—has a wide common except for some crops in certain Many other alternatives to traditional variety of economic and environmental areas, such as cotton in several states in deep plowing tend to reduce the number benefits. From an economic perspective, the South. Fanners who plant maize com- of cultivations. The alternatives include rotations usually increase yields of a prin- monly alternate the crop with soybeans; shallow plowing to a depth of 15 centime- cipal grain crop beyond yields achieved for example, 38 percent of land planted to ters or less; chisel plowing, which does not with continuous cropping, although gross maize in 1988 had grown soybeans in 1987 invert the soil; deep subsoiling, which lifts returns per acre may decrease because and maize in 1986. There is relatively little the soil but does not invert it; shallow-tine part of the land is devoted to less valuable diversity in types of rotations, however (4). systems, which loosen the soil; harrowing uses. Rotations also help improve the to create a seed bed; and no-till (or "one- physical characteristics of soil and provide pass") systems. All of these alternatives significant benefits in the control of weeds, TILLAGE PRACTICES help reduce energy inputs, prevent soil ero- insects, and diseases. Legumes in a rota- sion, facilitate pest and disease control, and tion also can help fix nitrogen in the soil, create a more natural soil structure with Farmers have adopted a wide range of al- better drainage and water retention (8). thus reducing the need for additional ni- ternative tillage practices in the past few trogen fertilizers (l). decades. It is estimated that some sort of Rotations that include deep-rooted crops conservation tillage is used on about 30 PLANT NUTRIENTS such as alfalfa bring soil nutrients to the million hectares of farmland in the United surface for later use by shallow-rooted States (5). Nearly all these practices help Legumes—nitrogen-fixing plants such as crops. Rotations with hay, forage crops, or prevent soil erosion; and although some alfalfa, chickpeas, and various clovers— closely seeded small-grain crops can re- are thought to increase the need for herbi- can add nitrogen to the soil for such crops katchewan and 370,000 hectares in central and south- The problem is particularly severe in southern Mediter- ern Alberta (71). In western Australia, some 440,000 ranean areas such as Portugal, where it is estimated hectares of land—mostly in the rain-fed wheat belt— that more than 20 percent of the current agricultural are now salinized, a 500 percent increase since the first area is highly erodible (77). Erosion appears to be wide- survey in 1955 (72). spread in England and Wales and has increased over • Row-crop monocultures have aggravated soil erosion the past 15 years (78). In Bavaria, erosion exceeds toler- in many agricultural areas. Declines in soil productiv- able levels on more than 50 percent of agricultural ity caused by erosion are difficult to measure because land (79). many other factors—management practices, new tech- • Pesticides have both on- and off-farm impacts. The nology, new plant varieties, weather, and use of fertil- most worrisome problem is the possible health threat izers and pesticides—also can affect crop yields (73). to farm workers (80). Some consumers have expressed Nevertheless, some studies suggest that productivity concern about pesticide residues in food (81). In addi- losses are severe in many areas. For example, a six- tion, pests can develop resistance to pesticides—some year study of crop productivity in three Indiana coun- 504 insect and mite species are known to be resistant ties found that corn yields were reduced 15 percent to some pesticides (82)—necessitating larger doses and and soybean yields 24 percent on severely eroded more frequent applications or a switch to other pesti- sites, compared with slightly eroded sites (74). Of the cides. The chemical suppression of one pest also may roughly 171 million hectares of U.S. farmland, about allow other pests to become problems (83). 21.1 million hectares—12.3 percent—are considered so • Excess nitrogen fertilizer runs off into surface water highly erodible that control measures generally re- and leaches into groundwater, possibly contaminating quire conversion to permanent vegetative cover; an- farm wells, as well as water downstream. The problem other 28.6 million hectares—16.7 percent—are has been particularly acute on crop-livestock opera- classified as erosion-prone but can remain in produc- tions, where farmers spread large quantities of animal tion with practices such as conservation tillage (75). In manures but frequently continue to apply synthetic fer- Europe, it has been estimated that as much as 14 per- tilizers at the same rate that would be required with- cent of the total land area is threatened by moderate to out manure. A survey of Iowa farmers, for example, extreme human-induced water and wind erosion (76). found that about half of all farms that spread animal World Resources 1992-93 102 Food and Agriculture 7 Box 7.2 as corn and wheat. Under proper manage- ter formulation and placement of chemi- Clive A. Edwards, Rattan Lai, Patrick Mad- ment, soybeans also can add nitrogen to cals, so that smaller amounts are effective; den, et al., eds. (Soil and Water Conserva- the soil. The amount of nitrogen provided alternative farming systems—using crop tion Society, Ankeny, Iowa, 1990), p. 257. by leguminous hays—which are generally rotations or modifying the timing of crop Stan Daberkow and Mohinder Gill, "Com- mon Crop Rotations Among Major Field profitable only where there is a local hay sowing, for example—to avoid or mini- Crops," in Agricultural Resources: Inputs Sit- market or on livestock farms—depends on mize pest attacks 04); and repeated field uation and Outlook Report (U.S. Department management practices (9). visits to determine whether pests have of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Animal manures can provide significant reached dangerous levels that justify Washington, D.C., 1989), p. 34. amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- spraying. Carmen Sandretto, Economic Research Ser- sium, and other nutrients. Manures often In addition, a variety of pest control strat- vice, U.S. Department of Agriculture, are used inefficiently, however, because of egies are increasing in importance: using bi- Washington, D.C., 1991 (personal commu- poor storage, hauling, and spreading prac- ological insecticides based on insect nication). tices that can reduce the nitrogen content of pathogens; releasing or encouraging para- Len Bull, "Pesticide Use by Tillage System, manure by a substantial amount (10). sites and predators of pests; using phero- 1988 and 1989 Corn Production," in Agri- Other inputs that could substitute for inor- mones, other allelochemicals, or repellents cultural Resources: Inputs Situation and Out- ganic chemicals include sewage sludge, to keep pests away from crops; releasing look Report (Economic Research Service, composted domestic lawn clippings and sterile male insects to limit reproduction of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washing- leaf material, paper pulp wastes, potato pro- pests; planting crop varieties that are resis- ton, D.C., 1991), p. 35. cessing wastes, brewery wastes, domestic tant to pest attack or that produce toxins as National Research Council, Alternative Ag- organic wastes (li). Experience with sewage a result of genetic engineering; and plant- riculture (National Academy Press, Wash- sludge has been mixed in Europe, where ing "trap" crops to draw pests away from ington, D.C., 1989), p. 162. much of the sludge comes from urban the principal crop 05). Op. cit. 3, p. 256. sources and contains significant concentra- Op. cit. 1, pp. 69,72. tions of heavy metals (12). Another relatively 10. Edwin Young, Bradley M. Crowder, James simple improvement involves more precise References and Notes S. Shortle, et al., "Nutrient Management on soil testing to determine which nutrients the Dairy Farms in Southeastern Pennsylva- 1. James F. Power, "Legumes: Their Potential nia," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, soil actually needs. This may enable farmers Role in Agricultural Production," American to reduce fertilizer applications without af- Vol. 40, No. 5 (1985), p. 443. Journal of Alternative Agriculture, Vol. 2, No. Op. cit. 3, p. 258. fecting yields 03). 2 (1987), pp. 70-71. 11. 12. David Baldock, Senior Research Fellow, In- 2. Bette Hileman, "Alternative Agriculture," Chemical and Engineering News (March 5, stitute of European Environmental Policy, INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 1990), p. 33. London, 1991 (personal communication). Many management approaches offer op- 3. Clive A. Edwards, "The Importance of Inte- 13. Op. cit. 2, p. 33. portunities to reduce pesticide use: disease gration in Sustainable Agricultural Sys- 14. Op. cit. 3, p. 255. forecasting methods to minimize use; bet- tems," in Sustainable Agricultural Systems, 15. Op. cit. 3, p. 255. manure did not make any adjustment in chemical fer- surveys in Minnesota and Iowa suggest that more than tilizer applications (84). Storage and disposal of animal 20-30 percent of community wells and 30-60 percent manures has also been a widespread problem in Eu- of private wells may contain pesticide residues (89). rope. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the annual Pesticide runoff in surface waters may also pose a sig- nitrogen surplus on farmed land has grown tenfold, nificant threat to drinking water supplies. Studies from less than 10 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) in the have found that conventional water supply treatment 1950s to more than 100 kg/ha in the late 1980s (85). technologies are generally unable to remove pesticide residues (90). Off-Farm Impacts The impact of certain pesticides on wildlife has been The off-farm impacts of conventional agriculture are widely documented. High levels of DDT led to dra- borne by nearby residents and/or taxpayers. They ap- matic declines in predatory bird populations in the pear to be even more costly than on-farm impacts (86). United States in the 1960s and 1970s. The banning of The most significant impacts are related to water qual- most organochlorines (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, etc.) has ity, including runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, and soils been an important factor in the recovery of these bird into surface waters and leaching of fertilizers and pesti- populations. cides into groundwater (87). Fertilizers Pesticides Overfertilization has had a major impact on water In the United States, various studies have found a total quality, primarily in the form of nitrate pollution from of 39 pesticides in groundwater in 34 states. A national nitrogen fertilizers. It is estimated that 25 percent of survey by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency the population in the European Community (EC) is found pesticides in about 10 percent of all community drinking water with a nitrate level greater than the water systems and estimated that almost 1 percent con- EC's recommended maximum level of 25 milligrams tain potentially unsafe concentrations. The survey also per liter (mg/1) (91). found unsafe concentrations in many rural domestic Levels of nitrate contamination are generally rising wells—less than 1 percent, but affecting an estimated in Europe (92). In Bavaria, for example, the number of 60,900 wells (88). Percentages are higher in some areas: catchments exceeding the maximum permitted EC World Resources 1992-93 103 7 Food and Agriculture standard of 50 mg/1 increased by more than 30 per- The loss of habitat, combined with rising levels of cent within two years (1985-87). In Baden-Wiirttemberg, toxic pesticides in surface waters and soils, has had a the percentage of water exceeding the 25 mg/1 target devastating effect on wildlife and biodiversity. In the level increased from 17 percent in 1977 to 28 percent in Federal Republic of Germany, it is estimated 14 of 933 1985 (93). Rising concentrations of nitrates have been plant species disappeared between 1870 and 1950. In found in groundwater in parts of France, the Nether- the following three decades, 130 plants became extinct, lands, and in the United Kingdom (94). 50 more were threatened with extinction, 74 were seri- The runoff of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers ously endangered, and 108 were in decline, primarily also plays a major role in increasing nutrient levels in because of agricultural activities (104). estuaries. A study of 78 estuaries in the United States Also of concern in Europe is the loss in visual ameni- found that agricultural runoff contributed, on average, ties caused by changes in the rural landscape, such as 24 percent of all nutrient loading and 40 percent of the elimination of hedgerows and the disappearance total sediment (95). In some rural areas of Europe, agri- of grasslands (105). Many Europeans consider such culture causes 70 to 85 percent of the nitrogen loading scenery an important part of Europe's "cultural land- and more than 30 percent of the phosphorus loading scape." of surface waters (96). (See Chapter 11, "Freshwater," and Chapter 12, "Oceans and Coasts.") AGRICULTURAL POLICIES: CREATING A NEW ENVIRONMENT Soil Erosion The industrialized economies have designed agricul- It is estimated that approximately 880 million metric tural policies that provide adequate food supplies and tons of eroded agricultural soils annually run into res- maintain farmers' incomes. To do that, they have subsi- ervoirs in the United States, reducing their flood-con- dized farmers at the expense of taxpayers (106). These trol benefits, clogging waterways, and increasing the policies have provided strong incentives for farmers to operating costs of water-treatment facilities (97). Sus- produce as much as possible, maximize their use of fer- pended sediments decrease the amount of light avail- tilizers and pesticides, and otherwise modify their able for submerged aquatic vegetation, which can farming practices to take advantage of distorted price harm fish species that depend on this vegetation for structures. All of these effects have had serious envi- breeding and food (98). The cost of soil erosion is also ronmental consequences (107). substantial: in the United States, damage to the rest of These policies also created barriers for any transition the economy from waterborne sediments may exceed to alternative practices; new policies developed in the $10 billion per year. About 36 percent of this amount is last few years have tried to reduce those barriers. As from soil eroded from cropland (99). shown in Figure 7.8, Japan has had the highest pro- ducer subsidies for agricultural products, largely be- Air Pollution cause of high subsidies for rice (108). In North America and the EC, subsidies peaked in 1986 and have de- Agriculture also produces a variety of air pollutants. clined through 1989, although provisional estimates For example, fertilized soils emit 2-10 times as much show increases in 1990. nitrous oxide as unfertilized soils and pastures, with the higher emissions in temperate countries caused by U.S. Farm Law ammonia and urea compounds. In the industrialized countries, livestock and fertilizers account for 80—90 Policies designed to promote production and stabilize percent of ammonia emissions, which in Europe may farm incomes may also present formidable barriers to have doubled over the last 30 years (100). It is estimated farmers who wish to move towards more sustainable that 20 percent of the acid deposition in the Nether- practices. Under U.S. farm law, for example, farm pro- lands currently comes from the ammonia released by gram payments are determined by three factors: crop animal manure (101). The burning of agricultural acreage bases, crop yields, and target prices. In the wastes also emits significant concentrations of carbon case of maize (corn), the crop acreage base is deter- monoxide and dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other mined by the number of acres planted in maize during gases. Finally, wet rice agriculture and livestock are a given five-year base period. Similarly, crop yields are significant sources of methane emissions (102). determined by the average number of bushels pro- duced per acre on a farm in a five-year period before 1986. And eligible farmers are guaranteed a specific Loss of Biodiversity and Degradation of target price; if market prices fall below the target price, Landscapes farmers are paid the difference. Conversion of wildlife habitat and rural landscapes to To maximize their payments, U.S. farmers need agricultural use has been extensive in recent decades. large crop bases and high yields. The system has penal- Since 1945, it is estimated that England and Wales ized farmers for shifting acreage out of the supported have lost 98 percent of old pasture, 70 percent of origi- crop, because their acreage bases and government pay- nal peat lands, 58 percent of ancient forest, and 40 per- ments are lowered over the next five years. The system cent of heathland. Modern agriculture also has played has also worked against yield-reducing practices such a major role in the destruction of hedgerows, which as long-term rotations or reduced chemical inputs (109). provide habitat for wildlife (103). The 1990 farm law provides some flexibility by allow- World Resources 1992-93 104 Food and Agriculture 7 ing farmers to plant other crops on up to 25 percent of Figure 7.8 Producer Subsidy Equivalents their acreage without losing their acreage bases for the in Industrialized Countries, 1979-90 calculation of future support payments (lio). (percent of gross receipts) Europe's CAP The European Community's Common Agricultural Japan - - EC — Canada — USA Australia Policy (CAP) is a complex system that uses prices to regulate agricultural markets and support agricultural incomes. One of the CAP's guiding principles is mar- ket unity, which bars any restrictions on trade between member states and requires a uniform agricultural price for the whole community. Each spring, these guaranteed prices to farmers are fixed by the EC's 12 agricultural ministers. The guaranteed prices have gen- erally been well above world market prices. To protect against cheap imports, EC countries im- pose tariffs on non-EC products, ensuring their sale at the guaranteed price. The EC also uses direct market 19791980 1981 1982 198319841985 19861987198819891990 purchases (to maintain prices) or payments to farmers (to make up the difference between market and guar- Source: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), "Agricultural Policies, Markets and Trade Monitoring Outlook" (OECD, Paris, anteed price). In cases where there are large surpluses 1988,1990,1991). (sugar, milk, or wine), production quotas for individ- Notes: a. Producer Subsidy Equivalents = producer subsidies divided by the value ual farms are increasingly common (Hi). To discour- of production plus direct payments, b. 1979-85 figures for the European age overproduction, "co-responsibility" payments Community (EC) refer to the EC-10; 1986-90 to the EC-12. c. 1989 = esti- mated; 1990 = provisional. require producers themselves to finance part or all of the disposal of excess supplies (112). This in turn has contributed to a decline in groundwa- ter aquifer levels and the accelerated accumulation of POLICY IMPACTS: DISTORTED PRICE salts and toxic minerals in agricultural lands and adja- STRUCTURES cent bodies of water (114). Price distortions have significantly altered decisions by farmers in industrialized countries. In the European NEW POLICY OPTIONS Community, for example, price policies have encour- aged production of maize and sugar beets and discour- Industrial nations are trying a variety of new policies aged production of root crops and pulses. High pro- to encourage the transition to alternative farm prac- tected prices for milk and low world market prices for tices that will reduce on-and off-farm environmental soya (an important input in milk production) have damages. Some countries are changing old programs, been an enormous incentive for milk production in the such as reducing or removing subsidies for inputs. EC. This distortion has had regional impacts, shifting Other countries are trying new programs, including milk production from Europe's upland grasslands to land conservation programs, management agree- the coastal regions of northwest Europe, where im- ments, taxes and fees on inputs, regulations, and subsi- ported feed is available. dies to support conversion to sustainable practices. A similar shift has occurred in pig and poultry pro- Although the OECD countries have agreed to follow duction, where farmers have substituted low-priced the "polluter-pays" principle, meaning that the costs feed substitutes—tapioca from Thailand, or corn glu- of pollution control or prevention should be borne by ten from the United States, for example—for protected the polluter (115), this principle is infrequently applied and high-priced feed cereals from EC sources. More to agriculture. In one of the few examples, the Dutch than 15 percent of all dairy cows and 25 percent of all government has imposed a tax on the production of ex- pigs are now concentrated on 4 percent of the EC's ag- cess manure and requires farmers to dispose of all sur- ricultural area in the Netherlands, Flanders, and the pluses at their own expense (116). western part of Lower Saxony. Although mixed crop- livestock systems can be the basis for environmentally sustainable farming, distorted price structures have Reducing Input Subsidies tended to push agriculture in the other direction, to- Austria, Australia, Finland, Portugal, New Zealand, ward specialization (113). and Sweden have all found that increasing the cost of inputs is an effective way to reduce their use, reduce Subsidized Inputs on- and off-farm pollution, and internalize some of the Many governments subsidize agricultural inputs. A off-site costs of agricultural pollution. In Australia, for well-known example is the subsidization of irrigation example, the government of New South Wales has sub- water in the western United States. Subsidized water stantially increased its water charges, leading to an al- prices have encouraged the expansion of irrigated pro- most immediate adoption of more efficient farming duction and such relatively low-value crops as alfalfa. practices and a decline in soil salinity levels (117). World Resources 1992-93 105 7 Food and Agriculture Land Conservation Programs tain traditional herb-rich meadows, and Swiss farmers One of the most ambitious land retirement programs are paid to cut hay on mountain slopes to reduce the established to date is the Conservation Reserve Pro- risk of snow avalanche (125). Many other such manage- gram (CRP) in the United States, which was created by ment agreement programs are underway: the Food Security Act of 1985. The program pays farm- • The U.K. Countryside Commission provides premi- ers to idle highly erodible land for 10 years; about 14 ums to farmers who implement environmentally pre- million hectares were enrolled as of 1991 (118). U.S. ferred management practices on set-aside lands. farm programs also link eligibility for federal benefits • In almost all German townships, farmers can receive to compliance with conservation programs. For highly payments to protect native plants and animals by leav- erodible croplands not covered by the CRP, farmers ing some meadows uncropped and avoiding the appli- must implement an approved conservation plan by cation of certain fertilizers and pesticides on grassland 1995 or lose eligibility for nearly all federal program and on the edges of fields (126). Most such programs are benefits. Other provisions of the 1985 law deny eligibil- managed by the state-level "Lander" governments (127). ity for farm program payments to any farmers who • Sweden and some other European countries provide plow previously uncultivated, highly erodible land or investment aid to farmers who upgrade manure stor- drain wetlands for cultivation. The effectiveness of age facilities (128). these programs is greatest in periods of low commod- • Portugal, as part of its program to reduce soil erosion, ity prices, when farmers rely most on government ben- offers subsidies and loans to farmers for reforestation efits (119). and the establishment of permanent pastures (129). Other governments have taken steps to protect envi- ronmentally fragile lands. In 1980, the government of Taxes, Fees, and Tax Incentives South Australia became concerned about rapidly dwin- Some countries are experimenting with the use of dling areas of wildlife habitat and native vegetation, taxes and fees to encourage more efficient use of fertil- which farmers were buying and clearing for crops or izers and pesticides, with tax incentives to encourage pasture. The government created a voluntary heritage sustainable practices. Sweden, Finland, and Austria all agreement (conservation easement) program and then, use taxes and input levies, with some of the revenue in 1983, banned all future clearing without a permit. going to reduce pesticide and fertilizer use as well as After a period of political and legal negotiations, the supporting research and extension programs. Sweden, program now requires farmers to obtain a permit be- for example, imposes a 20 percent price-regulation fore clearing any native vegetation. If the permit is re- charge and a 5 percent input tax on both the value of fused, farmers can be compensated for any reduction nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizers and the value of in the market value of their farm if they agree to attach each unit of active ingredient in pesticides (130). The a heritage agreement to the farm title, protecting the Netherlands has introduced a modest levy on manu- native vegetation in perpetuity. They can also receive factured feed to help pay for research and advisory ser- financial aid for the cost of constructing fences or other vices dealing with nitrate and phosphate pollution improvements to protect vegetation. State and local from intensive animal husbandry (131). land and other taxes may be waived on areas subject Tax reduction incentives also are employed in a few to a heritage agreement (120). countries. Australia, for example, abolished tax advan- tages for clearing land and now provides them for Management Agreements planting trees. Australia also allows accelerated depre- In 1985, the European Community approved a direc- ciation and tax write-offs for investments in erosion tive for funding management agreements to protect prevention and water conservation (132). environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs). The ESA desig- nation, which has been used in the United Kingdom, Strengthening Regulations the Federal Republic of Germany, France, and the In nearly all OECD countries, new pesticides and her- Netherlands (121), permits agriculture ministries to pay bicides must undergo extensive government testing farmers to retain traditional agricultural practices in and evaluation before they can be sold. Some countries order to maintain biologically important habitats and are also retesting older pesticides to see whether they traditional landscapes (122). The United Kingdom has meet current standards. Most countries also reserve identified ESAs where farmers can be paid to maintain the right to withdraw pesticide licenses based on new or improve the environment by, for example, deferring data (133). By 1993, for example, Denmark may remove hay-making, using less fertilizer, or leaving their fields from the market as many as one fourth of current pesti- unplowed. Unlike the heritage agreements in South cides, for a variety of reasons, including their toxicity Australia, which are effective in perpetuity, most of (134). In 1985, Sweden announced that it intended to re- the European management agreements run for five duce the use of pesticides in agriculture by 50 percent years (123). over five years, using measures such as stricter review The EC's 1975 Less-Favoured Areas Directive was and testing procedures, alternative control methods, partly intended to maintain agricultural activity in training courses for all farmers, and a ban on aerial ap- hilly and remote areas and to preserve the landscape plication (135). Denmark has a similar program that and environment (124). For example, livestock farmers calls for a 25 percent reduction in total pesticide appli- in the mountainous areas of Austria are paid to main- cation by 1990, and a 50 percent reduction by 1997, World Resources 1992-93 106 Food and Agriculture 7 compared with average pesticide use in 1981-85. The have been less optimistic than their U.S. counterparts intention of the Danish law is to reduce both the about the ability of alternative systems to maintain amount of active ingredients and the number of treat- yields that are comparable to conventional systems ments (136). Some countries have also devised stan- (147). The difference may be partly due to Europeans' dards limiting the cadmium content of manufactured tendency to compare conventional systems with or- fertilizers (137). ganic alone, rather than with all alternative systems. In several European countries, the growth of inten- A comparison of the economic performance of organic sive animal husbandry has created a severe excess of and conventional farming in Denmark found that aver- animal manures that are leaching nitrates into ground- age crop yields on organic farms were about 40 per- water and surface waters (138). The problem has led cent below the conventional average, and that labor many governments to impose restrictions on manures. requirements for organic farms exceeded the conven- To reduce runoff into surface waters, Denmark prohib- tional average by at least one third. The cost savings its the spreading of manure and sludge on frozen on fertilizer and chemicals covered only about 40 per- ground (139). The Netherlands and Denmark now limit cent of the extra costs incurred by lower yields and the amount of manure that may be spread per hectare, higher labor requirements. Gross profits were compa- although the controls are proving difficult to enforce rable, however, largely because of significantly higher (140). Denmark also requires farmers to have adequate prices for organic produce (148). storage capacity for animal manure; requires fertilizer Low-input alternative systems, by contrast, have management plans for farms over 10 hectares; and re- achieved yields equivalent to conventional systems. quires that a 55 percent "green cover" be planted in au- A five-year experiment in Pennsylvania found that tumn on bare fallow lands to reduce nitrate leaching. yields in low-input systems were 75 percent of conven- Green cover includes winter cereals and oilseeds, tional in the initial years but were comparable to con- which can provide some income for farmers (141). ventional by the fifth year. The study found that the In Laholm, Sweden, nitrate pollution of groundwa- transition was helped by starting with crops that fix ter became so serious in 1975 that the government re- their own nitrogen or have low nitrogen requirements stricted fertilizer applications around the recharge area and compete well with weeds (149). of a municipal well to 100 kilograms of nitrate per hect- are per year. Within two years, nitrate concentrations Accounting for Resources in Assessing Policies in the well fell from 80 to 40 milligrams per liter (142). Many other European countries, including Germany A World Resources Institute analysis of alternative and the Netherlands, also have policies that protect production systems in Pennsylvania and Nebraska at- groundwater recharge zones (143). tempted to assess the impact of alternative domestic and international farm policies on farmers' decisions Subsidizing Conversion and to account for soil erosion in comparing the eco- Some European governments subsidize the conversion nomics of conventional and alternative systems. In to organic farming, both as a means to alleviate envi- Pennsylvania, where on- and off-site resource costs are ronmental problems and as a way to reduce agricul- high, organic farming rotations were found to be both tural surpluses. The rationale for the subsidy is that, economically and environmentally superior to conven- during their transition to organic farming, farmers tional maize and maize-soybean production. Practices must usually make some capital investments, yet they that conserve resources cut production costs by 25 per- are unable to charge premium prices for their produce cent, eliminated chemical fertilizer and pesticide use, until it is certifiably organic, which usually takes two reduced soil erosion by more than 50 percent, and in- to five years. Yields also may decline, especially in the creased yields after the five-year transition from con- first few years (144). ventional systems (150). By reducing soil erosion and To help farmers get through this transition period, improving water retention, these practices reduced off- countries such as Austria, Denmark, Finland, Ger- site damages by more than $74 per hectare of farm- many, Norway, Sweden, and some cantons in Switzer- land. They also forestalled a 30-year income loss (with land offer conversion subsidies, usually for three a present value of $306 per hectare) by building soil years. The Swedish subsidy program seems to have productivity by 2 percent and preventing a 17 percent made a difference in farmers' decisions: 1,000 farmers decline in soil productivity. When on- and off-farm signed up when state aid was available in 1989, but soil and surface water resource costs were included, only 85 farmers started converting without aid the fol- resource-conserving farming outperformed conven- lowing year (145). Studies in the United Kindgom indi- tional approaches by almost a two-to-one margin in cate that conversion to more sustainable farming net economic value per hectare (including off-site envi- systems could be cheaper than set-aside programs in ronmental costs) (151). controlling cereal surpluses (146). In Nebraska, where flat land reduces the costs of ero- sion, alternative practices were also found to be envi- ronmentally superior to the predominant, high-input, THE ECONOMICS OF ALTERNATIVE maize-bean rotation. Alternative treatments (one using AGRICULTURE inorganic fertilizer but no herbicides, the other substi- The question of the profitability of alternative farming tuting manure and mechanical weed control for systems remains unsettled. Some European experts agrochemicals) proved to be slightly less competitive World Resources 1992-93 107 7 Food and Agriculture financially than conventional treatment using inor- according to one assessment, may be to reduce price ganic fertilizers and herbicides. However, the study supports incrementally over a longer period, use taxes also found that an organic maize-bean rotation re- to reduce consumption of chemical inputs, and encour- duced soil erosion by 20 percent compared with the age management agreements as a form of direct pay- chemical-intensive maize-bean rotation, and by 50 per- ment to farmers to protect the environment (156). cent compared with continuous maize (152). The under- lying financial calculations assumed no price FUTURE DIRECTIONS premiums for produce grown in alternative systems, reasoning that widespread adoption of such systems Current farm policies in industrialized countries have would cause premiums to diminish or disappear alto- created incentives for farmers to use environmentally gether. damaging practices and, in many cases, penalized In comparing various policy options, the study farmers for switching to more sustainable practices. found that the best option for U.S. farmers is an inter- Despite these disincentives, however, many farmers national policy that "decouples" commodity produc- are finding it profitable to develop and invest in alter- tion and government income supports—that is, ending native systems. Removing price supports and other program constraints (thereby forcing farmers to use policy distortions could encourage this transition; poli- their resources more efficiently) and opening markets cies that provide investment capital or otherwise re- (thereby reducing supplies from high-cost producers, duce the risk for farmers could accelerate the driving up world prices, and sending farmers undis- transition. torted market signals). Under all the different rotations Removing counterproductive policies may not ade- and treatments in both case studies, net farm operat- quately control off-site impacts, however. To control ing incomes improved under decoupling (153). these impacts, governments could return the cost of Another policy option—a 25 percent agrochemical off-site damages to the farm sector by imposing agro- tax—significantly discourages chemical use within any chemical taxes (157). Alternatively, they could provide cropping system. In the Nebraska case, the study tax incentives for sustainable practices, strengthen reg- found that a 12 percent pesticide and fertilizer tax ulations, or pay farmers directly to adopt sustainable would eliminate any difference in net farm income be- practices or retire land (158). Farmers, who work in a tween the chemical-intensive and organic maize-bean world of profit and loss, have not been forced to take rotation (154). adequate account of the real costs of environmental degradation. The economic attractiveness of sustain- Reforming the CAP able practices becomes more apparent when these new Multilateral decoupling may be a desirable option for accounting approaches are incorporated. U.S. farmers, but it might be less attractive financially The context of the debate over sustainable agricul- for relatively high-cost producers in the EC nations. ture must also encompass the food demands of a grow- One study that simulated the impact of abolishing EC ing world population. Devising sustainable practices price supports estimated that in Germany, output that are both highly productive and profitable may would drop by 5.75 percent, employment by 11.5 per- prove to be the challenge for agriculture in the indus- cent, and exports by 86.5 percent. These losses in agri- trial countries in the coming decades. And it also sug- culture, however, would be more than offset by gains gests that developing countries, in their search for in other economic sectors (155). ways to increase food production, will have models to Lower prices would probably have the greatest im- consider other than conventional high-input farming— pact on small farms with low incomes in less produc- models that, in the long run, may provide their grow- tive farming areas. Some think that abandoning these ing populations with a more sustainable food supply. farms would be desirable, because the lands would re- vert to natural habitat; others think it best to preserve these farms and encourage forms of farm management The Food and Agriculture chapter was written by World Resources Senior Editor Robert Livernash. that also protect the environment. The best solution, References and Notes 1. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 5. Leonardo A. Paulino, "World Food Trends collaboration with the World Resources In- Global Food Assessment: Situation and Outlook and Projections," paper prepared for the stitute and the U.K. Department of the Envi- Report (Economic Research Service, USDA, BIFAD Task Force on Development Assis- ronment (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1991), Washington, D.C., November 1990), p. 9. tance and Cooperation (International Food p. 143, and Table 3.9, pp. 176-179 Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., Food and Agriculture Organization of the 2. Bread for the World Institute on Hunger December 1990), pp. 3-4. United Nations (FAO), Fishery Statistics: and Development, Hunger 1990: A Report on Catches and Landings, Vol. 68 (1989), p. 95, the State of World Hunger (Bread for the 6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the World Institute on Hunger and Develop- United Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC, data and unpublished data. ment, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 7. diskette (FAO, Rome, 1991). Op. cit. 7, p. 146. 3. U.S. Agency for International Development, 7. United Nations Environmental Programme 10. Food and Agriculture Organization of the FEWS Bulletin, No. 4 (June 3,1990), p. 1. (UNEP), Environmental Data Report, 3d edi- United Nations (FAO), FAO Quarterly Bulle- tion, prepared for UNEP by the GEMS Mon- tin of Statistics, Vol. 3 (FAO, Rome, 1990), 4. Op. cit. 1, p. 4. itoring and Assessment Research Centre in p. 31. World Resources 1992-93 108 Food and Agriculture 7 11. Wilfrido Cruz and Christopher Gibbs, in Cereals for Low-Income Food Deficit Edwards, Rattan Lai, Patrick Madden, et al., "Resource Policy Reform in the Context of Countries," in Agricultural Trade Liberaliza- eds. (Soil and Water Conservation Society, Population Pressure: The Philippines and tion: Implications for Developing Countries, Ian Alkeny, Iowa, 1990), p. 115. Nepal," paper presented at the joint annual Goldin and Odin Knudsen, eds. (Organisa- 51. World Health Organization (WHO), Guide- meeting of the American Agricultural Eco- tion for Economic Co-operation and Devel- lines for Drinking-Water Quality, Vol. 2 nomics Association and the Association of opment, Paris, and The World Bank, (WHO, Geneva, 1984), pp. 132-133. Environmental and Resource Economists, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 468. 52. Op.tit.48, pp. 1,14. Vancouver, British Columbia, 1990, p. 4. 31. Op. tit. 18, pp. 27-28. 53. Op.tit.7, p. 242. 12. Ibid., pp. 3-6. 32. Op. tit. 24, pp. 475,479. 54. Organisation for Economic Co-operation 13. International Soil Reference and Informa- 33. John Mellor, Research Fellow, International and Development (OECD), The State of the tion Centre (ISRIC), "Global Assessment of Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, Environment (OECD, Paris, 1991), pp. 171, Soil Degradation 'GLASOD'," draft report D.C., 1991 (personal communication). 175. (ISRIC, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1991), 34. Carl Mabbs-Zeno and Barry Krissoff, "Trop- 55. Ibid., p. 173. p. 6, Table 7. ical Beverages in GATT," in Agricultural 56. Ibid., pp. 173,180. 14. P.K. Joshi and Dayanatha Jha, "Environmen- Trade Liberalization: Implications for Develop- 57. Ibid., p.\73. tal Externalities in Surface Irrigation Sys- ing Countries, Ian Goldin and Odin Knud- tems in India," in Environmental Aspects of 58. World Resources Institute in collaboration sen, eds. (Organisation for Economic Agricultural Development (International Food with the United Nations Development Pro- Co-operation and Development, Paris, and Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., gramme and the United Nations Environ- The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990), 1990), pp. 3-4. ment Programme, World Resources 1990-91 pp. 188-191. (Oxford University Press, New York, 1990), 15. World Health Organization (WHO), Public 35. National Research Council, Alternative Agri- p. 289. Health Impact of Pesticides Used in Agriculture culture (National Academy Press, Washing- (WHO, Geneva, 1990), p. 86. 59. Op.tit.35, p. 255. ton, D.C., 1989), p. 27. 16. Op. dt. 7, p. 146. 60. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Re- 36. Paul Faeth, Robert Repetto, Kim Kroll, et al., port and Recommendations on Organic Farm- 17. Enzo R. Grilli and Maw Cheng Yang, "Pri- Paying the Farm Bill: U.S. Agricultural Policy ing (USDA, Washington, D.C, 1980), p. mary Commodity Prices, Manufactured and the Transition to Sustainable Agriculture (World Resources Institute, Washington, xii-xiii. Goods Prices, and the Terms of Trade of De- veloping Countries: What the Long Run D.C., 1991), p. 5. 61. Alex Dubgaard, Per Olsen, and Soren Soren- Shows," The World Bank Economic Review, son, "Profitability of Organic Farming in 37. Nicolas Lampkin, Development Director, Vol. 2, No. 1(1988), pp. 11,18. Denmark" (Institute of Agricultural Eco- Aberystwyth Centre for Organic Hus- nomics, Copenhagen, 1990), p. 65. 18. Thomas W. Hertel, "Agricultural Trade Lib- bandry and Agroecology, University Col- eralization and the Developing Countries: A lege of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1991 (personal 62. Op. dt. 60, pp. xiii, 11. Survey of the Models," in Agricultural Trade communication). 63. Op. cit. 38, p. 2. Liberalization: Implications for Developing 38. Nicolas Lampkin, "Organic Farming and 64. American Farmland Trust, Agriculture and Countries, Ian Goldin and Odin Knudsen, Agricultural Policy in Europe," paper pre- the Environment: A Study of Farmer Practices eds. (Organisation for Economic Co-opera- sented at the Conference on Sustainable Ag- and Perceptions (American Farmland Trust, tion and Development, Paris, and The riculture and Agricultural Policy, Quebec Washington, D.C, 1990), p. i. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 19. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and 65. David C. Coleman and Paul F. Hendrix, 19. Op. tit. 17, pp. 24-25. Food, Quebec City, November, 1990, p. 2. "Agroecosystem Processes," in Ecological 20. Mark W. Rosegrant and Prabhu L. Pingali, 39. Chuck Hassebrook, "Developing a Socially Studies 67, L.R. Pomeroy and J.J. Alberts, "Sustaining Rice Productivity Growth in Sustainable Agriculture" American Journal of eds. (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988), Asia: A Policy Perspective" (International Alternative Agriculture, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1990), pp. 156-157. Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, p. 50. 66. Len Bull, "Pesticide Use by Tillage System, D.C., January 1991), pp. 30-34, Table 3, and 40. Katsu Murayama, "Beyond Farming Meth- 1988 and 1989 Corn Production," in Agricul- Figures 2 and 3. odology or Food Safety: Farmer-Consumer tural Resources: Inputs Situation and Outlook 21. Ibid., pp. 3-4. Co-Partnerships in Japan," Soil and Health, Report (Economic Research Service, U.S. De- No. 220, (December 1990), pp. 17-21. partment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C, 22. Michael Lipton, "Commentary: Agricultural 1991), p. 35. Development and World Bank Lending," in 41. David Baldock, Senior Research Fellow, In- IFPR1 Report, Vol. 12, No. 4 (1990), p. 1. stitute for European Environmental Policy, 67. Op. tit. 49, pp. 156,158. 23. Fred H. Sanderson, "Overview," in Agricul- London, 1991 (personal communication). 68. Bette Hileman, "Alternative Agriculture," tural Protectionism in the Industrialized World, 42. Pierre Crosson and Leonard Gianessi, "Why Chemical and Engineering News (March 5, Fred H. Sanderson, ed. (Resources for the Do So Few Farmers Adopt Alternative Agri- 1990), p. 31. Future, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 6. cultural Practices?", draft (Resources for the 69. Science Council of Canada, A Growing Con- 24. 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Scott Kilman, "Farmers, Eying Costs and 76. Op. cit. 13, p. 12, Table 5. ization: Implications for Developing Countries, the Environment, Limit Use of Chemicals," 77. Brian Gardner, "European Agriculture's En- Ian Goldin and Odin Knudsen, eds. (Or- Wall Street Journal (May 30,1990), pp. 1,14. vironmental Problems," paper presented at ganisation for Economic Co-operation and the First Annual Conference of the Hudson 49. D.L. Karlen, D.C. Erbach, T.C. Kaspar, et al., Development, Paris, and The World Bank, Institute, Indianapolis, Indiana, April 1990, "Soil Tilth: A Review of Past Perceptions Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 461. p. 6. and Future Needs," Soil Science Society of 28. Op. tit. 18, pp. 28-29. America Journal, Vol. 54 (1990), pp. 156,158. 78. C. Arden-Clarke and R.D. Hodges, "The En- 29. Op.tit.24, p. 479. 50. C.A. Francis and M.D. Clegg, "Crop Rota- vironmental Effects of Conventional and Or- 30. Panos Konandreas and Richard J. Perkins, tions in Sustainable Agricultural Systems," ganic/Biological Farming Systems. 1. Soil "Some Implications of Trade Liberalization in Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Clive A. Erosion, with Special Reference to Britain," World Resources 1992-93 109 7 Food and Agriculture Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, Vol. 4 Environmental Policies: Opportunities for Inte- 126. Op. cit. 121, pp. 13-14. (1987), p. 322. gration (OECD, Paris, 1989), p. 44. 127. Heino von Meyer, Institute for Agricultural 79. Heino von Meyer, "Agriculture and the En- 102. Op. cit. 100, pp. 8-9. Economics, Frankfurt, Germany, 1991 (per- vironment in the European Community" 103. Op.cit.77,p.7. sonal communication). (Institute for Agricultural Economics, Frank- 104. Op. cit. 91, p. 7. 128. Op. cit. 101, p. 110. furt, Germany, 1989), p. 5. 105. Op. cit. 54, p. 183. 129. Op. cit. 121, pp. 13-14. 80. Robert F. Wasserstrom and Richard Wiles, 106. Katherine H. Reichelderfer, "Environmental 130. Op. cit. 101, p. 99. Field Duty: U.S. Farmworkers and Pesticide Effects of Farm Programs in Developed Safety (World Resources Institute, Washing- 131. Op. cit. 121, p. 10. Countries," in Sustainable Agriculture: Its Pol- ton, D.C., 1985), p. 4. 132. Op. cit. 101, pp. 110,118. icy Effects on the Future of Canada and 81. Michael J. Dover, A Better Mousetrap: Improv- Ontario's Agrifood System (University of 133. Op. cit. 101, p. 103. ing Pest Management for Agriculture (World Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, May 1990), pp. 32- 134. Alex Dubgaard, Professor, Department of Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., 33. Economics and Natural Resources, Royal 1985), p. 4. 107. Ibid., pp. 36-37. Veterinary and Agricultural University, 82. George P. Georghiou, "Overview of Pesti- Frederiksberg, Denmark, 1991 (personal 108. Op. cit. 41. cide Resistance," in Managing Resistance to communication). 109. J.F. Parr, R.I. Papendick, I.G. Youngberg, et Agrochemicals, Maurice B. Green, Homer M. al., "Sustainable Agriculture in the United 135. Op. cit. 121, pp. 16-17. LeBaron, and William K. Moberg, eds. States," in Sustainable Agricultural Systems, 136. Alex Dubgaard, "Danish Policy Measures (American Chemical Society, Washington, Clive A. Edwards, Rattan Lai, Patrick Mad- to Control Agricultural Impacts on the Envi- D.C., 1990), p. 18. den, et al., eds. (Soil and Water Conserva- ronment" (Institute of Agricultural Econom- 83. Op. cif. 81, pp. 5-6. tion Society, Ankeny, Iowa, 1990), ics, Copenhagen, 1990), p. 18. 84. Michael Duffy and Leland Thompson, "The pp. 62-63. 137. Op. cit. 101, p. 102. Extent and Nature of Iowa Crop Production 110. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 138. Op. cit. 54, p. 182. Practices, 1989" (Iowa State University, "The 1990 Farm Act and the 1990 Budget 139. Op. cit. 136, p. 14. Ames, Iowa, 1991), pp. 12,15. Reconciliation Act" (Economic Research Ser- 140. Ernst Lutz and Michael Young, "Integration 85. Op. at. 79, p. 4. vice, USDA, Washington, D.C., 1990), pp. of Environmental Concerns into Agricul- 86. Edwin H. Clark II, Jennifer A. Havercamp, 23-25. tural Policies of Industrial and Developing and William Chapman, Eroding Soils: The 111. Heino von Meyer, "The Common Agricul- Countries," World Development (forthcom- Off-Farm Impacts (The Conservation Founda- tural Policy and the Environment: The Ef- ing). tion, Washington, D.C., 1985), p. 7. fects of Price Policy and Options for its Reform" (World Wildlife Fund Interna- 141. Op. cit. 136, pp. 15-16. 87. Carl F. Myers, James Meek, Stuart Tuller, et tional, Gland, Switzerland, n.d.), p. 5. 142. Op. cit. 101, p. 98. al., "Nonpoint Sources of Water Pollution," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 112. Julius Rosenblatt, Thomas Mayer, Kasper 143. Glen Anderson, Ann De Bossu, and Peter 40, No. 1 (1985), p. 10. Bartholdy, et al., The Common Agricultural Kuch, "Control of Agricultural Pollution by Policy of the European Community: Principles Regulation," in Agriculture and Water Qual- 88. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ity: International Perspectives, John Braden (EPA), "National Survey of Pesticides in and Consequences (International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C., 1988), p. 6. and Steve Lovejoy, eds. (Lynne Rienner Drinking Water Wells: Phase 1" (EPA, Publishers, Boulder, Colorado and London, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. vii. 113. Op. cit. I l l , pp. 5, 7-8. 1990), p. 77. 89. George R. Hallberg, "Pesticide Pollution of 114. Op. cit. 106, p. 38. 144. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Groundwater in the Humid United States," 115. Op. cit. 101, p. 59. United Nations (FAO), "Socio- Economic Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 116. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Aspects of Environmental Policies in Euro- Vol. 26 (1989), p. 299. (EPA), "Agriculture and the Environment: pean Agriculture" (FAO, Rome, 1990), 90. M i , p. 343. OECD Policy Experiences and American p. 25. 91. Op. cit. 77, p. 5. Opportunities" (EPA, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 12. 145. Op. cit. 38, p. 7. 92. Op. cit. 77, p. 5. 146. Op. cit. 38, p. 11. 117. Op. cit. 101, pp. 100-101. 93. Op. cit. 79, p. 5. 147. Op. cit. 61, p. 68. 118. C. Tim Osborne, Section Leader, Economic 94. Op. cit. 54, p. 182. Research Service, U.S. Department of Agri- 148. Op. cit. 61, pp. 65, 68, 71. 95. Steve Crutchfield, "Controlling Farm Pollu- culture, Washington, D.C., 1991 (personal 149. W.C. Liebhardt, R.W. Andrews, M.N. tion of Coastal Waters," in Agricultural communication). Culik, et al., "Crop Production During Con- Chemicals and the Environment (Economic Re- 119. Op. cit. 106, p. 48. version from Conventional to Low-Input search Service, U.S. Department of Agricul- Methods," Agronomy Journal, Vol. 81, No. 2 120. Op. cit. 116, p. 14. ture, Washington, D.C., 1988), p. 8. (1989), pp. 150,158. 121. David Ervin and James Tobey, "European 96. Op. cit. 54, p. 182. Agricultural and Environmental Policies: 150. Op. cit. 36, p. 11. 97. Marc O. Ribaudo, "Water Quality Benefits Sorting through Incentives," paper pre- 151. Op. cit. 36, p. 11. from the Conservation Reserve Program" sented at a conference entitled, "Is Environ- 152. Op. cit. 36, pp. 11-12. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washing- mental Quality Good for Business? Problems ton, D.C., 1989), pp. 4, 7. 153. Op. cit. 36, pp. 12-13. and Prospects in the Agricultural, Energy, 98. Op. cit. 86, pp. 63-64. and Chemical Industries," American Enter- 154. Op. cit. 36, pp. 18-19. 99. Op. cit. 36, p. 3. prise Institute for Public Policy Research, 155. Op. cit. 112, p. 11. 100. Jules N. Pretty and Gordon R. Conway, Washington, D.C.June 1990, pp. 6,13. 156. Op. cit. I l l , pp. 13-16. "Agriculture as a Global Polluter" (Interna- 122. Op. cit. 101, p. 173. 157. Edward Barbier, Director, London Environ- tional Institute for Environment and Devel- 123. Michael D. Young, "Some Steps in Other mental Economics Centre, University Col- opment, London, 1988), pp. 5-7. Countries," EPA Journal (April 1988), p. 25. lege London, London, 1991 (personal 101. Organisation for Economic Co-operation 124. Op. cit. 121, p. 11. communication). and Development (OECD), Agricultural and 125. Op. cit. 123, p. 25. 158. Op. cit. I l l , pp. 15-16. World Resources 1992-93 110 8. Forests and Rangelands Two new studies offer the best estimates so far on the a firm information base for making decisions. The new condition of global soil resources and tropical forests. studies are significant advances in global resource in- Both these resources faced heavy pressure during the formation although they have limitations and reflect past half-century, when the world population dou- funding and time constraints. Both are preliminary as- bled. As a result, their condition is declining rapidly. sessments released in advance of longer-term, more de- Over the past 45 years, about 11 percent of the Earth's tailed studies. However, they are clearly the best esti- vegetated soils became degraded to the point that their mates available and they offer urgently needed inform- original biotic functions are damaged, and reclamation ation to policymakers. may be costly or in some cases impossible. Preliminary These studies can be viewed as waypoints used by a results of a United Nations tropical deforestation as- navigator in sailing a course. They assess where we are sessment confirm scattered data showing that defores- now. An old Chinese proverb warns that if we do not tation increased 50 percent during the 1980s to an change the direction we are going, we will end up average of nearly 17 million hectares per year. where we are headed. The extent of soil degradation and tropical deforesta- tion has been controversial. Environmentalists have pointed with alarm to eroding hillsides, barren dry- CONDITIONS AND TRENDS lands studded with the trunks of once-thriving trees, and burned-out tropical forests. Others have pointed NEW SOIL DEGRADATION ESTIMATES to rising crop and livestock production as a sign that An area approximately the size of China and India no problem exists. Although many researchers docu- combined has suffered moderate to extreme soil degra- mented local conditions, the lack of scientific up-to- dation caused mainly by agricultural activities, defor- date global assessments has left policymakers without estation, and overgrazing in the past 45 years, accor- World Resources 1992-93 111 8 Forests and Rangelands Table 8.1 Human-Induced Soil Degradation, cent of the Earth's total vegetated land. (See Table 8.1.) 1945-90 Lightly degraded soils have lost some productivity but can be restored through farm conservation practices. Their biotic functions are largely intact (5). Total Degraded Degraded Area as The three-year study, the Global Assessment of Soil Area (million a Percentage of Degradation (GLASOD), was sponsored by UNEP and Region hectares) Vegetated Land coordinated by the International Soil Reference and In- World formation Centre (ISRIC) in the Netherlands. The Total degraded area 1,964.4 17.0 Moderate, severe, and extreme 1,215.4 10.5 GLASOD study is associated with a more detailed Light 749.0 6.5 global soils project—the World Soils and Terrain Digi- Europe tal Database (SOTER), also being coordinated by Total degraded area 218.9 23.1 Moderate, severe, and extreme 158.3 16.7 ISRIC, for the International Society of Soil Science Light 60.6 6.4 (ISSS) and targeted for completion in 15-20 years. Africa UNEP pressed for an earlier assessment because "polit- Total degraded area 494.2 22.1 Moderate, severe, and extreme 320.6 14.4 ically it is important to have an assessment of good Light 173.6 7.8 quality now instead of having an assessment of very Asia good quality in 15 or 20 years" (6). UNEP plans to com- Total degraded area 747.0 19.8 Moderate, severe, and extreme 452.5 12.0 bine elements of the GLASOD soil degradation survey Light 294.5 7.8 with data on population, climatology, and vegetation Oceania Total degraded area 102.9 13.1 loss in a world desertification atlas (7). Desertification Moderate, severe, and extreme 6.2 0.8 encompasses soil degradation and associated changes Light 96.6 12.3 in vegetation in arid and semiarid regions. North America Total degraded area 95.5 5.3 GLASOD asked more than 250 soil scientists and 21 Moderate, severe, and extreme 78.7 4.4 regional coordinators for their expert estimates of the Light 16.8 0.9 degree, type, and causes of the human-induced soil Central America and Mexico Total degraded area 62.8 24.8 degradation that has occurred since World War II. Moderate, severe, and extreme 60.9 24.1 They were also asked to estimate how much land area Light 1.9 0.7 was affected in specified physiographic mapping South America Total degraded area 243.4 14.0 units. After this information was compiled, it was Moderate, severe, and extreme 138.5 8.0 mapped at an average scale of 1:15 million. The map Light 104.8 6.0 was subsequently digitized and summary tables and Source: L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of thematic maps drawn. Human-Induced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human- GLASOD also included a pilot study in Latin Amer- Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International ica (parts of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay) to test a Soil Reference and Information Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), Tables 1-7. methodology for SOTER. Note: Totals may not add because of rounding. Trends ding to a new study sponsored by the United Nations GLASOD is the first baseline study using a consistent Environment Programme (UNEP). This area—1.2 bil- methodology to estimate global soil degradation. lion hectares—represents almost 11 percent of the ISRIC researchers hope to follow it with surveys every Earth's vegetated surface (l) (2) (3). (See Table 8.1.) 10 years, which will enable them to estimate a rate of This degraded land has lost some of its natural pro- degradation (8). ductivity. Most of it suffers from "moderate" degrada- The GLASOD results are all the more alarming be- tion, that is, its agricultural productivity is "greatly cause, unlike other attempts to estimate land degrada- reduced," but it can still be used for agriculture. The tion, they do not include land degraded by ancient soil's original biotic functions (its ability to process nu- civilizations or even by colonial expansion; nor do trients into a form usable by plants) have been par- they include land that is naturally barren. Soil scien- tially destroyed and only with major improvements tists were asked to categorize only soils degraded over can productivity be restored. A smaller portion of veg- the past 45 years because of human intervention (9). etated land—300 million hectares, almost 3 percent of But the 45-year period masks improvements. In at the world total—shows "severe" degradation; its origi- least the United States, and parts of Europe and Aus- nal biotic functions are largely destroyed, and it is re- tralia, soil conditions worsened, then improved owing claimable only with major international financial and to government soil conservation programs (10) (11). In technical assistance. Degradation of less than 1 per- the United States, for example, nonfederal land suffer- cent—9 million hectares—is classified as "extreme," ing water-related erosion in excess of an accepted sus- defined as "unreclaimable and beyond restoration." Its tainable rate declined from 13.6 percent in 1982 to 12.6 original biotic functions are fully destroyed (4). (See percent in 1987 (12). Chapter 19, "Forests and Rangelands," Table 19.3.) If one were to include the nearly 750 million hectares Degrees of Soil Degradation of terrain whose degradation is "light," the area with GLASOD defines soil degradation as "a process that soil degraded just since World War II would be 17 per- describes human-induced phenomena which lower World Resources 1992-93 112 Forests and Rangelands 8 Box 8.1 Degrees of Soil Degradation LIGHT DEGRADATION fresh organic matter into more stable or- tation (4). In tropical areas with poor soils, ganic components called humus. Humus severe nutrient depletion occurs where all About 750 million hectares are lightly de- adsorbs nutrients and water and "glues" biomass has been cleared and crops grow graded. In deep soils, part of the topsoil soil particles together in stable clusters. If poorly or not at all. Productivity cannot be has been removed and/or shallow, widely this process is disrupted, decomposition improved by nitrogen fertilizer alone. spaced rills or hollows appear. On range- can proceed too rapidly, burning up nutri- land, 70 percent of the land is covered by ents before plants can use them. Soil with EXTREME DEGRADATION native perennials. In salinized areas, salin- faulty decomposition is less fertile, drier, ity has increased slightly over the past 45 and more easily compacted (l). Extremely degraded soils can be found years. In humid tropical regions, some nutrient where deforestation, overgrazing or other loss often occurs in moderately rich soils causes of degradation have occurred on MODERATE DEGRADATION that were deforested for cultivation and soils with inherently poor parent materi- then not fertilized adequately. Land de- als. No crop growth occurs and restora- Most of the degraded land—910 million tion is impossible (5). About 9 million hectares—is moderately degraded. Mani- fined as moderately saline has increased in salinity since World War II, as indicated hectares fall into this category. Extreme festations of moderate degradation in- degradation has been documented in cen- clude: by a loss in productivity of crops that are not tolerant to salt or by a shift from intol- tral Italy (caused by water erosion), Soma- Water and wind erosion. For deep soils, all erant to more tolerant species (e.g., from lia (wind erosion) and the Soviet Union topsoil has been removed, or the terrain salt-intolerant wheat to barley) (2). near Iran (salinization) (6). shows shallow rills less than 20 meters apart, moderately deep gullies 20-50 me- Physical degradation. Here the soil struc- ters apart, or shallow to moderately deep ture no longer allows good water reten- References and Notes hollows. In shallow soils, part of the top- tion and deep root penetration but allows only the development of shallow root sys- 1. L.R. Oldeman, Program and Project Divi- soil has been removed, or the terrain sion, International Soil Reference and Infor- shows either shallow rills 20-50 meters tems. Water runoff from compacted soil mation Centre, Wageningen, the Nether- apart or shallow hollows. In rangelands, can cause both further erosion and water lands, 1991 (personal communication). the terrain has 30-70 percent of its native pollution. Physical degradation is the least 2. Ibid. vegetation. common of the four types of soil degrada- 3. Ibid. tion. It is found mainly on heavily stocked Chemical degradation due to nutrient de- pastureland and on farmland where 4. L.R. Oldeman, ed., Guidelines for General cline. In temperate regions, on cleared and heavy machinery is used (3). Assessment of the Status of Human-Induced cultivated grassland or savannahs with Soil Degradation (International Soil Refer- rich soil, nutrient decline involves a ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1988), p. 6. marked reduction in the decomposition of SEVERE DEGRADATION organic matter into stable nutrients that 5. Ibid., p. 5. can be used by plants. Decomposition of 6. Global Assessment of Soil Degradation, Worldwide, 300 million hectares have be- World Map on Status of Human-Induced Soil organic matter by micro- and macro- come severely degraded in the past 45 Degradation, Sheet 2, Europe, Africa, and organisms not only improves soil fertility, years. Soils severely degraded by wind Western Asia (United Nations Environ- it also increases the soil's water-holding ca- and water erosion show deeper, more fre- ment Programme International Soil Refer- pacity and gives it a more stable structure. quent gullies and hollows. Pastureland ence and Information Centre, Nairobi, The organisms convert leaves and other has less than 30 percent of its native vege- 1990.) the current and/or future capacity of the soil to sup- Restoring moderately degraded land to its former port human life" (13). The degrees of soil degradation productivity would take more resources than an aver- used in the study (light, moderate, severe, and ex- age farmer can provide, according to GLASOD. treme) are described in Box 8.1. Land that is lightly de- Changes in soil conservation practices might slow the graded (about 750 million hectares) generally involves degradation but will not restore fertility. For moder- good soils that show signs of degradation but can be ately degraded soils to be restored, national programs restored by using conservation practices. Of more con- will have to provide financial incentives and technical cern are soils moderately, severely, and extremely de- expertise. Restoring productivity usually requires graded. Even though agricultural production may be major structural changes—draining for waterlogging increasing owing to increased inputs of fertilizers and or salinity or creating contour banks for eroding soil, pesticides, moderately degraded soils (910 million hect- for example. ares) would produce even higher yields were they not Severely eroded land generally requires a restoration degraded. Without intervention, loss of potential pro- effort beyond the capacity of most developing nations; ductivity will continue. Severely (300 million hectares) bilateral or multilateral financial and technical assis- and extremely degraded (9 million hectares) soils are tance would be needed. Restoration efforts would re- obviously degraded even to a nonexpert and show an quire similar but more extensive engineering works, actual loss of productivity (14). such as deep ditches to drain the land and terraces to hold it in place and, for compacted land, mechanized Restoring Degraded Soils deep plowing and reseeding. In practice, land that re- quires expensive restoration is often simply aban- Restoring lightly degraded soils can be accomplished doned (15) (16). with crop rotation, minimum tillage, and other on-farm practices. (See Chapter 7, "Food and Agriculture.") World Resources 1992-93 113 8 Forests and Rangelands Figure 8.1 Types of Soil Degradation 56% EH Water Erosion • Wind Erosion B Chemical Degradation 81% H Physical Degradation 16% 28% 2% Oceania World 58% 52% 10% 17% 19% 38% 30% 12% Africa Asia Europe 74% 51% 63% 11% North America Central America Source: L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-Induced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Reference and Information Cen- tre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), Figure 5. Note: Categories not shown in regions represent less than 1 percent. Figure 8.2 Causes of Soil Degradation 30% EH Deforestation I I Overexploitation I I Overgrazing 1% O Agricultural Activities 80% 35% • Industrialization Oceania 40% 13% 14% 23% 49% 9% 26% 27% 19% Europe Asia 41% 30% 15% 66% 28% V^ •' ;i$% North America Central America South America Source: L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-Induced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Reference and Information Cen- tre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), Figure 5. Note: Categories not shown in regions represent less than 1 percent. World Resources 1992-93 114 Forests and Rangelands 8 Box 8.2 Types of Soil Degradation Wind and water erosion strip away nutri- site land by a layer of blown soil, is a side excessive manuring in feedlots, and oil ent-rich topsoil, leaving the land less pro- effect of wind erosion. It affects roads, and chemical spills. ductive; whereas degradation by physical buildings, and waterways and can dam- and chemical processes reduces the pro- age agricultural land. PHYSICAL DETERIORATION ductivity of the soil in situ. The four pro- cesses of degradation defined by the Glo- Compaction occurs in all continents under bal Assessment of Soil Degradation are de- CHEMICAL DETERIORATION nearly all climatic and soil conditions. scribed below. Compaction is usually caused by heavy Nutrients can be depleted or stripped machinery, but it is also caused by cattle WATER EROSION when agriculture is practiced on poor or trampling. Soils with low organic matter moderately fertile soils without sufficient levels are especially vulnerable. Compac- Loss of topsoil through water erosion is application of manure or other fertilizers. tion makes tillage more costly, impedes the most common type of soil degrada- As soil nutrients are progressively ex- seedling emergence, and decreases water tion. Also called surface or sheet erosion, it hausted, production drops. Loss of nutri- infiltration, causing higher runoff of rain- occurs in all countries. Because topsoil is ents is widespread in countries where water and increasing water erosion. relatively rich in nutrients, its loss may im- unsustainable agriculture is practiced. Waterlogging includes flooding by river poverish the soil. Terrain deformation, Loss of nutrients also occurs when natural water and submergence by rainwater as a such as the creation of gullies, is an ex- forest or other vegetation is cleared. result of human intervention in natural treme form of water erosion. Control of Salinization occurs when the concentra- drainage systems. The construction of gullies is difficult and reclamation almost tion of salts in the topsoil increases, render- flooded paddy fields is not included be- impossible. Water erosion that occurs nat- ing the land unfit for agriculture. It can be cause they are considered an improve- urally on steep slopes is not included in caused by three human activities: poorly ment to the soil. this study unless it is accelerated by drained irrigation systems; excessive Subsidence of organic soils caused by human intervention. groundwater withdrawals in coastal areas, drainage and/or oxidation is recognized allowing sea water to infiltrate an aquifer; as a deteriorator only when the agricul- WIND EROSION and activities that lead to increased eva- tural potential of the land is reduced (D. potranspiration in soils with salt-contain- Wind erosion is widespread in both arid ing parent material or saline groundwater. and semiarid climates. In general, coarse Acidification can be caused by the drain- References and Notes soils are highly susceptible to wind ero- age of pyrite-containing soils in coastal ar- sion. It is nearly always caused by a de- eas or by overapplication of acidifying 1. L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of crease in the vegetative cover of the soil by fertilizer. Acidification reduces productiv- Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explan- overgrazing, agricultural practices, defor- ity. atory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil estation, or fuelwood removal. Terrain dis- Pollution is most closely associated with Reference and Information Centre, placed by wind erosion forms hollows and industrial and urban wastes, excessive pes- Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), dunes. Overblowing, the coverage of off- ticide use, airborne pollutant acidification, pp. 12-14. Types of Soil Degradation most pervasive cause of soil degradation, affecting 679 Figure 8.1 shows the four types of soil degradation in million hectares (35 percent of all degraded land). In each geographic region. Wind and water erosion Africa and Australia, overgrazing causes 49 percent sweep soil away when its' vegetation is removed; chemi- and 80 percent, respectively, of soil degradation, cal and physical degradation are characterized by chang- mainly in semiarid and arid regions (18). es in the soil rather than by its displacement. Only land that has been abandoned or forced into less intensive use Agricultural Activities is classified as chemically degraded (17). (See Box 8.2 for Common agricultural practices such as insufficient use a more detailed discussion of types of soil degradation.) of fertilizers or shortening the fallow periods in shift- ing cultivation can lead to a loss of nutrients. But too Causes of Soil Degradation much fertilizer can lead to soil acidification. Cultivat- Figure 8.2 shows that the causes of the land degrada- ing hillsides without adequate preventive measures tion documented by GLASOD are about equally di- leads to water erosion. Leaving soil exposed during fal- vided among unsustainable livestock grazing, agri- low periods often results in wind erosion. Use of culture, and forestry practices. Some degradation is heavy machinery compacts soil, resulting in physical caused by overexploitation for fuelwood collection. A damage. Insufficient drainage of irrigation water may small amount (1.5 percent) is degraded by industrial cause salinization. Worldwide, faulty agricultural prac- activities, such as waste disposal and excessive pesti- tices account for 28 percent of the degraded soils, al- cide use. though North America is the region where agricultural practices cause the greatest share (57 percent) (19). Overgrazing Overgrazing by livestock decreases vegetation, expos- Deforestation and Land Conversion ing the soil to water and wind erosion. In addition, In this category, GLASOD includes both conversion of livestock trample and thereby compact the soil, reduc- forestland to agriculture and urban use and large-scale ing its capacity to retain moisture. Overgrazing is the logging. (Deforestation statistics in "Trends in Defores- World Resources 1992-93 115 8 Forests and Rangelands Box 8.3 World Areas of Soil Degradation Of the world's 1.2 billion hectares with parts of the Sahel and southern Africa. Ero- sustain outputs. In the United States, moderate, severe, and extreme soil degra- sion is a major cause of Africa's soil degra- major government soil conservation pro- dation, the largest areas are in Asia (453 dation—wind erosion in the belts north grams have begun to stabilize some areas, million hectares) and Africa (321 million and south of the Sahara and water erosion yet unsustainable farming practices could hectares). Most of this soil degradation is in sub-Saharan Africa (3) (4). Almost one lead to further deterioration (10). High caused by water and wind erosion result- half (49 percent) of the continent's soil deg- water-related erosion rates are found in ing from agricultural activities, overgraz- radation results from overgrazing. Other areas along the Mississippi and Missouri ing, deforestation, and fuelwood collec- human activities that lead to soil degrada- rivers, in California's central valley, and in tion. Central America shows the highest tion are agricultural practices (24 percent), the hilly Palouse of Washington state. percentage of vegetated land with moder- deforestation (14 percent), and fuelwood There are areas of serious salinization in ate to extreme soil degradation (24 per- collection (13 percent) (5). the U.S. Southwest 01). About 25 percent cent), followed by Europe (17 percent), of U.S. cropland is eroding at a rate faster Africa (14 percent), and Asia (12 percent). ASIA than is considered sustainable by the Soil (See Table 8.1.) Severe water erosion is extensive in west- Conservation Service (12). North America Figure 1 is a simplified version of the ern India, throughout the Himalayas, in is the region with the least amount of vege- Global Assessment of Soil Degradation Southeast Asia, and in large areas of tated land degraded by humans (5.3 per- (GLASOD) map, which indicates areas of China. Western China and Mongolia ex- cent). major concern because of either severe perience serious wind erosion. Chemical degradation in small areas or moderate deterioration (mostly loss of nutrients in CENTRAL AMERICA degradation over larger areas. agriculture, acidification, and salinization) Severe water, chemical, and physical deg- is found in northern India, Bangladesh, radation of the soil is found in Mexico and EUROPE Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Central America, where 25 percent of the In Europe, a relatively high amount—28 northern China, and North and South vegetated land is moderately to extremely percent—of degraded soils are chemically Korea. Forty percent of Asia's soil degra- degraded, 10 percent of it (25.5 million and physically degraded. More than 14 dation is caused by deforestation, 27 per- hectares) in the serious and extreme cate- million hectares are contaminated with in- cent by agriculture, 26 percent by over- gories (13). Most of the soil degradation re- dustrial and urban wastes, pesticides, and grazing, 6 percent by fuelwood collection, sults from water erosion along the moun- other pollutants. Much of the chemical and less than 1 percent by industrializa- tainous Pacific coast, but there is also seri- degradation is found in Poland, Germany, tion (6) (7). ous physical and chemical deterioration in Hungary, and southern Sweden. Almost 8 southeastern Mexico, Honduras, and Nica- OCEANIA ragua. Most of this degradation was million hectares, mostly in southern Swe- Eighty percent of the soil degradation in den and Finland, Germany, Belgium, caused by deforestation and overgrazing, Australia and the South Pacific results some by poor agricultural practices (14). northern Italy, Spain, and Romania are de- from overgrazing. Southern Australia graded by compaction from livestock and shows some water and wind erosion. the use of heavy machinery (l) (2). Many Pacific islands suffer moderate to SOUTH AMERICA strong water erosion (8) (9). In the Amazon region, most of the soil is AFRICA stable or shows low deterioration rates ex- Areas of serious chemical soil deteriora- NORTH AMERICA cept for areas of extensive deforestation, tion have been reported in several areas of North America's breadbasket, the area of such as southwestern and northeastern sub-Saharan Africa and the Nile valley. rich prairie soils extending from the U.S. Brazil and eastern Paraguay. The agricul- This condition is caused mainly by nutri- Midwest through the Great Plains into tural and grazing lands of Argentina show ent loss on land under low-input agricul- Canada, shows moderate degradation medium to high wind erosion degrada- ture (25 million hectares) and by salin- from wind and water erosion. Although tion, and the western slopes of the Andes ization resulting from poor management soils here are still among the world's most show medium to high water erosion deg- of irrigation systems (10 million hectares). fertile, they have lost some of their origi- radation. Much of the coastline, which in- Areas of extreme physical deterioration, nal productivity. They require more fertil- cludes the majority of human settlements, mainly from cattle trampling, are found in izers and high-yielding crop varieties to shows medium to high soil degradation (15). tation," below, include land conversion, but not log- 23 million hectares—more than 20 million of them in ging.) Deforestation accounts for 579 million hectares, Europe—are degraded by these activities (21). 30 percent of the world's degraded land area. Defores- tation occurs on all continents, but it is most pro- Interpretation of Results nounced in Asia, where it has caused the degradation of 298 million hectares (20). Box 8.3 describes the location of degraded soils region- ally and points to the areas of special concern. The GLASOD report concludes that if no restoration of the Overexploitation for Fuelwood 910 million hectares of moderately degraded land is ac- In dry areas, stripping land of vegetation for fuelwood complished soon, "one may fear that at least part of it also leads to wind and water erosion. Worldwide, may become strongly degraded in the near future." over-exploitation accounts for 7 percent of the degrad- The report further notes that the "vast majority of ed soils. Africa has the highest percentage (13 percent) strongly degraded land is located in Asia and Africa," of degraded soils from this cause. (See Figure 8.2.) where a large fraction of the world's poor lives. "Only major investments and engineering works can restore some of [these lands'] productivity" (22). Should the Industrialization moderately degraded land—an area almost the size of This category includes industrial and waste accumula- the United States—become seriously or extremely de- tion and acidification by airborne pollutants. Almost graded, it could have a major impact on the produc- World Resources 1992-93 116 Forests and Rangelands 8 Figure 1 Areas of Concern for Soil Degradation • Areas of Serious Concern I I Stable Terrain • Areas of Some Concern II Nonvegetated Land Source: International Soil Reference and Information Centre, unpublished map (Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990). Note: Dark colored areas are of serious concern because of localized severe or extreme soil degradation or widespread moderate degradation. Light colored areas are of some concern because of localized moderate or severe degradation or widespread light degradation. References and Notes Western Asia (United Nations Environ- Washington D.C., 1991 (personal commu- ment Programme, International Soil Refer- nication.) 1. L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and ence and Information Centre, Nairobi, 11. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-In- 1990). 12. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), duced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. 3. Op. cit. 1, p. 3 and Figure 4. Soil Conservation Service, Summary Report: Sombroek, World Map of the Status of 4. Op. cit. 2. 1987 National Resources Inventory, Statistical Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explan- 5. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. Bulletin No. 790 (USDA, Washington, atory Note, revised 2d ed. (International D.C., 1989), Table 9. 6. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. Soil Reference and Information Centre, 13. L.R. Oldeman, Program and Project Divi- Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1991), p. 3 7. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. sion, International Soil Reference and Infor- and Table 7. 8. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. mation Centre, Wageningen, the Nether- 2. Global Assessment of Soil Degradation, 9. Op. cit. 1, Figure 5. lands, 1991 (personal communication). World Map on Status of Human-Induced Soil 10. Richard W. Arnold, Director, Soil Survey 14. Op. cit. 2, Sheet 1, Figure 5. Degradation, Sheet 2, Europe, Africa, and Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 15. Op. cit. 2, Sheet 1. tion of food, livestock, and forest products. Productiv- even greater if the soil had not been degraded. This dif- ity losses on moderately degraded agricultural land ference between the actual and the potential yield rep- can be mitigated by the increased application of fertil- resents a real loss of income (23). For example, as Fig- izers. But increasing chemical inputs alone will not re- ure 8.3 shows, farmers in the highly erodible Palouse verse the degradation process and may in fact cause area of Washington state are estimated to have lost the serious environmental effects associated with the con- potential to produce an additional 670 kilograms of tamination of surface and groundwater. (See Chapter winter wheat per hectare because of soil erosion. 7, "Food and Agriculture.") Why do farmers, even those with a secure title to Despite massive soil degradation, agricultural yields their land and a continuing commitment to farming, have steadily increased since World War II owing to allow soil degradation? Two reasons are given by soil improved high-yielding crop varieties, irrigation, and scientists and economists. GLASOD soil scientists increased chemical inputs, such as fertilizer and pesti- point out that stopping or reversing moderate soil deg- cides. Yet real economic losses have occurred. Modern radation requires action beyond the scale of a farm. agricultural technologies are more productive on good Watershed management, installation of catchment ba- soils than on poor soils. Although technology often sins, and other soil conservation measures are typi- sustains yields, it only temporarily masks the effects of cally adopted on a regional level by governments. At a soil degradation; the yield increases might have been certain point, then, the farmer is helpless to restore pro- World Resources 1982-93 117 8 Forests and Rangelands Figure 8.3 Predicted Winter Wheat Tropical Deforestation Production Loss from Soil Erosion in the Tropical deforestation is currently a significant envi- Palouse River Basin, 1930-80 ronment and development issue. Loss of tropical for- ests diminishes biodiversity (see Chapter 9, "Wildlife (thousand kilograms per hectare) and Habitat"), contributes to climate change by releas- ing stored carbon into the atmosphere, and often re- sults in serious soil degradation, sometimes rendering Potential average wheat 4- production without soil erosion the land unfit for future agriculture. Yet poor farmers in many tropical countries have no choice but to clear forest to grow crops. Some countries offer economic in- 3- centives for establishing large ranches on tropical Average long It rm wheat forestland. Efforts to offer more sustainable options production are described in Focus On Policies to Manage Tropical 2- Forests, below, and in Chapter 1, "Dimensions of Sus- tainable Development." This section describes efforts 1- to document the extent of tropical deforestation. As used here, the term deforestation describes a com- o- plete change in land use from forest to agriculture— 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 including shifting cultivation and pasture—or urban use. It does not include forest that has been logged and Source: Michael T. Jennings, Baird C. Miller, David F. Bezdicek, etal., "Sus- left to regrow, even if it was clearcut. By opening a for- tainability of Dryland Cropping in the Palouse: An Historical View," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation (January-February 1990), p. 79. est area to settlement, logging is often a precursor of deforestation. Tropical forest that has been fragmented by patches of farm or pastureland shows a greatly di- ductivity. Economists point out that farmers' planting minished biodiversity and is often degraded (28) (29). decisions are usually influenced more by the current Although the FAO is studying fragmentation's effects selling price of their crops than by long-term gains to on forests, statistics on fragmented areas have not be realized from land husbandry. In fact, in fertile been published and are not included in the deforesta- areas, an individual farmer may not benefit from con- tion data here. servation practices. According to a Washington, D.C., According to preliminary FAO data, the annual rate economic institute, for U.S. farmers, "the adoption of of deforestation in 76 tropical countries, which contain practices that would indefinitely maintain the produc- 97 percent of the world's tropical forest, rose to 0.9 per- tivity of the land would not serve the economic inter- cent per year during the 1980s, compared with 0.6 per- est of farmers unless their planning horizons extend cent in 1976-80, when the earlier FAO assessment was over 50 years or more and they discount future earn- made. ings at a very low, or even zero, rate." Although farm- To produce the preliminary data, the FAO team com- ers may realize short-term benefits from unsustainable piled subregional estimates based on the most recent agricultural practices, these practices may not serve available data from tropical countries. The data were society's long-term interests (24). Thus, because of the then updated to 1990 by a computer model based on scale and timeline of the problem, action at the re- ecological data and population growth. By comparing gional and national levels will be necessary to con- the 1990 estimates with deforestation estimates from serve soil resources and maintain productivity of 1976-80, FAO calculated an annual rate of deforesta- agricultural, pasture, and forestlands. tion for 3 tropical regions and 12 subregions. (See Table 8.2.) these rates indicate the part of the forest area in the subregion that is deforested each year. TRENDS IN DEFORESTATION Of the three tropical regions, Asia's deforestation Preliminary results of the Food and Agriculture Orga- rate is the highest (1.2 percent per year for 1981-90), nization of the United Nations (FAO) second global as- Latin America is second (0.9 percent), and Africa is a sessment of deforestation confirm earlier reports that close third (0.8 percent). Regionally, West Africa's an- tropical deforestation has accelerated dramatically. nual loss rate is highest (2.1 percent), followed by Cen- The FAO interim report released in late 1991 found tral America and Mexico (1.8 percent), continental tropical deforestation to be almost 17 million hectares Southeast Asia (1.6 percent), and insular Southeast per year compared to an early 1980s estimate of 11.3 Asia and insular Africa (Madagascar, 1.2 percent) (30). million—an increase of 50 percent (25). These results A comparison of the new deforestation rates with confirmed World Resources 1990-91 estimates, based on the rates for 1976-80 shows that deforestation has ac- recent national deforestation estimates by nine tropical celerated in some subregions and remained steady in countries that tropical deforestation had accelerated others. Four subregions' deforestation rates increased during the 1980s (26). Preliminary FAO figures show by more than 50 percent: Central Africa, the Carib- that temperate and boreal forests are no longer suffer- bean, continental Southeast Asia, and insular South- ing acute deforestation; instead, these forest areas may east Asia. Subregions whose deforested area has have increased about 5 percent from 1980 to 1990 (27). increased by about 50 percent include tropical South World Resources 1992-93 118 Forests and Rangelands 8 Table 8.2 Preliminary Estimates of Tropical Forest Area and Rate of Deforestation for 87 Tropical Countries, 1981-90 (thousand hectares) Number of Area Deforested Annual Rate of Countries Total Forest Forest Annually Change 1981-90 Regions/Subregions Studied Land Area Area 1980 Area 1990 1981-90 (percent) Total 87 4,815,700 1,884,100 1,714,800 16,900 -0.9 Latin America 32 1,675,700 923,000 839,900 8,300 -0.9 Central America and Mexico 7 245,300 77,000 63,500 1,400 -1.8 Caribbean Subregion 18 69,500 48,800 47,100 200 -0.4 Tropical South America 7 1,360,800 797,100 729,300 6,800 -0.8 Asia 15 896,600 310,800 274,900 3,600 -1.2 South Asia 6 445,600 70,600 66,200 400 -0.6 Continental Southeast Asia 5 192,900 83,200 69,700 1,300 -1.6 Insular Southeast Asia 4 258,100 157,000 138,900 1,800 -1.2 Africa 40 2,243,400 650,300 600,100 5,000 -0.8 West Sahelian Africa 8 528,000 41,900 38,000 400 -0.9 East Sahelian Africa 6 489,600 92,300 85,300 700 -0.8 West Africa 8 203,200 55,200 43,400 1,200 -2.1 Central Africa 7- 406,400 230,100 215,400 1,500 -0.6 Tropical Southern Africa 10 557,900 217,700 206,300 1,100 -0.5 Insular Africa 1 58,200 13,200 11,700 200 -1.2 Source: Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, "Second Interim Report on the State of Tropical Forests," paper presented at the 10th World Forestry Congress, Paris, September 1991 (rev. October 15,1991), Table 1. Note: The major countries in each subregion are listed in Chapter 19," Forests and Rangelands," Table 19.1. Totals may not add because of rounding. America, Central America and Mexico, and tropical and confirming the data with field observations, spe- Southern Africa. The deforestation rate in five other cialists at regional centers could produce more accu- subregions, four in Africa and one in Asia, remained rate deforestation estimates. These estimates would be about the same. (See Chapter 19, "Forests and Range- fed to FAO for compilation of an assessment covering lands," Table 19.1.) all tropical regions. The FAO team has also proposed The interim 1990 FAO figure for tropical South that tropical deforestation be monitored continuously America shows an increase in the amount of land de- rather than once every 10 years as has been the case. forested from 4.6 million hectares per year in 1981-85 Unfortunately, as of late 1991, the team has been un- to 6.8 million hectares per year in 1981-90 (31). Brazil able to secure the satellite images from the U.S. ar- considers the recent FAO figures too high. National chives nesessary to make comparative studies. And satellite studies of Brazil's Legal Amazon, an area of 5 funding was uncertain for ongoing tropical forest mon- million square kilometers encompassing six states and itoring. Nevertheless, The FAO team hopes to present territories and parts of three others, show a 23 percent its best estimates in a final report to the United Na- decrease in the annual deforestation rate from 1.79 mil- tions Conference on Environment and Development in lion hectares in 1988-89 to 1.38 million hectares in June 1992. 1989-90 (32). Satellite studies by the National Space Re- search Institute of Brazil showed an average annual de- Key Issues forestation rate of 2.18 million hectares per year for the Legal Amazon from 1979 to 1990. The FAO used a sim- ilar estimate of 2.14 million hectares per year for the INITIATIVES TO HALT DEFORESTATION Legal Amazon during 1985-90 (33). Adding an annual Delegates to the June 1992 United Nations Conference loss of 1 million hectares of dry forest outside the Legal on Environment and Development are expected to con- Amazon, as per the FAO 1980 assessment, would raise sider a nonbinding statement of principles on the man- Brazil's total annual deforestation to 2.4-3.1 million agement, conservation and sustainable development hectares. Although the exact figures remain in dispute, of the world's forests. most observers agree that Brazil's deforestation rate The decision to consider a nonbinding statement of was not steady throughout the 1980s but that it peaked principles, rather than something more authoritative around 1987, then lessened because of changed govern- such as a forest convention, was reached at a mid- ment policies and an economic slowdown. 1991 preparatory meeting. It reflected a view that there According to Brazilian studies, the total cumulative was relatively little consensus about the substance of a deforestation in the Legal Amazon as of 1990 was 41.5 convention and insufficient time to reach a consensus million hectares (34). This figure represents an area the before the 1992 meeting. size of Sweden. The principles were in an early draft form in Septem- The FAO tropical assessment team has proposed a ber 1991, with much of the language still subject to fur- new, more scientific methodology for estimating the ther negotiation or deletion. The September draft af- amount and rates of deforestation. This method in- firmed that states had the right to develop their forests volves comparing satellite data from two time periods according to their needs, but that forests should be sus- in statistically selected sites. By comparing and analy- tainably managed and that national policies were zing satellite images taken at comparable time of year needed to strengthen the conservation and sustainable World Resources 1992-93 119 8 Forests and Rangelands development of forests. Each state had the responsibil- sources; and expanding mechanisms for regional and ity to establish plans for the management, conserva- international cooperation on forestry. The draft indi- tion, and sustainable development of all types of cated that these new programs would require about forests. $6.18 billion in international financing on concessional The draft principles attempt to acknowledge the terms, which is more than four times the $1.35 billion global complexity of forest conservation by, for exam- in official development assistance provided for for- ple, recognizing that the external indebtedness of de- estry in 1990 (37). veloping countries had reduced their capacity to man- age forests sustainably, that problems of poverty and Tropical Forestry Action Plan food security were linked to deforestation, and that consumption of forest products in industrialized coun- The Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) was tries was an important cause of deforestation. launched in June 1985 to slow tropical deforestation The principles are likely to say that the bulk of the and serve as a blueprint for forest management at the additional costs of forest conservation and sustainable national, regional, and global levels. The plan provides development should come from industrialized coun- a forum for development agencies to coordinate their tries, perhaps through a new global fund (35). forestry programs and a process for tropical countries The statement of principles may become the basis to formulate forestry plans that are then likely to be for later negotiations on a forest convention. The glo- funded by the development agencies. By 1991,74 coun- bal forestry convention was proposed by the Group of tries were participating, but critics charged that rather Seven—seven of the world's top economic powers— than halting deforestation the plans merely channeled following its annual meeting in July 1990 (36). The FAO more money into logging projects. A1990 evaluation quickly offered to take the lead in drafting a proposed of TFAP said that "most national plans, based mainly convention. However, the idea lacked support in tropi- on forestry sector reviews, simply justify increased in- cal countries, which saw it as an effort by northern vestment in the forestry sector—a focus too narrow to countries to control deforestation in the name of the adequately assess the root causes of deforestation, global environment while sidestepping the issue of much less to affect them significantly." The evaluation their own responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions. found that TFAP's effect on controlling deforestation was "modest at best," and that its controlling institu- In particular, developing countries with major tim- tions (principally FAO) had "lost sight of these con- ber resources want new and additional funding from cerns as the plan has been carried out" (38). industrialized countries to pay for any requirements imposed by a convention, whereas industrial countries TFAP has helped many countries analyze their for- want more specific assurances about what developing est resources in a more disciplined fashion, but the countries will do in exchange for such assistance. widely held criticisms of the program's objectives, More fundamentally, there are many schisms about structure, and impact have cast a cloud over its future. who should benefit from forests and general ap- New goals and objectives have been developed, but, in proaches to forest management. Partly this reflects the late 1991, TFAP's future seemed to hinge on the uncer- complexity of accommodating three levels of forest tain prospects for creation of an independent consulta- constituents: environmentalists concerned with global tive forum to guide the program. warming and loss of biodiversity, tropical countries concerned with making both short- and long-term eco- nomic benefits from their forests, and local interests FOCUS ON POLICIES TO MANAGE such as forest dwellers, ranchers, and farmers. TROPICAL FORESTS These three constituencies often have dissimilar goals. For example, national plans to increase revenues from logging can result in a decline in biodiversity as Many governments, environmental and other nongov- natural forest is turned into plantations. On the local ernmental organizations, and international aid agen- level, forest dwellers and local farmers are demanding cies insist that tropical forests must be managed on a a voice in forest policy, usually insisting some of the sustainable basis if their economic, social, and ecologi- economic benefits of the forest be retained locally, cal benefits are to continue into the future. rather than going to timber companies. Much of the current discussion on tropical forest management concerns issues outside the forestry sec- tor. Experts agree that world opinion and the forests' Agenda 21 global and local significance have created a unique op- Agenda 21, the UNCED document that will map out portunity to explore the issues influencing sustainabil- how to achieve global environmental objectives, also ity and, ultimately, to take action. Action may be at the will contain an extensive section on forestry. A draft local and national levels or at the international level. version of the section contained a long list of initia- Four major areas of discussion—areas in which actions tives, including strengthening forestry laws, plans, ed- are being proposed—are described below: ucation, and research; beginning a massive global • Reforming national policies, effort to expand the area under forest cover; improv- • Creating new international agreements on trade, aid, ing techniques to sustainably manage forests; creating and debt relief, a system to assess and monitor the state of forest re- • Recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples, and World Resources 1992-93 120 Forests and Rangelands 8 • Coordinating overlapping areas with climate change are set at uniformly low rates, government timber reve- and biodiversity. nue is only a fraction of what it could be. For example, between 1979 and 1982, the Philippine Government NATIONAL POLICY REFORMS earned $170 million from forest charges and export taxes. This sum represents only 11.4 percent of the po- Natural Resource Accounting tential revenues from forest exploitation. The balance accrued to concessionaires and timber operators (46). National resource management practices can promote Moreover, harvest and processing subsidies often both conservation and long-term sustainable economic compound the loss of government timber revenue. development. Subsidies have been used to encourage the develop- By undervaluing intact natural forest, many current ment of a domestic timber processing industry in Ma- national policies destroy forests (39) (40). Typically, the laysia and Ghana, among other nations, so that domes- "value" of forestland is confined to its timber or its ag- tic producers of sawnwood, plywood, and finished ricultural potential when cleared. Nations hard- products could capture the so-called "value added." pressed for cash and struggling with burgeoning pop- The unfortunate result has often been the creation of in- ulations are tempted almost irresistibly to mine the for- efficient facilities that require more wood per unit of est capital—its trees—or convert it to a more "valu- production while yielding poor-quality products, bring- able" use. ing low prices and lower government revenues (47). The value of the nontimber goods the forest pro- Correcting these policies involves revaluation of for- vides—the fruits, nuts, resins, oils, subsistence food, est resources to recognize the full costs of their loss or and fuelwood—as well as the soil conservation, car- replacement. By treating forest resources and services bon storage, and other intangible environmental ser- as capital assets, governments can begin realistically to vices the forest renders, are routinely ignored in eco- account for the depreciation of these assets through de- nomic assessments of forest use although studies show forestation. A likely result of this change is that na- their value may far exceed that of timber (41). Their tional budgets will reflect the value of forests to the loss remains hidden in national accounts because re- nation's well-being, abolish or modify questionable placement is not given a monetary value. Part of the subsidies, and charge timber harvesters rates that re- reason is that many of these goods and services do not flect the true environmental and social costs and give have conventional commodity value. They are either credit for sustainable harvest practices. not sold in conventional markets because they are con- sumed for subsistence or barter—or because they are Land Ownership considered public goods, as are most ecological ser- vices. A second major area of proposed policy reform in- In a related vein, the current and expected benefits volves land ownership, tenure, and distribution. Al- of converting a forest for other uses are often over- though most forestlands may have been continuously stated. The benefits of logging, for example, do not re- occupied or used by local peoples for millennia, they flect the environmental and social costs of deforesta- are legally government controlled. Thus, forest resi- tion. In fact, researchers calculated that in a one- dents on public domain land have no secured right of hectare rainforest plot near the town of Iquitos in Peru, use or access (48). the net value of nonwood resources is 13 times more To make matters worse, many governments con- than that of timber (42). Agriculture is often similarly sider their forestland "undeveloped" and will grant unprofitable because the soils underlying 95 percent of title to forestland to those who will "improve" it, by the remaining tropical rainforests are infertile and are clearing it for pasture or plantation agriculture, for ex- easily degraded (43). When the cost of infrastructure, ample (49). However, traditional land uses, such as tax credits, and production subsidies are added, the an- shifting cultivation and collecting nontimber forest ticipated economic benefits of forest conversion may products, do not usually qualify as improvement, and vanish (44). local residents can face eviction from lands long used A case in point is the widespread conversion of for- sustainably. est to rangeland in the Amazon. Studies show that pre- Changes in tenure laws to grant title or legal use serving forests and managing their extractive resources rights to forest dwellers have advantages. They could —collecting Brazil nuts and rubber latex in the wild, help local peoples retain their self-sufficiency and pro- for example—provides short-term economic returns vide an incentive for forest immigrants to invest in per hectare that are comparable to cattle ranching. Be- more careful husbandry of their homesteads. cause the number of people who benefit from a given A related issue is agrarian reform. One of the pri- area of extractive forest far exceeds the number of la- mary forces pushing landless migrants into the forest— borers who work on a cleared-land cattle ranch, extrac- where their slash-and-burn clearing for subsistence tive forests provide more widespread economic agriculture is now a leading cause of deforestation benefits (45). worldwide—is the inequitable distribution of agricul- The economic benefits of timber harvests may be fur- tural land (50). In non-Amazonian Brazil, 81 percent of ther overstated owing to governments' undervaluing the land is controlled by just 4.5 percent of the land- the forest ecosystem. Because royalties and taxes col- owners, whose holdings are often vast and underused. lected from timber concessionaires in tropical nations Similar patterns prevail in other parts of Latin Amer- World Resources 1992-93 121 8 Forests and Rangelands ica, Africa, and Southeast Asia (51). Land reform poli- thereby giving domestic processors a windfall. These cies, therefore, are one of the most potent tools govern- profits attract new firms, resulting in overcapacity, in- ments possess to stabilize forest use. efficiency, and waste (57). Creation of a labeling scheme to identify timber Other Policy Areas grown and harvested sustainably is another possible Other areas of possible reform include removing the strategy to use market forces to encourage sustainable economic bias toward large-scale agriculture by pro- timber management. Public opinion surveys indicate viding credit and markets to small-scale forest farm- that consumers in importing countries would pay a ers. Government support of agroforestry would pro- premium for sustainably produced timber. A credible vide timber as well as food for sustenance and com- certification program is requisite to success of any mercial needs. In an effort to relieve urban crowding such labeling plan (58). and overpopulation, governments have resettled large Elimination of protectionist tariffs imposed by major numbers of people to less densely populated areas. importers, such as Japan and the EC, on processed for- Such resettlement can lead to forest conversion for ag- est products would allow exporting countries to retain riculture. Before proceeding with such schemes, gov- more of the value of their timber, thus possibly reliev- ernments must carefully weigh long-term environ- ing some pressure to maintain current harvest levels (59). mental impacts. Many experts warn that any manipulation of global trade structures may run afoul of the General Agree- INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS ment on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the mechanism that governs 90 percent of world trade (60) (61). Under Several international actions to promote sustainable GATT terms, many of the trade restrictions being sug- tropical forests that have surfaced in the last few years gested or any labeling program to certify sustainably are discussed below. produced timber would likely be disallowed. Legisla- tors and environmental organizations from several Adjust Trade Structures countries are currently proposing that specific lan- The current price of commercially traded raw logs and guage allowing such mechanisms—adopted for legiti- processed wood rarely, if ever, includes the environ- mate environmental purposes—should be included in mental or social costs of timber harvesting. Undervalu- GATT (62) (63). ing the resource often leads to overuse and depletion. For prices to reflect these hidden costs accurately, gov- Decrease Demand for Tropical Timber ernments could use export or import taxes levied on the value of the tropical wood product and other fiscal A potent and direct means to slow logging and defor- tools. In 1989, the United Kingdom Timber Trade Fed- estation is to reduce the demand for tropical wood eration and the Nederlandse Houtbound jointly pro- products. A commitment by Japan, the United States, posed a Tropical Timber Import Surcharge for the and the EC—the three main consumers of tropical tim- European Community (EC). Levied at the point of im- ber exports—to eliminate wasteful one-time uses of port, revenues from the surcharge would be pooled tropical woods would be an important component of and used to fund projects that promote sustainable for- "demand management." Each year, for example, 25 bil- est management (52). Interest in a surcharge was re- lion pairs of chopsticks and $2 billion worth of non- cently voiced by several International Tropical Timber reusable concrete forms are used and discarded. Sub- Organization (ITTO) members, but some producer stituting reusable products whenever possible would countries have resisted (53); it may lead to lower prices contribute to preserving tropical forests (64). for producers, more waste in logging, and conversion Since 1988, the EC, the United States, and other tim- of little-valued forests to agricultural uses (54). ber-importing countries have taken decisive steps to re- There are also calls for a tropical timber commodity strict wood imports. Some of these initiatives are agreement that, in addition to mandating the above highly prescriptive, such as a U.S. effort to ban teak surcharge, would establish timber import restrictions from Myanmar and Prince Charles' appeal to ban the based on compliance with a comprehensive conserva- importation of unsustainably grown wood in the U.K. tion and management program designed to achieve no In Germany, however, measures are more sweeping, net loss of forests (55). and in 1989, the government of the Federal Republic officially stopped using tropical timber (65). But such Aside from the difficulties in negotiating an agree- unilateral boycotts may have unintended negative ef- ment, some experts warn that imposition of quotas or fects. Although boycotts do indeed reduce the demand export bans often has undesirable side effects. For ex- for tropical timber, they also deflate not only the value ample, when Thailand recently implemented a ban on of the wood but of the forest as well. Thus forests may log exports to conserve its remaining forests, the black in fact be converted more rapidly to higher-value pur- market in illegal timber began to thrive. Legal timber poses, such as export agriculture or cattle ranching (66). operators sold their equipment to profiteers over whom no government control could be exercised (56). Even when illegal markets do not develop in re- Use Debt to Finance Conservation sponse to quotas or export bans, the economic reper- Tropical nations are presently struggling under a mas- cussions may still be unfavorable. Log export bans, for sive debt load of some $800 billion, which drains their example, artificially force local timber prices down, economic vitality and encourages them to liquidate World Resources 1992-93 122 Forests and Rangelands 8 their forest capital more quickly to raise foreign ex- velopment Bank plans to fund that will run through change (67). One-half the debt of developing countries one of the Ivory Coast's last rainforest tracts (77). is owed by the 14 countries that account for more than two thirds of the global deforestation (68). Many conser- Transfer Funds from North to South vationists have come to view this situation as a unique Leaders of both the industrialized and developing opportunity to fund innovative strategies for saving countries are now more often discussing global initia- tropical forests while reducing tropical nations' debt tives that would benefit countries in both the North burdens. and the South. Many of the proposals hinge on indus- Among the proposed strategies are "debt-for- trialized countries' providing new financial support to nature" swaps, in which a given amount of debt is pur- developing countries. chased by a conservation organization from the deve- One such dialogue among opinion leaders from the loped country lender at a discount. The borrower then Americas resulted in their agreement on eight new ini- redeems the obligation at face value in local currency, tiatives embodied in the Compact for a New World (78). and the proceeds are used to fund conservation efforts The forestry initiative calls for the United States, Can- in the debtor country (69). These swaps have been en- ada, Argentina, and Chile to stop overcutting their dorsed by world leaders, and both the United States and temperate forests, move quickly to sustainable forestry the EC, whose banks hold much of the outstanding debt, on public and private lands (including ending subsi- have publicly advocated expanding their use (70) (71). dized timber cutting), and protect ancient forest re- Although debt-for-nature swaps have so far been serves in the Pacific Northwest region of the United fairly small, their radical expansion as part of a larger States and Canada. Tropical forest countries would North-South bargain is widely expected. Such a bar- seek to halt, and then reverse, net forest loss by reform- gain is predicated on industrialized nations' realization ing policies that further deforestation, promoting affor- that they must assume a fair, some say the major, finan- estation and sustainable forest management, and cial burden of saving tropical forests if they expect to creating economic opportunities that relieve pressures enjoy the global services these forests provide (72) (73). on forest resources. In 1990, the United States passed legislation that will Recognizing that preserving tropical forests is vital, help alleviate the burden of Latin American and Carib- the Compact proposes that the United States and Can- bean countries' external debt. Under the farm bill ada provide major support for national forestry plans (Food, Agriculture and Conservation Trade Act of and support research on the underlying causes of de- 1990), nearly $7 billion of outstanding commercial forestation (e.g., poverty, inequitable land distribution, loans made by the Agency for International Develop- population growth, and the need to service interna- ment and the Food for Peace Program (P.L. 480) can be tional debt) (79). reduced. In addition, interest that accrues on the re- maining balances can be paid in local currency and RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF LOCAL PEOPLES used for environmental programs agreed to by the Local forest dwellers are most vulnerable to the im- debtor country. In 1991, the first debt reductions under pacts of forest destruction. These people are typically the farm bill were orchestrated for Bolivia, Chile, and unrepresented when land-use decisions are made re- Jamaica (74). (For a list of debt-for-nature swaps, see garding their homelands, although the results of those Chapter 20, "Wildlife and Habitat," Table 20.6.) decisions frequently jeopardize their cultural and eco- nomic survival. Several previously proposed Amazon- Expand and Reform Development Assistance ian hydroelectric projects, for example, would have International lenders, such as the multilateral and bilat- flooded 26,000 square kilometers of pristine forest (80). eral development banks, significantly influence devel- In the past few years, a surge of activism has swept opment decisions in the Third World and thus have an many of these indigenous peoples' groups, resulting in important role in ensuring that tropical nations' devel- well-publicized public actions against logging compa- opment is environmentally sound. But in the past, bi- nies and development projects threatening traditional lateral lenders have funded many projects that were forest holdings (81) (82). (See Chapter 14, "Policies and responsible for massive deforestation, including con- Institutions.") In Altamira, Brazil, for example, some struction of jungle highways and hydroelectric plants 600 people representing indigenous groups rallied to and development of plantations. block Xingu River dam construction (83). And in Malay- On the positive side, some of these organizations are sia, native Penan have erected more than three dozen requiring increasingly stringent environmental impact blockades in the past four years to protect their ances- assessments for their projects and are expanding the tral lands from logging (84). The message from these ac- scope of their loan portfolios to include policy and in- tions is clear: local peoples must be a part of any stitutional reform, land use planning, research on attempt to manage their forests. agroforestry and silviculture, and training (75) (76). In Representatives of many local peoples state that they light of the many needs, however, the level of funding must have a predominant and substantive voice, not for these kinds of activities must grow. observer status and after-the-fact consultation, in deci- The environmental policies of these institutions have sions to exploit or develop their traditional domains. been formulated in the past several years, but there are Often their struggle to be heard coincides with efforts still notable lapses, as with a road that the African De- to gain legal title to their ancestral lands—or to expand World Resources 1992-93 123 8 Forests and Rangelands Box 8.4 Peru's HIFCO Project: Sustainable Agroforestry for Cultural Survival Located amidst abandoned farms and de- of annuals and perennials, which are sur- using a home-brewed organic pesticide. graded pastures, the HIFCO project—the rounded by a variety of tree species. The HIFCO project also includes a crop im- Family/Community Integrated Garden Leguminous plants and green mulches provement program, complete with a seed Project (Huerto Integral Familiar Comunal)— are used extensively throughout the gar- bank and a program of field trials. near Pucallpa in Peru's Amazon is a signif- den as a source of nitrogen, and the trees Even while HIFCO works to develop a icant example of how sustainable forest not only produce fruits and timber but sustainable source of food and income practices can contribute to both ecological support vine crops, allowing more effi- within the forest setting, it also sustains in- restoration and cultural preservation (i). cient use of garden space. The area around digenous culture throughout Peru's Ama- When a road was opened from Lima to the garden is being replanted with some zon. Since its second year of operation, Pucallpa in the mid-1960s, Pucallpa area 60 species of trees. HIFCO has been managed and staffed by forests were rapidly and extensively de- Between the raised beds, infiltration indigenous people, with outreach to the pleted through colonization and conver- ditches act as small reservoirs for rain- entire AIDESEP confederacy its primary sion to crop and pastureland. In the pro- water, allowing continued crop produc- goal. cess, the indigenous peoples lost access to tion through the three-month dry season. The HIFCO farm is a training center for their traditional lands. By 1985, when In addition, fish raised in these reservoirs apprentices from AIDESEP's 28 member HIFCO began, the area was dominated by provide a protein supplement to the farm- federations who take part in a comprehen- low-productivity pastures and degraded ers' diet. This year-round production capa- sive 3-month course in sustainable agrofor- farmlands heavily laced with pesticide res- bility, which other local farms lack, pro- estry based on traditional models enhanced idues. vides both food and income security for by modern innovations. AIDESEP then The HIFCO experiment arose in re- HIFCO farm families; they no longer need pays apprentices who finish the course sponse to the need for dependable food to work off-farm during the dry season. one year's stipend to promote the HIFCO production on degraded sites and the de- In addition to the raised-bed gardening model in their own communities. sire of the local Shipibo Indians to restore used to rehabilitate degraded land, Although HIFCO has met with consider- their homeland. Under the aegis of HIFCO farmers also employ a modified able success so far, it faces formidable chal- AIDESEP, the Interethnic Association for "slash-and-burn" system in areas where lenges, particularly with regard to out- Development of the Peruvian Jungle, the forest canopy still remains. In this tradi- reach. Apprentices frequently find their parent body representing 300,000 indige- tionally based system, 1 hectare in the cen- communities reluctant to support HIFCO- nous Amazonian peoples from 60 ethnic ter of a 6-hectare forest plot is burned in a style practices, and start-up funds and con- groups, an 11-hectare abandoned cattle circular pattern for intensive cultivation. tinued field assistance from HIFCO advi- pasture was leased, and a sustainable Intercropping, composting, and animal sers are often limiting factors. Nonethe- farming system using intercropping and manures provide nutrients; in addition, less, the HIFCO experiment is one model infiltration ditches was established. some leaf litter is collected on the sur- for restoring the ecological viability of de- Although initial soil conditions were rounding 5 hectares for use as mulch on nuded forest lands and the cultural integ- poor (soil pH was 3.5, too acidic for most the central plot when productivity begins rity of those who make the forest their crops), a rigorous program of soil improve- to decline. home. ment began. Organic matter, such as leaf The burned plot is planted in concentric litter and animal wastes added to special rings, with vegetables and household food raised beds, transformed the abandoned crops in the center, then staple crops, cash References and Notes pasture into a highly productive small crops, fruit trees, and timber trees the out- farm. By 1990,4.5 hectares had been revi- ermost ring. This planting arrangement talized and brought under intensive culti- creates a tiered effect that maximizes use 1. This account is drawn from: Bruce vation, with a soil pH of 5.2; crop yields of available light, with the lowest-growing Cabarle, "Ecofarming in the Peruvian Am- exceeded those on surrounding "modern" plants in the center and the tallest on the azon: An Indigenous Response," World Re- farms, even without artificial fertilizers or periphery. sources Institute trip report, March 1991, pesticides. HIFCO's production is not limited to pp. 1-8; Bruce Cabarle, Associate, Forestry HIFCO farmers use a novel combination plants. Fish ponds and guinea pigs, geese, and Land Use Program, World Resources of traditional and modern agricultural ducks, guinea hens, and other small farm Institute, Washington, D.C., 1990 (personal practices to work their land. Learning animals provide protein and are an inciden- communication); and Elizabeth Darby Jun- kin, "The Monte: Why the Indigenous Peo- from natural forest species diversity, they tal source of fertilizer. HIFCO's holistic ap- ples of the Amazon Basin Want to Be Part rejected the monoculture of modern agri- proach extends to pest control through of Saving the World's Largest Rainforest," business and planted more than 40 species interplanting insect-repellant plant varie- Buzzworm: the Environmental Journal, Vol. 2, ties, such as marigolds and sesame, and No. 4 (1990), p. 36. the often restricted holdings they have been granted— from consideration in their rush to conserve. At a so that they have legal standing in their bid to prevent spring 1990 meeting in Peru between leaders of Coor- destruction of their forests (85) (86). dinadora de las Organizaciones Indigenas de la Cuenca The lack of local groups participating in develop- Amazonica (COICA)—the umbrella organization repre- ment decisionmaking is exemplified by their conspicu- senting 1.2 million local peoples in the Amazon basin ous absence from ITTO and the forest planning organ- —and representatives of major environmental organi- ized under the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP). zations, local leaders reminded environmentalists that Recent critiques of the plan signal that this major TFAP they do not necessarily speak for the interests of all shortcoming will inevitably weaken the national forest local peoples (89) (90). plans that result (87) (88). Contention especially surrounded the issue of debt- Many local groups also complain that environmen- for-nature swaps, which, so far, have been negotiated tal groups working to prevent deforestation and pre- with little input from local groups. These swaps, the serve biodiversity in the tropics also exclude them groups believe, have harmed their cause in some cases World Resources 1992-93 124 Forests and Rangelands 8 because parkland conservation often excludes tradi- and repository of natural resources. Although all these tional local groups' land uses. The groups believe they values may be present together in the intact forest, dif- should be major participants in negotiating any future ferent management strategies emphasize one over the swaps and that the swaps should explicitly enhance others. their territorial claims and recognize their role in sus- Fortunately, points for compromise may not be hard tainable forest management (91). to find among these different visions of forest use. For COICA welcomed an alliance with environmental example, it is now thought that stabilizing carbon groups while making its position clear: "The most ef- emissions would best be served through minimization fective defense of the Amazonian Biosphere is the rec- of further primary forest loss; deforestation itself may ognition and defense of the territories of the region's account for as much as one quarter the global carbon Indigenous Peoples and the promotion of their models released each year (93). If carbon sink plantations are for living within that biosphere and for managing its deemed a good option to complement this "no net resources in a sustainable way" (92). (See Box 8.4.) loss" strategy, they could be located on degraded land. Their establishment would then also work to relieve FORESTS, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND pressure on natural forests. BIODIVERSITY Similarly, management schemes such as extractive These three issues overlap; their convergence point is reserves can preserve important habitat values while the forest's dual role as habitat and carbon sink. still providing subsistence and commodity values to Because tropical and temperate forests are the terres- human populations. Even more intensive forest uses, trial biomes with the most biomass, they have the high- such as agroforestry systems, can be compatible with est potential for carbon storage as wood fiber and leaf many biodiversity conservation goals, especially when canopy. At the same time, the many levels of the forest the uses are part of an integrated land use plan that in- canopy, with their varying light intensities and mois- cludes undisturbed land. ture levels, allow a multitude of habitats to coexist in a small area, creating the most favorable conditions for biodiversity. Conditions and Trends was written by Mary Paden, World Re- Preserving forests thus contributes to both climate sources managing editor and Focus On Policies to Conserve Tropi- cal Forests by Gregory Mock, a California-based writer. Robert stability and biodiversity goals. Yet other forest values Livernash, World Resources senior editor, also contributed. are independent of these—namely, as human habitat References and Notes 1. L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), 1987 National Resources Inventory, Statistical J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-In- Table 7. Bulletin No. 790 (USDA, Washington, D.C., duced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. 4. L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. 1989), Table 9. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human- 13. L.R. Oldeman, ed., Guidelines for General As- Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human- Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory sessment of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Refer- Degradation (International Soil Reference Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Refer- ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, and Information Centre, Wageningen, the ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), pp. 14-15. Netherlands, 1988), p. 2. the Netherlands, 1990), Table 7. "Vegetated surface" refers to the Earth's total land sur- 5. L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. van Engelen, and 14. Hid., p. 6. face of 13 billion hectares less 1.5 billion J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent of Human-In- 15. Op. cit. 5, p. 5. hectares of "wasteland/' or 11.5 billion hect- duced Soil Degradation," Annex 5 of L.R. 16. Op. cit. 8. ares. Wasteland is defined as areas that "his- Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human- 17. Op. cit. 5, pp. 1-4. toric or recent natural processes have turned [into] terrains without appreciable Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory 18. Op. cit. 5, p. 5. vegetative cover or agricultural potential." Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Refer- 19. Op. cit. 5, p. 6. Six types of wasteland are included: active ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990), Table 7. 20. Op. cit. 5, p. 5. dunes, salt flats, rock outcrops, deserts, ice 21. Op. cit. 5, p. 6. caps, and arid mountain regions. 6. Op. cit. 4, p. 2. 22. Op. cit. 5, p. 7. 7. "Ad-hoc Consultation Meeting Assessment 2. The definition of wasteland is taken from of Global Desertification: Status and Meth- 23. Paul Faeth, Robert Repetto, Kim Kroll, Qi L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. odologies," Desertification Bulletin (United Dai, and Glenn Helmers, Paying the Farm Sombroek, World Map of the Status of Human- Nations Environment Programme), No. 18 Bill (World Resources Institute, Washington Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory (1990), p. 26. D.C., 1991), pp. 35-36. Note, rev. 2d ed. (International Soil Refer- 8. L.R. Oldeman, Program and Project Divi- 24. Pierre R. Crosson, Resources for the Future, ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, sion, International Soil Reference and Infor- Washington, D.C., "Future Economic and the Netherlands, 1990), p. 14. mation Centre, Wageningen, the Nether- Environmental Costs," in The Cropland Cri- lands, 1991 (personal communication). sis: Myth or Reality? Pierre R. Crosson, ed. 3. The calculations for total land and waste- (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 9. Ibid. land are taken from L.R. Oldeman, V.W.P. 1982), p. 184. van Engelen, and J.H.M. Pulles, "The Extent 10. Richard W. Arnold, Director, Soil Survey Di- 25. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project, of Human-Induced Soil Degradation," vision, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the Annex 5 of L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkel- Washington D.C., 1991 (personal communi- United Nations, "Second Interim Report on ing, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the cation). the State of Tropical Forests," paper pre- Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An 11. Op. cit. 4, p. 20. sented at the 10th World Forestry Congress, Explanatory Note, rev. 2d ed. (International 12. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Paris, September 1991 (rev. October 15, Soil Reference and Information Centre, Soil Conservation Service, Summary Report: 1991). World Resources 1992-93 125 8 Forests and Rangelands 26. World Resources Institute in collaboration 45. James LaFleur, Manager, Tropic Interna- 65. Ibid., p. 304. with the United Nations Environment Pro- tional Ltda. (Ecotec), Brazil, 1991 (personal 66. Andre Carothers, "Defenders of the Forest," gramme and United Nations Development communication). Greenpeace, Vol. 15, No. 4 (1990), p. 11. Programme, World Resources 1990-91 (Ox- 46. Eufresina L. Boado, "Incentive Policies and ford University Press, New York, 1990), 67. Op. cit. 50, p. 244. Forest Use in the Philippines," in Public Poli- p. 102. cies and the Misuse of Forest Resources, Robert 68. James Gustave Speth, "Coming to Terms: 27. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Repetto and Malcolm Gillis, eds. (Press Syn- Toward a North-South Bargain for the Envi- United Nations, "Global Tropical Deforesta- dicate of the University of Cambridge, U.K., ronment," in WRI Issues and Ideas (World Re- tion Accelerating: Coordinated Action Key 1988), pp. 184-185. sources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1990), to Control," September 8,1991 (press re- p. 4. 47. Clark S. Binkley and Jeffrey R. Vincent, "For- lease). est-Based Industrialization: A Dynamic Per- 69. J.A. McNeely, K.R. Miller, W.V. Reid, R.A. 28. David S. Wilcove, Charles H. McLellan and spective," The World Bank Forest Policy Mittermeier, and T.B. Werner, Conserving Andrew P. Dobson, "Habitat Fragmentation Issues Paper, 1990, pp. 28-51. the World's Biodiversity (International Union in the Temperate Zone," in Conservation Biol- 48. Owen J. Lynch, Whither the People?" Demo- for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- ogy: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, Mi- graphic, Tenurial, and Agricultural Aspects of sources, World Resources Institute, Conser- chael E. Sonle, ed. (Sinauer Associates, Inc., vation International, World Wildlife Fund- the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (World Re- Boston, Massachusetts, 1986), pp. 237-256. US, and The World Bank, Gland, Switzer- sources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1990), land, 1990), p. 124. 29. T.E. Lovejoy, R.O. Bierregaard, A.B. Ry- p. 9. lands et al., "Edge and Other Effects of Isola- 49. Douglas Southgate, "The Causes of Land 70. Patti Petesch, "Tropical Forests: Conservation tion on Amazon Forest Fragments," in Degradation along 'Spontaneously' Expand- with Development?" Policy Focus, No. 4 Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity ing Agricultural Frontiers in the Third (Overseas Development Council, 1990), p. 10. and Diversity, Michael E. Sonle, ed. (Sinauer World," Land Economics, Vol. 66, No. 1 71. Reuters News Service, "Loggers, Ranchers Associates, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, (1990), p. 93. Ravish Rain Forests," Environment Week, 1986), pp. 257-285. 50. Norman Myers, "The World's Forests and Vol. 3, No. 27 (1990), p. 6. 30. Op. cit. 25. Human Populations: The Environmental In- 72. Op. cit. 50, pp. 244-246. 31. Chapter 19, "Forests and Rangelands," terconnections," in Resources, Environment, 73. Op. cit. 69, p. 89. Table 19.1. and Population: Present Knowledge, Future Op- tions, Kingsley Davis and Mikhail S. Bern- 74. Nina M. Serafino and Betsy A. Cody, "The 32. G. Meira, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Es- stam, eds., Supplement to Population and Enterprise for the Americas Initiative: Issues pacias, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo, Development Review, Vol. 16 (Oxford Univer- for Congress," CRS Issues Brief (.Library of 1991, (personal communication). sity Press and Population Council Inc., New Congress, Washington, D.C., September 10, 33. K.D. Singh, Project Coordinator, Forest Re- 1991), pp. 1-4. sources Assessment 1990 Project, Food and York, 1991), p. 240. Agriculture Organization of the United Na- 51. Judith Gradwohl and Russell Greenberg, 75. The World Bank, Agriculture and Rural De- tions, Rome, 1991 (personal communica- Saving the Tropical Forests (Earthscan Publica- velopment Department, "Forest Policy tion). tions Ltd., London, 1988), pp. 41-42. Paper," Washington, D.C., July 1991. 34. Op. cit. 32. 52. Willem Keddeman, Stef Meijs, and Koos 76. The Inter-American Development Bank, 35. Preparatory Committee for the United Na- van Dijken, An Import Surcharge on the Im- "Foreign Policy," Washington, D.C., March tions Conference on Environment and De- port of Tropical Timber in the European Commu- 1991. velopment, "Land Resources: Deforesta- nity (Netherlands Economic Institute, The 77. Op. cit. 41, p. 42. tion," draft statement of principles prepared Hague, 1989). 78. The New World Dialogue on Environment for Working Group I, Third Session, (Ge- 53. Senator John Heinz, Globe Working Group on and Development in the Western Hemi- neva, August 12-September 4,1991). Tropical Forests: Action Plan Report, report sphere, Compact for a New World: An Open 36. The Office of the Press Secretary, The White given to the Plenary Session of the Global Letter to the Heads of State and Government House, "Proposed Global Forests Conven- Legislators Organization for a Balanced En- and Legislators of the Americas (World Re- tion," July 11,1990 (press release). vironment, Nov. 15,1990, Washington, sources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1991). 37. United Nations Conference on Environment D.C., p. 4. 79. ft!- c o r-. Is-- q ; q co en en co CM CO • * CD CO CO CD CM i - "d; CO O Oi CD T- CD ;qpp CM CO CO COCO CM • * CM CO CO CN CM CM CM CO in co co co CM CM CM CM CO CM T- CM-JO C O " * CO COCO CO CO CM CO CO cqocjcoco m cq CD com T - I s -. 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I - T- m o CD (n CM LO "sj- LO CO •o I CO COO) CMC) OJOCOT-CO s •* co oo co** CO CD T - O CO CM co o c n m i - - i - CM CM CO O) CD CO i- I - o o coo o T- CO I s - -i-CO co in in in CM coocM enco T- O m (N (D CM •«- COCM CM CM com to C O - * * * COCM CM otomco 0) 3 ^ cd tfill ilLl t f §f=J .i?C C < < C D O 3 3 cO (0 JZ D CQCQ CQOOOO OOOfRcS IfIf I L±J UJ CD CD CJ .S-^cTgiB Hi ll 3 alas I-DN r ^ j l 3CQOOO >TOo oil = ^n o mmoo OOOOw COC/)CO QLJJOTI Population and Human Development 16 Structure, 1970-95 Table 16.2 Crude Birth Rate Life Expectancy Percentage of Population (births per 1,000 at Birth in Specific Age Groups population) (years) Total Fertility Rate 1975 1995 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 <15 15-65 >65 <15 15-65 >65 ASIA 34.8 26.9 56.0 64.7 5.1 3.3 39.9 56.0 4.1 32.5 62.1 5.4 Afghanistan 51.6 52.0 38.0 43.5 7.1 6.8 43.8 53.8 2.4 39.8 57.6 2.6 Bahrain 36.0 24.8 63.5 71.6 5.9 3.7 43.0 54.7 2.3 31.9 66.3 1.8 Bangladesh 48.5 40.6 44.9 52.9 7.0 5.1 45.9 50.5 3.6 42.1 55.1 2.8 Bhutan 41.0 38.2 42.3 50.0 5.7 5.5 40.4 56.4 3.2 39.7 56.8 3.5 Cambodia 39.9 36.5 40.3 51.0 5.5 4.4 41.6 55.6 2.8 41.8 55.0 3.2 China 30.6 20.8 63.2 70.9 4.8 2.3 39.4 56.2 4.4 26.3 67.4 6.3 Cyprus 18.0 16.8 71.4 76.6 2.2 2.2 25.9 64.3 9.8 25.4 64.4 10.2 India 38.2 31.0 50.3 60.4 5.4 4.1 39.8 56.4 3.8 36.0 59.2 4.8 Indonesia 38.2 26.6 49.3 62.7 5.1 3.1 42.0 54.8 3.2 33.4 62.2 4.4 Iran, Islamic Rep 44.1 33.1 55.9 67.1 6.5 4.7 45.4 51.3 3.3 41.9 54.0 4.1 Iraq 47.4 40.5 57.0 66.2 7.1 5.9 46.6 50.9 2.5 45.3 51.9 2.8 Israel 27.4 20.8 71.6 76.3 3.8 2.8 32.9 59.3 7.8 29.6 61.7 8.7 Japan 19.2 11.5 73.3 78.8 2.1 1.7 24.3 67.8 7.9 17.0 69.2 13.8 Jordan 50.0 38.8 56.6 67.9 7.8 5.5 47.2 50.0 2.8 43.4 53.9 2.7 Korea, Dem People's Rep 35.8 24.5 61.5 71.1 5.7 2.4 45.2 51.7 3.1 29.3 66.1 4.6 Korea, Rep 28.8 15.4 61.5 70.8 4.1 1.7 37.8 58.6 3.6 23.0 71.6 5.4 Kuwait 44.4 25.7 67.3 73.9 6.9 3.5 44.4 54.0 1.6 33.5 64.8 1.7 Lao People's Dem Rep 44.4 44.2 40.4 51.0 6.2 6.7 42.1 55.2 2.7 44.5 52.5 3.0 Lebanon 32.1 29.6 65.0 67.1 4.9 3.4 41.2 53.8 5.0 36.0 58.7 5.3 Malaysia 34.7 27.7 63.0 70.8 5.2 3.5 42.1 54.2 3.7 37.6 58.5 3.9 Mongolia 41.5 34.4 53.8 63.7 5.8 4.7 43.7 53.4 2.9 40.2 56.5 3.3 Myanmar 37.6 29.7 52.5 62.5 5.4 3.7 40.7 55.5 3.8 36.0 59.7 4.3 Nepal 47.1 36.3 43.3 53.5 6.5 5.5 42.9 53.8 3.3 41.4 55.4 3.2 Oman 49.6 43.2 49.0 67.9 7.2 7.1 44.6 52.7 2.7 47.2 50.1 2.7 Pakistan 47.5 41.9 49.0 59.0 7.0 5.9 • 45.4 51.6 3.0 46.4 50.8 2.8 Philippines 36.9 30.4 57.9 65.0 5.3 3.9 42.8 54.5 2.7 38.4 58.1 3.5 Qatar 31.3 28.4 62.5 70.0 6.8 5.3 33.4 64.6 2.0 35.7 61.8 2.5 Saudi Arabia 47.6 41.8 53.9 65.8 7.3 7.1 44.3 52.7 3.0 45.3 52.1 2.6 Singapore 21.2 16.3 69.5 74.5 2.6 1.8 32.8 63.1 4.1 23.2 70.4 6.4 Sri Lanka 28.9 20.7 65.0 71.6 4.0 2.5 • 39.3 56.6 4.1 30.3 63.8 5.9 Syrian Arab Rep 46.6 42.5 57.0 67.2 7.7 6.3 48.5 47.8 3.7 47.7 49.7 2.6 Thailand 35.1 20.0 59.6 67.1 5.0 2.2 44.9 52.1 3.0 29.3 66.3 4.4 Turkey 34.5 26.9 57.9 66.2 5.0 3.3 40.1 55.4 4.5 33.7 61.4 4.9 United Arab Emirates 33.0 20.3 62.5 71.0 6.4 4.3 28.2 69.8 2.0 28.6 69.1 2.3 Viet Nam 37.6 30.3 50.3 63.9 5.9 3.7 ' 43.7 52.3 4.0 37.6 58.0 4.4 Yemen (Arab Rep) 54.8 50.8 42.5 52.6 8.0 7.6 52.0 45.4 2.6 50.6 47.1 2.3 (People's Dem Rep) 48.2 46.3 43.4 53.4 7.0 6.5 47.5 49.8 2.7 45.6 51.5 2.9 EUROPE 15.7 12.8 71.5 75.3 2.2 1.7 23.9 63.8 12.3 18.9 66.9 14.2 Albania 31.9 21.9 67.7 72.8 4.7 2.7 39.9 55.6 4.5 30.3 63.8 5.9 Austria 13.7 11.5 70.5 75.3 2.0 1.5 23.3 61.8 14.9 17.4 67.1 15.5 Belgium 13.6 11.9 71.4 75.6 1.9 1.7 22.2 63.9 13.9 17.6 66.6 15.8 Bulgaria 16.2 12.2 71.2 73.1 2.2 1.8 22.0 67.1 10.9 18.7 66.8 14.5 Czechoslovakia 18.0 13.9 70.0 72.4 2.3 2.0 23.4 64.5 12.1 21.0 67.0 12.0 Denmark 14.6 11.0 73.6 76.2 2.0 1.5 22.6 64.0 13.4 16.4 68.1 15.5 Finland 13.2 11.8 70.7 75.9 1.6 1.7 22.0 67.4 10.6 18.4 67.7 13.9 France 16.3 13.4 72.4 76.8 2.3 1.8 23.9 62.6 13.5 19.8 65.6 14.6 Germany (Fed Rep) 11.3 10.8 70.6 76.0 1.6 1.4 21.5 64.0 14.5 15.7 68.2 16.1 (Dem Rep) 11.8 11.4 71.2 74.5 1.7 1.7 21.7 62.1 16.2 19.0 67.6 13.4 Greece 15.9 11.6 72.3 76.5 2.3 1.7 23.9 63.9 12.2 18.2 66.6 15.2 Hungary 15.7 11.9 69.9 71.6 2.1 1.8 20.3 67.1 12.6 17.8 67.9 14.3 Iceland 21.0 15.3 74.3 78.1 2.8 1.9 30.0 60.8 9.2 23.6 65.5 10.9 Ireland 22.1 17.8 71.3 75.1 3.8 2.4 31.3 57.7 11.0 26.0 64.0 10.0 Italy 16.0 10.8 72.1 76.4 2.3 1.4 24.2 63.8 12.0 15.5 68.9 15.6 Luxembourg 11.8 11.6 70.4 75.3 2.0 1.5 21.6 65.3 13.1 17.3 68.5 14.2 Malta 17.5 13.4 70.6 73.9 2.1 1.9 24.7 65.7 9.6 21.4 68.2 10.4 Netherlands 15.4 12.9 74.0 77.6 2.0 1.6 25.3 63.9 10.8 18.4 68.4 13.2 Norway 16.8 12.5 74.4 77.4 2.3 1.7 23.8 62.5 13.7 18.4 65.2 16.4 Poland 17.7 14.7 70.4 72.0 2.3 2.1 24.0 66.5 9.5 23.5 65.6 10.9 Portugal 19.5 13.3 68.0 74.5 2.8 1.7 27.9 62.2 9.9 19.7 66.6 13.7 Romania 19.3 15.1 69.0 71.5 2.6 2.0 25.3 65.1 9.6 21.8 66.8 11.4 Spain 19.5 12.8 72.9 77.4 2.9 1.7 27.6 62.4 10.0 18.5 67.3 14.2 Sweden 13.6 12.6 74.7 77.8 1.9 1.9 20.7 64.2 15.1 17.7 64.6 17.7 Switzerland 14.2 11.6 73.8 77.8 1.8 1.6 22.5 64.9 12.6 16.4 68.0 15.6 United Kingdom 14.5 13.7 72.0 76.1 2.0 1.8 23.4 62.6 14.0 19.6 65.1 15.3 Yugoslavia 18.2 13.8 68.4 73.2 2.3 1.9 25.7 65.7 8.6 21.1 67.8 11.1 U.S.S.R. 18.1 16.7 68.6 71.3 2.4 2.3 26.1 64.4 9.5 24.8 64.3 10.9 OCEANIA 23.9 18.6 66.5 72.5 3.2 2.4 31.0 61.5 7.5 25.9 64.7 9.4 Australia 19.5 14.3 71.7 76.9 2.5 1.8 27.6 63.7 8.7 21.5 67.0 11.5 Fiji 31.5 24.0 58.2 65.9 3.7 2.8 39.9 57.4 2.7 34.0 62.5 3.5 New Zealand 20.8 15.8 71.7 75.6 2.8 2.0 30.0 61.3 8.7 22.4 66.4 11.2 Papua New Guinea 41.0 33.3 47.7 55.9 6.1 4.8 41.9 55.0 3.1 40.0 57.4 2.6 Solomon Islands X X X X X X X X X X X X Source: United Nations Population Division. Notes: World and regional totals include countries not listed here. X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 249 16 Population and Human Development Table 16.3 Mortality and Nutrition, 1970-95 Maternal Per Capita Estimated and Projected Deaths Wasting Stunting Average Per Capita Child Deaths {a} (annual, from (percent of (percent of Calories Total Crude Death Rate Infant Death Rate (deaths of children pregnancy, per children children Available Protein (deaths per (infant deaths per < 5 years old per 100,000 live aged 12-23 aged 24-59 (as percent Consumption 1,000 population) 1,000 live births) 1,000 live births) births) months) months) of need) (grams/day) 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1980-88 1980-89 1980-89 1987-89 1987-89 WORLD 12 9 93 63 144 94 71 AFRICA 19 13 137 94 233 147 58 Algeria 15 7 132 61 200 84 130 4 14 118 76 Angola 25 19 173 127 291 214 X X X 77 45 Benin 26 18 136 85 255 167 X X X 98 55 Botswana 17 10 95 58 136 78 250 19 51 102 73 Burkina Faso 24 17 173 127 275 217 810 X X 96 70 Burundi 21 16 143 110 228 173 X 10 60 86 61 Cameroon 20 13 119 86 200 138 300 2 43 95 52 Cape Verde 12 7 82 37 149 70 60 3 26 116 60 Central African Rep 22 16 132 95 250 205 600 X X 89 48 Chad 25 18 166 122 281 205 960 X X 76 55 Comoros 18 12 135 89 175 113 50 X X 81 42 Congo 19 13 90 65 145 101 900 10 23 117 51 Cote d'lvoire 19 13 129 87 240 133 X 17 20 112 54 Djibouti 23 16 154 112 X X 740 19 X X X Egypt 16 9 150 57 240 100 320 2 32 133 84 Equatorial Guinea 24 18 157 117 271 195 X X X X X Ethiopia 23 18 155 122 262 233 X 19 43 70 51 Gabon 20 16 132 94 223 153 X X X 106 63 Gambia, The 27 20 179 132 337 261 1,100 X 35 99 56 Ghana 16 12 107 81 183 129 1,000 15 39 98 49 Guinea 27 20 177 134 305 230 X X X 95 51 Guinea-Bissau 27 21 183 140 276 205 X X X 107 51 Kenya 17 10 98 64 161 99 170 10 42 93 59 Lesotho 19 11 130 89 180 119 X 7 23 102 66 Liberia 20 14 181 126 262 187 X 3 24 104 43 Libya 15 8 117 68 180 96 80 X X 142 81 Madagascar 19 13 172 110 X X 240 17 56 96 51 Malawi 24 19 191 138 334 239 100 8 61 90 61 Mali 25 19 203 159 358 271 X 16 34 95 63 Mauritania 24 18 160 117 266 195 X 24 37 113 78 Mauritius 7 6 55 20 77 24 100 16 22 125 68 Morocco 16 8 122 68 190 96 300 6 34 124 81 Mozambique 22 17 168 130 289 219 300 X X 71 28 Namibia 18 11 134 97 226 159 X X X 86 63 Niger 25 19 166 124 281 209 420 23 38 98 64 Nigeria 20 14 135 96 250 157 800 21 X 98 49 Rwanda 21 16 140 112 237 186 210 5 37 84 51 Senegal 24 16 122 80 275 204 600 8 28 100 68 Sierra Leone 29 22 193 143 358 271 450 14 43 80 38 Somalia 23 18 155 122 262 233 1,100 X X 84 61 South Africa 13 9 110 62 153 80 83 X X 127 79 Sudan 21 14 145 99 245 153 660 13 X 86 58 Swaziland 18 11 144 107 215 155 X X X 113 62 Tanzania 19 13 130 97 219 158 340 17 X 95 49 Togo 19 13 129 85 204 136 X 10 37 93 51 Tunisia 12 6 120 44 180 79 310 4 23 129 83 Uganda 19 14 116 94 194 153 300 4 25 92 48 Zaire 19 13 117 75 214 145 X 5 43 89 33 Zambia 18 12 100 72 164 113 150 X X X 53 Zimbabwe 15 9 93 55 151 99 480 2 31 96 54 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 10 9 39 22 52 34 96 Barbados 9 9 33 10 38 12 69 4 7 134 103 Belize X X X X X X 49 X 36 118 74 Canada 7 8 16 7 20 8 3 X X 130 100 Costa Rica 6 4 51 17 64 21 36 3 8 125 65 Cuba 7 7 36 13 45 15 29 1 X 136 74 Dominican Rep 10 6 94 57 132 72 74 3 26 104 48 El Salvador 11 7 110 53 137 69 70 X X 102 55 Guatemala 13 8 95 48 162 82 110 3 68 102 56 Haiti 18 12 135 86 232 153 230 17 51 89 50 Honduras 14 7 110 57 171 89 50 2 34 99 54 Jamaica 8 6 42 14 48 20 110 6 7 117 65 Mexico 9 5 71 36 100 60 82 X X 131 78 Nicaragua 13 7 100 50 150 76 47 X 22 100 54 Panama 7 5 43 21 68 30 57 7 24 110 64 Trinidad and Tobago 7 6 30 14 37 20 54 5 4 120 70 United States 9 9 18 8 21 10 8 X X 138 111 SOUTH AMERICA 10 7 84 52 113 68 65 Argentina 9 9 49 29 58 34 69 X X 117 101 Bolivia 19 12 151 93 244 143 480 2 51 82 54 Brazil 10 8 91 57 125 77 120 2 31 114 61 Chile 9 6 70 19 79 23 47 1 10 105 70 Colombia 9 6 73 37 102 61 110 1 27 111 58 Ecuador 11 7 95 57 136 79 190 4 39 110 52 Guyana 10 7 79 48 X X 100 9 21 121 69 Paraguay 7 6 53 39 82 55 380 X X 120 73 Peru 13 8 110 76 167 100 88 3 43 96 59 Suriname 8 6 49 28 63 31 89 X X 129 70 Uruguay 10 10 46 20 52 27 38 X 16 105 82 Venezuela 7 5 49 33 67 40 59 4 7 121 65 World Resources 1992-93 250 Population and Human Development 16 Table 16.3 Maternal Per Capita Estimated and Projected Deaths Wasting Stunting Average Per Capita Child Deaths {a} (annual, from (percent of (percent of Calories Total Crude Death Rate Infant Death Rate (deaths of children pregnancy, per children children Available Protein (deaths per (infant deaths per < 5 years old per 100,000 live aged 12-23 aged 24-59 (as percent Consumption 1,000 population) 1,000 live births) 1,000 live births) births) months) months) of need) (grams/day) 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1980-88 1980-89 1980-89 1987-89 1987-89 ASIA 12 8 99 64 151 94 61 Afghanistan 26 22 194 162 340 298 690 X X 83 56 Bahrain 8 3 55 12 73 27 27 X X X X Bangladesh 21 14 140 108 228 168 600 28 70 86 43 Bhutan 21 16 153 118 240 178 1,710 4 56 X X Cambodia 23 15 181 116 271 169 X X X 97 51 China 9 7 61 27 83 36 44 8 41 112 63 Cyprus 10 8 29 10 33 14 X X X X X India 16 10 135 88 218 130 340 X X 99 53 Indonesia 17 9 114 65 173 99 450 11 46 125 60 Iran, Islamic Rep 15 7 122 40 190 138 120 23 55 132 84 Iraq 15 7 96 56 138 74 X X X 122 74 Israel 7 7 23 10 27 14 5 X X 123 103 Japan 7 8 12 5 15 7 16 X X 125 95 Jordan 14 5 82 36 116 45 X X X 110 74 Korea, Dem People's Rep 8 5 47 24 61 26 41 X X 120 80 Korea, Rep 9 6 47 21 61 26 26 X X 121 77 Kuwait 5 2 43 15 55 19 6 2 14 X 93 Lao People's Dem Rep 23 15 145 97 217 139 X 20 44 116 70 Lebanon 9 8 48 40 62 X X X X 129 85 Malaysia 9 5 42 20 62 28 59 X X 123 58 Mongolia 13 8 98 60 X X 100 X X 101 88 Myanmar 14 9 100 59 120 74 140 17 75 115 64 Nepal 21 13 153 118 240 178 830 14 69 94 53 Oman 20 6 145 34 271 129 X X X X X Pakistan 18 11 140 98 226 147 500 17 42 95 60 Philippines 11 7 64 40 101 62 93 7 42 104 53 Qatar 12 4 57 26 76 32 X X X X X Saudi Arabia 17 7 120 58 186 77 X X X 118 85 Singapore 5 6 19 7 23 10 5 4 11 141 90 Sri Lanka 8 6 56 24 79 36 60 19 34 104 46 Syrian Arab Rep 12 6 88 39 125 49 280 X X 124 81 Thailand 9 7 65 24 91 39 50 10 28 104 49 Turkey 12 8 138 62 184 75 210 X X 126 85 United Arab Emirates 10 4 57 22 76 32 X X X 131 101 Viet Nam 14 8 120 54 175 77 140 12 60 84 51 Yemen (Arab Rep) 22 14 168 107 290 171 X 15 b 61 b 86 b 60 b (People's Dem Rep) 23 14 168 107 290 171 X X b X b X b X b EUROPE 10 11 24 11 28 13 103 Albania 7 6 58 32 77 42 X X X 114 85 Austria 13 12 24 9 28 10 7 X X 133 99 Belgium 12 12 19 8 22 10 9 X X 150 c 104 c Bulgaria 9 12 26 14 30 16 13 X X 147 110 Czechoslovakia 11 11 21 13 24 14 10 X X 146 109 Denmark 10 11 12 6 15 8 4 X X 136 101 Finland 10 10 12 5 14 7 6 X X 117 98 France 11 10 16 7 19 8 14 X X 137 113 Germany (Fed Rep) 12 12 22 8 26 10 11 X X 130 101 (Dem Rep) 14 12 17 8 20 10 16 X X 146 114 Greece 9 10 34 13 39 15 9 X X 152 112 Hungary 12 13 34 17 37 X 26 X X 139 104 Iceland 7 7 12 5 15 7 X X X 134 135 Ireland 11 8 18 8 21 10 12 X X 151 107 Italy 10 11 26 9 29 10 10 X X 139 107 Luxembourg 12 11 16 9 20 9 X X X X c X c Malta 9 9 22 9 24 11 X X X 131 99 Netherlands 8 9 12 7 15 8 5 X X 118 98 Norway 10 11 12 6 15 8 2 X X 125 104 Poland 8 10 27 17 31 X 11 X X 132 101 Portugal 11 10 45 13 55 17 12 X X 139 100 Romania 9 11 40 19 47 24 150 X X 123 98 Spain 8 9 21 9 25 9 11 X X 145 103 Sweden 10 12 10 6 12 7 5 X X 110 94 Switzerland 9 10 13 7 16 8 5 X X 133 99 United Kingdom 12 12 17 8 20 9 9 X X 121 91 Yugoslavia 9 9 45 21 53 24 22 X X 163 100 U.S.S.R 9 10 26 20 34 24 48 X X 127 107 OCEANIA 10 8 41 23 52 27 89 Australia 9 8 17 7 20 8 8 X X 120 98 Fiji 9 6 45 24 58 27 X X X 108 69 New Zealand 8 8 16 9 20 11 6 X X 129 104 Papua New Guinea 17 11 105 53 152 67 900 X X 91 49 Solomon Islands X X X X X X 10 15 34 82 54 Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations Children's Fund, United Nations Development Programme, and United Nations Population Division. Notes: a. Data are not necessarily comparable with infant death rate numbers because of differences in methodology. b. Data are for Yemen as a whole. c. Data for Belgium and Luxembourg are combined under Belgium. World and regional totals include countries not listed here. X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 251 16 Population and Human Development T a b l e 1 6 . 4 Access to Safe Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Number of Trained Percentage of Population with Access to: Medical Personnel Safe Drinking Water Sanitation Services Health Services (latest year) Urban Rural Urban Rural 1985-88 Nurses and 1980 1988 1980 1988 1980 1988 1980 1988 All Urban Rural Doctors Midwives Other WORLD AFRICA Algeria X X X X X X X X 88 100 80 9,056 474 67,281 Angola 85 75 10 19 40 25 15 20 30 a X X 481 6,518 1,910 Benin 26 66 15 46 48 42 4 31 18 X X 238 1,640 522 Botswana X 70 X X X 98 X 20 89 a 100 a 85 a X X X Burkina Faso 27 44 31 72 38 35 5 5 49 a 51 a 48 a 131 2,899 9,813 Burundi 90 100 20 34 40 80 35 5 61 X X 216 1,503 196 Cameroon X 100 X 96 X X X X 41 44 39 X X X Cape Verde X 87 21 65 34 35 10 X X X X 60 196 X Central African Rep X 13 X 11 X X X 11 45 X X X X X Chad X X X X X X X X 30 X X X X X Comoros X X X X X X X X X X X 31 168 7 Congo 36 92 3 2 17 X 0 2 83 97 70 210 2,746 406 Cote d'lvoire X 100 X 75 X 69 X 20 30 a 61 a 11 a X X X Djibouti 50 50 20 21 43 94 20 50 X X X 77 534 161 Egypt 88 96 64 82 45 100 10 34 X X X 9,495 12,458 X Equatorial Guinea 47 b X X X 99 b X X X X X X X X X Ethiopia X 70 X 11 X 97 X 7 46 X X 534 1,896 5,907 Gabon X 90 X 50 X X X X 90 b X X 328 X 3,366 Gambia, The 85 92 X 73 X X X X X X X X X X Ghana 72 93 33 39 47 64 17 15 60 92 45 817 X X Guinea 69 55 2 24 54 65 1 X 47 100 40 X X X Guinea-Bissau 18 18 8 27 21 30 13 18 X X X 122 785 137 Kenya 85 X 15 X 89 X 19 X X X X 2,151 17,193 4,581 Lesotho 37 59 11 45 13 14 14 23 80 X X X X X Liberia X 93 16 22 18 4 c 5 8 39 50 30 221 1,152 350 Libya 100 100 90 80 100 100 72 85 X X X 5,019 5,565 1,018 Madagascar 80 62 7 10 9 X X X 56 X X X X X Malawi 77 66 37 49 100 X 81 X 80 X X 262 1,286 351 Mali 37 100 0 36 79 94 0 5 15 X X 349 5,223 308 Mauritania 80 67 85 65 5 34 X X 30 a X X 142 1,230 200 Mauritius 100 100 98 92 100 92 90 96 100 100 100 X X X Morocco 100 100 X 25 X 100 X 19 70 100 50 4,908 22,207 467 Mozambique X 44 X 17 X 61 X 11 39 100 30 X X X Namibia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Niger 41 100 32 52 36 39 3 3 41 99 30 160 7,248 6,611 Nigeria 60 100 30 20 X X X X 40 75 30 11,294 74,033 20,150 Rwanda 48 46 55 64 60 45 50 62 27 a 60 a 25 a 163 X 1,550 Senegal 33 79 d 25 38 d 5 87 d 2 X 40 X X 311 1,393 2,110 Sierra Leone 50 83 2 22 31 59 6 35 X X X 262 2,830 478 Somalia 60 50 20 29 45 41 5 5 27 a 50 a 15 a 325 3,416 5 South Africa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Sudan X 90 e 31 20 e 63 40 e 0 5 e 51 90 40 2,095 12,986 4,189 Swaziland X 100 d X 7 d X 100 d X 25 d X X X 33 477 160 Tanzania X 75 X 46 X 76 X 77 76 a 99 a 72 a X X X Togo 70 100 31 61 24 42 10 16 61 X X 229 1,973 934 Tunisia 100 100 17 31 100 71 X 15 90 b 100 b 80 b 3,453 9,353 11,831 Uganda 45 45 8 12 40 40 e 10 10 e 61 a 90 a 57 a X X X Zaire X 59 X 17 X 14 X 14 26 40 17 X X X Zambia 65 76 32 43 100 77 48 34 75 a 100 a 50 a 880 5,655 2,773 Zimbabwe X 95 X 80 X 95 X 22 71 100 62 X X 3,238 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Barbados 100 100 d 28 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 225 1,134 34 Belize X 94 36 44 62 94 75 28 X X X 44 326 13 Canada X 100 d X 100 d X X X X X X X 48,860 85,539 31,912 Costa Rica 100 100 68 84 93 100 82 93 80 a 100 a 63 a 2,539 5,400 1,492 Cuba X X X X X X X X X X X 18,850 35,062 711 Dominican Rep 85 86 33 28 25 77 4 36 80 X X 3,555 5,184 315 El Salvador 67 76 40 10 80 86 26 39 56 80 40 1,664 5,038 1,214 Guatemala 89 91 18 41 45 72 20 48 34 47 25 3,544 9,093 1,257 Haiti 48 55 8 36 39 X 10 15 50 X X 810 2,537 102 Honduras 50 89 40 60 40 88 26 44 73 85 65 2,800 6,300 614 Jamaica X 95 X 46 X 14 c X X 90 X X 1,115 4,675 233 Mexico 64 79 43 49 51 100 12 12 45 a X X X 87,398 3,207 Nicaragua 91 78 10 19 35 32 c X X 83 100 60 2,110 5,917 250 Panama 100 100 65 66 62 100 28 68 80 a 95 a 64 a 2,167 5,475 410 Trinidad and Tobago 100 100 93 87 95 100 88 97 99 X X 1,213 4,521 238 United States X X X X X X X X X X X 501,200 3,212,700 366,950 SOUTH AMERICA Argentina 65 73 17 17 89 100 32 29 71 80 21 80,100 30,505 7,717 Bolivia 69 77 10 15 37 55 4 13 63 90 36 4,032 1,066 349 Brazil 80 100 51 86 32 89 X 41 X X X 122,818 110,052 23,256 Chile 100 100 17 21 99 100 X 6 97 X X 9,684 32,150 3,100 Colombia X 88 79 87 100 85 4 18 60 X X 23,520 44,520 12,208 Ecuador 82 75 16 37 39 75 14 34 75 92 40 11,033 14,794 4,403 Guyana X 94 60 74 100 85 80 86 X X X 125 887 33 Paraguay 39 65 10 7 95 55 89 60 60 a 90 a 38 a 2,453 3,584 195 Peru 68 78 21 22 57 71 0 17 60 X X 18,200 14,900 8,990 Suriname X 82 79 56 100 64 79 36 X X X 306 1,400 28 Uruguay 96 85 2 5 59 60 60 65 82 X X 5,756 3,000 2,300 Venezuela 91 89 50 89 90 97 70 70 X X X 24,038 15,214 4,342 World Resources 1992-93 252 Population and Human Development 16 Health Services, 1980s Table 16.4 Number of Trained Percentage of Population with Access to: Medical Personnel Safe Drinking Water Sanitation Services Health Services (latest year) Urban Rural Urban Rural 1985-88 Nurses and 1980 1988 1980 1988 1980 1988 1980 1988 All Urban Rural Doctors Midwives Other ASIA Afghanistan 28 39 8 17 X 20 X X 29 80 17 2,957 2,135 329 Bahrain X 100 X 57 X 100 X 94 X X X 518 1,148 19 Bangladesh 26 37 40 89 21 37 1 4 45 X X 14,944 11,197 X Bhutan 50 100 f 5 24 f X 100 f X 7 f 65 X X 52 164 242 Cambodia X X X X X X X X 53 80 50 X X X China X 87 X 66 X 100 X 95 X X X 926,603 759,485 1,784,425 Cyprus 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 X X X 911 2,165 725 India 77 79 31 73 27 38 1 4 X X X 297,228 429,315 21,053 Indonesia 35 60 19 40 29 40 21 45 80 X X 16,698 122,945 37,230 Iran, Islamic Rep X 100 X 75 X 100 X 35 80 95 65 16,918 43,291 2,488 Iraq X 100 X 72 X 92 X 18 93 97 78 9,442 9,931 1,465 Israel X 100 f X 97 f X 99 f X 95 f X X X 11,895 26,895 17,010 Japan X X X X X X X X X X X 181,101 651,660 X Jordan 100 100 65 98 94 100 34 100 97 98 95 2,958 2,596 623 Korea, Dem People's Rep X 100 f X 100 f X 100 f X 100 f X X X 45,120 X X Korea, Rep 86 91 61 49 100 99 100 100 93 97 86 35,657 70,783 X Kuwait X 100 f X X X 100 f X X 100 X X 2,804 8,831 1,134 Lao People's Dem Rep 21 61 12 17 11 X 3 6 67 X X 551 6,753 2,088 Lebanon 100 X 100 X 94 X 18 X X X X 3,953 X X Malaysia 90 92 49 68 100 X 55 75 X X X 5,394 15,902 2,932 Mongolia X 78 X 50 X 100 X 43 X X X 3,881 8,083 15,384 Myanmar 38 38 15 28 38 35 15 27 33 100 11 10,031 41,590 X Nepal 83 66 7 33 16 X 1 X X X X 497 1,707 1,874 Oman X 87 X 42 X 100 X 34 91 100 90 1,240 3,460 80 Pakistan 72 99 20 35 42 40 2 8 55 99 35 34,850 20,295 2,050 Philippines 65 100 43 75 81 98 67 85 X X X 8,132 19,880 X Qatar X 100 X 48 X 100 X 85 X X X 646 1,672 95 Saudi Arabia 92 100 87 74 81 100 50 30 97 100 88 17,544 37,670 1,291 Singapore 100 100 NA NA 80 97 NA NA 100 100 NA 1,086 4,967 890 Sri Lanka 65 87 18 40 80 74 63 44 93 a X X 1,914 11,346 2,204 Syrian Arab Rep 98 91 f 54 68 f 74 72 f 28 55 f 75 a 92 a 60 a 8,593 12,550 2,487 Thailand 65 67 63 76 64 84 41 X 70 85 80 8,058 62,585 13,712 Turkey 95 100 d 62 70 ri 56 95 ri X 90 ri X X X 36,427 48,841 30,412 United Arab Emirates 95 100 f 81 100 f 93 100 f 22 77 e 90 a X X 1,278 3,328 97 Viet Nam X 48 32 45 X 48 55 55 80 100 75 19,861 101,448 43,763 Yemen (Arab Rep) 100 100 18 48 60 66 X X 38 q X X 1,234 2,965 159 (People's Dem Rep) 85 X 25 X 70 X 15 X X g X X 492 2,022 47 EUROPE Albania X 100 rt X 95 rt X 100 rt X 100 rt X X X 2,641 13,372 3,110 Austria X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 19,451 27,655 22,287 Belgium X 100 t X 100 t X 100 t X 100 f X X X 29,776 X 17,006 Bulgaria X 100 f X 96 f X 100 f X 100 f X X X 24,718 57,500 117,924 Czechoslovakia X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 55,871 h 106,968 7,435 Denmark X 100 f X 100 f X 100 f X 100 f X X X 12,806 83,991 9,730 Finland X 99 d X 90 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 11,072 82,951 13,934 France X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 173,116 X 89,276 Germany (Fed Rep) X 100 e X 100 e X 95 e X 83 e X X X 153,895 269,301 140,563 (Dem Rep) X 100 e X 100 e X 100 e X 100 e X X X 37,943 116,600 30,240 Greece X 100 ri X 95 ri X 100 ri X 95 rt X X X 28,212 21,811 8,379 Hungary X 100 d X 95 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 34,758 61,422 4,548 Iceland X 100 ri X 100 rt X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 545 2,724 293 Ireland X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 5,180 25,261 1,131 Italy X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 245,116 X 3,697 Luxembourg X 100 R X 100 e X 100 B X 100 e X X X 663 102 422 Malta 100 100 d 100 100 d 100 100 rt 84 100 rt X X X 413 3,187 453 Netherlands X 100 ri X 100 rt X 100 rt X 100 ri X X X 32,193 971 9,018 Norway X 100 f X 100 f X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 9,176 72,448 7,403 Poland X 94 d X 82 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 73,199 198,934 36,748 Portugal X 97 d X 90 ri X 100 ri X 95 ri X X X 24,629 X 12,287 Romania X 100 rt X 90 ri X 100 ri X 95 rt X X X 40,050 X 6,558 Spain X 100 ri X 100 rt X 100 ri X 100 rt X X X 121,362 148,312 36,392 Sweden X 100 t X 100 f X 100 f X 100 f X X X 21,596 69,261 43,704 Switzerland X 100 f X 100 f X 100 e X 100 e X X X 9,298 X 3,117 United Kingdom X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X 100 ri X X X 92,172 182,897 35,061 Yugoslavia X 100 e X 65 e X 78 e X 46 e X X X 42,365 91,253 50,036 U.S.S.R. X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X 100 d X X X 1,170,000 h X 587,200 OCEANIA Australia X X X X X X X X X X X 36,610 139,434 X Fiji 94 95 i 66 68 85 90 60 65 X X X 325 1,342 X New Zealand X X X X X 100 f X X X X X 5,747 40,950 X Papua New Guinea 55 93 10 23 96 54 3 56 96 X X 269 3,941 301 Solomon Islands 91 82 20 68 82 56 10 5 X X X 38 301 X Sources: World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund. Notes: a. 1980 data. b. 1983 data. c. Population served by sewer connection only. d. 1985 data. e. 1986 data. f. 1987 data. g. Data are for Yemen as a whole, h. Includes dentists, i. Population served by house connection only. 0 = zero or less than 0.5 percent; X = not available; NA = not applicable. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 253 16 Population and Human Development Table 16.5 Education and Child Health, 1970-90 Percentage of Population Age 25 Births ORT Use(a) Low- Adult Adult and Over Who Have Attended (percentage Birth- Female Male Some by Trained of diarrhea Weight Percentage of 1-Year-Olds Literacy Literacy Completed Postsecondary Personnel episodes Infants Fully Immunized in 1990 (percent) (percent) Primary School Education (percent) treated) (percent) 1970 1990 1970 1990 Female Male Female Male 1983-88 1987-88 1980-88 TB DPT Polio Measles WORLD 90 83 85 80 AFRICA 80 56 55 54 Algeria 11 46 39 70 X X 0.1 0.5 15 16 9 99 89 89 83 Angola 7 29 16 56 X X X X 15 12 17 47 23 23 38 Benin 8 16 23 32 X X 0.1 0.5 45 26 8 92 67 67 70 Botswana 44 R5 37 84 21.8 b 21.6 b 0.5 b 1.4 b 77 64 8 92 86 82 78 Burkina Faso 3 9 13 28 X X X X 30 16 X 84 37 37 42 Burundi 10 40 29 61 X X X X 21 30 9 97 86 86 75 Cameroon 19 43 47 66 X X 0.1 0.5 X 24 13 76 56 54 56 Cape Verde X X X X X X X X 30 X X 97 88 87 79 Central African Rep 6 25 26 52 X X X X 66 15 15 96 82 82 82 Chad 2 18 20 42 X X X X 24 2 11 59 c 20 c 20 c 32 Comoros X X X X X X X X 24 X 14 99 94 94 87 Congo 19 44 50 70 X X X X X 6 16 90 79 79 75 Cote d'lvoire 10 40 26 67 X X X X 20 16 14 63 48 48 42 Djibouti X X X X X X X X 73 X 14 95 85 85 85 Egypt 20 34 50 63 X X 1.3 5.5 47 83 5 88 87 87 86 Equatorial Guinea X 37 X 64 X X X X 58 X X 97 78 75 88 Ethiopia X X 8 X X X X X 14 38 X 57 44 44 37 Gabon 22 49 43 74 X X X X 92 10 X 96 78 78 76 Gambia, The X 16 X 39 3.2 5.3 0.1 0.3 85 X 14 99 90 93 73 Ghana 18 51 43 70 X X 0,1 0.7 40 21 17 81 57 56 60 Guinea 7 13 21 35 X X X X 25 1 X 53 17 17 18 Guinea-Bissau 6 24 13 50 1.4 d 1.4 d 0.1 d 0.1 d 27 X 13 90 38 38 42 Kenya 19 59 44 80 X X X X 28 54 15 80 74 71 59 Lesotho 74 X 49 X 13.9 13.7 0.1 0.1 40 68 11 97 76 75 76 Liberia 8 29 27 50 4.5 15.6 0.8 2.2 87 9 X 62 e! 28 e 28 e 55 e Libya 13 50 60 75 1.7 14.8 0.1 1.8 76 60 X 90 c 84 c 84 c 70 Madagascar 43 73 56 88 X X X X 62 80 10 67 46 46 33 Malawi 18 X 42 X 2.6 12.7 0.1 0.3 45 14 20 97 81 79 80 Mali 4 24 11 41 0.7 2.6 0.1 0.3 27 3 17 82 42 42 43 Mauritania X 21 X 47 X X X X 20 23 11 75 28 28 33 Mauritius 59 X 77 X X X 1.9 5.5 85 7 9 94 90 90 84 Morocco 10 38 34 61 2.8 8.6 X X 29 45 X 96 81 81 79 Mozambique 14 21 29 45 1.2 f 4.2 f 0.0 f 0.2 f 28 14 20 59 46 46 58 Namibia X X X X X X X X X X X 85 53 53 41 Niger 2 17 6 40 X X 0.0 g 0.2 g 47 35 15 50 13 13 21 Nigeria 14 40 35 62 X X X X 40 35 20 96 57 57 54 Rwanda 21 37 43 64 2.9 10.2 0.1 0.5 22 24 17 92 84 83 83 Senegal 5 25 18 52 2.7 h 6.9 h 0.0 h 0.2 h 50 27 11 92 60 66 59 Sierra Leone 8 11 18 31 X X X X 25 31 17 98 83 83 75 Somalia 1 14 5 36 X X X X 2 12 X 31 c 18 c 18 c 30 c South Africa X X X X 35.6 37.2 3.1 4.3 X X 12 X X X X Sudan 6 12 28 43 X X X X 20 25 X 73 62 62 57 Swaziland X X X X 17.3 25.4 X X 50 X X 96 c 89 c 89 c 85 c Tanzania 18 X 48 X 10.6 i Xi 0.2 i Xi 60 14 14 93 c 85 c 82 c 83 c Togo 7 31 27 56 X X 0.5 2.3 15 21 20 94 61 61 57 Tunisia 17 56 44 74 X X 1.3 4.3 68 48 8 99 90 90 87 Uganda 30 35 52 62 X X X X 45 14 X 99 77 77 74 Zaire 22 61 61 84 X X X X X 18 13 65 c 32 c 31 c 31 c Zambia 37 65 66 81 X X 0.2 0.6 X 59 14 97 79 78 76 Zimbabwe 47 60 63 74 X X X X 69 26 15 71 73 72 69 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA X X X X Barbados X X X X X X 1.9 5.3 93 X 16 95 91 90 87 Belize X X X X X X 1.2 3.4 80 X 10 80 84 80 81 Canada X X X X 83.7 83.7 34.7 40.2 99 X 6 X X X X Costa Rica 87 93 88 93 34.1 35.5 5.4 6.2 96 78 10 92 95 95 90 Cuba 87 93 86 95 68.8 78.6 4.5 7.3 X 75 8 98 92 94 94 Dominican Rep 65 82 69 85 16.3 20.2 1.3 2.5 57 51 16 68 69 90 96 El Salvador 53 70 61 76 X X 1.9 g 2-7 g 35 45 15 60 76 76 75 Guatemala 37 47 51 63 X X 0.5 1.9 34 17 14 62 66 74 68 Haiti 17 47 26 59 X X 0.4 X 40 35 17 72 41 40 31 Honduras 50 71 55 76 X X 3.3 X 50 66 20 71 84 87 90 Jamaica 97 99 96 98 X X 1.8 2.2 89 15 8 98 86 87 74 Mexico 69 85 78 90 32.2 36.5 2.7 8.0 94 72 15 70 66 96 78 Nicaragua 57 X 58 X X X X X 41 38 15 81 65 86 82 Panama 81 88 81 88 54.7 54.7 7.8 8.8 89 41 8 83 82 82 99 Trinidad and Tobago X X X X 68.8 69.6 1.9 3.9 98 60 X X 83 j 83 j 69 j United States 99 X 99 X 96.8 96.8 28.0 36.9 99 X 7 X X X X SOUTH AMERICA X X X X Argentina 92 95 94 96 61.1 57.8 5.8 6.4 X 13 X 99 85 89 95 Bolivia 46 71 68 85 X X 3.3 6.9 36 26 12 48 41 50 53 Brazil 63 80 69 83 15.9 17.7 4.1 5.9 95 39 8 78 81 93 78 Chile 88 93 90 94 X X 5.9 8.6 98 1 7 97 99 99 98 Colombia 76 86 79 88 X X 1.8 k 5.0 k 51 12 8 95 87 93 82 Ecuador 68 84 75 88 53.7 61.8 5.6 9.6 27 24 11 88 68 67 61 Guyana 89 95 94 98 X X 0.9 2.7 96 X 11 85 83 79 73 Paraguay 75 88 85 92 32.6 37.0 2.5 4.3 22 36 7 90 78 76 69 Peru 60 79 81 92 41.5 56.1 7.7 12.6 44 10 9 83 72 73 64 Surinam© X 95 X 95 X X X X 80 X 12 X 83 81 65 Uruguay 93 96 93 97 X X 10.0 7.9 97 40 8 99 88 88 82 Venezuela 71 90 79 87 X X 5.5 8.5 82 30 9 63 63 72 62 World Resources 1992-93 254 Population and Human Development 16 Table 16.5 Percentage of Population Age 25 Births ORT Use{a} Low- Adult Adult and Over Who Have Attended (percentage Birth- Female Male Some by Trained of diarrhea Weight Percentage of 1-Year-Olds Literacy Literacy Completed Postsecondary Personnel episodes Infants Fully Immunized in 1990 (percent) (percent) Primary School Education (percent) treated) (percent) Against 1970 1990 1970 1990 Female Male Female Male 1983-88 1987-88 1980-88 TB DPT Polio Measles ASIA 95 90 91 88 Afghanistan 2 13 44 1.0 7.7 0.6 5.3 11 20 30 25 25 20 Bahrain X X 82 10.2 22.4 2.2 5.0 98 X X X 95 95 86 Bangladesh 12 22 36 47 X X 0.3 2.2 5 32 28 86 62 62 54 Bhutan X 25 X 51 X X X X 7 40 X 99 95 95 89 Cambodia 23 22 X 48 X X X X 47 X 54 40 40 34 China X 62 X 84 37.7 72.2 0.5 1.5 X 30 9 99 97 98 98 Cyprus X X X X X X 12.0 k X X X X X 90 90 74 India 20 34 47 62 X X 1.1 3.8 33 23 30 97 92 93 87 Indonesia 42 68 66 84 19.6 35.1 0.4 1.2 31 56 14 93 87 91 86 Iran, Islamic Rep 17 43 40 65 X X X X 82 38 5 95 93 92 83 Iraq 18 49 50 70 X X X X 50 51 9 96 75 75 62 Israel 83 X 93 X X X 20.9 25.4 100 X 7 X X X X Japan 99 X 99 X 99.2 99.4 9.5 19.5 100 X 5 X X X X Jordan 29 70 64 89 X X X X 83 53 5 X 92 92 87 Korea, Dem People's Rep X X X X X X X X 65 52 X 99 98 99 99 Korea, Rep 81 94 94 99 X X 4.0 14.1 70 X 9 72 74 74 95 Kuwait 42 67 65 77 X X 11.6 13.2 99 4 7 X c 94 c 94 c 98 c Lao People's Dem Rep 28 X 37 X X X X X X 30 39 26 18 26 13 Lebanon 58 73 79 88 21.7 30.0 1.1 5.0 X 10 10 X 82 82 39 Malaysia 48 70 71 87 21.4 I 31.5 I X X 82 20 10 99 c 91 90 90 Mongolia 74 X 87 X X X X X 99 59 10 92 c 84 c 85 c 86 c Myanmar 57 72 85 89 X X 1.5 2.5 57 21 16 75 m 69 m 69 m 73 m Nepal 3 13 23 38 X X 6.8 n X n 6 28 X 97 79 78 67 Oman X X X X X X X X 60 19 7 93 96 96 96 Pakistan 11 21 30 47 X X 0.7 3.0 24 42 25 98 96 96 97 Philippines 81 90 84 90 55.4 58.4 15.1 15.3 57 14 18 96 88 88 85 Qatar X X X X X X 15.3 12.7 90 X X 97 82 82 79 Saudi Arabia 2 48 15 73 X X X X 74 32 6 99 94 94 90 Singapore 55 X 82 X X X 2.0 4.8 100 X 7 99 85 85 87 Sri Lanka 69 84 85 93 X X 0.8 1.4 87 77 28 88 90 90 83 Syrian Arab Rep 20 51 60 78 X X 0.4 2.2 37 31 11 92 90 90 87 Thailand 72 90 86 96 8.3 16.1 2.4 3.4 40 30 12 99 92 92 80 Turkey 34 71 69 90 X X 1.5 5.7 78 X 7 X 84 84 76 United Arab Emirates 7 X 24 X X X 4.1 6.6 96 13 7 96 85 85 75 Viet Nam X 84 X 92 X X X X X 17 18 90 87 87 87 Yemen (Arab Rep) 1 26 9 53 X X X X 12 0 7 0 X 99 o 89 o 89 o 74 o (People's Dem Rep) 9 26 31 53 X X X X X o X o X X o X o X 0 X 0 EUROPE X X X X Albania X X X X X X X X X X 7 X X X X Austria X X X X X X 1.6 5.4 X X 6 X X X X Belgium 99 X 99 X X X 5.3 p 9.9 p 100 X 5 X X X X Bulgaria 89 X 94 X X X X X 100 X 6 X X X X Czechoslovakia X X X X X X 4.0 8.2 100 X 6 X X X X Denmark X X X X X X X X 100 X 6 X X X X Finland X X X X X X 11.7 16.2 100 X 4 X X X X France 98 X 99 X X X X X 99 X 5 X X X X Germany (Fed Rep) X X X X X X 1.9 7.2 100 X 6 X X X X (Dem Rep) X X X X X X 14.1 21.3 99 X 6 X X X X Greece 76 89 93 98 63.9 80.0 4.9 10.5 97 X 6 X X X X Hungary 98 X -98 X 89.5 92.3 5.0 9.3 99 X 10 X X X X Iceland X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Ireland X X X X X X 6.5 9.3 X X 4 X X X X Italy 93 96 95 98 X X 2.9 5.4 100 X 7 X X X X Luxembourg X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Malta X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Netherlands X X X X X X 4.8 9.6 100 X X X X X X Norway X X X X X X 8.8 15.2 100 X 4 X X X X Poland 97 X 98 X 81.5 87.9 4.4 7.2 100 X 8 X X X X Portugal 65 82 78 89 29.2 50.3 0.9 2.5 87 X 5 X X X X Romania 91 X 96 X X X 4.6 n X n 100 X 6 X X X X Spain 87 93 93 97 50.7 58.7 5.8 8.3 96 X 1 X X X X Sweden X X X X X X 14.1 q 16.7 q 100 X 4 X X X X Switzerland X X X X X X X X 99 X 5 X X X X United Kingdom X X X X X X 8.0 X 100 X 7 X X X X Yugoslavia 76 88 92 97 X X 4.8 9.0 86 X 7 X X X X U.S.S.R. 97 X 98 X 88.6 96.4 12.7 15.4 98 X 6 X X X X OCEANIA X X X X Australia X X X X X X 10.0 33.2 99 X 6 X X X X Fiji X X X X 50.2 56.6 3.4 5.7 98 X 14 99 97 96 84 New Zealand X X X X X X 27.6 33.8 99 X 5 X X X X Papua New Guinea 24 38 39 65 5.4 12.8 X X 34 46 25 89 69 69 67 Solomon Islands X X X X X X 1.0 2.1 80 X 9 87 77 75 70 Sources: United Nations Children's Fund, United Nations Development Programme, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Notes: a. Oral Rehydration Therapy, b. Population age 12 and older, c. 1989 data. d. Data are for males and females combined, age 7 and over. e. 1988 data. f. Population age 5 and older, g. Population age 10 and older, h. Population age 6 and older, i. Data are for males and females combined, age 10 and older, j . 1989 data, for Trinidad only. k. Population age 20 and older. I. Data for all ages. m. Government-controlled areas only. n. Data are for males and females combined, o. Data are for Yemen as a whole, p. Population age 14 and older, q. Population age 25-74. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 255 16 Population and Human Development Table 16.6 Contraceptive Prevalence and Availability Percentage of Married Couples with Affordable Access to Date of Percentage of Married Couples Currently Using Female Latest Any Sterilization Inject- Vaginal Other Steril- Survey Method Female Male Pill able IUD Condom Barriers Methods {a} ization Pill Condom Abortion Other WORLD AFRICA Algeria 1986/87 36 1 0 27 1 2 1 0 5 X 40 25 X X Benin 1981/82 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 X 65 43 X X Botswana 1988 33 4 0 15 5 6 1 0 1 80 b 95 c,d 95 X X Burkina Faso X X X X X X X X X X 2 50 d 65 X X Burundi 1987 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 10 b 60 60 X X Cameroon 1978 2 X X 0 X 0 0 0 2 X X X X X Central African Rep X X X X X X X X X X 8 5 5 X X Cote d'lvoire 1980/81 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 8 15 50 X Egypt 1988/89 37 2 0 15 0 16 2 0 1 53 97 84 58 X Ethiopia X X X X X X X X X X 3 30 30 X X Ghana 1988 13 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 8 X X X X X Guinea X X X X X X X X X X X 2 c,d 2 X X Kenya 1988/89 27 5 0 5 3 4 1 0 9 21 54 58 X X Lesotho 1977 5 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 6 50 16 X X Liberia 1986 6 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 X X X X X Madagascar X X X X X X X X X X 2 7 d 8 X X Malawi 1984 7 X e X e 1 0 0 0 X e 6 X X X X X Mali 1987 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 1 b 45 75 X X Mauritania 1981 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X X X X X Mauritius 1985 75 5 0 21 6 2 11 1 30 X X X X X Morocco 1987 36 2 0 23 0 3 1 0 7 40 98 80 X X Nigeria 1981/82 5 0 X 0 0 0 0 X 4 6 24 29 X 15 f Rwanda 1983 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 2 X 5 X 53 g Senegal 1986 11 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 9 X 10 15 X X Sierra Leone X X X X X X X X X X 15 23 26 15 X South Africa 1981 48 8 0 15 14 6 3 X h 3 X X X X X Sudan 1989 9 1 0 4 0 1 0 0 3 X 7 15 X X Swaziland 1988 20 3 0 6 6 2 1 0 3 X X X X X Tanzania X X X X X X X X X X 3 b X X 3 X Togo 1988 34 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 31 4 48 63 48 X Tunisia 1988 50 12 X i 9 1 17 1 1 9 84 73 41 68 X Uganda 1988/89 5 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 6 22 6 X X Zaire X X X X X X X X X X X 1 c,d 5 X X Zambia X X X X X X X X X X 28 40 30 X X Zimbabwe 1988 43 2 0 31 0 1 1 0 7 4 b X 50 X 38 g NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Antigua 1988 53 11 X e 26 3 1 6 3 2 X X X X X Barbados 1980/81 47 14 0 16 2 4 5 3 2 X X X X X Canada 1984 73 31 13 11 X 6 8 2 4 100 b 100 100 83 X Costa Rica 1986 70 14 1 21 1 8 13 1 11 45 90 90 X 15 f Cuba 1987 70 22 0 10 X X 2 0 2 98 100 100 100 X Dominica 1981 49 15 b X 17 10 2 4 1 2 X X X X X Dominican Rep 1986 50 33 0 9 0 3 1 0 3 65 90 90 X X El Salvador 1988 47 30 1 8 1 2 2 0 3 66 89 94 7 X Grenada 1985 31 2 0 8 3 3 8 4 4 X X X X X Guatemala 1987 23 10 1 4 1 2 1 0 4 50 60 65 X X Haiti 1989 10 3 0 4 2 1 1 1 1 22 b 28 70 32 X Honduras 1987 41 13 0 13 0 4 2 0 8 88 94 88 X X Jamaica 1988/89 55 14 0 20 8 2 9 0 3 32 X 100 2 100 g Mexico 1987 53 19 1 10 3 10 2 1 8 90 97 97 X X Nicaragua 1981 27 7 0 11 1 2 1 1 4 X X X X X Panama 1984 58 32 0 12 1 6 2 1 4 25 80 80 X X St. Lucia 1981 43 11 b X 21 2 1 4 1 3 X X X X X St. Vincent 1988 58 13 X e 24 7 3 7 X e 4 X X X X X Trinidad and Tobago 1987 53 8 0 14 1 4 12 5 8 22 b 100 100 X X United States 1988 74 23 13 15 0 2 11 6 5 80 90 100 78 X SOUTH AMERICA Argentina X X X X X X X X X X 2 45 50 5 X Bolivia 1989 30 4 0 2 1 5 0 0 18 X X X X X Brazil 1986 66 27 1 25 1 1 2 1 9 50 90 95 X X Chile X X X X X X X X X X 60 85 c 90 X X Colombia 1990 66 21 1 14 2 12 3 2 11 90 90 90 X X Ecuador 1989 53 18 0 8 1 12 1 1 11 60 90 90 50 X Guyana 1975 31 9 0 9 0 6 3 2 3 X X X X X Paraguay 1990 48 7 0 14 5 6 3 1 13 X X X X X Peru 1986 46 6 0 7 1 7 1 1 23 69 90 89 X X Uruguay X X X X X X X X X X 17 94 94 X X Venezuela 1977 49 8 0 15 0 9 5 1 12 X X 58 X 63 k ASIA Afghanistan 1972/73 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 X e 0 X X X X X Bangladesh 1989 31 9 1 9 1 2 2 0 7 83 86 93 X 35 f China 1988 71 27 8 4 X e 30 2 0 1 92 b 84 c 84 92 X India 1988 43 31 b X 1 X 2 5 0 4 85 b 40 c 60 65 X Indonesia 1987 48 3 0 16 10 13 2 X e 4 30 90 91 X 39 f Iran, Islamic Rep X X X X X X X X X X X 50 40 X X Iraq 1974 15 1 X 9 1 1 1 1 2 X X X X X Israel X X X X X X X X X X X 100 c 100 95 X Japan 1988 56 3 1 1 X 3 43 0 14 X X 100 100 X Jordan 1985 27 5 0 6 0 11 0 0 4 25 30 20 X X Korea, Dem People's Repi X X X X X X X X X X 4 X X X 63 k Korea, Rep 1988 77 37 11 3 X e 7 10 2 7 90 b 98 98 85 X Lebanon 1971 53 1 0 14 X 1 7 X 35 15 29 28 X 29 f Malaysia 1984 51 8 0 12 1 2 8 0 31 60 99 99 X X World Resources 1992-93 "56 Population and Human Development 16 Table 16.6 Percentage of Married Couples with Affordable Access to Date of Percentage of Married Couples Currently Using Female Latest Any Sterilization Inject- Vaginal Other Steril- Survey Method Female Male Pill able IUO Condom Barriers Methods (a) ization Pill Condom Abortion Other Myanmar X X X X X X X X X X 6 13 5 44 X Nepal 1986 14 6 6 1 1 0 1 X 0 29 14 9 X X Pakistan 1984/85 8 2 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 3 30 39 X X Philippines 1986 44 11 b X 6 0 2 1 X e 23 16 b 40 38 X X Singapore 1982 74 22 1 12 X i X i 24 14 1 100 b 100 c,d 100 100 X Sri Lanka 1987 62 25 5 4 3 2 2 0 22 68 h 86 86 X 56 f Syrian Arab Rep 1978 20 0 0 12 0 1 1 1 5 X 65 45 X X Thailand 1987 68 22 6 20 9 7 1 0 2 74 b 95 95 X 43 t Turkey 1988 63 2 0 6 0 14 7 2 32 22 74 74 49 X Viet Nam 1988 53 3 0 0 X 31 1 X e 18 30 X 20 50 60 k Yemen (Arab Rep) 1979 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 I X 70 I X 45 k,l EUROPE Austria 1981/82 71 1 0 40 0 8 4 3 15 100 b 100 100 X X Belgium 1982/83 81 17 b X 32 0 8 6 0 17 100 100 100 95 X Bulgaria 1976 76 1 1 2 0 2 2 X 69 X X 100 100 68 k Czechoslovakia 1977 X X X X X X X X X X X 100 100 100 k Denmark 1975 63 X X 22 0 9 25 4 4 100 b 100 100 100 X Finland 1977 80 4 1 11 0 29 32 1 3 100 b 90 100 90 X France 1988 81 7 0 30 0 26 4 X e 15 X 100 c 100 98 X Germany (Fed Rep) 1985 78 10 2 34 0 15 6 1 10 90 100 m 100 m 95 m X Greece X X X X X X X X X X X 100 100 100 X Hungary 1986 73 X X 39 0 19 4 1 11 X 100 100 100 X Ireland X X X X X X X X X X 87 i 88 83 X X Italy 1979 78 1 0 14 0 2 13 2 46 X 100 100 56 X Netherlands 1988 76 4 11 41 X n 7 8 X e 4 100 b 100 100 100 X Norway 1977 71 4 2 13 0 28 16 2 7 100 100 100 100 X Poland 1977 75 X X 7 0 2 14 3 49 X X X X X Portugal 1979/80 66 1 0 19 2 4 6 2 34 X 100 100 X X Romania 1978 58 X X 1 0 0 3 1 53 X X X 100 X Spain 1985 59 4 0 16 X e 6 12 X e 22 X 80 70 30 X Sweden 1981 78 3 b X 23 0 20 25 X h 7 100 | 100 100 100 X Switzerland 1980 71 16 b X 28 0 11 8 2 6 100 100 100 90 X United Kingdom 1983 81 12 12 29 0 9 15 2 7 100 i 100 100 100 X Yugoslavia 1976 55 X X 5 0 2 2 3 43 30 100 100 100 X USSR. X X X X X X X X X X X 10 20 90 X OCEANIA Australia 1986 76 28 10 24 X 5 4 1 4 90 100 85 90 X Fiji 1974 41 16 0 8 0 5 6 0 6 X X X X X New Zealand 1976 70 11 9 29 X e 4 8 X e 10 95 95 100 95 X Papua New Guinea X X X X X X X X X X 4 17 60 X 10 f Sources: Population Crisis Committee and the United Nations Population Division. Notes: a. Includes periodic abstinence (such as rhythm method), abstinence, withdrawal, and douche, or a combination of methods, b. Both sexes, c. Includes access to lUDs. d. Includes access to injectables. e. Included in "Other Methods." f. Access to menstrual regulation only. g. Access to injectables only. h. Included under "Condom." i. Included under "Vaginal Barriers." j . Male sterilization only. k. Access to lUDs only. I. Data for both Yemen Arab Republic and People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, m. Data for both Federal Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic, n. Included under "Pill." 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not covered in survey or not reported. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. Sources and Technical Notes Table 16.1 Size and Growth of of urban and rural populations, and the lev- United Nations Statistical Office and pub- Population and Labor Force, els of internal and international migration. lished in the Demographic Yearbook.) Information collected through recent pop- After the figures for population size and 1950-2025 ulation censuses and surveys is used to cal- age/sex composition have been adjusted, Sources: United Nations Population Divi- culate or estimate these parameters, but the data are scaled to 1985. Similar esti- sion, World Population Prospects 1990 (U.N., accuracy varies. The United Nations Popu- mates are made for each five-year period New York, 1991); International Labour Of- lation Division's Department of Interna- between 1950 and 1980. Historical data are fice (ILO), unpublished data (ILO, Geneva, tional Economic and Social Affairs (DIESA) used when deemed accurate, also with ad- 1986). compiles and evaluates census and survey justments and scaling. However, accurate Population refers to the midyear popula- results from all countries. These data are ad- historical data do not exist for many devel- tion. Most data are estimates based on pop- justed for overenumeration and underenu- oping countries. In these cases, the Popula- ulation censuses and surveys. All pro- meration of certain age and sex groups tion Division uses available information jections are for the medium-case scenario (infants, female children, young males), and demographic models to estimate the (see the following discussion). The average misreporting of age and sex distributions, main demographic parameters. annual population change takes into account changes in definitions, and so forth, when Projections are based on estimates of the the effects of international migration. necessary. These adjustments incorporate 1985 base-year population. Age- and sex- Many of the numbers in Tables 16.1-16.3 data from civil registrations, population specific mortality rates are applied to the are estimated using demographic models surveys, earlier censuses, and, when neces- base-year population to determine the num- based on several kinds of demographic pa- sary, population models based on informa- ber of survivors at the end of each five-year rameters: a country's population size, age tion from socioeconomically similar period. Births are projected by applying and sex distribution, fertility and mortality countries, (Because the figures have been age-specific fertility rates to the projected fe- rates by age and sex groups, growth rates adjusted, they are not strictly comparable male population. Births are distributed by to the official statistics compiled by the an assumed sex ratio, and the appropriate World Resources 1992-93 257 16 Population and Human Development age-and sex-specific survival rates are ap- sion, World Population Prospects 1990 (U.N., do not differ appreciably in weight or plied. Future migration rates are also esti- New York, 1991); Child deaths: United Na- height. WHO has accepted the NCHS mated on an age-and sex-specific basis. tions Population Division, Mortality of Chil- weight-for-age and weight-for-height stan- Combining future fertility, mortality, and dren Under Age 5: World Estimates and dards. Children with low weight-for-age migration rates yields the projected size Projections, 1950-2025 (U.N., New York, are at a high risk of mortality. Data on wast- and composition of the population. 1988); Maternal deaths, wasting, and stunt- ing and stunting, provided to UNDP and Assumptions about future mortality, fer- ing: United Nations Children's Fund (UNI- UNICEF by WHO, refer to a single year be- tility, and migration rates are made on a CEF), State of the World's Children 1991 tween 1980 and 1989 (1980 to 1988 for country-by-country basis and, when possi- (UNICEF, New York, 1991); Maternal UNDP data). Data for some countries are ble, are based on historical trends. Four sce- deaths for Cape Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, outside the range of years or ages indicated. narios of population growth (high, med- The Gambia, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Sur- The per capita average calories available (as ium, low, and constant) are created by iname, Bahrain, and the Solomon Islands percent of need) and the per capita total protein using different assumptions about these and wasting and stunting data for Cape consumption are calories and protein from rates. For example, the medium-case sce- Verde, Djibouti, The Gambia, Liberia, all food sources: domestic production, inter- nario assumes medium levels of fertility, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Zaire, Barbados, Be- national trade, stock drawdowns, and for- mortality, and migration—assumptions lize, Guyana, Nepal, and the Solomon Is- eign aid. Total protein is the amount that may vary among countries. Refer to lands: United Nations Development Pro- provided from animal and vegetable food the source for further details. gramme (UNDP) Human Development Re- sources. The quantity of food available for The labor force includes all people who port 1991 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, human consumption, as estimated by FAO, produce economic goods and services. It in- 1991). Per capita average calories available is the amount that reaches the consumer. cludes all employed people (employers, the as a percentage of need and per capita total The calories and protein actually consumed self-employed, salaried employees, wage protein consumption: Food and Agriculture may be lower than the figures shown, de- earners, unpaid family workers, members Organization of the United Nations (FAO), pending on how much is lost during home of producer cooperatives, and members of Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, July 1991). storage, preparation, and cooking, and how the armed forces), and the unemployed (ex- The crude death rate is derived by dividing much is fed to pets and domestic animals perienced workers and those looking for the number of deaths in a year by the mid- or discarded. Estimates of daily caloric re- work for the first time). year population, and multiplying by 1,000. quirements vary for individual countries ac- The ILO determines the average annual The infant death rate is derived by divid- cording to the age distribution and esti- growth of the labor force by multiplying the ac- ing the number of babies who die before mated level of activity of the population. tivity rates of age/sex groups (the economi- their first birthday by the number of live cally active fraction of an age/sex group) by births in that year, and multiplying by 1,000. Table 16.4 Access to Safe the number of people in those groups. Esti- Child deaths are derived by dividing the Drinking Water, Sanitation, and mates of activity rates are based on informa- number of children under age 5 who die in tion from national censuses and labor force a given year by the number of live births in Health Services, 1980s surveys. ILO adjusts national labor force sta- that year, and multiplying by 1,000. Infant Sources: Drinking water and sanitation: tistics when necessary to conform to interna- and child death rates are projected from the World Health Organization (WHO), The In- tional definitions. The growth of age/sex latest estimates available from the United ternational Drinking Water Supply and Sanita- groups is provided to ILO by the United Na- Nations Population Division. These death tion Decade: Review of Mid-Decade Progress tions Population Division. rates are not comparable because different (as at December 1985) (WHO, Geneva, Sep- parameters were used in modeling pro- tember 1987); WHO, The International Drink- Table 16.2 Trends in Births, Life jected changes. ing Water Supply and Sanitation Decade: Maternal deaths are the number of deaths Review of National Progress (as at December Expectancy, Fertility, and Age 1983); WHO, The International Drinking from pregnancy- or childbirth-related Structure, 1970-95 causes per 100,000 live births. A maternal Water Supply and Sanitation Decade: Review death is defined by the World Health Orga- of National Baseline Data: December 1980 Source: United Nations Population Divi- (WHO, Geneva, 1984); WHO, Global Strat- sion, World Population Prospects 1990 (U.N., nization (WHO) as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termina- egy for Health for All. Monitoring 1988-1989. New York, 1991). Detailed analysis of global indicators (WHO, The crude birth rate is derived by dividing tion of pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy, including Geneva, May 1989); and unpublished data the number of live births in a given year by (WHO, Geneva, July 1991). Access to health the midyear population. This ratio is then abortion. Most official maternal mortality rates are underestimated because causes of services: United Nations Children's Fund multiplied by 1,000. (UNICEF), State of the World's Children 1991 Life expectancy at birth is the average num- death are often incorrectly classified or un- available. In some countries, over 60 percent (UNICEF, New York, 1991). Numbers of ber of years that a newborn baby is ex- trained medical personnel: WHO, 1988 pected to live if the age-specific mortality of women's deaths are registered without a specified cause. Maternal deaths are highest World Health Statistics Annual (WHO, Ge- rates effective at the year of birth apply neva, 1988). throughout his or her lifetime. among women of ages 10-15 years, and The total fertility rate is an estimate of the over 40 years, and in women with five or WHO collected data on drinking water number of children that an average woman more children. Data are provided to UNDP and sanitation from national governments in would have if current age-specific fertility and UNICEF by WHO and refer to a single 1980,1983,1985, and 1988 using question- rates remained constant during her repro- year between 1980 and 1988 (1980 to 1987 naires completed by public health officials, ductive years. for UNDP data). Data for some countries are WHO experts, and Resident Representatives outside the range of years indicated. of the United Nations Development Pro- The percentage of population in specific age gramme. Data for a number of countries groups shows a country's age structure: Wasting indicates current acute malnutri- tion and refers to the percentage of children were gathered during 1986-87. For several 0-14,15-65, and over 65 years. It is useful countries in Africa, dates were not given. for inferring dependency, needs for educa- between the ages of 12 and 23 months tion and employment, potential fertility, whose weight-for-height is less than 77 per- Urban and rural populations were de- and other age-related factors. For addi- cent of the median weight-for-height of the fined by each national government. tional details, see sources or the Technical reference population of the U.S. National WHO defines reasonable access to safe Note for Table 16.1. Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). Stunt- drinking water in an urban area as access to ing, an indicator of chronic undernutrition, piped water or a public standpipe within Table 16.3 Mortality and refers to the percentage of children between 200 meters of a dwelling or housing unit. In the ages of 24 and 59 months whose height- rural areas, reasonable access implies that a Nutrition, 1970-95 for-age is less than 77 percent of the me- family member need not spend a dispropor- Sources: Crude death rate and infant death dian. NCHS, among others, has found that tionate part of the day fetching water. "Safe" rate data: United Nations Population Divi- healthy children under the age of 5 years drinking water includes treated surface World Resources 1992-93 258 Population and Human Development 16 water and untreated water from protected and Suriname: United Nations Develop- data (U.N., New York, March 1991). Afford- springs, boreholes, and sanitary wells. ment Programme (UNDP), Human Develop- able access to contraception: Population Cri- Urban areas with access to sanitation ser- ment Report 1991 (Oxford University Press, sis Committee (PCC), Access to Affordable vices are defined as urban populations New York, 1991); TB, DPT, polio, and mea- Contraception, 1991 Report on World Progress served by connections to public sewers or sles immunization: UNICEF, unpublished Towards Population Stabilization (PCC, Wash- household systems such as pit privies, data, September 1991. ington, D.C., 1991). pour-flush latrines, septic tanks, communal Adult female and adult male literacy rates Contraceptive prevalence is the level of toilets, and other such facilities. Rural popu- refer to the percentage of people over the current contraceptive use among couples in lations with access were defined as those age of 15 who can read and write. UN- which the woman is of childbearing age. with adequate disposal such as pit privies, ESCO recommends defining as illiterate a The data were obtained from nationally rep- pour-flush latrines, and so forth. Applica- person who cannot both read with under- resentative sample surveys of women be- tion of these definitions may vary, and com- standing and write a short and simple state- tween the ages of 15 and 49 who are parisons can therefore be misleading. ment on his or her everyday life. This married or cohabiting. The ages of women The population with access to health ser- concept is widely accepted, but its interpre- interviewed for some surveys varied vices is defined by UNICEF as the percent- tation and application vary. It does not in- slightly from this range. Many of these sur- age of the population that can reach local clude people who, though familiar with the veys were conducted as part of the World health services by local transport in no basics of reading and writing, do not have Fertility Survey (WFS), Contraceptive Prev- more than one hour. the skills to function at a reasonable level in alence Surveys (CPSs), or Demographic Data on number of trained medical personnel their own society. Actual definitions of Health Surveys (DHS). are the latest available to WHO regional of- adult literacy are not strictly comparable The survey procedure of determining use fices at the beginning of 1988. Most are among countries. Literacy data for 1990 are of a method varied: most surveys named from 1983-86; however, some go back to projected from past census figures, using es- and described each contraceptive method, 1977. Comparisons should be made with timates of age group size within country but a few asked only general questions care, since categories and definitions vary populations when available. about use of family planning, without nam- among countries. The percentage of population age 25 and over ing the methods. Health care personnel have been com- who have completed primary school and who Sterilization includes both female and bined into three categories: have some postsecondary education are figures male voluntary sterilization. Female steril- Doctors: all physicians or surgeons; based largely on national censuses and sam- ization is significantly more prevalent than Nurses and midwives: all registered nurses ple surveys taken between 1970 and 1989. male sterilization; the Netherlands is the and others in categories in which the term Primary education is defined as category 1 only country where male sterilization ex- "nurse" or "nursing" appears; all mid- of the International Standard Classification ceeds female. Pill refers to oral contracep- wives, birth attendants, and others in cate- of Education (ISCED). The length of pri- tives. Injectable refers to injectable hormonal gories in which the term "midwife" appears; mary education varies by country from contraceptives; this method is a relatively Other; all others directly involved in diag- three to nine years. The median length for new technology and is not widely available nosis, treatment, and prevention of disease all countries is six years for primary educa- in many countries. Condom use may be (e.g., dentists, paramedical personnel, medi- tion, and five and a half years for second- slightly underreported, since studies have cal assistants, acupuncturists), and all other ary education. Postsecondary education shown that prevalence of condom use is reported categories (e.g., pharmacists, labo- consists of ISCED categories 5,6, and 7. higher when men, rather than women, are ratory technicians, x-ray technicians, and These categories include education at uni- surveyed. Vaginal barrier methods include hospital administrators). versities, technical schools, and teacher- the diaphragm, cervical cap, and spermi- Access to health personnel can vary sub- training institutes. ddes (foam, jelly, and cream). Other meth- stantially within a country. The degree of The percentage of births attended by ods include traditional (also known as access in individual countries can be partly trained personnel includes all health person- nonsupply) methods such as rhythm, with- inferred from other health data (e.g., infant nel accepted by national authorities as part drawal, abstinence, and douching. Users of deaths, immunizations) presented here. of the health system. Personnel included folk remedies, and contraceptive users who vary by country. Some countries include do not identify their method, are included Table 16.5 Education and Child traditional birthing assistants and mid- in other methods. Health, 1970-90 wives; others, only doctors. WHO provides Affordable access is defined as ability to the data to UNICEF. acquire (1) contraceptive supplies and ser- Sources: Adult literacy for 1970: United Na- ORT (oral rehydration therapy) use refers vices with, on average, no more than two tions Children's Fund (UNICEF), State of to administration of oral rehydration salts hours a month of effort; and (2) one month's the World's Children 1989 and State of the to children to combat diarrheal disease lead- contraceptive supplies at a cost not exceed- World's Children 1991 (UNICEF, New York, ing to dehydration or malnutrition. ing 1 percent of the average monthly wage. 1989 and 1991); Adult literacy for 1990: The percentage of low-birth-weight infants Data represent the percentage of married United Nations Educational, Scientific and refers to all babies weighing 2,500 grams or couples ol reproductive age in 1990 that Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Compen- less at birth. WHO has adopted the stan- have access to contraceptives through all dium of Statistics on Illiteracy-1990 Edition dard that healthy babies, regardless of race, sources of supply and service. Access refers (UNESCO, Paris, 1990); The percentage of should weigh more than 2,500 grams at only to availability, not to the actual use of population age 25 and over who have com- birth. These data are provided to UNICEF contraceptives. pleted primary school and who have some by WHO, and refer to a single year be- Female sterilization refers to voluntary fe- postsecondary education: United Nations tween 1980 and 1988. male sterilization unless otherwise indicated. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- Pill, condom, and injectable (note d) are as de- zation (UNESCO) Statistical Yearbook 1990 Immunization data show the percentage of 1-year-olds fully immunized in 1990 against: fined above. Menstrual regulation (note f) re- (UNESCO, Paris, 1990); Births attended by fers to abortion performed on suspicion of trained personnel, ORT use, and low-birth- TB (tuberculosis); DPT (diphtheria, pertus- sis [whooping cough], and tetanus); polio; pregnancy, without first determining weight infants: UNICEF, State of the World's whether the woman is pregnant. Children 1991 (UNICEF, New York, 1991); and measles. Data for measles immuniza- Births attended by trained personnel for tions include totals from countries where Contraceptive accessibility and cost data Cape Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, Equatorial this vaccination is normally given to chil- were gathered through surveys of country Guinea, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Swazi- dren after 1 year of age. experts, primarily family planning person- land, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Suriname, nel, in 110 countries with populations over Bahrain, Yemen, Fiji and the Solomon Is- Table 16.6 Contraceptive 1 million. Contraceptive accessibility data lands and low-birth-weight infants for Prevalence and Availability were available for 99 of these countries. The Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, The Gambia, Population Council surveyed 81 develop- Sources: Contraceptive prevalence: United ing countries. Data for a further 29 coun- Guinea-Bissau, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Nations Population Division, unpublished tries were collected by the PCC. World Resources 1992-93 259 17. Land Cover and Settlements The data for this chapter focus on the changing rela- lar, the growth of cities puts a further burden on mu- tionship of people to land. Also included is informa- nicipal governments, which are often unable to meet tion on the human environment: population density, demands for adequate housing, sanitation, water, wilderness areas, urban populations, large cities, the and electricity. Table 17.2 also provides data on hous- labor force, and transportation. ing conditions (number of occupants and number of Data in Table 17.1 show current levels of use and re- rooms per household, and percent of households with- cent rates of change in how nations use their land re- out electricity) for many countries of the world. sources. In most regions, natural and planted The transport of people and material is essential to forest-lands have decreased over the past decade. The the successful functioning of modern economies. Gov- greatest declines have occurred in Asia (5.3 percent) ernments are charged with building and maintaining and South America (4.6 percent). Worldwide, forest transport infrastructures to promote economic activity and woodland areas have shrunk 1.8 percent. Some of within their borders. Countries may choose to invest this land has been converted to cropland, which has in- in one type of infrastructure over another—for in- creased globally by 2.2 percent since 1977-79. The stance, rail systems over road systems—to move their greatest increases in cropland have occurred in Ocea- people and freight. Table 17.3 describes the results of nia (11.6 percent), South America (10.9 percent), and these investment decisions, which also affect a Africa (4.4 percent)—regions that have simultaneously country's rate of fossil fuel consumption and emis- experienced a net loss of forest and woodland. The sions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. The world's wastelands, rangelands, and urban settle- density of transport infrastructure, as expressed in kilo- ments (land categorized as "other") have registered meters of road, rail, and waterway network per thou- the greatest absolute growth over the past decade, sand square kilometers of land, is usually in inverse while land devoted to permanent pasture has changed proportion to the amount of wildlands left within a little, increasing a scant 0.1 percent. country. (Wilderness area, presented in Table 17.1, is Table 17.2 shows how populations are dispersed on defined, in part, by the absence of roads.) Road and the land: between rural and urban areas, and between railway construction often opens new areas to settle- large cities of 1 million or more people and smaller set- ment, cultivation, logging, and mining. tlements. In 1990, more than 75 percent of all South For the majority of countries on which data are avail- Americans were living in urban areas, the highest de- able, roads provide the most extensive transport sys- gree of urbanization of any region of the world. Eu- tem on a per-unit-area basis. On average, for every rope ranked a close second, with 73.4 percent of the 1,000 square kilometers of land, the world has 170 kilo- population in urban areas. The urban growth rate be- meters of road compared with 9.5 kilometers of rail tween 1960 and 1990 was highest in Africa, at 4.9 per- track and 4.7 kilometers of navigable inland water- cent per year, as compared with a global annual rate of ways. Regional road density ranges from 848 kilo-me- 2.8 percent. The world's rural populations have grown ters per 1,000 square kilometers of land in Europe to 53 at a slower rate (1.3 percent per year) and, in fact, have kilometers per 1,000 square kilometers in Africa. declined over the past three decades in Europe and the Roads are also the primary means for transporting U.S.S.R. people, relative to rail and airline systems. Among de- The distribution of the 1980 labor force reflects re- veloping countries reporting, bus lines and other pub- gional differences in the urban-rural population mix. lic road vehicles are the dominant mode of trans- Two thirds of the Asian and African labor forces worked portation. In contrast, private vehicles (cars) are the in the agricultural sector, reflecting the importance of primary means of transportation in almost all indus- the rural share of total populations in those regions. trialized countries. This difference between develop- By 1990, there were 276 cities in the world with pop- ing and industrialized countries is reflected in the ratio ulations of 1 million or more. Although the majority of of people to cars. The number of people per car exceeds these cities (42 percent) are located in Asia, more 100 for over one half of the African countries reporting South Americans live in large cities (about one third of data, and for about one quarter of the developing the region's 1990 population) than people of any other countries of Asia, whereas there are two to three region of the globe. In developing countries in particu- people per car in most of the industrialized world. World Resources 1992-93 261 17 Land Cover and Settlements T a b l e 17.1 Land Area and Use, 1977-89 U n d Use (000 hectares) Population Cropland Permanent Pasture Forest and Woodland Other U n d Wilderness Area Und Density, Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Total Percentage Area 1990 Change Change Change Change 1988 of Total (000 (per 1,000 Since Since Since Since (000 Und hectares) hectares) 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 hectares) Area WORLD {a} 13,128,841 403 1,477,877 2.2 3,322,943 0.1 4,095,317 (1.8) 4,232,737 1.0 3,486,097 26 AFRICA 2,964,138 217 186,392 4.4 890,899 (0.5) 686,284 (3.6) 1,200,565 1.9 823,238 27 Algeria 238,174 105 7,613 1.1 31,168 (14.1) 4,699 11.6 194,693 2.4 140,424 59 Angola 124,670 80 3,583 2.4 29,000 0.0 53,040 (1.7) 39,047 2.1 27,049 22 Benin 11,062 419 1,853 3.5 442 0.0 3,570 (12.3) 5,197 9.2 1,209 11 Botswana 56,673 23 1,373 1.0 33,000 0.0 10,930 (0.9) 11,370 0.8 31,255 54 Burkina Faso 27,380 329 3,423 27.5 10,000 0.0 6,720 (8.2) 7,237 (1.9) 750 3 Burundi 2,565 2,133 1,334 4.0 913 2.5 65 8.3 253 (23.8) 0 0 Cameroon 46,540 254 7,004 3.9 8,300 0.0 24,760 (4.3 6,476 14.9 1,320 3 Cape Verde 403 918 39 (1.7) 25 0.0 1 0.0 338 0.2 0 0 Central African Rep 62,298 49 2,006 4.5 3,000 0.0 35,820 (0.3 21,472 0.0 20,917 34 Chad 125,920 45 3,205 2.3 45,000 0.0 12,890 (5.8 64,825 1.1 61,254 48 Comoros 223 2,466 99 10.0 15 0.0 35 0.0 74 (10.8) 0 0 Congo 34,150 67 167 14.4 10,000 0.0 21,200 (0.9 2,783 6.9 11,837 35 Cote d'lvoire 31,800 377 3,653 20.8 13,000 0.0 7,880 (24.1 7,267 34.7 4,268 13 Djibouti 2,318 176 0 0.0 200 0.0 6 0.0 2,112 0.0 0 0 Egypt 99,545 527 2,571 1.2 0 0.0 31 0.0 96,943 (0.0) 42,540 42 Equatorial Guinea 2,805 125 230 o.o 104 0.0 1,295 0.0 1,176 0.0 0 0 Ethiopia 110,100 447 13,930 1.0 45,000 (1.1) 27,300 (3.5 23,870 6.1 19,716 16 Gabon 25,767 45 452 2.3 4,700 (0.7) 20,000 0.0 615 3.9 7,333 27 Gambia, The 1,000 861 174 13.7 90 0.0 168 (26.2 568 7.3 0 0 Ghana 23,002 653 2,700 7.6 5,000 0.0 8,210 (7.9 7,092 13.5 0 0 Guinea 24,586 234 727 3.8 6,150 0.0 14,700 (3.9 3,009 23.5 0 0 Guinea-Bissau 2,812 343 335 17.5 1,080 0.0 1,070 0.0 327 (13.3) 0 0 Kenya 56,969 422 2,424 6.8 38,100 0.0 2,380 (7.8 14,065 0.3 11,221 19 Lesotho 3,035 585 320 8.8 2,000 0.0 0 0.0 715 (3-5) 2,133 70 Liberia 9,632 267 372 0.4 5,700 0.0 1,780 (14.4 1,780 20.2 1,420 13 Libya 175,954 26 2,147 3.7 13,300 5.6 678 16.6 159,829 (0.5) 65,497 37 Madagascar 58,154 206 3,079 4.3 34,000 0.0 15,830 (8.7 5,245 35.5 691 1 Malawi 9,408 930 2,391 4.3 1,840 0.0 3,850 (19.3 1,327 161.9 781 7 Mali 122,019 76 2,087 1.8 30,000 0.0 7,010 (4.1 82,922 0.3 58,814 47 Mauritania 102,522 20 199 1.4 39,250 0.0 4,450 (2.2 58,623 0.2 71,370 70 Mauritius 185 5,849 106 (0.6) 7 0.0 57 (1.1) 14 10.3 0 0 Morocco 44,630 562 8,985 14.1 20,900 5.6 7,915 2.0 6,830 0 0 Mozambique 78,409 200 3,097 0.5 44,000 0.0 14,500 (7.6 16,812 6,130 8 Namibia 82,329 22 662 1.0 38,000 0.0 18,180 (1.6 25,487 1.2 22,239 0 Niger 126,670 61 3,599 13.0 9,267 (4.0) 2,120 (22.1 111,685 0.5 65,633 52 Nigeria 91,077 1,192 31,335 3.5 40,000 0.0 12,500 (19.4 7,242 36.5 1,526 2 Rwanda 2,467 2,934 1,149 17.2 480 (15.8) 560 (5.1 278 (14.9) 0 0 Senegal 19,253 381 5,226 1.5 5,700 0.0 5,942 2.6 2,385 3.6 1,586 8 Sierra Leone 7,162 580 1,801 4.7 2,204 0.0 2,073 2.4 1,084 (2.8) 0 0 Somalia 62,734 120 1,038 4.8 43,000 0.0 9,080 1.1 9,616 0.5 10,460 16 South Africa 122,104 289 13,172 (1.3) 81,378 (0.1) 4,515 8.8 23,039 (0.5) 0 0 Sudan 237,600 106 12,499 0.9 98,000 0.0 45,440 (6.2 81,661 3.7 79,377 32 Swaziland 1,720 458 164 (8.4) 1,175 (1.8) 107 2.9 275 14.6 0 0 Tanzania 88,604 308 5,240 2.2 35,000 0.0 41,180 (2.8 7,184 17.8 7,053 7 Togo 5,439 649 1,438 1.4 1,790 0.0 1,620 (fa.8 591 15.7 0 0 Tunisia 15,536 527 4,700 (5.2) 2,952 2.9 620 17.9 7,264 1.2 1,901 12 Uganda 19,955 942 6,705 20.0 1,800 0.0 5,660 (8.1 5,790 (9.7) 530 2 Zaire 226,760 157 7,850 4.1 15,000 0.0 174,970 (1.9 28,940 11.6 11,763 5 Zambia 74,339 114 5,238 3.9 30,000 0.0 28,990 (2.4 10,111 5.2 15,075 20 Zimbabwe 38,667 251 2,796 10.3 4,856 0.0 19,290 (4.0 11,725 4.8 0 0 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA (b) 2,137,700 184 273,816 1.1 368,631 3.1 715,415 1.0 779,838 (2.5) 907,742 41 Barbados 43 5,930 33 0.0 4 0.0 0 0.0 6 0.0 0 0 Belize 2,280 82 56 12.8 48 15.2 1,012 0.0 1,164 (1.1) 0 0 Canada 922,097 29 45,977 4.4 32,500 26.7 356,000 5.8 487,620 (5.5) 640,587 64 Costa Rica 5,106 590 527 5.5 2,310 24.0 1,640 (17.0 629 (17.9) 0 0 Cuba 10,982 966 3,332 5.3 2,992 14.3 2,750 11.8 1,908 (30.3) 0 0 Dominican Rep 4,838 1,482 1,440 5.5 2,092 0.0 619 (3.1 687 (7.4) 0 0 El Salvador 2,072 2,535 733 4.5 610 0.0 104 (31.6 625 2.7 0 0 Guatemala 10,843 848 1,868 8.3 1,380 7.8 3,910 (17.0 3,685 17.8 0 0 Haiti 2,756 2,363 904 2.7 499 (3-0) 42 (30.0 1,311 0.8 0 0 Honduras 11,189 459 1,793 2.3 2,540 7.2 3,420 (18.8 3,436 20.4 1,126 10 Jamaica 1,083 2,268 269 1.5 193 (7.9) 187 (5.1 434 5.5 0 0 Mexico 190,869 464 24,708 1.9 74,499 0.0 43,540 (12.0 48,122 12.8 3,050 2 Nicaragua 11,875 326 1,270 2.8 5,300 11.5 3,600 (23.5 1,705 44.7 1,521 12 Panama 7,599 318 576 4.6 1,537 15.9 3,407 (19.4 2,079 39.3 0 0 Trinidad and Tobago 513 2,497 120 3.7 11 0.0 222 (4.3 160 3.7 0 0 United States 916,660 272 189,915 0.0 241,467 1.0 294,261 (1.1 191,017 1.0 44,058 5 SOUTH AMERICA 1,752,926 169 141,578 10.9 477,863 4.1 895,692 (4.6 237,792 4.7 374,597 21 Argentina 273,669 118 35,750 1.9 142,400 (0.7) 59,400 (1.3 36,119 3.1 14,976 5 Bolivia 108,439 67 3,461 3.7 26,700 (1.5) 55,710 (1.1 22,568 4.1 17,810 16 Brazil 845,651 178 78,233 17.1 169,000 6.3 555,560 (4.2 42,858 7.2 202,061 24 Chile 74,880 176 4,415 5.4 13,400 3.9 8,800 1.4 48,265 (1.7) 23,086 30 Colombia 103,870 317 5,348 3.5 40,194 6.8 50,907 (5.6 7,420 3.3 15,156 13 Ecuador 27,684 382 2,683 6.9 5,050 44.3 11,500 (21.0 8,451 18.6 0 0 Guyana 19,685 40 495 6.2 1,230 5.9 16,369 (2.7 1,591 29.1 12,204 57 Paraguay 39,730 108 2,203 46.7 20,420 32.6 14,967 (27.7 2,140 0.4 7,726 19 Peru 128,000 168 3,727 8.7 27,120 0.0 68,900 (3.5 28,253 8.5 36,660 29 Suriname 15,600 27 68 53.4 20 11.1 14,855 (0.3 657 3.0 11,080 68 Uruguay 17,481 177 1,304 (10.0) 13,520 (0.8) 669 7.4 1,988 11.8 0 0 Venezuela 88,205 224 3,883 5.9 17,600 2.9 30,755 (8.6 35,967 6.5 29,742 33 World Resources 1992-93 262 Land Cover and Settlements 17 Table 17.1 Land Use (000 hectares) Population Cropland Permanent Pasture Forest and Woodland Other Land Wilderness Area Land Density, Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Total Percentage Area 1990 Change Change Change Change 1988 of Total (000 (per 1,000 Since Since Since Since (000 Land hectares) hectares) 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 hectares) Area ASIA 2,731,228 1,140 454,456 0.8 694,251 (0.3) 538,855 (5.3) 1,043,666 2.8 377,586 13 Afghanistan 65,209 254 8,054 0.1 30,000 0.0 1,900 0.0 25,255 (0.0) 8,740 13 Bahrain 68 7,588 2 0.0 4 0.0 0 0.0 62 0.0 0 0 Bangladesh 13,017 8,880 9,271 1.5 600 0.0 1,966 (10.4) 1,181 8.9 0 0 Bhutan 4,700 323 130 10.5 270 2.5 2,600 2.8 1,700 (5.0) 1,179 25 Cambodia 17,652 467 3,056 0.3 580 0.0 13,372 0.0 644 (1.5) 0 0 China 932,641 1,221 96,615 (3.9) 319,080 0.0 126,848 (7.7 390,097 3.9 210,776 22 Cyprus 924 759 157 (1.5) 5 0.0 123 0.0 639 0.4 0 0 India 297,319 2,869 169,357 0.5 11,923 (3.4) 66,782 (0.7 49,258 0.1) 1,161 0 Indonesia 181,157 1,017 21,233 9.3 11,800 (1.9) 113,433 (5.2 34,691 5.5 11,761 6 Iran, Islamic Rep 163,600 334 14,830 (3.6) 44,000 0.0 18,020 0.1 86,750 0.6 15,685 10 Iraq 43,737 433 5,450 1.5 4,000 0.0 1,890 (1.6 32,397 0.2) 6,477 15 Israel 2,033 2,263 433 4.8 148 24.0 110 (5.2 1,342 3.1) 0 0 Japan 37,652 3,279 4,675 (5.4) 637 15.7 25,105 0.4 7,235 1.2 0 0 Jordan 8,893 451 372 12.1 791 0.1 71 12.2 7,660 0.6) 0 0 Korea, Dem People's Rep 12,041 1,808 1,990 5.9 50 0.0 8,970 0.0 1,031 9.8) 0 0 Korea, Rep 9,873 4,334 2,136 (3.8) 88 116.4 6,492 (1.4 1,157 1 2.2 0 0 Kuwait 1,782 1,144 4 300.0 134 0.0 2 0.0 1,642 0.2) 0 0 Lao People's Dem Rep 23,080 179 901 4.6 800 0.0 12,900 (7.2 8,479 1 2.8 437 2 Lebanon 1,023 2,640 301 (5.6) 10 0.0 80 (11.1 632 4.6 0 0 Malaysia 32,855 545 4,880 2.5 27 0.0 19,340 (11.0 8,698 37.5 2,844 9 Mongolia 156,650 14 1,359 19.4 123,860 (0.4) 13,914 (8.5 17,516 0.4 24,131 15 Myanmar 65,754 634 10,035 0.3 362 0.1 32,396 0.7 22,962 1.2) 2,547 4 Nepal 13,680 1,399 2,600 11.9 1,997 7.7 2,480 0.0 6,603 6.0 0 0 Oman 21,246 71 48 19.0 1,000 0.0 0 0.0 20,198 0.0) 4,769 22 Pakistan 77,088 1,591 20,770 3.3 5,000 0.0 3,293 17.3 48,025 2.3) 2,737 3 Philippines 29,817 2,093 7,957 4.4 1,220 23.1 10,750 (16.4 9,890 8.6 0 0 Qatar 1,100 335 5 100.0 50 0.0 0 0.0 1,045 0.2) 0 0 Saudi Arabia 214,969 66 1,183 7.0 85,000 0.0 1,200 (11.8 127,586 0.1 67,889 32 Singapore 61 44,639 2 (75.0) 0 0.0 3 0.0 56 2.0 0 0 Sri Lanka 6,463 2,664 1,898 0.5 439 0.0 1,747 (1.5 2,379 0.7 0 0 Syrian Arab Rep 18,406 681 5,564 (0.5) 8,166 (2.9) 598 31.4 4,078 3.2 0 0 Thailand 51,089 1,090 21,624 21.8 761 26.8 14,373 (15.6 14,331 8.8) 2,809 5 Turkey 76,963 726 27,858 (1.4) 8,633 (13.4) 20,199 0.2 20,182 8.6 0 0 United Arab Emirates 8,360 190 39 114.8 200 0.0 3 50.0 8,118 0.3) 1,938 23 Viet Nam 32,549 2,049 6,592 2.3 330 20.5 9,356 (28.8 16,271 28.2 0 0 Yemen (Arab Rep) 19,500 472 1,361 0.7 7,000 0.0 1,600 0.0 9,539 0.1) 2,067 11 (People's Dem Rep) 33,297 75 119 7.5 9,065 0.0 1,520 (6.2 22,593 0.4 9,639 29 EUROPE 472,953 1,054 140,409 (1-3) 83,177 (4.0) 156,851 1.1 92,524 3.8 13,855 3 Albania 2,740 1,184 712 2.3 401 (4.1) 1,047 3.4 581 5.4) 0 0 Austria 8,273 917 1,526 (6.4) 2,000 (2.9) 3,200 (2.2 1,551 1 8.5 0 0 Belgium (c) 3,025 3,255 744 X 626 X 617 X 1,024 X 0 0 Bulgaria 11,055 815 4,139 (3.4) 2,026 5.4 3,868 1.0 1,022 0.5 0 0 Czechoslovakia 12,537 1,250 5,120 (2.3) 1,644 (3.9) 4,608 1.8 1,165 8.2 0 0 Denmark 4,237 1,214 2,571 (3.1) 215 (20.3) 493 0.0 958 1 6.6 0 0 Finland 30,461 163 2,435 (6.4) 125 (27.3) 23,222 (0.4 4,679 7.2 2,939 9 France 55,010 1,021 19,210 1.6 11,757 (9.5) 14,721 • 1.2 9,322 9.0 0 0 Germany (Fed Rep) 24,428 2,510 7,473 (0.7) 4,446 (8.2) 7,390 1.0 5,119 8.1 0 0 (Dem Rep) 10,519 1,545 4,924 (2.2) 1,257 0.7 2,981 1.0 1,360 1.1) 0 0 Greece 13,085 768 3,931 0.8 5,255 0.0 2,620 0.1 1,279 2.4) 0 0 Hungary 9,234 1,143 5,288 (1.9) 1,210 (7.3) 1,678 5.9 1,058 10.6 0 0 Iceland 10,025 25 8 0.0 2,274 (0.0) 120 0.0 7,623 0.0 2,975 29 Ireland 6,889 540 966 (16.7) 4,688 2.7 339 8.4 896 5.0 0 0 Italy 29,406 1,940 12,021 (3.1) 4,909 (5.0) 6,736 6.3 5,740 4.3 0 0 Luxembourg (o) 258 1,448 56 X 70 X 89 X 42 X 0 0 Malta 32 11,031 13 (7.1) 0 0.0 0 0.0 19 5.6 0 0 Netherlands 3,392 4,408 930 8.0 1,080 (8.9) 300 3.3 1,082 2.3 0 0 Norway 30,683 137 874 7.6 105 0.6 8,330 0.0 21,374 0.3) 5,627 17 Poland 30,445 1,262 14,785 (1.6) 4,047 (0.7) 8,736 0.9 2,877 6.9 0 0 Portugal 9,195 1,119 3,771 (1.1) 761 0.0 2,968 0.0 1,695 2.6 0 0 Romania 23,034 1,010 10,581 0.6 4,406 (0.9) 6,356 0.4 1,691 2.8) 0 0 Spain 49,944 785 20,367 (1.0) 10,210 (6.4) 15,656 1.8 3,711 1 9.9 0 0 Sweden 41,162 205 2,872 (4.1) 562 (22.8) 28,020 0.5 9,709 1.4 2,315 5 Switzerland 3,977 1,662 412 4.0 1,609 (1.0) 1,052 0.0 904 0.0 0 0 United Kingdom 24,160 2,369 6,888 (1.2) 11,119 (3.3) 2,353 13.8 3,800 4.4 0 0 Yugoslavia 25,540 932 7,764 (2.0) 6,352 0.2 9,344 1.3 2,080 1.5 0 0 U.S.S.R. 2,227,200 130 231,871 (0.2) 371,500 (0.6) 945,000 1.7 678,829 1.9) 752,022 34 OCEANIA 842,696 31 49,355 11.6 436.622 (3.1) 157,221 (0.6 199,523 5.0 237,057 28 Australia 761,793 22 47,671 11.7 422,322 (3.1) 106,000 (0.9 185,800 5.4 229,431 30 Fiji 1,827 418 240 2.7 60 (2.7) 1,185 0.0 342 1.3) 0 0 New Zealand 26,799 127 508 14.3 13,752 1.5 7,289 4.3 5,274 2.4) 3,723 14 Papua New Guinea 45,286 86 387 7.7 85 (20.1) 38,237 (0.5 6,577 2.9 3,903 8 Solomon Islands 2,799 116 57 10.3 39 0.0 2,560 0.0 143 3.6) 0 0 Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Eurostat, United Nations Population Division, and J.M. McCloskey and H. Spaiding. Notes: a. Does not include Antarctica. b. Includes Greenland. c. Land use data are for 1987. Regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parenthesis. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 263 17 Land Cover and Settlements Table 17.2 Urban and Rural Populations, Settlements, and Labor Average Annual Cities With at Least Percentage Women Urban Population 1 Million Inhabitants Average of Total as a Population as Change Number Household Size Households Labor Percentage Percentage of 1980 a Percentage 1960-90 Percentage of of Number of Number of Without Force of Labor Labor Force in of Total (percent) Total Population Cities Occupants Rooms Electricity 1990 Force Agri- 1960 1990 Urban Rural 1960 1990 1990 1970-86 1970-82 1970-82 (000) 1990 culture Industry Services WORLD 34.2 45.2 2.8 1.3 12.2 14.8 276 2,363,547 36.1 51 21 28 AFRICA 18.3 33.9 4.9 2.1 5.7 9.2 24 242,784 34.4 69 12 19 Algeria 30.4 51.7 4.7 1.6 8.0 12.2 1 7.2 X X 5,819 9.6 31 27 42 Angola 10.4 28.3 5.9 1.7 4.5 17.1 1 X X X 4,081 38.6 74 10 17 Benin 9.2 37.7 7.4 1.2 0.0 0.0 0 5.4 X X 2,195 47.4 70 7 23 Botswana 1.7 27.5 13.5 2.3 0.0 0.0 0 5.4 X X 446 35.0 70 13 17 Burkina Faso 4.7 9.0 4.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 4,167 46.2 87 4 9 Burundi 2.0 5.5 5.5 2.0 0.0 0.0 0 4.5 X X 2,820 47.3 93 2 5 Cameroon 13.9 41.2 6.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 0 5.2 4.1 94 4,365 33.3 70 8 22 Cape Verde 16.3 28.6 4.1 1.6 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 141 29.1 52 23 26 Central African Rep 22.7 46.7 4.8 1.0 0.0 0.0 0 5.1 X X 1,384 45.7 72 6 21 Chad 7.0 29.5 7.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 1,971 21.1 83 5 12 Comoros 9.8 27.8 6.8 2.4 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 231 40.2 83 6 11 Congo 31.9 40.5 3.6 2.4 0.0 0.0 0 5.3 X X 781 38.8 62 12 26 Cote d'lvoire 19.3 40.4 6.5 2.9 4.7 18.1 1 X X X 4,599 34.2 65 8 27 Djibouti 50.0 80.7 7.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 0 X X X X X X X X Egypt 37.9 46.7 3.1 1.9 20.1 24.3 2 5.2 X 54 14,574 10.1 46 20 34 Equatorial Guinea 25.4 28.7 1.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0 X 182 40.2 66 23 Ethiopia 6.4 12.9 4.8 2.2 1.7 3.8 1 X 21,225 37.4 80 12 Gabon 17.5 45.6 6.3 1.6 0.0 0.0 0 X 536 37.3 75 11 14 Gambia, The 12.5 23.2 5.2 2.6 0.0 0.0 0 8.3 329 40.4 84 7 9 Ghana 23.3 33.0 3.9 2.2 5.8 7.3 1 X 5,686 39.7 56 18 26 Guinea 9.9 25.6 5.3 1.4 3.6 22.5 1 6.7 3,097 39.8 81 10 Guinea-Bissau 13.7 19.8 3.2 1.7 0.0 0.0 0 X 458 40.8 82 14 Kenya 7.4 23.6 7.7 2.9 2.6 6.3 1 5.1 10,011 39.9 81 12 Lesotho 3.4 20.2 8.6 1.8 0.0 0.0 0 X 808 43.4 10 Liberia 18.7 45.9 6.2 1.7 0.0 0.0 0 X 912 30.3 16 Libya 22.8 70.2 8.1 0.9 12.9 45.4 1 5.8 3.3 28 1,076 9.0 18 29 53 Madagascar 10.6 23.8 5.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 4.5 X X 5,004 39.2 81 6 13 Malawi 4.4 11.8 6.5 2.8 0.0 0.0 0 3.0 X X 3,495 41.2 83 7 Mali 11.1 19.2 4.4 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 5.1 X X 2,959 16.2 86 2 13 Mauritania 5.8 46.8 9.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 0 5.5 X X 679 22.1 69 9 22 Mauritius 33.2 40.5 2.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 0 4.8 3.3 30 440 26.6 28 24 48 Morocco 29.3 48.0 4.3 1.5 11.9 17.1 2 5.9 2.1 X 7,824 20.7 46 25 29 Mozambique 3.7 26.8 9.5 1.6 2.4 10.1 1 4.3 X X 8,437 47.4 85 7 Namibia 14.9 27.8 4.8 2.1 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 537 23.8 X X Niger 5.8 19.5 7.4 2.6 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 3,619 46.7 91 2 Nigeria 14.4 35.2 6.3 2.2 3.2 8.3 2 X 41,857 34.8 68 12 20 Rwanda 2.4 7.7 7.4 3.1 0.0 0.0 0 4.6 3,520 47.7 93 3 4 Senegal 31.9 38.4 3.5 2.5 11.5 20.4 1 X 3,192 39.3 81 6 13 Sierra Leone 13.0 32.2 5.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 0 X 1,438 32.7 70 14 16 Somalia 17.3 36.4 5.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 0 X 2,143 38.6 76 16 South Africa 46.6 59.5 3.2 1.4 18.9 17.6 4 X 12,434 35.6 17 49 Sudan 10.3 22.0 5.4 2.3 3.1 7.7 1 X 8,078 21.8 71 21 Swaziland 4.0 33.1 10.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 0 X 306 38.8 74 9 17 Tanzania 4.7 32.8 10.3 2.2 1.6 6.1 1 X 12,597 47.9 86 5 10 Togo 9.8 25.7 6.2 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 5.7 1,396 36.4 73 10 17 Tunisia 36.0 54.3 3.6 1.1 13.8 20.0 1 5.5 66 2,594 24.4 36 29 Uganda 5.1 10.4 6.1 3.4 0.0 0.0 0 X X 8,129 41.0 4 10 Zaire 22.3 39.5 4.8 2.0 2.9 9.9 1 X X 13,084 35.5 72 13 16 Zambia 17.2 49.9 7.1 1.6 0.0 0.0 0 5.0 X 2,644 29.0 73 10 17 Zimbabwe 12.6 27.6 5.9 2.5 0.0 0.0 0 X X 3,921 34.6 73 11 17 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 63.2 71.4 2.0 0.7 28.7 31.8 44 189,258 37.4 12 29 58 Barbados 35.5 44.7 1.1 (0.2) 0.0 0.0 0 3.6 3.8 41 137 47.4 10 21 69 Belize X X X X 0.0 0.0 0 5.3 X X X X X X X Canada 68.9 77.1 1.7 0.3 24.5 29.8 3 2.8 5.6 X 13,360 39.8 5 29 65 Costa Rica 36.6 47.1 3.9 2.4 22.9 33.7 1 4.7 4.0 31 1,023 21.8 31 23 46 Cuba 54.9 74.9 2.5 (0.6) 20.3 19.8 1 4.1 4.0 17 4,461 31.7 24 29 48 Dominican Rep 30.2 60.4 5.1 0.8 13.8 30.7 1 5.3 3.6 63 2,187 15.0 46 15 39 El Salvador 38.3 44.4 2.9 2.1 0.0 0.0 0 5.0 1.5 66 2,155 25.1 43 19 37 Guatemala 32.4 39.4 3.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 0 5.2 2.4 72 2,628 16.4 57 17 26 Haiti 15.6 28.3 3.8 1.3 6.8 15.8 1 4.7 2.1 96 3,131 41.6 70 8 22 Honduras 22.7 43.7 5.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 5.7 2.4 75 1,576 18.8 61 16 23 Jamaica 33.8 52.3 2.9 0.3 0.0 0.0 0 4.2 2.4 X 1,246 45.7 31 16 52 Mexico 50.8 72.6 4.1 0.9 20.2 32.5 5 5.5 2.3 25 30,487 27.1 37 29 35 Nicaragua 39.6 59.8 4.7 1.8 13.3 26.1 1 X 2.2 59 1,204 25.2 47 16 38 Panama 41.2 53.4 3.4 1.7 0.0 0.0 0 4.6 2.6 35 873 27.2 32 18 50 Trinidad and Tobago 22.5 69.1 5.3 (1.7) 0.0 0.0 0 4.5 3.3 16 501 30.0 10 39 51 United States 70.0 75.0 1.3 0.5 34.5 36.3 30 2.7 4.7 X 122,005 41.4 4 31 66 SOUTH AMERICA 51.7 75.1 3.6 0.1 23.4 32.8 29 104,465 26.4 29 26 45 Argentina 73.6 86.3 2.0 (0.7) 39.0 42.5 3 3.9 2.8 X 11,548 28.1 13 34 53 Bolivia 39.3 51.2 3.5 1.8 10.8 16.9 1 4.3 X 66 2,283 25.8 46 20 34 Brazil 44.9 74.9 4.2 (0.2) 21.9 35.2 14 4.4 4.5 33 55,026 27.4 31 27 42 Chile 67.8 85.9 2.6 (0.9) 26.7 35.9 1 4.5 3.5 25 4,753 28.5 17 25 58 Colombia 48.2 70.0 3.7 0.6 17.8 27.3 4 5.2 3.4 42 10,394 21.9 34 24 42 Ecuador 34.4 56.0 4.6 1.6 17.3 27.5 2 5.1 2.4 59 3,287 19.3 39 20 42 Guyana 29.0 34.5 1.7 0.9 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 383 25.1 27 26 47 Paraguay 35.6 47.5 4.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 0 5.2 2.2 83 1,410 20.7 49 21 31 Peru 46.3 70.2 4.1 0.6 17.0 29.0 1 4.9 2.5 88 7,138 24.1 40 18 42 Suriname 47.2 47.4 1.3 1.2 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 135 29.6 20 20 60 Uruguay 80.1 85.5 0.9 (0.4) 45.5 38.7 1 3.3 3.5 19 1,216 31.2 16 29 55 Venezuela 66.6 90.5 4.3 (1-0) 22.5 26.6 2 5.3 3.9 23 6,860 27.6 16 28 56 World Resources 1992-93 264 Land Cover and Settlements 17 Force, 1960-1990 Table 17.2 Average Annual Cities With at Least Percentage Women Urban Population 1 Million Inhabitants Average of Total asa Population as Change Number Household Size Households Labor Percentage Percentage of 1980 a Percentage 1960-90 Percentage of of Number of Number of Without Force of Labor Labor Force in of Total (percent) Total Population Cities Occupants Rooms Electricity 1990 Force Agri- 1960 1990 Urban Rural 1960 1990 1990 1970-86 1970-82 1970-82 (000) 1990 culture Industry Services ASM 21.5 34.4 3.7 1.5 8.3 11.3 115 1,436,522 35.3 66 15 19 Afghanistan 8.0 18.2 4.3 1 0 3.3 9.5 1 6.2 X X 6,229 8.6 X X X Bahrain 82.7 82.9 4.1 4.C 0.0 0.0 0 6.6 3.0 6 220 10.5 3 35 62 Bangladesh 5.1 16.4 6.8 ?? 2.8 7.7 2 5.7 2.0 X 33,398 7.3 75 6 19 Bhutan 2.5 5.3 4.4 1.8 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 696 32.2 92 3 5 Cambodia 10.3 11.6 1.8 1.3 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 3,758 38.3 X X X China 19.0 33.4 3.8 1 ? 8.0 9.1 38 4.4 X X 679,900 43.2 74 14 12 Cyprus 35.6 52.8 2.0 04 0.0 0.0 0 3.9 4.4 X 326 35.6 26 34 40 India 18.0 27.0 3.6 1 .£ 5.5 8.6 24 5.5 2.0 X 322,944 25.2 70 13 17 Indonesia 14.6 30.5 4.7 1 5 6.3 10.0 6 4.9 3.1 86 71,314 31.2 57 13 30 Iran, Islamic Rep 33.6 56.7 5.0 1.7 13.9 23.3 5 4.9 2.4 52 15,253 18.0 36 33 31 Iraq 42.9 71.3 5.2 1.1 14.9 21.4 1 X X X 5,119 21.5 30 22 48 Israel 77.0 91.6 3.2 Ofi 34.9 40.9 1 3.5 2.9 4 1,806 33.7 6 32 62 Japan 62.5 77.0 1.6 0.7 22.2 27.5 6 3.1 4.3 a X 62,202 37.9 11 34 55 Jordan 42.7 68.0 4.5 OS 12.9 25.6 1 6.6 X 23 992 10.3 10 26 64 Korea, Dem People's Rep 40.2 59.8 3.7 1.0 6.0 10.2 1 X X X 10,470 45.8 43 30 27 Korea, Rep 27.7 72.0 5.1 14 20.4 49.9 6 4.5 4.1 50 18,664 33.8 36 27 37 Kuwait 72.3 95.6 7.9 05 86.7 52.9 1 6.5 3.5 17 835 14.6 2 32 67 Lao People's Dem Rep 7.9 18.6 5.1 1 7 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 2,239 44.3 76 7 17 Lebanon 39.6 83.7 3.8 3.1 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 914 27.8 X X X Malaysia 25.2 43.0 4.5 1.7 4.2 9.6 1 5.2 2.3 b 36 7,071 35.1 42 19 39 Mongolia 35.7 52.3 4.1 1.8 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 1,029 45.5 40 21 39 Myanmar 19.3 24.8 3.0 ?C 4.5 7.9 1 5.2 X X 18,324 36.9 53 19 28 Nepal 3.1 9.6 6.3 2.2 0.0 0.0 0 5.8 X X 7,725 33.6 93 1 7 Oman 3.6 10.6 7.5 34 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 405 8.4 50 22 28 Pakistan 22.1 32.0 4.3 2.6 9.5 13.4 6 6.6 1.9 69 33,698 12.5 55 16 30 Philippines 30.3 42.6 3.9 2.1 8.3 13.6 1 5.6 2.4 77 22,474 31.2 52 16 33 Qatar 73.3 89.4 8.0 4C 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 186 7.0 3 28 69 Saudi Arabia 29.7 77.3 7.6 0.4 5.8 22.6 2 X X X 4,081 7.4 48 14 37 Singapore 100.0 100.0 1.7 NA 74.7 100.0 1 4.7 X 2 1,298 32.1 2 38 61 Sri Lanka 17.9 21.4 2.5 1.7 0.0 0.0 0 5.2 2.5 85 6,367 26.7 53 14 33 Syrian Arab Rep 36.8 50.4 4.5 ? fi 21.9 30.1 2 6.2 6.4 58 3,101 17.3 32 32 36 Thailand 12.5 22.6 4.6 2.1 8.2 12.8 1 5.2 1.9 76 29,534 44.6 71 10 19 Turkey 29.7 61.3 4.9 04 12.9 21.6 4 5.2 2.5 59 23,696 33.7 58 17 25 United Arab Emirates 40.0 77.8 12.5 6.5 0.0 0.0 0 5.2 X X 784 6.5 5 38 57 Viet Nam 14.7 21.9 3.6 1.9 5.7 6.5 2 5.3 X X 32,916 46.7 68 12 21 Yemen (Arab Rep) 3.4 12.0 9.9 50 0.0 0.0 0 5.0 1.9 95 1,954 13.6 69 9 22 (People's Dem Rep) 28.0 43.3 3.9 1.6 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 648 12.0 41 18 41 EUROPE 61.1 73.4 1.2 0.7) 16.5 17.0 36 231,702 38.6 14 39 47 Albania 30.6 35.2 2.8 ?1 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 1,591 41.2 56 26 18 Austria 49.9 58.4 0.8 0.4 25.5 27.6 1 2.7 3.4 a X 3,570 40.1 9 41 50 Belgium 92.5 96.9 0.4 2.7 0.0 0.0 0 2.7 5.0 0 4,151 33.7 3 36 61 Bulgaria 38.6 67.7 2.4 17 9.0 13.2 1 3.1 3.6 0 4,475 46.4 18 45 37 Czechoslovakia 47.0 77.5 2.1 2.4 7.8 8.3 1 2.8 3.5 0 8,386 46.6 13 49 37 Denmark 73.7 87.0 0.9 1 9 29.3 26.9 1 2.4 3.8 h 0 2,852 44.6 7 32 61 Finland 38.1 59.7 1.9 1,0 10.5 20.3 1 2.6 3.4 4 2,552 47.0 12 35 53 France 62.4 74.3 1.3 06 19.5 19.2 3 2.7 3.6 X 9,670 45.5 9 35 56 Germany (Fed Rep) 77.4 87.4 0.7 16 15.1 13.0 5 2.4 4.4 0 25,404 39.9 6 44 50 (Dem Rep) 72.3 77.2 0.0 0.9 6.4 7.8 1 2.5 2.7 0 29,311 37.2 11 50 39 Greece 42.9 62.5 1.9 0.8 27.0 34.2 1 3.1 3.5 12 3,852 26.7 31 29 40 Hungary 40.0 61.3 1.6 13 18.1 20.0 1 2.8 3.0 2 5,276 44.9 18 44 38 Iceland 80.1 90.5 1.6 1.2 0.0 0.0 0 X X X 136 42.6 10 37 53 Ireland 45.8 57.1 1.7 01 0.0 0.0 0 3.7 4.7 5 1,481 29.4 19 34 48 Italy 59.4 68.9 0.9 0.5 24.5 25.4 5 3.0 3.7 b 1 23,339 31.9 12 41 48 Luxembourg 62.1 84.2 1.6 2.3 0.0 0.0 0 2.8 5.3 X 155 31.6 5 35 60 Malta 69.9 87.3 1.0 ?6 0.0 0.0 0 3.2 X X 146 23.3 5 42 53 Netherlands 85.0 88.5 1.0 0.0 15.2 14.0 2 X 5.0 X 6,153 30.9 6 32 63 Norway 49.9 75.0 1.9 1.8 0.0 0.0 0 2.7 3.6 X 2,128 41.2 8 29 62 Poland 47.9 61.8 1.7 0.2 16.0 17.5 3 3.1 3.1 b 4 19,704 45.6 29 39 33 Portugal 22.1 33.6 1.9 00 10.1 15.6 1 2.9 4.5 36 4,740 36.7 26 37 38 Romania 34.2 52.7 2.2 (13 7.5 9.4 1 X X X 11,825 46.5 31 44 26 Spain 56.6 78.4 1.9 15 13.7 22.1 2 3.5 4.4 h X 14,456 24.4 17 37 46 Sweden 72.6 84.0 0.9 1.4 10.8 19.7 1 2.2 4.1 X 4,319 44.6 6 33 62 Switzerland 51.0 59.9 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 2.5 4.8 X 3,212 36.6 6 39 55 United Kingdom 85.7 89.1 0.4 0.6 29.8 23.4 4 X 4.8 X 27,766 38.6 3 38 59 Yugoslavia 27.9 56.1 3.2 0.8 3.1 6.6 1 3.6 2.8 12 10,858 38.9 32 33 34 U.S.S.R. 48.8 65.8 2.0 0.4 12.4 15.3 24 4.0 X X 146,634 48.0 20 39 41 OCEANIA 66.3 70.6 2.0 1.3 31.8 32.2 4 12,181 37.0 20 28 52 Australia 80.6 85.5 1.9 0.7 48.7 50.6 4 3.0 5.0 5 7,963 38.1 7 32 61 Fiji 29.7 39.3 3.2 1,7 0.0 0.0 0 6.0 X X 254 20.1 46 17 37 New Zealand 76.0 84.0 1.5 01 0.0 0.0 0 2.9 5.6 X 1,570 34.9 11 33 56 Papua New Guinea 2.7 15.8 8.6 0.0 0.0 0 4.5 X X 1,570 45.9 76 10 14 Solomon Islands X X X X 0.0 0.0 0 6.7 X X X X X X X Sources: United Nations Center for Human Settlements, United Nations Population Division, and International Labour Office. Notes: a. Excluding kitchens. b. Includes rooms used for professional/business purposes. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measurement; X = not available; NA = not applicable; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 265 17 Land Cover and Settlements Table 17.3 Transport and Transport Infrastructure, 1980s Transport Infrastructure Transport of Goods and Passengers Total km Per 1,000 Total Metric Ton-km of Freight (b) km2 of Land Area Number Hundred Million Passenger-km {a} Moved Per Year by: Navigable of Persons Traveled per Year by: Inland Total Paved Rail Inland Public Per Car/Bus Passenger Commercial Road Rail Waterway Airjc) Road Road Track Waterways Airports Car Public Private Train Aircraft {c) (hundred million) (million) WORLD 170 88 9.5 4.7 14,201 AFRICA 53 12 2.8 1.9 1,521 Algeria 30 16 1.6 X 49 34 X X X 37 X X X 23 Angola 58 7 2.4 1.0 26 151 X X X 8 X X X 52 Benin 67 7 5.2 X 8 X X X 2 2 X 1 X 18 Botswana 24 4 1.3 X 28 67 X X X 1 X X X 0 Burkina Faso 41 5 1.8 X 51 354 X X 10 3 X 5 X 18 Burundi 201 14 X X 4 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Cameroon 112 7 2.4 4.5 43 121 70 d X 4 5 3 9 X 32 Cape Verde 558 149 X X 1 X X X X 2 X X X 1 Central African Rep 33 1 X 1.3 40 2,627 X X X 2 0 X X 18 Chad 25 X X 1.6 51 X X X X 2 X X X 18 Comoros 336 94 X X 4 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Congo 35 2 1.5 3.3 43 X X X X 3 X X X 19 Cote d'lvoire 169 12 2.1 3.1 27 52 X X X 3 X X X 18 Djibouti 125 21 4.3 X 3 36 X X X 1 X X X 0 Egypt 46 31 4.6 3.5 17 62 253 106 140 62 312 67 25 138 Equatorial Guinea X X X X 2 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Ethiopia 19 (3 4 e 0.6 X 40 1,238 X X X 16 X X X 92 Gabon 29 2 2.6 6.2 39 55 X X X 4 X X X 29 Gambia, The 236 50 0.0 40.0 1 144 X X X X X X X X Ghana 95 24 4.1 5.6 3 X X X X 4 X X X 14 Guinea 122 5 4.3 5.3 11 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Guinea-Bissau 114 96 X X 10 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Kenya 113 14 5.3 X 152 157 X X X 14 X X X 48 Lesotho 140 16 0.1 X 33 278 X X X 0 X X X 1 Liberia 84 8 5.1 X 10 327 X X X 0 X X X 0 Libya 18 14 X X 45 X X X X 17 X X X 5 Madagascar 25 9 1.8 X 59 394 X X 2 4 3 2 X 29 Malawi 130 28 8.5 1.5 27 446 X X X 1 X X X 1 Mali 13 1 0.5 1.5 29 X X X X X X X X X Mauritania 7 2 0.7 X 20 115 X X X 3 X X X 18 Mauritius 974 905 X X 1 24 X X X 18 X X X 55 Morocco 133 65 4.2 X 29 41 X X 14 27 12 X 38 34 Mozambique 33 7 4.2 4.8 18 X X X X 5 X X X 10 Namibia 66 5 2.9 X X X X X X X X X X X Niger 15 3 X 0.2 20 779 X X X 2 X X X 18 Nigeria 119 33 3.8 9.4 46 X X X X 10 X X X 17 Rwanda 489 34 X X 7 912 1 15 X 0 2 X X 0 Senegal 78 23 4.7 4.7 16 69 23 9 1 2 X X X 18 Sierra Leone 103 16 1.2 11.2 13 X X X X X X X X X Somalia 34 9 X X 15 X X X X 2 X X X 8 South Africa 149 43 19.3 X 156 10 X X X 92 X 917 X 206 Sudan 3 2 2.1 2.2 25 135 X X X 5 X X X 17 Swaziland 158 30 29.9 X 4 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Tanzania 92 4 4.0 X 62 396 X X X 2 X X X 2 Togo 139 34 9.7 X 8 913 13 2 1 2 X 1 X 18 Tunisia 188 113 12.3 X 12 25 20 X 10 16 10 20 X 19 Uganda 142 31 6.2 X 10 457 X X X 3 X X X 22 Zaire 64 1 2.3 6.6 100 X X X X 5 X X X 52 Zambia 50 9 2.9 3.0 70 X X X X 9 X X X 25 Zimbabwe 202 34 7.1 X 33 33 X X X 8 X X X 63 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 349 184 17.0 1.5 6,605 Barbados 3,651 3,430 0.0 X 1 X X X X X X X X 0 Belize 113 15 0.0 36.2 X X X X X X X X X X Canada 92 27 9.1 0.3 512 2 X X 28 504 X 2,397 X 1,348 Costa Rica 696 102 13.7 14.3 63 19 41 40 1 9 19 1 X 33 Cuba 191 82 116.5 2.2 20 X X X X 20 X X X 22 Dominican Rep 359 102 10.7 X 38 57 X X X 4 X X X 0 El Salvador 587 84 29.0 X 35 36 X X X 10 X X X 2 Guatemala 121 28 8.2 9.1 74 X X X X 2 X X X 23 Haiti 145 34 1.5 X 6 X X X X X X X X 4 Honduras 108 17 7.0 4.2 35 111 X X X 5 X X X 2 Jamaica 1,536 461 27.1 X 6 57 X X X 20 X X X 16 Mexico 118 53 10.6 1.5 483 14 X X X 161 X X X 114 Nicaragua 126 13 2.5 18.7 11 73 X X X 1 X X X 2 Panama 112 36 3.1 10.5 51 X X X X 5 X X X 14 Trinidad and Tobago 1,009 X X X 2 5 X X X 27 X X X 14 United States 679 387 26.4 2.2 f 5,268 2 372 44,420 203 6,933 11,247 16,541 7,047 14,650 SOUTH AMERICA 135 15 4.9 6.6 2,447 Argentina 77 21 12.5 4.0 349 8 X X X 93 X X X 201 Bolivia 38 1 3.4 9.2 590 57 X X 6 10 17 5 1 8 Brazil 197 16 3.6 5.9 752 10 5,192 d X 148 279 2,604 1,095 818 1,148 Chile 106 14 10.2 1.0 129 19 8 X 12 28 X 21 X 330 Colombia 102 10 2.7 13.8 197 36 672 414 2 45 98 8 28 395 Ecuador 136 23 3.5 5.4 49 36 0 0 1 12 3 82 X 68 Guyana 39 3 0.0 30.5 43 X X X X 2 X X X 3 Paraguay 28 5 1.1 7.8 29 X X X X 6 X X X 4 Peru 44 5 2.7 6.9 162 X X X X 20 X X X 30 Suriname 58 15 0.0 7.7 38 12 X X X 4 X X X 15 Uruguay 285 6 17.2 9.2 27 10 X X 3 5 X 2 X 9 Venezuela 114 38 0.4 8.0 82 8 X X 0 54 X 0 X 161 World Resources 1992-93 266 Land Cover and Settlements 17 Table 17.3 Transport Infrastructure Transport of Goods and Passengers Total km Per 1,000 Total Metric Ton-km of Freight |b) km2 of Land Area Number Hundred Million Passenger-km {a) Moved Per Year by: Navigable of Persons Traveled per Year by: Inland Total Paved Rail Inland Public Per Car/Bus Passenger Commercial Road Rail Waterway Airfc} Road Road Track Waterways Airports Car Public Private Train Aircraft (c) (hundred million) (million) ASIA 159 76 9.9 8.2 1,180 Afghanistan 32 4 0.0 1.8 20 X X X X 2 X X X 12 Bahrain X 294 X X 1 X X X X 15 X X X 40 Bangladesh 56 29 21.1 61.8 15 X X X X 21 X X X 77 Bhutan 28 9 X X 1 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Cambodia 76 15 3.7 21.0 6 X X X X X X X X X China 2 1 5.8 11.8 92 X X X X 179 X X X 683 Cyprus 1,063 460 X X 3 4 X X X 17 X X X 33 India 520 246 41.8 5.4 179 649 X X X 180 X X X 681 Indonesia 121 75 3.6 11.9 147 159 2,750 400 68 149 250 9 250 448 Iran, Islamic Rep 83 34 2.9 0.6 34 26 X X 47 47 683 56 X 92 CVJ Iraq 104 88 7.0 2.3 27 X X X 23 X X X 73 Israel 228 228 25.6 X 8 9 X X X 76 X X X 817 Japan 2,948 2,005 70.3 4.7 81 4 1,072 5,009 3,618 933 2,461 235 2,348 5,128 Jordan 84 62 8.9 X 3 22 X X X 37 X X X 206 Korea, Dem People's Rep 168 3 70.6 18.7 7 X X X X 2 X X X 3 Korea, Rep 565 347 31.9 16.3 12 38 853 225 260 182 86 138 166 2,365 Kuwait 240 X X X 1 4 0 X X 39 X X X 233 Lao People's Dem Rep 119 8 X 32.4 13 X X X X 0 X X X 0 Lebanon 684 547 21.7 X 1 6 X X X 3 X X X 284 Malaysia 122 84 5.1 22.2 49 11 X X 16 101 X 11 X 404 CVl Mongolia 30 1 1.2 0.3 1 X X X X 5 X X X Myanmar 41 5 4.8 19.5 62 X X X X 1 X X X 1 Nepal 44 19 0.7 X 41 X X X X 7 X X X 11 Oman 107 18 X X 7 X X X X 15 X X X 40 Pakistan 144 76 11.4 X 34 205 X X X 91 X X X 419 Philippines 528 75 3.6 10.8 226 156 X X X 106 X X X 327 Qatar 136 91 X X 1 X X X X 15 X X X 40 Saudi Arabia 42 16 0.4 X 23 6 X X X 157 X X X 605 Singapore 4,334 4,109 59.0 X 2 11 X X X 305 X X X 1,640 Sri Lanka 394 131 22.5 6.7 3 107 X X X 27 X X X 75 Syrian Arab Rep 162 126 9.6 3.7 7 X X X X 8 X X X 10 Thailand 143 76 7.7 7.8 31 85 X X X 188 X X X 613 Turkey 417 59 11.0 1.6 39 38 1,232 X X 43 625 X X 82 United Arab Emirates 24 22 X X 5 X X X X 34 X X X 118 Viet Nam 261 29 8.9 54.4 4 X X X X 1 X X X 1 Yemen (Arab Rep) 205 13 X X 19 g X X X X 8 X X X 8 (People's Dem Rep) 33 6 X X X X X X X 3 X X X 5 EUROPE 848 705 52.7 10.0 1,474 Albania 609 X 19.8 1.6 X X X X X X X X X X Austria 1,295 1,295 69.5 4.3 11 3 2 3 2 30 X 34 1 42 Belgium 4,243 4,073 118.0 64.5 12 3 49 X 74 68 191 79 54 661 Bulgaria 334 305 38.9 4.3 3 7 317 X 73 23 151 149 0 8 Czechoslovakia 583 77 104.5 3.9 6 5 397 X 197 22 132 720 51 17 Denmark 1,670 1,670 47.8 9.8 45 3 89 521 48 43 106 10 18 122 Finland 252 149 19.2 20.5 73 3 85 458 32 46 242 80 41 129 France 1,464 1,350 62.6 15.5 417 2 400 5,740 740 515 1,438 516 73 3,819 Germany (Fed Rep) 2,033 2,013 119.6 18.0 182 h X 615 5,556 418 363 1,631 620 540 3,840 (Dem Rep) 1,185 449 133.2 22.0 X X X X 228 X X X X X Greece 264 220 18.9 0.6 36 8 6 X 20 80 151 6 X 103 Hungary 1,141 569 83.4 17.6 2 6 281 X 115 14 131 211 145 6 Iceland 114 21 X X 97 2 X X X 16 X X X 33 Ireland 1,340 1,259 28.3 X 19 4 0 X 12 43 X 6 X 118 Italy 1,026 1,026 63.9 4.6 44 2 394 4,670 438 215 1,574 183 2 1,118 Luxembourg 1,973 1,955 105.4 14.3 2 2 X X 3 1 2 6 4 1 Malta 4,063 3,823 X X 1 X X X X 7 X X X 6 Netherlands 3,399 2,991 84.0 147.9 15 3 110 1,539 i 102 259 221 10 72 2,003 Norway 287 199 13.2 5.1 54 3 37 404 25 59 79 16 130 128 Poland 1,185 728 87.5 13.1 11 8 581 X 558 37 384 1,111 12 29 Portugal 565 j 488 j 39.2 1.3 30 6 85 530 59 63 X 17 X 160 Romania 316 160 48.1 7.2 17 19 X X X 16 51 483 31 15 Spain 307 301 28.9 2.1 39 3 354 1,330 158 228 1,242 145 X 733 Sweden 325 231 28.3 2.8 189 2 X X 59 85 260 185 70 185 Switzerland 1,788 X 113.1 0.5 10 2 30 796 115 155 60 79 1 889 United Kingdom 1,467 1,467 69.9 9.7 141 410 5,170 410 923 1,302 180 609 3,447 OO OJ Yugoslavia 478 287 36.6 7.8 18 267 370 114 51 209 254 45 136 U.S.S.R. 72 54 6.6 5.5 38 20 4,706 X 4,022 2,267 5,080 39,248 2,512 2,645 OCEANIA 115 57 5.3 2.5 936 1 xxxxx xxxxx xxxxx Australia 112 56 5.2 1.1 430 2 3 368 6 595 1,125 Fiji 235 31 35.2 11.1 17 25 X 8 X X 20 New Zealand 347 191 15.8 6.0 59 2 5 106 X 32 317 Papua New Guinea 42 1 X 24.2 402 189 X 7 X X 15 Solomon Islands 75 1 X X 28 X X 0 X X 0 Sources: International Civil Aviation Organization, International Road Federation, Jane's Information Group Limited, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, United States Central Intelligence Agency, and other sources. Notes: a. Passenger-km are total passengers moved multiplied by kilometers traveled, b. Metric ton-km are total metric tons of freight moved multiplied by distance moved. c. Country-based carriers only. Data are for 1989. d. Public and private vehicles combined, e. Excludes urban roads, f. Exclusive of Great Lakes waterways. g. Data are for Yemen as a whole, h. Data are for Germany as a whole, i. Includes bicycles, j . Data are for continental Portugal only. Regional totals are totals of countries with reported data only. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 267 17 Land Cover and Settlements Sources and Technical Notes Table 17.1 Land Area and Use, vest, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit, data collection and estimation, refer to the 1977-89 and vines. It excludes land used to grow Technical Note for Table 16.1, Size and trees for wood or timber. Growth of Population and Labor Force, Permanent pasture is land used five or 1950-2025, in Chapter 16, "Population and Sources: Land area and use: Food and Agri- more years for forage, including natural Human Development." culture Organization of the United Nations crops and cultivated crops. This category is The percentage of total population in cities (FAO), Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, June difficult for countries to assess because it in-with at least 1 million inhabitants was calcu- 1991); for Belgium and Luxembourg, Eu- cludes wildland used for pasture. In addi- lated using figures for populations of urban rostat, Environmental Statistics 1989 (Statisti- tion, few countries regularly report data on agglomerations of 1 million or more resi- cal Office of the European Communities, permanent pasture. As a result, the absence dents reported in Urban and Rural Areas Luxembourg, 1990); population density: cal- of a change in permanent pasture area (e.g., 1990 and total national population esti- culated from FAO land-area data and popu- 0 percent change for many African and mates and projections for 1960 and 1990 in lation figures provided by United Nations Asian countries) may indicate differences in World Population Prospects 1990. In Urban Population Division, World Population Pros- land classification and data reporting rather and Rural Areas 1990, the United Nations pects 1990 (U.N., New York, 1991); 1990 than actual conditions. Grassland not used provides estimates and projections of the population for the Solomon Islands, The for forage is included under other land. population of 276 urban agglomerations World Bank, unpublished data (The World Forest and woodland includes land under with 1 million or more inhabitants in 1990, Bank, Washington, D.C., July 1991); wilder- natural or planted stands of trees, as well as for each five-year period between 1950 and ness area: J. Michael McCloskey and logged-over areas that will be reforested in 2000. Heather Spalding, "A Reconnaissance- the near future. The United Nations defines an "urban ag- Level Inventory of the Amount of Wilder- glomeration" as "comprising the city or ness Remaining in the World," Ambio, Vol. Other land includes uncultivated land, grassland not used for pasture, built-on town proper and also the suburban fringe 18, No. 4 (1989). or thickly settled territory lying outside of, areas, wetlands, wastelands, and roads. Land area and land use data are provided Wilderness area refers to lands showing no but adjacent to, the city boundaries.... For to FAO by national governments in re- evidence of development, such as settle- some countries or areas, the data relate to sponse to annual questionnaires. FAO also ments, roads, buildings, airports, railroads, entire administrative divisions known, for compiles data from national agricultural pipelines, power lines, and reservoirs. The example, as shi or municipos which [sic] censuses. When official information is lack- data were derived from 65 detailed, aero- are composed of a populated center and ad- ing, FAO prepares its own estimates or re- nautical, navigational maps published in joining territory, some of which may con- lies on unofficial data. Several countries use the early and mid-1980s by the U.S. De- tain other quite separate urban localities or definitions of total area and land use that fense Mapping Agency at scales of be distinctly rural in character." For addi- differ from those used in this chapter. Refer 1:2,000,000 and 1:1,000,000. The maps show tional information, refer to the source. to the sources for details. human constructs in remote areas to pro- Average household size refers to individuals FAO often adjusts the definitions of land- vide orienting landmarks for navigators. Al- or groups of people who share facilities for use categories and sometimes substantially though the maps do not always show agri- cooking and for meeting other basic needs revises earlier data. For example, in 1985, cultural development or logging, these ac- within a housing unit. Housing units are FAO began to exclude from the cropland tivities usually occur near roads and settle- dwellings that are either primarily intended category land used for shifting cultivation ments. The minimum unit of wilderness for use as living quarters, or units that are but currently lying fallow. Because land- surveyed was 4,000 square kilometers be- being used for that purpose. This includes use changes can reflect changes in data-re- cause it was impossible to identify smaller apartments and mobile homes along with porting procedures along with actual wilderness areas from these maps. hotels, rooming houses, and other group land-use changes, apparent trends should living quarters. Number of occupants is calcu- be interpreted with caution. lated by dividing the total number of peo- Land use data are periodically revised Table 17.2 Urban and Rural ple living in households by the number of and may change significantly from year to Populations, Settlements, and households in existence. In estimating num- year. For the most recent land-use statistics, Labor Force, 1960-1990 ber of rooms per household, Habitat defines see the latest FAO Production Yearbook. a room as a space at least 4 square meters, Land area data are for 1989. They exclude enclosed by walls at least 2 meters high, major inland water bodies, national claims Sources: Urban population as a percentage which is intended for residential use only. to the continental shelf, and Exclusive Eco- of total: United Nations Population Divi- Examples would include bedrooms, kitch- nomic Zones. (See Chapter 23, "Oceans and sion, World Population Prospects 1990 (U.N., ens, living and dining rooms, servants' Coasts," Table 23.1, Coastal Areas and Re- New York, 1991); cities with at least 1 mil- rooms, and studies. Hallways, verandas, sources.) lion inhabitants: United Nations Population lobbies, bathrooms, and rooms used for The population density and land use figures Division, Urban and Rural Areas 1990, on work or business purposes are not included for the world refer to the six inhabited conti- diskette (U.N., New York, 1991); average unless otherwise indicated in the table. nents. Population density was derived by household size and percentage of house- The percentage of households without electric- using the population figures for 1990 pub- holds without electricity: United Nations ity refers only to households not serviced lished by the United Nations Population Di- Center for Human Settlements (Habitat), by public utilities. Residences supplied by vision and 1989 land area data from FAO. Human Settlements Basic Statistics 1990 (Hab- local generators or other privately owned Although the population figures were pub- itat, Nairobi, 1990); total labor force, means would be included in the percentage lished in 1991, actual censuses and esti- women as a percentage of labor force, and without electricity. Readers should be cau- mates were made in prior years. For labor force by sector: International Labour tious in comparing figures for household additional information on population and Office (ILO), Economically Active Population. size and electrification rates, because these methodology, see the Technical Notes to Estimates: 1950-1980; Projections: 1985-2025 data come from censuses taken in different Table 16.1, Size and Growth of Population (ILO, Geneva, 1986). years during the 1970-86 period. and Labor Force, 1950-2025, in Chapter 16, Urban population as a percentage of total is All people who work or are without "Population and Human Development." the portion of the total population residing work but are available for and are seeking Cropland includes land under temporary in urban areas. The rest of the population is work to produce economic goods and ser- and permanent crops, temporary meadows, defined as rural. Definitions of urban vary vices comprise the total labor force, which in- market and kitchen gardens, and tempo- from country to country. For a list of indi- cludes employed people and the un- rary fallow. Permanent crops are those that vidual country definitions, see the sources. employed (experienced workers who are do not need to be replanted after each har- For additional information on methods of World Resources 1992-93 268 Land Cover and Settlements 17 without work as well as those looking for port: ICAO, Civil Aviation Statistics of the 1973; and Czechoslovakia, 1969. Water- work for the first time). The International World 1989 (ICAO, Montreal, 1990) and un- ways data reported by the CIA are from Labour Office provides labor force esti- published data (ICAO, Montreal, October country reports available as of January mates and projections for men, women, 1991). 1990. and the total population. Women as a per- Definitions of total road and paved road Total number of public airports refers to centage of labor force is calculated using esti-vary from country to country. In general, land-based airports with permanent sur- mates of the total labor force and the they include highways, rural roads, urban face and unimproved runways. Airports number of women in the labor force for streets, feeder roads, and highway on- and served by regularly scheduled flights and 1990. The data for total labor force, as well off-ramps. Total road for some countries in- other aerodromes open to the public are in- as percentage of 1980 labor force in agriculture, cludes seasonably accessible routes, agricul- cluded. Data were compiled primarily industry, and services, take into account in- tural roads, and rural paths. Paved road through surveys taken by ICAO during formation on the economically active popu- generally refers to concrete, cobblestone, bi- 1989-90. Some data were taken from aero- lation, which is obtained from national tuminous-treated and asphalt- or maca- nautical publications. censuses of population, labor force sample dam-covered road. In some cases, graded Persons per car is calculated by dividing surveys, and other surveys conducted gravel roadway is included. Road data are the total number of vehicles in use on De- through 1985. Estimates are based on mid- from the latest figures provided by govern- cember 31 of the latest census year avail- year, medium variant population figures. ments to IRF between 1981 and 1989. CIA able between 1981 and 1989 with the total (See Chapter 16, "Population and Human figures are from U.S. Defense Intelligence population for that year. For some coun- Development" for further information on Agency estimates, which in turn are based tries, road censuses are taken earlier in the population projections.) on information published in various country year. In general, cars refer to privately reports available as of January 1990. Esti- owned vehicles with four or more wheels, mates are of current road extent, excepting which are used for noncommercial pur- a few countries where data are for extent poses. A few countries include commercial Table 17.3 Transport and during the mid-1980s (1980 for the Demo- vehicles (such as taxis and rental cars) and Transport Infrastructure, 1980s cratic People's Republic of Korea). minibuses under this category. Data for ve- Rail track generally refers to route kilome- hicles in use and other transport statistics ters of track, the distance covered between are submitted by individual governments Sources: Total road and paved road: Inter- two termini. In a few cases (portions of the to IRF. Numbers for some countries have national Road Federation (IRF), World Road U.S. and Tanzanian networks), track kilo- been known to vary widely from year to Statistics 1981-85, World Road Statistics 1985- meter distance is reported, the total amount year, because of changes in survey method- 89 (IRF, Geneva, 1986 and 1990); U.S. Cen- of track between two termini (twice the ologies and category definitions. tral Intelligence Agency (CIA), The World route kilometers if you have double track Passenger-kilometers traveled per year by Factbook 1990 (CIA, Washington, D.C., between two points). Total rail track figures car/bus, passenger train, and commercial air- 1990); for Cape Verde, Business Interna- generally do not include the length of sid- craft are the total number of kilometers trav- tional Ltd., Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea- ings. Total track is the sum of public and pri- eled multiplied by the total number of Bissau, Cape Verde Country Profile 1990-91 vately owned systems currently in use, passengers carried for each transport cate- (The Economist Intelligence Unit, London, including lines used at mines and on planta- gory. Passenger-kilometers are generally es- 1990); land area data: Food and Agriculture tions to haul ore and agricultural produce timated using receipts from ticket sales and Organization of the United Nations (FAO), when reported. Total track includes do not include trips made by nonpaying Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, June 1991); rail urban rail systems but not the below ground passengers (e.g., military personnel, trans- track: Jane's Information Group Limited, segments of these systems (subways). port employees). Jane's World Railways 1990-91 (Jane's Infor- The definition of navigable inland water- Metric ton-kilometers of freight moved per mation Group Limited, Surrey, United ways varies among countries, particularly year is the total number of tons moved mul- Kingdom, 1990); commercial airports: Inter- in terms of the minimum craft size that can tiplied by the total distance traveled. Both national Civil Aviation Organization travel a waterway in order for it to be con- passenger and freight transport data are (ICAO), Annual Report of the Council—1990 sidered navigable. Waterways for Europe, based on the latest census results available (ICAO, Montreal, 1991); number of passen- the U.S.S.R., and the United States as re- between 1981 and 1989 for road, rail, and in- ger cars (persons per car), passenger-km ported here are considered navigable if land waterway transport (1980 data for wa- traveled by car/bus and train and metric they permit passage of boats and barges terway freight transport for Switzerland). ton-km of road, rail, and waterway freight with a carrying capacity of at least 50 met- Air freight and passenger transport data transported (primary source): IRF, World ric tons. Canals, rivers, lakes, and in some are based on 1989 figures and estimates. Road Statistics 1981-85 and World Road Statis- cases, coastal routes and estuaries are in- Passenger-kilometers and kilometers offreight tics 1985-89 (IRF, Geneva, 1986 and 1990); cluded in the total. In a number of other transported by aircraft consist of all travel all non-aircraft transported freight and pas- countries, seasonally accessible waterways on international and domestically scheduled senger data for Europe and the U.S.S.R. are also included. Waterway length of lakes commercial flights on carriers based within (when more recent than primary source is the route distance between the two far- the country in question. For multinational data) and inland waterways for Europe, the thest points traveled. Canal and river carriers such as Air Afrique, totals are gen- U.S.S.R., and the United States: United Na- length is measured at the deepest point of erally apportioned equally among the con- tions Economic Commission for Europe, the watercourse. Data reported by the sortium countries. International totals for 2990 Annual Bulletin of Transport Statistics United Nations Economic Commission for both freight and passenger transport in- for Europe (U.N., New York, 1990); inland Europe are the waterway extent as of 1988, clude travel by national carriers between waterways (all other countries): CIA, The with the following exceptions: Portugal countries outside of the host nation. For ad- World Factbook 1990 (CIA, Washington, and Sweden, 1982; Italy and the United ditional information, refer to the source. D.C., 1990); air passenger and freight trans- Kingdom, 1980; Romania, 1975; Bulgaria, World Resources 1992-93 269 18. Food and Agriculture Over the past 10 years, the world's food production America, and Oceania but increased in South America, increased by 24 percent while its population grew Asia, and Africa. The world chicken population has almost 20 percent. Food production increased, in part, grown by 53 percent, with over a 100 percent increase because of increases in irrigation, mechanization, land in Asia. used for agriculture, and inputs of fertilizers and pesti- The world's agricultural production systems are inte- cides. World trade in food, as well as food aid, also in- grated in the world market for commodities and the creased during this period. Physical, political, econo- flows of food aid. (See Table 18.4.) Many countries de- mic, and technological constraints, however, raise pend on agricultural trade to earn foreign exchange, questions as to how long this growth can be sustained. but a steady decline in world commodity prices (see Even though the world's food production has out- Chapter 15, "Basic Economic Indicators," Table 15.4) paced population growth, regional and national data forces exporting countries to increase exports or face a show that this increase did not occur everywhere. (See decrease in export earnings. The same decrease in com- Table 18.1.) Despite a 30 percent increase in cereal pro- modity prices, however, has made food imports more duction, Africa's per capita food output has dropped affordable for nations with agricultural trade deficits. by 5 percent in the past decade. Per capita food pro- Trade in cereals, oils, and pulses has grown by a factor duction in North and Central America declined as of 2.5 in the past decade. The United States, Canada, and well. In South America, Asia, Europe, and the U.S.S.R., France are the largest net exporters of cereals, whereas food production grew faster than the population. How- the U.S.S.R. and Japan are the greatest net importers. ever, increases in cereal production do not always rep- Food aid often links agricultural areas producing resent improvements in food availability. Over 50 subsidized surpluses with countries in need. Canada, percent of cereal consumed in Europe, North America, the United States, Japan, and the European Commu- and the Soviet Union is eaten by livestock. nity are the world's largest donors of cereals. (See Ta- Yield differences reflect the intensity of agricultural bles 18.4 and 18.5.) Egypt and Bangladesh receive the activity. On a global average, 1 hectare yielded about most cereal aid in total, whereas Cape Verde and Ja- 2.6 metric tons of cereals and 11.8 metric tons of roots maica lead the world in the amount of cereal aid re- and tubers. However, 1 hectare in Africa yielded only ceived per capita. Asia's agricultural success is 1.2 metric tons of cereals and 7.9 metric tons of roots demonstrated by a 26 percent decline in metric tons of and tubers, whereas Europe produced 4.2 and 21.2 cereal aid received over the past decade, although that metric tons, respectively. aid has risen over the past two years. The United Differences in yields are principally caused by differ- States provides 53 percent of all cereal aid. ences in agricultural inputs. (See Table 18.2.) European The inherent fertility of soils and the climatic regime agriculture applies 2.3 times more fertilizer per hectare together determine which crops can be grown, what of cropland than the global average, whereas Africa inputs are required, and what outputs are possible. uses one fifth of the world average. Reasons for low Table 18.6 presents country data on the percent of rates of fertilizer use include lack of financial re- soils that fall within the four climatic classes (arid, sources, low crop prices relative to fertilizer prices, semi-arid, humid, and cold) and the three temperature and poor distribution systems. Geographic distribu- zones. Also presented is the amount of land that has tion of use rates of other inputs is similar. With only no inherent soil constraints and the percent of this one third of the world's cropland, North American land that falls within each of the four climate classes. and European farmers own nearly two thirds of the To increase agricultural production, countries may world's tractors. In contrast, African farmers, with 10 need to use more intensive soil management practices percent of the world's crop area, own only 2 percent of to exploit lands with physical or chemical constraints. the world's tractors, many of them out of operation be- In Africa and Southwest Asia, more than 70 percent of cause of high fuel prices and a lack of spare parts. the land that has no inherent soil constraints is located Livestock continues to supply traction power for cul- in arid areas in which growing seasons for rainfed agri- tivation and harvest in much of the world and is an im- culture are very short. In South America and Southeast portant source for food, raw materials, fertilizer, and Asia, however, most of the land without soil con- energy. Table 18.3 shows that during the past decade, straints is located in humid areas, which have longer the number of cattle declined slightly in Europe, North growing seasons. World Resources 1992-93 271 18 Food and Agriculture Table 18-1 Food and Agricultural Production, 1978-90 Average Average Average Yields Index of Agricultural Index of Food Production of Cereals Yields of Cereals of Roots and Tubers Production Production (000 Percent Kilograms Percent Kilograms Percent (1979-81 =100) (1979-81 =100) metric Change Per Change Per Change Total Per Capita Total Per Capita tons) Since Hectare Since Hectare Since 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 WORLD 98 122 100 104 98 122 100 104 1,859,005 18 2,638 20 11,795 (5) AFRICA 98 124 101 95 98 125 101 96 91,102 30 1,198 11 7,889 16 Algeria 97 123 100 95 97 122 100 94 1,380 (26) 621 (3) 8,826 27 Angola 101 98 104 78 100 101 103 80 302 (30) 307 4,102 4 Benin 101 160 104 123 101 154 104 118 571 49 870 8,788 17 Botswana 95 110 98 79 95 110 98 79 79 178 331 51 7,000 (5) Burkina Faso 98 146 100 116 98 144 100 114 1,947 72 691 20 6,827 (16) Burundi 95 120 98 93 98 122 100 95 298 50 1,313 24 8,333 15 Cameroon 98 119 101 90 98 119 100 90 917 4 1,234 47 2,551 4 Cape Verde 100 153 101 124 100 154 101 124 14 126 434 (9) 3,529 (3) Central African Rep 98 122 100 96 97 121 100 95 149 56 1,106 107 3,581 11 Chad 99 124 101 100 97 120 100 97 691 17 645 25 5,514 24 Comoros 101 123 105 90 101 123 105 90 19 4 1,629 51 5,143 39 Congo 96 121 98 92 96 121 98 92 22 43 759 24 6,826 8 Cote d'lvoire 93 132 97 93 95 138 99 98 1,195 40 884 11 5,911 28 Djibouti X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Egypt 97 142 100 114 98 154 100 123 11,024 36 5,254 31 28,330 64 Equatorial Guinea X X X X X X X X X X X X 2,788 33 Ethiopia 98 104 101 84 99 105 101 85 6,078 6 1,209 3 3,366 Gabon 98 115 103 81 98 114 103 81 22 109 1,558 (7) 6,242 1 Gambia, The 101 118 104 90 101 119 105 91 98 36 1,140 0 3,000 0 Ghana 97 146 100 108 97 148 100 109 1,052 58 1,029 29 6,797 4 Guinea 97 111 99 89 97 109 99 87 786 25 938 (2) 6,063 (15) Guinea-Bissau 97 121 101 102 97 121 101 102 240 224 1,204 97 5,714 (4) Kenya 100 146 104 105 102 149 106 107 3,322 35 1,722 31 8,663 11 Lesotho 106 105 109 82 107 104 110 81 177 (25) 765 (34) 10,000 X Liberia 98 112 101 84 97 114 100 86 243 (1) 1,178 (5) 7,548 10 Libya 86 148 90 103 86 148 90 103 355 46 822 109 6,980 11 Madagascar 97 119 100 90 97 120 100 91 2,474 15 1,919 15 6,439 12 Malawi 99 118 102 86 99 113 102 83 1,498 5 1,107 (8) 3,153 (32) Mali 95 130 97 100 95 127 97 98 2,138 100 962 12 8,625 4 Mauritania 98 113 100 89 98 113 100 89 154 273 896 156 2,000 (9) Mauritius 103 114 104 103 104 114 105 103 3 167 2,667 (11) 18,333 62 Morocco 104 170 107 135 105 170 107 135 7,262 63 1,323 35 17,826 26 Mozambique 98 106 101 84 98 108 101 86 634 (3) 551 (17) 6,046 20 Namibia 99 123 102 93 99 125 101 95 135 51 591 24 8,833 (4 Niger 98 108 101 80 98 108 101 80 1,962 19 417 (6) 7,106 (5 Nigeria 96 151 99 113 96 151 99 113 12,907 90 1,118 10 12,288 23 Rwanda 94 107 98 79 94 103 98 76 269 2 1,107 (3) 7,801 (10) Senegal 99 133 102 103 99 133 102 104 961 23 779 17 4,236 (3) Sierra Leone 100 108 102 87 101 109 103 88 489 (16) 1,341 2 3,340 (14) Somalia 97 135 102 99 97 135 102 99 612 132 729 64 9,800 (14) South Africa 95 107 98 88 95 108 97 88 12,784 4 1,953 23 13,717 17 Sudan 96 100 99 76 94 98 97 75 3,054 10 499 (23) 2,477 (25) Swaziland 94 124 97 92 94 125 97 93 146 56 1,833 36 3,250 66 Tanzania 97 122 101 88 97 123 101 88 4,113 38 1,391 31 7,096 (21) Togo 98 132 101 101 99 128 101 98 492 67 894 22 7,926 (17) Tunisia 98 118 101 94 98 117 101 94 855 (18) 851 19 12,000 6 Uganda 103 128 107 93 103 127 106 92 1,480 17 1,473 8 6,340 36 Zaire 97 127 99 97 97 127 99 97 1,267 50 758 (2) 7,562 11 Zambia 103 141 107 100 103 139 107 98 1,742 54 1,818 16 3,670 5 Zimbabwe 97 134 100 102 95 126 98 96 2,679 44 1,539 25 4,787 22 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 97 103 98 92 97 104 98 92 343,656 (D 3,565 3 19,216 7 Barbados 99 79 99 77 99 79 99 77 2 0 2,000 0 5,667 (54) Belize 100 115 102 92 100 115 102 92 29 17 1,725 (6) X X Canada 98 114 99 105 98 115 99 106 47,355 19 2,200 2 24,979 7 Costa Rica 99 123 102 96 100 117 103 91 308 (6) 2,645 6 8,484 41 Cuba 98 110 98 101 98 109 99 101 604 10 2,473 2 5,310 (11) Dominican Rep 100 112 102 91 100 116 103 94 530 21 3,485 21 6,833 17 El Salvador 100 82 102 72 103 107 105 94 808 11 1,934 13 16,000 37 Guatemala 99 117 101 90 97 123 100 95 1,515 40 1,874 21 4,350 21 Haiti 99 108 101 91 100 110 101 93 399 (2) 954 3 4,025 1 Honduras 95 125 99 92 95 123 99 91 623 31 1,357 33 7,000 63 Jamaica 106 104 107 91 106 103 107 91 3 (63) 1,286 (20) 12,566 15 Mexico 97 117 100 95 97 118 99 96 22,700 23 2,265 11 13,896 7 Nicaragua 111 75 114 55 113 82 116 61 484 28 1,603 14 11,826 86 Panama 97 109 100 90 98 106 100 88 315 32 1,783 27 9,179 11 Trinidad and Tobago 113 84 115 72 113 86 115 74 13 (24) 2,600 (18) 10,000 (3) United States 96 100 97 92 96 100 98 92 267,965 (5) 4,341 6 31,127 9 SOUTH AMERICA 96 124 99 103 97 126 99 105 76,356 22 2,062 22 12,121 13 Argentina 96 108 98 95 95 107 97 95 19,756 2,262 3 20,714 64 Bolivia 96 134 99 105 96 136 98 107 754 <$ 1,218 10 5,790 10 Brazil 94 131 96 108 95 134 97 111 39,783 41 1,878 38 12,471 8 Chile 95 130 96 112 95 131 96 112 2,976 73 3,690 85 14,536 43 Colombia 98 125 100 104 97 131 100 109 3,958 18 2,512 4 11,890 8 Ecuador 97 137 99 108 97 137 100 108 1,381 140 1,736 15 6,897 (25) Guyana 101 74 102 70 101 74 102 71 195 (28) 2,056 (23) 7,750 17 Paraguay 94 166 97 126 93 158 96 119 1,620 166 2,047 38 16,528 16 Peru 98 120 101 98 99 122 101 100 2,200 66 2,513 38 8,336 15 Suriname 91 101 91 87 91 101 91 87 263 10 3,835 (4) X (100) Uruguay 93 120 93 114 93 120 93 113 1,373 54 2,494 68 6,020 23 Venezuela 99 121 102 95 99 121 102 94 2,080 36 2,231 17 8,333 6 World Resources 1992-93 272 Food and Agriculture 18 Table 18.1 Average Average Average Yields Index of Agricultural Index of Food Production of Cereals Yields of Cereals of Roots and Tubers Production Production (000 Percent Kilograms Percent Kilograms Percent (1979-81 =100) (1979-81 = 100) metric Change Per Change Per Change Total Per Capita Total Per Capita tons) Since Hectare Since Hectare Since 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 ASIA 97 139 99 118 97 139 99 117 833,141 33 2,713 32 12,210 (16) Afghanistan 100 84 99 85 100 84 99 85 3,463 (18) 1,338 3 15,000 5 Bahrain X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Bangladesh 99 122 102 95 99 123 102 97 27,382 34 2,483 28 10,181 (0) Bhutan 98 100 99 84 98 100 99 84 98 (37) 1,039 (28) 10,067 54 Cambodia 107 208 106 166 106 203 105 163 2,484 83 1,361 29 8,360 35 China 96 151 97 134 97 149 98 132 369,576 31 4,057 38 11,740 (32) Cyprus 101 112 102 102 101 112 102 102 135 54 2,309 29 22,708 India Indonesia 98 93 143 151 100 95 118 126 98 93 144 153 100 95 119 128 193,601 50,163 42 61 1,861 3,715 42 40 15,552 11,473 4? 29 Iran, Islamic Rep 96 135 100 99 96 135 99 99 11,128 29 1,224 3 13,914 (4) Iraq 102 123 106 90 102 124 106 90 2,070 21 971 23 16,556 3 Israel 102 107 104 92 104 116 106 100 223 3 1,988 16 37,278 11 Japan 104 98 105 93 104 101 105 95 14,214 (7) 5,662 3 24,599 Jordan 97 157 101 112 98 158 102 113 110 22 797 49 18,625 24 Korea, Dem People's Rep 97 126 108 97 125 107 10,417 21 6,598 14 13,381 5 Korea, Rep 104 106 106 95 104 108 105 97 8,708 0 5,933 20 21,579 24 Kuwait X X X X X X X X 3 X 3,000 X X X Lao People's Dem Rep 88 151 89 120 88 151 89 121 1,353 49 2,177 66 8,413 (15) Lebanon 100 142 99 141 100 145 99 145 76 50 1,876 66 17,128 12 Malaysia 95 169 97 133 92 196 94 155 1,759 (7) 2,642 (11) 9,436 5 Mongolia 101 110 104 86 101 114 104 89 752 132 1,225 115 9,610 27 Myanmar 95 120 97 99 95 122 97 101 14,112 20 2,752 22 8,553 22 Nepal 98 139 101 111 98 141 100 113 5,451 54 1,832 15 6,693 25 Oman X X X X X X X X 2 0 1,500 100 X X Pakistan 95 148 98 107 95 144 98 104 20,387 27 1,745 14 10,063 (3) Philippines 96 109 99 87 96 109 99 86 13,851 28 1,936 22 6,805 (7) Qatar X X X X X X X X 3 350 3,000 X X X Saudi Arabia 135 403 140 274 135 408 141 277 3,596 1,075 4,261 502 18,500 X Singapore 98 96 99 87 98 97 99 87 X X X X 0 X Sri Lanka 96 100 98 87 95 101 97 88 2,289 13 2,892 24 9,198 4 Syrian Arab Rep 92 116 95 85 91 114 94 83 3,156 17 1,209 18 15,338 1 Thailand 98 127 100 108 98 124 100 105 24,636 23 2,089 10 14,486 (1) Turkey 98 120 100 97 98 120 100 97 28,125 13 2,057 11 21,926 35 United Arab Emirates X X X X X X X X 5 250 4,667 X X X Viet Nam 94 148 97 122 94 145 96 119 18,971 67 2,988 55 7,653 15 Yemen (Arab Rep) 104 72 108 53 104 72 108 53 549 (28) 971 3 12,842 10 (People's Dem Rep) 98 57 100 45 98 56 100 44 30 (75) 1,085 (30) 8,000 (50) EUROPE 99 109 99 105 99 108 99 105 285,975 14 4,240 20 21,195 10 Albania 97 112 99 94 98 112 100 94 1,023 11 2,914 15 8,818 26 Austria 99 108 99 108 99 108 99 108 5,104 14 5,407 28 26,960 9 Belgium (a) 96 96 117 117 96 96 117 117 2,313 9 6,235 29 42,643 8 Bulgaria 97 96 98 94 97 101 97 99 8,412 8 3,991 9 11,339 13 Czechoslovakia 100 126 101 123 100 126 101 123 12,149 18 4,951 25 18,317 10 Denmark 99 130 99 129 99 130 99 129 8,893 20 5,646 40 38,336 46 Finland 102 112 102 108 102 112 102 108 3,636 14 3,016 15 20,740 23 France 98 104 98 100 98 104 98 100 56,095 22 6,101 31 33,009 21 Germany (Fed Rep) 99 113 100 112 99 113 100 112 26,372 13 5,715 29 36,931 27 (Dem Rep) 98 98 115 117 98 98 115 117 10,974 16 4,507 20 23,634 20 Greece 97 98 108 104 97 98 108 104 4,697 2 3,306 13 19,573 26 Hungary 98 110 99 111 99 111 99 112 13,484 2 4,772 7 17,932 17 Iceland 100 90 101 82 100 90 101 82 X X X X 10,333 (9) Ireland 105 112 107 108 105 111 107 108 2,108 12 6,169 35 25,613 5 Italy 97 100 97 98 97 99 97 97 17,315 (3) 3,816 10 19,339 10 Luxembourg (a) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Malta 104 111 105 115 104 111 105 115 9 35 3,857 16 8,500 3 Netherlands 95 121 96 115 95 121 96 115 1,314 1 6,681 19 41,186 10 Norway 99 104 99 101 99 104 99 101 1,150 2 3,325 (8) 24,607 (7) Poland 104 114 105 107 104 116 105 109 26,492 39 3,136 29 18,962 10 Portugal 102 113 102 107 101 113 102 107 1,535 25 1,659 59 8,205 (13) Romania 100 100 101 96 100 100 100 96 18,320 (6) 3,115 2 11,003 (26) Spain 101 117 102 112 101 117 102 112 20,766 27 2,669 22 18,402 19 Sweden 99 99 99 97 99 99 99 97 5,512 2 4,333 22 32,412 12 Switzerland 99 109 99 104 99 110 99 104 1,307 57 6,312 30 39,433 10 United Kingdom 98 109 98 107 98 109 98 107 22,074 22 5,792 24 37,890 13 Yugoslavia 98 99 98 94 98 100 99 94 14,923 (1) 3,550 3 7,490 (14) U.S.S.R. 104 119 105 110 105 121 106 112 205,449 5 1,925 20 10,995 (6) OCEANIA 101 113 103 98 103 109 104 95 23,524 5 1,688 17 11,295 10 Australia 103 117 105 102 104 109 106 95 22,693 5 1,651 17 28,043 24 Fiji 93 102 95 86 93 103 95 87 33 79 2,381 23 9,500 25 New Zealand 97 106 97 99 99 112 99 104 792 0 4,526 15 30,286 13 Papua New Guinea 98 128 100 104 98 129 100 105 3 (25) 1,800 5 7,225 3 Solomon Islands 93 122 96 89 93 122 96 89 0 (100) 0 (100) 15,611 22 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Data for Belgium and Luxembourg are combined under Belgium. World and regional totals include some countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 273 18 Food and Agriculture Table 18.2 Agricultural Inputs, 1975-89 Cropland Irrigated Land Average Annual Average Annual Tractors Harvesters Total Hectares asa Fertilizer Use Pesticide Use Percent Percent Hectares Per Percentage of (kilograms per (metric tons of Average Change Average Change (000) Capita Cropland hectare of cropland) active ingredient) Number Since Number Since 1989 1990 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1975-77 1982-84 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 WORLD 1,478,190 0.28 14 16 73 97 X X 25,896,523 26 3,964,402 22 AFRICA 186,995 0.29 5 6 14 20 X X 569,554 30 55,714 43 Algeria 7,605 0.30 3 4 21 27 16,457 21,400 93,757 116 9,009 120 Angola 3,600 0.36 X X 6 5 X X 10,270 3 X X Benin 1,860 0.40 0 0 1 3 X X 123 26 X X Botswana 1,380 1.06 0 0 1 1 X X 4,217 111 87 25 Burkina Faso 3,564 0.40 0 0 2 5 X X 125 23 X X Burundi 1,336 0.24 4 5 1 3 22 59 129 110 X X Cameroon 7,008 0.59 0 0 5 6 X X 1,003 147 X X Cape Verde 39 0.11 5 5 0 0 X X 16 37 X X Central African Rep 2,006 0.66 X X 1 0 X X 195 38 15 57 Chad 3,205 0.56 0 0 2 2 X X 165 10 17 6 Comoros 100 0.18 X X 0 0 X X X X X X Congo 168 0.07 2 2 0 8 X X 695 5 50 70 Cote d'lvoire 3,660 0.31 1 2 13 10 X X 3,450 21 58 78 Djibouti X 0.00 X X X X X X 8 33 X X Egypt 2,585 0.05 98 99 223 384 26,970 19,567 52,497 85 2,278 7 Equatorial Guinea 230 0.65 0 X X 100 3 X X Ethiopia 13,930 0.28 2 600 993 3,900 2 150 3 Gabon 452 0.39 1 3 X X 1,427 24 X X Gambia, The 178 0.21 15 17 X 101 b 43 (7) 5 50 Ghana 2,720 0.18 4 X X 3,900 16 480 Guinea 728 0.13 2 1 X X 250 108 X X Guinea-Bissau 335 0.35 1 1 X X 48 11 X X Kenya 2,428 0.10 19 47 935 b 1,307 9,538 51 703 85 Lesotho 320 0.18 10 15 X X 1,750 37 32 20 Liberia 373 0.14 13 10 1,223 310 324 16 X X Libya 2,150 0.47 10 11 23 40 2,610 a 2,017 31,367 61 X X Madagascar 3,092 0.26 19 29 3 3 X 1,630 2,847 12 142 33 Malawi 2,409 0.28 1 1 11 21 X X 1,380 25 X X Mali 2,093 0.23 7 10 7 6 X 683 835 3 48 20 Mauritania 199 0.10 6 6 10 10 11 b X 332 29 X X Mauritius 106 0.10 14 16 245 302 753 a 981 a 350 11 X X Morocco 9,241 0.37 12 14 21 34 2,225 h 3,350 34,067 42 4,736 47 Mozambique 3,100 0.20 2 4 6 1 X X 5,750 2 X X Namibia 662 0.40 1 1 X X X X 2,950 20 X X Niger 3,605 0.47 1 1 1 1 451 159 b 179 31 X X Nigeria 31,335 0.29 3 3 10 4,000 b 11,033 36 X X Rwanda 1,153 0.16 0 0 1 X 88 8 X X Senegal 5,226 0.71 3 3 5 X 477 13 150 15 Sierra Leone 1,801 0.43 1 2 0 X 510 320 500 Somalia 1,039 0.14 10 11 3 X 2,100 39 X South Africa 13,174 0.37 9 70 58 19,292 11,053 183,233 2 33,000 37 Sudan 12,510 0.50 14 15 2 4 X X 21,000 108 1,220 16 Swaziland 164 0.21 35 38 83 47 16 X 3,293 15 X X Tanzania 5,250 0.19 2 3 2,992 5,733 18,550 1 X X Togo 1,444 0.41 0 0 X 353 126 X X Tunisia 4,700 0.57 11 22 X 1,330 25,967 3 2,637 Uganda 6,705 0.36 0 0 X 23 4,200 89 14 50 Zaire 7,850 0.22 1 1 X X 2,333 37 X X Zambia 5,268 0.62 11 17 X X 5,709 30 281 Zimbabwe 2,810 0.29 38 56 865 b 207 20,367 3 590 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 273,834 0.64 10 9 87 85 X X 5,709,463 (2) 828,610 (0) Barbados 33 0.13 X X 162 91 X X 608 15 X X Belize 56 0.30 2 4 36 71 X X 1,050 39 40 52 Canada 45,960 1.73 1 2 38 47 26,928 54,767 756,300 16 156,700 (3) Costa Rica 528 0.18 10 22 143 191 3,027 3,667 6,350 9 1,120 15 Cuba 3,329 0.31 22 26 133 192 7,817 9,567 75,368 12 7,202 45 Dominican Rep 1,446 0.20 11 16 41 50 1,961 3,297 2,307 9 X X El Salvador 733 0.14 9 16 133 121 1,310 2,838 a 3,407 8 385 33 Guatemala 1,875 0.20 3 4 53 69 4,627 5,117 4,160 7 2,973 19 Haiti 905 0.14 8 8 4 3 156 d X 215 30 X X Honduras 1,810 0.35 4 5 13 20 940 859 3,420 11 X X Jamaica 269 0.11 12 13 55 105 861 1,420 3,037 12 X X Mexico 24,710 0.28 20 21 44 73 19,148 27,630 165,333 53 18,233 30 Nicaragua 1,273 0.33 6 7 31 55 2,943 2,003 2,510 34 X X Panama 577 0.24 5 5 44 62 1,542 2,393 6,230 29 1,950 61 Trinidad and Tobago 120 0.09 17 18 61 28 X X 2,620 16 X X United States 189,915 0.76 10 10 105 95 459,400 373,333 4,670,000 (6) 640,000 (1) SOUTH AMERICA 142,134 0.48 5 6 31 40 X X 1,089,234 43 114,046 19 Argentina 35,750 1.11 4 5 3 5 7,448 14,313 209,333 20 47,500 11 Bolivia 3,460 0.47 4 5 1 2 612 833 4,690 30 120 11 Brazil 78,650 0.52 2 3 42 46 59,292 46,698 680,000 59 44,000 29 Chile 4,525 0.34 28 28 27 73 1,838 1,800 38,447 12 8,600 8 Colombia 5,380 0.16 7 9 55 90 19,344 16,100 34,711 31 2,567 28 Ecuador 2,653 0.25 19 21 30 30 5,445 3,110 8,400 49 737 20 Guyana 495 0.62 25 26 22 29 705 658 3,580 5 423 4 Paraguay 2,216 0.52 2 3 2 6 2,957 3,423 10,500 107 X X Peru 3,730 0.17 31 33 35 54 2,370 2,753 16,000 26 X X Suriname 68 0.16 56 85 49 74 974 b 1,720 a 1,250 17 255 42 Uruguay 1,304 0.42 5 8 54 48 1,390 1,517 35,200 9 4,640 (2) Venezuela 3,895 0.20 6 7 51 162 6,923 8,143 46,833 33 5,200 86 World Resources 1992-93 274 Food and Agriculture 18 Table 18.2 Cropland Irrigated Land Average Annual Average Annual Tractors Harvesters Total Hectares as a Fertilizer Use Pesticide Use Percent Percent Hectares Per Percentage of (kilograms per (metric tons of Average Change Average Change (000) Capita Cropland hectare of cropland) active ingredient) Number Since Number Since 1989 1990 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1975-77 1982-84 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 ASIA 454,115 0.15 29 32 56 111 X X 5,122,884 87 1,341,084 82 Afghanistan 8,054 0.49 32 33 7 8 1,000 a 605 b 770 3 X X Bahrain 2 0.00 50 50 0 333 X X X X X X Bangladesh 9,292 0.08 15 26 40 86 X 234 5,083 39 X X Bhutan 131 0.09 20 26 0 0 X X X X X X Cambodia 3,056 0.37 3 3 0 0 1,593 833 1,363 1 20 0 China 96,115 0.08 47 47 115 255 150,467 159,267 878,453 54 35,129 79 Cyprus 156 0.22 19 21 94 141 X X 13,583 30 560 56 India 168,990 0.20 22 25 29 62 52,506 53,087 791,289 136 2,850 262 Indonesia 21,260 0.12 25 35 35 113 18,687 16,344 16,100 75 17,100 28 Iran, Islamic Rep 14,830 0.27 37 39 27 72 X X 112,667 77 2,850 (4) Iraq 5,450 0.29 31 42 13 39 X X 39,062 95 2,671 (31) Israel 433 0.09 47 49 186 234 600 847 28,502 18 280 (8) Japan 4,637 0.04 67 62 481 425 33,960 32,000 1,979,260 89 1,234,257 83 Jordan 376 0.11 10 15 26 63 X X 5,682 35 69 14 Korea, Dem People's Rep 2,000 0.09 53 68 355 396 4,000 a X 71,000 116 X X Korea, Rep 2,127 0.05 62 64 385 411 4,675 12,273 25,269 1,494 26,138 10,852 Kuwait 4 0.00 25 50 83 167 X X 117 343 X X Lao People's Dem Rep 901 0.22 9 13 0 0 X X 840 92 X X Lebanon 301 0.11 29 29 116 79 X X 3,000 0 95 6 Malaysia 4,880 0.27 7 7 77 150 X 9,730 a 11,833 57 X X Mongolia 1,375 0.63 2 5 5 15 X X 11,681 23 2,632 10 Myanmar 10,034 0.24 10 10 8 11 3,721 15,300 10,872 30 42 85 Nepal 2,641 0.14 15 34 7 23 X X 2,870 50 X X Oman 48 0.03 78 85 14 83 X X 136 54 35 215 Pakistan 20,730 0.17 69 78 42 85 2,120 1,856 176,000 136 823 82 Philippines 7,970 0.13 14 20 38 64 3,547 b 4,415 8,077 (25) 620 54 Qatar 5 0.01 X X 67 200 X X 90 79 X X Saudi Arabia 1,185 0.08 32 36 12 398 X X 1,850 85 600 71 Singapore 1 0.00 X X 3,333 6,000 X X 59 49 X X Sri Lanka 1,901 0.11 27 29 69 107 X 697 29,000 54 5 67 Syrian Arab Rep 5,503 0.44 10 12 20 46 X 4,892 b,c 54,767 137 2,616 14 Thailand 22,126 0.40 12 19 13 33 13,120 22,289 142,667 206 X X Turkey 27,885 0.50 7 8 49 62 X 9,000 a 654,336 80 11,608 (21) United Arab Emirates 39 0.02 13 13 60 120 X X X X 5 150 Viet Nam 6,600 0.10 21 28 47 79 1,693 883 b 35,533 30 X X Yemen (Arab Rep) 1,362 0.15 17 18 6 6 325 c,d 1,614 b,c,d 2,257 28 X X (People's Dem Rep) 119 0.05 41 49 6 3 X X 3,047 40 20 50 EUROPE 139,865 0.27 10 12 225 227 X X 10,244,872 30 831,801 2 Albania 707 0.22 51 59 131 141 4,510 5,183 11,443 14 1,654 22 Austria 1,533 0.20 0 0 255 210 3,449 4,548 339,168 8 28,621 (10) Belgium (e) 822 f 0.08 f 0 0 555 505 8,847 13,263 121,896 10 8,473 (15) Bulgaria 4,146 0.46 28 30 185 199 28,287 32,400 53,510 (17) 7,811 (25) Czechoslovakia 5,108 0.33 3 6 335 313 13,967 14,970 140,494 1 21,357 14 Denmark 2,555 0.50 13 17 271 243 4,998 7,729 166,210 (13) 33,913 (16) Finland 2,453 0.49 2 3 190 205 1,768 2,639 242,667 21 44,333 3 France 19,119 0.34 4 6 292 312 83,017 98,733 1,511,711 7 145,989 (1) Germany (Fed Rep) 7,478 0.12 4 4 464 405 11,900 14,133 1,447,768 0) 140,667 (18) (Dem Rep) 4,913 0.30 3 3 343 352 23,693 29,836 167,669 20 18,156 37 Greece 3,924 0.39 24 30 141 165 30,570 29,240 187,000 53 6,600 16 Hungary 5,287 0.50 5 3 287 258 26,267 27,595 52,220 (10) 10,759 (26) Iceland 8 0.03 X X 3,750 2,792 3 g,c 5 g,c 13,067 6 17 16 Ireland 953 0.27 X X 655 717 1,721 2,250 163,667 26 5,140 (5) Italy 12,033 0.21 23 26 177 172 83,724 98,496 1,362,786 43 45,045 47 Luxembourg (e) X f X f X X X X X X X X X X Malta 13 0.04 8 8 77 77 X X 448 11 10 (23) Netherlands 934 0.06 49 58 703 662 6,593 9,670 194,000 15 5,647 (9) Norway 878 0.21 8 11 290 252 1,494 1,508 153,491 27 18,633 20 Poland 14,759 0.39 1 1 244 224 11,360 15,277 1,099,139 111 72,162 137 Portugal 3,771 0.37 17 17 70 75 24,375 16,016 77,173 25 4,750 10 Romania 10,350 0.44 20 33 130 135 29,397 17,237 166,883 20 48,355 6 Spain 20,345 0.52 14 16 77 101 55,267 71,533 700,869 54 48,318 11 Sweden 2,853 0.33 2 4 182 134 5,454 5,736 183,000 (2) 47,000 (8) Switzerland 412 0.06 6 6 417 430 1,945 1,699 109,000 25 4,200 (22) United Kingdom 6,736 0.12 2 2 313 359 25,137 34,147 518,165 6 54,333 (6) Yugoslavia 7,766 0.33 2 2 108 126 19,091 31,567 1,061,000 211 9,856 (6) U.S.S.R. 230,630 0.80 7 9 78 114 348,767 535,400 2,742,667 11 732,667 9 OCEANIA 50,617 1.90 3 4 33 33 X X 417,858 (2) 60,480 (4) Australia 48,934 2.87 3 4 23 26 60,638 65,200 332,000 0 56,900 (2) Fiji 240 0.31 0 0 57 97 X X 4,290 13 X X New Zealand 507 0.15 33 54 1,110 670 1,651 1,793 78,433 (11) 3,103 (29) Papua New Guinea 388 0.10 X X 21 39 X X 1,150 464 33 Solomon Islands 57 0.18 X X 0 0 X X X X X Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, and other sources. Notes: a. One year of data. b. Two years of data. c. May not be active ingredient, d. Imports of pesticides, e. Data for Belgium and Luxembourg are combined under Belgium, f. Cropland data for Belgium and Luxembourg are for 1987. g. Sales of pesticides. World and regional totals include some countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1982-93 275 18 Food and Agriculture Table 18.3 Livestock Populations and Grain Consumed as Grain Fed to Cattle Sheep and Goats Pigs Equines Buffaloes and Camels Chickens Livestock as Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Percentage of Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Total Grain (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (millions) Since Consumption 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1970 1990 WORLD 1,271,279 5 1,716,749 13 845,108 10 118,602 7 157,967 15 10,399 53 38 38 AFRICA 183,715 8 372,038 14 13,145 37 19,094 12 16,877 16 838 46 4 18 Algeria 1,452 12 17,015 14 5 15 624 (29) 128 (12) 23 32 0 36 Angola 3,133 4 1,250 9 486 27 6 0 X X 6 20 0 0 Benin 932 20 1,884 2 681 56 7 0 X X 24 132 0 0 Botswana 2,522 (13) 2,176 199 15 110 184 27 X X 2 100 0 0 Burkina Faso 2,853 5 8,473 88 497 194 464 72 5 (6) 22 97 0 2 Burundi 432 (42) 1,208 34 84 119 X X X X 4 33 0 0 Cameroon 4,583 41 6,402 40 1,300 17 65 35 X X 17 79 0 0 Cape Verde 17 46 104 54 80 128 11 19 X X X X 0 0 Central African Rep 2,493 70 1,331 35 397 89 0 0 X X 3 125 0 0 Chad 4,156 (2) 4,604 (9) 13 56 425 2 530 26 4 33 0 0 Comoros 46 (30) 132 40 X X 4 20 X X X X X X Congo 65 (2) 367 84 48 31 X X X X 2 67 0 0 Cote d'lvoire 1,022 62 1,978 3 351 14 2 0 X X 25 61 8 4 Djibouti 72 76 916 (2) X X 8 14 58 17 X X X X Egypt 3,402 58 8,039 138 92 177 1,974 17 2,664 7 34 24 0 36 Equatorial Guinea 5 25 43 8 5 25 X X X X X X X X Ethiopia 28,633 10 41,387 3 20 11 8,070 24 1,070 10 57 10 0 0 Gabon 26 550 236 29 155 19 X X X X 2 0 0 0 Gambia, The 392 34 361 24 11 10 20 0 X X X X 0 0 Ghana 1,177 52 4,548 17 550 47 12 (59) X X 9 (27) 0 5 Guinea 1,800 6 965 17 34 (10) 3 (25) X X 13 105 0 0 Guinea-Bissau 340 20 415 20 290 18 4 0 X X 1 0 0 0 Kenya 13,433 27 13,886 11 101 20 2 0 800 32 24 44 1 3 Lesotho 530 (9) 2,500 40 73 (9) 249 27 X X 1 0 0 21 Liberia 42 11 475 24 140 40 X X X X 4 100 0 0 Libya 240 32 6,770 4 X X 109 38 189 67 37 600 0 41 Madagascar 10,259 5 1,916 2 1,419 71 0 (100) X X 19 14 0 0 Malawi 987 27 1,107 41 260 35 2 67 X X 9 8 0 2 Mali 4,873 (3) 11,333 (10) 59 35 589 4 236 6 22 78 0 2 Mauritania 1,258 7 7,440 (2 X X 167 5 813 11 4 33 0 0 Mauritius 33 32 102 28 10 58 X X X X 2 50 0 0 Morocco 3,287 (6) 23,310 13 9 23 1,626 (15) 39 (80) 38 65 0 29 Mozambique 1,367 (1) 500 15 165 43 20 0 X X 22 35 0 0 Namibia 2,061 (23) 9079 14 49 36 124 7 X X 1 X X X Niger 3,570 12 11,092 15 37 24 811 18 419 8 17 79 0 0 Nigeria 12,000 (0) 31,000 0 1,067 7 950 0 18 6 160 45 0 1 Rwanda 613 (4) 1,456 31 109 (2) X X X X 1 0 0 13 Senegal 2,674 6 5,049 77 487 182 680 49 15 114 14 86 0 1 Sierra Leone 330 (3) 510 29 50 44 X X X X 6 50 0 3 Somalia 5,028 29 34,583 26 10 11 50 10 6,849 26 3 0 73 2 South Africa 11,857 (13) 36,914 (1) 1,470 7 454 1 X X 38 31 29 41 Sudan 20,556 19 34,583 18 X X 687 (2) 2,761 9 32 22 0 0 Swaziland 654 (0) 356 13 23 33 16 (2) X X 1 0 0 0 Tanzania 12,956 13,230 43 280 81 173 7 X X 31 90 0 3 Togo 245 8 2,624 98 389 62 5 114 X X 6 143 0 16 Tunisia 547 (15) 6,443 13 4 33 355 10 185 8 35 62 13 27 Uganda 4,215 (19) 4,003 12 461 124 17 6 X X 17 28 0 0 Zaire 1,500 31 3,944 17 810 19 0 0 X X 20 40 0 7 Zambia 2,772 27 606 85 193 (10) 2 100 X X 15 (22) 0 4 Zimbabwe 6,252 11 3,146 59 240 47 126 11 X X 10 11 14 16 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 161,050 (7) 33,566 (1) 88,730 (5) 21,449 1 9 13 1,861 33 74 65 Barbados 18 (5) 90 14 49 8 5 0 X X 1 33 X X Belize 50 1 5 25 26 56 9 0 X X 1 X X X Canada 12,187 (9) 755 11 10,728 21 416 15 X X 108 14 78 79 Costa Rica 1,750 (16) 5 67 223 4 126 2 X X 4 (33) 16 24 Cuba 4,944 (6) 494 10 1,817 28 690 (18) X X 28 24 0 4 Dominican Rep 2,205 14 651 44 423 (19) 586 40 X X 24 121 22 50 El Salvador 1,171 (11) 20 11 447 (10) 118 5 X X 5 0 25 26 Guatemala 1,930 14 742 10 807 12 159 8 X X 10 (29) 13 25 Haiti 1,567 68 1,336 25 933 (48) 735 7 X X 14 180 0 9 Honduras 2,240 16 34 15 687 50 261 3 X X 8 85 16 35 Jamaica 290 4 443 19 233 17 37 (7) X X 6 13 0 34 Mexico 30,100 12 15,512 (2) 16,447 1 12,523 X X 235 42 18 31 Nicaragua Panama 1,677 1,447 (34) 2 10 7 7 17 690 218 2 8 303 176 Ki 4 X X X X 7 7 62 33 19 13 0 30 Trinidad and Tobago 79 4 63 15 72 23 5 0 9 13 9 24 0 33 United States 98,616 (13) 12,935 (7) 54,771 (11) 5,260 4 X X 1,391 33 80 70 SOUTH AMERICA 262,254 12 134,759 10 54,803 6 21,443 11 1,190 162 877 43 38 46 Argentina 50,715 (11) 32,261 (9) 4,233 16 3,193 (2) X X 44 24 46 42 Bolivia 5,609 25 14,650 28 2,122 46 1,025 (9) X X 14 91 22 35 Brazil 138,804 24 32,333 25 32,340 (6) 9,346 19 1,190 162 543 39 44 55 Chile 3,351 (6) 7,160 10 1,403 37 541 10 X X 27 58 29 33 Colombia 24,464 1 3,631 22 2,607 34 3,277 16 X X 40 48 13 20 Ecuador 4,181 45 1,659 (34) 4,167 24 824 36 X X 51 83 8 22 Guyana 210 (1) 197 9 185 39 3 0 X X 15 22 0 3 Paraguay 8,036 39 589 13 2,286 98 377 4 X X 17 46 0 0 Peru 4,022 1 14,564 (12) 2,304 14 1,368 1 X X 57 55 16 28 Suriname 88 116 15 73 24 22 X X X X 6 27 0 0 Uruguay 9,500 24,941 (41) 477 X X 7 22 37 12 Venezuela 13,250 f 2,042 40 23 215 2,909 40 1,007 (4) 0 X X 55 51 16 35 World Resources 1992-93 276 Food and Agriculture 18 Feed, 1978-90 Table 18.3 Grain Fed to Cattle Sheep and Goats Pigs Equines Buffaloes and Camels Chickens Livestock as Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Annual Percent Percentage of Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Average Change Total Grain (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (millions) Since Consumption 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1988-90 1978-80 1970 1990 ASIA 389,730 11 640,938 14 419,279 16 44,171 12 138,814 15 4,293 107 7 16 Afghanistan 1,600 (57) 14,600 (33) X X 1,730 (0) 265 (5) 7 17 0 0 Bahrain 6 6 24 18 X X X X 1 0 1 0 X X Bangladesh 23,102 (17) 12,083 16 X X 45 4 1,757 20 85 35 0 0 Bhutan 408 39 86 228 70 29 53 37 4 (20) X X 0 0 Cambodia 2,017 153 0 0 1,545 737 16 85 727 92 7 100 0 0 China 75,243 43 198,031 15 348,209 13 26,855 18 21,602 17 1,920 141 8 20 47 130 523 2 277 69 8 (51) X X 3 33 0 68 Bar Indonesia Iran, Islamic Rep 195,267 10,417 8,117 6 61 8 160,586 16,252 47,707 31 37 1 10,333 6,551 0 15 113 (100) 2,486 709 2,136 23 16 74,980 3,347 257 14 39 4 290 464 115 92 220 71 1 1 16 2 6 20 (9) Iraq 1,642 (4) 10,967 (6) X X 498 (5) 202 (20) 78 324 0 27 Israel 357 17 509 30 125 35 11 0 10 (9) 23 (8) 62 58 Japan 4,703 14 68 11,802 25 21 (9) X X 334 19 34 48 Jordan 29 (1) 1,758 30 X X 25 (8) 16 45 60 123 16 31 Korea, Dem People's Rep 1,277 38 669 30 3,148 57 47 20 X X 20 13 0 0 Korea, Rep 2,159 25 157 (33) 4,645 123 4 (20) X X 60 54 6 39 Kuwait 22 57 266 (44) X X 3 0 7 47 27 264 0 77 Lao People's Dem Rep 808 94 111 169 1,330 33 43 43 1,046 37 8 64 0 0 Lebanon 59 (25) 614 30 48 184 18 13 0 X 12 71 22 34 Malaysia 651 25 467 13 2,388 41 5 0 197 (32) 142 189 3 41 Mongolia 2,549 4 18,116 (3) 157 454 2,117 1 553 (9) X X 0 0 Myanmar 9,451 14 1,375 68 2,750 34 135 14 2,095 15 28 42 0 0 Nepal 6,303 (8) 6,171 16 546 48 X X 2,989 26 7 17 0 0 Oman 136 1 945 176 X X 25 0 84 157 2 0 0 20 Pakistan 17,364 16 62,562 28 X X 3,633 25 15,325 26 166 237 1 3 Philippines 1,670 (9) 2,205 45 7,793 5 300 0) 2,832 (2) 65 22 11 21 Qatar 10 25 204 116 X X 1 (50) 22 109 1 300 0 71 Saudi Arabia 253 (33) 11,401 128 X X 119 5 405 51 70 380 0 75 Singapore 0 (100) 2 (25) 350 X X 0 (100) 4 (70) 0 37 Sri Lanka 1,816 13 546 11 96 80 1 (50) 971 16 9 65 0 0 Syrian Arab Rep 773 4 15,055 63 1 50 249 (25) 6 (45) 13 (9) 0 17 Thailand 5,342 27 252 192 4,755 21 18 (42) 5,500 (6) 95 56 1 26 Turkey 11,800 (21) 48,550 (23) 10 (25) 2,030 (19) 543 (48) 58 14 26 33 United Arab Emirates 48 95 820 82 X X X X 105 94 7 567 0 0 Viet Nam 3,101 89 413 106 11,972 33 137 4 2,810 22 73 27 0 0 Yemen (Arab Rep) 712 (17) 2,951 (19) X X 349 (37) 42 (30) 16 336 0 0 (People's Dem Rep) 64 (30) 1,557 (25) X X 43 (30) 54 (47) 1 0 0 0 EUROPE 124,900 (7) 166,023 24 185,696 8 5,729 (23) 370 (17) 1,289 7 60 60 Albania 699 18 2,710 41 187 16 177 50 2 0 6 89 0 0 Austria 2,564 0 303 34 3,865 (1) 46 5 X X 14 0 62 72 Belgium {a} 3,134 2 198 74 6,155 22 23 (48) X X 35 17 62 28 Bulgaria 1,612 (8) 8,974 (16) 4,168 14 475 (3) 23 (59) 40 4 55 58 Czechoslovakia 5,083 5 1,108 19 7,372 (3) 44 (12) X X 47 4 64 63 Denmark 2,248 (26) 86 56 9,156 (2) 35 (37) X X 16 7 86 82 Finland 1,392 64 (42) 1,322 (3) 40 21 X X 6 (33) 71 62 France 21,723 (9) 13,123 3 12,418 9 304 (26) X X 204 19 66 62 Germany (Fed Rep) 14,703 (2) 1,523 30 22,808 3 372 d) X X 72 (18) 60 59 (Dem Rep) 5,718 3 2,650 33 12,327 4 104 58 X X 50 0 71 62 Greece 729 (26) 16,432 31 1,175 30 311 (38) 1 (57) 27 (7) 45 58 Hungary 1,651 (15) 2,222 (21) 8,068 (0) 84 (39) X X 57 (9) 74 70 Iceland 73 19 700 (19) 12 24 56 12 X X X X X X Ireland 5,705 (8) 5,034 106 972 (11) 75 (28) X X 8 (8) 68 61 Italy 8,759 2 12,772 29 9,332 3 386 (25) 107 26 136 (0) 48 49 Luxembourg (a) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Malta 20 45 11 (3) 100 582 2 (25) X X 1 0 7 0 Netherlands 4,628 (6) 1,460 63 13,893 44 64 (9) X X 100 29 62 39 Norway 945 (3) 2,293 14 717 5 18 (10) X X 4 (8) 75 65 Poland 10,368 (20) 4,325 2 19,301 (10) 988 (46) X X 60 (22) 54 66 Portugal 1,345 3 6,110 14 2,425 (17) 276 (9) X X 18 8 37 42 Romania 6,402 3 17,869 14 13,749 33 722 21 211 (7) 126 47 51 67 Spain 5,190 11 28,646 68 16,746 66 478 (28) X X 51 1 62 69 Sweden 1,676 (12) 397 2 2,238 (17) 58 2 X X 11 (13) 74 77 Switzerland 1,845 (9) 440 (1) 1,889 (11) 51 8 X X 6 (5) 59 64 United Kingdom 11,897 (12) 28,837 35 7,641 (3) 173 16 X X 122 2 59 50 Yugoslavia 4,782 (13) 7,661 3 7,650 (3) 368 (50) 25 (67) 74 30 56 59 U.S.S.R. 118,767 4 145,588 (2) 78,134 8 6,204 1 707 18 1,163 32 49 55 OCEANIA 30,862 (15) 223,838 12 5,321 17 511 (18) X X 79 42 46 50 Australia 22,296 (19) 161,292 20 2,662 14 324 (32) X X 62 39 44 51 Fiji 160 2 75 70 11 (13) 42 14 X X 3 200 0 0 New Zealand 7,986 (2) 62,378 (4) 412 (8) 98 50 X X 9 42 59 49 Papua New Guinea 102 (22) 16 81 1,776 30 1 0 X X 3 125 0 0 Solomon Islands 13 (45) X X 52 19 X X X X X X X X Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the United States Department of Agriculture. Notes: a. Data for Belgium and Luxembourg are combined under Belgium. World and regional totals for livestock populations include data for countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 277 18 Food and Agriculture Table 18.4 Food Trade and Aid, 1977-89 Average Annual Net Trade in Food Average Annual Donations or Receipts of Food Aid Cereals Oils Pulses Cereals Oils Milk (000 metric tons) (metric tons) (metric tons) (000 metric tons) Kg Per Capita (metric tons) (metric tons) 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1986-88 1986-88 WORLD AFRICA 13,868 23,295 760,698 1,752,130 30,112 189,845 3,360 5,723 7 9 185,972 92,097 Algeria 2,740 5,565 216,492 344,217 64,676 109,936 10 16 1 1 329 280 Angola 283 273 47,269 28,048 30,845 26,901 12 86 2 9 4,437 3,490 Benin 43 104 (11,574) (12,584) 65 167 8 12 2 3 697 1,032 Botswana 47 90 (790) (3,582) (583) 2,345 7 43 8 36 2,945 3,282 Burkina Faso 68 111 2,196 3,539 (3,645) (2,069) 41 38 6 4 2,923 4,986 Burundi 13 7 1,125 1,735 0 0 9 4 2 1 134 264 Cameroon 133 320 (4,322) (16,245) (478) 1 6 5 1 0 277 85 Cape Verde 61 44 2,282 3,893 3,118 1,517 34 54 120 155 812 935 Central African Rep 8 34 385 313 8 0 1 4 1 1 154 87 Chad 20 50 0 (867) 0 0 35 22 8 4 741 1,251 Comoros 17 31 0 117 0 3 5 8 13 15 243 133 Congo 56 91 1,251 8,173 38 520 4 1 2 0 86 18 Cote d'lvoire 314 648 (76,760) (116,726) 211 927 0 7 0 1 21 49 Djibouti 23 45 29 4,746 269 333 3 13 10 33 304 2,378 Egypt 5,242 8,727 360,158 599,293 66,810 51,976 1,953 1,683 50 34 41,523 8,843 Equatorial Guinea 2 12 0 1,750 0 0 0 2 0 7 0 0 Ethiopia 220 798 1,210 24,810 (41,559) 13,433 104 656 3 14 18,961 13,903 Gabon 32 55 3,477 (2,752) 45 23 1 0 1 0 0 1 Gambia, The 47 82 (12,748) (2,459) 0 0 9 14 15 17 526 698 Ghana 221 241 12,326 11,133 1,672 183 71 74 7 5 5,322 2,012 Guinea 86 178 4,116 6,933 X X 26 53 6 10 280 358 Guinea-Bissau 41 57 144 553 31 72 18 10 25 11 413 279 Kenya (2) (96) 59,860 130,288 (15,369) (41,680) 9 112 1 5 995 97 Lesotho 91 122 X X 258 4,300 24 41 19 25 2,310 2,651 Liberia 79 120 (2,683) (1,003) 185 100 1 28 1 12 171 2 Libya 619 1,458 41,906 68,933 8,825 10,333 0 0 0 0 X 0 Madagascar 181 107 13,844 11,601 (10,140 (4,236) 10 103 1 9 9,657 1,967 Malawi 9 59 3,807 5,960 (9,542 (21,216) 2 111 0 14 76 164 Mali 48 92 (7,308) (2,417) (46 (470) 18 55 3 6 1,205 1,363 Mauritania 148 203 3,731 23,217 2 150 37 54 25 28 2,092 2,379 Mauritius 150 188 15,413 25,931 6,978 9,872 9 22 9 21 28 191 Morocco 1,572 1,643 158,971 216,045 (52,308) (32,538) 140 396 8 17 32,606 3,863 Mozambique 247 434 4,150 46,282 (3,007) 29,612 118 423 10 28 10,855 4,137 Namibia X X X X 7,667 9,333 0 0 0 0 X X Niger 35 107 2,534 6,283 (14,509) (9,960) 30 41 6 6 1,156 2,574 Nigeria 1,654 391 95,710 39,758 5,520 8,333 0 0 0 0 X 37 Rwanda 11 10 1,355 9,960 0 (61) 12 9 3 1 1,896 2,292 Senegal 444 464 (126,965) (93,841) 528 317 86 81 16 12 752 3,028 Sierra Leone 74 137 (6,712) 4,576 94 0 5 46 2 12 686 849 Somalia 130 233 7,470 18,883 294 7,357 80 129 16 18 16,713 6,537 South Africa (2,469) (2,612) (6,812) 166,207 (1,571) 1,718 0 0 0 0 0 X Sudan 42 311 (22,951) 31,678 3,050 18,500 86 568 5 24 4,931 3,859 Swaziland 16 43 0 400 0 0 0 9 1 12 427 718 Tanzania 52 73 11,623 33,603 (16,430) (20,000) 97 69 5 3 1,371 4,542 Togo 37 92 609 4,094 (43) 348 12 11 5 3 1,132 1,268 Tunisia 803 1,646 (24,436) 80,334 (10,104) 6,374 158 365 26 47 1,560 2,919 Uganda 3 19 33 9,700 0 0 0 20 0 1 3,842 1,113 Zaire 308 405 (26,551) (7,982) 644 500 40 96 2 3 0 820 Zambia 115 125 13,075 8,034 659 226 31 109 6 14 10,162 223 Zimbabwe (375) (235) (7,687) 20,320 (1,096) (1,484) 0 21 0 2 220 141 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA (101,874) (107,247) (1,129,722) (420,211) (350,990) (684,650) (6,825) (6,696) (19) (16) (443,672) (158,060) Barbados 49 66 1,059 1,957 1,364 1,234 0 0 1 0 0 5 Belize 9 12 1,403 1,330 366 (164) 0 2 0 12 X 5 Canada (17,812) (22,469) (129,233) (341,699) (74,027) (392,909) (932) (1,157) (40) (45) (74,043) (9,102) Costa Rica 62 275 6,930 (173) 2,270 (131) 1 124 0 43 131 266 Cuba 1,832 2,347 172,460 217,828 103,046 125,593 0 0 0 0 1,573 2,378 Dominican Rep 266 626 46,799 102,560 2,924 13,237 27 208 5 30 32,439 3,188 El Salvador 168 191 22,698 40,728 60 4,968 6 200 1 40 24,173 6,365 Guatemala 176 231 9,650 58,273 2,177 1,189 9 263 1 30 17,650 9,204 Haiti 163 211 28,648 68,800 407 8,033 61 97 12 16 8,242 5,448 Honduras 92 143 11,169 (11,553) (575) 4,136 17 117 5 24 2,145 5,184 Jamaica 319 374 13,421 22,692 487 1,710 77 302 37 126 586 3,559 Mexico 2,958 5,695 90,122 490,720 (117,834) 7,634 0 109 0 1 6,172 25,630 Nicaragua 66 161 10,022 32,731 (1,198) 13,058 4 70 1 19 6,543 2,743 Panama 60 96 19,459 21,610 4,191 5,486 2 0 1 0 13 10 Trinidad and Tobago 216 267 12,924 6,432 10,291 12,135 0 0 0 0 X 0 United States (90,701) (95,693) (1,456,504) (1,145,498) (292,587) (497,316) (6,097) (7,031) (27) (29) (469,296) (212,944) SOUTH AMERICA (5,743) (1,201) (780,927) (2,146,080) (118,177) (34,139) 175 604 1 2 22,676 41,191 Argentina (14,590) (8,771) (649,935) (1,860,129) (192,473) (145,479) (25) (24) (D (1) X 1 Bolivia 292 261 23,683 4,521 185 799 64 201 12 29 5,234 7,581 Brazil 4,079 2,392 (619,942) (789,239) 49,056 35,802 3 14 0 0 0 14,468 Chile 945 232 58,327 48,596 (66,903) (65,276) 30 15 3 1 246 4,432 Colombia 559 789 108,080 113,584 13,209 63,619 13 34 0 1 6 38 Ecuador 233 493 43,136 34,537 1,727 368 7 58 1 6 3,074 1,642 Guyana (37) 2 6,009 2,983 3,119 4,000 1 43 1 54 2,636 942 Paraguay 54 1 (8,220) (11,033) 0 63 12 2 4 0 22 284 Peru 1,049 1,411 68,485 67,852 (1,470) 7,610 71 259 4 13 7,739 11,798 Suriname (28) (39) 771 3,328 1,201 4,067 0 0 0 0 32 X Uruguay (50) (264) (6,460) (8,338) 1,811 ' 2,326 0 0 0 0 3,686 5 Venezuela 1,746 2,286 194,470 245,904 72,064 57,402 0 0 0 0 X 0 World Resources 1992-93 278 Food and Agriculture 18 Table 18.4 Average Annual Net Trade in Food Average Annual Donations or Receipts of Food Aid Cereals Oils Pulses Cereals Oils Milk (000 metric tons) (metric tons) (metric tons) (000 metric tons) (kg per capita) (metric tons) (metric tons) 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1986-88 1986-88 ASIA 53,242 79,441 151,900 (142,557) (12,694) (91,634) 4,652 3,465 2 1 305,461 78,692 Afghanistan 88 256 2,167 4,233 (3,000) (8,000) 57 190 4 12 0 0 Bahrain 69 74 1,519 6,548 1,728 4,673 0 0 0 0 X X Bangladesh 1,068 2,328 95,966 372,533 1,489 23,816 1,259 1,382 15 13 28,464 117 Bhutan 3 19 X X X X 1 2 0 2 308 380 Cambodia 54 78 775 0 176 0 3 13 0 2 800 0 China 11,386 16,375 336,463 1,227,447 (26,804) (409,351) (28) 385 (0) 0 1,861 3,383 Cyprus 244 435 8,359 12,112 689 1,036 17 1 27 1 0 109 India (59) 875 1,050,510 1,311,227 59,144 656,900 579 221 1 0 97,682 31,254 Indonesia 2,717 1,862 (361,558) (840,777) 976 40,002 847 256 6 1 572 4,257 Iran, Islamic Rep 2,109 5,085 254,910 390,383 26,705 (2,418) 0 12 0 0 X 0 Iraq 1,794 4,468 135,900 319,959 23,350 74,505 4 33 0 2 X 0 Israel 1,698 1,873 10,401 29,848 13,054 31,784 52 2 14 0 X 68 Japan 22,981 27,323 383,567 447,520 185,182 177,653 (185) (510) (2) (4) (267) 0 Jordan 467 779 12,542 40,033 1,718 22,428 114 25 55 8 787 374 Korea, Dem People's Rep (85) 473 11,811 13,350 0 0 10 0 1 0 X X Korea, Rep 4,031 9,459 178,954 297,204 4,621 10,084 553 0 15 0 0 X Kuwait 255 494 3,870 19,923 7,674 10,216 0 0 0 0 X X Lao People's Dem Rep 133 64 0 0 0 0 30 13 10 3 35 0 Lebanon 548 519 15,454 50,833 19,584 27,000 94 48 34 18 4,351 2,930 Malaysia 1,378 2,246 (1,722,366) (4,870,759) 31,230 52,456 0 3 0 0 0 X Mongolia 97 (42, 1,071 1,240 X X 0 0 0 0 X X Myanmar (539) (249) 16,089 16,200 (36,796) (43,398) 9 0 0 0 0 3 Nepal (53) 40 40 15,213 (2,206) (13,073) 17 0 1 628 1,546 Oman 79 244 565 13,131 7,093 8,322 0 0 0 0 X X Pakistan 329 (62, 373,041 981,872 (1,122) 136,838 324 515 4 4 162,305 4,268 Philippines 731 1,243 (843,207) (832,933, 2,163 23,055 80 320 2 5 1,083 20,885 Qatar 58 98 711 4,325 840 2,133 0 0 0 0 X X Saudi Arabia 1,511 4,576 64,219 113,228 16,691 50,259 (9) (97) (1) (7) (100) (100) Singapore 681 616 13,531 86,058 9,384 12,568 0 0 0 0 X 0 Sri Lanka 1,182 883 (19,473) (833, 6,795 28,675 390 307 27 18 273 5,701 Syrian Arab Rep 455 1,211 13,112 26,053 (93,960) (53,909) 73 51 9 4 1,165 1,506 Thailand (4,294) (6,457) 21,850 9,299 (176,976) (199,556) 2 70 0 1 1,344 182 Turkey (1,239) (127) 29,481 380,534 (121,397) (804,485) (13) 2 (0) 0 195 0 United Arab Emirates 186 403 8,715 46,203 8,746 12,633 0 0 0 0 X X Viet Nam 1,663 (174) 3,652 1,627 44 (6,167) 345 80 7 1 2,516 1,313 Yemen (Arab Rep) 415 936 2,983 62,717 1,553 10,184 25 95 4 11 350 472 (People's Dem Rep) 151 321 107 16,668 1,640 2,367 13 28 8 12 1,108 43 EUROPE 31,858 (16,265) 1,494,716 620,403 536,267 1,037,787 (1,093) a (2,408) a (2) (5) (85,323) ii (113,201) a Albania (25) 49 7,307 13,700 67 217 0 0 0 X Austria (73) (916) 79,039 82,440 5,794 9,599 0 (21) 0 (200) Belgium {b} 2,811 2,567 50,354 (143,023) 54,125 345,556 (48) (31, (5) 0 Bulgaria 225 907 (33,146) 8,478 (7,409) (2,216) 0 0 X Czechoslovakia 1,487 408 39,126 33,090 1,097 (5,167) 0 0 0 X Denmark (574 (1,775) 146 19,711 (3,016) (158,833) 34 (43 (7) (8) (255) (142) Finland (64 (35) 3,901 (5,963) 3,946 2,509 (29 (23 (6) (5) (4,460) (2,159) France (12,362 (27,202) 297,578 22,876 8,561 (608,287) (149 (245 (3) (4) X X Germany (Fed Rep) 4,024 (1,045) (71,263) (206,378) 79,534 674,992 152 (252 (2 (4) (6,759) (2,818) (Dem Rep) 2,988 2,295 102,091 51,149 4,767 2,463 0 0 o> 0 Greece 453 140 (29,070) (90,693) 11,128 23,935 0 (8) 0 (1) 0 X Hungary (505) (1,442) (91,474) (271,777) (44,780) (208,756) 0 0 0 0 X X Iceland 25 24 1,013 1,981 341 289 0 0 0 0 X X Ireland 318 (38) 6,117 24,017 9,066 24,086 (4) (4) (1) (1) 0 (958) Italy 7,486 4,636 383,844 395,186 119,953 351,868 (42) (146) (1) (3) 0 0 Luxembourg (b) X X X X X X X X X X X X Malta 131 142 4,761 5,533 914 1,286 1 0 3 0 X X Netherlands 3,421 3,792 159,063 (2,334) 160,608 680,494 (98) (137) (7) (9) (4,696) (6,409) Norway 609 480 6,960 9,462 5,997 4,781 (10) (43) (2) (10) (841) 0 Poland 6,789 2,967 68,065 90,902 1,152 (122,032) 0 0 0 0 2,514 3,652 Portugal 2,787 1,308 19,814 (6,781) 9,358 42,969 309 0 32 0 44 503 Romania 4 (144) (159,000) (13,133) 0 (3,733) 0 0 0 0 0 X Spain 4,888 208 (191,772) (249,116) 57,205 128,522 0 (33 0 (1) 0 X Sweden (990) (678) 38,003 33,972 2,153 11,594 (110) (107 (13) (13) (19,612) 0 Switzerland 1,239 782 39,812 30,205 7,068 13,365 (32) (64 (5) (10) (445) (3,269) United Kingdom 6,149 (2,885) 761,268 790,425 38,128 (165,302, (70) (168) 0) ( 0 0 Yugoslavia 613 (533) 1,955 (3,679) 10,641 (5,978, 0 0 o> X 0 U.S.S.R 17,051 33,350 839,751 1,830,665 (49,640) (46,572) 0 0 0 0 X 0 OCEANIA (11,423) (14,911) (350,086) (357,744) (24.666) (434,018) (261) (355) (12) (14) (2,206) (681) Australia (11,643) (15,350, (166,032) (89,238) 5,741 (384,349) (270, (357) (19) (22) (2,127, (331, Fiji 73 87 (10,271) 4,495 3,137 5,971 2 16 0 11 New Zealand (67) (9) (81,706) (93,856, (34,247, (56,424, 0 0 0 0 (83, (361, Papua New Guinea 121 215 (56,280) (147,267, 50 86 0 0 0 0 4 Solomon Islands 6 17 (9,784) (14,717, 8 10 0 0 0 1 X X Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Total includes EC community action, b. Data for Belgium and Luxembourg are combined under Belgium. World and regional totals for Net Trade include some countries not listed. Totals for Food Aid do not add because of rounding. Imports and food aid receipts are shown as positive numbers; exports and food aid donations are represented by negative numbers in parentheses. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 279 18 Food and Agriculture T a b l e 1 8 . 5 Flow of Cereal Aid from Major Donors to Major Recipients, 1989 Total Canada USA Japan EC Others Cereal Aid Total Percent Percent Total Percent Percent Total Percent Percent Total Percent Percent Total Percent Percent (000 Aid (000 of of Recip- Aid (000 of of Recip- Aid (000 of of Redp- Aid (000 of of Recip- Aid (000 of of Recip- metric metric Total ienfs metric Total ient's metric Total ient's metric Total ient's metric Total ient's Major Recipients tons) tons) Aid Total Aid tons) Aid Total Aid tons) Aid Total Aid tons) Aid Total Aid tons) Aid Total Aid TOTAL 10,044 1.170 100 12 5,286 100 53 441 100 4 1,980 100 20 1,167 100 12 % Triangular Aid 12 7 0 54 32 17 AFRICA 4,700 397 34 8 2,286 43 49 169 38 4 1,270 64 27 576 49 12 Algeria 39 11 1 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 1 55 6 1 16 Angola 79 9 1 12 13 0 16 2 0 2 53 3 67 2 0 3 Benin 16 0 0 0 7 0 45 5 1 30 4 0 26 0 0 0 Botswana 33 0 0 0 30 1 91 0 0 0 2 0 7 1 0 2 Burkina Faso 49 0 0 0 31 1 62 3 1 5 9 0 18 7 1 14 Cape Verde 49 0 0 0 7 0 13 6 1 13 21 1 44 15 1 31 Chad 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 2 52 6 0 40 1 0 9 Cote d'lvoire 19 0 0 0 19 0 97 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Djibouti 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 16 10 1 83 0 0 2 Egypt 1,427 7 1 1 1,226 23 86 5 1 0 135 7 9 54 5 4 Ethiopia 573 59 5 10 112 2 19 7 2 1 158 8 28 237 20 41 Gambia, The 10 0 0 2 6 0 56 0 0 0 2 0 19 3 0 24 Ghana 46 16 1 35 17 0 37 3 1 6 0 0 0 10 1 21 Guinea 42 7 1 17 34 1 81 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Kenya 112 0 0 0 75 1 67 0 0 0 37 2 33 0 0 0 Lesotho 34 0 0 0 11 0 33 2 0 5 17 1 49 5 0 13 Liberia 28 0 0 0 22 0 78 1 0 3 0 0 1 5 0 18 Madagascar 76 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 32 2 42 42 4 55 Malawi 217 13 1 6 42 1 19 9 2 4 94 5 44 58 5 27 Mali 65 9 1 14 34 1 52 2 0 3 16 1 25 1 0 2 Mauritania 70 0 0 0 22 0 31 0 0 0 48 2 69 0 0 0 Mauritius 21 1 0 6 11 0 52 0 0 0 3 0 14 6 0 27 Morocco 237 62 5 26 169 3 71 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 Mozambique 424 64 5 15 59 1 14 13 3 3 247 12 58 41 4 10 Niger 83 16 1 20 23 0 27 3 1 4 31 2 37 10 1 12 Senegal 53 7 1 13 34 1 64 10 2 19 2 0 4 1 0 1 Sierra Leone 38 0 0 0 34 1 88 1 0 1 4 0 11 0 0 0 Somalia 73 1 0 1 12 0 17 21 5 29 34 2 46 5 0 7 Sudan 198 45 4 23 18 0 9 33 7 16 83 4 42 20 2 10 Swaziland 15 0 0 0 10 0 71 0 0 0 2 0 12 2 0 16 Tanzania 76 20 2 26 22 0 29 8 2 11 13 1 18 12 1 16 Togo 11 0 0 4 4 0 36 4 1 39 0 0 4 2 0 18 Tunisia 284 33 3 12 119 2 42 0 0 0 126 6 44 6 1 2 Uganda 17 0 0 0 7 0 41 0 0 0 7 0 43 3 0 15 Zaire 55 0 0 0 35 1 64 0 0 0 17 1 32 2 0 4 Zambia 66 14 1 21 19 0 28 11 2 16 18 1 27 5 0 7 Zimbabwe 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 44 0 0 0 6 0 56 LATIN AMERICA 1,984 76 7 4 1,775 34 89 28 6 1 90 5 5 1 0 0 Bolivia 95 21 2 22 61 1 64 0 0 0 13 1 14 0 0 0 Brazil 15 14 1 99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Chile 14 0 0 0 14 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Colombia 12 12 1 95 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Costa Rica 84 1 0 1 82 2 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Dominican Rep 228 0 0 0 227 4 100 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ecuador 89 3 0 3 86 2 96 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 El Salvador 197 2 0 1 194 4 98 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 Guatemala 277 2 0 1 270 5 98 0 0 0 5 0 2 0 0 0 Guyana 19 0 0 0 18 0 97 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 Haiti 49 0 0 0 14 0 29 28 6 58 6 0 13 0 0 0 Honduras 67 5 0 7 52 1 77 0 0 0 10 1 15 1 0 1 Jamaica 365 11 1 3 354 7 97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mexico 291 0 0 0 291 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nicaragua 32 5 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 1 53 10 1 31 Peru 146 0 0 0 107 2 74 0 0 0 33 2 23 5 0 3 ASIA 3,235 678 58 21 1,219 23 38 193 44 6 580 29 18 564 48 17 Afghanistan 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 208 18 100 Bangladesh 1,161 317 27 27 414 8 36 60 14 5 221 11 19 149 13 13 Cambodia 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 2 92 0 0 0 1 0 8 China 223 178 15 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 2 19 2 0 1 India 308 15 1 5 286 5 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 1 2 Indonesia 69 7 1 10 61 1 89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Iran, Islamic Rep 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 5 93 0 0 0 2 0 7 Jordan 25 14 1 55 5 0 18 0 0 0 3 0 13 3 0 13 Lao People's Dem Rep 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 16 5 0 25 12 1 59 Lebanon 32 2 0 6 9 0 29 0 0 0 21 1 65 0 0 1 Malaysia 10 0 0 0 10 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pakistan 416 78 7 19 84 2 20 35 8 8 168 8 40 51 4 12 Philippines 135 7 1 5 110 2 81 0 0 0 2 0 1 16 1 12 Sri Lanka 272 21 2 8 206 4 76 0 0 0 40 2 15 5 0 2 Syrian Arab Rep 31 7 1 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 1 77 0 0 0 Thailand 83 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 14 75 18 1 22 3 0 3 Viet Nam 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 10 90 8 90 Yemen (Arab Rep) 41 9 1 22 28 1 67 0 0 0 5 0 11 0 0 0 (People's Dem Rep) 43 21 2 48 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 1 34 8 1 18 Unspecified 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 11 54 35 2 38 7 1 7 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: Totals do not add because of rounding. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 zero or less than half the unit of measure. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 280 Food and Agriculture 18 Table 18.6 Climatic Classes and Soil Constraints in Selected Countries Total Land Area {a) Land with No Inherent Soil Constraints (b) Percent of Total Land Area (000 Percent of Total Land Area (000 Percent Percent Percent Percent Sub- hectares) Arid Semi-arid Humid Cold hectares) Arid Semi-arid Humid Cold Tropical tropical Temperat WORLD AFRICA 3,011,330 47 8 44 0 554,862 78 6 16 0 71 29 0 Algeria 238,174 92 3 5 0 96,958 99 0 1 0 2 98 0 Angola 124,670 4 8 87 0 15,726 17 15 68 0 99 1 0 Benin 11,062 0 1 99 0 360 0 6 94 0 100 0 0 Botswana 56,673 62 38 0 0 4,792 72 27 1 0 87 13 0 Burkina Faso 27,380 1 15 84 0 6,899 1 19 80 0 100 0 0 Burundi 2,565 0 0 100 0 66 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Cameroon 46,540 0 1 99 0 1,949 0 2 98 0 100 0 0 Cape Verde 403 100 0 0 0 84 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 Central African Rep 62,298 0 0 100 0 800 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Chad 125,920 67 7 27 0 34,160 81 1 17 0 84 16 0 Comoros 223 0 0 100 0 43 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Congo 34,150 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 Cote d'lvoire 31,800 0 0 100 0 730 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Djibouti 2,318 100 0 0 0 757 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 Egypt 99,545 100 0 0 0 24,633 100 0 0 0 3 97 0 Equatorial Guinea 2,805 0 0 100 0 21 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Ethiopia 110,100 38 16 44 2 30,079 38 21 38 3 100 0 0 Gabon 25,767 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 Gambia, The 1,000 0 0 100 0 355 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Ghana 23,002 0 0 100 0 878 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Guinea 24,586 0 0 100 0 479 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Guinea-Bissau 2,812 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 Kenya 56,697 71 14 15 0 7,342 79 11 10 0 100 0 0 Lesotho 3,035 15 13 66 6 1 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 Liberia 9,632 0 0 100 0 348 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Libya 175,954 98 1 0 0 54,004 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Madagascar 58,154 5 8 87 0 2,273 7 30 62 0 100 0 0 Malawi 9,408 0 0 100 0 1,097 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Mali 122,019 64 15 21 0 40,865 81 8 10 0 77 23 0 Mauritania 102,522 94 5 1 0 58.867 99 1 0 0 60 40 0 Mauritius 185 0 0 100 0 7 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Morocco 44,630 54 10 23 13 12,968 70 10 11 9 0 100 0 Mozambique 78,409 8 9 82 0 4,952 7 7 86 0 100 0 0 Namibia 82,329 78 21 1 0 9308 81 18 1 0 59 41 0 Niger 126,670 86 13 1 0 41,388 94 5 0 0 77 23 0 Nigeria 91,077 0 8 92 0 7,797 0 6 94 0 100 0 0 Rwanda 2,495 0 0 100 0 91 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Senegal 19,253 7 14 80 0 2,957 10 20 71 0 100 0 0 Sierra Leone 7,162 0 0 100 0 187 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Somalia 62,734 93 7 0 0 4,519 98 2 0 0 100 0 0 South Africa 122,104 55 13 32 0 7,482 47 18 34 2 5 95 0 Sudan 237,600 55 11 34 0 50,390 77 8 15 0 99 1 0 Swaziland 1,720 0 26 74 0 178 0 7 93 0 14 86 0 Tanzania 88,604 7 15 78 0 5,052 6 21 74 0 100 0 0 Togo 5,439 0 0 100 0 319 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Tunisia 15,536 66 16 19 0 4,303 86 9 6 0 0 100 0 Uganda 19,955 0 5 95 0 1,210 0 8 92 0 100 0 0 Zaire 226,760 0 0 100 0 5,079 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Zambia 74,072 0 2 98 0 2,426 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Zimbabwe 38,667 8 41 51 0 958 12 65 23 0 100 0 0 CENTRAL AMERICA 273,999 36 5 59 0 62,159 61 6 33 0 62 38 0 Barbados 43 0 0 100 0 4 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Belize 2,280 0 0 100 0 108 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Costa Rica 5,106 0 0 99 1 263 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Cuba 11,086 0 0 100 0 888 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Dominican Rep 4,838 0 12 87 1 669 0 17 81 1 100 0 0 El Salvador 2,072 0 0 100 0 376 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Guatemala 10,843 0 0 98 2 862 0 0 99 1 100 0 0 Haiti 2,756 0 12 88 0 310 0 11 89 0 100 0 0 Honduras 11,189 0 0 100 0 1,320 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Jamaica 1,083 0 17 83 0 164 0 28 72 0 100 0 0 Mexico 190,869 50 6 44 0 55,930 68 6 26 0 48 52 0 Nicaragua 11,875 0 0 100 0 706 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Panama 7,599 0 0 100 0 211 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Trinidad and Tobago 513 0 0 100 0 79 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 SOUTH AMERICA 1,898,326 11 7 79 3 191,417 28 14 54 4 72 24 4 Argentina 273,669 40 14 41 5 111,781 34 14 51 1 0 83 16 Bolivia 108,439 6 19 63 11 15,415 21 27 29 23 97 3 0 Brazil 845,651 0 3 96 0 17,081 0 8 92 0 88 12 0 Chile 74,880 51 13 16 20 7,836 44 22 8 25 2 66 33 Colombia 103,870 4 2 92 2 5,323 12 7 80 1 100 0 0 Ecuador 27,684 5 13 73 9 2,239 10 36 52 1 100 0 0 Guyana 19,685 0 0 100 0 947 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Paraguay 39,730 0 9 90 0 3,427 0 9 91 0 61 39 0 Peru 128,000 16 5 66 13 15,264 44 18 36 2 94 6 0 Suriname 16,147 0 0 100 0 698 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Uruguay 17,481 0 0 100 0 6,100 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Venezuela 88,205 9 3 87 0 5,109 30 7 63 0 100 0 0 World Resources 1992-93 281 18 Food and Agriculture T a b l e 1 8 . 6 Climatic Classes and Soil Constraints (continued) Total Land Land with No Inherent Soil Constraints {b} Percent of Total Land Area Area {a} Percent of Total Land Area (000 Percent Percent Percent Percent Sub- (000 ha) Arid Semi-arid Humid Cold hectares) Arid Semi-arid Humid Cold Tropical tropical Temperat ASIA, SOUTHEAST 897,615 10 6 78 5 62,495 4 10 72 14 76 24 0 Bangladesh 13,391 0 0 100 0 1,719 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Bhutan 4,700 0 0 51 49 133 0 0 21 79 0 100 0 Cambodia 17,652 0 0 100 0 695 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 India 297,319 10 15 69 6 33,232 4 16 66 14 67 33 0 Indonesia 181,157 0 0 99 1 10,550 0 0 99 1 100 0 0 Lao People's Dem Rep 23,080 0 0 100 0 37 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Malaysia 32,855 0 0 100 0 196 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Myanmar 65,754 0 3 96 1 3,436 0 9 91 0 83 17 0 Nepal 13,680 0 0 67 33 1,917 0 0 56 44 0 100 0 Pakistan 77,088 71 4 3 22 5,250 18 13 4 64 10 90 0 Philippines 29,817 0 0 100 0 2,717 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Singapore 61 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 Sri Lanka 6,474 0 1 99 0 624 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Thailand 51,089 0 0 100 0 983 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 Viet Nam 32,536 0 0 100 0 989 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 ASIA, SOUTHWEST 678,017 75 15 10 0 79,750 73 19 7 1 22 76 3 Afghanistan 65,209 87 9 3 1 6,229 71 13 6 9 0 100 0 Bahrain 68 100 0 0 0 12 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Iran, Islamic Rep 163,600 76 17 7 0 14,785 62 28 9 0 2 95 2 Iraq 43,737 73 9 18 0 2,783 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Israel 2,033 53 11 36 0 122 65 25 10 0 0 100 0 Jordan 8,893 85 7 9 0 401 96 2 2 0 0 100 0 Kuwait 1,782 100 0 0 0 31 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Lebanon 1,023 0 2 98 0 59 0 0 100 0 0 100 0 Oman 21,246 100 0 0 0 3,897 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Qatar 1,100 100 0 0 0 290 100 0 0 0 0 100 0 Saudi Arabia 214,969 97 2 0 0 30,579 96 3 0 0 31 69 0 Syrian Arab Rep 18,406 49 34 16 0 643 2 68 29 0 0 100 0 Turkey 76,963 0 51 49 0 10,135 0 70 30 0 0 82 18 United Arab Emirates 8,360 100 0 0 0 3,707 100 0 0 0 91 9 0 Yemen (Arab Rep) 19,500 38 44 18 0 2,207 11 60 29 0 100 0 0 (People's Dem) 33,297 93 7 0 0 3,870 90 10 0 0 100 0 0 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Regional totals differ from those in Table 17.1 because these include only the countries listed, b. No inherent soil constraints means soil that is not affected by the following constraints: steep slopes, shallow soil, poor drainage, low nutrient retention, aluminum toxicity, acid soils, phospherous fixation, amorphous material, vertic properties, low potassium reserves, calcareous soil, soil salinity, excess sodium, acid sulfate soil, and gravel. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure. Totals may not add because of rounding. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. Sources and Technical Notes Table 18.1 Food and Agricul- The multiplication of disposable outputs The agricultural production index in- tural Production, 1978-90 with the 1979-81 unit value eliminates infla- cludes all crop and livestock products origi- tionary or deflationary distortion. How- nating in each country. The food produc- ever, the base period's relative prices tion index covers all edible agricultural among the individual commodities are also products that contain nutrients. Coffee and Source: Food and Agriculture Organization preserved. Especially in economies with tea have virtually no nutritive value and of the United Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC high inflation, price patterns among agricul- thus are excluded. (FAO, Rome, July 1991). tural commodities can change dramatically Crop yields (average yields of cereals and Indexes of agricultural and food production over time. To overcome the latter problem, average yields of roots and tubers) are calcu- portray the disposable output (after deduc- FAO generally shifts the base period every lated from production and area data. Aver- tion for feed and seed) of a country's agri- five years. age production of cereals includes cereal culture sector relative to the base period production for feed and seed. Area refers to 1979-81. For a given year and country, the The continental and world index num- bers for a given year are calculated by total- the area harvested. Cereals comprise all ce- index is calculated as follows: the dispos- reals harvested for dry grain, exclusive of able average output of a commodity in ing the disposable outputs of all relevant countries for each agricultural commodity. crops cut for hay or harvested green. Roots terms of weight or volume during the pe- and tubers cover all root crops grown prin- riod of interest is multiplied by the 1979-81 Each of these aggregates is multiplied by a respective 1979-81 average "international" cipally for human consumption; root crops average national producer price per unit. grown principally for feed are excluded. The product of this equation represents the producer price and summed in a total agri- total value of the commodity for that pe- cultural output value for that region or the Most of the data in Tables 18.1-18.5 are riod in terms of the 1979-81 price. The val- world in terms of 1979-81 prices. The total supplied by national agriculture ministries ues of all crop and livestock products are agricultural output value for a given year is in response to annual FAO questionnaires totaled to an aggregated value of agricul- then divided by the "international" 1979-81 or are derived from decennial agricultural tural production in 1979-81 prices. The output value and multiplied by 100 to ob- censuses. FAO compiles data from more ratio of this aggregate for a given year to tain the continental and world index num- than 200 country reports and from many that for 1979-81 is multiplied by 100 to ob- bers. This method avoids distortion caused other sources and enters them into a com- tain the index number. by the use of international exchange rates. puterized data base. FAO fills gaps in the World Resources 1992-93 282 Food and Agriculture 18 data by preparing its own estimates. As bet- planted after each harvest, such as cocoa, Management of Pests and Pesticides: Farmers' ter information becomes available, FAO cor- coffee, rubber, fruit trees, and vines. Perceptions and Practices, Joyce Tait and rects its estimates and recalculates the Human population data used to calculate Banpot Napompeth, eds. (Westview Press, entire time series when necessary. hectares per capita are for 1990. For trends in Boulder, Colorado, 1987). cropland area, see Chapter 17, "Land Cover Tractors generally refer to wheel and and Settlements," Table 17.1. crawler tractors used in agriculture. Garden Table 18.2 Agricultural Inputs, Irrigated land as a percentage of cropland tractors are excluded. Harvesters refer to har- 1975-89 refers to areas purposely provided with vesters and threshers. water, including land flooded by river water for crop production or pasture im- Table 18.3 Livestock Popula- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization provement, whether this area is irrigated of the United Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC several times or only once during the year. tions and Grain Consumed as (FAO, Rome, July 1991). Pesticide use: Feed,1978-90 United Nations Industrial Development Or- Average annual fertilizer use refers to appli- ganization (UNIDO) Industrial Statistics cation of nutrients in terms of nitrogen (N), and Sectoral Surveys Branch, Policy and phosphate (P2O5), and potash (K2O). The Sources: Livestock data: Food and Agricul- Perspectives Division, pesticide data base fertilizer year is July 1-June 30; data refer to ture Organization of the United Nations specifically prepared for UNIDO's study the year beginning in July. (FAO), Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, June Global Overview of the Pesticide Industry Sub- Data on average annual pesticide use were 1991). Feed data: Economic Research Ser- Sector, Sectoral Working Paper PPD.98, compiled by UNIDO. In their study, vice, United States Department of Agricul- (UNIDO, Vienna, December 2,1988). Pesti- UNIDO assessed production, trade, and ture (USDA), PS&D View PC (USDA, cide use by Mauritius, Tanzania, Uganda: use of pesticides for 119 countries and 14 Washington, D.C., 1990). Environment Liaison Centre, Africa Seminar geographical subgroups. The calculations Data on livestock include all animals in on the Use and Handling of Agricultural and were based on trade statistics of pesticide the country, regardless of place or purpose Other Pest Control Chemicals (October 30 to finished products. These statistics were pub- of their breeding. Data on livestock num- November 4,1983, Nairobi, Kenya). Pesti- lished by the United Nations Statistical Of- bers are collected annually by FAO; esti- cide use by Haiti: Data are 1972-74 pesti- fice (UNSO), and use and trade data were mates are made by FAO for countries that cide imports; U.S. Agency for International compiled by FAO. For one third of the either do not report data or only partially Development (U.S. AID), Draft Environmen- countries, UNIDO had to estimate net report data. Equines include horses, mules, tal Profile of Haiti (U.S. AID, Washington, weight of active ingredient in the pesticides and asses. FAO notes that the reported D.C., 1979). Pesticide use by El Salvador used, because country-level data were only number of chickens in some countries does (1975-77 data are for 1974-76; 1982-84 data quantified for finished products or not not seem accurate. For some countries, data are for 1979) and by Suriname (1975-77 available at all. Time series were completed on chickens include all poultry. data are for 1979-80; 1982-84 data are for by interpolation and extrapolation or, in some cases, by an econometric need model. Grain fed to livestock as percentage of total 1981): David K. Burton and Bernard J.R. grain consumption was calculated using Philogene, An Overview of Pesticide Usage in Parameters in this model included country- specific factors such as climatic zone, de- USDA grain consumption and feed num- Latin America (Canadian Wildlife Service bers. Grains include wheat, rice (milled Latin American Program, Ottawa, un- gree of development of agriculture, area under crop production, crop structure, and weight), corn, barley, sorghum, millet, rye, dated). Pesticide use by Afghanistan (1975- oats, and mixed grains. Grain consumption 77 data are for 1980; 1982-84 data are for the frequency of pesticide applications. For additional information, refer to UNIDO's is the total domestic use during the local 1981-82) and by the Philippines (1975-77 marketing year of the individual country. It data are for 1980-81): Regional Network for Global Overview of the Pesticide Industry Sub- Sector. is the sum of feed, food, seed, and indus- the Production, Marketing, and Control of trial uses. Pesticides in Asia and the Pacific Data are expressed in net weight of active (RENPAP), formerly Regional Network for ingredients in the pesticides used. The ac- the Production, Marketing, and Control of tive ingredients in a pesticide are the chemi- Table 18.4 Food Trade and Aid, Pesticides in Asia and the Far East cals with pesticidal properties. In a pesti- 1977-89 (RENPAF), RENPAF Gazette: Supply of Pesti- cide formulation, active ingredients are cides in Nine Countries (RENPAF, Bangkok, often mixed with inert ingredients, which July 1985) and RENPAP Gazette: Pesticide dilute or deliver the active ingredients. Sources: Trade and population data: Food Data Collection System—Second Report Inert ingredients can exert toxic effects of and Agriculture Organization of the United (RENPAP, Bangkok, October 1988). Pesti- their own in the environment. Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, cide use by Malaysia: Data are 1988 esti- July 1991). Food aid data: FAO, Pood Aid in Active ingredients vary widely in po- Figures, No. 8/1 (FAO, Rome, 1990). mate by Malaysian Agrochemical tency; information on the ingredients of pes- Association (MACA) provided by the Min- Figures shown for food trade are net im- ticides is necessary to ensure accurate ports or exports: exports were subtracted istry of Science, Technology and Environ- application and to minimize harmful envi- ment (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1989). from imports. ronmental effects. For example, 1 metric ton Pesticide use by the Syrian Arab Republic of the modern synthetic pyrethroid insecti- Two definitions of trade are used by coun- (1982-84 data are for 1983-84): L'Office cide permethrin is as potent a pesticide as tries reporting trade data. "Special trade" Arabe de Presse et de Documentation, Rap- 3-5 metric tons of a carbamate or an organo- refers only to imports for domestic con- port Economiaue Syrien 1983-84 (L'Office phosphate or 10-30 metric tons of DDT. sumption and exports of domestic goods. Arabe de Presse et de Documentation, Da- The data shown in this table do not de- "General trade" encompasses total imports mascus, 1984). Pesticide use by Yemen scribe the potency of the active ingredients and total exports, including reexports. (1975-77 data are for 1972-74; 1982-84 data used. As a result, two countries with sim- Trade figures for Czechoslovakia, the Ger- are for 1975-76): U.S. AID, Draft Environ- ilar levels of pesticide use may be treating man Democratic Republic, Hungary, Po- mental Report on Yemen (U.S. AID, Washing- different amounts of land and getting very land, Romania, and the U.S.S.R. include ton, D.C., 1982). Pesticide use by Iceland: different results. Increasingly potent pesti- goods purchased by the country that are re- Nordic Council and the Nordic Statistical cides have been developed in recent years; exported to a third country without ever en- Secretariat, Yearbook of Nordic Statistics 1985 thus, a decline in the amount of active ingre- tering the purchasing country. For infor- (Nordic Council and Nordic Statistical Sec- dients used may not indicate a reduction in mation on the definition used by a particu- retariat, Oslo, 1986). the amount of toxic materials introduced lar country, see FAO Trade Yearbook 1989 into the environment. (FAO, Rome, 1990). Cropland refers to land under temporary Average annual donations or receipts of food and permanent crops, temporary meadows, For additional information on pesticides, aid are shown as either positive or negative market and kitchen gardens, and temporar- see E.J. Tait and A.B. Lane, "Insecticide Pro- numbers: Receipts are shown as positive ily fallow land. Permanent cropland is land duction, Distribution and Use: Analyzing numbers; donations are expressed in nega- under crops that do not need to be re- National and International Statistics" in tive figures. For some countries that are World Resources 1992-93 283 18 Food and Agriculture both recipients and donors of food aid, do- S.W. Buol (North Carolina State University, Limitations exist for growing common nations were subtracted from receipts. Raleigh, North Carolina). crops unless lime is applied. Even then, alu- Trade in cereals includes wheat and Climatic classes are calculated by length minum toxicity in the subsoil may restrict wheat flour, rice, barley, maize, rye, and of growing period. Length of growing pe- root development, affecting the use of soil oats. Trade in oils includes oils from soy- riod is defined as the number of days when moisture by crops. beans, groundnuts (peanuts), olives, cotton- both temperature and moisture permit crop Low to medium soil acidity may affect seeds, sunflower seeds, rape/mustard growth. Days with mean temperatures sensitive crops such as alfalfa or cotton, but seeds, linseeds, palms, coconuts, palm-ker- above 5° C and with soil moisture resulting acid soils that have a low percentage of alu- nels, castor beans, and maize, as well as ani- from rainfall at least equivalent to half po- minum saturation can be very productive mal oils, fats, and greases (including lard). tential evapotranspiration are considered for adapted crops, pastures, and trees. Trade in pulses includes all kinds of dried le- favorable to growth. A "normal" growing Soils with phosphorus fixation result in guminous vegetables, with the exception of period includes a humid period, during crop phosphorus deficiency. These soils vetches and lupins. which precipitation exceeds full potential can produce a satisfying yield for subsis- Food aid refers to the donation or conces- evapotranspiration. Lengths of growing pe- tence farmers; but when used for commer- sional sale of food commodities. Cereals in- riods are: arid in the range of 75 days or cial agriculture, they require high levels of clude wheat, rice, coarse grains, bulgur less; semi-arid in the range of 75 to 120 days; phosphate applications and special manage- wheat, wheat flour, and the cereal compo- humid in the range of 180 to 365 days; cold - ment practices to increase productivity. nent of blended foods. Cereal donations or 0 days (mean temperature is below 5° C Amorphous material usually occurs in receipts (kilograms per capita) are the result while moisture is available). soils of volcanic origin. High levels of phos- of dividing the three-year averages by the Land with no inherent soil constraints in- phate and nitrogen fertilizers are required respective 1978 and 1988 populations. Oils cludes land whose soil has no chemical and despite high content of organic nitrogen in include vegetable oil and butter oil. Milk in- physical constraints that will significantly the soils. cludes skimmed milk powder and other affect agronomic management and agricul- Vertic properties exist in soils with a high dairy products (mainly cheese). Regional to- tural productivity. The extent of land with content of clay with shrinking and swelling tals include only countries listed and do not no soil constraints is also an important indi- properties. Tillage is difficult when topsoils reflect donations by the Organization of Pe- cator of agricultural costs, the potential and are too dry or too moist. These soils can be troleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and success of future expansion, and the com- highly productive, but only with improved the World Food Program. European re- parative advantage of a nation's agricul- soil tillage practices. gional totals, however, include European tural productivity. Soils with low potassium reserves constrain Community donations as well. The FCC system groups soils according crop growth because of potassium defi- Food aid data are reported by donor to their fertility and management of rele- ciency. This can be overcome by applica- countries and international organizations. vant chemical and physical properties. It tion of potassium fertilizers. emphasizes quantifiable topsoil parameters Calcareous soils, although among the most Table 18.5 Flow of Cereal Aid as well as subsoil properties directly rele- fertile, may develop micronutrient deficien- vant to plant growth. The system interprets cies. They also impose limitations on from Major Donors to Major Re- three categories: topsoil texture (sandy, sources of phosphate. cipients, 1989 loamy, clayey, or organic), subsoil texture Soil salinity requires special management (sandy, loamy, clayey, or rock or other hard and in some cases expensive and lengthy Source: Food and Agricultural Organiza- root-restricting layer), and 15 modifiers that treatment to avoid damage to salt-sensitive tion of the United Nations (FAO), Food Aid describe chemical and physical properties crops. Salt-tolerant species and cultivars in Figures, Volume 8/1 (FAO, Rome, 1990). of the soils. In the past 10 years, the FCC may be grown when salinity is not exces- Cereals include wheat, rice, coarse grains, system has proven a meaningful tool for de- sive. bulgur wheat, wheat flour, and the cereal scribing fertility limitations on crop yields. Soils with excess sodium demand special component of blended foods. Major recipi- The no-inherent-soil-constraints data in soil management practices for alkaline ents include countries that received 10,000 Table 18.6 are an addendum to the major soils. Drainage and gypsum application tons of cereal aid or more. EC aid includes soil constraints table that was published in can help to reduce this constraint. aid from the separate European Commu- World Resources 1990-91 (Table 18.5), al- Acid sulfate soils are usually water satu- nity member countries as well as commu- though some data adjustments have been rated or flooded and may generate sulfuric nity action. Other donors include Argen- made since then. The following 15 physical acid when drained. This type of soil should tina, Australia, Austria, Finland, Norway, and chemical soil constraints are absent in be kept saturated or should be reclaimed Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Switzerland, World soils with no inherent constraints. by shallow, intensive drainage and man- Food Program purchases, and others. Steep slopes are classified from steeply dis- aged with plants tolerant of high water Triangular aid is a system of aid whereby sected to mountainous. Dominant slopes table or flooding. donors pay for food to be shipped to a are over 30 percent. Soils with gravel (< 7.5 cm), stony phase, country in need from one of its neighbors. Shallow soils are mostly lithosoils and or rocks (> 7.5 cm) prevent mechanized ag- Cereal aid data are reported by donor other soils that restrict deep root penetra- ricultural operations and also present high countries and international organizations. tion or mechanized tillage. High priority erosion risk if occurring on steep slopes. should be given to erosion control where To calculate the percent of land with no in- such soils occur on steep slopes. herent soil constraints within each climatic Table 18.6 Climatic Classes Soils with poor drainage are mostly gley class, the land area in the specific climatic and Soil Constraints in Selected soils (sticky, organic-rich soils) and other class that has no soil constraints was di- Countries soils saturated with water during part of vided by the total land area with no soil the year or prone to waterlogging. These constraints. soils require drainage to improve crop The three temperature zone definitions Source: Food and Agricultural Organiza- growth and generally provide a good soil corrected to sea level, of each soil-plant nu- tion of the United Nations (FAO), unpub- for rice production in tropical and subtropi- trient and management constraint identi- lished data (FAO, Rome, 1991). Data were cal environments. fied in this table include: tropics, where the developed by Jose Benites (Technical Offi- monthly mean temperature is above 18 ° C; cer, Soil Resources, Management and Con- Low nutrient retention occurs in soils with a low inherent fertility. In addition, leach- subtropics, where the monthly mean tem- servation Service, Land and Water Deve- perature is below 18° C for one or more lopment Division, FAO) and K. Groody ing causes high nutrient losses when lime or fertilizers are applied. months; and temperate, where the monthly (Consultant to FAO), based on a Fertility mean temperature is below 5° C for one or Capability Classification (FCC) system de- Aluminum toxicity is prevalent mostly in soils of the subhumid and humid tropics. more months. veloped by P.A. Sanchez, W. Couto, and World Resources 1992-93 284 19. Forests and Rangelands Since the publication of World Resources 1990-91, lished by mid-1992, with estimates of the forest area which suggested an acceleration in the rate of defores- and the rates of deforestation at global, subregional, tation in tropical countries, two interim reports have and country levels. been published by the Forest Resources Assessment By mid-1992, the Agriculture and Timber Division of 1990 Project of the Food and Agriculture Organization FAO and the United Nations Economic Commission of the United Nations (FAO) confirming this trend. for Europe (UNECE) in Geneva will release the final re- FAO's most recent preliminary estimate, presented at sults of their assessment of forests in the temperate the World Forestry Congress in September 1991, put zone. It is believed that the temperate forest area has the world's average annual tropical deforestation rate increased by 5 percent during 1981-90. Some of this in- during 1981-90 at 16.9 million hectares. Compared crease is the result of afforestation and recolonization with the previous 1980 Tropical Forest Resources As- of nonforest land, but in some cases, it may be a statis- sessment, this is a 50 percent increase in the aggregate tical increase from improved survey coverage, for ex- estimate for 76 tropical countries, which were identical ample of the boreal forests in the Soviet Union. in both appraisals and hold about 97 percent of the Wood is still the primary product removed from the world's tropical forests. world's forests and woodlands. Table 19.2 shows that Table 19.1 presents the new FAO data for the world in Africa, South America, and Asia, most wood is used and 12 tropical subregions. If these provisional defores- for fuel, whereas in North America, Europe, Oceania, tation estimates are confirmed by the final results of and the U.S.S.R., it is produced for industrial use. This the 1990 assessment, they will indicate important difference can also be observed for the top six round- shifts in regional deforestation: in four subregions— wood producers: the United States, the U.S.S.R., China, Central Africa, Caribbean Subregion, Continental India, Brazil, and Canada, which together remove South East Asia, and Insular South East Asia— defores- roughly half of the world's timber from their own terri- tation accelerated faster than the global average; in tory. Canada, the United States, and the U.S.S.R. har- three subregions— Tropical Southern Africa, Central vest most of their wood for industrial purposes and America and Mexico, and Tropical Latin America—de- were net exporters of roundwood in 1987-89. China, forestation increased about 50 percent, comparable to Brazil and India, each cutting roughly the same quanti- the world average; in five subregions, four in Africa ties of roundwood as Western Europe, used most of and one in Asia, deforestation did not change signifi- their wood for fuel. cantly from the 1980 assessment. The production of processed wood—sawnwood and Table 19.1 also lists recent country estimates, com- panels—is concentrated in developed countries and in piled in various years by various methods. In some the wood-rich and most industrialized developing cases, these estimates do not agree with the FAO data. countries. For example, during the past decade, produc- The biggest discrepancy appears between the most re- tion of panels grew most in China, India, and Brazil. In cent country deforestation estimate for Brazil and the 1987-89, Indonesia was the largest producer of wood- FAO aggregate for Tropical South America. The FAO based panels in the developing countries, following the estimate shows an increase in the amount of land de- United States, the U.S.S.R., Japan, and the Federal Re- forested from 4.6 million hectares per year during public of Germany among the developed countries. 1981-85 to 6.8 million hectares per year during 1981- Data on the impact of human use of land resources 90. Yet Brazil reports a decline in the amount of land have been lacking. A 1991 study by the United Nations deforested in its Legal Amazon (a political boundary Environment Programme and the International Soil encompassing six states and territories and parts of Reference and Information Centre found that the soils three others). Since no recent deforestation studies of 17 percent of the earth's vegetated land are de- have been conducted outside the Legal Amazon, it is graded, as a result of vegetation removal, overgrazing, not known whether this difference might be accounted poor agricultural practices, and contamination by in- for by increasing deforestation elsewhere or whether dustrial chemicals. Table 19.3 presents data on soil deg- one of the estimates is inaccurate. A reconciliation of radation by severity and degradation type for six these data can only come with the final results from regions, and Table 19.4 specifies the causes of human- the 1990 assessment. They are expected to be pub- induced soil degradation. World Resources 1992-93 285 19 Forests and Rangelands Table 19.1 Forest Resources Average Annual Deforestation Extent of Forest and Woodland 1980 (000 ha) 1981-85 Most Recent Average Managed Protected Annual Closed Closed Other Closed Forest Total Forest Estimate {a} Reforestation Forest Forest Natural Forest Planta- Wooded Extent Extent Year Extent 1981-85 1980 1980 Closed Open tion Area (000 ha) (%) (000 ha) (%) of Data (000 ha) (000 ha) (000 ha) (000 ha) WORLD 2,822,560 742,148 28,830 1,695,017 7,501 0.3 11.502 0.3 1981-90 b 16,900 10,538 968,444 118,019 AFRICA 222,278 483,911 2,971 629,900 1,339 0.6 3,772 0.5 1981-90 c 5,000 296 2,327 9,635 North Africa 3,371 2,119 1,062 3,775 0 0.0 58 1.1 X X 101 584 15 Algeria 1,518 249 431 2,168 40 2.3 52 X Egypt X X 40 X X X 2 X Libya 134 56 143 446 X X 31 X Morocco 1,533 1,703 321 1,161 13 0.4 13 421 Tunisia 186 111 127 X 5 1.7 3 163 West Sahelian Africa 2,345 39,609 47 51,123 25 1.1 388 0.9 1981-90 d 400 10 63 Burkina Faso 271 4,464 12 9,360 3 1.1 80 1.7 X Cape Verde X X 4 1 X X X X X Chad 500 13,000 3 10,550 X X 80 0.6 0 Gambia, The 65 150 1 560 2 3.4 5 2.4 X Guinea-Bissau 660 1,445 0 577 17 2.6 57 2.7 X Mali 500 6,750 5 15,100 X X 36 0.5 X Mauritania 29 525 0 3,980 1 2.4 13 2.4 X Niger 100 2,450 9 7,880 3 2.5 67 2.6 X Senegal 220 10,825 13 3,115 X X 50 0.5 63 East Sahelian Africa 8,412 83,883 524 226,799 45 0.5 695 0.8 1981-90 700 37 560 628 Djibouti 2 68 44 X X X X X X X Ethiopia 4,350 22,800 35,300 8 0.2 88 0.3 10 X X Kenya 1,105 1,255 181 38,105 19 1.7 39 1.7 10 70 570 Somalia 1,540 7,510 11 53,050 4 0.2 14 0.1 1 X X Sudan 650 47,000 188 98,600 4 0.6 504 1.1 13 50 X Uganda 765 5,250 46 1,700 10 1.3 50 0.8 2 440 58 West Africa 17,267 36,306 327 104,690 703 4.1 1,199 2.2 1981-90 1,200 36 1,168 1,045 Benin 47 3,820 19 6,832 1 2.6 67 1.7 X X X X X Cote d'lvoire 4,458 5,376 45 15,390 290 6.5 510 5.2 1981-85 260 6 1 648 Ghana 1,718 6,975 75 9,480 22 1.3 72 0.8 X X 2 1,167 397 Guinea 2,050 8,600 2 9,900 36 1.8 86 0.8 X X 0 X 0 Liberia 2,000 40 6 5,640 46 2.3 46 2.3 X X 2 X X Nigeria 5,950 8,800 163 49,450 300 5.0 400 2.7 X X 26 0 X Sierra Leone 740 1,315 6 4,278 6 0.8 6 0.3 X X 0 X X Togo 304 1,380 11 3,720 2 0.7 12 0.7 X X 0 X X Central Africa 170,395 111,915 76 71,575 307 0.2 575 0.2 1981-90 1,500 5,830 Cameroon 17,920 7,700 18 15,600 80 0.4 110 0.4 1976-86 190 X Central African Rep 3,590 32,300 0 21,100 5 0.1 55 0.2 X X X Congo 21,340 X 17 2,500 22 0.1 22 0.1 X X 130 Equatorial Guinea 1,295 X X 1,175 3 0.2 3 0.2 X X X Gabon 20,500 75 19 1,500 15 0.1 15 0.1 X X X Zaire 105,750 71,840 22 29,700 182 0.2 370 0.2 X X 5,700 Tropical Southern Africa 8,818 207,109 556 161,574 108 1.2 700 0.3 1981-90 1,100 834 Angola 2,900 50,700 157 28,400 44 1.5 94 0.2 X Botswana X 32,560 X 20,000 X X 20 0.1 X Burundi 27 14 19 24 1 2.6 1 2.7 17 Malawi 186 4,085 80 380 X X 150 3.5 146 Mozambique 935 14,500 25 42,700 10 1.1 120 0.8 25 Namibia X 18,420 0 37,645 X X 30 0.2 X Rwanda 120 110 29 155 3 2.6 5 2.2 16 Tanzania 1,440 40,600 98 17,900 10 0.7 130 0.3 410 Zambia 3,010 26,500 38 10,800 40 1.3 70 0.2 220 Zimbabwe 200 19,620 110 3,570 0 X 80 0.4 X Temperate Southern Africa 1,351 70 102 2,803 X X X X X X 68 10 290 South Africa 1,347 X X 2,803 X X X X X X 63 10 290 Swaziland 4 70 102 X X X 0 X X X 5 X X Insular Africa 10,319 2,900 277 7,561 151 1.5 157 1.2 1981-90 e 200 12 X 930 XXX Comoros 16 X 0 29 1 3.1 1 3.1 0 X XXX XXX Madagascar 10,300 2,900 266 7,500 150 1.5 156 1.2 12 930 Mauritius 3 X 11 32 0 3.3 0 3.3 0 X THE AMERICAS 1,212,849 207,172 6,175 590,871 4,339 0.4 5,702 0.4 X X 3,148 102,884 53,573 Temperate North America 490,554 X X 243,922 X X X X X X 2,495 102,362 36,068 Canada 264,100 X X 172,300 X X X X X X 720 X 4,870 United States 226,454 X X 71,622 X X X X 1977-87 159 1,775 102,362 31,198 Central America and Mexico 64,929 2,560 183 91,524 1,002 1.5 1,022 1.5 1981-90 1,400 32 308 742 Costa Rica 1,638 160 3 240 65 4.0 65 3.6 1973-89 42 0 X 320 El Salvador 141 X 1 315 5 3.2 5 3.2 X X 0 X X Guatemala 4,442 100 15 1,865 90 2.0 90 2.0 X X 8 X 62 Honduras 3,797 200 X 1,900 90 2.3 90 2.3 X X X 58 X Mexico 46,250 2,100 159 85,500 595 1.3 615 1.3 1981-83 1,000 22 X 360 Nicaragua 4,496 X 1 1,580 121 2.7 121 2.7 X X 1 250 X Panama 4,165 X 4 124 36 0.9 36 0.9 X X 0 X X Caribbean Subregion 37,066 482 205 3,055 25 0.1 26 0.1 1981-90 f 200 13 214 594 Belize 1,354 92 3 574 9 0.7 9 0.6 0 X X Cuba 1,455 X 157 1,005 2 0.2 2 0.1 11 200 X Dominican Rep 629 X 6 321 0.6 4 0.6 1 X X Guyana 18,475 220 1 315 0.0 3 0.0 0 X 12 Haiti 48 X 1 96 3.8 2 3.7 0 X X Jamaica 67 X 13 386 3.0 2 3.0 1 X 2 Suriname 14,830 170 8 295 0.0 3 0.0 0 X 580 Trinidad and Tobago 208 X 16 63 0.4 1 0.4 1 14 X Nontropical South America 52,540 X 1,557 25,170 X X 50 0.1 X X 119 X 3,439 Argentina 1980-89 40 2,594 Ixxx XXX 44,500 600 16,500 X X 105 XXX XXX Chile 7,550 817 8,550 50 0.7 X X 74 845 Uruguay 490 140 120 X X X X 5 X World Resources 1992-93 286 Forests and Rangelands 19 Table 19.1 Average Annual Deforestation Extent of Forest and Woodland 1980 (000 ha) 1981-85 Most Recent Average Managed Protected Other Closed Forest Total Forest Estimate {a} Annual Closed Closed Reforestation Forest Forest Natural Forest Planta- Wooded Extent Extent Yoar Extent 1981-85 1980 1980 Closed Open tion Area (000 ha) (%) (000 ha) (%) of Data (000 ha) (000 ha) (000 ha) (000 ha) Tropical South America 567,760 204,130 4,230 227,200 3,312 0.6 4,604 0.6 1981-90 6,800 489 12,730 Bolivia 44,010 22,750 26 12,050 87 0.2 117 0.2 X X 1 X Brazil 357,480 157,000 3,855 161,820 1,480 0.4 2,530 0.5 1989-90 g 1,380 449 4,660 Colombia 46,400 5,300 95 14,400 820 1.8 890 1.7 X X 8 2,280 Ecuador 14,250 480 43 3,470 340 2.4 340 2.3 X X 4 350 Paraguay 4,070 15,640 3 12,730 190 4.7 212 1.1 1989-90 450 1 90 Peru 69,680 960 84 8,660 270 0.4 270 0.4 X X 6 850 Venezuela 31,870 2,000 124 14,070 125 0.4 245 0.7 X X 19 4,500 ASIA 424,713 47,103 19,605 176,994 1,799 0.4 2,003 0.4 1981-90 h 3,600 1,408 48,705 25,050 Temperate and Middle East Asia 153,755 20,100 14,515 70,040 X X 20 0.0 X X 972 9,625 7,523 Afghanistan 810 400 11 690 XX XX X X X 100 X China 97,847 17,200 12,733 27,730 XX XX X X 378 X 1,635 Cyprus 153 X X 40 XX XX X X X 153 28 Iran, Islamic Rep 2,750 1,000 43 14,250 XX 20 0.5 X X X 400 120 Iraq 70 1,160 20 300 XX XX X X X X X Israel 75 XX 34 XX XX X X 2 56 2 Japan 23,889 X X 1,309 XX XX X X 240 X 490 Jordan X 50 21 75 XX XX X X 3 X X Korea, Dem People's Rep 4,800 X X 4,200 XX XX X X 200 X X Korea, Rep 4,887 X 1,628 X XX XX X X 67 X 437 Lebanon X 20 18 45 XX XX X X X X X Mongolia 9,528 X X 4,335 XX XX X X X X 4,672 Saudi Arabia 30 170 1 1,400 XX XX X X X X X Syrian Arab Rep 60 90 40 239 XX XX X X X 60 X Turkey 8,856 X X 11,343 XX XX X X 82 8,856 139 Yemen (Arab Rep) X 10 0 1,590 XX XX X X X X X (People's Dem Rep) X X 0 2,460 XX XX X X X X X South Asia 60,653 5,908 2,494 17,906 305 0.5 307 0.5 1981-90 400 179 33,122 7,369 Bangladesh 927 X 128 315 8 0.9 8 0.9 X X 17 795 52 Bhutan 2,100 40 7 230 1 0.1 1 0.1 X X 1 0 X India 51,841 5,393 2,068 14,848 147 0.3 147 0.3 1983-87 48 138 31,917 6,779 Nepal 1,941 180 19 340 84 4.3 84 4.0 X X 4 X 330 Pakistan 2,185 295 160 1,105 7 0.3 9 0.4 X X 7 410 15 Sri Lanka 1,659 X 112 1,068 58 3.5 58 3.5 X X 13 X 193 Continental South East Asia 65,904 16,095 352 39,440 547 0.8 709 0.8 1981-90 1,400 55 3,419 3,079 Cambodia 7,548 5,100 7 625 25 0.3 30 0.2 X X 0 X X Lao People's Dem Rep 8,410 5,215 11 5,735 100 1.2 130 1.0 X X 1 X X Myanmar 31,941 X 16 20,700 105 0.3 105 0.3 1984 600 0 3,419 299 Thailand 9,235 6,440 114 1,300 252 2.7 379 2.4 1985-88 235 24 X 2,220 Viet Nam 8,770 1,340 204 11,080 65 0.7 65 0.6 1985 200 29 X 560 Insular South East Asia 144,401 3,000 2,244 49,608 947 0.7 967 0.7 1981-90 1,800 201 2,539 7,079 Indonesia 113,895 3,000 1,918 41,260 600 0.5 620 0.5 1982-90 1,000 131 40 5,430 Malaysia 20,996 X 26 4,825 255 1.2 255 1.2 1979-89 270 20 2,499 959 Philippines 9,510 X 300 3,520 92 1.0 92 1.0 1980-87 150 50 X 690 Singapore X X X 3 X X X X X X X X X EUROPE 136,652 X X 41,688 X X X X X X 1,031 74,628 1,752 Albania 930 X X 312 X X X X X X X Austria 3,754 X X 0 X X X X 21 1,489 X Belgium 600 X X 160 X X X X 19 272 X Bulgaria 3,400 X X 400 X X X X 50 3,600 100 Czechoslovakia 4,435 X X 143 X X X X 37 4,435 X Denmark 466 X X 18 X X X X X 330 56 Finland 19,885 X X 3,340 X X X X 158 10,578 294 France 13,875 X X 1,200 X X X X 51 2,957 92 Germany (Fed Rep) 6,989 X X 218 X X X X 62 3,886 X (Dem Rep) 2,700 X X 255 X X X X X 2,697 85 Greece 2,512 X X 3,242 X X X X X 1,603 75 Hungary 1,612 X X 37 X X X X 19 1,612 41 Iceland X X X 100 X X X X X X X Ireland 347 X X 33 X X X X 9 298 0 Italy 6,363 X X 1,700 X X X X 15 699 162 Luxembourg 82 X X 0 X X X X X 38 0 Netherlands 294 X X 61 X X X X 2 225 0 Norway 7,635 X X 1,066 X X X X 79 1,130 60 Poland 8,588 X X 138 X X X X 106 8,099 103 Portugal 2,627 X X 349 X X X X 4 X 7 Romania 6,190 X X 150 X X X X X 5,940 X Spain 6,906 X X 23,584 X X X X 92 2,007 40 Sweden 24,400 X X 3,442 X X X X 207 14,301 230 Switzerland 935 X X 189 X X X X 7 627 7 United Kingdom 2,027 X X 151 X X X X 40 1,505 0 Yugoslavia 9,100 X X 1,400 X X X X 53 6,300 400 U.S.S.R. 739,900 X X 189,700 X X X X X X 4,540 739,900 20,000 OCEANIA 86,168 3,962 79 65,864 25 0.0 26 0.0 X X 115 0 8,009 xxxxx XoXXX xxxxx Australia 41,658 X X 64,242 X X X X 62 3,817 Fiji- 811 0 40 6 2 0.2 2 0.2 7 X New Zealand 7,046 X X 46 X X X X 43 4,137 Papua New Guinea 34,230 3,945 22 1,530 22 0.1 23 0.1 2 55 Solomon Islands 2,423 17 17 40 1 0.0 1 0.0 0 X Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and other sources. Notes: a. Deforestation estimates are for total forest area, unless otherwise noted. World and subregional totals are provisional estimates for tropical countries; numbers are rounded to the nearest 100,000 hectares; data are not directly comparable to 1981-85 rates because only a limited number of countries are included. Country estimates in this column are from many dates and have differing reliability and thus are not necessarily comparable; country deforestation estimates are to be taken purely as indicator of order of magnitude, b. 87 tropical countries, c. 40 tropical countries, d. Only 8 countries of subregion. e. Only one country of subregion. f. 18 tropical countries, g. Legal Amazon only. h. 15 tropical countries. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X - not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 287 19 Forests and Rangelands Table 19.2 Wood Production and Trade, 1977-89 Roundwood Production Processed Wood Production Average Annual Total Fuel and Charcoal Industrial Roundwood Sawnwood Panels Paper Production Net Trade in (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent Roundwood {a} cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change metric Change (000 cubic meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since tons) Since meters) 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1977-79 1987-89 WORLD 3,425,613 23 1,760,475 28 1,665,139 17 504,256 10 125,985 21 223,012 39 AFRICA 485,487 34 429,829 36 55,657 19 8,71« 38 1,891 46 2,427 65 (6,107) (4,128) Algeria 2,066 35 1,816 36 250 32 13 0 50 0 120 163 63 210 Angola 5,262 26 4,217 31 1,045 8 5 (88) 2 (74) 15 15 0 0 Benin 4,845 35 4,591 35 254 35 11 22 0 X 0 X 0 0 Botswana 1,276 43 1,197 42 79 44 0 X 0 X 0 X X X Burkina Faso 8,300 29 7,925 29 375 28 1 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 Burundi 3,969 31 3,921 31 48 43 3 200 0 X 0 X X X Cameroon 12,615 31 9,886 31 2,730 31 652 58 80 10 5 0 (631) (479) Cape Verde X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Central African Rep 3,449 19 3,055 29 394 (24) 52 (40) 4 (20) 0 X (121) (32) Chad 3,837 26 3,294 26 542 26 1 0 0 X 0 X X X Comoros X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Congo 3,119 59 1,729 31 1,390 118 54 12 56 (26) 0 X (165) (803) Cote d'lvoire 12,799 10 9,437 52 3,362 (38) 775 15 260 133 0 X (3,043) (572) Djibouti 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X X Egypt 2,210 31 2,108 31 103 32 0 X 74 66 160 32 86 200 Equatorial Guinea 607 46 447 10 160 1,614 51 993 10 2,900 0 X (6) (120 Ethiopia 38,859 21 37,100 21 1,759 26 39 (46) 15 10 10 25 0 0 Gabon 3,618 24 2,396 49 1,222 (6) 126 17 228 75 0 X (1,565) (1,018) Gambia, The 912 7 891 6 21 110 1 0 0 X 0 X X X Ghana 17,006 56 15,905 71 1,101 (31) 482 10 60 (11) 0 X (321) (286) Guinea 4,560 25 3,924 26 636 18 90 0 0 (100) 0 X 0 (8) Guinea-Bissau 565 6 422 2 143 19 16 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 Kenya 34,206 46 32,495 47 1,711 23 189 25 45 172 99 71 (52) 0 Lesotho 579 32 579 32 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 33 Liberia 5,825 31 4,736 30 1,089 33 411 129 5 (44) 0 X (348) (544) Libya 640 4 536 1 104 26 31 12 0 X 6 20 111 30 Madagascar 7,637 31 6,830 36 807 0 234 0 6 467 7 67 (1) (2) Malawi 7,366 36 7,016 37 351 19 31 (27) 6 13 0 X 0 0 Mali 5,359 32 5,016 32 342 32 12 106 0 X 0 X X X Mauritania 12 33 7 40 5 25 0 X 0 X 0 X X X Mauritius 32 (27) 20 (14) 13 (38) 4 (19 0 X 0 X 2 1 Morocco 2,008 32 1,343 36 665 25 72 142 61 109 43 226 471 Mozambique 16,001 31 15,022 33 979 9 38 (59 6 113 2 0 (8) (3) Namibia X X X X X X X X 0 X X X X X Niger 4,287 33 4,023 33 264 33 0 X 0 X 0 X X X Nigeria 104,926 41 97,058 40 7,868 48 2,712 70 233 102 81 419 (5) (15) Rwanda 5,842 14 5,602 12 240 87 13 550 2 500 0 X X X Senegal 4,286 25 3,697 24 589 32 11 32 0 X 0 X 27 25 Sierra Leone 2,941 23 2,801 26 140 (18) 12 (37) 0 X 0 X 1 0 Somalia 6,757 47 6,669 47 88 28 14 0 1 (33) 0 X 2 0 South Africa 19,246 14 7,078 0 12,168 23 1,827 18 398 10 1,614 55 (117) (899) Sudan 21,584 36 19,554 36 2,030 35 13 (7 2 (40) 10 43 X X Swaziland 2,223 (6) 560 10 1,663 (10) 136 27 8 118 0 X (232) (198) Tanzania 31,966 46 30,019 44 1,947 87 156 78 13 39 28 X (5) 0 Togo 840 33 662 34 178 30 5 0 0 X 0 X X X Tunisia 3,088 30 2,947 29 141 50 14 378 93 172 71 240 40 27 Uganda 13,880 40 12,080 40 1,800 36 26 10 3 233 2 500 0 0 Zaire 34,255 36 31,540 37 2,715 34 121 4 53 109 2 0 (49) (135) Zambia 12,030 43 11,424 44 606 38 68 61 8 92 3 X 4 0 Zimbabwe 7,755 32 6,226 31 1,530 36 185 22 28 (11) 82 74 1 (9) NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 769,323 30 171,189 89 598,134 19 170,866 20 41,302 10 88,639 27 (19,561) (23,934) Barbados X X X X X X X X X X X X 2 1 Belize 188 71 126 64 62 88 14 (18) 0 X 0 X (2) (8 Canada 178,010 14 6,834 66 171,176 13 60,814 39 6,572 30 16,417 27 98 (1,220 Costa Rica 3,953 9 2,815 33 1,138 (24) 511 (12) 55 (18) 16 78 (1) (21 Cuba 3,210 21 2,617 21 594 22 121 16 137 2,189 152 112 3 16 Dominican Rep 982 106 976 106 6 64 0 X 0 X 10 11 0 41 El Salvador 4,341 16 4,234 15 107 29 52 49 0 X 17 96 X X Guatemala 7,392 26 7,278 33 114 (71) 83 (70) 6 (42) 17 (35) 1 (10) Haiti 5,628 19 5,389 20 239 0 14 0 0 X 0 X 6 0 Honduras 5,948 27 5,015 41 933 (17) 456 (27) 9 (32) 0 X (22) (21) Jamaica 218 361 13 86 205 409 38 46 1 (75) 3 (61) 5 1 Mexico 22,303 25 14,878 27 7,425 23 2,410 8 722 79 3,108 97 12 13 Nicaragua 3,871 27 2,991 38 880 0 222 (45) 4 (64) 0 X 5 0 Panama 2,047 24 1,708 8 339 484 20 7 12 (18) 22 10 2 2 Trinidad and Tobago 64 (24) 22 38 42 (38) 21 (34) 0 X 0 X 2 1 United States 531,022 36 116,268 137 414,754 22 106,086 12 33,783 6 68,878 25 (19,662) (22,730) SOUTH AMERICA 330,453 31 229,847 23 100,606 51 26,436 37 4,028 34 7,646 67 (729) (3,832) Argentina 10,819 9 4,332 (25) 6,487 56 1,446 80 356 13 973 48 7 2 Bolivia 1,514 14 1,266 31 248 (31) 95 (44) 4 (76) 2 100 (1) 0 Brazil 251,125 33 179,116 25 72,009 59 18,140 36 2,832 29 4,734 83 (86) 2 Chile 16,727 34 6,435 18 10,292 47 2,702 64 265 182 445 54 (598) (3,814) Colombia 18,163 16 15,490 24 2,673 (14) 721 (24) 113 3 497 63 (5) 0 Ecuador 9,539 46 6,544 39 2,995 64 1,346 65 137 114 35 15 0 0 Guyana 228 40 19 51 209 39 57 (9) 0 X 0 X (30) (22) Paraguay 8,401 48 5,213 26 3,188 106 891 120 105 253 11 52 (1) 0 Peru 8,760 17 7,590 30 1,170 (28) 571 14 43 (27) 243 42 1 0 Suriname 206 (38) 18 (43) 188 (37) 63 (15) 9 (61) 0 X (15) (9) Uruguay 3,293 17 3,036 24 257 (31) 57 (45) 10 (33) 70 64 8 0 Venezuela 1,425 21 722 33 703 11 329 (6) 154 89 635 30 26 12 World Resources 1992-93 288 Forests and Rangelands 19 Table 19.2 Roundwood Production Processed Wood Production Average Annual Total Fuel and Charcoal Industrial Roundwood Sawnwood Panels Paper Production Net Trade in (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent Roundwood (a) cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change metric Change (000 cubic meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since tons) Since meters) 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 1977-79 1987-89 ASIA 1,053,425 21 781,840 21 271,586 21 105,538 15 26,641 44 47,390 82 37,628 52,132 Afghanistan 5.939 (5) 4,464 (6) 1,475 3 400 0 0 0 X X X Bahrain X X X X X X X X X X X 14 36 Bangladesh 29,374 30 28,509 31 864 (3) 79 (54) (75, 102 60 X X Bhutan 3,224 6 2,946 7 278 (3) 5 50 0 X (5) (7) Cambodia 5,677 20 5,110 22 567 2 43 0 0 0 X (6) 0 China 275,723 24 177,610 19 98,113 32 25,861 35 3,626 88 14,159 168 7,785 13,456 Cyprus 77 (32) 22 (24) 55 (34) 57 (26) 23 X 0 X 3 18 India 264,421 25 240,193 24 24,228 33 17,460 93 442 98 1,930 91 (39) 859 Indonesia 173,580 25 133,971 21 39,608 42 10,118 191 7,693 1,635 920 522 (20,378) (1,099) Iran, Islamic Rep 6,815 2 2,439 6 4,376 0 163 0 54 (65) 78 1 151 117 Iraq 147 21 97 37 50 0 8 0 3 50 28 0 50 1 Israel 118 0 11 0 107 0 0 X 148 7 170 50 169 213 Japan 31,855 (5) 574 (9) 31,281 (5) 30,280 (24) 9,360 (6) 24,657 48 57,651 51,415 Jordan 8 19 4 44 4 0 0 X 0 X 11 78 2 17 Korea, Dem People's Rep 4,705 13 4,105 16 600 0 280 0 0 X 80 0 21 71 Korea, Rep 6,848 (25) 4,489 (34) 2,359 2 4,058 28 1,444 (41) 3,613 165 8,767 7,088 Kuwait X X X X X X X X X X X X 9 54 Lao People's Dem Rep 3,881 25 3,572 23 309 55 16 (66) 9 800 0 X (11) (34) Lebanon 491 2 470 2 21 7 28 (16) 46 0 39 (14) 31 16 Malaysia 47,691 33 8,070 26 39,621 35 7,074 20 1,521 66 70 102 (16,749) (21,482) Mongolia 2,390 0 1,350 0 1,040 0 470 0 4 0 0 X 0 0 Myanmar 21,038 27 17,050 23 3,989 49 380 (20) 15 25 8 (17) (94) (498) Nepal 17,389 28 16,829 29 560 0 220 0 0 X 2 0 (132) 0 Oman X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 24 Pakistan 23,646 45 22.474 43 1.171 123 478 1.085 87 113 131 156 63 34 Philippines 38,158 11 32,147 31 6,011 (39) 1,072 (35) 543 (21) 328 (1) (1,989) (198) Qatar X X X X X X X X X X X X 10 36 Saudi Arabia X X X X X X X X X X X X 144 221 Singapore X X X X X X 206 (46) 489 (34) 10 67 1,485 (68) Sri Lanka 8,879 18 8,199 18 680 24 20 (42) 10 (30) 27 25 0 (33) Syrian Arab Rep 48 33 15 M\ 34 62 9 125 27 50 16 433 42 18 Thailand 38,239 17 33,624 21 4,615 (10) 1,139 (30) 252 82 500 74 (60) 423 Turkey 15,957 (27) 9,976 (31) 5,981 (19) 4,923 18 781 51 413 18 16 742 United Arab Emirates X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Viet Nam 26,626 23 23,253 25 3,372 8 354 (40) 40 58 57 10 24 41 Yemen (Arab Rep) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X (People's Dem Rep) 314 31 314 31 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X (0) 4 EUROPE 359,018 12 55,306 13 303,712 12 85,423 (1) 36,122 11 63,941 35 16,618 19,031 Albania 2,330 0 1,608 0 722 0 200 0 12 0 19 142 X X Austria 14,826 10 1,413 26 13,413 9 6,447 3 1,512 20 2,600 76 2,075 3,872 Belgium (b) 4,164 57 561 118 3,603 50 1,021 37 2,167 24 X X 2,529 2,326 Bulgaria 4,449 2 1,795 92 2,654 (22) 1,410 (11) 520 (3) 457 9 303 131 Czechoslovakia 18,144 (1) 1,461 (23) 16,683 2 5,301 14 1,437 33 1,283 12 (2,903) (725) Denmark 2,139 13 451 327 1,688 (6) 861 7 332 (17) 326 23 (487) (540) Finland 44,129 13 3,243 (31) 40,886 19 7,756 (5) 1,434 (4) 8,472 64 3,046 5,098 France 43,356 14 10,434 0 32,922 19 10,205 8 2,813 (5) 6,216 25 (220) (3,997) Germany (Fed Rep) 32,948 7 3,656 17 29,292 5 10,517 1 7,768 6 10,591 52 1,110 (1,203) (Dem Rep) 10,800 20 635 22 10,165 20 2,513 8 1,199 18 1,351 13 541 (94) Greece 3,267 29 2,320 32 947 23 398 (3) 399 25 281 17 360 242 Hungary 6,653 12 2,972 20 3,681 6 1,240 (1) 390 7 520 20 919 (342) Iceland X X X X X X X X X X X X 10 2 Ireland 1,350 222 49 121 1,301 228 319 171 237 141 32 (70) (83) (307) Italy 9,009 22 4,369 39 4,640 9 1,999 (10) 3,852 47 5,316 14 5,820 5,617 Luxembourg {c} X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Malta X X X X X X X X X X X X 1 0 Netherlands 1,201 31 111 86 1,090 27 407 45 90 (52) 2,399 43 517 272 Norway 10,973 37 924 79 10,049 34 2,404 11 635 14 1.683 32 604 1,240 Poland 23,213 8 3,254 97 19,959 1 5,661 (29) 2,086 4 1,411 8 (836) (829) Portugal 9,833 12 598 6 9,235 12 1,702 (17) 915 128 679 48 (312) (81) Romania 20,056 (1) 3,816 (20) 16,239 5 2,822 (38) 1,379 (15) 818 4 (26) (59) Spain 16,131 33 2,320 61 13,811 29 2,598 3 2,065 16 3,368 47 1,146 968 Sweden 54,301 9 4,424 30 49,877 8 11,426 3 1,324 (35) 8,111 43 1,725 7,236 Switzerland 4,598 11 861 20 3,737 9 1,681 5 765 10 1,207 46 (26) 146 United Kingdom 5,974 51 193 38 5,780 51 1,978 17 1,532 129 4,318 3 405 20 Yugoslavia 15,175 8 3,837 7 11,338 8 4,558 11 1,260 7 1,347 44 401 39 U.S.S.R. 388,533 7 83,733 6 304,800 7 101,667 (3) 14,347 40 10,547 17 (17,781) (19,407) OCEANIA 39,375 25 8,732 27 30,644 24 5,612 4 1,654 51 2,422 28 (7.155) (11,232) Australia 20,136 32 2,884 108 17,252 24 3,390 3 1,024 36 1,729 37 (4,775) (7,531) Fiji 310 66 37 118 273 61 95 5 16 60 0 X 0 (127) New Zealand 10,048 9 50 (73) 9,998 11 1,963 8 595 96 693 9 (1,522) (1,772) Papua New Guinea 8,231 29 5,533 8 2,698 114 117 (15) 19 (22) 0 X (601) (1,503) Solomon Islands 439 21 134 39 306 14 14 11 0 (100) 0 X (259) (276) Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Imports of roundwood are shown as positive numbers; exports are represented by negative numbers, b. Data are for Belgium and Luxembourg, c. Included under Belgium. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 289 19 Forests and Rangelands T a b l e 1 9 . 3 Human-Induced Soil Degradation, 1945 to Late 1980s Degraded Total Area as a Water Erosion Wind Erosion Degraded Percentage Asa Asa Area of all Total Percentage Types (million hectares) Total Percentage Types (million hectares) (million Vegetated (million of Degraded Topsoil Terrain (million of Degraded Topsoil Terrain hectares) Land {a} hectares) Area Loss Deformation hectares) Area Loss Deformation Overblowing WORLD 1,964.4 17 1,093.7 56 920.3 173.3 548.3 28 454.2 82.5 11.6 Light Degradation 749.0 6 343.2 17 301.2 42.0 268.6 14 230.5 38.1 0.0 Moderate Degradation 910.5 8 526.7 27 454.5 72.2 253.6 13 213.5 30.0 10.1 Strong Degradation 295.7 3 217.2 11 161.2 56.0 24.3 1 9.4 14.4 0.5 Extreme Degradation 9.3 0 6.6 0 3.8 2.8 1.9 0 0.9 0.0 1.0 AFRICA 494.2 22 227.4 46 204.9 22.5 186.5 38 170.7 14.3 1.5 Light Degradation 173.6 8 57.5 12 53.9 3.6 88.3 18 79.1 9.2 0.0 Moderate Degradation 191.8 9 67.4 14 60.5 6.9 89.3 18 84.2 5.1 0.0 Strong Degradation 123.6 6 98.3 20 86.6 11.7 7.9 2 7.4 0.0 0.5 Extreme Degradation 5.2 0 4.2 1 3.8 0.4 1.0 0 0.0 0.0 1.0 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 158.1 8 106.1 67 80.9 25.2 39.2 25 37.5 1.7 0.0 Light Degradation 18.9 1 14.5 9 14.2 0.2 2.6 2 2.5 0.1 0.0 Moderate Degradation 112.5 5 68.2 43 60.1 8.1 34.9 22 33.3 1.6 0.0 Strong Degradation 26.7 1 23.4 15 6.5 16.9 1.7 1 1.7 0.0 0.0 Extreme Degradation 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 SOUTH AMERICA 243.4 14 123.2 51 95.1 28.1 41.9 17 22.7 18.4 0.8 Light Degradation 104.8 6 45.9 19 34.9 11.0 25.8 11 12.7 13.1 0.0 Moderate Degradation 113.5 7 65.1 27 51.9 13.2 16.1 7 10.0 5.3 0.8 Strong Degradation 25.0 1 12.1 5 8.3 3.8 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Extreme Degradation 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ASIA(b) 748.0 20 440.6 59 365.2 74.4 222.2 30 165.8 47.5 8.9 Light Degradation 294.5 8 124.5 17 99.8 24.7 132.4 18 116.7 15.7 0.0 Moderate Degradation 344.3 9 241.7 32 215.0 26.7 75.1 10 48.9 17.3 8.9 Strong Degradation 107.7 3 73.4 10 50.5 22.9 14.5 2 0.0 14.5 0.0 Extreme Degradation 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0 0.2 0.0 0.0 EUROPE {b} 218.9 23 114.5 52 92.8 21.8 42.2 19 42.2 0.0 0.0 Light Degradation 60.6 6 21.4 10 18.9 2.5 3.2 1 3.2 0.0 0.0 Moderate Degradation 144.4 15 81.0 37 64.7 16.3 38.2 17 38.2 0.0 0.0 Strong Degradation 10.7 1 9.8 4 9.2 0.6 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Extreme Degradation 3.1 0 2.4 1 0.0 2.4 0.7 0 0.7 0.0 0.0 OCEANIA 102.9 13 82.8 81 81.7 1.1 16.4 16 16.4 0.0 0.0 oooo Light Degradation 96.6 12 79.4 77 79.4 0.0 16.3 16 16.3 0.0 Moderate Degradation 3.9 0 3.2 3 2.2 1.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 Strong Degradation 1.9 0 0.2 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.0 Extreme Degradation 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 Sources: United Nations Environment Programme and International Soil Reference and Information Centre. Notes: a. Vegetated land is the total of agricultural land and vegetated natural areas. b. U.S.S.R. east of the Ural Mountains is included under Europe. U.S.S.R. west of the Ural Mountains is included under Asia. Land surface covered encompasses area between latitudes 72 degrees north and 57 degrees south. Totals may not add because of rounding. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. T a b l e 1 9 . 4 Causes of Human-Induced Soil Degradation Undegraded Area (million hectares) Vegetation Agricultural Industrial and Permanent Removal Overexploitation Overgrazing Activities Bioindustrial Degraded Agriculture Total Asa Total Asa Total Asa Total Asa Total Asa Area (a) and Non- Area % of Area %of Area %of Area % of Area %of (million Stabilized Natural vegetated (million Degraded (million Degraded (million Degraded (million Degraded Degraded (million hectares) Terrain Area Land hectares) Area hectares) Area hectares) Area hectares) Area hectares) Area World 1,964 6,092 3,486 1,469 579 30 133 7 679 35 552 28 23 1 Africa 494 1,305 435 732 67 14 63 13 243 49 121 24 0 0 North & Central America 158 886 1,019 128 18 11 11 7 38 24 91 57 0 0 South America 243 1,143 354 28 100 41 12 5 68 28 64 26 0 0 Asia (b) 748 1,692 1,329 485 298 40 46 6 197 26 204 27 1 0 Europe (b) 219 624 106 1 84 38 1 0 50 23 64 29 21 9 Oceania 103 441 243 95 12 12 0 0 83 80 8 8 0 0 Sources: United Nations Environment Programme and International Soil Reference and Information Centre. Notes: a. Refers to area degraded between 1945 and late 1980s. b. U.S.S.R. east of the Ural Mountains is included under Europe. U.S.S.R. west of the Ural Mountains is included under Asia. Land surface covered encompasses area between latitudes 72 degrees north and 57 degrees south. Totals may not add because of rounding. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1962-93 290 Forests and Rangelands 19 Table 19.3 Chemical Degradation Physical Degradation Asa Asa Total Percentage Types (million hectares) Total Percentage Types (million hectares) (million of Degraded Nutrient (million of Degraded Subsidence of hectares) Area Loss Salinization Pollution Acidification hectares) Area Compaction Waterlogging Organic Soils 239.1 12 135.3 76.3 21.8 5.7 83.3 4 68.2 10.5 4.6 93.0 5 52.4 34.8 4.1 1.7 44.2 2 34.8 6.0 3.4 103.3 5 63.1 20.4 17.1 2.7 26.8 1 22.1 3.7 1.0 41.9 2 19.8 20.3 0.5 1.3 12.3 1 11.3 0.8 0.2 0.8 0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 61.5 12 45.1 14.8 0.2 1.4 18.7 4 18.2 0.5 0.0 26.0 5 20.4 4.7 0.0 1.1 1.8 0 1.4 0.4 0.0 27.0 5 18.8 7.7 0.2 0.3 8.1 2 8.0 0.1 0.0 8.6 2 6.2 2.4 0.0 0.0 8.8 2 8.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 4 4.2 2.3 0.4 0.1 5.9 4 1.0 4.9 0.0 0.5 0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1 1.3 1 0.5 0.8 0.0 5.7 4 4.0 1.5 0.2 0.0 3.8 2 0.5 3.3 0.0 0.8 1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.8 1 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.3 29 68.2 2.1 0.0 0.0 7.9 3 4.0 3.9 0.0 26.3 11 24.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 6.8 3 2.9 3.9 0.0 31.4 13 31.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.8 0 0.8 0.0 0.0 12.6 5 12.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 73.2 10 14.6 52.7 1.8 4.1 12.1 2 9.8 0.4 1.9 31.8 4 4.6 26.8 0.0 0.4 5.7 1 4.6 0.4 0.7 21.5 3 9.0 8.5 1.5 2.5 6.0 1 5.0 0.0 1.0 19.5 3 1.0 17.0 0.3 1.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.8 12 3.2 3.8 18.6 0.2 36.4 17 33.0 0.8 2.6 8.1 4 2.9 1.0 4.1 0.1 27.9 13 24.8 0.5 2.6 17.1 8 0.3 2.3 14.3 0.1 8.1 4 7.8 0.3 0.0 0.6 0 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.4 0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 1 0.4 0.9 0.0 0.0 2.3 2 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 1 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.7 1 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 2 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.4 0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sources and Technical Notes Table 19.1 Forest Resources sis Group, Fundacion Bariloche, Bariloche, Jakarta, September 1990); Regional Physical Argentina, June 1991). Deforestation data Planning Programme for Transmigration (1989-90) for Brazil: G. Meira, Instituto (RePPProT) Government of Indonesia, Sources: Food and Agriculture Organiza- Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), Overseas Development Administration tion of the United Nations (FAO), Forest Re- personal communication (INPE, Sao Jose (United Kingdom), The Land Resources of In- sources Division, An Interim Report on the dos Campos, Sao Paulo, October 1991). De- donesia: A National Overview, Main Report State of the Forest Resources in the Developing forestation data (1976-86) for Cameroon: (Government of Indonesia, Jakarta, May Countries (FAO, Rome, 1988); United Na- Joint Interagency Planning and Review Mis- 1990). Deforestation data (1979-89) for Ma- tions Economic Commission for Europe and sion for the Forestry Sector, Cameroon Tropi- laysia: Forestry Department Headquarters, FAO (UNECE/FAO), The Forest Resources of cal Forestry Action Plan (Joint Interagency, personal communication (Forestry Depart- the ECE Region (UNECE/FAO, Geneva, Rome, 1988). Deforestation data (1973-89) ment Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, Febru- 1985); FAO and United Nations Environ- for Costa Rica: Robert Repetto, Wilfrido ary 1991). Deforestation data (1981-83) for ment Programme (UNEP), Tropical Forest Cruz, Raul Solorzano, et al., Accounts Over- Mexico: Victor M. Toledo, Julia Carabias, Resources Assessment Project (in the frame- due: Natural Resource Depreciation in Costa Carlos Toledo, et al, La Produccion Rural en work of GEMS), Forest Resources of Tropical Rica (Tropical Science Center and World Re- Mexico: Alternativas Ecologicas (Fundacion Africa, Part II: Country Briefs (FAO/UNEP, sources Institute, San Jose, Costa Rica and Universo Veintiuno, Mexico City, 1989). De- Rome, 1981); FAO, Committee on Forestry, Washington, D.C., November 1991). Defor- forestation data (1984) for Myanmar: U.S. Tenth Session, Interim Report on Forest Re- estation data (1981-85) for Cote d'lvoire: Kyaw, "National Report: Burma," in Pro- sources Assessment 1990 Project (FAO, Rome, Egnankou Wadja Mathieu, personal com- ceedings of Ad Hoc FAO/ECE/FINNIDA Meet- September 1990); FAO, Forest Resources munication (Institut de la Carte Interna- ing of Experts on Forest Resource Assessment, Assessment 1990 Project, Second Interim Re- tional de la Vegetation, Toulouse Cedex, Kotka, Finland, 26-30 October 1987 (Finnish port on the State of Tropical Forests (10th France, March 1991). Deforestation data International Development Agency, Hel- World Forestry Congress, Paris, September (1983-87) for India: Forest Survey of India, sinki, 1987); P.E.T. Allen, A Quick New Ap- 1991—revised October 15,1991). Ministry of Environment and Forest, The praisal of the Forest Cover of Burma Using State of Forest Report 1989 (Government of LANDSAT Satellite Imagery at 1:1,000,000 Deforestation data (1981-85) for Algeria, India, Dehra Dun, India, 1990). Deforesta- scale, Technical Note 11, FAO/UNEP National Chile, Islamic Republic of Iran, Morocco, tion data (1982-90) for Indonesia: Director- Forest Survey and Inventory (FAO/UNEP, and Tunisia: FAO, unpublished data (FAO, ate General of Forest Utilization, Ministry n.p., June 1984). Deforestation data (1989- Rome, March 1988); Deforestation data of Forestry, FAO, Situation and Outlook of 90) for Paraguay: Jorg Henninger and (1980-89) for Argentina: Manuel Winograd, the Forestry Sector in Indonesia, Volume 2: For-Hugo Huespe Fatecha, "Reforestation y Deforestacidn en Amirica Latina (I): Mag- est Resource Base (Government of Indonesia, Deforestation en el Paraguay— nitud y Causas (Ecological Systems Analy- Worid Resources 1992-93 291 19 Forests and Rangelands Un Analisis," Revista Forested, Vol. VI, No. 3 ate zone, other wooded area are forests that of countries (containing 40 percent of the (December 1990), pp. 4-12. Deforestation are not used for agricultural purposes, have closed forest areas of the 76 tropical coun- data (1980-87) for the Philippines: Republic 5—20 percent of their area covered by tree tries). These countries or parts of countries of the Philippines, Masterplan for Forestry crowns, or have shrubs or stunted trees cov- are Benin, Brazil (north), Cameroon (south), Development (Government of the Philip- ering more than 20 percent of their area. Colombia, Cote d'lvoire, The Gambia, pines, Manila, July 1989); David Kummer, In FAO definitions for tropical forest, Haiti, Liberia, Malaysia (peninsular), Nepal, Deforestation in the Post-War Philippines (Uni- "natural" means all stands except planta- Paraguay (east), Sierra Leone, Togo, Trini- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1992). De- tions and includes stands that have been de- dad and Tobago, and Venezuela. For 40 forestation data (1985-88) for Thailand: graded to some degree by catastrophic fire, countries or parts of countries (covering an Royal Forestry Department of Thailand, logging, agriculture, or acid precipitation. additional 40 percent of closed forest area), Forest Management Division, Ministry of For all regions, trees are distinguished from FAO assessed their data on forest cover as Agriculture and Cooperatives, The Area of shrubs on the basis of height: a mature tree very good or good and their data on defor- Forest in Thailand in 1988 from LANDSAT has a single well-defined stem and is taller estation as satisfactory or poor. These coun- Data (in Thai) (Ministry of Agriculture and than 7 meters, and a mature shrub is usu- tries or parts of countries are Angola, Ban- Cooperatives, Bangkok, January 1989). De- ally less than 7 meters tall. gladesh, Belize, Bhutan, Bolivia, Burkina forestation data (1985) for Viet Nam: Vo Average annual deforestation refers to the Faso, Burundi, Congo (north), Congo Quy, University of Hanoi, "Vietnam's Eco- permanent clearing of forestlands for use in (south), Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, logical Situation Today," in ESCAP Environ- shifting cultivation, permanent agriculture, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, ment News, Vol. 6, No. 4 (October—Decem- or settlements. As defined here, deforesta- Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Honduras, ber 1988), p. 5; Committee for Rational tion does not include other alterations, such India (15%), Jamaica, Kampuchea, Laos, Utilisation of Natural Resources and Envi- as selective logging (unless the forest cover Madagascar, Malaysia (Sabah), Malaysia ronmental Protection (Programme 5202) is permanently reduced to less than 10 per- (Sarawak), Mexico, Mozambique, with the assistance from the International cent) that can substantially affect forests, Myanmar, Namibia (northwest), Nigeria, Union for Conservation of Nature and Nat- forest soil, wildlife and its habitat, and the Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philip- ural Resources (IUCN), Viet Nam National global carbon cycle. pines, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Conservation Strategy (Draft) (Environmen- Viet Nam, and Zaire. Estimates on the for- tal Services Group, World Wildlife Fund— Average annual reforestation refers to the es- tablishment of plantations in tropical re- est cover and rate of deforestation in the re- India, New Delhi, June 1985). Deforestation maining 21 countries or parts of countries data (1977-87) for the United States: person- gions for industrial and nonindustrial uses. Reforestation does not include regeneration (comprising about 20 percent of the total al communication (Forest Service, U.S. De- forest area and 29 percent of the total area partment of Agriculture, December 1989). of old tree crops (through either natural re- generation or forest management), al- of open forest) were judged as satifactory though some countries may report or poor. Reforestation data for Australia, Canada, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Is- regeneration as reforestation. Many trees More recent or better deforestation esti- rael, Japan, New Zealand, Turkey, United are also planted for nonindustrial uses, mates are presented to provide the reader States, U.S.S.R. and Europe: FAO, Forest Re- such as village wood lots. Reforestation with a more current picture. Table 19.1 pres- sources 1980 (FAO, Rome, 1985). data often exclude this component. ents alternative deforestation data for 15 Reforestation data for China: Stanley D. Managed closed forests are those that are countries, estimates for 12 tropical subre- Richardson, Forests and Forestry in China: managed on the basis of a plan drawn up gions, and a preliminary global deforesta- Changing Patterns in Resource Development by professionally qualified foresters or that tion rate. However, these data must be (Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1990). Re- have some control of use such as harvesting interpreted with caution because defini- forestation data for Jordan: Library of Con- regulations and/or silvicultural treatments. tions and time period covered vary among gress, Science and Technology Division, Protected closed forests include forests used the estimates. Draft Environmental Report on Jordan (Li- for protection (e.g., watershed manage- Brazil's INPE is currently building a brary of Congress, Washington, D.C., Au- ment, soil stabilization, avalanche preven- georeferenced data base of the extent of the gust 1979). Reforestation data for South tion) or conservation in national parks or Brazilian Amazonian forest, including the Africa: FAO, unpublished data (FAO, wilderness areas. transitional forests and the forest-like por- Rome, March 1988). Reforestation data for Data for developing countries are based tion of the highland savannah ("cerradao"). Yugoslavia: Socijalisticka Federativna on the 1980 Tropical Forest Resources As- This project is scheduled to be completed in Republika Jugoslavia Savenzi Zavod Za sessment, a joint project of FAO and UNEP. 1992. Forest area estimates in this data base Statistiku, Statisticki Godisnjak Jugoslavia The survey assessed the tropical forests of are based on satellite imagery taken in 1985, 1983,1984,1985 (Savenzi Zavod Za 76 tropical developing countries, covering 1988,1989,1990, and 1991, include data Statistiku, Belgrade, 1984,1985,1986). 97 percent of the total area of developing from two previous surveys in 1975 and FAO and UNECE/FAO used slightly dif- countries in the tropics. Data for the study 1978 by the Instituto Brazileiro de Desen- ferent definitions in their assessments, each were collected from research institutes; cor- volvimento Florestal (IBDF) and INPE, and adapting their definitions to the respective respondence with national forestry ser- a vegetation map derived from a synthetic- forest ecosystem (tropical and temperate). vices; visits to national forestry, land use, aperture-radar survey during the 1970s. Ad- FAO defines closed forest as land where and survey institutions; visits to FAO re- ditional layers in the data base contain the trees cover a high proportion of the ground gional offices; photographic surveys of all basic cartography and political subdivision and where grass does not form a continu- or part of five countries; satellite imagery of of the Legal Amazon at the county level. ous layer on the forest floor. Closed forest all or part of 19 countries; and side-looking Forest coverage data are obtained from vi- in Table 19.1 includes broadleaved forests, airborne radar surveys of four additional sual analysis and digitization of LANDSAT coniferous forests, and bamboo forests. countries. Three countries—Myanmar, thematic mapper color-composite images UNECE/FAO defines a forest as closed India, and Peru—prepared their own na- on the scale of 1:250,000, with a final effec- when tree crowns cover more than 20 per- tional reports. In many cases, FAO adjusted tive resolution after digitization of the cent of the area and when the area is used data to fit common definitions and to corre- order of a few hundred meters. Such a data primarily for forestry. Open forest, as de- spond to the baseline year of 1980. base, combined with information on the fined by FAO, consists of mixed forest/ The FAO 1988 Interim Report expanded date of images and their relationship to the grasslands with at least 10 percent tree the country coverage of the 1980 assess- intra-annual seasonal forest felling cycle, cover and a continuous grass layer. Planta- ment to 129 developing countries. In that and estimates for areas under cloud cover, tion refers to forest stands established artifi- document, FAO evaluated the overall reli- will yield better estimates of the change in cially by afforestation and reforestation for ability of data on closed forest areas and de- forest cover over the past 17 years in the industrial and non-industrial usage. The forestation rates for the original 76 develop- Legal Amazon of Brazil. category other wooded area encompasses for- ing countries. FAO classified their estimates Some results of INPE's LANDSAT sur- est fallows (closed and open forests) and on closed forest areas and deforestation as veys are already available, indicating a shrubs in tropical countries. In the temper- very good or good for 15 countries or parts mean deforestation rate for the Legal Ama- World Resources 1992-93 292 Forests and Rangelands 19 zon of 2.18 million hectares per year for 20 million hectares burning in 1987 was an forest cover on a biennial cycle. The latest 1979-90, an annual rate of 1.79 million hect- overestimate. data from the 1985-87 assessment is based ares for 1988-89, and an annual rate of 1.38 For some states, partial data from com- on visual interpretation of images from million hectares for 1989-90. Although only prehensive LANDSAT surveys are avail- LANDSAT satellites and puts India's forest the completion of the georeferenced data able in three-year intervals during the cover as follows: forest with a crown den- base will reveal the detailed geographical 1980s. Together, they account for about half sity greater than 40 percent extends over patterns of forest change, it is already of the deforestation in the Legal Amazon 37.85 million hectares; forest with crown known that the 23 percent decrease from during that period. If the same general density between 10 and 40 percent covers 1989 to 1990 was not uniform in the Legal curve shown by those data apply to the rest 25.74 million hectares; mangrove forest Amazon. The deforestation rate for of the Legal Amazon, the maximum rate of equals 0.42 million hectares. India's total Rondonia, a state for which deforestation deforestation occurred sometime in the sec- forest area comes to 64.01 million hectares, data exist for 1980,1983, and 1986, is ond half of the decade. The same partial equivalent to 19.5 percent of its geographi- known to have reached a maximum in the data also show that the peak cannot have cal area. mid-1980s, to have decreased toward 1989, reached a value as high as 8 million hect- Reconciliation of the data from a previ- and to have increased from 144,000 hect- ares per year in any year, as previously ous 1981-83 assessment by the Forest Sur- ares per year in 1989 to 167,000 hectares per thought. vey of India and a 1980-82 assessment by year in 1990. However, in view of the obser- It is generally believed that there was a India's National Remote Sensing Agency vational uncertainties, such a change is peak in the rate of deforestation in 1987, produced an estimate of 64.2 million hect- hard to distinguish from a constant rate. In spurred by a constitutional debate about ares, 190,000 hectares more than the 1985- the state of Amapa, cumulative deforesta- agrarian reform, land speculation, ranching 87 number. This computes to an annual tion, although very small, increased from subsidies, and an especially long dry sea- loss of 47,500 hectares for the four-year pe- 139,000 hectares to 252,000 hectares per son. riod between the two assessments. year during the same period. Whatever the exact magnitude of the A comparison of these two assessments, Available results also indicate that cumu- peak and the exact year it took place, the however, is only partially valid because of lative gross deforestation in the Legal Ama- rate of deforestation in the Legal Amazon differing scales (1:1 million versus zon stood at 41.5 million hectares. Of this has since decreased steadily, if not uni- 1:250,000) and different spatial resolution total, 0.5 million hectares correspond to the formly, throughout the region. Measures to of the satellite scanners (79 meters versus area flooded by hydroelectric dams, an un- control the causes of deforestation have 30 meters). The new deforestation rate con- determined fraction (which nevertheless is been undertaken. They include the suspen- trasts drastically with the rate obtained by known to be significant in some areas) cor- sion of tax credits for new ranching comparing the reconciled forest area from responds to forest regrowth, and about 9.7 schemes, a more systematic campaign to 1981-83 with satellite imagery from 1972- million hectares correspond to an area clas- police illegal forest clearings, the issuance 75 by the National Remote Sensing Agency. sified as "degraded forest" in the vegeta- of fines, and a public information cam- In that period, 10.4 million hectares of tion maps of Brazil (primarily secondary or paign. Superimposed upon this downward dense forest (crown density greater than 40 degraded forest in the states of Para and trend will likely be year-to-year modula- percent) were lost, equivalent to an annual Maranhao; also referred to as "old defores- tions due to varying climatic and economic rate of 1.5 million hectares. However, such tation" by some authors). conditions. sudden changes in the deforestation rate The mean rate of 2.18 million hectares per Deforestation occurs also outside the seem to be very unlikely. It can be con- year for the period 1979-90 masks the accel- Legal Amazon of Brazil. The most recent es- cluded that all previous assessments have eration of deforestation during the mid- timate, available from FAO, pertains to the been of very limited value to estimate for- 1980s, a climax in the second half of the period of 1981-85 and puts open forest de- est change and have greatly distorted defor- decade, and a decline since 1988. forestation at an annual rate of 1.05 million estation estimates. The magnitude of the peak rate and the hectares. Nevertheless, the data on forest extent year it occurred remain in doubt. The only In addition, Brazil's National Institute for from the latest assessment can be used as a published estimate for 1987 (8 million hect- Amazonian Research is working jointly baseline since they have been verified by ex- ares—Alberto Waingort Setzer, Marcos da with INPE to measure biomass and carbon tensive ground truthing. Hence, future esti- Costa Pereira, Alfred da Costa Pereira, Jr., density of the forest, sampled in the areas mates of forest change in India will become and Sergio Alberto de Oliveira Almeida, with high deforestation rates. These new more accurate, and a true monitoring of for- "Relatorio de Atividades do Projeto IBDF- data, expected in 1992, will improve cur- est change on a national scale will be possi- INPE "SEQE"— Anno 1987," Sao Jose dos rent estimates of carbon density reported, ble. Campos, Sao Paulo, Brazil, May 1988) which mostly have referred to areas of Indonesia's latest assessment on defores- printed in World Resources 1990-91 (along dense forest. tation used records of the Directorate Gen- with a lower estimate by 1NPE for the de- The Cameroon study estimated the 1986 eral of Reforestation and Land Rehabilita- cade, and a lower estimate by Setzer for area of closed and open forests by extrapo- tion and the Ministry of Forestry. They put 1988) is commonly thought to be an overes- lation from 1975 satellite images. It found the annual rate of deforestation on the timate. That estimate, obtained by correlat- that between 1.8 million and 2 million hect- Outer Islands at 906,400 hectares for the pe- ing the annual rate of deforestation to the ares had been deforested between 1976 and riod 1982-90. If the entire area burned by number of Advanced Very High Resolu- 1986. the fire in Kalimantan is incorporated, tion Radiometer (AVHRR) thermal infrared Costa Rica's deforestation rate is based Indonesia's annual deforestation reached pixels saturated by the presence of surface on digital analysis of maps of life zones, 1.3 million hectares. fires, suffered from three problems. The sys- soil groups, slopes, geomorphology, and Malaysia's deforestation rate is the latest tem could not distinguish between a fire in land use, which laid the foundation for a estimate by the Forestry Departments of an area as small as 50 by 50 meters and a more detailed accounting of Costa Rica's Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. fire in an area of 1,100 by 1,100 meters. As natural resources. The annual deforestation Mexico's deforestation estimate draws on many as two thirds of the "tire" pixels as- rate of 41,500 hectares depicts changes in the work of Toledo, who used information signed to Rondonia were later found to be Costa Rica's forest cover from 1972-89 from agricultural censuses, cattle popula- actually outside Brazil—and Rondonia ac- more accurately than the previously pub- tion, and inventories on land use. Toledo counted for 56 percent of the total in that es- lished rate of 124,000 hectares, which cov- calculated an annual deforestation of 1.1 timate. There is no necessary correlation ered the period from 1977-83 and used million hectares. The annual deforestation between new forest clearings and the use of satellite (LANDSAT) multispectral scanner rate could be as high as 1.5 million hectares fires (a means of clearing dry biomass of images. if additional clearing of forests for agricul- the felled forest as much as recurring agri- The Cote d'lvoire's deforestation estimate tural, urban expansion, and forest fires are cultural practice). The first two problems is based on government statistics. included. also imply that the cataclysmic estimate of The Indian government established the Forest Survey of India to monitor India's World Resources 1992-93 293 19 Forests and Rangelands The deforestation rate for Myanmar is The UNECE/FAO 1990 survey of temper- ally revises its data using new information; based on aerial photographs, field studies, ate-zone countries covers all forests in the the latest figures are subject to revision. and satellite imagery. 32 countries of the ECE region, as well as Statistics on the production of fuelwood Paraguay's annual deforestation was esti- forests in Japan, Australia, and New Zea- and charcoal are lacking for many coun- mated at 168,000 hectares for the period land. Data are being obtained mainly from tries. FAO uses population data and coun- from 1985-90 and has soared to an annual official sources in response to a question- try-specific, per capita consumption figures rate of 450,000 hectares in the past year. The naire and are augmented by other sources. to estimate fuelwood and charcoal produc- authors used Paraguay's total harvest of It consists of two parts: general forestry in- tion. Consumption of nonconiferous fuel- wood—official production statistics and es- ventory data, and the role of forests in sup- wood ranges from a low of 0.0016 cubic timates of illegal exports to Brazil—to calcu- plying environmental and other nonwood meter per capita per year in Jordan to a late the extent of deforestation. goods and services. Preliminary results for high of 0.9783 cubic meter per capita per Philippine deforestation is derived by Europe point to a continuation during the year in Benin. Consumption was also esti- comparing 1980 LANDSAT data with land 1980s of modest growth in the area of forest mated for coniferous fuelwood. For both co- cover statistics that had been prepared by and other wooded land, and somewhat niferous and nonconiferous fuelwood, the the Swedish Space Corporation using re- stronger growth in growing stock and incre- per capita consumption estimates were mul- mote sensing. ment, partly as a result of fuller and more tiplied by the number of people in the coun- The estimate for the average annual defor- accurate inventory coverage. Because of a try to determine national totals. estation of Thailand's total forest area was lack of firm data, the part dealing with non- provided by the Royal Forestry Depart- wood benefits follows a more qualitative ment and is based on LANDSAT imagery. approach. Table 19.3 Human-Induced Soil The University of Hanoi data came from Degradation, 1945 to Late 1980s the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI) of the Ministry of Forestry in Hanoi. Table 19.2 Wood Production It estimates that, between 1976 and 1981, and Trade, 1977-89 Sources: L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Sta- Viet Nam's area of rich broadleaf forest was tus of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, an Ex- reduced by 865,000 hectares. Current forest loss is estimated at about 200,000 hectares Source: Food and Agriculture Organization planatory Note (International Soil Reference annually. of the United Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC and Information Centre (ISRIC) and United (FAO, Rome, April 1991). Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Please refer to the country sources for ad- (ISRIC/UNEP, Wageningen, Netherlands, ditional information. Total roundwood production refers to all wood in the rough, whether destined for in- 1990), and unpublished data (ISRIC, Wa- The deforestation estimates for 12 tropical geningen, Netherlands, November 1991). subregions and the global rate for 1981-90 dustrial or fuelwood uses. All wood felled came from the Forest Resources Assessment or harvested from forests and trees outside Data presented here are from a series of 1990 Project, FAO's ongoing appraisal of the forest, with or without bark, round, three digitized soil degradation maps of the the world's forest cover and recent trends split, roughly squared, or other forms such world published by ISRIC in 1990. Under in deforestation. as roots and stumps, is included. the sponsorship of the United Nations Envi- Fuel and charcoal production covers all ronment Programme, ISRIC brought to- In the past two years, FAO developed a gether some 250 soil scientists and environ- consistent methodology to estimate forest rough wood used for cooking, heating, and power production. Wood intended for char- mental experts to participate in the Global cover and change. It uses subnational statis- Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) tical data on population and socioeconomic coal production, pit kilns, and portable ovens is included. project. These experts used their knowl- variables, maps on vegetation and ecoflor- edge of specific geographic regions to esti- istic zones, forest survey data, and images Industrial roundwood production comprises all roundwood products other than fuel- mate the status of human-induced soil from remote sensing. On the basis of these degradation since 1945. Because of the low data, FAO calculated the global and subre- wood and charcoal: sawlogs, veneer logs, sleepers, pitprops, pulpwood, and other in- resolution of the maps (scale 1:15 million) gional rates of deforestation that include 87 the information derived from these maps is countries. The area deforested annually be- dustrial products. Processed wood production includes sawn- not intended for use at the national level. tween 1981 and 1990 is estimated at 16.9 million hectares. A comparison with FAO's wood and panels. Sawnwood is wood that GLASOD considers human-induced soil previous assessment is possible for 76 coun- has been sawn, planed, or shaped into prod- degradation to be activities that "lower the tries that were identical in both assessments. ucts such as planks, beams, boards, rafters, current and/or future capability of the soils It shows that the annual deforestation rate or railroad ties. Wood flooring is excluded. to produce goods or services." Degraded for 1976-80 jumped from 11.3 million hect- Sawnwood generally is thicker than 5 milli- area as a percentage of all vegetated land is the ares (0.6 percent) to 16.9 million hectares meters. Panels include all wood-based panel proportion of degraded land to the total of (0.9 percent) for the period 1981-90. Two commodities such as veneer sheets, ply- land classified as "degraded", "permanent factors were responsible for this 50 percent wood, particle board, and compressed or agriculture and stabilized terrain", and increase: The 1980 assessment underesti- noncompressed fiberboard. "natural area" (as defined in the technical mated the rate of deforestation for the pe- Paper production includes newsprint, print- note for Table 19.4). riod 1976-80, especially in Asia; and con- ing and writing paper, and other paper and The four broad categories of degradation version of tropical moist forest has acceler- paperboard. are defined as follows: ated significantly. Not enough data are yet Average annual net trade in roundwood is Water erosion and wind erosion take place available to estimate the contribution of the balance of imports minus exports. through topsoil loss, the removal of soil by each factor. Trade in roundwood includes sawlogs and wind action, or surface wash or sheet ero- veneer logs, fuelwood, pulpwood, other in- sion caused by water; and terrain deforma- The UNECE/FAO survey covered all dustrial roundwood, and the roundwood tion, which is the uneven displacement of types of forests in the 32 member countries equivalent of trade in charcoal, wood resi- soil. Terrain deformation by wind creates of the ECE region (Europe, North America, dues, and chips and particles. All trade dunes and hollows, whereas deformation and the U.S.S.R.). Data for this study were data refer to both coniferous and non- by water results in rill and gully formation, drawn from four types of sources: official coniferous wood. Imports are usually on a landslides, and riverbank destruction. data supplied in response to question- cost, insurance, freight basis. Exports are Wind erosion can also take the form of over- naires; estimates by experts in some coun- generally on a free-on-board basis. blowing, in which wind-borne soil is depos- tries; recent ECE and FAO publications, ited on the land surface. country reports, and official articles; and es- FAO compiles forest products data from timates by the professional staff conducting responses to annual questionnaires sent to There are four types of chemical degrada- the study. Most data refer to the period national governments. Data from other tion. Nutrient loss is caused by insufficient around 1980, but no attempt was made to sources, such as national statistical year- manuring or fertilizing of fields in poor or adjust the data to a baseline year. books, are also used. In some cases, FAO moderately fertile areas. It also occurs prepares its own estimates. FAO continu- when organic matter is lost following the World Resources 1992-93 294 Forests and Rangelands 19 clearing of vegetation. Nutrient loss result- and any decline in productivity as a basis of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) project, ing from the displacement of fertile topsoil for defining four degrees of degradation: refer to the technical note for Table 19.3. by wind or water erosion is counted sepa- • Light degradation has occurred where there Degraded area refers to land affected by all rately under the "wind erosion" and has been only a small decline in agricul- degrees of human-induced soil degrada- "water erosion" categories. Salinization is tural productivity, where biotic functions tion, as described in the technical note for an increase in the salt content of soils as a are largely intact, and where soils can be Table 19.3. Permanent agriculture and stabi- result of three processes: poorly managed fully restored, given changes in ongoing lized terrain consist of undegraded land irrigation schemes in the semi-arid zones land-use practices. under permanent agriculture and land sta- (e.g., using irrigation water with a high salt bilized through reforestation, terracing, content, improper drainage of irrigated • Moderate degradation still permits continu- ing agricultural use of an area, but with gully control, and other conservation prac- fields), saltwater intrusion into the ground- tices. Natural area is land where few human water, and the accumulation of salts from greatly reduced productivity. Biotic func- tions are only partly destroyed. Restoration activities take place, that is where the land saline groundwater or parent rock in the is unsuitable for agriculture because of low soil because of high moisture evaporation is possible given major changes in land-use practices. temperatures, steep slopes, poor drainage, in intensively cultivated agricultural areas. and poor soils, or because the areas in ques- Pollution takes place when soils are contam- • Strong degradation has occurred when agri- tion are remotely located. This category in- inated by pesticides, urban and industrial cultural use under local land use manage- cludes rainforest areas, parks and other wastes, acids from air pollution, oil, and ment is no longer possible and most biotic protected areas, and semidesert regions. other substances. Acidification is the lower- functions have been destroyed. Restoration Nonvegetated land consists of active dunes, ing of soil pH through the overapplication is possible, at a high cost. salt flats, rock outcrops, deserts, ice caps, of fertilizers or from drainage of pyrite-con- • Extreme degradation has occurred when the and arid mountain regions. taining soils (which causes the pyrite to oxi- area has become unsuitable for agriculture GLASOD identifies five causes of soil dize into sulfuric and other acids). and is beyond restoration. Biotic functions degradation: Physical degradation can take place in are completely destroyed. H Vegetation removal entails the removal of three ways: through compaction, whereby vegetative cover through agricultural clear- soil structure deteriorates because of tram- Table 19.4 Causes of Human- ing, logging, or development. pling by cattle or heavy machinery, result- Induced Soil Degradation • Overexploitation is the decrease in soil cover ing in soil crusting and sealing when it through removal of vegetation for fuelwood, rains; waterlogging, which is the flooding or sfencing, and so on. inundation of soils as a result of human in- Sources: L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Hakkeling, and W.G. Sombroek, World Map of the Sta- U Overgrazing by livestock leads to a decrease terference with natural drainage systems (land flooded to make rice paddies is not in- tus of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, an Ex- in vegetative cover and trampling of soil. cluded); and subsidence of organic soils, planatory Note (International Soil Reference • Agricultural activities include insufficient or which occurs when the agricultural poten- and Information Centre (ISRIC) and United excessive use of manure and fertilizers; cul- tial of the land is adversely effected by Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), tivation on steep slopes or in arid areas with- drainage and/or oxidation. (ISRIC/UNEP, Wageningen, Netherlands, out proper anti-erosion measures; improper 1990), and unpublished data (ISRIC, Wa- irrigation; and use of heavy machinery on Experts in the GLASOD project made soils with weak structural stability. qualitative evaluations of the degree of deg- geningen, Netherlands, November, 1991). radation resulting from the activities listed Data presented here are from a series of 3 • Industrial and bioindustrial activities result in above. They considered the agricultural digitized soil degradation maps of the soils contaminated with pollutants, for ex- suitability of the soil, its biotic functions, world published by ISRIC in 1990. For de- ample, through waste discharge, overuse of tails on this project, the Global Assessment pesticides, and excessive fertilization. World Resources 1992-93 295 20. Wildlife and Habitat The world's biological resources—its species, habitats, Tables 20.4 and 20.5 present current data on the sta- and ecosystems—are under threat from growing popu- tus of the world's rare and threatened wildlife and lations, unsustainable consumption patterns, pollu- plant species. Data are most complete for plants; tion, wasteful resource use, and global change. By whereas very little is known about the total and threat- damaging the highly diverse ecosystems that support ened numbers of reptiles, amphibians, and fish. the world's species, we alter hydrological cycles and Table 20.5 includes three measures of threats to climate and degrade soil-building and pollutant-ab- countries' plant diversity. The numbers of threatened sorbing mechanisms. species reflect both the degree of biological diversity One traditional approach to protecting the world's and the size of the country. Over 70 percent of South biodiversity has been to establish parks and reserves American countries and territories report a minimum that protect selected lands—often representative eco- of 50 threatened taxa, the highest percentage of any re- systems—from development. Table 20.1 lists the gion. When the number of threatened species is com- amount of land contained in national and interna- pared on a per-unit-area basis, 56 percent of countries tional protected areas by categories of protection for in Oceania report at least 40 threatened plant taxa per countries and regions. As Table 20.1 shows, almost 5 10,000 square kilometers as contrasted with only 31 percent of the world's land mass is now either totally percent of countries in South America. Oceania also or partially protected as parks and reserves, not includ- has the greatest number of countries with over 5 per- ing Antarctica. For many countries, little natural habi- cent of their known plant species considered to be tat remains outside protected areas. (For information threatened. In part, this reflects the vulnerability of on habitat extent and loss, see Table 20.4 in World Re- endemic island species in Oceania to introductions of sources 1990-91.) Of the continents, Europe has the sec- exotic plants and animals as well as habitat loss. ond highest percentage of land (7.5 percent) under a National totals also reflect differences in how thor- park and reserve system; 7.9 million hectares of this oughly taxa have been catalogued and monitored. (21 percent) are fully protected, representing virtually Table 20.6 presents a list of officially sanctioned and all the available natural habitat left in the region. funded debt-for-nature swaps. The debt-for-nature Other regions have significant amounts of unpro- swap is an innovative conservation financing instru- tected natural areas remaining. Although Asia has one ment developed in response to environmental prob- of the lowest percentages of land protected (3.2 per- lems as well as the debt crisis in the developing world. cent), 13 percent of its land mass is considered wilder- In a swap, a country's foreign debt is purchased by an ness. (See Chapter 17, "Land Cover and Settlements.") outside organization. In exchange, the debtor nation Table 20.2 presents data on trade in plants, animals, pays off this loan in local currency by funding a pre- and animal products. To prevent the wholesale loss of viously determined local conservation program. species in the face of world demand, parties to the So far, debt-for-nature swaps have reduced external Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe- debt by approximately $100 million. Although these cies of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) pledge to abide swaps have added significantly to participating by certain regulations and to report trade in desig- countries' conservation funds, their effect on the devel- nated animals and animal products to the Secretariat oping countries' total external debt of approximately of CITES. $1.2 trillion has been negligible. Table 20.3 gives the results of a survey of threats to Costa Rica has had the largest volume of debt-for- World Heritage Sites, the most recent global survey of nature swaps. As shown in Table 20.6, $12.5 million in a protected area system. Regional tallies show that de- grants and donations were used to purchase Costa velopment is the most commonly reported threat in Rican debt nominally worth some $80 million. This North and Central America (57 percent of sites), Eu- debt has been exchanged for nearly $43 million in local rope (45 percent of sites), and Oceania (70 percent of currency bonds, which have been used to support vari- sites). Inadequate or insufficient management was the ous local conservation initiatives, including training, most commonly reported problem in Asia, as was il- research, public awareness, land acquisition, and pro- legal or overharvest of wildlife in Africa, and fire and tection. natural threats in South American sites. World Resources 1992-93 297 20 Wildlife and Habitat Table 20.1 National and International Protection of Natural National Protection Systems International Protection Systems (a} Totally Protected Partially Protected Marine and Number of Wetlands of All Protected Areas (IUCN Areas (IUCN Percent of Coastal Protected Biosphere Natural International Areas categories Mil) categories IV, V) National Areas (b) World Importance Area Area Area Land Area Area Area Heritage Area Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Protected Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Sites Number (000 ha) WORLD 6,931 651,290 2,357 378,505 4,574 272,785 4.8 977 211,406 283 152,520 92 503 30,217 AFRICA 601 117,088 241 86,294 360 30,794 3.9 43 9,570 40 20,056 26 33 3,190 Algeria 19 11,898 12 11,787 7 110 5.0 1 2 1 7,200 1 Angola 6 2,692 1 790 5 1,902 2.2 2 62 -. Benin 2 844 2 844 0 0 7.5 0 0 1 880 0 Botswana 9 10,025 4 8,787 5 1,238 17.2 NA NA Burkina Faso 7 739 3 440 4 299 2.7 NA NA 1 16 0 Burundi 1 38 0 0 1 38 1.4 NA NA 0 .. Cameroon 13 2,100 8 1,558 5 542 4.4 1 160 3 850 1 — Cape Verde 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 Central African Rep 7 3,904 3 2,896 4 1,008 6.3 NA NA 2 1,640 1 Chad 1 114 1 114 0 0 0.1 NA NA -- -- 1 195 Comoros 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 -- -- — Congo 10 1,333 1 127 9 1,207 3.9 1 300 2 172 0 — Cote d'lvoire 12 2,020 10 1,918 2 102 6.3 1 30 2 1,480 3 d Djibouti 1 10 1 10 0 0 0.4 0 0 -. — -- — Egypt 9 685 3 38 6 647 0.7 3 62 1 1 0 2 106 Equatorial Guinea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 „ Ethiopia 24 6,223 13 3,240 11 2,982 5.1 1 200 1 — Gabon 5 1,790 1 480 4 1,310 6.7 2 1.058 1 15 0 3 1,080 Gambia, The 2 12 2 12 0 0 1.1 0 0 — Ghana 8 1,075 6 1,062 2 12 4.5 0 0 1 8 0 1 7 Guinea 2 129 2 129 0 0 0.5 0 0 2 133 1 d Guinea-Bissau 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 1 39 Kenya 36 3,347 30 3,277 6 70 5.8 3 7 4 851 0 1 19 Lesotho 1 7 0 0 1 7 0.2 NA NA -- Liberia 1 131 1 131 0 0 1.2 0 0 Libya 3 155 1 35 2 120 0.1 0 0 - 0 Madagascar 36 1,078 15 703 21 375 1.8 1 2 1 140 1 Malawi 9 1,067 5 698 4 369 9.0 NA NA 1 — Mali 7 889 1 350 6 539 0.7 NA NA 1 771 1 c Mauritania 3 1,733 2 1,483 1 250 1.7 0 0 1 1 1,173 Mauritius 3 4 0 0 3 4 2.2 1 4 Morocco 11 368 6 88 5 280 0.8 2 13 11 Mozambique 1 2 0 0 1 2 0.0 0 0 Namibia 9 10,346 4 8,926 5 1,420 12.6 X X Niger 4 1,654 2 1,501 2 154 1.3 NA NA 220 Nigeria 15 1,547 1 534 14 1,013 1.7 0 0 1 0 0 Rwanda 2 327 2 327 0 0 12.4 NA NA 1 15 — — Senegal 10 2,181 6 1,012 4 1,168 11.1 4 81 3 1,094 2 4 100 Sierra Leone 3 101 0 0 3 101 1.4 0 0 — — Somalia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 -- South Africa 178 6,310 14 3,094 164 3,215 5.2 13 152 .. 7 208 Sudan 13 7,732 7 6,873 6 859 3.1 0 0 2 1,901 0 — — Swaziland 3 40 0 0 3 40 2.3 NA NA — Tanzania 20 11,913 11 3,913 9 8,000 12.6 0 0 2 2,338 4 — -. Togo 11 647 3 357 8 290 11.4 0 0 -- Tunisia 7 45 6 42 1 3 0.3 1 4 4 32 1 1 13 Uganda 19 1,756 4 770 15 986 7.4 0 0 1 220 0 1 15 Zaire 9 8,827 8 8,794 1 33 3.8 0 0 3 298 4 -- — Zambia 20 6,361 20 6,361 0 0 8.5 NA NA ~ 1 d Zimbabwe 21 2,831 13 2,737 8 94 7.2 NA NA -- 2 d NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA {e} 1,640 232,689 590 142,050 1,050 90,638 10.4 214 135,781 67 93,618 20 58 15,147 Barbados 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Belize 8 74 1 4 7 70 3.2 X X -. Canada 426 49,452 138 26,813 288 22,639 5.0 48 7,106 6 1,050 6 d 30 12,938 Costa Rica 28 606 17 476 11 130 11.9 7 194 2 729 1 d Cuba 29 714 18 443 11 272 6.4 6 227 4 324 0 -- - Dominican Rep 1 7 1 7 0 0 0.1 7 270 0 El Salvador 9 26 6 21 3 6 1.2 0 0 — Guatemala 9 88 3 69 6 19 0.8 3 13 -. 1 c 1 X Haiti 2 8 2 8 0 0 0.3 0 0 ~ 0 Honduras 34 709 14 589 20 121 6.3 1 350 1 500 1 Jamaica 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 — 0 Mexico 61 9,420 47 2,223 14 7,197 4.8 11 1,119 6 1,288 1 47 Nicaragua 6 43 3 27 3 16 0.3 1 4 -- 0 Panama 16 1,326 13 1,195 3 131 17.2 6 898 1 597 2 d Trinidad and Tobago 6 15 0 0 6 15 3.0 2 3 — United States 968 98,342 304 38,471 664 59,871 10.5 107 54,317 43 19,108 9 d 8 1,116 SOUTH AMERICA 552 101,351 280 52,278 272 49,072 5.7 94 24,717 24 11,919 9 5 232 Argentina 113 12,639 34 2,269 79 10,370 4.6 7 1,499 5 2,410 2 - Bolivia 23 6,774 8 2,678 15 4,097 6.2 NA NA 3 435 0 1 5 Brazil 162 20,525 90 13,906 72 6,619 2.4 20 2,032 ~ 1 Chile 65 13,650 32 8,378 33 5,271 18.0 32 10,050 7 2,407 0 1 5 Colombia 42 9,302 36 9,254 6 47 8.2 9 615 3 2,514 0 -- -- Ecuador 14 10,686 9 2,657 5 8,028 37.7 5 8,975 2 1,446 2 - .- Guyana 1 12 1 12 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 — ~ Paraguay 12 1,186 8 1,157 4 29 2.9 NA NA 0 Peru 24 5,518 13 2,531 11 2,987 4.3 4 710 3 2,507 4 c Suriname 14 763 6 553 8 210 4.7 5 128 -- 1 12 Uruguay 8 32 2 15 6 16 0.2 1 3 1 200 0 1 200 Venezuela 74 20,265 41 8,869 33 11,396 22.2 11 704 1 10 World Resources 1992-93 298 Wildlife and Habitat 20 Areas, 1990 Table 20.1 National Protection Systems International Protection Systems {a} Totally Protected Partially Protected Marine and Number of Wetlands of All Protected Areas (IUCN Areas (IUCN Percent of Coastal Protected Biosphere Natural International Areas categories I III) categories IV, V) National Areas {b} Reserves World Importance Area Area Area Land Area Area Area Heritage Area Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Protected Number (000 ha) Number (000 ha) Sites Number (000 ha) ASIA 1,392 90,607 389 34,021 1,003 56,587 3.2 13,987 36 7,438 12 40 1,354 Afghanistan 4 142 0 0 142 0.2 NA NA Bahrain 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Bangladesh 8 97 0 0 97 0.7 3 32 Bhutan 7 924 2 68 856 19.7 NA NA Cambodia 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 China 289 21,947 4 101 285 21,846 2.3 20 1,184 7 1,819 2 c Cyprus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 -- 0 India 359 13,481 59 3,525 300 9,956 4.1 14 474 5 6 193 Indonesia 169 17,800 98 13,133 71 4,667 9.3 68 8,941 6 1,482 0 ~ Iran, Islamic Rep 60 7,529 27 2,986 33 4,543 4.6 3 725 9 2,610 0 18 1,088 Iraq 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 - 0 Israel 18 226 1 31 17 195 10.9 1 31 -- — -- Japan 65 2,402 21 1,308 44 1,094 6.4 30 637 4 116 3 10 Jordan 7 93 1 1 6 92 1.0 0 0 0 1 7 Korea, Dem People's Rep 2 58 1 44 1 14 0.5 0 0 1 132 Korea, Rep 17 578 0 0 17 578 5.8 3 285 Kuwait 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Lao People's Dem Rep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 NA NA Lebanon 1 4 1 4 0 0 0.3 0 0 Malaysia 45 1,162 39 864 6 298 3.5 9 52 Mongolia 14 5,618 14 5,618 0 0 3.6 NA NA 0 - Myanmar 2 173 1 161 1 13 0.3 0 0 — Nepal 11 959 7 864 4 94 6.8 NA NA 2 1 18 Oman 2 54 0 0 2 54 0.3 1 1 0 -- ~ Pakistan 53 3,655 6 882 47 2,773 4.6 1 16 1 31 0 9 21 Philippines 28 584 15 237 13 347 1.9 5 31 1,174 Qatar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Saudi Arabia 7 5,619 2 325 5 5,294 2.6 2 475 Singapore 1 3 0 0 1 3 4.4 0 0 Sri Lanka 43 784 14 492 29 292 11.9 6 303 Syrian Arab Rep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 Thailand 83 5,106 55 2,842 28 2,264 10.0 10 625 26 0 Turkey 18 269 12 196 6 73 0.3 3 114 2 c United Arab Emirates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Viet Nam 58 892 7 142 51 750 2.7 2 34 Yemen (Arab Rep) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 - - (People's Dem Rep) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 EUROPE 1,658 36,813 266 7,909 1,392 28,904 7.5 180 7,700 83 3,853 14 311 2,790 Albania 13 55 6 23 7 32 1.9 5 28 0 - Austria 129 1,594 0 0 129 1,594 19.0 NA NA 4 28 5 102 Belgium 2 72 0 0 2 72 2.4 0 0 6 10 Bulgaria 39 129 29 113 10 16 1.2 0 0 17 25 2 4 2 Czechoslovakia 61 1,964 11 215 50 1,748 15.4 NA NA 6 364 8 17 Denmark 65 423 6 15 59 407 9.8 3 12 0 27 734 Finland 35 807 33 505 2 302 2.4 0 0 0 11 101 France 81 4,779 9 278 72 4,501 8.7 27 849 5 503 1 1 85 German (Fed Rep) 54 2,956 1 13 53 2,943 27.3 9 725 1 13 0 21 315 (Dem Rep) 225 1,998 0 0 225 1,998 8.0 5 8 2 25 0 8 46 Greece 20 104 10 71 10 33 0.8 13 84 2 9 2 c 11 107 Hungary 46 511 0 0 46 511 5.5 0 0 5 129 0 13 110 Iceland 22 916 9 219 13 697 8.9 5 509 — 2 58 Ireland 6 27 3 22 3 4 0.4 0 0 2 9 21 13 Italy 108 1,301 3 126 105 1,175 4.3 18 211 3 4 0 45 54 Luxembourg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 NA NA 0 - Malta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 0 Netherlands 68 355 26 230 42 125 9.5 10 54 — 11 306 Norway 68 4,767 42 4,552 26 215 14.7 12 3,508 1 1,555 0 14 16 Poland 78 2,230 13 135 65 2,095 7.1 4 73 4 26 1 5 7 Portugal 21 454 4 103 17 350 4.9 8 132 1 0 2 31 3 O Romania 36 562 2 69 34 493 2.4 0 0 41 Spain 161 3,511 9 123 152 3,388 7.0 9 75 10 615 17 99 OO -* O Sweden 99 1,758 15 589 84 1,169 3.9 5 12 1 97 30 383 Switzerland 15 111 1 17 14 94 2.7 NA NA 1 17 2 2 United Kingdom 138 4,639 1 4 137 4,635 18.9 35 1,194 13 44 3 44 173 Yugoslavia 68 791 33 485 35 307 3.1 12 227 2 350 4 2 18 U.S.S.R. 176 24,074 170 23,802 6 272 1.1 22 4,925 20 10,891 0 12 2,987 OCEANIA 911 48,632 421 32,151 490 16,481 5.7 229 14,547 13 4,745 11 44 4,516 Australia 728 45,654 355 29,575 373 16,079 5.9 184 13,035 12 4,743 39 4,478 03 ! Co Fiji 2 5 2 5 0 0 0.3 1 4 New Zealand 152 2,839 52 2,517 100 322 10.5 32 1,386 5 38 Papua New Guinea 5 29 3 7 2 22 0.1 0 0 ! ! Solomon Islands 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 Sources: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Notes: a. Areas listed often include nationally protected systems, b. 1989 data. c. Includes one or more mixed natural/cultural sites, d. Includes one international heritage site. e. Regional totals include Greenland. World totals for national and international protection systems exclude Antarctica. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measurement; NA = not applicable; -- = country is not a party to the convention. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 299 20 Wildlife and Habitat Table 20.2 Trade in Wildlife and Wildlife Products Reported CITES Reporting Mammals Birds Reptiles Plants Requirement Live Primates Cat Skins Live Parrots Reptile Skins (b) Live Cacti Live Orchids Met {a} (number) (number) (number) (number) (hundreds) (hundreds) (percent) Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports WORLD (c) 41,644 41,644 136,825 136,825 625,595 625,595 6,634,678 6,634,678 79,120 79,120 68,542 68,542 AFRICA 30 9,051 217 1,109 30,233 177,363 15,661 775,117 4 552 501 6 Algeria 50 X X X X 4 0 X X X X X X Angola {d} NA X X X X 0 6 X X X X X X Benin 0 X X X X X X 0 3,469 X X X X Botswana 83 X X 193 0 1 0 363 0 X X X X Burkina Faso X X X X X 0 9 X X X X X X Burundi 0 X X X X 0 1 X X X X 1 0 Cameroon 91 0 129 11 0 0 14,191 0 148,510 1 0 X X Cape Verde (d) NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Central African Rep 60 X X 0 43 0 465 X X X X X X Chad 0 X X X X X X 0 35,710 X X X X Comoros {d} NA X X X X 1 0 X X X X 2 0 Congo 100 0 1 0 1 0 36 0 1,358 X X X X Cote d'lvoire {d} NA X X X X 0 1,053 0 46 X X 0 0 Djibouti (d) NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Egypt 0 16 0 1 0 1,412 0 X X X X X X Equatorial Guinea (d) NA 0 6 X X 0 50 X X X X X X Ethiopia 0 0 1,084 0 7 3 0 X X X X X X Gabon 100 X X 10 0 2 0 0 1 X X X X Gambia, The 30 X X X X X X X X X X X X Ghana 85 0 147 X X 0 4,141 0 345 X X 0 0 Guinea 56 0 7 0 1 0 29,878 0 18,434 X X X X Guinea-Bissau X X X 0 59 0 1 0 932 X X X X Kenya 36 0 3,291 0 5 0 7 0 1,400 X X 18 0 Lesotho (d) NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Liberia 89 0 3 0 1 0 7,693 0 5 X X 0 0 Libya {d} NA 12 0 X X 8 0 X X X X X X Madagascar 93 X X X X 0 12,657 0 3,177 X X 0 5 Malawi 88 X X 0 7 X X 0 1,830 X X X X Mali {d( NA X X X X 0 996 0 406,312 X X X X Mauritania {d} NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Mauritius 81 0 1,436 X X 304 0 16 0 X X 2 0 Morocco 36 0 33 X X 26 0 342 0 0 496 X X Mozambique 44 0 2 1 0 X X 0 795 X X X X Namibia X X X 0 84 58 0 0 4 X X X X Niger 47 1 0 X X X X X X X X X X Nigeria 20 1 0 0 14 0 20 0 2,384 X X 0 0 Rwanda 11 X X X X X X X X X X X X Senegal 92 0 645 1 0 0 33,729 0 9,200 X X X X Sierra Leone {d} NA X X X X 0 1 0 5 X X X X Somalia 25 X X X X X X X X X X X X South Africa 93 0 23 0 634 26,165 0 14,940 0 0 55 476 0 Sudan 29 X X X X 5 0 0 106,702 X X X X Swaziland {d} NA X X X X 1,755 0 X X X X X X Tanzania 80 0 2,160 0 70 0 65,091 0 2,318 X X X X Togo 73 0 504 X X 0 5,985 0 16,415 X X X X Tunisia 100 X X 0 70 10 0 0 399 X X X X Uganda X X X X X 0 3 0 1 X X X X Zaire 64 0 83 0 11 0 348 0 8 X X X X Zambia 56 X X 0 38 0 1,002 0 3,754 X X X X Zimbabwe 78 0 1 0 148 537 0 0 11,607 3 0 2 0 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 14,931 1,672 740 28,763 287,655 29,813 1,867,491 22,723 27,824 12,638 2,235 316 Barbados {d} NA 0 625 X X 58 0 X X 6 0 8 0 Belize 67 X X X X 0 10 X X X X 0 73 Canada 100 864 0 0 9,160 6,191 0 119,726 0 0 8,019 632 0 Costa Rica 73 5 0 0 1 0 4,632 X X 0 0 0 26 Cuba X 5 0 X X 0 181 X X 0 0 0 0 Dominican Rep 0 X X X X 444 0 X X 0 4,578 43 0 El Salvador 0 X X 0 2 81 0 X X X X 2 0 Guatemala 70 1 0 0 1 116 0 X X 0 0 2 0 Haiti {d} NA X X X X 0 3 X X 0 20 7 0 Honduras 40 0 532 0 3 0 24,515 0 15,253 X X 0 123 Jamaica {d} NA X X X X 0 3 X X 0 0 0 14 Mexico X 244 0 0 56 3,111 0 106,457 0 0 20 0 151 Nicaragua 85 0 11 X X 0 479 X X X X X X Panama 83 X X 740 0 120 0 0 7,470 X X 0 2 Trinidad and Tobago 50 1 0 X X 102 0 X X 1 0 20 0 United States 87 13,811 0 0 19,540 277,432 0 1,641,308 0 27,817 0 1,520 0 SOUTH AMERICA 7 4,335 4 15,032 84 274,577 12,341 2,378,707 0 17,375 8 1,469 Argentina 100 0 25 0 15,015 0 179,762 0 1,747,153 0 10 0 0 Bolivia 55 X X 0 1 0 4 0 93,708 0 30 0 0 Brazil 27 0 61 2 0 58 0 8,984 0 0 17,326 0 1,044 Chile 60 7 0 0 1 0 826 3,350 0 0 0 0 0 Colombia 67 0 7 0 5 0 21 0 74,173 X X 0 85 Ecuador 71 0 1 0 1 0 10 X X 0 0 7 0 Guyana 62 0 3,694 0 3 0 26,935 0 72,521 X X 0 1 Paraguay 54 X X 0 4 0 3 0 20 0 8 0 29 Peru 67 0 543 X X 0 16,760 7 0 0 0 0 274 Suriname 100 X X 2 0 0 9,719 X X X X 0 1 Uruguay 67 X X X X 0 40,537 0 29,838 0 0 0 0 Venezuela 67 0 4 0 2 26 0 0 92,294 0 0 0 34 World Resources 1992-93 300 Wildlife and Habitat 20 by CITES, 1988 Table 20.2 CITES Reporting Mammals Birds Reptiles Plants Requirement Live Primates Cat Skins Live Parrots Reptile Skins (b) Live Cacti Live Orchids Met {a} (number) (number) (number) (number) (hundreds) (hundreds) (percent) Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports ASIA 10,584 25,968 39,507 89,656 76,301 135,210 1,903,216 3,704,116 166,418 27,586 51,923 65,694 Afghanistan 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X Bahrain {d} NA X X X X 373 0 X X X X X X Bangladesh 100 2 0 X X 1,238 0 X X X X X X Bhutan (d) NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Cambodia {d} NA 0 5 X X X X X X X X X X China 100 0 2,199 0 89,650 118 0 0 65,665 15 0 0 1,056 Cyprus 33 X X 7 0 451 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 Hong Kong 100 0 37 1,772 0 8,441 0 267,393 0 350 0 232 0 India 100 0 4 X X 0 8,781 0 3,821 1 0 0 24 Indonesia 91 0 11,851 X X 0 87,830 0 3,032,189 0 9 109 0 Iran, Islamic Rep 29 X X X X X X X X X X X X Iraq {d} NA X X X X 8 0 X X 20 0 X X Israel 0 82 0 X X 2,242 0 8,064 0 X X X X Japan 100 7,133 0 34,696 0 35,097 0 950,047 0 0 20,589 47,426 0 Jordan 27 X X 1 0 10,248 0 X X X X X X Korea, Dem People's Rep (d) NA 2 0 X X X X X X X X 11 0 Korea, Rep {d} NA 5 0 2,861 0 363 0 25,199 0 0 6,988 4,139 0 Kuwait (d) NA 2 0 1 0 1,127 0 X X 3 0 X X Lao People's Dem Rep (d) NA 0 201 X X X X X X X X X X Lebanon {d} NA 1 0 14 0 51 0 346 0 0 0 0 0 Malaysia 83 45 0 0 1 0 6,818 0 238,205 170 0 0 323 Mongolia {d} NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Myanmar {d} NA 0 52 X X 0 597 X X X X X X Nepal 80 X X 0 2 35 0 X X X X 0 0 Oman {d} NA 3 0 X X 72 0 X X 8 0 0 0 Pakistan 100 X X 2 0 0 6,394 0 4 0 0 X X Philippines 89 0 11,386 X X 0 661 0 35,401 0 0 0 290 Qatar (d) NA 150 0 X X 910 0 X X X X X X Saudi Arabia (d) NA 7 0 13 0 2,456 0 8,839 0 412 0 0 0 Singapore 100 0 220 1 0 12,130 0 445,873 0 10 0 0 65 Sri Lanka 55 0 2 0 2 157 0 X X X X 0 105 Syrian Arab Rep {d} NA X X X X 2 0 1 0 X X X X Taiwan {d} NA 3,125 0 15 0 0 21,541 162,888 0 419 0 0 12,440 Thailand 43 0 11 X X 0 319 0 260,080 21 0 0 51,392 Turkey {d} NA X X 127 0 23 0 34,566 0 218 0 X X United Arab Emirates 0 27 0 X X 759 0 0 67,750 9 0 X X Viet Nam {d} NA X X 0 1 0 2,269 0 1,000 X X 6 0 Yemen (Arab Rep) (d) NA X X X X X X X X X X X X (People's Dem Rep) {d} NA X X X X X X X X X X X X EUROPE 13,985 11 84,622 2,179 222,942 7,458 2,818,588 0 49,435 20,970 10,595 4 Albania {d} NA X X X X X X X X X X X X Austria 100 164 0 1,157 0 4,472 0 96,521 0 9,468 0 240 0 Belgium 100 1,092 0 328 0 0 1,801 71,751 0 317 0 337 0 Bulgaria X 8 0 X X 3 0 X X X X X X Czechoslovakia (d) NA 50 0 0 1 0 1,616 X X 0 3 3 0 Denmark 100 30 0 957 0 5,205 0 546 0 1,752 0 384 0 Finland 71 3 0 0 348 4 0 2,548 0 496 0 10 0 France 100 2,091 0 3,441 0 30,120 0 883,971 0 2,796 0 297 0 Germany (Fed Rep) 100 255 0 21,637 0 54,906 0 8,381 0 12,270 0 2,837 0 (Dem Rep) 54 1 0 0 521 0 2,102 14 0 4 0 11 0 Greece {d} NA 1 0 1,448 0 4,064 0 196 0 91 0 30 0 Hungary 80 99 0 5 0 51 0 25 0 0 53 X X Iceland {d} NA X X 1 0 0 5 X X X X X X Ireland (d) NA 0 11 1 0 17 0 X X X X 12 0 Italy 100 971 0 7,978 0 29,723 0 426,546 0 5,612 0 923 0 Luxembourg 100 X X X X 2 0 X X 104 0 14 0 Malta 100 X X X X 1,131 0 1,470 0 0 3 0 0 Netherlands 100 1,253 0 3 0 0 1,934 3,444 0 0 14,736 2,497 0 Norway 100 10 0 122 0 12 0 X X 1,865 0 2 0 Poland X 45 0 30,299 0 X X X X X X 3 0 0 ooooo ooooo Portugal 44 30 3 9,019 1,323 0 541 0 26 Xo Romania {d} NA 34 X 16 X X 0 0 X X Spain 100 43 6,956 30,937 625,457 0 0 6,175 122 0 o oo Sweden 100 389 16 8,808 1,240 0 2,344 0 0 4 Switzerland 100 65 10,270 3,402 111,570 0 7,328 0 636 0 United Kingdom 100 5,717 0 0 1,309 40,771 0 583,585 0 4,448 0 2,212 0 Yugoslavia {d} NA 1,634 0 X X 279 0 X X X X X X U.S.S.R. 86 1,729 0 11,434 0 1,137 0 X X X X X X OCEANIA 1 17 14 2 288 1,133 694 23,011 165 0 1,907 978 XXoXo Australia 100 0 17 13 0 0 1,129 691 0 115 1,635 0 Fiji {d} NA X X X X 133 0 X X X 272 0 New Zealand 100 1 0 1 0 155 0 3 0 50 0 955 Papua New Guinea 71 X X 0 2 0 4 0 23,011 X 0 23 Solomon Islands {d} NA X X X X X X X X X X X Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Notes: a. Includes all trade reported by members of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) through 1989. b. Reptile skins include skins of snakes, lizards, and crocodilians. c. World totals include countries not listed; regional totals include only countries listed, but totals may not add because of rounding, d. Not a member of CITES as of October 1991. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measurement; X = not available; NA = not applicable. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 301 20 Wildlife and Habitat T a b l e 2 0 . 3 Management Problems at World Heritage Sites IUCN Protected Threats Grazing Illegal or Fire Introduced Inadequate or Total Area to and Overharvest of and Plant and Insufficient Name of Size Classes Develop- External Local Culti- Trees/ Natural Animal Legal Manage- Area (000 ha) Included ment Tourism Pollution Threats Cultures vation Wildlife Plants Threats Species Protection menl Other AFRICA {a} 20,077 48% 16% 16% 36% 8% 56% 68% 32% 52% 8% 12% 52% 20% Cameroon Dja 526 MX P s S S P Central African Rep Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris 1,740 II s S S s Cote d'lvoire toco CO CO CO Comoe 1,150 IIJX S Tai 350 II toco S S s Mt. Nimba (b) 5 I, IX S S Ethiopia Simien 22 II s s S Guinea Mt. Nimba {b} X IIJX S S s S Malawi Lake Malawi 9 II S s s S S S Mali Bandiagara {cj 400 VII S s s s Mauritania Bane d'Arguin 1,200 I.II S S S s s Senegal toco Niokolo-Koba 913 IIJX P S Djoudj 16 II S Seychelles s COCL Aldabra I Sen 35 S Vallee de Mai 0 IV s s Tanzania coco coco Selous 5,000 IV S S Serengeti 2,305 IIJX S S s S s toco coco s coco Ngorongoro 829 VIIIJX S mm Mt Kilimanjaro 76 II S s Tunisia Ichkeul 13 IIJX S S s s S S S Zaire s tOQ- coco Salonga 3,600 II S S S S ~ocn Virunga 790 II s coco Sen Kahuzi-Biega 600 II S Garamba 492 II Zambia Victoria Falls/Mosi-oa-Tunya 7 II S s S S Zimbabwe Mana Pools X II.XIII S S S NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA {a) 21,305 57% 33% 29% 43% 14% 29% 33% 19% 24% 43% 10% 10% 19% Canada coco Canadian Rocky Mts. Id} II mm X S S S S Kluane {b) 5,440 II P COQ- Wood Buffalo 4,480 II P S S Nahanni 477 II P Gros Morne 181 II M s s Dinosaur 7 IIJX s s Costa Rica Talamanca-La Amistad {bj 585 UI.VII, s s s s s s s s VIII,IX Guatemala Tikal {c} 58 II s s Honduras Rio Platano 500 IIJX p p s s s s Mexico SianKa'an 528 IIJX S s s s Panama Darien 597 IIJX p s s p p p United States Kluane {b} 5,440 Yellowstone IIJX P S coco Everglades 586 II.III.IX S mm mm Grand Canyon 493 II S S coco coco coco Olympic 363 IIJX S S Yosemite 308 II S Great Smoky Mts. 209 IIJX S S S S mm S S S Hawaii Volcanoes 93 IIJX S S S S S Redwood 42 Mammoth Cave 21 World Resources 1992-93 302 Wildlife and Habitat 20 Table 20.3 IUCN Protected Threats Grazing Illegal or Fire Introduced Inadequate or Total Area to and Overharvest of and Plant and Insufficient Name of Size Classes Develop- Extemal Local Culti- Trees/ Natural Animal Legal Manage- Area (000 ha) Included merit Tourism Pollution Threats Cultures vation Wildlife Plants Threats Species Protection ment Other SOUTH AMERICA {a} 4,117 38% 63% 25% 63% 13% 75% 63% 25% 88% 25% 0% 63% 38% Argentina en en Los Glaciares 600 II,IV S M S S Iguazu 55 II,IV s S Brazil Iguacu 170 II s S S s s S Ecuador s en en s en en Galapagos 767 II,IX S P Sangay 272 II p s s s Peru s mmm mm II s CLCO mm Manu 1,881 mmm mmm s mm Huascaran 340 II,IX S Machu Picchu {c} 33 II S S ASIA {a} 520 40% 50% 20% 50% 30% 40% 40% 40% 40% 10% 20% 70% 20% China Mt. Taishan {c} X V s S S S S S India Sunderbans 133 Nanda Devi 63 Manas 39 Kaziranga 38 Keoladeo 3 Nepal Sagarmatha II s s s s COCL 115 S Royal Chitwan 93 II s s s s s S Sri Lanka Sinharaja 27 IX s s s s P s Turkey Goreme {c} 10 V s s s EUROPE {a} 122 45% 18% 27% 18% 0% 27% 9% 27% 18% 27% 9% 0% 9% Bulgaria Pirin 40 s S Srebarna 1 I, IX S France Cape Girolata 16 V P M S Poland Bialowieza 5 II,IX s s S s S Spain Garajonay 4 II s S s s M United Kingdom Henderson {e) 4 S St. Kilda 1 IV.IX s P s S M Giant's Causeway 0 IV Yugoslavia Durmitor 32 II,IX s P S s Plitvice Lakes 19 V s s Skocjan Caves 0 III s OCEANIA {a} 40,448 70% 30% 20% 10% 30% 40% 10% 20% 40% 60% 30% 10% 40% Australia Great Barrier Reef 34,870 Kakadu {c) 1,307 Tasmania Wilderness (cj 1,082 I.II.VIII Wet Tropics of Queensland 920 II,III Willandra Lakes {c} 600~ East Coast Rain Forest Parks 165 Uluru 133 Lord Howe 2 New Zealand Fiordland 1,252 WestlandMt. Cook 118 Sources: World Conservation Monitoring Centre and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Notes: a. Percentages shown are the proportion of worjd heritage sites within a region reporting each category of threat (e.g., for Africa: 48% of the heritage sites report threats from development, 16% report threats from tourism, etc), b. International heritage site. Management problems described here generally refer to problems within this country's sector only. c. Mixed natural/cultural heritage site nominated on basis of human/nature interaction rather than natural features alone, d. Data are incomplete. e. Located on the Pitcairn Islands, a British dependency in the Pacific. S = significant threat, M = minor threat, P = potential threat. 0 = less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 303 20 Wildlife and Habitat Table 20.4 Globally Threatened Animal Species, 1990 Mammals (number) Birds (number) Reptiles (number) Amphibians (number) Freshwater Threatened Threatened Threatened Threatened Fish (number) Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Known ened per 10,000 Known ened per 10,000 Known ened per 10,000 Known ened per 10,000 Known ened Species Species km2{a) Species Species km2{a[ Species Species km2{a( Species Species km2 {a} Species Species WORLD AFRICA Algeria 97 12 2 X 15 2 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 1 Angola 275 14 3 872 12 2 X 2 0 X 0 0 268 0 Benin 187 11 5 630 1 0 X 2 1 X 0 0 150 0 Botswana 154 9 2 549 6 2 158 1 0 38 0 0 81 0 Burkina Faso 147 10 3 497 1 0 X 2 1 X 0 0 120 0 Burundi 103 4 3 633 5 4 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 0 Cameroon 297 27 8 848 17 5 X 2 1 X 1 0 X 11 Cape Verde 9 0 0 103 3 4 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 0 Central African Rep 208 12 3 668 2 1 X 2 1 X 0 0 400 0 Chad 131 18 4 496 4 1 X 2 0 X 0 0 130 0 Comoros 17 3 5 99 5 8 26 0 0 2 0 0 16 0 Congo 198 12 4 500 3 1 X 2 1 X 0 0 500 0 Cote d'lvoire 226 18 6 683 9 3 X 1 0 X 1 0 200 0 Djibouti 22 6 5 311 3 2 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Egypt 105 9 2 X 16 3 X 2 0 X 0 0 X 1 Equatorial Guinea 141 15 11 392 3 2 X 2 1 X 1 1 X 0 Ethiopia 265 25 5 836 14 3 6 1 0 X 0 0 100 0 Gabon 190 14 5 617 4 1 X 2 1 X 0 0 200 0 Gambia, The 108 7 7 489 1 1 X 2 2 X 0 0 80 0 Ghana 222 13 5 721 8 3 X 2 1 X 0 0 180 0 Guinea 188 17 6 529 6 2 X 1 0 X 1 0 250 0 Guinea-Bissau 109 5 3 376 2 1 X 2 1 X 0 0 90 0 Kenya 314 15 4 1,067 18 5 191 2 1 88 0 0 180 0 Lesotho 54 2 1 288 7 5 X 0 0 X 0 0 8 0 Liberia 193 18 8 590 10 5 X 2 1 X 0 0 130 0 Libya 76 12 2 X 9 2 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 Madagascar 105 53 14 250 28 7 259 10 3 144 0 0 X 0 Malawi 187 10 4 630 7 3 124 1 0 69 0 0 600 0 Mali 136 16 3 647 4 1 16 2 0 X 0 0 160 0 Mauritania 61 14 3 550 5 1 X 1 0 X 0 0 15 0 Mauritius 4 3 5 102 10 17 19 6 10 2 0 0 X 0 Morocco 108 9 3 X 14 4 X 0 0 32 0 0 X 1 Mozambique 205 10 2 666 11 3 170 1 0 X 0 0 X 1 Namibia 190 11 3 640 7 2 X 2 0 X 0 0 97 4 Niger 131 15 3 473 1 0 X 1 0 X 0 0 140 0 Nigeria 274 25 6 831 10 2 114 2 0 19 0 0 200 0 Reunion 2 0 0 33 1 2 6 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Rwanda 147 11 8 669 7 5 X 2 1 X 0 0 X 0 Sao Tome and Principe 7 1 2 124 7 15 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Senegal 166 11 4 625 5 2 X 2 1 X 0 0 140 0 Seychelles 2 1 3 126 9 29 X 2 7 12 3 10 X 0 Sierra Leone 178 13 7 614 7 4 X 2 1 X 0 0 130 0 Somalia 173 16 4 639 7 2 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 South Africa 283 26 5 774 13 3 301 3 1 95 1 0 220 28 Sudan 266 17 3 938 8 1 X 1 0 X 0 0 120 0 Swaziland 46 0 0 477 5 4 X 1 1 X 0 0 45 0 Tanzania 310 30 7 1,016 26 6 273 3 1 X 0 0 X 0 Togo 196 9 5 630 1 1 X 2 1 X 0 0 160 0 Tunisia 77 6 2 X 14 6 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 Uganda 311 16 6 989 12 4 X 1 0 X 0 0 300 0 Western Sahara 15 5 2 X 5 2 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Zaire 409 22 4 1,086 27 4 X 2 0 X 0 0 700 1 Zambia 228 10 2 732 10 2 152 2 0 83 0 0 156 0 Zimbabwe 194 9 3 635 6 2 155 1 0 120 0 0 132 0 THE AMERICAS Argentina 255 25 4 927 53 8 204 4 1 124 1 0 X 1 Bahamas 17 2 2 218 4 4 39 3 3 6 0 0 X 0 Barbados X 1 3 X 1 3 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Belize 121 8 6 504 4 3 107 3 2 26 0 0 X 0 Bermuda X 0 0 X 2 11 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Bolivia 267 21 4 1,177 34 7 180 4 1 96 0 0 X 1 Brazil 394 24 3 1,567 123 13 467 11 1 487 0 0 X 9 Canada 197 5 1 426 6 1 42 0 0 41 0 0 1,132 b 15 Cayman Islands X 0 0 X 2 7 X 2 7 X 0 0 X 0 Chile 90 9 2 393 18 4 82 0 0 38 0 0 X 1 Colombia 358 25 5 1,665 69 14 383 10 2 375 0 0 X 0 Costa Rica 203 10 6 796 14 8 218 2 1 151 0 0 X 0 Cuba 39 2 1 286 15 7 100 4 2 40 0 0 X 0 Dominican Rep X 1 1 X 5 3 X 4 2 X 0 0 X 0 Ecuador (c) 280 21 7 1,447 64 21 345 8 3 350 0 0 X 0 El Salvador 129 6 5 432 2 2 92 1 1 38 0 0 X 0 French Guiana 142 10 5 628 5 2 136 2 1 89 0 0 X 0 Greenland (Denmark) 26 2 1 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Guatemala 174 10 5 666 10 5 204 4 2 99 0 0 X 0 Guyana 198 12 4 728 9 3 137 3 1 105 0 0 X 1 Haiti X 1 1 X 4 3 X 4 3 X 0 0 X 0 Honduras 179 7 3 672 11 5 161 3 1 57 0 0 X 0 Jamaica 29 6 6 223 2 2 38 3 3 20 0 0 X 0 Mexico 439 26 5 961 35 6 717 16 3 284 4 1 X 98 Netherlands Antilles 9 0 0 171 3 6 22 2 4 2 0 0 X 0 Nicaragua 177 8 3 610 7 3 162 2 1 59 0 0 X 0 World Resources 1992-93 304 Wildlife and Habitat 20 Table 20.4 Mammals (number) Birds (number) Reptiles (number) Amphibians (number) Freshwater Threatened Threatened Threatened Threatened Fish (number) Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Species Threat- Known ened per 10,000 Known ened p e r l 0,000 Known ened per 10,000 Known ened p e r l 0,000 Known ened Species Species km2(a) Species Species km2{a} Species Species km2 {a) Species Species km2{a} Species Species Panama 217 13 7 920 14 7 212 2 1 155 0 0 X 0 Paraguay 157 14 4 630 24 7 110 4 1 69 0 0 X 0 Peru 359 29 6 1,642 65 13 297 6 1 235 1 0 X 1 Puerto Rico 17 2 2 220 4 4 46 5 5 26 1 1 X 0 Suriname 200 11 4 670 6 2 131 1 0 99 0 0 X 0 Trinidad and Tobago 85 1 1 347 3 4 76 0 0 15 0 0 X 0 United States 466 21 2 1,090 43 4 368 25 3 222 22 2 2,640 b 164 Uruguay 77 5 2 367 11 4 66 2 1 37 0 0 X 0 Venezuela 305 19 4 1,295 34 8 246 2 0 183 0 0 X 0 ASIA Afghanistan X 13 3 X 13 3 X 1 0 X 1 0 X 0 Bahrain X 1 2 X 4 10 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 1 Bangladesh X 15 6 X 27 11 X 14 6 X 0 0 X 0 Bhutan X 15 9 X 10 6 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 0 Brunei X 9 11 X 10 12 X 3 4 X 0 0 X 2 Cambodia X 21 8 X 13 5 X 6 2 X 0 0 X 5 China 394 30 3 1,195 83 9 X 7 1 X 1 0 X 7 India 341 38 6 1,178 72 11 400 17 3 181 3 0 X 2 Indonesia 479 50 9 1,500 135 24 X 13 2 X 0 0 X 29 Iran, Islamic Rep X 15 3 X 20 4 X 4 1 X 0 0 X 2 Iraq X 9 3 X 17 5 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 2 Israel X 8 6 X 15 12 X 1 1 X 1 1 X 0 Japan 188 5 2 668 31 9 86 0 0 95 1 0 207 3 Jordan X 5 2 X 11 5 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Korea, Dem People's Rep X 5 2 X 25 11 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Korea, Rep X 6 3 X 22 10 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Kuwait X 5 4 X 7 6 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Lao People's Dem Rep X 23 8 X 18 6 X 5 2 X 0 0 X 5 Lebanon X 4 4 X 15 15 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 0 Malaysia X 23 7 X 35 11 X 12 4 X 0 0 X 6 Mongolia X 9 2 X 13 2 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Myanmar 300 23 6 1,000 42 10 360 10 2 X 0 0 X 2 Nepal X 22 9 X 20 8 X 9 4 X 0 0 X 0 Oman X 5 2 X 8 3 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 2 Pakistan X 15 4 X 25 6 X 6 1 X 0 0 X 0 Philippines 96 12 4 541 39 13 197 6 2 60 0 0 X 21 Saudi Arabia X 9 2 X 12 2 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Sri Lanka X 7 4 X 8 4 X 3 2 X 0 0 X 12 Syrian Arab Rep X 4 2 X 15 6 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 Thailand X 26 7 X 34 9 X 9 2 X 0 0 X 13 Turkey 118 5 1 426 18 4 93 5 1 18 1 0 555 b 5 United Arab Emirates X 4 2 X 7 3 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Viet Nam 273 28 9 774 34 11 180 8 3 80 1 0 X 4 EUROPE Albania X 2 1 X 14 10 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 1 Austria 85 2 1 201 13 6 13 0 0 19 0 0 71 2 Belgium X 2 1 X 13 9 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 1 Bulgaria X 3 1 X 15 7 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 3 Czechoslovakia X 2 1 390 18 8 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 2 Denmark 49 1 1 190 16 10 5 0 0 14 0 0 166 b 0 Finland 62 3 1 232 12 4 5 0 0 5 0 0 58 b 1 France 113 6 2 342 21 6 36 2 1 29 1 0 70 3 Germany 94 2 1 305 17 5 12 0 0 19 0 0 70 b 3 Greece X 4 2 X 19 8 X 3 1 X 0 0 X 6 Hungary X 2 1 X 16 8 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 2 Iceland X 1 0 X 2 1 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 1 Ireland 31 0 0 139 10 5 1 0 0 3 0 0 X 1 Italy 97 3 1 419 19 6 46 2 1 28 7 2 503 b 3 Luxembourg 60 1 2 140 8 13 8 0 0 16 0 0 40 0 Netherlands 60 257 13 7 15 49 b Norway 54 225 8 5 5 172 Poland X X 16 X X X Portugal 82 313 18 35 17 39 Romania X X 18 X X X Spain 108 6 2 344 23 6 64 5 1 24 3 1 55 2 Sweden 65 1 0 250 14 4 6 0 0 13 0 0 130 b 1 Switzerland 76 2 1 196 15 9 15 0 0 19 1 1 52 3 United Kingdom 77 2 1 233 22 8 11 0 0 6 0 0 377 b 1 Yugoslavia X 3 1 X 17 6 X 1 0 X 2 1 X 5 U.S.S.R. 357 20 2 765 38 3 144 3 0 34 0 0 X 5 OCEANIA Australia 320 35 4 700 39 4 550 9 1 150 3 0 3,200 b 16 Fiji X 1 1 X 5 4 X 4 3 X 1 1 X 0 New Caledonia X 1 1 X 5 4 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 New Zealand 69 1 0 282 26 9 39 1 0 5 3 1 777 b 2 Papua New Guinea X 4 1 X 25 7 X 1 0 X 0 0 X 0 Solomon Islands X 2 1 X 20 14 X 3 2 X 0 0 X 0 Vanuatu X 1 1 X 3 3 X 1 1 X 0 0 X 0 Western Samoa X 1 2 X 2 3 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 Sources: World Conservation Monitoring Centre, World Conservation Union, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and other sources. Notes: a. Number is standardized using a species area curve, b. Both fresh- and saltwater species, c. Includes the Galapagos Islands. X = not available; 0 = no species listed as threatened at present. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 305 20 Wildlife and Habitat Table 20.5 Rare and Threatened Plants, 1991 Rare and Rare and Threatened Threatened Endemic Number of Plant Taxa Plant Taxa Number Number Flora as Rare and per 1,000 per 10,000 of Members of of Plant Percentage Threatened Existing Square Red Data Botanical BGCI Taxa of Total Plant Taxa Taxa Kilometers {a} Book or Ust Gardens (b) (number) (b) WORLD 1,553 316 AFRICA 82 31 Algeria 3,139-3,150 8 144 46 24 Yes 3 0 Angola 5,000 25 19 4 4 No 1 0 Benin 2,000 1 3 2 1 Yes 1 0 Botswana 2,600-2,800 17 4 1-2 1 Yes 0 0 Burkina Faso 1,096 X 0 0 0 No 0 0 Burundi 2,500 X 0 0 0 Yes 1 0 Cameroon 8,000 2 74 9 21 Yes 2 1 Cape Verde 659 14 1 2 1 No 1 0 Central African Rep 3,600 4 0 0 0 No 0 0 Chad 1,600 X 14 9 3 No 0 0 Comoros 416 33 3 7 5 No 0 0 Congo 4,000 22 4 1 1 No 0 0 Cote d'lvoire 3,660 2 70 19 22 No 1 0 Djibouti 534 X 3 6 2 No 0 0 Equatorial Guinea X X X X X X 0 0 Bioko 1,150 4 8 7 14 c No X 0 Pagula 208 8 2 10 16 c No X 0 Egypt 2,085 4 93 45 20 Yes 5 1 Ethiopia 6,283 8 44 7 9 No 1 0 Gabon 8,000 22 80 10 27 No 1 1 Gambia, The 530 1 0 0 0 No 0 0 Ghana 3,600 1 34 9 12 Yes 3 1 Guinea X 88 d 36 X 13 No 0 0 Guinea-Bissau 1,000 X 0 0 0 No 0 0 Kenya 6,500 4 144 22 38 Yes 5 0 Lesotho 1,591 X 7 4 5 No 0 0 Liberia X 59 d 1 X 0 Yes 0 0 Libya 1,600-1,800 8 58 32-36 11 Yes 1 0 Madagascar 10,000-12,000 80 193 16-19 50 No 1 1 Malawi 3,600 2 61 17 29 No 3 3 Mali 1,600 1 15 9 3 No 0 0 Mauritania 1,100 X 3 3 1 No 0 0 Mauritius 800-900 33 240 267-300 419 Yes 2 2 Morocco 3,500-3,600 18 194 54-55 55 Yes 2 0 Mozambique 5,500 4 84 15 20 No 2 0 Namibia 3,159 11 d 18 6 4 No 1 1 Niger 1,178 X 1 1 0 Yes 0 0 Nigeria 4,614 5 9 2 2 Yes 5 1 Principe 314 11 1 3 2 e No 0 0 Reunion 720 30 99 138 156 Yes 4 2 Rwanda 2,150 X 0 0 0 No 1 0 Sao Tome 601 18 0 0 2 e No 0 0 Senegal 2,100 1 32 15 12 No 3 0 Seychelles 274 15 73 266 240 No 1 0 Sierra Leone 2,480 3 12 5 6 No 1 0 Somalia 3,000 17 51 17 13 No 0 0 South Africa 23,000 80 1,145 50 235 Yes 17 11 Sudan 3,200 2 9 3 1 Yes 1 0 Swaziland 2,715 X 25 9 21 Yes 0 0 Tanzania 10,000 11 158 16 36 Yes 2 1 Togo 2,302 f 1 0 0 0 No 1 1 Tunisia 2,120-2,200 X 26 12 11 Yes 1 0 Uganda 5,000 1 11 2 4 No 2 0 Western Sahara 300 X 0 0 0 No 0 0 Zaire 11,000 29 3 0 1 Yes 2 2 Zambia 4,600 5 1 0 0 No 0 0 Zimbabwe 5,428 g 2 96 18 29 Yes 4 2 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 355 79 Antigua and Barbuda 724 f 1 1 1 3 No 0 0 Bahamas 1,350 9 23 17 23 Yes 0 0 Bermuda 165 10 14 85 80 No 1 0 Barbados 700 1 1 1 3 No 2 0 Belize 3,240 5 38 12 29 IP 1 0 British Virgin Islands X X 1 X 4 Yes 1 1 Canada 3,220 X 13 4 1 Yes 18 7 Costa Rica 8,000 X 456 57 266 No 2 2 Cuba 7,000 50 874 125 396 Yes 8 3 Dominica 1,600 1 62 39 146 No 1 1 El Salvador 2,500 19 d 24 10 19 Yes 1 1 Grenada X X 4 X 12 No 1 0 Guadeloupe 2,800 f 45 14 5 25 Yes 2 1 Guatemala 8,000 15 305 38 139 Yes 1 1 Hispaniola 5,000 X 0 0 0 IP 1 0 Honduras 5,000 3 48 10 22 No 2 1 Jamaica 3,582 30 8 2 8 Yes 4 0 Martinique X X 12 X 25 Yes 3 0 Mexico 20,000 17 1,111 56 196 Yes 30 6 Montserrat X X 1 X 5 No 0 0 Nicaragua 5,000 1 72 14 32 No 1 0 Panama 8,000-9,000 15 344 38-43 176 No 1 0 World Resources 1992-93 306 Wildlife and Habitat 20 Table 20.5 Rare and Rare and Threatened Threatened Endemic Number of Plant Taxa Plant Taxa Number Number Flora as Rare and per 1,000 per 10,000 of Members of of Plant Percentage Threatened Existing Square Red Data Botanical BGCI Taxa of Total Plant Taxa Taxa Kilometers (a) Book or List Gardens {b( (number) (b) Saint Lucia X X 3 X 8 No 0 0 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines X 12 d 4 X 12 No 1 1 Trinidad and Tobago 2,281 9 4 2 5 Yes 1 0 United States 20,000 h X 2,476 124 261 Yes 247 47 Hawaii 1,145 90 X X X Yes 19 6 Puerto Rico 3,000 8 85 28 88 Yes 4 0 Virgin islands X X 10 X 31 Yes 1 0 SOUTH AMERICA 67 19 Argentina 9,000 25-30 157 17 25 No 9 1 Bolivia 15,000-18,000 X 31 2 7 No 3 1 Brazil 55,000 X 240 4 26 No 11 4 Chile 5,500 50 192 35 46 Yes 9 4 Juan Fernandez 147 X 96 653 X Yes 1 0 Colombia 45,000 33 316 7 68 IP 13 4 Ecuador 10,000-20,000 X 121 6-12 40 No 2 1 Galapagos Islands 543 g X 130 239 X Yes X 0 French Guiana 6,000-8,000 X 47 6-8 23 Yes 2 0 Guyana 6,000-8,000 X 68 9-11 25 No 2 1 Paraguay 7,000-8,000 X 12 2 4 No 1 0 Peru 20,000 X 353 18 71 No 5 1 Suriname 4,500 X 68 15 27 No 1 0 Uruguay X X 11 X 4 No 1 0 Venezuela 15,000-20,000 29 105 5-7 24 No 7 2 ASIA 271 37 Afghanistan 3,000 25-30 2 1 1 No 0 0 Bangladesh 5,000 h X 6 1 3 No 2 0 Bhutan 5,000 10-15 6 1 4 No 0 0 Borneo 10,000-15,000 40-50 47 3-5 X No 0 0 Brunei X i X i 38 X 47 No 0 0 Cambodia X X 11 X 4 No 0 0 China 30,000 10 841 28 88 Yes 66 4 Cyprus 2,000 X 44 22 45 No 0 0 India 15,000 30 1,349 90 206 Yes 68 7 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2,270 h 10 120 53 128 c Yes 0 0 Indonesia X X X X X X 5 4 Irian Jaya x i x j 23 X X X X 0 Java 4,600 X 92 20 39 c No X 0 Kalimantan X I X i 36 X 10 c X X 0 Lesser Sunda Islands X 12 10 X X No X 0 Moluccas 3,000 X 12 4 X No X 0 Sulawesi 5,000 X 16 3 6 c No X 0 Sumatra 8,000-10,000 12 92 9-12 26 c No X 0 Iran, Islamic Rep 7,000 20 1 0 0 No 3 0 Iraq 2,937 7 3 1 1 No 1 0 Israel 2,317 7 39 17 31 Yes 7 3 Japan 4,022 34 687 171 207 IP 59 0 Bonin Islands 369 41 83 225 X Yes 0 0 Jordan 2,200 X 13 6 6 No 0 0 Korea, Rep 2,838 k 14 k 0 0 0 Yes 5 0 Kuwait 350 X 1 3 1 No 0 0 Lao People's Dem Rep X X 3 X 1 No 0 0 Lebanon {1} 3,000 11 6 2 6 Yes 0 0 Malaysia X X X X X X 9 5 Peninsular Malaysia 8,500 X 318 37 136 c No X 0 Sabah X i X i 43 X 22 c No X 0 Sarawak X i X i 108 X 47 c No X 0 Myanmar 7,000 h 5 23 3 6 Yes m 2 0 Nepal 6,500 h 5 21 3 9 IP 1 1 Oman 1,100 5 2 2 1 No 0 0 Pakistan 5,500-6,000 6 8 1 2 IP 5 0 Philippines 8,900 25 106 12 35 Yes m 9 2 Saudi Arabia 3,500 23 d 1 0 0 IP 2 0 Singapore 2,030 X 16 8 40 No 1 1 Sri Lanka 3,700 23 209 56 113 Yes m 5 5 Syrian Arab Rep {1} 3,000 11 13 4 5 No 0 0 Taiwan 4,300 40 94 22 132 c Yes 2 1 CJl Thailand 12,000 X 63 5 17 Yes 0 Turkey 10,150 32 1,952 192 466 Yes 6 1 Viet Nam 8,000 10 388 49 123 Yes i 2 0 Yemen (Arab Rep) 1,000 3 1 1 0 No 0 0 (People's Dem Rep) 1,700 5-10 2 1 1 No 0 0 Socotra 680 32 132 194 X No X 0 EUROPE 533 119 Albania 3,100-3,300 1 76 23-25 54 X 1 0 Austria 2,900-3,100 1 25 8-9 12 Yes 11 0 Belgium 1,600-1,800 0 11 6-7 8 c Yes 15 3 Bulgaria 3,500-3,650 2 89 24-25 40 Yes 9 0 Czechoslovakia 2,600-2,750 1 29 11 13 Yes 34 1 Denmark 1,000 1 7 7 4 Yes 7 2 Finland 1,150-1,450 0 7 5-6 2 Yes 8 3 France 4,300-4,450 2 112 25-26 30 Yes 66 18 Corsica 2,516 n 5 35 14 37 c Yes 0 0 World Resources 1992-93 307 20 Wildlife and Habitat T a b l e 2 0 . 5 Rare and Threatened Plants, 1991 (continued) Rare and Rare and Threatened Threatened Endemic Number of Plant Taxa Plant Taxa Number Number Flora as Rare and per 1,000 per 10,000 of Members of of Plant Percentage Threatened Existing Square Red Data Botanical BGCI Taxa of Total Plant Taxa Taxa Kilometers {a} Book or List Gardens (b) (number) (b) Germany (Fed Rep) 2,476 1 16 6 6 Yes 59 12 (Dem Rep) 1,842 1 12 7 6 Yes 14 X Greece 5,000 20 531 106 227 Yes 4 3 Hungary 2,400 1 21 9 10 No 17 0 Iceland 470 1 2 4 1 Yes 2 0 Ireland 1,000-1,150 0 4 4 2 Yes 8 5 Italy 4,750-4,900 11 151 31-32 49 Yes 48 10 Sardinia 1,900-2,000 2 34 17-18 25 c No X 0 Sicily 2,250-2,450 2 48 20-21 35 c No X 0 Luxembourg 1,000 0 2 2 3 c IP 0 0 Malta 900 0 4 4 12 Yes 1 0 Netherlands 1,400 0 7 5 5 Yes 39 5 Norway 1,600-1,800 1 12 7-8 4 Yes 6 3 Poland 2,250-2,450 1 16 7 5 Yes 25 1 Portugal 2,400-2,600 4-5 90 35-38 43 Yes 6 1 Azores 600 9 36 60 X Yes 3 2 Madeira Islands 760 17 114 150 X No 2 0 Romania 3,300-3,400 1 68 20-21 24 Yes 10 0 Spain 4,750-4,900 15 449 92-95 124 Yes 8 5 Balearic Islands 1,250-1,450 6-8 69 48-55 87 c Yes 1 0 Canary Islands 2,000 X 431 216 X Yes 3 1 Gibraltar 587 1 1 2 12 c No 1 0 Sweden 1,600-1,800 1 9 5-6 3 Yes 9 3 Switzerland 2,600-2,750 1 19 7 12 Yes 22 9 United Kingdom 1,700-1,850 1 22 12-13 8 Yes 60 31 Ascension Island 25 44 11 440 52 c Yes X 0 Channel Islands 1,800 f 0 3 2 11 c Yes 0 0 Saint Helena 320 16 49 153 154 Yes 1 0 Tristan da Cunha Islands 74 60 18 243 83 c No 0 0 Yugoslavia 4,750-4,900 3-4 191 39-40 66 No 32 0 U.S.S.R. 21,000 7 531 25 42 Yes 160 1 OCEANIA 85 30 Australia 18,000 80 2,133 119 239 Yes 60 22 Campbell Island 223 g 1 1 4 X Yes X X Christmas Island 280 g 5 14 50 59 Yes X X Fiji 1,500 g 40-50 25 17 20 No 1 0 Guam 331 g X 12 36 31 No X X Kermadec Island 195 g 12 9 46 X Yes X X Lord Howe Island 219 g 33 19 87 X Yes X X Marquesas Islands 247 g X 62 251 X Yes 0 0 New Caledonia 3,250 76 169 52 138 No 0 0 New Guinea 11,000 90 X 0 X No X 0 New Zealand 2,000 81 254 127 86 Yes 17 Norfolk Island 177 g 29 48 271 297 Yes 1 Papua New Guinea X j 55 68 X 19 No 4 Solomon Islands 2,150 X 3 1 2 No 1 Sources: World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, The Europa World Yearbook 1990, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Per unit area number is standardized using a species area curve, b. BGCI = Botanic Gardens Conservation International. World and regional totals include countries not listed, c. Calculated using total land area (including inland water bodies) instead of land area alone, d. Number of endemic taxa (includes species, subspecies, and varieties), e. Number refers to both Sao Tome and Principe, f. Number of vascular taxa (includes species, subspecies, and varieties), g. Number of seed plants, h. Number of flowering plants, i. Number included under Borneo, j . Number included under New Guinea. k. Refers to entire Korean peninsula. I. Size of flora and endemicity data refer to both Syrian Arab Rep and Lebanon, m. Preliminary, n. Number of endemic vascular plant species. Data for mainland countries do not include island states or territories. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available; IP = in preparation as of September 1991. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 308 Wildlife and Habitat 20 Table 20.6 Debt-for-Nature Swaps Conservation Purchaser/ Face Value Funds Fundraiser Date of Debt (a) Cost Generated (b) Purpose AFRICA Madagascar WWF Total $3,030,476 To utilize conservation, education, and sustainable 7/89 Transaction 1 $2,111,112 $950 000 $2,111,112 development methods in 30 designated sites and train 8/90 Transaction 2 $919,364 $445,891 $919,363 600 conservation agents. Cl Total $5,000,000 To provide ecosystem management programs for four 1/91 Transaction 1 $118,754 $59,377 $118,754 protected areas-Zahameana, Midongy-Sud, Manongarivo, and Namoroko Reserves; to develop a university-level training and education program; to fund conservation based development; to create a trust fund. Zambia WWF Total $2,270,000 $454,000 $2,270,000 To help conserve and manage the Kafue Flats and Bangweulu Basin wetlands; to support conservation education activities; to alleviate soil erosion and habitat degradation; to protect rhino and elephant popu- lations; to strengthen local conservation institutions. LATIN AMERICA Bolivia Cl 8/87 Total $650,000 $100,000 $250,000 To establish a local currency endowment fund to pay for the operating costs of managing the Beni Biosphere Reserve; to create three conservation and sustainable- use areas totaling 1.5 million hectares adjacent to the Beni. Costa Rica FPN {c} 2/88 Total $5,400,000 $918,000 $4,050,000 To expand, manage, and protect three of Costa Rica's national parks: Guanacaste, Monteverde (C.F.), and Corcovado. The program in Guanacaste will purchase and annex land located between existing parks and reserves. Monteverde will receive administrative support. the Netherlands 7/88 Total $33,000,000 $5,000,000 $9,900,000 To finance forestry development activities with the objective of protecting and managing natural resources; to fund ongoing programs in forestry and institutional strengthening. TNC 1/89 Total $5,600,000 $784,000 $1,680,000 To help meet management costs and land purchases at four parks/reserves. To fund five other projects and organizations involved in park and species protection. Sweden 4/89 Total $24,500,000 $3,500,000 $17,100,000 To complete the management endowment and infrastructure of Quanacasle National Park; to restore the habitat of this park. Sweden/WWF/TNC 3/90 Total $10,753,631 $1,953,473 $9,602,904 To support land compensation payments of La Amistad Regional Conservation Unit; to fund education, protection, research, ecotourism, and other management programs; to set up a trust fund structure for the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio). Rainforest Alliance 1/91 Total $600,000 $360,000 $540,000 To purchase an additional 2,023 hectares of land for MCL/TNC (CABEI debt) Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and to improve local protection. Dominican PRCTATNC 3/90 Total $582,000 $116,400 $582,000 To support the protection and reforestation of two Republic watersheds; to establish a new nature reserve and fund staff and equipment; to support community outreach for Isla Cabritos National Park. Ecuador WWF/TNC/MBG Total $10,000,000 To support management plans for protected areas; to 12/87 Transaction 1 $1,000,000 $354,000 $1,000,000 develop park infrastructure; to identify and acquire 4/89 Transaction 2 $9,000,000 $1,068,750 $9,000,000 small nature reserves; to fund species inventories through a Conservation Data Center. Priority target areas are six Andean and Amazonian national parks. Guatemala TNC 10/91 Total $100,000 $75,000 $90,000 To support Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve through (CABEI debt) land acquisition and protection. Jamaica TNC/USAID/PRCT Total $600,000 To fund and protect Montego Marine Park, Blue Mountain/ 10/91 Transaction 1 $437,000 $300,000 $437,000 John Crow Mountain. Mexico Cl Total $4,000,000 To fund ecosystem conservation data centers to assess 2/91 Transaction 1 $250,000 $182,000 $250,000 the distribution, status, and conservation priority of 8/91 Transaction 2 $250,000 Debt donation $250,000 Mexico's key species and habitats; to fund communication and education campaigns on the national and grassroots level. ASIA Philippines WWF Total $2,000,000 To provide for management plans, community development 1/89 Transaction 1 $390,000 $200,000 $390,000 work in buffer zones, and infrastructure for four parks; 8/90 Transaction 2 $900,000 $438,750 $900,000 to support research and environmental education activities, and training for community-level resource managers. EUROPE Poland WWF 1/90 Total $50,000 $11,500 $50,000 To support project study on the Vistula River Basin program. TOTAL TO DATE $98,881,860 {d( $17,271,141 $61,491,133 Sources: Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy, and other sources. Notes: a. In some swaps the agreed-upon amount of debt is swapped through several transactions over a period of time. This column identifies the total agreed-upon sum, including pending transactions, and which transactions have been approved, b. In the case of bonds, this figure does not include interest earned over the life of the bonds, c. Many organizations contributed to this deal including: WWF, Cl, TNC, The Pew Charitable Trust, Jessie Smith Noyes Foundation, Asociacion Ecologica La Pacifica, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Swedish Society for the Conservation of Nature, W. Alton Jones Foundation, Organization for Tropical Studies, d. Includes only approved transactions. Cl = Conservation International, MCL = Monteverde Conservation League, TNC = The Nature Conservancy, CABEI = Central American Bank for Economic Integration, WWF = World Wildlife Fund, PRCT = Puerto Rican Conservation Trust, MGB = Missouri Botanical Garden, FPN = National Parks Foundation of Costa Rica. All figures are in US$. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 309 20 Wildlife and Habitat Sources and Technical Notes Table 20.1 National and Inter- support sustainable development. Each re- to legal trade, though illegal trade is in- national Protection of Natural serve must contain a diverse, natural eco- cluded when known. (For a listing of CITES system of a specific biogeographical member states and signatories, see Chapter Areas, 1990 province, large enough to be an effective 25, "Policies and Institutions," Table 25.1.) conservation unit. For further details, refer CITES reporting requirement met refers to Sources: Protected Areas Data Unit of the to M. Udvardy, A Classification of the Biogeo- the percentage of years for which a country World Conservation Monitoring Centre graphical Provinces of the World (IUCN, has submitted an annual report to the (WCMC), unpublished data (WCMC, Cam- Morges, Switzerland, 1975), and to World CITES Secretariat since it became a party to bridge, United Kingdom, September 1991); Resources 1986, Chapter 6. Each reserve also the Convention, through 1989. Countries heritage site numbers only: United Nations must include a minimally disturbed core that had ratified the CITES by October 30, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- area for conservation and research and may 1991, are listed as members. zation (UNESCO), List of Properties Included be surrounded by buffer zones where tradi- Live primates include all species of mon- in the World Heritage List (UNESCO- tional land uses, experimental ecosystem re- keys, apes, and prosimions. ICOMOS Documentation Centre, Paris, De- search, and ecosystem rehabilitation may Cat skins include skins of all species of cember 1990). be permitted. Felidae, excluding a small number of skins National protection systems combine natu- Number of natural world heritage sites repre- reported only by weight or length. ral areas in five World Conservation Union sents areas of "outstanding universal value" Live parrots include all psittacine species (IUCN) management categories (areas are so called either for their natural features, for (e.g., parrots, macaws, cockatoos) except at least 1,000 hectares). Totally protected areas their cultural value, or for both natural and the budgerigar and the cockatiel. are maintained in a natural state and are cultural values. The table includes only natu- Reptile skins include whole skins, reported closed to extractive uses. They encompass ral and mixed natural and cultural sites. by number, of all crocodilians and many the following three management categories: Any party to the World Heritage Conven- commonly traded lizard and snake species. • Category I. Scientific reserves and strict na- tion may nominate natural sites that contain Live cacti include wild and artificially ture reserves possess outstanding, represen- examples of a major stage of the earth's evo- propagated Cactaceae plants. tative ecosystems. Public access is generally lutionary history; a significant ongoing geo- Live orchids include wild and artificially limited, with only scientific research and ed- logical process; a unique or superlative propagated Orchidaceae plants. ucational use permitted. natural phenomenon, formation, or feature; This table shows net trade in wild and • Category II. National parks and provincial or habitat for threatened species. Guinea captive bred species. The totals can be over- parks are relatively large areas of national and Cote d'lvoire share one world heritage estimates of the actual number of speci- or international significance not materially site, as do Zambia and Zimbabwe, Canada mens legally traded because the same altered by humans. Visitors may use them and the United States, and Costa Rica and specimen could be imported and reex- for recreation and study. Panama. These sites, referred to as interna- ported by a number of countries in a single tional heritage sites, are counted only once year. However, the impact of international • Category III. Natural monuments and natu- in continental and world totals. ral landmarks contain unique geological for- trade on a particular species can be greater mations, special animals or plants, or unu- Any party to the Convention on Wet- than the numbers reported because of mor- sual habitats. lands of International Importance Espe- tality (during capture or collection, transit, cially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, and quarantine), illegal trade, trade to or Partially protected areas are areas that may from countries that are not CITES mem- be managed for specific uses, such as recre- 1971) who agrees to respect the site's integ- rity and to establish wetland reserves, can bers, and omission of domestic trade data. ation or tourism, or areas that provide opti- designate wetlands of international import- Ivory trade is currently prohibited. For in- mum conditions for certain species or ance. communities of wildlife. Some extractive formation on 1988 ivory trade, see World Re- use within these areas is allowed. They en- Because categories overlap, the total num- sources 1990-91, Table 20.3. compass two management categories: ber of protected sites is less than the sum of • Category IV. Managed nature reserves and all the categories. Table 20.3 Management Prob- wildlife sanctuaries are protected for speci- lems at World Heritage Sites fic purposes, such as conservation of a signi- Table 20.2 Trade in Wildlife and ficant plant or animal species. Wildlife Products Reported by Sources: Protected Areas Data Unit • Category V. Protected landscapes and sea- CITES, 1988 (PADU) of the World Conservation Moni- scapes may be entirely natural or may in- toring Centre (WCMC), World Heritage at clude cultural landscapes (e.g., scenically Risk unpublished draft report (WCMC, attractive agricultural areas). Source: World Conservation Monitoring Cambridge, United Kingdom, November Marine and coastal protected areas only refer Centre (WCMC), unpublished data 1990); reference to parks and reserves en- to all protected areas with littoral, coral, is- (WCMC, Cambridge, United Kingdom, Sep- compassed by heritage sites: World Conser- land, marine, or estuarine components. The tember 1991). vation Union (IUCN), 1990 United Nations area given is the whole protected area. CITES members agree to prohibit com- List of National Parks and Protected Areas The figures in Table 20.1 do not include mercial international trade in endangered (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cam- locally or provincially protected sites, pri- species and to closely monitor trade in spe- bridge, United Kingdom, 1990); total heri- vately owned areas, or areas managed pri- cies that may become depleted by trade. tage site numbers (in technical note): Jim marily for the extraction of natural re- Species are listed in the appendixes to Thorsell, Senior Advisor, Natural Heritage, sources. National lists usually include sites CITES on the basis of the degree of rarity IUCN, September 25,1991 (personal com- that are listed under international protection and of threat from trade. Trade is prohib- munication); natural vs. natural/cultural systems. ited for species in Appendix I (a list of spe- listings: United Nations Educational, Scien- Biosphere reserves are representative of ter- cies threatened with extinction) and is tific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), restrial and coastal environments that have regulated for species in Appendix II (a list List of Properties Included in the World Heri- been internationally recognized under the of species not yet threatened but which tage List (UNESCO- ICOMOS Documenta- Man and the Biosphere Programme of the could become endangered if trade is not tion Centre, Paris, December 1990). United Nations Educational, Scientific, and controlled). Parties to the Convention are re- The 337 world heritage sites established Cultural Organization. They have been se- quired to submit annual reports, including as of January 1991 are areas of "outstanding lected for their value to conservation and trade records, to the CITES Secretariat in universal value," inscribed either for their are intended to foster the scientific knowl- Switzerland. WCMC compiles these data natural features, for their cultural value, or edge, skills, and human values necessary to from those reports. Figures refer primarily for both natural and cultural values. Recrea- Worid Resources 1992-93 310 Wildlife and Habitat 20 tional, educational, and scientific activities • Category VII. Natural biotic areas/anthro- ment includes insufficient staffing; lack of are generally permitted. Cultivation, graz- pological reserves are areas where use is funding or equipment; poor staff morale; an ing, settlements, mining, and other commer- limited to traditional activities by local cul- inadequate management plan for the area; cial activities are allowed within specific tures. poor coordination between agencies respon- zones of some sites on a limited basis. The • Category VIII. Multiple use management sible for managing the site; conflicts between scope of activities permitted is indicated by areas/managed resource areas are govern- management and local communities, and/or the types of IUCN protected areas included ment-owned areas managed for recreation, need for local extension; and the periodic at- within individual heritage site boundaries grazing, and sustainable use of natural re- tacks on people by wild animals. (see below). sources. A limited amount of land that has Other consists of war and civil unrest; un- Management problems reported here are been settled and otherwise "altered by hu- specified problems with soil degradation based on all PADU information sheets for mans" may be included. and erosion; honey gathering; risk of dis- natural or natural/cultural sites available ease and other threats to livestock in areas as of November 1990 (83 sites, or 90 percent Management problems consist of activi- adjacent to park; fish stocking; effects on of the 92 site total reported in Table 20.1). ties that are either negatively affecting a black bear behavior; vandalism; alteration These standard format sheets are compiled protected area or natural heritage values or of marginal areas; ice collection; lack of by PADU on the basis of reviews, reports, that are occurring in violation of laws pro- water; siltation; isolation of forest patches and management plans provided by rele- tecting protected areas within the site, or in the ecosystem; and unspecified loss of vant country authorities. Threats listed by the site as a whole. species and declining populations. PADU are both those applying to protected Development includes all development oc- area values and those applying to natural curring within the heritage site, such as heritage values (for example, poaching mining (oil and natural gas drilling, peat cutting, and quarrying for minerals), water Table 20.4 Globally Threatened would be listed at a heritage site inscribed for outstanding geological formations even development projects, public and logging Animal Species, 1990 though this activity does not affect its heri- roads, settlements, military bases, ski areas, tage values). Because they are compiled railroads, tourist accommodations, and from a variety of sources and rely to a great other infrastructure not directly related to Sources: International Union for Conserva- extent on self-reporting, information sheets the housing of researchers and protected tion of Nature and Natural Resources vary in quality and detail. Conditions de- area staff. Mining and water development (IUCN), The IUCH Mammal Red Data Book, scribed date as far back as 1986 for some projects occurring outside the site are in- Part I (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1982); In- sites. For these reasons, readers should be cluded under this category if they affect ternational Council for Bird Preservation cautious in comparing data between sites. protected area ecosystems within the site. (ICBP)/IUCN, Threatened Birds of Africa and Tourism includes the negative effects Related Islands (ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, All activities described under the "Man- from recreational and tourism-related activ- United Kingdom, 1985); World Conserva- agement Problems" section of each PADU ities occurring within the site. tion Monitoring Centre (WCMC), series of information sheet were assigned to a man- reports on Conservation of Biological Diver- agement problem category, as described Pollution encompasses air and water pol- lution, noise pollution, and littering. sity (for some data on Botswana, Cote below. Threats were considered potential if d'lvoire, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, the activity described had yet to take place. External threats include all development (except water projects and mining), log- Nigeria, Senegal, India, Myanmar, and the Threats were considered minor if they were Philippines) (WCMC, Cambridge, 1988 and described as a "minor" or "slight" threat, if ging, agriculture, hunting, and other activi- ties in areas outside the heritage site that 1989); unpublished data (WCMC, Cam- the activity described was "almost under" bridge, United Kingdom, 1991). control, or if associated problems from are having an adverse effect on the site. these activities were described as "few" or Sites where there is a stated risk of a grow- Sub-Saharan Africa (all species known): "negligible." All other threats described ing population encroaching onto protected Richard Adams, Simon Stuart, IUCN, were classed as significant. lands are also considered to be threatened Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Its Is- by external causes. lands (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1990); The 13 management problem categories North Africa (bird species known): Jeffery presented here are based on a broader Threats to local cultures come from activi- ties adversely affecting resident indigenous A. Sayer, Simon Stuart, IUCN, Environmen- range of categories described in the draft tal Conservation, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Autumn World Heritage at Risk. They were selected cultures, and threats to archaeological re- mains within these sites. 1988); China and Indonesia (mammal and as best representing the root causes of the bird species known): Regional Physical full range of threats described in the PADU Grazing and cultivation encompasses il- legal or problem cultivation and grazing by Planning Programme for Transmigration, information sheets for each site. For exam- The Land Resources of Indonesia: A National ple, rather than listing erosion resulting domestic animals within the heritage site. Illegal or overharvest of wildlife includes Overview (Department of Transmigration, from overgrazing at a site as both a "graz- Jakarta, Indonesia, 1990); Mexico: Conserva- ing" and "erosion" problem, the former cat- poaching or overharvest of all nonplant spe- cies. tion International (CI), Mexico's Living En- egory has been chosen as best describing dowment: An Overview of Biological Diversity this type of management problem. Illegal or overharvest of trees/plants includes illegal cutting or vegetation removal, and (CI, n.p., April 1989); Panama (bird species In some instances, one activity described cutting/vegetation removal that either ex- known): James R. Karr, Acting Director, in an information sheet constitutes several ceeds natural replacement or has other neg- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, management problems. ative effects on the ecosystem. September 25,1987 (personal communica- IUCN protected area classes included de- tion); Canada, United States including Car- scribes some of the types of protected areas Fire and natural threats consist of human- caused fires, natural fires, drought and vul- ibbean and Pacific islands, Europe, Turkey, included within the boundaries of the heri- Japan, and New Zealand (all species tage site. For descriptions of categories I-V, nerability to natural catastrophes, and effects of overbrowsing by elephants. known), and Australia (birds, reptile, fish, and biosphere reserves (category IX), refer to and amphibian species known): Organisa- the Technical Notes for Table 20.1. IUCN cat- Introduced plant and animal species means the presence of exotic plants and animals, tion for Economic Co-operation and Devel- egories VI-VTII refer to areas where limited opment (OECD), OECD Environmental Data resource use is permitted, as described below: as well as feral livestock. Inadequate or insufficient legal protection en- Compendium 1991 (OECD, Paris, 1991); Viet • Category VI. Resource reserves/interim compasses threats to protected area integ- Nam: Vo Quy, "Viet Nam's Ecological Situ- conservation units are undeveloped re- rity from land claims, the temporary ceding ation Today," ESCAP Environment News, gions where access is restricted to "ongoing of land to logging companies, or sites Vol. 6, No. 4 (October-December 1988); ecologically sound activities." This cate- judged not large enough or with inade- Czechoslovakia (bird species known): gory is established for areas where govern- quate legal status to protect vital compo- CSSR Red Data Book, 1988; U.S.S.R.: A.V. ments want to control development, or nents of an ecosystem, or to ensure Yablokov, Ostroumov, Okhrana Zhivoi areas where protective legislation has been protection of key species within the heri- Prirody (The Conservation of Living Nature) established, but not yet implemented. tage site. Inadequate or insufficient manage- (Moscow, 1983). World Resources 1992-93 311 20 Wildlife and Habitat The World Conservation Union classifies also steeper for islands than for mainland Costa Rica y el gobierno de los paises bajos con threatened and endangered species in six countries. At present, there are insufficient el fin de apoyar el desarrollo forestal, July 1988 categories: regional data to estimate separate slopes for (financial agreement); Swedish Embassy • Endangered. "Taxa in danger of extinction each country. Completion of the purchase of $24.5 million and whose survival is unlikely if the causal worth of Costa Rican commercial foreign debt, factors continue operating." Table 20.5 Rare and Threat- May 6,1989 (press release). This table lists • Vulnerable. "Taxa believed likely to move ened Plants, 1991 officially sanctioned and funded debt-for- into the Endangered category in the near fu- nature swaps as of November 1991. ture if the causal factors continue operat- Sources: Number of plant taxa: World Con- Debt-for-nature swaps involve the pur- ing." servation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), chase of developing country debt at a dis- Threatened Plants Unit (TPU), unpublished counted value in the secondary debt mar- • Rare. "Taxa with world populations that data (WCMC, United Kingdom, September are not at present Endangered or Vulnera- ket, and the subsequent exchange of the for- 1991). Land area data: Food and Agricul- eign debt in return for a newly created obli- ble, but are at risk." ture Organization of the United Nations • Indeterminate. "Taxa known to be Endan- gation on the part of the debtor nation. The (FAO), unpublished data (Agrostat PC, payments on the new obligation are made gered, Vulnerable, or Rare but where there FAO, Rome, 1991); Europa World Yearbook is not enough information to say which of in domestic currency to fund an agreed- 1990 (Europa Publications Limited, Lon- upon conservation program. the three categories is appropriate." don, 1990). Numbers of botanical gardens: • Out of Danger. "Taxa formerly included in Botanic Gardens Conservation Interna- Debt-for-nature swaps are generally fa- one of the above categories, but which are tional (BGCI), unpublished information vorable for all parties involved. First, the de- now considered relatively secure because (BGCI, Kew, United Kingdom, September veloping country services a smaller amount effective conservation measures have been 1991); C.A. Heywood, V.H. Heywood, and of domestic debt. Instead of having to pay a taken or the previous threat to their sur- P.S. Wyse Jackson, 2990 International Direc- foreign source in hard currency, local cur- vival has been removed." tory of Botanical Gardens, 5th Ed., (Koeltz Sci- rency is used for investment inside the • Insufficiently Known. "Taxa that are sus- entific Books, Koenigstein, Germany, 1991). country for nature conservation. The local pected but not definitely known to belong conservation agencies receive substantial Unless otherwise noted, the Number of funds for natural resource conservation. to any of the above categories." plant taxa refers to the number of native vas- The funds of the conservation organization The number of threatened species listed cular plant species found in the country. that purchased the debt from the lending in- for all countries includes full species that are Endemic flora as percentage of total includes stitution are in effect converted at a more fa- endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, plants that occur only in a single geopoliti- vorable exchange rate. And the lending and insufficiently known, but excludes intro- cal area or island group. institution reduces the amount of doubtful duced species or those known to be extinct. The number of rare and threatened plant loans on its books. The total number of species includes intro- taxa includes all plants classified as Endan- ductions. Data on mammals exclude ceta- Since 1987, debt-for-nature swaps have gered, Vulnerable, Rare, or Indeterminate. generated more than $60 million for conser- ceans (whales and porpoises). Threatened See the Technical Note for Table 20.4. bird species are listed for countries included vation efforts while relieving close to $100 Most plant data were compiled by million in foreign debt. As of November within their breeding and/or wintering WCMC from the floristic literature, na- ranges. Threatened marine turtles and ma- 1991,17 such swaps and 21 transactions tional Red Data Books, national lists of threat- have taken place in Bolivia, Costa Rica, the rine fish are excluded from country totals. ened species, scientific journals, and papers. Endangered fish species numbers do not in- Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Red Data Books, prepared for over 70 coun- Jamaica, Madagascar, Mexico, the Philip- clude approximately 250 haplochromine tries or islands, generally use the IUCN clas- and 2 tilapiine species of Lake Victoria cich- pines, Poland, and Zambia. sification system to indicate the degree of Country refers to the less-developed coun- lids, since the ranges of these species are un- threats to individual species of endemic determined. Threatened species per 10,000 km2 try that has agreed to put local currency to- and nonendemic plants. ward environmental protection in exchange provides a relative estimate for comparing numbers of threatened species between Table 20.5 usually lists the total recorded for a portion of its foreign debt. countries of differing size. Because the rela- species, but it sometimes includes esti- Purchaser/fundraiser refers to the conserva- tionship between area and species number mates. Figures are not comparable between tion organization(s) or government that ac- is nonlinear (as increasingly large areas are countries because taxonomic concepts and quired the less-developed country's debt sampled, the number of new species located the extent of knowledge vary. For addi- on the secondary market and exchanged it decreases), a species-area curve has been tional information, see Stephen D. Davis, et for money to be put toward environmental used to standardize these species numbers. al., Plants in Danger: What Do We Know? protection in the developing country. The curve predicts how many threatened (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1986). Date is the date that the actual transaction species a country would have, given its cur- Rare and threatened plant taxa per 10,000 for the debt-for-nature swap was approved. rent number of threatened species, if it was km2 provides a relative estimate for compar- Face value of debt refers to the contracted a uniform 10,000 square kilometers. It is cal- ing numbers of threatened plant taxa be- amount of debt that the less-developed na- culated using the formula: S = cAz where S tween countries of differing size. Refer to tion owed to the commercial bank. In some = the number of endangered species, A = the Technical Notes for Table 20.4. swaps, the agreed-upon amount of debt is area, and c and z are constants. The slope of Number of botanical gardens shows the swapped through several transactions over the species-area curve is determined by the number of gardens that are known to exist a period of time. This column identifies the constant z, which is approximately 0.33 for in the world and members of BGCI shows total agreed-upon sum, including pending large areas containing many habitats. This which of these were members of Botanic transactions, and which transactions have constant is based on data from previous Gardens Conservation International at the been approved. studies of species-area relationships. In real- end of August 1991. BGCI, which has re- Cost is the price the conservation organi- ity, the constant z would differ among re- cords of approximately 60,000 rare plants in zation(s) or government paid for the debt. gions and countries, because of differences cultivation, estimates that botanical gar- Conservation funds generated refers to the in species' range size (which tends to be dens throughout the world contain about money that the less-developed country has smaller in the tropics) and differences in va- 90,000 plant taxa. agreed to allocate to local environmental rieties of habitats present. A tropical coun- protection, in exchange for its foreign debt. try with a broad variety of habitats would Table 20.6 Debt-for-Nature Purpose describes types of projects that be expected to have a steeper species-area Swaps the conservation funds are supporting. curve than a temperate, homogenous coun- try because one would predict a greater Sources: World Wide Fund for Nature number of both species and threatened spe- (WWF); Conservation International (CI); cies per unit area. Species-area curves are The Nature Conservancy (TNC); Convenio sobre cooperacion financiera entre el gobierno de World Resources 1992-93 312 21. Energy and Materials The world's production of commercial energy (see provements, or a structural shift to a less energy-inten- Table 21.1) has grown by 14 percent in the past de- sive economy (e.g., a more service-based economy), or cade. Liquid fuels are still the dominant commercial a combination of the two. For most industrialized fuel, accounting for 42 percent of the world's commer- countries and many developing countries, energy in- cial energy production. At 130 exajoules (equivalent to tensities have declined over the past decade. Japan the energy content of 21.2 billion barrels of oil), 1989 and most countries of the European Community are production was only 4 percent lower than its all time among the industrialized countries with the world's high in 1979. Gaseous fuel production grew faster than lowest energy intensities. In comparison, energy inten- any other fossil fuel during the same period. Of all sities are still much higher for the majority of Central commercial energy sources, primary electricity produc- European countries, and slightly higher for most devel- tion increased the most (73 percent) from 1979 to 1989, oping countries. mainly a result of expanding nuclear power genera- Table 21.3 shows the relative shares of a country's tion. In 1989, industrialized countries produced 95 per- total commercial energy consumption used by each cent of the world's nuclear and 66 percent of its major economic sector. Industry is the primary con- hydroelectric energy. sumer of commercial energy in most European and Table 21.2 presents two indicators of energy use: Asian countries. Transportation accounts for the larg- commercial energy consumption and energy require- est share in the majority of countries on the American ments in conventional fuel equivalent. Commercial en- and African continents. Data in Table 21.3 should be ergy consumption is defined as the apparent con- interpreted with care, because countries use different sumption of commercial fuels using the heat value of sectoral definitions. electricity (100 percent efficiency) as a conversion for With the development of industrialized economies, primary electricity. Energy requirements in conven- the quantities of wastes, both in the industrial and the tional fuel equivalent include not only commercial en- consumer sector, have increased steadily. A compari- ergy consumption but also consumption of traditional son of municipal waste generation (see Table 21.4) fuels (fuelwood, animal and vegetal waste, and char- shows the United States as the biggest waste generator coal). In calculating conventional fuel equivalent, pri- in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and mary electricity is valued on a fossil-fuel-avoided basis Development (OECD), generating 864 kilograms per rather than an energy-output basis. person per year. Most municipalities in OECD mem- Table 21.2 shows the wide disparities in energy con- ber countries provide waste collection services to the sumption between regions and countries. Each person whole population and are responsible for waste dis- in the industrialized world consumed as much com- posal. The United States and the countries of the Euro- mercial energy as 10 people in the developing world. pean Community discard about 60 and 70 percent, Industrialized countries used 2.8 times as much com- respectively, of their municipal waste in landfills, mercial energy as developing countries. Even if esti- whereas Japan, Sweden, and Switzerland incinerate mates for the use of traditional fuels are included, the more than 50 percent of their municipal waste. Com- energy requirements of industrialized countries are 2.4 posting, systematic sorting, and other disposal meth- times greater than those of developing countries. ods play only a limited role in selected countries. The global consumption of traditional fuels is esti- The production and consumption of metals (see mated at 20 exajoules-equivalent to the total U.S. coal Table 21.5) are central to many modern industrial pro- production in 1989. Such a comparison, however, un- cesses. The United States, the U.S.S.R., Japan, and derestimates the critical role that traditional fuels play countries of the European Community consume the for the great majority of people living in developing majority of the world's metals. Only six developing na- countries. For example, most countries in sub-Saharan tions—Algeria, Brazil, China, India, the Republic of Africa are completely dependent on imports for their Korea, and Mexico—make it into the top 10 consumers commercial fuels, and over 70 percent of their total en- of selected metals. ergy requirements usually come from traditional A greater number of producers and more develop- fuels. ing economies can be found in data on reserves of Table 21.2 presents a ratio of the amount of energy major metals. Five countries—the U.S.S.R., South Af- consumed for each dollar of gross national product, rica, the United States, China, and Australia—hold which is defined as energy intensity. A decline in na- over half of the world's reserves of the 15 metals listed tional energy intensity indicates energy efficiency im- in Table 21.6. World Resources 1992-93 313 21 Energy and Materials Table 21.1 Commercial Energy Production, 1979-89 Primary Electricity (a} Total Solid Liquid Gas Geothermal & Wind Hydro Nuclear Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 WORLD 310,972 14 95,713 26 130,299 (4) 70,497 33 141 244 7,539 23 6,783 201 AFRICA 18,926 6 4,072 50 12,461 (11) 2,218 127 0 X 159 (22) 14 X Algeria 3,869 20 0 114 2,378 (10) 1,489 145 0 X 1 (20) 0 X Angola 959 212 0 X 948 214 7 136 0 X 5 34 0 X Benin 12 X 0 X 12 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Botswana 19 78 19 78 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Burkina Faso 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Burundi 1 900 0 250 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Cameroon 345 290 0 X 336 300 0 X 0 X 9 110 0 X Cape Verde 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Central African Rep 0 13 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 13 0 X Chad 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Comoros 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Congo 310 165 0 X 309 165 0 0 0 X 1 600 0 X Cote d'lvoire 12 40 0 X 8 27 0 X 0 X 5 73 0 X Djibouti 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Egypt 2,142 76 0 X 1,868 75 251 123 0 X 23 (33) 0 X Equatorial Guinea 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Ethiopia 2 45 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 45 0 X Gabon 462 6 0 X 449 4 11 846 0 X 2 118 0 X Gambia, The 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Ghana 17 (12) 0 X 0 (100) 0 X 0 X 17 4 0 X Guinea 1 17 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 17 0 X Guinea-Bissau 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Kenya 10 113 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 X 9 88 0 X Lesotho 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Liberia 1 (9) 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 (9) 0 X Libya 2,597 (42) 0 X 2,322 (46) 275 50 0 X 0 X 0 X Madagascar 1 179 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 179 0 X Malawi 2 59 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 59 0 X Mali 1 133 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 133 0 X Mauritania 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Mauritius 0 86 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 86 0 X Morocco 23 (23) 16 (23) 1 (30) 2 (16) 0 X 4 (26) 0 X Mozambique 1 (97) 1 (79) 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 (100) 0 X Namibia 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Niger 5 X 5 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Nigeria 3,747 (23) 4 (24) 3,566 (26) 169 229 0 X 8 (43) 0 X Rwanda 1 10 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 X 1 11 0 X Senegal 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Sierra Leone 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Somalia 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X South Africa 3,875 51 3,859 51 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 (48) 14 X Sudan 2 5 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 5 0 X Swaziland 6 5 5 (2) 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 86 0 X Tanzania 2 20 0 200 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 17 0 X Togo 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Tunisia 224 (9) 0 X 211 (9) 14 (11) 0 X 0 (20) 0 X Uganda 2 13 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 13 0 X Zaire 77 26 4 25 54 24 0 X 0 X 19 32 0 X Zambia 34 (27) 10 (34) 0 X 0 X 0 X 24 (23) 0 X Zimbabwe 159 50 150 60 0 X 0 X 0 X 10 (25) 0 X NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 78,990 10 23,816 31 28,453 4 22,292 (5) 81 286 2,154 8 2,193 109 Barbados 3 58 0 X 2 36 1 138 0 X 0 X 0 X Belize 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Canada 10,830 28 1,717 112 3,794 6 3,981 31 0 X 1,049 19 288 124 Costa Rica 12 105 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 12 105 0 X Cuba 32 141 0 X 30 150 1 75 0 X 0 (23) 0 X Dominican Rep 3 72 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 3 72 0 X El Salvador 7 27 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 20 5 29 0 X Guatemala 15 245 0 X 8 132 0 X 0 X 8 576 0 X Haiti 1 50 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 50 0 X Honduras 3 19 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 3 19 0 X Jamaica 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 X Mexico 7,353 65 221 44 6,046 78 984 18 18 402 83 27 0 X Nicaragua 2 49 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 X 1 (30) 0 X Panama 8 171 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 8 171 0 X Trinidad and Tobago 471 (21) 0 X 323 (30) 147 15 0 X 0 X 0 X United States 60,249 3 21,878 27 18,249 (9) 17,177 (12) 60 282 979 (3) 1,906 107 SOUTH AMERICA 12,610 25 777 177 8,540 7 2,088 73 0 X 1,179 90 27 170 Argentina 1,905 36 13 (28) 1,032 (0) 785 159 0 X 55 42 20 106 Bolivia 165 22 0 X 46 (20) 114 55 0 X 5 26 0 X Brazil 2,318 156 126 23 1,281 133 276 0 X 771 86 7 X Chile 215 38 57 108 58 (8) 66 63 0 X 35 38 0 X Colombia 1,657 186 516 294 860 210 174 43 0 X 108 123 0 X Ecuador 633 38 0 X 612 34 4 128 0 X 18 571 0 X Guyana 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Paraguay 10 434 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 10 434 0 X Peru 355 (20) 3 333 293 (26) 20 8 0 X 38 57 0 X Suriname 13 285 0 X 9 X 0 X 0 X 3 0 0 X Uruguay 14 199 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 14 199 0 X Venezuela 5,325 (11) 61 3,713 4,349 (18) 792 30 0 X 123 128 0 X World Resources 1992-93 314 Energy and Materials 21 Table 21.1 Primary Electricity {a} Total Solid Liquid Gas Geothermal & Wind Hydro Nuclear Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change Peta- Change joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 ASM 85,244 8 29,810 63 45,345 (19 7,673 122 25 317 1,434 59 957 221 Afghanistan 123 34 4 10 0 200 115 35 0 X 3 11 0 X Bahrain 292 34 0 X 97 (11 195 76 0 X 0 X 0 X Bangladesh 159 283 0 X 5 1,710 151 287 0 X 3 25 0 X Bhutan 2 7,900 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 7,900 0 X Cambodia 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X China 28,484 56 21,750 67 5,755 29 586 4 0 X 394 118 0 X Cyprus 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X India 6,920 106 4,920 90 1,428 166 316 412 0 X 230 40 26 156 Indonesia 4,065 7 133 1,532 2,685 (18 1,215 135 1 X 31 497 0 X Iran, Islamic Rep 6,895 (14) 35 33 5,970 (18 866 24 0 X 24 24 0 X Iraq 5,993 (17) 0 X 5,800 (19 191 179 0 X 2 (14) 0 X Israel 2 36) 0 X 1 (23 2 (4C 0 X 0 X 0 X Japan 1,381 20 263 (44) 23 9 80 22 5 25 352 15 658 160 Jordan 1 X 0 X 1 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Korea, Dem People's Rep 1,530 21 1,416 19 0 X 0 X 0 X 114 55 0 X Korea, Rep 579 54 392 10 0 X 0 X 0 X 16 96 171 1,403 Kuwait 3,470 (38) 0 X 3,257 (4C 212 5£ 0 X 0 X 0 X Lao People's Dem Rep 4 4 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 4 4 0 X Lebanon 2 (41) 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 (41) 0 X Malaysia 1,769 202 0 X 1,187 105 559 20,184 0 X 23 474 0 X Mongolia 91 93 91 93 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Myanmar 85 16 2 100 37 (37 42 286 0 X 4 60 0 X Nepal 2 219 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 219 0 X Oman 1,435 125 0 X 1,344 119 91 251 0 X 0 X 0 X Pakistan 600 117 52 89 96 360 391 97 0 X 61 106 0 (69) Philippines 81 27 27 419 11 (76 0 X 19 705 24 127 0 X Qatar 1,076 (10) 0 X 862 (16 214 26 0 X 0 X 0 X Saudi Arabia 12,224 (40) 0 X 11,182 (45 1,042 4,069 0 X 0 X 0 X Singapore 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Sri Lanka 10 81 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 10 81 0 X Syrian Arab Rep 793 112 0 X 767 111 9 553 0 X 17 100 0 X Thailand 416 1,420 97 537 98 25,508 202 X 0 X 20 71 0 X Turkey 642 44 450 55 120 2 7 7,467 0 X 65 74 0 X United Arab Emirates 4,714 18 0 X 3,952 4 762 26C 0 X 0 X 0 X Viet Nam 185 12 158 (2) 19 X 0 X 0 X 8 124 0 X Yemen (Arab Rep) 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X (People's Dem Rep) 353 X 0 X 353 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X EUROPE 40,061 9 18,145 (5) 8,921 59 8,470 (12 26 189 1,674 (1) 2,825 289 Albania 185 9 35 71 121 (3 16 8 0 X 13 33 0 X Austria 250 (18) 23 (36) 51 (31 46 (52 0 X 130 31 0 X Belgium 248 19 97 41) 0 X 0 (64 0 X 1 45 148 261 Bulgaria 528 13 505 21 3 (72 0 (93 0 X 10 (19) 10 (56) Czechoslovakia 1,871 (6) 1,734 (10) 6 31 27 (6 0 X 15 2 88 1,044 Denmark 338 1,761 0 X 232 1,181 105 X 2 X 0 0 0 X Finland 171 128 56 312 0 X 0 X 0 X 47 20 69 200 France 1,938 38 385 (39) 153 77 121 (60 0 X 184 (22) 1,094 661 Germany (Fed Rep) 4,351 (9) 3,034 17 226 14 493 32 0 X 61 (0) 536 252 (Dem Rep) 2,773 16 2,655 17 2 (22 66 (19 0 X 6 18 44 26 Greece 335 134 283 117 39 X 6 X 0 X 8 (40) 0 X Hungary 608 (7) 222 (25) 104 (12 232 (5 o X 1 6 50 X Iceland 16 58 0 X 0 X 0 x 1 450 15 51 0 X Ireland 139 132 50 41 0 X 85 297 0 X 4 21 0 X Italy 938 23 12 (45) 197 173 594 23 11 26 123 (26) 0 (100) Luxembourg 3 818 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 3 818 0 X Malta 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Netherlands 2,440 (32) 0 X 161 140 2,264 (35 0 X 0 X 14 15 Norway 4,873 143 10 33 3,145 299 1,292 45 0 X 426 34 0 X Poland 4,913 (8) 4,748 (7) 8 (43 143 (36 0 X 14 53 0 X Portugal 25 (47) 4 (16) 0 X 0 X 0 X 21 (51) 0 X Romania 2,308 748 57 407 (24 1,108 (24 0 X 45 11 0 X Spain 854 27 477 10 43 10 61 207,000 0 X 70 (58) 202 738 Sweden 497 68 0 (100) 0 (100 0 X 0 X 260 18 237 213 Switzerland 190 24 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 107 (5) 82 103 United Kingdom 8,211 5 2,371 (20) 3,858 18 1,725 17 0 X 25 62 233 69 Yugoslavia 1,058 35 695 58 164 (6 85 10 12 X 85 (11) 17 X U.S.S.R. 69,071 26 15,086 (1) 25,468 4 26,948 90 0 X 802 30 767 344 OCEANIA 6,070 76 4,007 95 1,111 20 808 130 7 75 136 17 0 X Australia 5,656 72 3,945 97 1,035 14 621 100 3 X 52 (10) 0 X Fiji 1 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 1 X 0 X New Zealand 409 151 62 35 76 370 187 359 4 5 79 41 0 X Papua New Guinea 2 30 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 2 30 0 X Solomon Islands 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Source: United Nations Statistical Office. a. The production of primary electricity was assessed at the heat value of electricity (1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 million joules), the equivalent of assuming a 100 percent efficiency. 1 petajoule = 1,000,000,000,000,000 joules = 947,800,000,000 Btus = 163,400 "U.N. standard" barrels of oil = 34,140 "U.N. standard" metric tons of coal. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 315 21 Energy and Materials Table 21.2 Energy Consumption and Requirements, 1979-89 Commercial Energy Consumption Energy Requirements in Conventional Fuel Equivalent Per Constant Per Constant Total Per Capita 1987$USofGNP Imports Total Per Capita 1987 $US of GNP Traditional Percent Percent Percent as Per- Percent Percent Percent Fuels as Per- Peta- Change Giga- Change Mega- Change centage of Peta- Change Giga- Change Mega- Change centage of Total joules Since joules Since joules Since Consumption joules Since joules Since joules Since Requirements 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1979 1989 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1979 1989 WORLD 298,258 18 57 (1) X X X X 346,931 22 67 2 X X 6 6 AFRICA 7,472 52 12 13 X X (265) (153) 12,363 42 20 6 X X 39 37 Algeria 666 90 27 41 10 38 (823) (481) 686 87 28 39 11 36 4 3 Angola 25 (10) 3 (31) 4 X (982) (3,663) 78 13 8 (13) 14 X 49 55 Benin 6 15 1 (16) 4 (9) 99 (91) 54 32 12 (3) 32 6 84 86 Botswana X X X X X x X X X X X X X X X X Burkina Faso 7 28 1 (1) 3 (12) 100 100 87 28 10 (1) 33 (11) 92 92 Burundi 3 109 1 58 2 38 96 79 43 38 8 4 37 (9) 95 92 Cameroon 85 220 7 134 8 108 (234) (307) 204 81 18 32 19 18 68 49 Cape Verde 1 (68) 3 (75) 4 (87) 100 100 1 (68) 3 (75) 4 (87) 0 0 Central African Rep 4 133 1 78 4 121 86 93 38 48 13 13 36 40 92 88 Chad 3 (2) 1 (22) 3 (38) 100 99 36 24 7 (2) 38 (21) 90 92 Comoros 1 178 2 97 4 79 100 100 1 178 2 97 4 79 0 0 Congo 23 548 10 363 11 259 (3,196) (1,249) 44 153 20 81 22 40 76 41 Cote d'lvoire 60 11 5 (26) 6 (1) 83 79 169 36 14 (9) 18 21 52 59 Djibouti 4 3 11 (27) X X 100 100 4 3 11 (27) X X 0 0 Egypt 1,122 94 22 52 32 13 (110) (91) 1,211 78 24 39 35 3 5 4 Equatorial Guinea 1 82 4 50 11 X 96 100 6 20 14 (1) 42 X 83 75 Ethiopia 34 40 1 4 6 11 93 93 413 22 8 (9) 73 (4) 92 91 Gabon 42 71 38 18 13 58 (1,685) (1,013) 71 64 64 13 22 52 39 35 Gambia, The 3 24 3 (11) 14 (2) 99 100 11 7 13 (23) 61 (15) 80 77 Ghana 46 (3) 3 (30) 8 (20) 59 63 236 37 16 (0) 43 14 54 67 Guinea 14 9 3 (14) 7 X 96 96 55 21 10 (4) 25 X 69 72 Guinea-Bissau 2 56 2 26 11 23 100 100 6 13 6 (8) 34 (10) 76 67 Kenya 72 13 3 (23) 9 (25) 93 86 434 37 18 (7) 52 77 79 Lesotho X X X X X X X X X X X X X x X X Liberia 11 (57) 5 (69) X X 95 89 61 (9) 24 (33) X X 56 78 Libya 516 170 117 79 22 339 (2,252) (404) 521 166 119 76 22 331 3 1 Madagascar 13 (11) 1 (33) 5 (6) 97 92 87 27 8 (5) 34 33 78 82 Malawi 10 8 1 (23) 8 (13) 86 79 146 22 18 (12) 117 (1) 90 90 Mali 6 6 1 (17) 3 (24) 96 90 59 30 7 2 28 (6) 85 87 Mauritania 41 406 22 300 46 333 100 100 42 405 22 300 46 333 1 0 Mauritius 14 47 13 31 7 (2) 98 97 30 6 28 (5) 15 (29) 66 52 Morocco 264 35 11 5 13 (7) 84 91 285 32 12 2 14 (10) 5 5 Mozambique 15 (56) 1 (67) 10 (68) a (32) 91 165 5 11 (19) 112 (8) a 76 89 Namibia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Niger 13 97 2 41 6 110 100 65 55 46 7 5 26 56 81 73 Nigeria 592 139 5 73 23 141 (1,864) (533) 1,589 63 14 18 63 64 72 62 Rwanda 6 140 1 74 3 92 77 89 62 34 9 (3) 31 7 92 88 Senegal 41 12 6 (16) 9 (10) 100 100 83 16 12 (13) 18 (6) 49 51 Sierra Leone 9 0 2 (21) 14 (16) 100 100 37 19 9 (6) 58 (0) 71 76 Somalia 12 171 2 103 13 141 99 100 81 56 13 17 84 39 91 85 South Africa {b} 3,098 30 77 2 36 5 a (9) (25) 3,272 25 81 (2) 38 7 a 5 6 Sudan 45 (3) 2 (27) 4 (19) 96 96 254 29 10 (2) 25 9 75 81 Swaziland X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Tanzania 28 (3) 1 (28) 8 (18) 93 92 339 38 14 1 98 16 87 90 Togo 7 (63) 2 (73) 5 (70) 100 100 16 (37) 4 (55) 12 (48) 20 43 Tunisia 167 49 21 16 17 4 (120) (34) 197 45 25 13 20 1 17 15 Uganda 14 44 1 6 3 10 78 83 144 42 9 4 30 8 87 87 Zaire 65 10 2 (19) 9 (7) (3) (19) 422 31 12 (3) 57 12 73 76 Zambia 47 (28) 6 (50) 23 (38) 30 28 201 5 26 (27) 100 (10) 42 58 Zimbabwe 192 50 20 7 33 (2) 17 17 295 29 31 (8) 51 (15) 25 25 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 87,638 5 207 0) X X 14 10 98,570 8 233 (6) X X 2 2 Barbados 12 47 47 42 8 27 75 72 14 23 54 19 9 6 26 12 Belize 3 (14) 14 (35) 9 (42) 100 100 6 (11) 31 (32) 19 (40) 54 55 Canada 8,414 14 321 4 20 (14) (15) (29) 11,087 20 422 9 26 (9 0 1 Costa Rica 43 8 16 (14) 9 85 72 101 30 37 3 22 9 34 33 Cuba 471 18 45 9 X X 97 93 650 13 62 4 X X 30 27 Dominican Rep 81 1 12 (19) 16 (19) 98 96 115 (6) 16 (25) 23 (24) 31 23 El Salvador 34 0 7 (13) 7 13 84 80 87 (1) 17 (14) 18 12 49 46 Guatemala 52 (14) 6 35 7 (21) 93 71 156 22 17 (8) 21 12 51 57 Haiti 10 1 2 (16) 5 0 92 88 66 18 10 (2) 32 17 80 82 Honduras 26 2 5 (27) 6 (17) 90 88 89 25 18 (11) 21 1 56 62 Jamaica 61 (45) 25 (52) 21 (48) 100 99 67 (44) 28 (50) 23 (47) 6 8 Mexico 4,293 39 51 13 30 15 (44) (71) 4,720 38 56 12 33 14 6 5 Nicaragua 31 27 8 (8) 12 55 94 93 71 26 19 (9) 28 54 52 49 Panama 41 17 (24) 10 (11) 95 81 76 7 32 (13) 19 0 31 26 Trinidad and Tobago United States 209 73,370 Sii 3 165 295 (20) (7) 50 15 34 (20) (169) 18 (125) 18 212 80,560 (6) 6 168 324 (20) (4) 51 17 33 (18) 2 1 1 2 SOUTH AMERICA 8,803 24 30 1 X X (42) (43) 14,240 31 49 6 X X 23 20 Argentina 1,813 24 57 8 27 46 4 (5) 2,070 25 65 9 31 47 6 5 Bolivia 79 24 11 (5) 18 29 (112) (108) 105 20 15 (8) 24 25 19 16 Brazil 3,445 28 23 11 (3) 66 33 7,362 34 50 8 25 2 36 30 Chile 458 44 35 22 22 5 51 53 598 41 46 20 29 3 13 12 Colombia 775 33 24 8 21 (2) 1 (114) 1,199 44 37 17 32 7 18 17 Ecuador 200 33 19 2 18 6 (205) (216) 308 41 30 8 27 12 29 24 Guyana 9 (56) 11 (58) 29 (44) 100 100 14 (52) 17 (55) 44 (40) 28 33 Paraguay 27 40 6 2 6 (1) 90 63 93 41 22 3 22 (1) 66 59 Peru 312 3 15 (18) 15 2 (47) (14) 484 12 23 (11) 23 11 19 20 Suriname 15 (55) 35 (62) 13 (44) 90 18 22 (46) 51 (55) 19 (33) 1 2 Uruguay 71 (15) 23 (20) 10 (14) 94 80 119 2 39 (4) 17 4 20 24 Venezuela 1,592 19 83 (10) 36 29 (347) (234) 1,860 27 97 (4) 42 38 1 1 World Resources 1992-93 316 Energy and Materials 21 Table 21.2 Energy Consumption Energy Requirements in Conventional Fuel Equivalent Per Constant Per Constant Total Per Capita 1987 $US of GNP Imports Total Per Capita 1987 $US of GNP Traditional Percent Percent Percent as Per- Percent Percent Percent Fuels as Per- Peta- Change Giga- Change Mega- Change centage of Peta- Change Giga- Change Mega Change centage of Total joules Since joules Since joules Since Consumption joules Since joules Since joules Since Requirements 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1979 1989 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1979 1989 ASIA 70,778 54 23 28 X X (72) (194) 84,136 52 28 26 X X 13 10 Afghanistan 107 258 5 179 X X (208) (15) 157 93 8 50 X X 57 29 Bahrain 228 90 467 24 76 82 a (81) (?R) 228 90 467 24 76 82 a 0 0 Bangladesh 227 125 2 73 12 59 59 30 502 38 5 6 27 (2) 71 54 Bhutan 1 155 1 107 2 c ,5, a 91 (189) 30 9 22 (12) 114 C (50) a 99 95 Cambodia 6 1,353 1 1,063 X 100 98 58 41 7 13 X X 99 89 China 26,156 61 23 40 76 (31) (12) (9) 28,805 58 26 38 84 (32 8 6 Cyprus 51 53 74 38 12 ( 1 100 100 52 54 75 38 12 1 1 India 7,528 94 57 26 ' 13 8 10,693 70 13 37 37 33 25 Indonesia 1,453 44 17 17 ( (276) (180) 2,852 32 16 8 34 (29 53 47 Iran, Islamic Rep Iraq 2,399 567 36 102 45 31 (4) 42 15 X 5' fX (352) (2,478) (187 (956) 2,474 572 35 100 46 31 (4) 40 16 X 14 X 1 0 1 0 Israel 402 61 89 35 11 13 99 99 399 61 89 35 10 13 0 0 Japan 14,533 12 118 5 5 26 91 90 16,573 17 135 10 6 (22) 0 0 Jordan 115 137 29 73 21 X 100 99 115 138 29 73 21 X 0 0 Korea, Dem People's Rep 1,756 28 83 8 X X 7 13 2,025 30 95 10 X X 2 2 Korea, Rep 2,748 83 65 62 18 16 75 79 3,165 91 75 69 21 (12) 7 1 Kuwait 480 146 234 57 14 69 (2,789) (624) 480 148 234 57 14 169 0 0 Lao People's Dem Rep 5 12 1 (13) 4 X 7 15 43 25 11 (3) 42 X 82 83 Lebanon 114 53 42 54 X X 96 98 122 42 46 43 X X 5 4 Malaysia 705 128 41 77 20 31 (89) (151) 834 117 48 68 23 25 17 10 Mongolia 117 62 57 23 32 14 a 34 22 131 51 63 14 36 (19) a 15 10 Myanmar 74 36 2 10 7 S (35) (15) 268 27 7 3 27 2 71 69 Nepal 13 8C 1 39 4 ?1 91 85 226 67 12 29 74 13 94 92 Oman 146 228 98 107 20 37 (1,338) (886) 146 228 98 107 20 37 0 0 Pakistan 930 119 8 60 25 14 35 36 1,330 102 12 48 36 5 26 21 Philippines 527 9 9 (14) 14 (8 87 85 983 21 16 (5) 25 1 38 38 Qatar 250 35 593 (18) 42 41 (546) (330) 250 35 593 (18) 42 41 O 0 Saudi Arabia 2,535 299 176 145 30 281 (3,131) (382) 2,535 299 176 145 30 281 0 0 Singapore 393 (2 146 (13) 16 fi1 100 100 393 (2) 146 (13) 16 (51 0 0 Sri Lanka 55 17 3 1 8 21 89 83 153 21 9 5 22 (18 54 52 Syrian Arab Rep 340 32 28 (7) 27 4 (45) (134) 374 36 31 (4) 30 8 0 0 Thailand 1,026 117 18 79 17 7 94 59 1,631 90 29 57 27 (6) 41 34 Turkey 1,539 69 28 34 22 11 51 58 1,766 40 32 11 25 (8) 22 5 United Arab Emirates 897 268 581 119 33 282 (1,542) (425) 897 268 581 119 33 282 0 0 Viet Nam 210 13 3 (9) 4 X 12 12 465 22 7 (1) 8 X 49 51 Yemen (Arab Rep) 42 204 4 117 X X 100 (734) 42 204 4 117 X X 0 0 (People's Dem Rep) 70 151 29 87 59 X 100 100 74 142 30 80 62 X 8 4 EUROPE 64,465 (1 127 (4) X X 43 38 74,398 6 146 2 X X 1 1 Albania 119 29 37 6 X X (84) (55) 156 26 49 3 X X 13 10 Austria 892 (3 117 (4) 7 ?1 67 72 1,153 4 151 3 9 (15) 1 1 Belgium 1,676 (1? 168 (13) 11 7,2 a 89 85 1,964 (1) 197 (2) 13 (12) a 0 0 Bulgaria 1,291 (1 144 (3) 47 28 a 64 59 1,381 (2) 154 (4) 50 (28) a 1 1 Czechoslovakia 2,733 (4 175 (7) 51 17 a 30 32 2,975 1 190 (2) 55 (13) a 1 1 Denmark 665 (?? 130 (23) 7 33 98 49 747 (15) 146 (16) 8 (27) 0 2 Finland 840 12 169 7 9 90 80 1,164 26 235 21 12 (12) 5 3 France 6,460 (9 115 (14) 7 ?6 80 70 8,815 10 157 5 9 (11) 1 1 Germany (Fed Rep) 9,656 (12 156 13 8 27 56 55 10,885 (5) 176 (6) 9 (21) 0 0 (Dem Rep) 3,648 5 219 5 X X 31 24 3,760 5 226 6 X X 0 0 Greece 918 55 91 47 19 38 76 64 959 51 96 44 20 34 2 2 Hungary 1,136 (8 107 (7) 46 18 47 46 1,344 3 127 4 54 (8) 2 2 Iceland 42 14 165 1 9 10 72 61 74 29 293 15 15 2 0 0 Ireland 392 15 112 10 14 (0 82 65 400 15 114 10 14 (0) 0 0 Italy 6,384 14 111 12 8 10 86 85 6,942 15 121 13 9 (9) 1 1 Luxembourg 136 (13 361 (16) 15 44 100 98 170 (3) 451 (7) 18 (38) 0 0 Malta 21 73 60 78 11 20 100 100 21 73 60 78 11 20 0 0 Netherlands 2,890 (3 195 (8) 13 17 (20) 16 2,957 (2) 199 (7) 13 (15) 0 0 Norway 884 19 209 15 10 15 (171) (451) 1,638 21 388 17 19 (14) 0 1 Poland 5,062 2 134 (5) 79 12 a (8) 3 5,133 3 136 (5) 81 (12) a 0 1 Portugal 543 68 53 58 14 ?.7 85 95 598 46 58 36 15 10 1 1 Romania 3,047 2 132 (3) 56 13 16 24 3,228 4 139 0) 59 (12 1 1 Spain 2,846 10 73 5 9 17 74 70 3,399 14 88 9 11 (14 0 1 Sweden 1,253 (11 147 (13) 8 26 79 60 2,363 8 278 6 14 8 5 Switzerland 710 5 107 1 4 16 77 73 1,079 15 162 10 6 (9 1 1 United Kingdom 8,436 (1 147 (3) 11 19 8 3 9,047 2 158 0 12 (16) 0 0 Yugoslavia 1,771 31 75 23 27 27 42 40 2,034 30 86 22 31 26 2 2 U.S.S.R. 54,958 27 191 16 X X (27) (25) 58,599 29 204 18 X X 2 1 OCEANIA 4,141 40 158 20 X X (16) (47) 4,624 39 176 19 X X 4 4 Australia 3,534 38 211 19 18 3 (28) (60) 3,770 37 225 19 20 2 2 3 Fiji 11 14 (17) 9 (8 100 89 25 34 34 13 20 25 43 48 New Zealand 499 73 151 63 14 45 43 18 666 63 201 53 19 36 0 0 Papua New Guinea 33 25 9 (2) 11 11 95 95 91 14 24 (11) 30 1 64 60 Solomon Islands 2 43 7 2 14 11 100 100 4 (16) 11 (41) 22 (48) 64 38 Sources: United Nations Statistical Office and The World Bank. Notes: a. Change since 1980. b. Data are for South Africa Customs Union (Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland), c. 1988 data. 1 petajoule = 1,000,000,000,000,000 joules = 947,800,000,000 Btus = 163,400 "U.N. standard" barrels of oil = 34,140 "U.N. standard" metric tons of coal. 1 gigajoule = 1,000,000,000 joules = 947,800 Btus; 1 megajoule = 1,000,000 joules = 947.8 Btus. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses; GNP = gross national product. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. tVbrld Resources 1992-93 317 21 Energy and Materials Table 21.3 Commercial Energy Use by Sector, 1979-89 Energy Intensity, 1989 Industry Agriculture (megajoules (megajoules Percentage of Commercial Energy Used for per$US per$US Industry Transport Agriculture Commercial Residential Other Industrial Agriculture 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 GDP) GDP) WORLD AFRICA Algeria 28 22 36 40 6 21 24 a 5 5 Angola 21 24 59 46 0 5 11 14 19 Benin 6 9 72 79 1 21 11 1 1 Cameroon 21 b 19 61 b 53 1 b 11 b 15 6 b 13 Congo 10 80 79 0 11 11 0 Cote d'lvoire 19 20 53 47 6 9 17 6 Egypt 49 47 c 22 24 c 2 c 19 18 c 38 Ethiopia 19 17 64 61 1 3 7 6 Gabon 26 27 a 53 48 a 4 a 7 12 a 3 Ghana 34 38 a 42 42 a 2 a 15 11 a 19 Kenya 21 24 53 50 10 13 3 7 15 Libya 44 62 45 31 0 2 3 5 22 Morocco 40 30 32 32 d 14 21 d 3 4 d Mozambique 25 10 17 19 11 2 48 69 Nigeria 15 16 56 56 a 12 23 a 12 5 a Senegal 28 31 a 62 54 a 3 3 a 1 1 a 5 8 a 2 2 a 5 1 South Africa 64 62 a 22 23 a 0 1 a 5 5 a 5 6 a 3 3 a 32 3 Sudan 27 3fi 50 4fi 12 11 3 ? 4 4 4 2 X X Tanzania 29 34 a 44 40 a 6 7 a 3 3 a 13 14 a 5 3 a 46 1 Tunisia 33 33 a 36 31 a 5 5 a 7 7 a 16 20 a 3 3 a 14 5 Zambia 69 65 c 17 19 c 2 ? c. 6 R c 4 o 2 2 c 16 2 Zimbabwe 50 55 d 24 22 d 13 12 d 7 6 d 5 5 d 2 1 d 35 23 THE AMERICAS Argentina 29 ?5 37 31 5 5 2 1 19 20 8 18 18 8 Bolivia 17 b ?1 rl 57 b 53 d 0 b 1 rl 0 b 0 rl 23 b 23 d 2 b 2 d 8 0 Brazil 40 39 40 37 3 5 4 5 7 10 6 4 10 6 Canada 36 37 28 ?fi 2 ? 12 14 18 18 4 3 15 9 Chile 41 42 a 38 39 a 0 0 a 2 2 a 15 12 a 5 4 a X X Colombia 34 33 38 40 2 ? 3 4 13 14 10 7 14 2 Cuba 48 41 23 ?3 4 4 0 0 12 14 13 19 X X Ecuador 18 19 47 53 5 5 3 1 11 10 16 13 8 5 Guatemala 30 10 48 58 4 4 0 0 12 18 6 9 2 1 Jamaica 58 41 a 21 37 a 2 3 a 0 0 a 6 11 a 13 8 a 13 9 Mexico 40 42 37 34 4 3 0 0 11 12 8 9 23 5 Netherlands Antilles 32 ?0 50 55 0 0 0 0 11 1'- 7 11 X X Panama 12 ?? 62 4B 0 n 6 14 15 14 5 1 10 0 Paraguay 8 14 77 63 0 0 0 1 12 19 3 3 5 0 Peru 35 34 d 36 36 d 7 4 d 2 2 d 17 19 d 4 4 d 12 5 Trinidad and Tobago 60 75 a 30 18 a 0 0 a 1 1 a 6 6 a 3 1 a 54 0 United States 33 an 32 35 1 1 11 1? 18 18 5 4 12 6 Uruguay 32 23 a 37 35 a 5 10 a 2 7 a 17 21 a 7 5 a 7 8 Venezuela 32 39 a 46 40 a 0 0 a 1 4 a 9 10 a 11 6 a 21 0 ASIA Bangladesh 50 54 17 15 5 1 25 19 32 Bahrain 57 69 34 22 0 0 1 1 X Brunei 21 22 47 51 0 0 30 27 2 X China 64 b 64 5 b 5 6 b 3 b 19 b 19 a 3 b Cyprus 38 29 43 52 9 9 10 Hong Kong 44 37 32 36 0 12 16 10 10 2 2 7 India 56 53 a 27 25 a 3 a 2 1 10 13 a 3 4 a 33 Indonesia 33 37 d 32 34 d 0 d 0 0 31 23 d 3 5 d 11 Iran, Islamic Rep 41 42 a 16 23 a 7 a 1 20 15 a 22 6 a 40 Iraq 23 20 a 46 46 a 0 a 0 21 13 a 10 21 a X Israel 34 b 31 4 8 b 4 8 1 b 1 3 b 6 7 b 9 7b 5 X Japan 53 46 20 24 1 2 7 9 10 12 8 7 5 Jordan 11 20 61 55 0 2 0 1 19 18 8 4 17 Korea, Dem People's Rep 88 85 6 8 0 0 0 0 1 156 X Korea, Rep 43 43 18 20 0 3 4 3 33 29 1 2 12 Kuwait 56 45 30 30 0 0 c 19 C 5 6 10 Lebanon 30 4 54 70 0 0 10 10 16 X Malaysia 45 44 37 40 0 4 a 10 9 a 4 4 X Myanmar 49 68 41 27 0 1 8 4 2 0 X Nepal 31 28 34 26 11 3 27 30 0 2 Oman 2 23 c 45 25 c 0 0 c 0 0 c 16 27 c 38 25 c 4 0 Pakistan 42 46 c 28 26 c 4 3 c 11 6 c 12 16 c 3 2 c 34 2 Philippines 41 32 27 23 12 3 4 12 28 5 5 3 Qatar 50 47 a 38 14 a 0 0 a 0 0 a 1 1 a 11 38 a X X Saudi Arabia 38 b 35 c 45 b 32 c 2 b 1 b 13 c 3 b 11 b 4 c 16 23 Singapore 17 37 67 48 0 0 7 5 2 Sri Lanka 19 13 a 54 61 a 0 0 a 21 17 3 a 4 Syrian Arab Rep 46 34 a 35 44 a 3 4 a 10 13 6 a 33 Taiwan 62 56 17 21 5 3 10 5 X Thailand 27 24 45 54 11 1 7 Turkey 26 32 22 22 3 1 1 45 38 2 2 21 United Arab Emirates 1 16 83 68 0 0 0 1 2 14 15 3 Viet Nam 70 b 65 19 b 20 e 1 b 0 b 0 e 4 b 5 6 b X Yemen 7 b 14 75 b 64 a 0 b 0 b 0 a 15 b 15 3 b 7 a X World Resources 1992-93 318 Energy and Materials 21 Table 21.3 Energy Intensity, 1989 Industry Agriculture (megajoules (megajoules Percentage of Commercial Energy Used for per$US per$US Industry Transport Agriculture Commercial Other Industrial Agriculture 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 1979 1989 GDP) GDP) EUROPE Albania 28 27 17 20 0 0 0 0 3 3 52 50 X X Austria 33 30 23 27 0 1 3 4 35 33 7 6 5 1 Belgium 43 41 16 23 2 2 9 8 27 23 2 3 12 7 Bulgaria 29 24 31 37 1 1 0 0 11 10 27 28 26 6 Czechoslovakia 62 56 a 11 7 a 1 5 a 0 1 a 10 18 a 17 13 a 40 33 Denmark 20 20 23 32 9 6 8 9 38 27 3 5 4 10 Finland 43 44 15 19 4 4 2 4 29 21 6 9 11 7 France 38 31 22 29 2 2 22 20 12 15 3 3 7 5 Germany (Fed Rep) 36 35 19 26 1 1 11 11 20 21 13 5 6 4 (Dem Rep) 41 38 11 10 0 0 0 0 40 42 9 9 X X Gibraltar 0 0 53 65 0 0 0 0 6 6 41 29 X X Greece 35 28 33 37 6 7 3 5 18 19 4 4 15 7 Hungary 44 39 10 13 8 6 0 7 21 29 17 5 34 14 Iceland 36 32 41 50 0 2 2 6 18 7 4 4 X X Ireland 31 33 27 26 1 3 9 9 29 27 4 2 34 3 Italy 41 36 23 28 2 3 3 4 27 26 3 3 6 4 Luxembourg 67 54 14 27 0 0 3 7 14 11 2 1 X X Malta 0 0 66 56 0 0 0 0 15 8 20 36 X X Netherlands 41 38 15 20 1 6 2 3 25 19 16 13 12 14 Norway 44 41 20 22 2 2 10 11 19 19 4 5 9 5 Poland 48 38 10 12 4 4 0 0 25 13 15 33 X X Portugal 45 46 30 30 4 4 5 12 12 3 4 14 5 oi Romania 62 40 5 4 0 1 0 0 11 17 21 38 X X Spain 45 38 32 37 5 4 4 6 10 11 4 5 27 5 Sweden 39 39 17 24 2 2 4 10 29 21 9 4 10 4 Switzerland 23 18 25 30 1 1 16 19 31 29 5 3 X X United Kingdom 37 29 22 31 1 1 9 9 25 25 6 6 7 4 Yugoslavia 51 f 45 a 23 f 24 a 2 f 1 a 2 f 0 a 10 f 16 a 12 f 14 a 15 2 U.S.S.R. 54 46 15 15 9 10 11 10 4 14 7 5 X X OCEANIA Australia 39 37 37 39 2 2 5 6 13 12 4 4 10 5 New Zealand 31 38 37 38 4 2 9 6 15 11 3 13 3 Sources: International Energy Agency and The World Bank. Notes: a. Refers to 1988. b. Refers to 1980. c. Refers to 1986. d. Refers to 1987. e. Refers to 1985. f. Refers to 1981. Totals may not add to 100 percent because of independent rounding. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure;; X = not available; GDP = gross domestic product. d d i t i l information, F additional For i f i S see Sources d Technical and T h l Notes. N Table 21.4 Municipal Waste in OECD Countries Annual Municipal Waste Generation Composition of Municipal Waste (percent of total weight) Disposal of Municipal Waste (000 metric tons) Year (000 Per Year Paper Organic as Year Incineration of metric Capita of and Percentage of With Energy Estimate tons) (kg) Estimate Cardboard Plastic Glass Metals Other of Inorganic Estimate Landfill Total Recovery Other Australia 1980 10,000 681 1980 26.0 6.1 15.1 7.0 45.8 41.4 1980 9,800 200 X X Austria 1988 2,700 355 1985 33.6 7.0 10.4 3.7 45.3 60.5 1987 1,836 222 20 730 a Belgium 1989 3,470 b 349 1989 28.3 7.7 7.6 3.7 52.7 47.6 1980 1,530 720 215 832 Canada 1989 16,000 625 1989 36.5 4.7 6.6 6.6 45.6 74.3 C 1989 13,4481,416 c 101 242 c Denmark 1985 2,400 469 1985 38.6 3.4 5.4 5.0 47.6 81.3 1985 1,260 540 X 600 Finland 1989 2,500 504 1985 d 40.0 8.0 4.0 3.0 45.0 85.0 1987 2,000 50 50 450 France 1989 17,000 303 1989 27.5 4.5 7.5 6.5 54.0 59.0 e 1989 7,6846,970 4,670 2,346 f Germany (Fed Rep) 1987 19,483 318 1985 17.9 5.4 9.2 3.2 64.3 63.4 e 1987 12,9175,942 X 624 Greece 1989 3,147 259 1989 20.0 7.0 3.0 4.0 66.0 57.0 1989 3,084 1 c X X Iceland 1985 93 386 X X X X X X X X X X X X Ireland 1984 1,100 311 1984 24.5 14.0 7.5 3.0 51.0 56.0 1984 1,100 X X X Italy 1989 17,300 301 1986 22.3 7.2 6.2 3.1 61.2 64.4 1989 5,286 2,794 595 5,886 Japan 1988 48,283 394 1989 45.5 8.3 1.0 1.3 43.9 77.2 1987 16,486 32,616 8,937 1,507 Luxembourg 1990 170 466 1985 17.2 6.4 7.2 2.6 66.6 44.0 1990 51 117 117 2 g Netherlands 1988 6,900 465 1988 24.2 7.1 7.2 3.2 58.3 88.3 1988 3,790 2,555 1,840 555 New Zealand 1982 2,106 670 1980 33.6 3.0 2.5 7.6 53.3 37.0 1982 2,005 X X 35 Norway 1989 2,000 473 1988 30.0 5.0 3.0 7.0 55.0 77.0 1989 1,500 400 76 100 g Portugal 1985 2,350 231 1985 19.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 71.5 74.5 1989 742 X X 1,936 Spain 1988 12,546 322 1989 20.0 7.0 6.0 4.0 63.0 49.0 1988 9,713 604 367 2,229 g Sweden 1985 2,650 317 1980 43.0 10.0 5.0 6.0 36.0 89.0 1985 1,100 1,400 1,204 250 a Switzerland 1989 2,850 424 1989 32.0 13.0 7.0 6.0 42.0 70.0 1989 460 2,270 1,816 120 a Turkey 1989 19,500 353 X X X X X X X X X X X X United Kingdom 1989 h 18,000 357 1980 h 29.0 7.0 10.0 8.0 46.0 58.0 1989 14,000 i 2,500 j 1,250 i 3,500 j United States 1986 208,760 864 1984 34.7 6.7 9.0 8.8 40.8 37.5 1986 138,705 15,000 k X X Sources: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and United Nations Statistical Commission and Economic Commission for Europe (ECE). Notes: a. Composting and mechanical sorting, only. b. Total is sum from different years and regions: 1982 for Brussels region, 1987 for Flanders region, and 1989 for Wallon region, c. Refers to 1985. d. Household wastes only. e. Refers to 1980. f. Includes methanation and holding area. g. Composting only. h. England and Wales only. i. Direct landfill, j . Includes some industrial and commercial waste, k. Refers to 1984. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1892-93 319 21 Energy and Materials Table 21.5 Production, Consumption, and Reserves of Selected Annual Production (000 metric tons) Annual Consumption (000 metric tons) 1975 1980 1985 1990 1975 1980 1985 1990 ALUMINUM {a} Australia 21,004.0 27,179.0 31,838.9 40,697.0 United States 3,265.0 4,453.5 4,282.0 4,352.3 Guinea 8,406.0 11,862.0 11,790.0 16,500.0 Japan 1,170.8 1,639.0 1,694.8 2,414.3 Jamaica 11,571.0 12,054.0 6,239.0 10,921.0 U.S.S.R. 1,580.0 1,850.0 1,750.0 1,700.0 Brazil 969.3 5,538.0 5,846.0 8,750.0 Germany {b\ 903.7 1,272.3 1,390.9 1,378.5 India 1,273.0 1,785.0 2,281.0 5,000.0 France 399.2 600.9 586.1 720.9 U.S.S.R. 4,368.8 4,600.0 4,600.0 4,200.0 Italy 270.0 458.0 470.0 652.0 China 985.5 1,500.0 1,650.0 4,000.0 China 320.0 550.0 630.0 650.0 Suriname 4,927.6 4,646.0 3,738.0 3,267.0 United Kingdom 392.7 409.3 350.4 453.7 Yugoslavia 2,306.3 3,138.0 3,538.0 2,952.0 India 145.0 233.8 297.6 420.0 Greece 3,005.3 3,286.0 2,453.0 2,700.0 Canada 293.3 311.9 345.0 415.7 Ten Countries Total 58,816.9 75,588.0 73,973.9 98,987.0 Ten Countries Total 8,739.7 11,778.7 11,796.8 13,157.4 Worid Total 74,927.0 89,220.0 84,189.0 109,118.0 Worid Total 11,349.8 15,297.9 15,861.5 17,877.9 Bauxite, Worid Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 21,800,000 Worid Reserves Life Index (years) 200 Bauxite, Worid Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 24,500,000 Worid Reserve Base Life Index (years) 225 CADMIUM U.S.S.R. 2.6 2.9 3.0 2.8 Japan 0.4 1.1 1.9 4.8 Japan 2.7 2.2 2.5 2.4 United States 3.0 3.9 3.7 3.1 Belgium 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.8 Belgium 1.0 1.7 1.9 2.7 United States 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.7 U.S.S.R. 2.2 2.4 2.9 2.3 c Canada 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.4 France 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.8 Germany {b} 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.2 United Kingdom 1.0 1.3 1.4 0.9 Mexico 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 Germany {b} 1.6 2.2 1.6 0.9 China 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 Mexico X 0.3 0.2 0.5 Italy 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.7 China X 0.3 0.4 0.4 c Australia 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.7 Korea, Rep X 0.2 0.3 0.4 Ten Countries Total 12.1 13.3 14.1 14.5 Ten Countries Total 10.2 14.5 15.4 17.8 Worid Total 15.2 18.2 19.1 20.2 Worid Total 12.6 17.0 17.6 20.7 c Worid Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 535 Worid Reserves Life Index (years) X d Worid Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 970 Worid Reserve Base Life Index (years) X d COPPER Chile 831.0 1,063.0 1,359.8 1,603.2 United States 1,396.5 1,867.7 1,958.0 2,142.5 United States 1,282.2 1,181.1 1,104.8 1,587.2 Japan 827.4 1,158.3 1,226.3 1,576.5 Canada 733.8 716.4 738.6 779.6 Germany fb} 746.6 870.8 886.8 1,027.8 U.S.S.R. 580.0 590.0 600.0 600.0 U.S.S.R. 1,220.0 1,300.0 1,305.0 1,000.0 Zambia 676.9 595.8 452.6 445.0 China 316.0 386.0 420.0 512.0 Poland 230.4 343.0 431.3 380.0 France 364.5 433.4 397.8 477.6 China 99.8 115.0 185.0 375.0 Italy 290.0 388.0 362.0 474.8 Zaire 462.6 425.7 470.0 370.0 Belgium 177.4 303.9 309.6 389.5 Peru 165.8 336.1 391.3 334.0 Korea, Rep 28.0 84.0 206.6 324.2 Australia 219.0 243.5 259.8 316.0 United Kingdom 450.5 409.2 346.5 317.2 Ten Countries Total 5,281.6 5,609.6 5,993.2 6,790.0 Ten Countries Total 5,816.9 7,201.3 7,418.6 8,242.1 Worid Total 6,739.0 7,204.0 7,870.0 8,814.0 Worid Total 7,457.5 9,374.6 9,699.9 10,773.2 World Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 321,000 Worid Reserves Life Index (years) 36 Worid Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 549,000 Worid Reserve Base Life Index (years) 62 LEAD Australia 407.8 397.5 498.0 563.0 United States 1,120.2 1,094.0 1,141.7 1,288.4 United States 563.8 550.4 424.4 495.2 U.S.S.R. 620.0 800.0 800.0 650.0 U.S.S.R. 480.8 420.0 440.0 450.0 Germany {b} 373.5 433.1 440.0 447.5 China 99.8 160.0 200.0 315.0 Japan 189.4 392.5 394.9 416.9 Canada 349.1 296.6 268.3 236.2 United Kingdom 306.0 295.5 274.3 301.6 Peru 184.5 189.1 201.5 189.0 Italy 192.0 275.0 235.0 258.0 Mexico 178.6 145.5 206.7 179.9 France 190.3 212.8 208.0 254.5 Korea, Dem People's Rep 117.9 125.0 110.0 120.0 China 185.0 210.0 220.0 250.0 Sweden 70.4 72.2 75.9 90.0 Korea, Rep 10.2 33.0 63.2 150.0 Yugoslavia 126.9 121.5 115.1 73.0 Spain 111.0 110.7 103.1 114.6 Ten Countries Total 2,579.7 2,477.8 2,539.9 2,711.3 Ten Countries Total 3,297.6 3,856.6 3,880.2 4,131.5 Worid Total 3,432.2 3,448.2 3,431.2 3,367.2 Worid Total 4,526.2 5,348.3 5,440.7 5,544.5 Worid Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 70,000 Worid Reserves Life Index (years) 21 Worid Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 120,000 Worid Reserve Base Life Index (years) 36 MERCURY U.S.S.R. 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.1 United States 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.2 c Spain 1.5 1.5 0.9 1.5 Spain 0.2 0.2 e 0.6 0.8 f China 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.8 Algeria X X 0.2 0.7 f Algeria 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 United Kingdom 0.7 0.4 e 0.3 0.4 f Mexico 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.3 China 0.5 0.5 e 0.4 0.3 g Finland 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 Brazil X X 0.2 0.3 f Czechoslovakia 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 Germany (Fed Rep) 0.4 0.5 h 0.3 0.2 f Turkey 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 Mexico X X 0.2 0.2 f Yugoslavia 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.1 Belgium 0.2 0.1 h 0.3 0.1 f United States 0.3 1.1 0.6 X U.S.S.R. 0.9 1.8 e X X Ten Countries Total 7.0 6.7 6.1 5.8 Ten Countries Total 4.6 5.4 4.2 4.3 Worid Total 8.7 6.8 6.1 5.8 Worid Total 7.3 7.7 e 7.4 6.6 f Worid Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 130 Worid Reserves Life Index (years) 22 Worid Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 240 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 41 World Resources 1992-93 320 Energy and Materials 21 Metals, 1975-90 Table 21.5 Annual Production (000 metric tons) Annual Consumption (000 metric tons) 1975 1980 1985 1990 1975 1980 1985 1990 NICKEL U.S.S.R. 152.4 154.2 185.1 259.0 Japan 90.0 122.0 136.1 159.3 Canada 242.2 184.8 170.0 201.9 United States 132.9 143.1 143.1 124.6 New Caledonia 133.3 86.6 72.4 88.0 U.S.S.R. 115.0 132.0 138.0 115.0 Australia 75.8 74.3 85.8 70.0 Germany {b} 51.8 78.1 87.0 93.3 Indonesia 19.2 53.3 40.3 58.0 France 31.9 38.4 31.9 44.8 Cuba 36.6 36.6 32.1 41.0 United Kingdom 20.8 22.8 24.8 32.6 South Africa 20.8 25.7 25.0 36.0 China 18.0 18.0 21.0 27.5 Dominican Rep 26.9 16.3 25.4 33.0 Italy 17.0 27.1 29.0 27.3 Botswana 16.6 15.4 26.3 25.0 Belgium 3.2 3.6 6.6 21.3 China X 10.9 25.0 25.0 Spain 5.0 8.6 8.2 20.6 Ten Countries Total 723.8 658.2 687.3 836.9 Ten Countries Total 485.6 593.7 625.7 666.3 World Total 807.9 779.7 812.6 937.1 World Total 576.2 716.7 775.2 842.6 World Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 48,988 World Reserves Life Index (years) 52 World Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 108,862 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 116 TIN China 22.0 14.6 15.0 40.0 United States 55.8 56.4 37.8 36.8 Brazil 5.0 6.9 26.5 39.1 Japan 28.1 30.9 31.6 34.8 Indonesia 25.3 32.5 21.7 30.2 Germany {b} 15.6 19.0 17.8 21.7 Malaysia 64.4 61.4 36.9 28.5 U.S.S.R. 23.0 25.0 31.5 20.0 Bolivia 24.3 27.3 16.1 18.0 China 14.0 12.5 11.5 18.0 U.S.S.R. 30.0 36.0 13.5 15.0 United Kingdom 14.4 9.9 9.4 10.4 Thailand 16.4 33.7 16.9 14.6 France 10.0 10.1 6.9 8.3 Australia 9.6 11.6 6.4 7.4 Korea, Rep 0.6 1.8 2.6 7.8 Peru 0.2 1.1 3.8 5.1 Netherlands 3.9 5.0 4.5 6.9 United Kingdom 4.1 3.0 5.2 4.2 Brazil 3.3 5.0 4.6 6.1 Ten Countries Total 201.3 228.1 162.0 202.2 Ten Countries Total 168.7 175.6 158.2 170.8 World Total 222.3 247.3 180.7 219.3 World Total 230.5 234.6 214.6 229.7 World Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 5,920 World Reserves Life Index (years) 27 World Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 6,050 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 28 ZINC Canada 1,229.5 1,059.0 1,172.2 1,177.0 United States 839.0 879.0 962.0 991.0 Australia 500.9 495.3 759.1 937.0 U.S.S.R. 900.0 1,030.0 1,000.0 920.0 U.S.S.R. 689.5 785.0 810.0 750.0 Japan 563.0 752.0 780.0 814.3 China 99.8 160.0 300.0 619.0 Germany {b} 360.0 474.0 480.0 529.5 Peru 384.8 487.6 523.4 576.8 China 180.0 259.0 349.0 500.0 United States 425.8 317.1 251.9 543.2 France 223.0 330.0 247.0 284.0 Mexico 288.9 235.8 275.4 322.5 Italy 150.0 236.0 218.0 270.0 Spain 85.3 183.1 234.7 258.0 Korea, Rep 35.0 68.0 120.0 227.2 Korea, Dem People's Rep 159.7 140.0 180.0 230.0 United Kingdom 207.0 181.0 189.0 189.0 Sweden 111.3 167.4 216.4 157.4 Belgium 103.0 155.0 169.0 177.6 Ten Countries Total 3,975.4 4,030.3 4,723.1 5,570.9 Ten Countries Total 3,560.0 4,364.0 4,514.0 4,902.6 World Total 5,849.7 5,961.6 6,758.3 7,325.0 World Total 5,062.0 6,283.0 6,552.0 6,972.9 World Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 144,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 20 World Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 295,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 40 IRON ORE U.S.S.R. 232,792.0 244,702.6 247,639.0 236,000.0 U.S.S.R. 189,177.0 197,840.0 203,760.0 199,700.0 Brazil 89,889.6 114,726.7 128,251.0 150,000.0 China 66,436.0 120,394.0 140,354.0 183,963.0 China 65,024.0 68,072.0 80,000.0 118,000.0 Japan 132,689.0 108,693.0 102,215.0 107,395.0 c Australia 97,646.7 95,529.4 97,447.0 110,000.0 United States 127,531.0 90,832.0 64,679.0 73,002.0 c United States 80,127.9 70,726.8 49,533.0 59,032.0 Germany (Fed Rep) 48,193.0 i 50,072.0 45,204.0 46,867.0 c India 41,403.0 41,934.4 42,545.0 52,000.0 Brazil 21,453.0 18,383.0 36,419.0 40,079.0 Canada 46,866.0 48,751.7 39,502.0 36,443.0 France 42,094.0 i 37,875.0 26,606.0 25,750.0 c South Africa 12,297.7 26,310.3 24,414.0 30,347.0 Korea, Rep 1,241.0 9,675.0 11,709.0 22,870.0 Venezuela 24,771.1 16,101.6 14,710.0 20,365.0 United Kingdom 23,696.0 i 9,326.0 15,176.0 18,663.0 c Sweden 30,865.1 27,183.1 20,454.0 19,890.0 Belgium 16,871.0 i 15,756.0 13,353.0 13,479.0 c Ten Countries Total 721,683.1 754,038.6 744,495.0 832,077.0 Ten Countries Total 669,381.0 658,846.0 659,475.0 731,768.0 World Total 902,388.8 890,924.3 860,640.0 864,370.0 World Total 902,388.8 890,924.3 860,640.0 924,869.0 c World Reserves 1990 (000 metric tons) 151,000,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 175 World Reserve Base 1990 (000 metric tons) 229,000,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 265 STEEL, CRUDE U.S.S.R. 141,327.2 147,943.5 154,670.0 154,000.0 U.S.S.R. 141,031.0 150,330.0 157,161.0 166,319.0 c Japan 102,314.0 111,396.9 105,281.0 110,339.0 United States 116,821.0 114,433.0 105,593.0 102,351.0 c United States 105,817.6 101,456.7 80,069.0 89,726.0 Japan 68,080.0 79,007.0 73,377.0 93,278.0 c China 25,401.6 37,120.8 46,721.0 66,000.0 China 29,110.0 43,005.0 71,428.0 69,504.0 c Germany {b} 46,888.6 51,147.0 48,350.0 44,022.0 Germany {b} 39,793.0 44,631.0 39,995.0 44,269.0 c Italy 21,836.3 26,501.1 23,789.0 25,439.0 Italy 17,778.0 26,764.0 21,880.0 27,994.0 c Korea, Rep 2,009.4 8,558.5 13,539.0 23,125.0 India 8,086.0 10,900.0 14,400.0 20,036.0 c Brazil 8,308.1 15,338.9 20,456.0 20,572.0 Korea, Rep 2,964.0 6,100.0 11,310.0 18,300.0 c France 21,530.6 23,176.2 18,833.0 19,017.0 France 19,261.0 20,159.0 14,812.0 17,565.0 c United Kingdom 20,197.9 11,278.3 15,723.0 17,908.0 United Kingdom 20,903.0 16,050.0 14,350.0 17,400.0 c Ten Countries Total 495,631.5 533,918.0 527,431.0 570,148.0 Ten Countries Total 463,827.0 511,379.0 524,306.0 577,016.0 C World Total 644,208.2 713,813.1 718,131.0 771,979.0 World Total 644,153.0 718,921.0 720,568.0 794,470.0 c Sources: U.S. Bureau of Mines, World Bureau of Metal Statistics (Ware, United Kingdom), and other sources. a. Production refers to bauxite, consumption data to aluminum, b. Data are for both, Federal Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic, c. Data refer to 1989. d. A production/reserve ratio would be misleading because production data include secondary metal, e. Data refer to 1978. f. Data refer to 1987. g. Data refer to 1986. h. Data refer to 1979. i. Data refer to 1976: World reserves life index equals 1990 world reserves divided by 1990 world production. World reserve base life index equals 1990 world reserve base divided by 1990 world production. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 321 21 Energy and Materials T a b l e 2 1 . 6 World Reserves of Major Metals, 1990 Light Metals Metal Base Metals Iron and Ferro Alloys (million metric tons of metal content) (million metric tons) Reserves (million metric tons of metal content) Iron Manga- Chro- Molyb- Tung- Vana- Bauxite Titani- Lithium Index {a} Copper Lead Tin Zinc Ore nese Nickel mium Cobalt denum sten dium {b} urn {c) (d) WORLD 321.00 70.44 5.93 143.91 64,648 812.8 48.66 418.90 3.31 6.10 2.35 4.27 21,559 288.6 2.21 100.00 AFRICA 42.00 4.03 0.15 8.99 3,454 422.8 2.97 341.30 1.78 0.00 0.02 0.86 6,874 45.00 0.02 19.72 Algeria 0.00 0.10 e 0.00 0.10 f 65 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.02 Angola 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 15 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Botswana 0.43 f 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.35 0.00 0.00 6! 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.06 Burkina Faso 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Cameroon 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 680 0.0 0.00 0.21 Congo 0.02 f 0.02 f 0.00 0.02 f 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Egypt 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 90 0.0 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 Ethiopia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Gabon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 52.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.43 Ghana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.9 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 450 0.0 0.00 0.15 Guinea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5,600 0.0 0.00 1.73 Kenya 0.00 0.01 f 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Liberia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 500 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.05 Libya 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 o.oo 0.00 22 0.0 0.00 0.01 Madagascar 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 2.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.03 Mauritania 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 200 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.02 Morocco 0.25 f 1.00 e 0.00 0.16 f 30 X 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.11 Mozambique X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 o.oo 0.00 2 2.4 0.00 0.06 Namibia 1.00 0.15 e 0.06 e 0.33 f 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 g 0.00 0 0.0 X 0.14 Niger 0.00 0.00 0.01 e 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 Nigeria 0.00 0.00 f 0.02 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.02 Sierra Leone 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 140 3.0 0.00 0.11 South Africa 2.00 2.00 0.03 e 3.00 2,500 369.2 2.54 295.20 0.05 e 0.00 0.00 0.86 0 39.6 0.00 11.10 Sudan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 Tanzania 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Tunisia 0.00 0.60 e 0.00 0.08 f 13 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.06 Uganda 0.00 X X 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 e 0.00 0.00 f 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 Zaire 26.00 0.00 0.02 5.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 1.36 0.00 0.00 g 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 3.55 Zambia 12.00 0.15 e X 0.30 f X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 1.00 Zimbabwe 0.30 f 0.00 0.01 e 0.00 30 0.0 0.08 43.50 0.00 e 0.00 0.01 a 0.00 2 0.0 0.02 0.82 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 81.00 21.38 0.08 47.00 8,580 3.6 26.82 0.70 1.09 3.60 0.42 0.14 2,156 35.1 0.54 21.21 Canada 12.00 7.00 0.06 21.00 4,600 0.0 8.13 0.00 0.05 0.50 0.26 0.00 0 27.0 0.18 6.08 Costa Rica 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 78 0.0 0.00 0.02 Cuba X 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 18.14 0.70 1.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 4.59 Dominican Rep 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 30 0.0 0.00 0.08 Greenland 0.00 0.28 f 0.00 X X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.03 Haiti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10 0.0 0.00 0.00 Honduras X 0.10 e 0.00 X 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 Jamaica 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2,000 0.0 0.00 0.62 Mexico 14.00 3.00 X 6.00 180 3.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.01 h 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 1.03 Panama X 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 United States 55.00 11.00 0.02 20.00 3,800 0.0 0.03 0.00 0.00 3.00 0.15 0.14 38 8.1 0.36 8.74 SOUTH AMERICA 94.00 2.75 1.38 9.92 8,213 20.9 1.22 2.30 0.01 1.40 0.09 0.00 4,437 67.6 1.27 14.03 Argentina X 0.18 e 0.00 e 0.31 f 60 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 h 0.00 0 0.0 X 0.06 Bolivia X 0.05 e 0.14 0.55 f 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.36 Brazil 1.00 0.50 e 1.20 2.00 6,500 20.9 0.67 2.30 0.01 e 0.00 0.02 0.00 2,800 67.6 0.00 4.99 Chile 85.00 0.02 f 0.00 0.06 f 220 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 1.27 6.99 Colombia 0.00 0.00 f 0.00 0.00 f 33 0.0 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.08 French Guiana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 42 0.0 0.00 0.01 Guyana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 700 0.0 0.00 0.22 Peru 8.00 2.00 0 04 e 7.00 200 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.01 q 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.93 Suriname 0.00 nnn nnn 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 575 0.0 0.00 0.18 Venezuela 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1,200 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 320 0.0 0.00 0.22 ASM 30.00 9.58 3.66 23.00 7,207 30.8 4.34 23.80 0.02 0.60 1.39 0.61 1,960 69.8 0.00 16.48 China 3.00 son 1.50 5.00 3,500 13.6 0.73 X 0.00 0.55 1.05 0.61 150 30.0 X 8.39 Cyprus 0.01 f 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 India 3.00 0.10 e o.on 5.00 3,300 17.2 0.00 18.10 0.00 0.00 0.01 q 0.00 1,000 35.4 0.00 2.23 Indonesia 3.00 nnn 0.68 0.00 16 0.0 3.20 0.20 0.02 e 0.00 0.00 0.00 750 0.0 0.00 1.54 Iran, Islamic Rep 3.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 27 X 0.00 0.70 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.22 Iraq 0.00 0.00 o.on 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Japan 1.00 nsn R onq e 4.00 13 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 q X 0 0.0 0.00 0.42 Korea, Dem People's Rep 0.72 f 2.00 o.on 4.00 140 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 h 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.63 Korea, Rep 0.00 01R X 0.68 f 17 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.06 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.21 Lao People's Dem Rep 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Malaysia 1.21 f nno 1.10 0.00 34 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 h 0.00 15 X 0.00 1.32 Mongolia 3.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.05 t 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.20 Myanmar 0.24 t 0.10 e 0 0? 0.06 f 0 0.0 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.08 Oman 0.79 f onn onn 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.02 Pakistan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 20 0.0 0.00 0.01 Philippines 10.00 onn 0.00 0.04 f 0 0.0 0.41 2.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.30 Saudi Arabia 0.03 f 0.00 0.00 0.06 f X 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Sri Lanka 0.00 0 00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 4.4 0.00 0.10 Thailand 0.00 0 40 f n?7 1.00 X X 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.47 Turkey 1.00 0.00 e 0.00 1.00 160 X 0.00 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.07 h 0.00 25 0.0 0.00 0.32 Viet Nam 0.00 0.00 X 0.16 f X 0.0 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.01 World Resources 1992-93 322 Energy and Materials 21 Table 21.6 Light Metals Metal Base Metals Iron and Ferra Alloys (million metric tons of metal content) (million metric tons) Reserves (million metric tons of metal content) Iron Manga- Chro- Molyb- Tung- Vana- Bauxite Titani- Lithium Index (a) Copper Lead Tin Zinc Ore nese Nickel mium Cobalt denum sten dium (b) urn {c} {d} EUROPE 23.00 9.69 0.16 26.00 3,214 0.0 0.87 11.20 0.02 0.00 0.09 0.00 1,342 33.4 0.00 4.91 Albania 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 0.0 0.18 1.90 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.07 Austria 0.00 0.02 e 0.00 0.19 f 30 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.04 Bulgaria 1.50 2.00 0.00 0.83 f 30 X 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.27 Czechoslovakia 0.00 0.04 f X 0.09 f 30 0.0 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 f 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.02 Finland 1.00 0.01 e 0.00 1.00 27 0.0 0.08 8.90 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 1.4 0.00 0.30 France X 0.10 e 0.00 1.00 900 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 30 0.0 0.00 0.21 Germany (Fed Rep) X 0.10 R 0.00 1.00 32 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2 0.0 0.00 0.06 (Dem Rep) X 0.00 X 0.00 3 0.0 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 Greece 0.00 0.50 e 0.00 1.00 12 0.0 0.45 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 600 0.0 0.00 0.35 Hungary 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13 X 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 300 0.0 0.00 0.09 Ireland 0.00 0.70 e 0.00 5.00 0 0.0 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.30 Italy 0.00 0.25 e 0.00 2.00 3 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5 0.0 0.00 0.12 Norway 1.00 0.04 R 0.00 0.18 f 200 0.0 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 32.0 0.00 0.79 Poland 10.00 0.60 f 0.00 3.00 25 0.0 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.41 Portugal 3.00 0.00 0.07 2.00 0 0.0 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0 0.0 X 0.31 Romania X 0.50 f 0.00 0.64 f 25 X 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50 0.0 0.00 0.10 Spain 1.00 1.70 R X 5.00 230 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 q 0.00 5 0.0 0.00 0.50 Sweden 1.00 1.00 e 0.00 1.00 1,600 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 q 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.34 United Kingdom X 0.13 e 0.09 0.07 f 14 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 r> 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.14 Yugoslavia 4.00 2.00 0.00 2.00 40 X 0.16 X 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 350 o.o 0.00 0.50 U.S.S.R. 37.00 9.00 0.30 10.00 23,500 294.8 6.62 39.60 0.14 0.50 0.28 2.63 300 8.4 X 14.82 OCEANIA 14.00 14.00 0.20 19.00 10,480 39.9 5.81 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.06 0.03 4,490 29.3 0.37 8.84 Australia 7.00 14.00 0.20 19.00 10,200 39.9 1.27 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.03 4,440 29.3 0.37 7.57 New Caledonia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 4.54 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 1.09 New Zealand 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 280 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 f 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.03 Papua New Guinea 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.15 Solomon Islands 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50 0.0 0.00 0.02 Sources: U.S. Bureau of Mines and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Notes: a. Each country's metal reserves index is the mean of its 15 global shares calculated for each of the metals in the index; for example, a country with 30 percent of the world nickel reserves, 15 percent of the world lead reserves, and no other metal reserves has a metal reserve index of (30 + 15) /15 = 3 percent, b. Dry weight, c. Sum of the two major mineral sources for titanium: rutile and ilmenite; data are expressed in contained titanium dioxide, d. Metal content; world total excludes Argentina, China, Namibia, Portugal, and the U.S.S.R, because data are not available, e. WRI estimate based on U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Availability Program data. f. WRI estimate; the total of reserves for "other countries" was allocated to other producing countries, using production share as weight, g. UNESCO, h. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts and Problems 1985. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. Sources and Technical Notes Table 21.1 Commercial Energy and Zimbabwe refer to net production. and year-specific conversion factors. For ex- Production, 1979-89 Gross production is the amount of electri- ample, a metric ton of bituminous coal pro- city produced by a generating station be- duced in Argentina has an energy value of fore consumption by station auxiliaries and 0.843 metric ton of standard coal equivalent transformer losses within the station are de- (7 million kilocalories). A metric ton of bitu- Source: United Nations Statistical Office minous coal produced in Turkey has an en- (UNSO) U.N. Energy Tape (UNSO, New ducted. Net production is the amount of electricity remaining after these deductions. ergy value of 0.871 metric ton of standard York, May 1991). coal equivalent. The original national pro- Typically, net production is 5-10 percent Energy data are compiled by the United less than gross production. Energy produc- duction data for bituminous coal were mul- Nations Statistical Office, primarily from re- tion from pumped storage is not included tiplied by these conversion factors and then sponses to questionnaires sent to national in gross or net electricity generation. by 29.3076 x 10"6 to yield petajoule equiva- governments, supplemented by official na- lents. Other fuels were converted to coal- tional statistical publications and data from Electricity production includes both pub- lic and self-producer power plants. Public equivalent and petajoule-equivalent terms intergovernmental organizations. When of- in a similar manner. ficial numbers are not available, UNSO pre- power plants produce electricity for many pares estimates based on the professional users. They may be operated by private, co- South Africa refers to the South Africa and commercial literature. operative, or governmental organizations. Customs Union: Botswana, Lesotho, Nami- Total production of commercially traded Self-producer power plants are operated by bia, South Africa, and Swaziland. fuels includes solid, liquid, and gaseous organizations or companies to produce elec- For additional information refer to the fuels and primary electricity production. tricity for internal applications, such as fac- United Nations Energy Statistics Yearbook Solid fuels include bituminous coal, lignite, tory operations. 1989. peat, and oil shale burned directly. Liquid Fuelwood, charcoal, bagasse, animal and fuels include crude petroleum and natural vegetal wastes, and all forms of solar en- ergy are excluded from production figures, Table 21.2 Energy Consump- gas liquids. Gas includes natural gas and other petroleum gases. Primary electricity in- even when traded commercially. tion and Requirements, 1979-89 cludes hydro, geothermal, wind, and nu- One petajoule (1015 joules) is the same as clear power generation expressed at the 0.0009478 Quads (1015 British Thermal Sources: United Nations Statistical Office energy value of electricity (1 kilowatt hour Units) and is the equivalent of 163,400 (UNSO), U.N. Energy Tape (UNSO, New = 3.6 million joules). Electricity production "U.N. standard" barrels of oil or 34,140 York, May 1991); The World Bank, unpub- data generally refer to gross production. "U.N. standard" metric tons of coal. The lished data (The World Bank, Washington, Data for the Dominican Republic, Finland, heat content of various fuels has been con- D.C., April 1991). France (including Monaco), Iceland, Mex- verted to coal-equivalent and then Commercial energy consumption refers to ico, Switzerland, the United States, Zambia, petajoule-equivalent values using country- "apparent consumption" and is defined as World Resources 1992-93 323 21 Energy and Materials domestic production plus net imports, Table 21.3 Commercial Energy BOM), Minerals Yearbook 1977,1983, and minus net stock increases, minus aircraft Use by Sector, 1979-89 1989 (U.S. Government Printing Office, and marine bunkers, minus unallocated Washington, D.C., 1980,1984, and 1991). quantities. Total consumption includes en- Production data for 1990: U.S. BOM, unpub- ergy from solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, Sources: International Energy Agency lished data (U.S. BOM, August 1991). plus primary electricity. Included under im- (IEA), World Energy Statistics and Bal- Consumption data for aluminum, cad- ports as percentage of consumption are net im- ances, Diskette Service (Organisation for mium, copper, lead, nickel, tin, and zinc: ports, minus stock increases, minus aircraft Economic Co-operation and Develop- World Bureau of Metal Statistics, World and marine bunkers, minus unallocated ment/IEA, Paris, June 1991); The World Metal Statistics (World Bureau of Metal Sta- quantities. A negative value (in parenthe- Bank, World Development Report 1991, The tistics, Ware, United Kingdom, December ses) indicates that exports are greater than Challenge of Development (The World Bank, 1979, December 1980, December 1985, July imports. Washington, D.C., 1991). 1990, August 1991, September 1991, Octo- Total energy requirements in conventional Use by industry includes all use of com- ber 1991). Consumption data for zinc: Inter- fuel equivalent is an estimate of the total mercial energy by industry: iron and steel; national Lead and Zinc Study Group amount of energy that a nation requires in chemical; nonferrous metals; nonmetallic (ILZSG), Lead and Zinc Statistics 1960-1988 a given year. It differs from total commer- mineral products such as glass, ceramic, (ILZSG, London, 1990). Consumption data cial energy consumption by the inclusion of and cement; paper, pulp, and printing; for mercury: Roskill Information Services traditional fuels (fuelwood, charcoal, ba- wood and wood products; food processing; Ltd., Roskill's Metals Databook, 5th Edition gasse, animal and vegetal wastes) and by textiles and leather; transport equipment; 1984 (Roskill, London, March 1984); Roskill the treatment of primary electricity. construction; machinery; nonenergy min- Information Services Ltd., Statistical Supple- To calculate total requirements, primary ing; and nonspecified. The transport sector ment to the Economics of Mercury, 4th Edition electricity is valued on a fossil-fuel-avoided includes transport in the industrial sector 1978 (Roskill, London, 1980); Roskill Infor- basis rather than an energy-output basis. and covers road, railway, air internal navi- mation Services Ltd., The Economics of Mer- For example, a hydroelectric power plant gation, and nonspecified transport. It ex- cury, 7th Edition 1990 (Roskill, London, that produces 1,000 kilowatt hours of elec- cludes international marine bunkers. 1990); U.S. BOM, Mineral Industry Surveys, tricity provides the equivalent heat of 0.123 Agriculture includes all uses of commercial Mercury in 1989 (U.S. Government Printing metric ton of coal. However, more than energy in agriculture. The commercial sector Office, Washington, D.C., 1989). Consump- 0.123 metric ton of coal would be required includes energy used in commercial and tion data for iron ore: United Nations Con- to produce 1,000 kilowatt hours of electric- public services. Residential includes all en- ference on Trade and Development ity. Much of the energy released from coal ergy for private homes. For some countries (UNCTAD), Intergovernmental Group of combustion in a power plant is used in the that have difficulty providing a realistic Experts on Iron Ore, Iron Ore Statistics 1981- mechanical work of turning dynamos or is breakdown by fuel for industrial and other sectors, other may include energy used in 1990 (UNCTAD, Geneva, 1991); Statistical lost in waste heat, so less energy is embod- Office of the European Community (EU- ied in the final electricity than in the initial the agricultural and/or commercial and do- mestic sectors. It also includes nonenergy ROSTAT), Iron and Steel Statistical Yearbook coal. The efficiency of a thermal electric 1980,1981, and 1990 (EUROSTAT, Luxem- plant is the ratio between final electricity uses, military uses, and nonspecified uses. bourg, 1980,1981, and 1990); Organisation produced and initial energy supplied. Al- for Economic Co-operation and Develop- though this rating varies widely from coun- Table 21.4 Municipal Waste in ment (OECD), The Iron and Steel Industry in try to country and from plant to plant, the 1981,1985, and 1989 (OECD, Paris, 1983, United Nations Statistical Office uses a stan- OECD Countries 1987, and 1991); International Iron and dard factor of 30 percent efficiency to esti- Steel Institute, Steel Statistical Yearbook 1985 mate the fossil fuel value of hydro, Sources: Organisation for Economic Co-op- and 1989 (International Iron and Steel Insti- geothermal, wind, and nuclear electricity. eration and Development (OECD), Environ- tute, Brussels, 1985 and 1989). Consump- mental Data Compendium 1991 (OECD, tion data for crude steel: International Iron Fuelwood and charcoal consumption Paris, 1991); United Nations Statistical Com- data are estimated from population data and Steel Institute, Steel Statistical Yearbook mission and Economic Commission for Eu- and country-specific per capita consump- rope (ECE), Environment Statistics in Europe 1985 and 1989 (International Iron and Steel tion figures. These per capita estimates and North America (United Nations, New Institute, Brussels, 1985 and 1989). were prepared by the Food and Agriculture York, 1987). Reserves and reserve base data: U.S. Organization of the United Nations (FAO) BOM, Mineral Commodity Summaries 1991 after an assessment of the available con- Waste data were collected by various (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing- sumption data. Specific consumption of means and are not strictly comparable ton, D.C., 1991). nonconiferous fuelwood ranges from among countries. OECD collects data using The U.S. BOM publishes production, 0.0016 cubic meter per capita per year in questionnaires completed by government trade, consumption, and other data on com- Jordan to 0.9783 cubic meter per capita per representatives. modities for the United States as well as for year in Benin. Annual municipal waste generation refers to all other countries of the world (depending the household waste and bulky waste, as on availability of reliable data). The data Similar estimates were prepared for conif- well as comparable wastes from small com- erous fuelwood and for charcoal. Although are based on information from government mercial or industrial enterprises, and mar- mineral and statistical agencies, the United the energy values of fuelwood and charcoal ket and garden residuals that are collected vary widely, the United Nations Statistical Nations, and U.S. and foreign technical and and treated by or for municipalities. trade literature. Office uses standard factors of 0.33 metric ton of coal equivalent per cubic meter of Landfill includes adequately managed The World Bureau of Metal Statistics pub- fuelwood and 0.986 metric ton of coal and nonmanaged sites. Other includes me- lishes consumption data on the metals pre- equivalent per metric ton of charcoal. chanical sorting, composting, and other sented, excluding mercury, iron, and steel. nonspecified methods. The sum of the dif- Data on the metals included were supplied Bagasse production is based on sugar pro- ferent disposal methods may not equal an- duction data in the Sugar Yearbook of the In- by metal companies, government agencies, nual waste generation, because treatment trade groups, and statistical bureaus. Obvi- ternational Sugar Organization. It is methods are not always mutually exclusive assumed that 3.26 metric tons of fuel ba- ously incorrect data have been revised, but and because recycling may be included. most data were compiled and reported gasse at 50 percent moisture are produced per metric ton of extracted cane sugar. The without adjustment or retrospective revi- energy of a metric ton of bagasse is valued Table 21.5 Production, Con- sions. at 0.264 metric ton of coal equivalent. sumption, and Reserves of Se- The countries listed represent the top 10 A petajoule is one quadrillion (1015) lected Metals, 1975-90 producers and the top 10 consumers of joules. A gigajoule is one billion (109) each material in 1990. joules. A megajoule is one million (106) Sources: Production data for 1975,1980, The annual production data are the metal joules. and 1985: U.S. Bureau of Mines (U.S. content of the ore mined for copper, lead, World Resources 1992-93 324 Energy and Materials 21 mercury, nickel, tin, and zinc. Aluminum wide stock inventories are assumed to be Kurtz, Jane C. Olson, et ah, World Bauxite Re- (bauxite) and iron ore production are ex- sources (U.S. Geological Survey Paper 1076- negligible. Crude steel consumption is calcu- pressed in gross weight of ore mined (mar- lated as apparent consumption. The Interna-B, Washington, D.C., 1986); United Nations ketable product). Iron ore production refers tional Iron and Steel Institute converted Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- to iron ore, iron ore concentrates, and iron zation (UNESCO), Geology of Tungsten imports and exports into crude steel equiva- ore agglomerates (sinter and pellets). Cad- lent by using a factor of 1.3/(1 + 0.175c),(UNESCO, Paris, 1986). mium is the production of the refined metal. where c is the domestic proportion of crude Mineral reserves are those deposits Crude steel production is defined as the total steel that is continuously cast. Such an ad- whose quantity and grade have been deter- of usable ingots, continuously cast semifin- justment avoids distortion of the export ormined by samples and measurements and ished products, and liquid steel for cast- import share relative to domestic produc- can be profitably recovered at the time of ings. The United Nations' definition of tion. the assessment. Changes in geologic infor- crude steel is the equivalent of the term The world reserve base life index and themation, technology, costs of extraction and "raw steel" as used by the United States. world reserves life index are expressed in production, and prices of mined product Annual consumption of metal refers to the years remaining. They were computed by can affect the reserve estimates. Reserves domestic use of refined metals, which in- dividing the 1990 world reserve base and do not signify that extraction facilities are in clude metals refined from either primary world reserves by the respective world pro-place and operative. (raw) or secondary (recovered) materials. duction rate of 1990. The underlying as- Estimates for the countries holding the Metal used in a product that is then ex- sumption is a constant world production at largest reserves came from the most recent ported is considered to be consumed by the the 1990 level and capacity. U.S. BOM Mineral Commodity Summaries producing country rather than by the im- 1991. It usually aggregates estimates for The reserve base is the portion of the min- porting country. Data on mercury consump- eral resource that meets grade, quality, countries with minor reserves under the cat- tion must be viewed with caution; they egory "other countries" (2 to 20 percent of thickness, and depth criteria defined by cur- include estimates on consumption of sec- world total). Other published information rent mining and production practices. It in- ondary materials, which are generally not cludes both measured and indicated or unpublished data from mineral special- reported. Consumption of iron ore is the reserves and refers to those resources thatists of the U.S. BOM were used to fill in the quantity of iron ore and concentrates re- are both currently economic and margin- data for these missing countries. In cases ported as delivered to consuming indus- where no published or unpublished data ally economic, as well as some of those that tries. Data for Brazil, China, the Republic of are currently subeconomic. were available to disaggregate the "other Korea, and the U.S.S.R. are calculated as ap- Mineral reserves are those deposits countries" category, WRI allocated the total parent consumption, the net of production whose quantity and grade have been deter- reserve estimate of "other countries" by plus imports minus exports. Such a con- mined by samples and measurements and using reserve estimates of the U.S. BOM's sumption number makes no allowance for can be profitably recovered at the time of Minerals Availability Program or produc- stock inventories. This can lead to discrep- the assessment. Changes in geologic infor- tion data as weights. This assumes that all ancies in the published consumption data mation, technology, costs of extraction andcountries with reserves are extracting the evident in the latest report by the UNCTAD production, and prices of mined product metal. In cases where there is a nonpro- Intergovernmental Group of Experts on can affect the reserve estimates. Reserves ducer with significant reserves, it will not Iron Ore. For example, Brazil had a "re- be reflected in the table and the disaggre- do not signify that extraction facilities are in ported consumption" (domestic and im- place and operative. gated reserves for the "other countries" will ported ores consumed in iron and steel be an overestimate. WRI estimates have to plants, as well as ores consumed for non- be seen as preliminary and must be inter- metallurgical uses) of 23.7 million metric Table 21.6 World Reserves of preted with caution. tons in 1990, compared to 40 million metric Major Metals, 1990 World reserves total may differ slightly tons apparent consumption. Apparent con- from those in Table 21.5 because of differ- sumption of iron ore was chosen in Table ences in rounding procedures. 21.5, because "reported consumption" data Sources: U.S. Bureau of Mines (U.S. BOM), were only available for a limited number of Mineral Commodity Summaries 1991 (U.S. Each country's metal reserves index is the countries and years. Because different coun- BOM, Washington, D.C., 1991); U.S. BOM, mean of its 15 global shares calculated for tries report different grades of iron ore, con- Minerals Yearbook 1985 and 1989 (U.S. BOM, each of the metals in the index. For exam- sumption data are not strictly comparable Washington, D.C., 1987 and 1991); U.S. ple, a country with 30 percent of the world among countries. Because world consump- BOM, Mineral Facts and Problems 1985 (U.S. nickel reserves, 15 percent of the world lead tion of iron ore is roughly equal to world BOM, Washington, D.C., 1985); U.S. BOM, reserves, and no other metal reserves has a production, world production data were Minerals Availability Program, unpub- metal reserve index of (30 + 15)/15 = 3 per- used for world consumption totals. World- lished data, (U.S. BOM, Washington, D.C., cent. January 1991); Sam H. Patterson, Horace F. World Resources 1992-93 325 22. Freshwater Freshwater is essential not only to the maintenance of sources. The number of dams over 15 meters in height human life, but also to the development and function increased almost sevenfold since 1950. Half of all large of modern industry and agriculture. Freshwater re- dams are in China. These structures provide for the sources are unequally distributed around the world, massive storage of water to control flooding, redistri- however, and people routinely impact the supply and bute uneven river flows, generate power, irrigate new quality. They control, dam, capture, and channel fresh- lands, and ensure the supply of water for a variety of water for power generation, irrigation, and industrial domestic and industrial uses. There are, however, po- and domestic uses. Freshwater streams carry many tential environmental costs to large dams. Large dams urban and industrial wastes as well as eroded soil change the flow, temperature, and nutrient character from wastelands, croplands, and urban development. of rivers. They interrupt the movement of aquatic ani- The freshwater resource easiest to access is the re- mals and interrupt freshwater flows to coastal estua- newable component (precipitation minus evapotrans- rine environments. They can flood the lands and piration, see Table 22.1), which flows through aquifers, homes of people and the habitat of wildlife. streams, and lakes. The global renewable resources Table 22.2 also shows the hydropower potential and total over 40,000 cubic kilometers, of which about current state of its exploitation for many countries of 3,200 is withdrawn for domestic, industrial, and agri- the world. Hydropower resources are exploited differ- cultural uses. Many countries, particularly those in ently in each country, depending on inherent energy Southwest Asia and Northern Africa, rely on river requirements, climatic variables, and maintainance re- flows from neighboring countries, and governments quirements. In addition, countries often use only a frac- resort to international agreements (such as that be- tion of their installed capacity over the course of a tween Sudan and Egypt regulating the flow of the year. The importance of hydropower to total energy Nile) to protect their water supplies. Additional production also varies widely. Canada was the largest sources of freshwater are ancient, nonrenewable aqui- producer of hydropower in 1989 with over 290,000 gi- fers that can be tapped to fuel intensive irrigated agri- gawatt-hours, followed by the United States, U.S.S.R., culture and urban life (e.g., the Ogallala Aquifer in the Brazil, Norway, and China. United States and the Nubian Aquifer in Libya). These Dams permanently change the normal hydrology of aquifers can be permanently depleted. a region. They interrupt the flow of sediments to the Desalinization of salt or brackish water is a capital- sea, and the buildup of those sediments behind dams and energy-intensive source of freshwater but one that can quickly diminish the storage capacity of reser- has become a significant portion of total supply on the voirs. Sediment loads are important for the agricul- Arabian peninsula. Many arid countries, such as Af- tural fertility of many floodplains, as indicators of the ghanistan, Sudan, Egypt, the former People's Demo- relative magnitude of upstream erosion, and for main- cratic Republic of Yemen, the Islamic Republic of Iran, taining the integrity of delta lands. Table 22.3 provides and Iraq, annually withdraw over 1,000 cubic meters information on materials transport, total river flows, of freshwater per capita; most of this water is used in and basin area for 260 gauging stations. irrigation. Some countries (Egypt, Libya, Israel, Qatar, Some large rivers, such as the Mississippi, today Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, the former transport relatively low amounts of sediments and Arab Republic of Yemen, and Malta) use almost all or other materials for the size of their basins (0.64 metric even more than their total renewable resources— tons per hectare). The Mississippi earned its nickname, tapping nonrecharging aquifers and desalinization "the Big Muddy," long before its basin was heavily plants. Some countries in the more humid and temper- dammed for power, flood control, and irrigation. ate zones also use large amounts of freshwater. The Other major rivers transport considerably more mate- United States, for example, used 2,162 cubic meters per rial from each hectare of their watersheds. The Hwang capita in 1985, and its total use is higher than that of Ho (at its mouth) transports about 14 metric tons of any other country. Canada, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, materials for each hectare of its watershed, and the Portugal, Romania, the U.S.S.R., and Australia also use Brahmaputra transports only slightly more. Much of over 1,000 cubic meters per capita. these high loads is due to human activity, but soil type Table 22.2 provides data on the numbers of large and typography play a large role. dams, their construction rates, and hydroelectric re- World Resources 1992-93 327 22 Freshwater Table 22.1 Freshwater Resources and Withdrawals Annual Internal Renewable Water Resources 1990 Annual River Flows Annual Withdrawals Per Capita From Other To Other Total Percentage Per Capita Sectoral Withdrawals Total (000 cubic Countries Countries Year of (cubic of Water (cubic (percent) {b} (cubic km) meters) (cubic km) (cubic km) Data km) Resources {a} meters) Domestic Industry Agriculture WORLD 40,673.00 c 7.69 1987 c 3,240.00 8 660 8 23 69 AFRICA 4,184.00 c 6.46 1987 c 144.00 3 244 7 5 88 Algeria 18.90 0.75 0.20 0.70 1980 3.00 16 161 22 4 74 Angola 158.00 c 15.77 X X 1987 c 0.48 0 43 14 10 76 Benin 26.00 5.48 X X 1987 c 0.11 0 26 28 14 58 Botswana 1.00 0.78 17.00 X 1980 0.09 1 98 5 10 85 Burkina Faso 28.00 c 3.11 X X 1987 c 0.15 1 20 28 5 67 Burundi 3.60 c 0.66 X X 1987 c 0.10 3 20 36 0 64 Cameroon 208.00 18.50 X X 1987 c 0.40 0 30 46 19 35 Cape Verde 0.20 0.53 0.00 0.00 1972 0.04 20 148 9 2 89 Central African Rep 141.00 c 48.40 X X 1987 c 0.07 0 27 21 5 74 Chad 38.40 c 6.76 X X 1987 c 0.18 0 35 16 2 82 Comoros 1.02 c 1.97 0.00 0.00 1987 c 0.01 1 15 48 5 47 Congo 181.00 c 90.77 621.00 X 1987 c 0.04 0 20 62 27 11 Cote d'lvoire 74.00 5.87 X X 1987 c 0.71 1 68 22 11 67 Djibouti 0.30 0.74 0.00 X 1973 c 0.01 2 28 28 21 51 Egypt 1.80 0.03 56.50 0.00 1985 56.40 97 1,202 7 d 5 d 88 d Equatorial Guinea 30.00 c 68.18 X X 1987 c 0.01 0 11 81 13 6 Ethiopia 110.00 2.35 X X 1987 c 2.21 2 48 11 3 86 Gabon 164.00 c 140.05 X X 1987 c 0.06 0 51 72 22 6 Gambia, The 3.00 3.50 19.00 X 1982 0.02 0 33 7 2 91 Ghana 53.00 3.53 X X 1970 0.30 1 35 35 13 52 Guinea 226.00 c 32.87 X X 1987 c 0.74 0 115 10 3 87 Guinea-Bissau 31.00 c 31.41 X X 1987 c 0.01 0 18 31 6 63 Kenya 14.80 0.59 X X 1987 c 1.09 7 48 27 11 62 Lesotho 4.00 c 2.25 X X 1987 c 0.05 1 34 22 22 56 Liberia 232.00 C 90.84 X X 1987 c 0.13 0 54 27 13 60 Libya 0.70 0.15 0.00 0.00 1985 e 2.83 404 623 15 10 75 Madagascar 40.00 3.34 0.00 0.00 1984 16.30 41 1,675 1 0 99 Malawi 9.00 c 1.07 X X 1987 c 0.16 2 22 34 17 49 Mali 62.00 c 6.62 X X 1987 c 1.36 2 159 2 1 97 Mauritania 0.40 0.20 7.00 X 1978 0.73 10 473 12 4 84 Mauritius 2.20 1.99 0.00 0.00 1974 0.36 16 415 16 7 77 Morocco 30.00 1.19 0.00 0.30 1985 11.00 37 501 6 d 3 d 91 d Mozambique 58.00 c 3.70 X X 1987 c 0.76 1 53 24 10 66 Namibia 9.00 c X X X 1987 c 0.14 2 77 6 12 82 Niger 14.00 c 1.97 30.00 X 1987 c 0.29 1 44 21 5 74 Nigeria 261.00 c 2.31 47.00 X 1987 c 3.63 1 44 31 15 54 Rwanda 6.30 c 0.87 X X 1987 c 0.15 2 23 24 8 68 Senegal 23.20 c 3.15 12.00 X 1987 c 1.36 4 201 5 3 92 Sierra Leone 160.00 c 38.54 X X 1987 c 0.37 0 99 7 4 89 Somalia 11.50 1.52 0.00 X 1987 c 0.81 7 167 3 0 97 South Africa 50.00 1.42 X X 1970 9.20 18 404 16 17 67 Sudan 30.00 1.19 100.00 56.50 1977 18.60 14 1,089 1 0 99 Swaziland 6.96 c 8.82 X X 1987 c 0.29 4 414 5 2 93 Tanzania 76.00 c 2.78 X X 1970 0.48 1 36 21 5 74 Togo 11.50 3.33 X X 1987 c 0.09 1 40 62 13 25 Tunisia 3.75 0.46 0.60 0.00 1985 2.30 53 325 13 7 80 Uganda 66.00 c 3.58 X X 1970 0.20 0 20 32 8 60 Zaire 1,019.00 c 28.31 X X 1987 c 0.70 0 22 58 25 17 Zambia 96.00 c 11.35 X X 1970 0.36 0 86 63 11 26 Zimbabwe 23.00 c 2.37 X X 1987 c 1.22 5 129 14 7 79 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 6,945.00 c 16.26 1987 c 697.00 10 1,692 9 42 49 Barbados 0.05 0.20 0.00 0.00 1962 0.03 51 117 52 41 7 Belize 16.00 X X X 1987 c 0.02 0 X 10 0 90 Canada 2,901.00 109.37 X X 1986 42.20 1 1,752 11 80 8 Costa Rica 95.00 31.51 X X 1970 1.35 1 779 4 7 89 Cuba 34.50 3.34 0.00 0.00 1975 8.10 23 868 9 2 89 Dominican Rep 20.00 2.79 X X 1987 c 2.97 15 453 5 6 89 El Salvador 18.95 3.61 X X 1975 1.00 5 241 7 4 89 Guatemala 116.00 12.61 X X 1970 0.73 1 139 9 17 74 Haiti 11.00 1.69 X X 1987 c 0.04 0 46 24 8 68 Honduras 102.00 19.85 X X 1970 1.34 1 508 4 5 91 Jamaica 8.30 3.29 0.00 0.00 1975 0.32 4 157 7 7 86 Mexico 357.40 4.03 X X 1975 54.20 15 901 6 8 86 Nicaragua 175.00 45.21 X X 1975 0.89 1 370 25 21 54 Panama 144.00 59.55 X X 1975 1.30 1 744 12 11 77 Trinidad and Tobago 5.10 c 3.98 0.00 0.00 1975 0.15 3 149 27 38 35 United States 2,478.00 9.94 X X 1985 467.00 19 2,162 12 d 46 d 42 d SOUTH AMERICA 10,377.00 c 34.96 1987 c 133.00 1 476 18 23 59 Argentina 694.00 21.47 300.00 X 1976 27.60 3 1,059 9 18 73 Bolivia 300.00 c 41.02 X X 1987 c 1.24 0 184 10 5 85 Brazil 5,190.00 34.52 1760.00 X 1987 c 35.04 1 212 43 17 40 Chile 468.00 c 35.53 X X 1975 16.80 4 1,625 6 5 89 Colombia 1,070.00 33.63 X X 1987 c 5.34 0 179 41 16 43 Ecuador 314.00 29.12 X X 1987 c 5.56 2 561 7 3 90 Guyana 241.00 c 231.73 X X 1971 5.40 2 7,616 1 0 99 Paraguay 94.00 c 21.98 220.00 X 1987 c 0.43 0 111 15 7 78 Peru 40.00 1.79 X X 1987 c 6.10 15 294 19 9 72 Suriname 200.00 c 496.28 X X 1987 c 0.46 0 1,181 6 5 89 Uruguay 59.00 c 18.86 65.00 X 1965 0.65 1 241 6 3 91 Venezuela 856.00 43.37 461.00 X 1970 4.10 0 387 43 11 46 World Resources 1992-93 328 Freshwater 22 Table 22.1 Annual Internal Renewable Water Resources 1990 Annual River Flows Annual Withdrawals Per Capita From Other To Other Total Percentage Per Capita Sectoral Withdrawals Total (000 cubic Countries Countries Year of (cubic of Water (cubic (percent) |b} (cubic km) meters) (cubic km) (cubic km) Data km) Resources {a} meters) Domestic Industry Agriculture ASIA 10,485.00 3.37 1987 c 1,531.00 15 526 8 Afghanistan 50.00 3.02 X 1987 c 26.11 52 1,436 1 0 99 Bahrain 0.00 0.00 X 1975 e 0.31 X 609 60 36 4 Bangladesh 1,357.00 11.74 1000.00 1987 c 22.50 1 211 3 1 96 Bhutan 95.00 c 62.66 X 1987 c 0.02 0 15 36 10 54 Cambodia 88.10 10.68 410.00 1987 c 0.52 0 69 5 1 94 China 2,800.00 2.47 0.00 X 1980 460.00 16 462 6 7 87 Cyprus 0.90 1.28 0.00 0.00 1985 0.54 60 807 7 d 2 d 91 d India 1,850.00 2.17 235.00 X 1975 380.00 18 612 3 4 93 Indonesia 2,530.00 14.02 X X 1987 16.59 1 96 13 11 76 Iran, Islamic Rep 117.50 2.08 X X 1975 45.40 39 1,362 4 9 87 Iraq 34.00 1.80 66.00 X 1970 42.80 43 4,575 3 5 92 Israel 1.70 0.37 0.45 0.00 1986 1.90 88 447 16 d 5 d 79 d Japan 547.00 4.43 0.00 0.00 1980 107.80 20 923 17 33 50 Jordan 0.70 0.16 0.40 X 1975 0.45 41 173 29 6 65 Korea, Dem People's Rep 67.00 C 2.92 X X 1987 c 14.16 21 1,649 11 16 73 Korea, Rep 63.00 1.45 X X 1976 10.70 17 298 11 14 75 Kuwait 0.00 0.00 0.00 X 1974 e 0.50 X 238 64 32 4 Lao People's Dem Rep 270.00 66.32 X X 1987 c 0.99 0 228 8 10 82 Lebanon 4.80 1.62 0.00 0.86 1975 0.75 16 271 11 4 85 Malaysia 456.00 26.30 X X 1975 9.42 2 765 23 30 47 Mongolia 24.60 11.05 X X 1987 C 0.55 2 272 11 27 62 Myanmar 1,082.00 25.96 X X 1987 c 3.96 0 103 7 3 90 Nepal 170.00 8.88 X X 1987 c 2.68 2 155 4 1 95 Oman 2.00 1.36 0.00 X 1975 e 0.48 24 325 3 3 94 Pakistan 298.00 2.43 170.00 X 1975 153.40 33 2,053 1 1 98 Philippines 323.00 5.18 0.00 0.00 1975 29.50 9 693 18 21 61 Qatar 0.02 0.06 0.00 X 1975 e 0.15 663 415 36 26 38 Saudi Arabia 2.20 0.16 0.00 X 1975 e 3.60 164 255 45 8 47 Singapore 0.60 0.22 0.00 0.00 1975 0.19 32 84 45 51 4 Sri Lanka 43.20 2.51 0.00 0.00 1970 6.30 15 503 2 2 96 Syrian Arab Rep 7.60 0.61 27.90 30.00 1976 e 3.34 9 449 7 10 83 Thailand 110.00 1.97 69.00 X 1987 c 31.90 18 599 4 6 90 Turkey 196.00 3.52 7.00 69.00 1985 15.60 8 317 24 d 19 d 57 d United Arab Emirates 0.30 0.19 0.00 X 1980 e 0.90 299 565 11 9 80 Viet Nam 376.00 c 5.60 X X 1987 c 5.07 1 81 13 9 78 Yemen (Arab Rep) 1.00 0.12 0.00 X 1987 c 1.47 147 X 4 2 94 (People's Dem Rep) 1.50 0.60 0.00 X 1975 1.93 129 1,167 5 2 93 EUROPE 2,321.00 c 4.66 1987 c 359.00 15 726 13 54 33 Albania 10.00 3.08 11.30 X 1970 0.20 1 94 6 18 76 Austria 56.30 7.51 34.00 X 1980 3.13 3 417 19 73 8 Belgium 8.40 0.85 4.10 X 1980 9.03 72 917 11 85 4 Bulgaria 18.00 2.00 187.00 X 1980 14.18 7 1,600 7 38 55 Czechoslovakia 28.00 1.79 62.60 X 1980 5.80 6 379 23 68 9 Denmark 11.00 2.15 2.00 X 1985 f 1.46 11 289 30 27 43 Finland 110.00 22.11 3.00 X 1980 3.70 3 774 12 85 3 France 170.00 3.03 15.00 20.50 1985 f 40.00 22 728 16 69 15 Germany (Fed Rep) 79.00 1.30 82.00 X 1983 f 41.22 26 668 10 70 20 (Dem Rep) 17.00 1.02 17.00 X 1980 9.13 27 545 14 68 18 Greece 45.15 4.49 13.50 3.00 1980 f 6.95 12 721 8 29 63 Hungary 6.00 0.57 109.00 X 1980 5.38 5 502 9 55 36 Iceland 170.00 671.94 0.00 0.00 1987 C 0.09 0 349 31 63 6 Ireland 50.00 13.44 0.00 X 1979 f 0.79 2 267 16 74 10 Italy 179.40 3.13 7.60 0.00 1980 f 56.20 30 983 14 27 59 Luxembourg 1.00 2.72 4.00 X 1985 f 0.04 1 119 42 45 13 Malta 0.03 0.07 0.00 0.00 1978 0.02 92 68 76 8 16 Netherlands 10.00 0.68 80.00 X 1985 f 14.47 16 1,023 5 61 34 Norway 405.00 96.15 8.00 X 1980 2.00 0 489 20 72 8 Poland 49.40 1.29 6.80 X 1980 16.80 30 472 16 60 24 Portugal 34.00 3.31 31.60 X 1980 10.50 16 1,062 15 37 48 Romania 37.00 1.59 171.00 X 1980 25.40 12 1,144 8 33 59 Spain 110.30 2.80 1.00 17.00 1985 f 45.25 41 1,174 12 26 62 Sweden 176.00 21.11 4.00 X 1980 3.98 2 479 36 55 9 Switzerland 42.50 6.52 7.50 X 1985 3.20 6 502 23 73 4 United Kingdom 120.00 2.11 0.00 X 1980 28.35 24 507 20 77 3 Yugoslavia 150.00 6.29 115.00 200.00 1980 8.77 3 393 16 72 12 USSR. 4,384.00 15.22 300.00 X 1980 353.00 8 1,330 6 29 65 OCEANIA 2,011.00 c 75.96 1987 c 23.00 1 907 64 2 34 Australia 343.00 20.48 0.00 0.00 1975 17.80 5 1,306 65 2 33 Fiji 28.55 c 38.12 0.00 0.00 1987 c 0.03 0 37 20 20 60 New Zealand 397.00 117.49 0.00 0.00 1980 1.20 0 379 46 10 44 Papua New Guinea 801.00 c 199.70 X X 1987 c 0.10 0 25 29 22 49 Solomon Islands 44.70 C 149.00 0.00 0.00 1987 c 0.00 0 18 40 20 40 Sources: Bureau of Geological and Mining Research, National Geological Survey, France; Institute of Geography, National Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R.; Eurostat; and the International Desalination Association. Notes: a. Water resources include both internal renewable resources and river flows from other countries, b. Unless otherwise noted, sectoral withdrawal percentages are estimated for 1987. c. Estimated by the Institute of Geography, U.S.S.R. d. Sectoral percentages date from the year of other annual withdrawal data. e. Withdrawal quantities include desalination capacities as of June 1988. f. Reported to Eurostat. Regional and world totals may include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 329 22 Freshwater Table 2 2 . 2 Large Dams and Hydroelectric Resources Large Dams, 1986 Installed Hydropower Hydropower Total Percent Total Hydropower Potential Capacity, 1989 Generation, 1989 Over 15 Change Over 30 Total (gigawatt-hours/year) (gigawatts) Total Percent Meters Since Meters Under Gross Exploit- Micro- (gigawatt- of In Height 1977 In Height Construction Theoretical able Total hydro hours) Capacity WORLD 36,562 7,685 1,026 617.101 2,094,009 38.7 AFRICA 885 256 58 18.884 44,156 26.7 Algeria 30 50 26 13 12,000 X 0.285 X 226 9.1 Angola 10 X X X 150,000 100,000 a 0.412 X 1,355 37.5 Benin 1 X X X X X X X X X Botswana 3 X X X X X X X X X Burkina Faso 1 X X X X 800 a 0.014 0.000 2 1.4 Burundi 6,605 1,445 0.032 0.012 103 36.7 Cameroon 172,572 115,000 a 0.52P 0.003 2,629 56.8 Cape Verde X X X X X X Central African Rep X X 0.022 X 74 38.4 Chad X X X X X X Comoros X X X X 0.001 2 22.8 Congo 1 X X 50,000 a 0.120 397 37.8 Cote d'lvoire 22 57 68,000 14,000 a 0.895 1,250 15.9 Djibouti X X X X X X X Egypt 5 0 X X 2.445 6,400 29.9 Equatorial Guinea X X X 0.001 0.001 2 22.8 Ethiopia X 650,000 162,000 0.230 0.001 655 32.5 Gabon X X 32,500 0.125 0.160 675 61.6 Gambia, The X X X X X X X Ghana 67 12,782 10,000 1.072 X 4,820 51.3 Guinea 2 X 26,000 a 0.047 X 172 41.8 Guinea-Bissau X X 300 X X X X Kenya 10 150 30,000 a 0.498 0.008 2,469 56.6 Lesotho 3 X 2,000 a 0.002 0.002 X X Liberia 1 X 11,000 a 0.081 0.000 320 45.1 Libya 12 10 X X X X X X Madagascar 10 0 400,000 23,061 0.106 0.002 317 34.1 Malawi 3 X X 6,000 a 0.146 X 572 44.7 Mali 1 X X 10,000 a 0.045 X 170 43.1 Mauritania X X X X X X 25 X Mauritius 8 X X X 200 110 0.059 0.012 102 19.7 Morocco 39 70 25 23 X 4,500 0.622 0.006 1,157 21.2 Mozambique 5 X X X X 72,000 a 2.078 0.003 50 0.3 Namibia 10 X X X X X X X X X Niger 0 X 0 X X X X X X X Nigeria 44 76 7 1 X 40,000 a 1.900 0.000 2,210 13.3 Rwanda X X X X X 3,000 a 0.056 0.004 b 171 34.9 Senegal 1 X X X X 2,500 a 0.000 0.000 X X Sierra Leone 1 X X X X 6,800 a 0.002 0.002 X X Somalia X X X X X X 0.005 0.000 0 0.1 South Africa 482 c 43 127 6 X X 0.550 0.000 600 12.5 Sudan 4 X 3 0 X 1,900 0.225 X 517 26.2 Swaziland 6 50 X X 1,200 400 0.042 0.003 215 58.4 Tanzania 2 X X X X 20,000 0.259 0.003 615 27.1 Togo 1 X X X X X 0.004 0.004 5 14.3 Tunisia 32 52 16 4 62 53 0.064 0.003 36 6.4 Uganda 1 X X X X 10,200 0.155 X 691 50.9 Zaire 13 X X X X 530,000 2.772 0.001 5,252 21.6 Zambia 4 33 4 0 33,500 30,900 2.245 X 6,702 34.1 Zimbabwe 94 24 24 7 18,500 16,000 0.633 0.000 2,660 48.0 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 6,663 1,530 39 157.256 598,405 43.4 Barbados X X X X X X X X X X Belize X X X X X X X X X X Canada 608 23 162 5 1,239,777 592,982 57.924 <0.050 291,447 57.4 Costa Rica 4 33 2 0 222,953 37,000 0.735 0.030 3,328 51.7 Cuba 49 X X X X X 0.049 X 82 19.1 Dominican Rep 9 350 7 3 X 2,517 0.165 X 950 65.7 El Salvador 4 X X X 4,737 3,319 0.405 0.001 b 1,452 40.9 Guatemala 4 300 2 0 95,405 43,370 0.438 0.005 2,089 54.4 Haiti 1 X X X 548 430 0.070 0.007 320 52.2 Honduras 8 X 4 0 196,000 240,000 0.130 0.001 880 77.3 Jamaica 2 X X X 455 335 0.020 0.001 110 62.8 Mexico 503 16 168 17 500,000 159,624 7.825 X 22,950 33.5 Nicaragua 2 X X X X 17,277 a 0.103 X 268 29.7 Panama 5 X X X X 16,233 a 0.551 X 2,181 45.2 Trinidad and Tobago 4 X X X X X X X X X United States 5,459 8 1,185 14 d 528,500 376,000 88.746 0.737 272,021 35.0 SOUTH AMERICA 885 333 69 77.175 327,373 48.4 Argentina 94 31 63 5 535,000 390,000 6.594 0.040 15,150 26.2 Bolivia 5 25 2 1 173,000 90,000 a 0.342 0.055 b 1,270 42.4 Brazil 516 16 148 47 3,020,400 1,194,900 44.622 0.100 214,238 54.8 Chile 74 17 26 5 181,000 132,433 2.290 0.011 9,603 47.9 Colombia 40 43 28 1 1,290,000 418,200 6.317 0.100 29,875 54.0 Ecuador 5 25 3 6 491,000 115,000 0.908 0.017 4,918 61.8 Guyana 0 X 0 X 67,500 63,100 0.002 0.000 5 28.5 Paraguay 3 50 3 0 X 78,000 5.440 X 2,784 5.8 Peru 66 6 13 2 1,839,600 412,000 2.275 0.050 10,518 52.8 Suriname 1 X X X X 12,840 0.189 X 910 55.0 Uruguay 5 33 4 1 32,000 4,880 1.196 0.000 3,902 37.2 Venezuela 76 49 43 1 335,000 250,000 7.000 0.007 34,200 55.8 World Resources 1992-93 330 Freshwater 22 Table 22.2 Large Dams, 1986 Installed Hydropower Hydropower Total Percent Total Hydropower Potential Capacity, 1989 Generation, 1989 Over 15 Change Over 30 Total (gigawatt-hours/year) (gigawatts) Total Percent Meters Since Meters Under Gross Exploit- Micro- (gigawatt- of In Height 1977 In Height Construction Theoretical able Total hydro hours) Capacity ASIA 23,555 3,568 615 118.846 398,440 38.3 Afghanistan 2 X X X X X 0.290 X 758 29.8 Bahrain X X X X X X X X X X Bangladesh 1 0 1 0 X X 0.230 X 735 36.5 Bhutan X X X X X X 0.334 0.006 654 22.4 Cambodia 1 X X X X 83,000 0.010 X 30 34.2 China 18,820 14 2,287 183 d 5,922,180 1,923,304 30.000 3.875 109,500 41.7 Cyprus 46 70 18 2 X X 0.001 0.001 X X India 1,137 14 220 160 d 2,637,800 600,100 18.504 0.207 63,760 39.3 Indonesia 44 69 25 8 338,800 709,000 1.850 0.013 b 8,600 53.1 Iran, Islamic Rep 21 24 15 7 36,286 6,784 1.804 X 6,700 42.4 Iraq 8 60 5 5 X 70,000 0.120 X 590 56.1 Israel X X X X 1,600 1,600 0.000 0.000 0 X Japan 2,228 11 741 71 d 717,600 130,524 37.409 X 97,825 29.9 Jordan 4 0 4 1 87 87 0.011 X 29 30.1 Korea, Dem People's Rep 66 X 23 4 X X 5.000 X 31,750 72.5 Korea, Rep 690 23 52 75 77,201 3,290 2.339 0.010 4,558 22.2 Kuwait X X X X X X X X X X Lao People's Dem Rep 1 X X X 150,227 22,638 0.200 0.003 1,095 62.5 Lebanon 5 0 2 0 1,000 1,000 0.246 0.003 b 500 23.2 Malaysia 36 227 19 2 219,900 108,600 1.437 0.009 6,256 49.7 Mongolia X X X X X X X X X X Myanmar 3 X X X 336,000 160,000 a 0.258 X 1,240 54.9 Nepal 2 X 1 1 729,500 144,000 0.160 0.009 542 38.7 Oman X X X X X X X X X X Pakistan 40 21 17 0 25,443 15,531 2.897 0.109 16,974 66.9 Philippines 14 133 9 1 36,654 11,877 2.154 0.006 6,546 34.7 Qatar X X X X X X X X X X Saudi Arabia 30 X X X X X X X X X Singapore 3 X X X X X X X X X Sri Lanka 77 20 13 2 8,000 7,255 0.940 0.009 2,650 32.2 Syrian Arab Rep 12 0 3 0 5,000 4,500 0.898 X 4,707 59.8 Thailand 81 286 25 28 19,782 5,571 2.268 0.003 5,571 28.0 Turkey 103 61 88 65 432,986 215,000 6.598 0.012 17,939 31.0 United Arab Emirates X X X X X X X X X X Viet Nam 1 X X X X X 0.325 0.030 2,250 79.0 Yemen (Arab Rep) X X X X X X X X X X (People's Dem Rep) X X X X X X X X X X EUROPE 3,945 1,680 202 168.949 465,016 31.4 Albania 98 44 48 2 20,000 17,000 0.690 X 3,600 59.6 Austria 123 27 66 7 75,000 53,700 10.838 0.320 36,137 38.1 Belgium 15 36 9 0 798 X 1.402 0.014 362 2.9 Bulgaria 108 2 37 0 26,410 15,000 1.975 X 2,690 15.5 Czechoslovakia 146 11 52 8 28,600 10,826 2.920 0.230 4,273 16.7 Denmark 6 0 0 0 120 70 0.010 X 27 30.8 Finland 50 0 7 0 47,000 20,000 2.586 0.110 12,948 57.2 France 468 21 167 5 266,000 72,000 24.815 <0.800 51,160 23.5 Germany (Fed Rep) 191 21 60 8 99,000 24,000 6.861 0.420 b 17,000 28.3 (Dem Rep) 70 X 28 1 X 700 1.844 0.053 1,567 9.7 Greece 13 44 12 8 25,000 16,000 2.301 0.005 2,147 10.7 Hungary 11 X X X 7,446 4,950 0.048 0.008 88 20.9 Iceland 14 75 4 0 64,000 31,000 0.756 0.008 4,259 64.3 Ireland 15 0 4 0 X 1,180 0.512 0.001 991 22.1 Italy 440 9 274 19 341,000 65,000 18.237 0.001 34,184 21.4 Luxembourg 3 0 3 0 125 120 1.132 0.001 X X Malta X X X X X X X X X X Netherlands 10 11 2 0 X 500 0.025 0.002 37 16.9 Norway 245 20 89 10 556,000 172,000 26.465 0.119 e 118,271 51.0 Poland 25 14 11 6 23,000 121,000 1.976 0.100 3,757 21.7 Portugal 81 33 52 6 32,000 24,000 3.360 0.040 5,819 19.8 Romania 133 64 53 37 70,000 38,000 5.583 X 12,628 25.8 Spain 737 17 381 66 162,369 67,220 16.223 0.337 19,530 13.7 Sweden 141 7 34 1 200,000 99,000 15.616 0.320 72,102 52.7 Switzerland 144 13 80 3 144,000 41,000 11.580 0.194 29,772 29.3 United Kingdom 535 3 130 4 9,300 5,200 4.163 0.036 6,970 19.1 Yugoslavia 123 32 77 11 118,000 71,000 7.000 0.119 23,730 38.7 u.s.s.n. 132 81 101 18 3,942,000 3,831,000 64.100 0.400 222,800 39.7 OCEANIA 497 217 25 11.891 37,819 36.3 Australia 409 28 179 22 264,000 30,000 7.268 0.035 14,498 22.8 Fiji 2 X X X 1,261 515 0.080 0.000 330 47.1 New Zealand 83 26 38 3 X 74,000 4.287 0.018 21,900 58.3 Papua New Guinea 3 X X X 175,000 98,000 0.155 0.012 455 33.5 Solomon Islands X X X X X X 0.000 0.000 0 15.2 Sources: The International Commission on Large Dams; International Water Power and Dam Construction Handbook, 1991; and the United Nations Statistical Office. a. Technical capability, b. Installations less than 1 megawatt in capacity, a Includes 30 dams over 15 meters in height in "homeland" areas. d. Includes only dams over 30 meters in height, e. Installations between 1 and 2 megawatts in capacity. Regional and world totals include countries not listed. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 331 22 Freshwater Table 22.3 Sediment Loads of Selected Rivers Annual Annual Annual Materials Annual Materials Basin Discharge Transport Basin Discharge Transport Area Rainfall (cubic (metric Area Rainfall (cubic (metric • Catctiment Station (km2) (mm/yr) km) tons/ha) ' Catchment Station (km2) (mm/yr) km) tons/ha) AFRICA Cameroon • Mbam Goura 42,300 18.1 0.67 • Tsanaga Bogo 1,535 0.3 2.01 • Sanaga Nachtigal 77,000 37.1 0.28 Chad • Chart Sarh 193,000 10.2 0.01 •Logone Moundou 33,970 X 12.5 0.65 • Chari Chagona 515,000 28.3 0.03 • Pende Doba 14,300 X 4.4 0.25 •Logone Kousseri 85,000 12.0 0.15 Egypt •Nile Delta 2,977,235 30.0 0.00 Kenya • Ewaso Ngiro 15,300 X X 1.92 • Tana Garissa 31,700 X 3.81 • Tana Kamburu 9,520 1,200 3.2 2.34 • Thiba 4DD1 1,970 0.8 0.77 •Tana Grand Falls 17,400 X X 21.03 • Thika 331 X 3.88 Lesotho • Sengu White Hill 10,900 1.40 • Sengu Seaka 19,875 2.10 Morocco • Grou Dam 5,550 500 0.3 1.62 • N'Fiss L. Takerkoust 1,796 560 0.2 5.30 • Lakhdar S. Driss 3,000 661 0.5 3.66 • Oum Er Rbia Imfout 30,000 546 3.3 2.20 • Moulouya Mechra Homadi 51,500 306 1.5 1.30 • Tessaout M. Youssef 1,441 656 0.4 11.60 • Nekor MB Abdelkrim 780 X 0.1 79.00 Madagascar ' Shahamalato Dam 316 1,800 9.00 Mozambique • Limpopo Mouth 410,000 5.0 0.80 • Zambesi Mouth 1,200,000 223.0 0.17 Nigeria Benue Makurdi 304,300 1,525 100.4 0.43 • Niger Baro 730,400 1,100 144.6 0.13 Bunsuru Zurmi 5,900 818 1.4 4.38 • Niger Koji 1,080,900 1,380 154.6 0.19 Cross Ikom 16,900 3,320 34.0 0.72 • Niger Baro 1,113,227 1,000 191.5 0.05 Gagere Kaura Namoda 5,670 956 1.6 2.92 • Niger Mouth 1,210,000 X 192.0 0.33 Gongola Bare 55,500 1,028 6.4 0.77 • Rima Wamako 35,370 778 1.6 1.55 Hadejia Wudil 1,740 918 0.2 3.55 • Sokoto Gidan Doka 12,590 852 1.6 3.92 Jamari Bunga 7,980 1,001 2.1 4.59 " Taraba Gassol 21,300 1,630 12.0 0.80 Kaduna Kaduna 18,420 1,213 5.3 0.52 • Watari Gwarzo Rd. 1,450 852 0.1 4.83 Kano Chiromawa 6,980 1,000 1.2 2.19 • Yobe Gashua 62,400 765 15.6 1.41 Misare Kari 5,600 950 0.7 0.09 South Africa • Orange Mouth 1,020,000 X 11.0 0.17 Tanzania • Rufiji Mouth 180,000 X 9.0 0.94 Zaire ' Congo Mouth 4,012,795 1,750 1,252.0 0.18 Zimbabwe • Austral Dam 4,250 X 0.5 3.50 • Jotsholo Dam 14,860 X 0.3 1.10 • Glen Avilin Dam 1,000 X 0.2 3.20 • Rinette Dam 6,000 X 0.2 2.70 • Gwai Bembezi 14,400 X 0.2 0.14 • Umsweswe Upper Claw 1,990 750 0.1 0.24 NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA Canada • Fraser Mouth 220,000 X 112.0 0.91 • Nelson Mouth 1,150,000 X 1104 0.00 ' Mackenzie Mouth 1,800,000 X 302.7 1.04 • St. Lawrence Mouth 1,025,000 X 337.4 0.58 El Salvador • Lempa San Marcos 18,176 X X 3.79 Guatemala • Motagua Morales 14,452 X X 5.04 Haiti • Peligre Dam 6,615 1,780 2.5 15.00 Mexico • Colorado Mouth 635,000 X 20.2 0.00 1 United States • Brazos Mouth 110,000 7.0 1.45 1 Mississippi Mouth 3,267,000 580.3 0.64 • Columbia Mouth 670,000 251.3 0.12 Rio Grande Mouth 670,000 3.2 X • Copper Mouth 60,000 39.0 11.67 " Susitna Mouth 50,000 40.0 5.00 •Eel Mouth 8,000 X 17.50 • Yukon Mouth 770,000 195.5 1.47 • Hudson Mouth 20,000 12.0 0.50 SOUTH AMERICA Argentina • Parana Mouth 2,304,121 1,750 470.0 0.39 • Uruguay Concordia 388,335 1,500 125.0 0.39 • Negro Mouth 100,000 X 30.0 1.30 Bolivia • Cachi-Mayu 1,680 600 0.5 72.50 • Pilcomayo Talula 6,340 428 0.6 19.87 • Matacu 3,300 407 0.3 15.75 • Pilcomayo Ida 13,200 458 2.0 34.92 Brazil • Amazon Obidos 4,640,000 X 2.00 • San Francisco Mouth 640,000 97.0 0.09 • Amazon Mouth 6,150,000 6,300.0 1.46 • Tocantins Itupiranga 744,600 X 0.77 • Araguaia Santa-Isabel 372,000 X 0.88 Colombia • Magdalena Mouth 240,000 237.0 Peru • Chancay 2,325 0.7 2.06 • Jeguetepegue 3,625 0.5 6.95 • Chira 16,530 4.8 23.79 Venezuela • Orinoco 567.9 • Tuy P. San Juan 6,610 1,250 2.38 ASIA Bangladesh • Brahmaputra Delta 559,200 1,750 • Ganges/ Mouths 1,480,000 Brahmaputra Burma • Irrawaddy Prome 367,000 1,750 427.9 9.03 China • Bailong Bikou dam 27,600 X X 3.38 • Mihe Yeyuan dam 786 0.2 14.69 • Dadu Gongzui 76,400 X 49.5 4.77 • Min Chiang Yingxinwan 18,900 12.0 4.97 • Daling Dalinghe 23,200 X 2.1 14.90 • Nanya Inlake Gate 896 1.5 15.40 • Han Shui Danjiangkou 95,217 X 38.2 8.39 • Shangyou Dam 2,750 3.0 1.55 • Huai Bangbu 261,500 X 26.2 1.53 • Wuki Huangtankou 2,484 2.9 2.42 • Hutuo Gangnan dam 15,900 X X 8.69 • Xi Jiang Wuzhou 355,000 252.8 2.60 • Hwang Ho Liujiaxia dam 181,700 X X 2.90 • Xiliao Hongshan 24,486 X 10.78 • Hwang Ho Lanzhou 222,551 X X 4.35 • Yalong Ertan 110,750 50.2 2.18 • Hwang Ho Longmen 497,559 X X 20.71 • Yangtze Fengjie 987,711 419.8 5.31 • Hwang Ho Xiaolangdi 694,155 470 X 22.45 • Yangtze Datong 1,807,200 921.7 2.80 • Hwang Ho Sanmenxia 752,400 X 42.9 24.80 • Yongding Guanting dam 47,600 X 4.64 • Hwang Ho Mouth 770,000 X 49.0 14.03 • Yongding Guanting 50,800 4.4 19.44 • Liao Tieling 166,300 X 5.7 2.40 India • Batra Marol 4,901 X 2.5 1.35 • Krishna Srisaikam 206,041 X 69.8 5.67 • Bhakra Sutlej 56,876 X 16.1 7.98 • Mahanadi Naraj 132,034 1,250 90.2 5.14 • Bhakra Gobindsagar 57,000 X 14.6 7.73 • Maithon 6,294 1,300 2.3 17.03 • Bhima Takali 33,196 X 11.2 4.24 • Mata Tila Betwa 20,720 1,140 6.0 5.77 • Bhima Yedgir 69,863 X 20.5 6.59 • Nira Sarati 7,200 X 18.5 1.43 • Damodar Rhondie 20,000 X 9.8 15.64 • Nizam Sagar Manjira 21,694 800 4.1 8.97 • Gandhi Sagar Chambal 23,025 864 4.8 12.53 • Panchet Hill Damodar 10,690 1,300 4.0 13.62 World Resources 1992-93 332 Freshwater 22 Table 22.3 Annual Annual Annual Materials Annual Materials Basin Discharge Transport Basin Discharge Transport Area Rainfall (cubic (metric Area Rainfall (cubic (metric • Catchment Station (km2) (mm/yr) km) tons/ha) • Catchment Station (km2) (mm/yr) km) tons/ha) ASIA (continued) India (continued) • Ganges Calcutta 748,634 X 314.4 5.49 • Sina Wadakal 12,092 X 2.2 7.55 • Godavari Mouth 310,000 X X 3.10 • Tunga Shimoga 3,283 X 6.7 1.64 • Hayurakshi 1,860 1,321 0.8 21.42 • Tungabhadra Marabatti 14,582 X 10.5 1.46 • Hirakud Mahanadi 82,621 1,369 40.5 4.71 • Tungabhadra 28,180 X 9.4 7.81 • Kosi Chatra 62,000 X 57.2 30.81 • Tungabhadra Bharapuram 67,180 X 14.9 2.22 • Koyna Koyna 1,890 5,080 2.8 4.02 •Ukai 62,225 X X 6.46 • Krishna Karod 5,462 X 5.3 2.89 Indonesia • Cimanuk Jatigede 1,460 2,700 2.0 54.79 • Selorejo 238 2,300 0.3 43.29 • Karangkates 2,050 2,032 2.1 44.33 Iran • Araks Araxe 43,500 X 5.0 4.15 * Karaj Amir Kabir 860 X 0.5 3.76 •Dez M. Reza Chah P 17,245 X 9.5 10.08 • Safid Rud Mandjil 56,700 450 4.4 10.80 • Jajerud Farahnazi P. 692 X 0.4 4.45 Iraq • Tigris Baghdad 471,606 800 126.9 0.34 • Tigris/Euphrates Mouth 1,050,000 X 46.0 X Japan • Ishikari Ebestu 13,000 X X 1.52 • Yodo Hirakata 7,120 1,500 6.4 0.20 • Tone Matsudo 12,000 1,500 15.0 2.73 Nepal • Gandak 45,312 X X 43.25 Pakistan • Chenab Alexandria 33,000 X X 16.91 • Indus Kalabagh 305,000 X X 24.60 • Ghambir Danda Shah B. 518 X 0.1 37.30 • Indus Kotri 958,000 X 213.6 5.02 • Gilgit Alam B. 26,148 X 21.5 24.77 • Indus Mouth 970,000 X 238.0 1.03 • Gorband Karora 634 X 0.7 32.20 • Kabul Nowshera 90,000 X 21.4 2.88 • Haro Khanpur 777 X 0.3 21.25 • Poonch Kotli 3,236 X 3.8 41.86 •Haro Sanjwal 1,799 X 0.6 22.89 • Soan Chirah 326 X 0.2 49.25 • Haro Gariala 3,055 X 0.8 14.79 •Soan Dhok Pathan 6,472 X 1.4 34.48 • Hunza Dainyor B. 13,152 X 12.1 42.49 Syrian Arab Rep • Euphrates Tabga 120,650 500 30.5 0.36 Thailand • Chao Phraya Nakornsawan 103,470 X X 1.06 •Nan Tha Pla 12,790 1,250 6.0 3.91 • Klong Ban Tham 25,466 X X 3.18 • Ping Wang Kra Chao 26,386 1,750 6.1 0.88 • Lam Pao Lower Lam Pao 5,130 1,250 1.4 1.25 •Ping Kam Pan Petch 42,300 1,750 7.6 0.36 • Mekong Mukdaham 391,000 X 473.5 4.79 •Wang Wang Krai 10,204 1,750 1.4 1.51 •Nan Phitsanuloke 25,191 1,250 8.7 1.28 •Yom Kuang Luang 13,214 1,250 2.6 1.66 Turkey • Euphrates Keban 63,836 500 20.0 5.17 • Yesil Irmak Ayvacik 36,000 500 X 12.28 Viet Nam • Red Hanoi 119,866 1,750 123.2 11.90 EUROPE Albania • Drin Can Deje 12,368 1,750 11.8 11.90 • Seman Uraque Koit 5,288 1,250 3.6 41.50 Austria • Durrache Bachental 55 X 0.1 6.73 France • Drac Sautet 990 1,300 0.9 7.00 • Rhone Pierre Benite 50,200 X X 0.23 • Durance Serre-Poncon 3,500 X 2.6 4.09 • Rhone Chateauneuf 71,300 X X 0.61 • Durance Cadarache 11,920 X 6.5 1.20 • Seine Paris 43,878 X X 0.28 • Loire Nantes 121,005 750 26.7 0.04 • Verdon Greoux 1,819 X 1.1 1.63 Germany • Inn Reisach 9,760 1,250 9.7 3.27 • Main Marktbreit 27,225 750 3.7 0.20 • Isar Plattling 8,964 1,000 4.8 0.29 Hungary • Danube Nagymaros 183,262 750 74.4 0.28 • Tisza Tivador 12,540 1,000 6.6 0.44 •Raba Arpas 6,610 750 1.2 0.24 • Tisza Szeged 138,408 750 27.3 0.49 Italy • Adige Pescantina 10,954 X X 1.07 •Po Pontilagoscuro 54,290 1,250 48.9 2.80 • Adige Boara Pisani 11,954 X X 0.91 • Tiber Roma 16,545 X X 3.70 •Po Piacenza 42,030 X X 2.48 Netherlands • Rhine 143,360 X X 0.04 • Rhine Lobith 160,000 750 69.4 0.17 Poland •Oder Gozdowice 109,400 750 14.4 0.01 • Vistula Tezew 193,900 750 30.1 0.07 Romania • Danube Mouth 810,000 X 206.0 0.83 Spain • Aragon Yesa 2,191 672 1.2 7.72 •Tajo Entrepenas 3,829 683 0.7 13.08 • Cacin Bermejales 300 740 0.1 17.29 • Tormes Santa Teresa 1,988 849 1.1 7.23 • Cahamares Palmaces 275 567 0.1 7.85 • Varas Guadalmellato 1,195 630 0.2 12.58 • Cardoner San Pons 292 1,020 0.1 9.22 Barasona 1,511 1,098 0.9 3.43 • Guadalete Bornos 1,361 1,025 0.4 18.04 • Cabillas 647 577 0.1 3.90 • Guadalquivir Pedro Marin 6,300 612 1.1 2.32 • Camarillas 2,390 373 0.7 3.27 • Guadalquivir Tranco d. Beas 558 1,050 0.2 18.45 • Dona Aldonza 6,000 597 1.1 3.25 • Jarama El Vado 426 962 0.2 12.11 • La Pena 1,728 701 0.9 1.19 • Lozoya Rio Sequillo 385 849 0.2 17.19 • Las Tranquesa 1,478 455 0.1 3.30 • Majaceite Guadalcacin 680 1,253 0.2 11.70 • Los Hasones 348 1,102 0.2 7.84 • Mundo Talave 754 495 0.1 4.17 • Tor. d. Aquila 432 750 0.1 12.09 • Riaza Lin. d. Arroyo 756 648 0.1 9.27 Switzerland • Linth Walensee 600 X 0.8 3.50 U.S.S.R. •Amur Mouth 1,850,000 X 325.0 0.28 • Severnay Dvina Mouth 350,000 X 106.0 0.13 • Dnieper Verkhned. 428,851 X X 0.03 •Ural Topolinski 191,462 X X 0.09 • Don Razdorskaya 373,811 X X 0.14 • Volga Dubovka 1,335,014 X X 0.26 • Kolyma Mouth 640,000 X 71.0 0.09 • Volga Dubovka 1,350,085 750 252.5 0.16 • Lena Mouth 2,500,000 X 514.0 0.05 • Yana Mouth 220,000 X 29.0 0.14 •Ob Mouth 2,500,000 X 385.0 0.01 * Yenisei Mouth 2,580,000 X 560.0 0.05 • Indigirka Mouth 360,000 X 55.0 0.39 OCEANIA Australia • Burdekin Clare 129,660 640 X 0.27 • Murrumbidgee 15,360 X X 0.50 • Murray Mouth 1,060,000 X 22.0 0.28 • Nogoa Old. Fairbairn Dam 22,344 650 X 8.00 New Zealand • Haast 1,020 6,500 6.0 127.30 Papua New Guinea •Fly Mouth 61,000 X 77.0 4.92 • Purari 31,000 X 77.0 25.81 Sources: B. Heusch, J. Milliman and R. Meade, and United Nations Environment Programme. Notes: The basin area is the part of the watershed upstream of the station. Materials transport includes the movement of both dissolved and solid materials. 0 = zero or less than one half the unit of measure; X = not available. World Resources 1992-93 333 22 Freshwater Sources and Technical Notes Table 22.1 Freshwater Sectoral withdrawals are classified as domes- pumped-storage schemes. Many countries Resources and Withdrawals tic (drinking water, homes, commercial es- generate only a small fraction of their in- tablishments, public services [e.g., hospi- stalled capacity because of considerations tals], and municipal use or provision); in- of need, water supply, and peak load. dustry (including water withdrawn to cool Sources: Water resources and withdrawal thermoelectric plants); and agriculture (irri- data: J. Forkasiewicz and J. Margat, Tableau Table 22.3 Sediment Loads of gation and livestock). Mondial de Donnees Nationales d'Economie de Selected Rivers Totals may not add because of rounding. I'Eau, Ressources et Utilisation (Departement Hydrogeologie, Orleans, France, 1980). Sources: Bernard Heusch, unpublished Data for Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Table 22.2 Large Dams and data (Saint Mury-La Tour, Meylan, France, Tunisia, Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Syrian Hydroelectric Resources 1988); John D. Milliman and Robert H. Arab Republic, Turkey, Albania, France, Meade, "World-Wide Delivery of River Sed- Greece, Italy, Malta, Spain, and Yugoslavia: Sources: Large dam data: The International iment to the Oceans," The Journal of Geology, J. Margat, Bureau de Recherches Geolo- Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), Vol. 91 (1983), pp. 1-21; J.M.L. Jansen and giques et Minieres, Orleans, France, April World Register of Dams, 1984 Full Edition and R.B. Painter, "Predicting Sediment Yield 1988 (personal communication). Alexander World Register of Dams, 1988 Updating, from Climate and Topography," Journal of V. Belyaev, Institute of Geography, U.S.S.R. (ICOLD, Paris, 1985 and 1989); data on hy- Hydrology, Vol. 21(4) (1974), pp. 371-380; National Academy of Sciences, Moscow, dropower potential and micro-hydro: Inter- J.M. Holeman, "The Sediment Yield of September 1989 and January 1990 (personal national Water Power and Dam Construction Major Rivers of the World," Water Resources communication); withdrawal and sectoral Handbook, 1991 (Reed Enterprise, Sutton, Research, Vol. 4(4) (1968), pp. 737-747; use data for the United States: W.B. Solley, Surrey, United Kingdom, 1991); data on in- United Nations Environment Programme, C.F. Merk, and R.R. Pierce, "Estimated Use stalled hydropower capacity and genera- Environmental Data Report (Basil Blackwell of Water in the United States, in 1985," U.S. tion: United Nations Statistical Office (U.N.), Ltd., Oxford, 1989), pp. 121-126. Geological Survey Circular, No. 1004 (U.S. Energy Statistics Yearbook 1989, (U.N., New Rivers carry sediment and dissolved solids Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 1988); York, 1991). transported by rainfall and stream erosion. withdrawal data as footnoted: European ICOLD obtains data on individual large This material transport can be measured and Communities—Commission, Environment dams (over 15 meters in height, measured stands as an indicator of the degree of land Statistics 1989 (Office des Publications from the lowest portion of the general foun- erosion upstream of the measurement sta- Officielles des Communautes Europeennes, dation to the crest) from its 78 member tion. Because sediment is deposited along Luxembourg, 1990), p. 130; desalination countries as well as general statistical data the length of a stream, and in reservoirs data as footnoted: O.K. Buros for the Inter- on large dams in nonmember countries. and lakes, the measured material transport national Desalination Association, The De- Known inadequacies include the absence of is not a direct measurement of erosion. salting ABC's (Saline Water Conversion statistics on large dams constructed by the Transport would occur in the absence of Corporation, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1990), Ministry of Agriculture and local authori- human activity, as evidenced by the exis- p. 5; population: United Nations Popula- ties in the U.S.S.R. (these entities might add tence of the major deltas of the Nile, Ama- tion Division, World Population Prospects 2,000-3,000 dams) and incomplete data on zon, Yellow, Mississippi, Orinoco, Po, 1990 (United Nations, New York, 1991). dam capacity and reservoir area. In 1950, Tigris/Euphrates, and Ganges/Brahma- Data are compiled from published docu- there were only 5,270 large dams in the putra. Sediment flows in themselves have ments (including national, United Nations, world, only two of them in China. Today, been beneficial—the fertility-enhancing ef- and professional literature) and estimates China accounts for over half of all large fects of the annual Nile flood in pre-Aswan of resources and consumption from models dams, which numbered 36,562 in 1986. days being the type example—and are es- using other data, such as area under irri- Gross theoretical hydropower potential is the sential to the maintenance of shoreline and gated agriculture, livestock populations, electrical energy that would be produced if even of marine life. Dam building has lim- and precipitation, when necessary. all runoff, on its way to the sea, were run ited the flow of sediment in many of the Annual internal renewable water resources through turbines with 100 percent effi- world's rivers. This, in turn, has limited the refers to the average annual flow of rivers ciency. Exploitable hydropower potential is the lifetimes and storage capacities of dams. and groundwater generated from endoge- most conservative measure of a country's High levels of materials transport can indi- nous precipitation. Caution should be used hydroelectric resources and is the energy cate poor management of upstream land re- when comparing different countries be- that is exploitable under existing technical sources. Low levels of materials transport, cause these estimates are based on differing limitations and economic constraints. Tech- on the other hand, can indicate sediment in- sources and dates. These annual averages nical capability is provided for a few coun- terception by dams and the subsequent also disguise large seasonal, interannual, tries (as footnoted) and refers to the esti- need for management of floodplains and and long-term variations. When data for an- mate of the sum of the energy potential coastal land resources. nual river flows to and from other countries from sites where it is physically possible to The catchment is the named hydrological are not shown, the internal renewable install dams, ignoring any economic, envi- basin for which data are available, and the water resources figure may include these ronmental, or social constraints. station is the place where sediment trans- flows. Per capita annual internal renewable Installed hydropower capacity is the com- port and flow measurements or estimates water resources data were created using 1990 bined generating capacity of all hydroelec- are made. The basin area is the area drained population estimates. tric plants as of the end of 1989. It does not by the river and its tributaries upstream of Annual withdrawals as a percentage of water include pumped-storage schemes. Micro- the measurement station. The annual dis- resources refer to total water withdrawals, hydro is the sum of the generating capacity, charge is the amount of water passing the not counting evaporative losses from stor- where known, of small hydroelectric plants gauging station and is the average of multi- age basins, as a percentage of internal re- (except as footnoted, each under 1-mega- year monitoring. Annual materials transport newable water resources and river flows watt capacity). Small hydroelectric plants is the average weight of solid and dissolved from other countries. Water withdrawals are of special interest because of their rela- materials passing by the measurement sta- also include water from desalination plants tively benign (compared to large projects) tion, divided by the total area of the basin in countries where that source is a signifi- social and environmental impacts. in hectares. Rivers for which sediment data cant part of all water withdrawals. Total hydropower generation, as a percentage were available were included in this table if Per capita annual withdrawals were calcu- of [installed] capacity, refers to actual electri- annual discharge data were also available lated using national population data for the cal production during 1989 from hydroelec- or if the basin area was greater than year of data shown for withdrawal. tric generating plants, again excluding 10,000 square kilometers. World Resources 1992-93 334 23. Oceans and Coasts This chapter presents data on activities that put pres- United Nations Environment Programme named nutri- sures on coastal and ocean resources, and it docu- ent pollution as the gravest and most prevalent prob- ments some of their effects. lem of ocean health. Data on the discharge of toxic Table 23.1 provides basic information on the extent pollutants into coastal waters and measurements of of national coastal resources and the pressures on marine pollutants have been collected in a variety of coastal zones caused by human population growth, coastal areas. However, few countries have prepared maritime trade, and offshore oil and gas exploration. reliable estimates on the discharge of nutrients into Increasing numbers of people are settling along the coastal waters and the eutrophication potential of estu- world's coastlines. In 1980, over 600 million people aries. A first comprehensive attempt to estimate nutri- lived in coastal urban agglomerations. This number is ent loadings and predict phosphorus and nitrogen forecast to swell to almost 1 billion by the turn of the concentrations was undertaken for 85 estuaries in the century, multiplying adverse effects on productive United States. Table 23.2 indicates the kinds of physi- coastal ecosystems. Projections for the year 2000 con- cal and hydrological data needed to assess the vulnera- centrate nearly half of the world's coastal population bility of individual estuaries to nutrient inputs. It along the shores of Asia. Africa's coastal population is shows that upstream areas and nonpoint sources con- projected to grow at the fastest regional rate, rising by tribute the majority of nutrients discharged. a factor of over 2.5. National and city planners face a The continued health of the oceans and the long- tremendous challenge in balancing the needs of mil- term livelihood of the millions employed in fishing de- lions for housing, sanitation, and employment against pend on harvests that do not exceed the potential of appropriate coastal zone management. the resource base. Many regional fisheries show signs Maritime trade connects the economies of the world of drastic overfishing. Table 23.3 indicates that in fish- through the transfer of vital materials such as crude pe- ing areas such as the Northwest Pacific, the Southeast troleum and other petroleum products, ores, amd cere- Pacific, and the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the aver- als, as well as manufactured goods. Maritime trade age annual catch exceeds the estimated potential long- requires extensive investment in infrastructure and term yield of marine fish. Recent enormous catches of puts coastal zone areas at high risk of accidents and en- pollock, sardine, and anchoveta have pushed actual vironmental damage. Routine operational discharges catches in the Northwest and Southeast Pacific above of wastes and ballast from ships account for a far the estimated sustainable maxima. greater share of vessel source pollution and have led Table 23.4 shows that the global marine catch in- to increased efforts to finance waste reception facilities creased by 35 percent and inland catch by 85 percent in ports. Japan and the United States lead the world in over the past decade. The growth rate of the world ma- the total volume of goods loaded and unloaded, each rine catch is almost entirely due to increases in the handling about 10 percent of the volume. catches of four species that, combined, make up nearly The extraction of offshore oil and gas contrilbutes to one quarter of the marine harvest: Alaskan pollock, the economic value of the coastal zone but creates Peruvian anchovy (anchoveta), Japanese sardine (Jap- waste and poses the risk of major oil spills. Roughly anese pilchard), and Chilean sardine (South American one fourth of the world's oil production comes from pilchard). The rate of increase of these catches, 5-25 offshore areas. World offshore crude oil output in- percent annually, cannot be maintained indefinitely. creased by 11 percent in the past decade. The greatest Indeed preliminary figures for 1990 show a decline in regional increase occurred along Europe's coastal their catches. (See Chapter 12, "Oceans and Coasts.") zone, expanding its global share from 17 to 25 percent. The amount of fish produced by inland waters, in- The world's offshore gas production rose 21 percent in cluding aquaculture, has expanded to 14 percent of the the past decade, with India, Mexico, and Brazil having total world catch in 1987-89. World per capita food the fastest growth rates. These three countries contrib- supply from fish and fishery products increased from uted one fourth of the global increase from 1980 to 11.4 kilograms per year in 1977-79 to 13.1 kilograms in 1990. However, their share still constitutes a small pro- 1986-88. Aquaculture is partly responsible for this portion of the world's offshore gas production. boost in the supply of fish for human consumption. In its 1990 report, the Group of Experts on the Scien- tific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) of the Wt>rld Resources 1992-93 335 23 Oceans and Coasts Table 23.1 Coastal Areas and Resources Offshore Oil and Gas Resources Maritime Area Population Average Annual Proven Reserves (thousand in Coastal Volume of Goods Annual Production Oil Gas Length square kilometers) Urban Loaded and Unloaded Oil Gas (million (billion of Shelf to Exclusive Agglomerations 1986-88 (thousand metric tons) (thousand (million metric cubic Coastline 200-m Economic (thousands) Petroleum Dry metric tons) cubic meters) tons) meters) (kilometers) Depth Zone 1980 2000 Crude Products Cargo 1980 1990 1980 1990 1990 1990 WORLD 594,008 21,426.5 108,714.3 617,081 996,855 2,213,718 838,692 4,075,198 681,637 755,267 287,756 347,949 29,699 19,087 AFRICA 37,908 1,325.7 11,981.1 43,213 111,643 341,889 43,224 273,642 66,936 97,880 5,849 2,931 4,229 3,131 Algeria 1,183 13.7 137.2 3,493 7,613 28,100 a 23,739 15,507 0 0 0 0 0 0 Angola 1,600 66.9 605.7 1,132 3,603 13,435 368 2,365 4,829 19,900 0 456 249 42 Benin 121 X 27.1 585 2,527 X 441 b 978 0 204 0 0 117 X Cameroon 402 10.6 15.4 854 2,802 10,268 a 1,211 3,388 0 6,549 0 32 714 54 Cape Verde 965 X 789.4 125 360 X 101 b 369 0 0 0 0 0 0 Comoros 340 X 249.0 89 240 X X 105 0 0 0 0 0 0 Congo 169 8.9 24.7 217 571 6,048 a 254 3,841 1,345 7,355 0 52 514 59 Cote d'lvoire 515 10.3 104.6 1,495 4,125 1,790 1,462 6,591 289 388 0 0 3 6 Djibouti 314 X 6.2 211 455 X 761 653 0 0 0 0 0 0 Egypt 2,450 37.4 173.5 4,246 8,020 131,332 4,123 24,583 19,437 26,927 598 1,354 299 130 Equatorial Guinea 296 X 283.2 181 392 X X 144 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ethiopia 1,094 47.7 75.8 760 1,909 715 b 503 2,104 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gabon 885 46.0 213.6 155 498 8,170 a 218 803 8,859 4,880 0 0 435 X Gambia, The 80 X 19.5 109 293 X 21 b 277 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ghana 539 20.9 218.1 1,336 3,139 1,067 b 235 2,400 100 0 83 0 4 X Guinea 346 38.4 71.0 696 2,025 X 124 10,528 0 0 0 0 0 0 Guinea-Bissau 274 X 150.5 174 353 X 27 b 203 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kenya 536 14.4 118.0 489 2,020 1,922 b 94 4,117 0 0 0 0 0 0 Liberia 579 19.6 229.7 465 1,195 689 b 90 b 17,308 0 0 0 0 0 0 Libya 1,770 83.7 338.1 1,496 4,322 43,414 a 4,788 6,839 0 4,133 0 0 27 38 Madagascar 4,828 180.4 1,292.0 570 2,032 X 347 909 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mauritania 754 44.2 154.3 238 1,177 X 96 b 10,641 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mauritius 177 91.6 1,183.0 410 565 X 309 b 1,597 0 0 0 0 0 0 Morocco 1,835 62.1 278.1 5,543 11,472 4,671 144 36,137 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mozambique 2,470 104.3 562.0 1,109 5,240 449 b 115 3,904 0 0 0 0 0 0 Namibia 1,489 X X 76 290 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nigeria 853 46.3 210.9 4,383 14,135 62,701 a 911 9,567 28,837 25,923 5,168 1,038 1,822 2,719 Reunion 201 X X 279 479 X 217 b 1,168 0 0 0 0 0 0 Senegal 531 31.6 205.7 1,378 3,077 218 b 347 b 4,728 0 0 0 0 7 X Seychelles 491 X 1,349.3 X X X 114 b 139 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sierra Leone 402 26.4 155.7 453 1,175 225 b 14 b 1,541 0 0 0 0 0 0 Somalia 3,025 60.7 782.8 1,186 3,308 478 b 45 951 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Africa 2,881 143.4 1,553.4 4,272 8,294 18,595 b 252 b 81,009 0 0 0 0 2 26 Sudan 853 22.3 91.6 356 1,193 1,181 b 81 2,297 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tanzania 1,424 41.2 223.2 1,750 6,945 615 b 673 2,172 0 0 0 0 X 57 Togo 56 1.0 2.1 324 983 X 127 b 1,104 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tunisia 1,143 50.8 85.7 2,476 4,540 3,854 a 836 11,307 2,170 1,107 0 0 35 X Zaire 37 1.0 1.0 102 276 1,918 a 35 b 1,366 1,071 513 0 0 X X NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 183,950 5,632.2 18,759.1 88,896 121,410 308,744 133,276 728,887 84,901 125,307 156,585 131,522 5,681 2,992 Antigua and Barbuda 153 X X X X X 60 b 79 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bahamas 3,542 85.7 759.2 X X 12,818 4,183 3,191 0 0 0 0 0 0 Barbados 97 0.3 167.3 100 146 111 b 37 b 561 0 0 0 0 0 0 Belize 386 X X X X X 86 b 268 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bermuda 103 X X X X X 363 237 0 0 0 0 0 0 Canada 90,908 2,903.4 2,939.4 3,066 3,852 13,267 9,101 193,556 0 0 0 0 276 298 Cayman Islands 160 X X X X 1,297 35 b 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 Costa Rica 1,290 15.8 258.9 1,050 2,258 436 b 344 b 2,648 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cuba 3,735 X 362.8 6,628 8,942 6,033 b 4,263 15,020 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dominica 148 X 20.0 X X X 5 b 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dominican Rep 1,288 18.2 268.8 2,787 5,797 1,560 b 792 b 4,216 0 0 0 0 0 0 El Salvador 307 17.8 91.9 1,680 3,049 634 b 16 b 1,123 0 0 0 0 0 0 Greenland 44,087 X X X X X 184 386 0 0 0 0 0 0 Grenada 121 X 27.0 X X X 21 b 67 0 0 0 0 0 0 Guadeloupe 306 X X 142 196 X 363 b 1,117 0 0 0 0 0 0 Guatemala 400 12.3 99.1 780 932 594 b 197 b 4,376 0 0 0 0 0 0 Haiti 1,771 10.6 160.5 1,216 2,845 X 8 b 843 0 0 0 0 0 0 Honduras 820 53.5 200.9 583 1,923 349 b 272 1,851 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jamaica 1,022 40.1 297.6 1,016 1,689 1,125 b 1,310 7,274 0 0 0 0 0 0 Martinique 290 2.4 X 217 279 213 b 264 830 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mexico 9,330 442.1 2,851.2 6,529 9,501 69,767 7,191 17,462 24,911 78,833 258 2,948 4,488 1,104 Nicaragua 910 72.7 159.8 1,166 2,837 466 179 b 1,255 0 0 0 0 0 0 Panama 2,490 57.3 306.5 989 1,749 1,155 467 1,768 0 0 0 0 0 0 Trinidad and Tobago 362 29.2 76.8 623 1,110 4,424 1,656 5,563 8,292 4,890 4,341 3,312 United States 19,924 1,870.7 9,711.4 60,324 74,305 194,496 101,878 465,003 51,697 41,583 151,985 125,262 O43_ "1,3593 SOUTH AMERICA 30,663 1,984.9 10,124.8 59,553 104,628 92,383 38,448 286,341 59,682 85,205 1,703 12,296 1,973 1,069 Argentina 4,989 796.4 1,164.5 12,273 16,643 225 a 3,662 32,920 0 1,743 0 91 7 4 Brazil 7,491 768.6 3,168.4 25,616 49,160 25,223 b 3,638 174,681 3,635 32,551 1,034 6,227 870 136 Chile 6,435 27.4 2,288.2 3,212 4,856 2,358 b 218 15,538 0 1,001 0 592 57 65 Colombia 2,414 67.9 603.2 2,926 3,926 9,100 c 6,536 12,387 0 0 669 0 10 40 Ecuador 2,237 47.0 1,159.0 1,529 3,877 9,344 a 1,271 3,387 0 0 0 0 5 20 French Guiana 378 X X X X X 123 b 234 0 0 0 0 0 0 Guyana 459 50.1 130.3 213 425 X 470 b 1,914 0 0 0 0 0 0 Peru 2,414 82.7 1,026.9 6,975 14,339 1,209 a 1,329 12,250 1,487 4,442 0 0 31 3 Suriname 386 X 101.2 140 216 X 661 b 6,283 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uruguay 660 56.6 119.3 1,511 1,862 968 b 7 b 1,072 0 0 0 0 0 0 Venezuela 2,800 88.1 363.8 5,158 9,324 46,719 a 20,533 25,675 54,560 45,467 0 5,385 993 801 World Resources 1992-93 336 Oceans and Coasts 23 Table 23.1 Offshore Oil and Gas Resources Maritime Area Population Average Annual Proven Reserves (thousand in Coastal Volume of Goods Annual Production Oii Gas Length square kilometers) Urban Loaded and Unloaded Oil Gas (million (billion of Shelf to Exclusive Agglomerations 1986-88 (thousand metric tons) (thousand (million metric cubic Coastline 200-m Economic (thousands) Petroleum Dry metric tons) cubic meters) tons) meters) (kilometers) Depth Zone 1980 2000 Crude Products Cargo 1990 1980 1990 1990 ASM 163,609 6,768-6 20,258.5 281,828 487,093 853321 274,183 1,165,154 328,221 227,758 30,072 62,650 14,698 7,383 Bahrain 161 5.1 5.1 279 582 X 12,178 4,010 0 0 0 0 61 X Bangladesh 580 54.9 76.8 1,809 5,053 1,086 b 830 7,409 0 0 0 0 0 0 Brunei 161 X X X X 8,599 a 4,861 1,179 9,574 4,709 10,180 8,063 180 198 Cambodia 443 X 55.6 50 287 X X 110 0 0 0 0 0 0 China 14,500 869.8 1,355.8 38,936 66,510 40,294 7,654 97,518 100 1,147 0 403 153 538 Cyprus 648 6.5 99.4 291 457 532 474 b 4,168 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hong Kong 733 X X 4,614 6,088 X 5,361 62,889 0 0 0 0 0 0 India 12,700 452.1 2,014.9 37,317 78,255 17,153 5,645 41,136 7,079 32,918 28 6,002 435 470 Indonesia 54,716 2,776.9 5,408.6 29,166 58,303 53,320 23,806 31,622 26,546 22,669 4,548 7,474 332 1,589 Iran, Islamic Rep 3,180 107.0 155.7 872 1,480 82,453 3,120 10,688 7,470 16,997 0 355 435 453 Iraq 58 0.7 0.7 0 0 XX X 0 0 0 0 0 0 Israel 273 4.5 23.3 2,826 4,110 5,669 b 975 17,622 0 0 0 0 0 0 Japan 13,685 480.5 3,861.1 78,349 88,798 179,670 b 72,826 454,578 76 294 493 155 1 X Jordan 26 X 0.7 70 146 X X 18,272 0 0 0 0 0 0 Korea, Dem People's Rep 2,495 X 129.6 5 973 14,233 3 066 b 1,027 b 1,731 0 0 0 0 0 0 Korea, Rep 2,413 244.6 X 16,911 29,292 30,644 b 8,790 126,510 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kuwait 499 12.0 12.0 1,190 2,660 39,649 a 18,305 8,927 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lebanon 225 4.5 22.6 2,016 3,135 19 h 206 h 1,030 0 0 0 0 0 0 Macao 40 X X X X X 280 h 3,083 0 0 0 0 0 0 Malaysia 4,675 373.5 475.6 3,997 9,158 20,971 12,968 44,926 13,960 29,915 0 19,288 367 1,475 Maldives 644 X 959.1 X X X 5 b 87 0 0 0 0 Myanmar 3,060 229.5 509.5 3,923 7,695 X 48 1,760 0 0 X X Oman 2,092 61.1 561.7 62 302 27,738 154 b 2,975 0 0 0 45 Pakistan 1,046 58.3 318.5 5,215 12,350 4,359 2,709 13,394 0 0 0 0 Philippines 22,540 178.4 1,786.0 17,736 37,181 8,200 929 21,300 199 386 11 6 Qatar 563 24.0 24.0 197 455 13,422 a 729 2,470 12,328 9,163 1,147 258 396 Saudi Arabia 2,510 77.9 186.2 1,954 4,201 110,873 a 35,330 41,795 167,378 73,709 5,995 8,538 1,450 Singapore 193 0.3 0.3 2,414 2,950 38,100 39,080 46,782 0 0 0 0 0 Sri Lanka 1,340 26.8 517.4 2,433 3,496 1,368 b 460 8,694 0 0 0 0 0 Syrian Arab Rep 193 X 10.3 266 853 15,115 3,197 5,731 0 0 0 0 0 Thailand 3,219 257.6 85.8 5,698 13,541 6,596 b 2,138 32,852 0 948 0 6,326 28 405 Turkey 7,200 50.4 236.6 9,928 17,028 87,734 3,497 32,614 0 0 0 0 X 7 United Arab Emirates 1,448 59.3 59.3 824 1,517 53,158 a 4,601 12,356 83,513 34,904 14,823 7,442 3,884 341 VietNam 3,444 327.9 722.1 5,585 14,317 X 321 b 1,431 0 0 0 0 13 8 Yemen (Arab Rep) 523 24.7 33.9 278 1,088 4,034 1,678 3,505 0 0 0 0 0 0 (People's Dem Rep) 1,383 X 550.3 649 1,572 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 EUROPE 69,643 1,951.5 14,680.9 111,806 129,989 532,592 287,004 1,240,461 115,683 187,780 76,006 110,123 2,188 1,282 Albania 418 5.5 12.3 622 1,140 X 74 1,633 0 0 0 0 0 0 Belgium 64 2.7 2.7 1,968 2,097 9,774 b 20,044 103,856 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bulgaria 354 12.3 32.9 857 1,182 12,069 b 888 16,311 0 0 0 0 0 0 Denmark 3,379 68.6 1,464.2 3,980 4,201 6,094 5,994 32,430 330 6,340 0 2,969 45 91 Finland 1,126 98.1 98.1 1,539 1,998 9,655 b 6,311 37,083 0 0 0 0 0 0 France 3,427 147.8 3,493.1 d 9,380 10,692 67,056 36,676 105,128 0 0 0 0 0 0 Germany (Fed Rep) 1,488 40.8 40.8 2,845 3,052 19,300 b 13,634 104,559 0 553 0 0 14 5 (Dem Rep) 901 X 9.6 1,099 1,249 X 3,634 22,167 0 0 0 0 0 0 Greece 13,676 24.7 505.1 5,252 6,559 14,411 4,245 27,389 0 669 0 32 5 12 Iceland 4,988 133.8 866.9 186 231 X 553 b 2,306 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ireland 1,448 125.9 380.3 1,766 2,469 3,349 1,799 16,483 0 0 1,292 2,407 X 23 Italy 4,996 144.1 552.1 21,232 23,721 87,442 43,952 91,825 312 4,143 227 4,062 7 246 Malta 140 13.0 66.2 303 327 X 519 1,488 0 0 0 0 0 0 Netherlands 451 84.7 84.7 7,764 9,032 81,659 49,002 208,919 0 2,355 12,094 17,862 21 333 Norway 5.832 102.9 2,024.8 2,324 3,033 27,188 7,108 47,439 31,315 83,704 25,077 32,044 1,540 329 Poland 491 28.5 28.5 1,842 2,853 758 b 3,663 46,160 0 0 0 0 0 0 Portugal 1,693 39.1 1,774.2 2,352 3,499 7,056 b 2,491 16,216 0 0 0 0 0 0 Romania 225 24.4 31.9 573 866 16,085 b 8,761 21,713 0 155 0 0 4 0 Spain 4,964 170.5 1,219.4 13,903 17,925 43,865 b 17,038 78,371 1,556 777 0 1,261 2 8 Sweden 3,218 155.3 155.3 4,018 4,306 13,574 b 15,128 76,410 0 0 0 0 0 0 United Kingdom 12,429 492.2 1,785.3 26,765 27,790 105,023 42,625 159,867 82,170 89,085 37,316 49,486 546 234 Yugoslavia 3,935 36.7 52.5 1,236 1,767 8,069 b 2,868 22,707 0 0 0 0 5 1 U.S.S.R 46,670 1,249.5 4,490.3 18,372 23,975 72,346 52,092 116,614 9,960 7,157 12,663 13,024 517 2,379 OCEANIA 61,565 2,514.1 28,419.6 13,413 18,117 11,942 10,464 264,099 16,253 24,180 4,879 15,402 414 852 Australia 25,760 2,269.2 4,496.3 10,568 13,902 10,484 7,259 243,060 16,096 22,620 4,011 12,714 367 425 Cook Islands 120 X 1,830.0 X X X 8 b 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fiji 1,129 2.1 1,135.3 244 423 X 483 639 0 0 0 0 0 0 French Polynesia 2,525 X 5,030.0 X X X 259 b 364 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kiribati 1,143 X 3,550.0 X X X 5 b 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 New Caledonia 2,254 X 1,740.0 X X X 358 b 1,991 0 0 0 0 0 0 New Zealand 15,134 242.8 4,833.2 2,279 2,832 1,283 b 1,166 14,022 157 1,560 869 2,688 10 113 Niue 64 X 390.0 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 Papua New Guinea 5,152 X 2,366.6 322 960 X 856 b 3,172 0 0 0 0 37 314 Solomon Islands 5,313 X 1,340.0 X X X 34 b 574 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tonga 419 X 700.0 X X X 19 b 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tuvalu 24 X 328.2 X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vanuatu 2,528 X 680.0 X X X 17 b 126 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sources: United Nations Statistical Office, United Nations Office for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Offshore Magazine, and other sources. Notes: a. Goods loaded, b. Goods unloaded, c. Two years of data. d. Includes overseas territory except French Polynesia and New Caledonia. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available; billion = thousand million. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 337 23 Oceans and Coasts T a b l e 2 3 . 2 Nutrient Discharges and Predicted Concentrations Nitrogen Phosphorus Physical Characteristics (thousand hectares) Pre- Estimated Loadings Pre- Estimated Loadings Estuarine dicted metric tons per year) dicted (metric tons per year) Total Fluvial Drainage Concen- Coastal Concen- Coastal Drainage Drainage Area Up- tration Non- Up- tration Non- Up- Area Area Total Coastal stream (mg/l) Total Point point stream (mg/1) Total Point point stream TOTAL (85 ESTUARIES) 572,332 509,906 62,425 43,920 528,411 1,712,644 267,976 266,603 1,178,065 355,514 124,172 21,116 210,226 ATLANTIC OCEAN 77,508 46,655 30,853 20,459 57,049 419,829 121,480 61,159 237,190 91,145 65,942 6,770 18,433 Passamaquoddy Bay 829 NA 829 356 472 <0.1 266 93 173 0 <0.01 25 11 15 0 Englishman Bay 229 NA 229 229 0 <0.1 136 23 113 0 <0.01 20 11 9 0 Narraguagus Bay 108 NA 108 108 0 <0.1 94 12 83 0 <0.01 10 4 6 0 Blue Hill Bay 214 NA 214 207 6 <0.1 140 44 96 0 <0.01 32 20 12 0 Penobscot Bay 2,437 1,619 818 286 2,151 0.1-1 7,083 157 318 6,609 0.01-0.1 699 53 25 621 Muscongus Bay 90 NA 90 90 0 <0.1 51 12 39 0 <0.01 15 10 5 0 Sheepscot Bay 2,608 1,015 1,593 255 2,353 <0.1 7,933 71 428 7,435 <0.01 582 48 40 494 Casco Bay 300 NA 300 252 48 <0.1 1,281 675 606 0 0.01-0.1 422 370 52 0 Saco Bay 459 NA 459 142 316 <0.1 1,140 170 177 794 <0.01 175 106 19 50 Great Bay 246 NA 246 234 12 <0.1 577 220 357 0 0.01-0.1 185 146 39 0 Merrimack River 1,290 694 596 179 1,111 >1 9,173 1,218 557 7,397 >0.1 1,474 738 82 655 Massachusetts Bay 311 NA 311 305 6 0.1-1 7,253 5,607 1,646 0 >0.1 3,711 3,488 223 0 Cape Cod Bay 200 NA 200 200 0 <0.1 342 243 99 0 0.01-0.1 170 153 16 0 Buzzards Bay 149 NA 149 149 0 <0.1 426 278 149 0 0.01-0.1 195 175 20 0 Narragansett Bay 461 117 344 344 117 0.1-1 4,147 2,589 1,558 0 0.01-0.1 1,611 1,398 213 0 Gardiners Bay 104 NA 104 104 0 0.1-1 893 583 309 0 0.01-0.1 400 369 31 0 Long Island Sound 4,465 2,593 1,873 918 3,548 0.1-1 45,509 18,126 5,019 22,364 0.01-0.1 6,819 4,524 572 1,723 Great South Bay 219 NA 219 219 0 >1 7,352 5,547 1,805 0 >0.1 3,767 3,509 258 0 Hudson River & Raritan Bay 4,275 2,082 2,193 1,732 2,542 >1 62,313 31,322 11,940 19,051 >0.1 20,975 18,768 1,054 1,153 Barnegat Bay 350 NA 350 350 0 0.1-1 1,840 740 1,100 0 0.01-0.1 445 283 162 0 Delaware Bay 3,484 2,253 1,230 972 2,512 0.1-1 45,468 16,942 3,832 24,694 >0.1 11,892 9,811 541 1,540 Chincoteague Bay 78 NA 78 78 0 <0.1 265 100 165 0 0.01-0.1 76 56 20 0 Chesapeake Bay 17,944 12,257 5,686 4,549 13,394 0.1-1 108,800 19,693 9,955 79,152 >0.1 15,253 10,113 1,300 3,840 Albemarle & Pamlico Sounds 7,660 4,657 3,003 2,282 5,378 0.1-1 25,605 816 8,254 16,536 0.01-0.1 3,234 546 504 2,184 Bogue Sound 176 NA 176 176 0 0.1-1 644 58 586 0 <0.01 51 24 26 0 New River 122 NA 122 122 0 0.1-1 559 79 480 0 0.01-0.1 102 46 55 0 Cape Fear River 2,354 1,230 1,124 382 1,972 0.1-1 7,350 158 608 6,584 0.01-0.1 1,348 91 69 1,188 Winyah Bay 4,685 2,222 2,463 714 3,971 0.1-1 20,639 103 583 19,952 0.01-0.1 2,186 65 64 2,057 Charleston Harbor 4,088 3,777 311 311 3,777 0.1-1 2,731 2,116 615 0 0.01-0.1 1,348 1,255 93 0 North & South Santee Rivers 3,963 3,777 186 171 3,792 >1 6,098 0 67 6,031 >0.1 455 0 8 447 St. Helena Sound 1,238 840 398 303 935 0.1-1 2,229 46 420 1,763 0.01-0.1 328 28 49 251 Broad River 259 NA 259 150 109 0.1-1 327 60 268 0 0.01-0.1 67 34 33 0 Savannah River 2,694 2,456 237 95 2,599 0.1-1 7,883 595 293 6,995 0.01-0.1 1,070 231 49 790 Ossabaw Sound 1,225 839 386 100 1,125 0.1-1 1,480 288 221 971 0.01-0.1 239 112 37 90 St. Catherines & Sapelo Sounds 250 NA 250 232 17 0.1-1 181 32 150 0 0.01-0.1 41 18 23 0 Altamaha River 3,678 3,287 391 27 3,650 0.1-1 6,122 0 1 6,121 0.01-0.1 831 0 0 831 St. Andrew & St. Simon Sounds 1,045 200 844 650 394 >1 4,989 179 68 4,742 >0.1 571 43 9 519 St. Johns River 2,424 741 1,684 1,684 741 0.1-1 9,870 5,871 3,999 0 >0.1 5,636 5,148 487 0 Indian River 323 NA 323 323 0 0.1-1 2,060 1,001 1,060 0 0.01-0.1 822 634 188 0 Biscayne Bay 479 NA 479 479 0 0.1-1 8,581 5,617 2,964 0 >0.1 3,862 3,501 361 0 GULF OF MEXICO 401,602 379,214 22,388 15,490 386,112 809,199 97,463 66,692 645,044 200,977 24,653 11,497 164,827 Ten Thousand Islands 1,088 NA 1,088 816 272 0.1-1 560 222 337 0 0.01-0.1 64 28 35 0 Charlotte Harbor 1,303 NA 1,303 1,186 117 0.1-1 2,267 699 1,568 0 0.01-0.1 907 771 136 0 Tampa Bay 673 NA 673 673 0 0.1-1 4,487 3,037 1,450 0 >0.1 1,380 1,248 132 0 Suwannee River 2,642 2,160 482 482 2,160 0.1-1 3,390 87 760 2,543 0.01-0.1 1,211 7 306 898 Apalachee River 1,203 240 963 809 394 0.1-1 4,567 1,270 2,533 764 0.01-0.1 666 156 240 269 Apalachicola Bay 5,310 4,541 769 746 4,564 0.1-1 10,055 47 957 9,051 0.01-0.1 1,201 7 68 1,126 St. Andrew Bay 293 NA 293 293 0 <0.1 1,037 246 791 0 <0.01 93 38 55 0 Choctawhatchee Bay 1,391 805 585 538 852 0.1-1 4,991 105 2,742 2,144 0.01-0.1 462 18 221 222 Pensacola Bay 1,810 909 901 622 1,188 0.1-1 4,443 1,419 2,643 381 0.01-0.1 595 345 215 35 Perdido Bay 312 NA 312 300 12 0.1-1 1,734 203 1,475 55 0.01-0.1 288 167 116 5 Mobile Bay 11,551 10,289 1,263 518 11,034 0.1-1 38,661 2,671 2,944 33,047 0.01-0.1 7,175 762 239 6,174 Mississippi Sound 6,967 3,844 3,124 1,749 5,218 0.1-1 30,915 4,500 5,451 20,964 0.01-0.1 4,315 1,009 631 2,674 Mississippi River 293,005 292,618 387 135 292,870 0.1-1 420,743 21,587 276 398,880 >0.1 109,156 7,166 47 101,943 Atchafalaya & Vermilion Bays 25,512 23,983 1,528 1,528 23,983 0.1-1 161,531 6,408 4,616 150,507 >0.1 39,289 562 875 37,852 Calcasieu Lake 1,122 842 280 280 842 >1 9,135 6,162 728 2,244 >0.1 1,312 802 290 220 Sabine Lake 5,413 4,167 1,246 399 5,014 0.1-1 12,547 2,794 1,028 8,725 0.01-0.1 1,732 795 271 666 Galveston Bay 6,294 5,189 1,105 1,083 5,211 >1 45,850 36,729 4,645 4,476 >0.1 11,419 9,309 1,103 1,007 Brazos River 11,836 11,409 427 179 11,657 >1 12,362 4,897 920 6,545 >0.1 7,648 388 219 7,041 Matagorda 12,865 11,500 1,365 819 12,046 >1 12,132 247 8,872 3,014 >0.1 5,577 127 2,188 3,262 San Antonio Bay 2,812 2,670 142 142 2,670 0.1-1 723 7 716 0 0.01-0.1 172 0 172 0 Aransas Bay 717 NA 717 394 323 >1 3,543 156 3,324 63 >0.1 806 18 717 71 Corpus Christi Bay 4,564 4,048 516 516 4,048 >1 6,217 3,457 2,033 727 >0.1 1,950 744 425 781 Laguna Madre 2,922 NA 2,922 1,285 1,636 0.1-1 17,311 512 15,884 915 >0.1 3,560 185 2,795 580 PACIFIC OCEAN 93,221 84,037 9,184 7,971 85,251 483,616 49,032 138,753 295,831 63,392 33,577 2,850 26,966 San Diego Bay 196 77 120 120 77 >1 3,047 2,821 226 0 >0.1 2,390 2,371 20 0 San Pedro Bay 447 NA 447 438 9 >1 9,720 8,559 1,161 0 >0.1 5,991 5,835 156 0 Santa Monica Bay 137 NA 137 137 0 >1 16,690 15,856 834 0 >0.1 11,615 11,571 44 0 Monterey Bay 1,549 1,417 132 129 1,419 >1 24,727 1,363 23,232 132 >0.1 1,077 621 451 5 San Francisco Bay 11,434 9,742 1,691 1,607 9,827 0.1-1 83,634 10,094 45,316 28,223 >0.1 11,880 6,731 1,078 4,071 Eel River 941 550 391 297 643 0.1-1 10,563 41 9,850 671 0.01-0.1 495 25 108 362 Humboldt Bay 57 NA 57 57 0 0.1-1 540 202 200 138 >0.1 161 112 15 34 Klamath River 4,015 3,621 394 197 3,818 0.1-1 10,984 1 2,374 8,609 0.01-0.1 496 0 24 473 Rogue River 1,329 1,097 233 86 1,243 0.1-1 11,915 5 2,693 9,217 0.01-0.1 868 3 27 838 Coos Bay 153 NA 153 153 0 0.1-1 2,771 100 2,671 0 0.01-0.1 86 54 33 0 World Resources 1992-93 338 Oceans and Coasts 23 in U.S. Estuaries Table 23.2 Nitrogen Phosphorus Physical Characteristics (thousand hectares) Pre- Estimated Loadings Pre- Estimated Loadings Estuarine dicted (metric tons per year) dicted (metric tons per year) Total Fluvial Drainage Concen- Coastal Concen- Coastal Drainage Drainage Area Up- tration Non- Up- tration Non- Up- Area Area Total Coastal stream (mg/1) Total Point point (mg/l) Total Point point stream Umpqua River 1,202 813 389 389 813 0.1-1 8,047 116 7,931 0 0.01-0.1 148 54 93 0 Siuslaw River 199 NA 199 199 0 0.1-1 3,501 21 3,480 0 <0.01 44 8 36 0 Alsea River 124 0 124 80 45 0.1-1 3,515 4 1,706 1,805 0.01-0.1 55 2 17 36 Yaquina Bay 66 NA 66 66 0 0.1-1 893 98 795 0 0.01-0.1 44 34 10 0 Siletz Bay 96 NA 96 69 27 0.1-1 1,375 28 993 354 0.01-0.1 41 12 12 17 Netarts Bay 4 NA 4 4 0 0.1-1 133 3 131 0 <0.01 3 2 1 0 Tillamook Bay 148 NA 148 138 10 0.1-1 3,915 59 3,856 0 <0.01 66 27 39 0 Nehalem River 223 NA 223 212 11 0.1-1 2,637 17 2,620 0 <0.01 32 5 26 0 Columbia River 66,733 65,276 1.457 933 65,800 0.1-1 255,150 3,063 8,350 243,737 0.01-0.1 22,642 1,488 181 20,973 Willapa Bay 285 NA 285 285 0 0.1-1 3,406 62 3,344 0 <0.01 65 30 35 0 Grays Harbor 703 339 364 364 339 0.1-1 7,320 384 4,315 2,622 <0.01 288 95 75 117 Puget Sound 3,181 1,106 2,075 2,013 1,168 19,134 6,137 12,674 322 0.01-0.1 4,905 4,497 367 41 Source: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Strategic Environmental Assessments Division. Notes: Totals may not match because of independent rounding. Estuaries are sorted geographically, starting at the U.S.-Canadian border in the northeast and following the U.S. coastline in a clockwise pattern. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; NA - not applicable; mg/l = milligram per liter. Table 23.3 Marine Fisheries, Yield and Estimated Potential Marine Fish Cephalopods Crustaceans Total Marine Catch {a} (million metric tons) (million metric tons) (million metric tons) (million metric tons) Average Average Average Average Annual Catch Annual Catch Annual Catch Annual Catch 1977-79 1987-89 Potential 1977-79 1987-89 Potential 1977-79 1987-89 Potential 1977-79 1987-89 Potential WORLD 54.34 71.14 62.29-86.91 1.35 2.37 4.09-6.09 2.65 4.04 2.44-3.23 58.34 77.55 68.82-96.23 ATLANTIC OCEAN 21.42 19.66 25.50-33.30 b 0.39 1.00 2.01-2.97 0.54 0.89 0.72-0.94 22.35 21.55 28.23-37.21 Northwest 1.98 2.10 3.40-4.30 0.14 0.03 X 0.00 0.24 0.14-0.18 2.12 2.37 Northeast 11.27 9.09 10.10-12.30 0.02 0.04 0.60-1.00 0.16 0.23 0.15-0.19 11.46 9.36 Western Central 1.23 1.35 3.20-5.10 0.01 0.01 0.40-0.60 0.24 0.26 0.29-0.35 1.48 1.62 Eastern Central 3.01 3.22 2.90-3.70 0.15 0.17 0.18-0.22 0.04 0.05 0.02-0.04 3.19 3.45 Southwest 1.12 1.49 2.60-3.80 0.07 0.73 0.80-1.10 0.08 0.09 0.09-0.13 1.27 2.31 Southeast 2.81 2.40 2.50-3.10 0.01 0.02 0.03-0.05 0.02 0.02 0.03-0.05 2.83 2.44 PACIFIC OCEAN 28.52 45.00 31.0045.10 d 0.88 1.20 1.71-2.57 1.56 2.24 1.40-1.81 30.96 48.44 34.11-49.48 Northwest 15.18 20.94 13.50-16.50 0.67 0.77 0.70-0.90 0.75 1.41 0.36-0.44 16.60 23.12 Northeast 1.38 2.75 2.60-3.20 0.00 0.05 0.06-0.10 0.21 0.13 0.22-0.26 1.59 2.93 Western Central 4.59 6.01 5.80-7.80 0.15 0.19 0.13-0.19 0.47 0.49 0.43-0.53 5.21 6.69 Eastern Central 1.76 1.49 2.20-3.00 0.02 0.07 0.40-0.80 0.08 0.09 0.32-0.48 1.85 1.65 Southwest 0.32 0.79 1.20-2.00 0.04 0.12 0.10-0.14 0.01 0.01 0.01-0.02 0.37 0.92 Southeast 5.29 13.02 3.70-10.20 0.00 0.01 0.32-0.44 0.05 0.12 0.06-0.08 5.34 13.14 INDIAN OCEAN 3.02 4.85 4.70-7.10 e 0.03 0.10 0.32-0.48 0.33 0.48 0.29-0.43 3.38 5.44 5.31-8.01 Western 1.78 2.68 2.70-4.20 c 0.02 0.05 0.19-0.29 0.24 0.26 0.20-0.30 2.04 2.99 Eastern 1.24 2.17 1.50-2.20 C 0.01 0.05 0.13-0.19 0.09 0.22 0.09-0.13 1.34 2.45 MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA 1.13 1.53 1.09-1.41 0.05 0.07 0.05-0.07 0.03 0.05 0.03-0.05 1.21 1.65 1.17-1.53 ANTARCTIC 0.25 0.10 X 0.00 0.00 X 0.20 0.38 X 0.45 0.48 ARCTIC 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 X 0.00 0.00 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Total marine catch includes marine fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans only. b. Includes oceanic perlagic fish whose estimated potential is 0.8-1.0 million metric tons for the whole Atlantic Ocean, c. Does not include oceanic pelagic fish. d. Includes oceanic pelagic fish whose estimated potentical is 2.0-2.4 million metric tons for the whole Pacific Ocean, e. Includes oceanic pelagic fish whose estimated potential is 0.5-0.7 million metric tons for the whole Indian Ocean. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. World Resources 1992-93 339 23 Oceans and Coasts T a b l e 2 3 . 4 Marine and Freshwater Catches, Aquaculture, and Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Food Supply from Fish Marine Catch Freshwater Catch Average Annual Aquaculture Production and Fishery Products (000 Percent (000 Percent 1987-89 (000 metric tons) 1986-88 metric Change metric Change Fresh- Diad- Total (000 Per Capita tons) Since tons) Since water romous Marine Crus- Fish and metric (kilo- 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 Fish Fish Fish taceans Molluscs Shellfish Other {a} tons) grams) WORLD 84,220.3 35 13,303.2 85 5,829.2 908.5 271.5 613.9 2,952.7 10,575.8 3,160.3 65,488.9 13.1 AFRICA 3,439.0 21 1,820.2 27 73.7 1.6 0.8 0.1 2.1 78.2 0.1 4,747.5 8.1 Algeria 99.9 158 0.4 X 0.0 X X 0.0 0.0 0.0 X 101.3 4.4 Angola 90.6 (20) 8.0 0 X X X X X X X 218.0 23.6 Benin 9.3 126 31.2 53 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 47.0 11.1 Botswana X X 1.9 63 X X X X X X X 3.6 3.1 Burkina Faso X X 7.9 19 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 17.6 b 2.1 b Burundi X X 11.8 (23) 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 11.9 b 2.3 b Cameroon 60.9 20 20.0 0 0.2 X X X X 0.2 X 154.0 14.4 Cape Verde 6.5 0.0 X 0.1 X X X X 0.1 X 4.2 12.3 Central African Rep X X 13.0 0 X X X X X X X 14.5 5.2 Chad X X 110.0 (1) X X X X X X X 92.2 17.5 Comoros 5.4 34 0.0 X X X X X X X X 5.6 11.4 Congo 21.3 25 17.5 119 0.2 X X X X 0.2 X 75.0 36.3 Cote d'lvoire 67.9 (10) 30.1 289 1.1 X X X X 1.1 X 177.7 b 16.0 b Djibouti 0.5 96 0.0 X X X X X X 0.0 X 1.3 3.5 Egypt 49.5 69 201.8 138 55.1 X X X X 55.1 X 361.7 7.4 Equatorial Guinea 3.6 (10) 0.4 X X X X X X X X 7.1 21.5 Ethiopia 0.9 X 3.2 26 0.0 c X X X X 0.0 X 4.8 b 0.1 b Gabon 20.7 31 1.9 6 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 32.9 31.2 Gambia, The 11.6 (3) 2.7 0 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 12.6 16.0 Ghana 311.8 40 56.4 46 X 0.4 X X X 0.4 X 355.6 25.9 Guinea 31.0 169 3.0 200 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 44.5 8.4 Guinea-Bissau 3.5 9 0.0 X X X X X X X X 3.3 3.6 Kenya 7.5 73 130.4 206 0.3 0.2 0.0 X X 0.6 X 122.9 5.7 Lesotho X X 0.0 18 0.0 0.0 X X X 0.0 X 2.9 1.8 Liberia 13.3 77 4.0 0 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 34.2 14.6 Libya 8.7 139 0.0 X X X X X X X X 16.2 4.0 Madagascar 61.0 368 36.7 (11) 0.2 0.0 X X X 0.2 X 90.3 b 8.0 b Malawi X X 88.1 35 0.1 X X 0.0 X 0.1 X 82.9 10.5 Mali X X 61.1 (29) 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 61.1 b 7.0 b Mauritania 90.5 270 6.0 0 X X X X X X X 17.9 9.6 Mauritius 17.5 146 0.1 681 0.0 X 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 X 19.2 b 18.2 b Morocco 520.5 87 1.5 159 0.0 0.0 X X 0.1 0.2 X 176.7 7.6 Mozambique 34.2 42 0.3 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 44.0 3.1 Namibia Niger 28.0 X (93) X 0.2 3.2 iW (62) X 0.1 X X X X X X X X X 0.1 X X 15.2 b 3.0 9.1 b 0.4 Nigeria 154.9 (43) 105.6 (58) 13.8 X 0.3 X X 14.2 X 658.4 6.7 Rwanda X X 1.5 47 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 1.6 0.3 Senegal 244.5 19 16.3 9 0.0 X X 0.0 0.0 0.0 X 143.8 21.3 Sierra Leone 37.2 (23) 16.0 219 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 56.5 14.7 Somalia 17.5 79 0.5 X X X X X X X X 1.8 2.3 South Africa 1,199.0 102 1.3 X 0.2 0.8 0.0 X 1.6 2.7 0.0 345.1 b 10.2 b Sudan 1.2 76 22.8 (11) 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 23.7 1.0 Swaziland X X 0.1 127 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 0.1 0.1 Tanzania 46.0 7 328.1 84 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 348.2 14.2 Togo 15.1 39 0.6 2 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 43.2 13.4 Tunisia 99.0 76 0.0 X X X 0.4 X 0.3 0.7 X 83.6 11.0 Uganda X X 227.0 9 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 212.9 12.6 Zaire 2.0 34 161.3 48 0.7 X X X X 0.7 X 296.0 9.2 Zambia X X 68.0 35 1.1 X X X X 1.1 X 67.1 8.9 Zimbabwe X X 18.3 145 0.0 0.1 0.0 X X 0.2 X 18.3 2.1 NORTH S CENTRAL AMERICA 8,980.2 54 545.6 310 209.6 96.1 0.6 43.8 184.2 534.4 0.1 6,887.0 16.7 Barbados 5.1 30 0.0 X X X X X X X X 8.1 32.0 Belize 1.4 (5) 0.0 (93) X X X 0.3 X 0.3 X 1.2 7.2 Canada 1,521.1 18 50.1 4 X 10.0 X X 7.2 17.1 X 632.2 b 24.4 b Costa Rica 19.9 9 0.5 548 0.1 0.0 X 0.2 0.0 0.4 X 14.7 5.3 Cuba 195.9 9 16.8 381 15.8 X 0.1 c 0.4 1.2 17.5 X 219.0 b 21.1 b Dominican Rep 16.7 219 1.7 160 0.0 0.0 c X 0.3 X 0.3 X 39.7 5.9 El Salvador 12.8 62 2.1 33 0.0 X 0.5 0.2 X 0.7 X 13.9 2.8 Guatemala 2.3 (40) 0.5 (15) 0.1 X X 0.7 X 0.9 X 3.9 b 0.4 b Haiti 7.8 93 0.3 0 X X X X X 0.0 X 28.1 4.6 Honduras 18.8 193 1.7 X 0.2 X X 1.9 X 2.2 X 17.6 b 3.7 b Jamaica 7.6 (22) 2.7 X 2.1 X X 0.0 0.0 2.1 X 44.1 18.6 Mexico 1,225.9 65 176.8 X 7.3 0.7 X 0.6 51.6 60.2 X 852.1 b 10.0 b Nicaragua 4.6 (49) 0.1 (43) 0.0 X X 0.1 X 0.1 X 3.1 b 0.8 b Panama 155.5 (14) 0.6 X 0.5 X X 3.3 X 3.8 X 27.9 b 12.0 b Trinidad and Tobago 3.2 (26) 0.0 X X X X X X X X 13.2 10.9 United States 5,597.6 73 291.5 310 183.3 85.5 X 35.5 123.9 428.1 X 5,245.7 b 21.3 b SOUTH AMERICA 13,841.1 94 354.8 44 14.8 8.8 0.0 81.9 3.5 109.0 22.8 2,382.5 8.5 Argentina 503.2 6 10.1 (27) 0.3 X X X 0.0 0.3 X 205.7 6.6 Bolivia X X 4.9 118 0.2 0.1 o.o d X X 0.4 X 6.3 0.9 Brazil 655.3 9 215.8 39 12.0 X X 1.7 0.1 13.8 X 936.3 6.6 Chile 5,491.5 180 1.4 X X 6.7 X X 3.2 9.8 22.8 281.8 b 22.1 b Colombia 36.8 85 50.6 3 1.3 0.6 0.0 2.9 X 4.8 X 94.5 b 3.0 b Ecuador 723.3 31 1.7 X 0.1 0.3 X 73.9 0.0 74.2 X 107.4 b 10.7 b Guyana 35.4 4 0.8 174 0.0 X X 0.0 X 0.1 X 34.1 43.0 Paraguay X X 10.3 233 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 11.0 2.8 Peru 5,986.7 88 31.5 130 0.5 0.8 X 3.3 0.2 4.8 X 488.5 b 23.6 b Suriname 4.1 5 0.1 (15) X X X X X X X 2.9 7.2 Uruguay 121.7 59 0.5 15 X X X X X X X 13.2 b 4.3 b Venezuela 275.6 80 27.1 210 0.3 0.3 X 0.0 X 0.6 X 241.4 13.2 World Resources 1992-93 340 Oceans and Coasts 23 Fish Consumption Table 23.4 Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Food Supply from Fish Marine Catch Freshwater Catch Average Annual Aquaculture Production and Fishery Products (000 Percent (000 Percent 1987-89 (000 metric tons) 1986-88 metric Change metric Change Fresh- Diad- Total (000 Per Capita tons) Since tons) Since water romous Marine Crus- Fish and metric (kilo- 1987-89 1977-79 1987-89 1977-79 Fish Fish Fish taceans Molluscs Shellfish Other (a) tons) grams) ASIA 34,752.1 35 9,091.9 115 4,944.8 405.0 259.4 428.6 2,019.1 8,057.0 3,125.1 33,529.1 11.4 Afghanistan X X 1.5 0 X X X 1.5 0.1 Bahrain 7.9 88 0.0 X X X X 9.4 20.4 Bangladesh 241.2 109 585.4 11 139.4 16.5 155.9 800.6 7.3 b Bhutan X X 1.0 0 X X X 1.0 0.7 Cambodia 6.5 (34) 63.5 51 1.6 X 1.6 70.0 9.1 China 5,814.8 81 4,493.5 315 3,765.6 X 31.7 179.8 884.8 4,861.9 1,445.3 9,540.2 b 8.8 b Cyprus 2.5 105 0.1 70 0.0 0.1 0.0 X X 0.1 X 8.6 12.7 India 1,910.4 29 1,307.2 55 432.5 X X 16.3 2.6 451.5 X 2,627.0 3.3 Indonesia 1,971.0 60 691.8 64 214.7 115.9 4.6 67.5 X 402.7 81.7 2,432.2 14.0 Iran, Islamic Rep 189.2 214 46.3 559 9.7 0.9 X X X 10.6 X 231.3 b 4.4 b Iraq 5.0 (73) 13.9 (21) 4.8 X X X X 4.8 X 19.7 1.1 Israel 16.3 56 15.8 5 13.8 0.4 0.7 0.0 X 14.9 X 94.7 b 21.3 b Japan 11,455.5 16 207.9 ( 7) 24.9 87.9 215.3 3.1 434.9 766.1 575.1 8,839.0 b 72.1 b Jordan 0.0 (94) 0.1 x 0.1 X X X X 0.1 X 10.1 3.4 Korea, Dem People's Rep 1,600.1 34 100.0 61 X X X 11.0 162.7 173.7 315.2 873.2 42.4 Korea, Rep 2,768.6 33 43.3 30 7.1 2.3 1.9 0.2 409.9 421.4 457.5 2,066.2 49.6 Kuwait 8.7 83 0.0 X X X 0.0 X X 0.0 X 20.0 10.8 Lao People's Dem Rep X X 20.0 0 2.5 X X X X 2.5 X 20.0 5.3 Lebanon 1.7 3 0.1 0 X 0.1 X X X 0.1 X 1.7 0.7 Malaysia 598.6 (10) 14.7 431 6.1 2.1 0.3 1.5 39.6 49.6 X 497.2 30.1 Mongolia X X 0.3 (29) X X X X X X X 2.5 1.3 Myanmar 552.5 40 145.2 0 6.0 0.0 d X X X 6.0 X 599.4 15.3 Nepal X X 11.8 261 5.8 X X X X 5.8 X 10.9 0.6 Oman 136.4 87 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 0.0 X 33.6 24.9 Pakistan 341.8 36 97.7 169 9.0 0.0 c X 0.0 X 9.0 X 202.4 1.8 Philippines 1,478.1 25 554.5 81 84.7 192.8 X 44.0 26.4 347.9 248.6 1,961.5 33.8 Qatar 3.4 48 0.0 X X X X X X X X 3.1 9.5 Saudi Arabia 48.9 93 0.5 X 0.6 X 0.0 0.0 X 0.6 X 101.2 8.0 Singapore 14.7 (5) 0.1 (77) 0.2 X 0.2 0.4 1.1 1.9 X 78.4 b 29.6 b Sri Lanka 158.8 15 38.1 142 4.8 X X 0.6 X 5.4 X 250.1 b 14.9 b Syrian Arab Rep 0.9 (28) 4.5 88 1.6 0.1 X X X 1.7 X 5.9 0.5 Thailand 2,629.0 35 179.1 35 86.5 1.3 1.0 58.1 56.2 203.1 0.0 1,106.6 20.8 Turkey 538.8 132 48.3 132 2.1 1.1 0.1 X X 3.3 X 378.0 b 7.0 b United Arab Emirates 88.6 38 0.0 X 0.0 X 0.0 X X 0.0 X 36.7 25.2 Viet Nam 620.8 51 250.3 39 115.0 X X 29.5 X 144.5 1.7 815.5 13.0 Yemen (Arab Rep) 21.9 22 0.0 X X X X X X X X 24.8 3.0 (People's Dem Rep) 50.9 (6) 0.0 X X X X X X X X 37.4 16.4 EUROPE 12,116.4 (2) 466.5 50 158.3 308.7 6.2 3.2 655.4 1,131.8 0.0 9,352.4 b 18.8 b Albania 7.6 (25) 5.6 57 0.4 0.2 0.0 X 2.3 2.8 X 10.1 b 3.2 h Austria X X 4.9 43 1.3 3.1 X X X 4.3 X 61.0 b 8.0 b Belgium 40.0 (16) 0.7 X 0.2 0.4 X X X 0.7 X 199.2 b 19.4 b Bulgaria 97.5 (2) 12.4 30 10.5 1.5 X X 0.1 12.1 X 57.6 b 6.4 b Czechoslovakia X X 21.1 22 20.1 1.0 X X X 21.1 X 106.6 b 6.8 b Denmark 1,843.9 6 24.7 55 X 29.2 X X X 29.2 X 107.4 h 20.9 h Finland 103.8 3 8.8 (69) X 15.9 X X X 15.9 X 153.6 b 31.0 b France 827.1 10 41.4 X 7.8 32.9 0.2 0.2 187.1 228.3 X 1,681.9 b 30.1 b Germany (Fed Rep) 189.0 (51) 26.0 69 6.0 16.5 0.0 X 22.6 45.1 X 680.3 b 11.0 b (Dem Rep) 161.3 (18) 22.0 51 14.4 7.5 X X X 21.8 X 220.6 b 13.3 b Greece 120.1 26 10.0 8 0.4 2.2 0.5 X 1.0 4.1 X 182.3 h 18.2 h Hungary X X 36.9 10 18.6 0.3 X X X 18.9 X 52.6 b 5.0 b Iceland 1,631.8 7 0.6 12 X 1.2 X X X 1.2 X 23.0 b 92.4 b Ireland 249.9 158 0.6 X X 5.1 X X 13.8 18.9 X 58.3 b 16.5 b Italy 504.5 18 58.3 131 2.8 36.8 4.2 X 85.3 129.1 X 1,164.6 b 20.3 b Luxembourg X X 0.0 X X X X X X X X X b X h Malta 0.9 (28) 0.0 X X X X X X X X 5.3 b 15.3 b Netherlands 416.9 31 5.3 114 0.4 0.4 X X 95.8 96.6 0.0 c 118.2 h 8.0 b Norway 1,896.0 (34) 0.4 12 X 88.3 0.0 X 0.1 88.4 X 185.0 b 44.0 b Poland 597.2 2 33.0 46 21.1 3.0 X X X 24.1 X 522.0 b 13.8 b Portugal 354.1 32 1.9 X 1.9 X 0.4 0.0 d X 2.3 X 592.9 b 57.7 b Romania 181.9 72 70.3 40 38.7 X X 0.0 7.9 46.6 X 203.0 b 8.8 b Spain 1,368.1 5 29.7 39 0.4 14.4 0.6 2.9 233.2 251.5 X 1,446.5 b 37.1 b Sweden 236.2 27 4.9 (51) X 6.7 X 0.0 1.2 7.9 X 230.4 h 27.3 h Switzerland X X 4.4 12 0.1 d 0.5 X X X 0.6 X 85.9 b 13.0 b United Kingdom 892.8 (9) 17.1 787 0.1 35.4 X 0.0 3.8 39.4 X 1,120.6 b 19.6 b Yugoslavia 49.3 39 25.6 4 13.2 0.3 0.3 X 1.3 15.0 X 79.4 b 3.4 b U.S.S.R. 10,266.1 24 1,001.2 26 343.6 8.2 0.1 X 0.2 352.1 3.8 8,236.8 b 28.9 b OCEANIA 825.5 151 22.9 897 0.1 3.7 0.0 0.6 33.4 37.9 0.6 597.4 23.9 Australia 194.5 55 3.3 154 0.0 2.6 X 0.3 10.2 13.1 0.1 301.4 h 18.2 b Fiji 29.1 155 4.4 411 0.0 X 0.0 0.0 X 0.0 0.1 31.1 b 42.4 b New Zealand 482.2 356 0.5 205 X 1.1 X X 23.1 24.2 X 120.6 h 36.5 h Papua New Guinea 10.5 (71) 14.6 X X X X X X 0.0 X 89.6 24.8 Solomon Islands 52.2 83 0.0 X X X X 0.0 X 0.0 X 16.8 b 55.9 b Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Notes: a. Includes production of aquatic plants and seaweeds, which are excluded from marine catch; their harvest is to be subtracted as appropriate, b. Data are for 1987-89. c. Two years of data. d. One year of data. Total of aquaculture production is included in the country totals for marine and freshwater catches. World and regional totals include countries not listed and unallocated quantities. 0 = zero or less than half of the unit of measure; X = not available; negative numbers are shown in parentheses. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1982-93 341 23 Oceans and Coasts Sources and Technical Notes Table 23.1 Coastal Areas and 200-mile EEZs, yet are only 90 miles apart— Pamlico Sound to Biscayne Bay, Summary Re- Resources they must agree on a maritime boundary port (Department of Commerce, Washing- between them, often a halfway point. ton, D.C., June 1989); Strategic Assessment of The shelf area to the 200-meter isobath Near Coastal Waters, Susceptibility and Status Sources: Length of marine coastline: represents one indicator of potential off- of Gulf of Mexico Estuaries to Nutrient Dis- United Nations Office of Ocean Affairs and shore oil and gas resources because of sedi- charges, Summary Report (Department of the Law of the Sea, unpublished data mentation from continental areas. Other Commerce, Washington, D.C., June 1989); (United Nations, New York, June 1989); indicators are geologic and geographic. Ac- Strategic Assessment of Near Coastal Waters, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, The World cessibility and water depth place economic Susceptibility and Status of West Coast Estuar- Factbook 1988 (U.S. Government Printing Of- constraints on exploration and production ies to Nutrient Discharges: San Diego Bay to fice, Washington, D.C., 1988). Shelf area to operations in water deeper than 200 meters. Puget Sound, Summary Report (Department 200-meter depth: John P. Albers, M Dever- Significant deep-water operations currently of Commerce, Washington, D.C., October eux Carter, Allen L. Clark, et al. Summary take place in the North Sea and off the Bra- 1991). Petroleum and Selected Mineral Statistics for zilian coast. Physical and hydrological characteristics 120 Countries, Including Offshore Areas, Geo- Population in coastal urban agglomerations of an estuary determine its susceptibility to logical Survey Professional Paper 817, (U.S. was calculated using maps in scales from concentrate dissolved and particulate pollu- Government Printing Office, Washington, 1:500,000 to 1:2,000,000. Coastal area is de- tants. Susceptibility can be quantified by D.C., 1973). Exclusive economic zone: fined as a zone no more than 60 kilometers two parameters: dissolved concentration United Nations Office of Ocean Affairs and inland. Projected population for the year potential (DCP), which is the relative abil- the Law of the Sea, unpublished data 2000 is based on the medium variant of the ity of an estuary to concentrate dissolved (United Nations, New York, June 1989); 1988 United Nations Population Division pollutants (in this case, phosphorus and ni- French Polynesia and New Caledonia: An- assessment. Definitions of urban agglomer- trogen); and particle retention efficiency thony Bergin, "Fisheries Surveillance in the ation vary greatly among countries. (See (PRE), which is the relative ability of an es- South Pacific," Ocean & Shoreline Manage- Technical Note for Table 17.2.) The most re- tuary to trap suspended particles and at- ment, Vol. 11 (1988), p. 468. cent country-level estimates are for years tached pollutants (primarily toxic mat- Population in coastal urban agglomera- from 1970 to 1986. Hence, a direct compari- erials). The DCP, a function of the total vol- tions: United Nations Centre for Human son of urban agglomerations among coun- ume of an estuary, the volume of freshwa- Settlements (Habitat), unpublished data tries should be done with caution. ter in the estuary, and the rate of fresh- (United Nations, Nairobi, Februrary 1990). The United Nations Statistical Office water inflow, assesses the effect of flushing Average volume of goods loaded and un- based its estimates of average annual volume and estuarine dilution on a load of dis- loaded: United Nations Statistical Office, of goods loaded and unloaded in maritime solved pollutants. The PRE, also a function Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Vol. XLIV, No. transport mostly on information available of estuary volume and annual freshwater 12 (December 1990). in external trade statistics. Petroleum prod- inflow, equates an estuary's relative ability Offshore oil and gas resources: Offshore ucts exclude bunkers and those products to retain sediment to its ability to concen- Magazine (PennWell Publishing Company, not generally carried by tanker, namely, trate particulate pollutants. Tulsa, Oklahoma, July 20,1984 and June paraffin wax, petroleum coke, asphalt, and Total drainage area, the sum of estuarine 1991). lubricating oil, which are included with the and fluvial drainage areas, includes all The United Nations Office for Ocean Af- data for dry cargo. river basins discharging into an estuary. fairs and the Law of the Sea compiles infor- Offshore Magazine annually queries na- Pluvial drainage area extends over the entire mation concerning coastal claims from the tional governments for statistics on offshore watershed upstream of the estuarine drain- following sources: the United Nations Leg- oil and gas resources. These data are supple- age area. Estuarine drainage area is measured islative Series, official gazettes, communica- mented with figures from oil- and gas-pro- from the head of tide and the seaward estu- tions to the Secretary General, legal jour- ducing companies, expert sources, and arine boundary as cataloged by the U.S. nals, and other publications. National published literature. National governments Geological Survey (USGS). Estuarine drain- claims to maritime zones fall into five cate- often have difficulty providing offshore gas age area may include a coastal portion, gories: territorial sea, contiguous zone, ex- production figures; the data are more fre- which is the extent of all the counties border- clusive economic zone (EEZ), exclusive quently obtained from alternative sources. ing the estuary directly, and a noncoastal fishing zone, and continental shelf. The ex- Figures for offshore oil and gas production portion, which is the area of estuarine drain- tent of the continental shelf to 200-meter in Middle Eastern countries are particularly age beyond the coastal counties. Upstream depth and the exclusive economic zone for difficult to obtain and, as a result, are less is defined as the total of noncoastal estua- those countries with marine coastline are reliable. rine area plus the fluvial drainage area. presented in the table. Only the potential Proven reserves of offshore crude oil and Excessive nutrient loads, mainly nitrogen and not the actual established area of the gas represent the fraction of total resources and phosphorus, are responsible for the eu- EEZ are shown. At present, only about half that can be recovered in the future, given trophication of estuaries, which may lead to of the world's countries have established a present and expected economic conditions algal blooms, emissions of noxious odors, full EEZ. and existing technological limits. and massive kills of marine organisms. The Under currently recognized international annual loadings of nitrogen and phospho- principles, an EEZ may be established by a rus entering each estuary were estimated nation out to 200 nautical miles to claim all Table 23.2 Nutrient Discharges separately for coastal and upstream areas. the resources within the zone, including and Predicted Concentrations in Coastal point sources include wastewater fish and all other living resources; minerals; U.S. Estuaries treatment plants and land-based industrial and energy from wind, waves, and tides. facilities discharging directly to surface Nations may also claim rights to regulate water within a coastal county portion of the scientific exploration, protect the marine en- Sources: NOAA/EPA Team on Near estuarine drainage area. The transport of vironment, and establish marine terminals Coastal Water, Strategic Assessment of Near nutrients from surface waters is calculated and artificial islands. The EEZ data shown Coastal Waters, Susceptibility of East Coast Es- separately for four land-use classes (agricul- do not reflect the decisions of some coun- tuaries to Nutrient Discharges: Passamaquoddy ture, forest, urban, and other nonurban). tries, such as those in the European Com- Bay to Chesapeake Bay, Summary Report (De- The total nutrient discharge resulting from munity, to collectively manage fishing partment of Commerce, Washington, D.C., these four land-use categories within the zones on EEZs in some areas. When coun- June 1989); Strategic Assessment of Near coastal county portion of estuarine drainge tries' EEZs overlap—such as those of the Coastal Waters, Susceptibility of East Coast Es- area is defined as coastal nonpoint discharge. United States and Cuba, which both have tuaries to Nutrient Discharges: Albemarle/ World Resources 1992-93 342 Oceans and Coasts 23 Upstream sources contain point and non- neous marine fishes. Cephalopods include and freshwater) species are shown either in point sources and include discharge from squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses, etc. Crusta- the marine or inland area where they were all riverine sources with an average annual ceans are the total of the following catego- caught. flow greater than 1,700 liters per minute. ries: seaspiders, crabs, etc.; lobsters, Data are represented as nominal catch, Estimates for annual nitrogen and phos- spiny-rock lobsters, etc.; squat lobsters; which is the landings converted to a live- phorous loadings do not account for other shrimps, prawns, etc.; krill, planktonic crus- weight basis, that is, weight when caught. possible sources such as ocean influx, taceans, etc.; and miscellaneous marine Landings for some countries are identical to groundwater inflow, bottom sediments, crustaceans. Years shown are three-year av- catches. wetlands, barren lands, and direct atmos- erages. Total marine catch differs from ma- International fishery data are continually pheric deposition. The estimates for point rine catch in Table 23.4 because the revised. The Yearbook of Fishery Statistics and nonpoint sources are "end of pipe" and following mollusc categories are not in- 1989, the latest edition, contains FAO's "edge of field" loadings, which represent a cluded: abalones, winkles, conchs, etc.; oys- most up-to-date published figures. high estimate because they ignore transport ters; mussels; scallops; clams, cockles, Data are provided annually to the FAO phenomena (e.g., phosphorus tied with sed- arkshells, etc.; miscellaneous marine mol- Fisheries Department by national fishery of- iments or nitrification). luscs. Please refer to the Technical Note for fices and regional fishery commissions. The predicted concentration of nitrogen and Table 23.4 for the definition of nominal fish Some countries' data are provisional for the phosphorus is based on the DCP and an- catch and additional information on FAO's latest year. If no data are submitted, FAO nual nutrient loadings. This estimate does fishery data base. uses the previous year's figures or makes not account for nutrient recycling in the es- Estimates of potential are FAO estimates estimates based on other information. tuary, which in some systems may be re- of marine fisheries' biologically realizable Years are calendar years except for Ant- sponsible for a greater percentage of potential. These estimates refer to the maxi- arctic fisheries data, which are for split nutrient concentration in the estuary than mum harvest that can be sustained by a years (July 1-June 30). Data for Antarctic new loadings entering the system each fishery year after year, given average envi- fisheries are given for the calendar year in year. Low predicted concentrations (less ronmental conditions. An assumed level of which the split year ends. than 0.1 milligram of nitrogen per liter and incidental take (catching one species while Aquaculture is defined by FAO as "the less than 0.01 milligram of phosphorus per fishing for another) is subtracted from esti- farming of aquatic organisms, including liter) suggest maximum potential in the di- mates of potential. The.figures exclude the fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and aquatic versity of aquatic life. High predicted con- potential harvest from marine aquaculture. plants. Farming implies some form of inter- centrations (more than 1 milligram of vention in the rearing process to enhance nitrogen per liter and more than 0.1 milli- Table 23.4 Marine and Fresh- production, such as regular stocking, feed- gram of phosphorus per liter) are associ- ing, and protection from predators, etc. [It] ated with high chlorophyll levels, low water Catches, Aquaculture, and also implies ownership of the stock being species diversity, and occasional red tides. Fish Consumption cultivated . ..." Aquatic organisms that are The predicted concentration is a general in- exploitable by the public as a common dicator of the potential for eutrophication Sources: Marine and freshwater catch: property resource are included in the har- in an estuary. The degree to which real eu- Food and Agriculture Organization of the vest of fisheries. trophication occurs is dependent on other United Nations (FAO), Yearbook of Fishery FAO's global collection of aquaculture factors: nutrient recycling in the estuary Statistics 1983,1984,1986, and 1989 (FAO, statistics by questionnaire was begun in and temporal changes in loading resulting Rome, 1984,1986,1988, and 1991). Aquacul- 1984; today, these data are a regular feature from stratification phenomena, and/or ture production: Food and Agriculture Or- of the annual FAO survey of world fishery changes in the agricultural runoff and fresh- ganization of the United Nations (FAO), statistics. water inflow. Actual and long-term mea- Fisheries Department, Aquaculture Produc- FAO's 840 "species items" are summa- surements of nutrient concentrations in tion (1986-1989), Fisheries Circular No. 815, rized in six categories. Freshwater fish in- U.S. estuaries do not currently exist. Revision 3, (FAO, Rome, July 1991). Food clude carps, barbels, tilapias, and other supply from fish and fishery products: freshwater fishes. Diadromous fish include, Edmondo Laureti, Food and Agriculture among others, sturgeons, river eels, salm- Table 23.3 Marine Fisheries, Organization of the United Nations (FAO), ons, trouts, and smelts. Marine fish include Yield and Estimated Potential Fisheries Department, Fish and Fishery Prod- a variety of species groups such as floun- ucts—World Apparent Consumption Statistics ders, halibuts, and redfishes. Crustaceans Sources: Marine fishery production: Food Based on Food Balance Sheets (1961-1989), include, among others, freshwater crusta- and Agriculture Organization of the United Fisheries Circular No. 821, Revision 1, ceans, crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. Nations (FAO), Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (FAO, Rome, July 1991). Molluscs include freshwater molluscs, oys- 1983,1984, and 1989 (FAO, Rome, 1984, Marine and freshwater catch data refer to ters, mussels, scallops, clams, and squids. 1986, and 1991). Estimated fishery poten- marine and freshwater fish killed, caught, Other includes frogs, turtles, and aquatic tial: M.A. Robinson, Trends and Prospects in trapped, collected, bred, or cultivated for plants. Data on whales and other mammals World Fisheries, Fisheries Circular No. 772 commercial, industrial, and subsistence are excluded from this table. For a detailed (FAO, Fisheries Department, Rome, 1984). use. Crustaceans, molluscs, and miscella- listing of species, please refer to the most re- FAO divides the world's oceans into 19 neous aquatic animals are included. Statis- cent FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics. marine statistical areas and organizes an- tics for mariculture, aquaculture, and other Average annual food supply from fish and nual catch data by 840 "species items," spe- kinds of fish farming are included in the fishery products is the quantity of fish and cies groups separated at the family, genus, country totals. Quantities taken in recrea- fish products available for human consump- or species level. Marine fish include the fol- tional activities are excluded. Figures are tion. It is calculated as apparent consump- lowing FAO species groupings: flounders, the national totals averaged over a three- tion—production minus nonfood uses, halibuts, soles, etc.; cods, hakes, haddocks, year period; they include fish caught by a minus exports, plus imports—of eight etc.; redfishes, basses, congers, etc.; jacks, country's fleet anywhere in the world. groups of primary fishery commodities and mullets, sauries, etc.; tunas, bonitos, bill- Catches of freshwater species caught in low- nine groups of processed products and esti- fishes, etc.; herrings, sardines, anchovies, salinity seas are included in the statistics of mated in the food balance sheets of FAO. etc.; mackerels, snoeks, cutlassfishes, etc.; the appropriate marine area. Catches of di- sharks, rays, chimeras, etc.; and miscella- adromous (migratory between saltwater World Resources 1992-93 343 24. Atmosphere and Climate The Earth's atmosphere is changing, and we do not tion and transmission (35 percent) and is second (19 fully understand what the effect of those changes will percent) only to China (33 percent) in CH4 emissions be on our own lives, much less the lives of our chil- from coal production. Large and populous countries dren. It is easy to imagine effects that could be cata- are also the sources of the largest emissions from solid strophic for life on this planet. Yet, in the face of these waste disposal. The United States leads at 37 percent, possibilities and our inadequate understanding of with the U.S.S.R. a distant second. Earth processes, anthropogenic emissions of trace CFC emissions, as well as being potent greenhouse gases—pollutants that affect climate, the ozone layer, gases, cause depletion of the ozone layer. Policy mech- and human health—continue. anisms for their control are already in place. Neverthe- Industrial emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), from less, an estimated 580,000 metric tons were emitted in the burning of fossil fuels and the production of ce- 1989. The United States (22 percent) and Japan (16 per- ment, continue and grow. Table 24.1 shows that these cent), the two leading industrial powers, were also the emissions differ considerably from country to country leaders in the use and emission of these gases. on both a total and a per capita basis. Measured on a Table 24.3 shows the increasing atmospheric concen- per capita basis, a disproportionate share of these trations of trace gases with greenhouse and ozone-de- gases are emitted by industrialized and oil-producing pleting effects. Since preindustrial times, CO2 concen- countries. For example, per capita emissions in the trations have increased 26.5 percent; CH4 has increased United States reached 19.7 metric tons in 1989. In con- 143.5 percent—although CH4 concentrations are a tiny trast, per capita emissions in China were only 2.2 met- fraction of CO2 concentrations—and the chlorinated ric tons and in India only 0.8 metric tons. CO2 is the trace gases appeared for the first time (they are the con- most important of the greenhouse gases. (See Chapter sequence of modern industrial processes). 13, "Atmosphere and Climate.") Most of the increase in CO2 concentrations is due to Table 24.2 shows estimates by country of the CO2 the burning of fossil fuels. Table 24.4 shows that total emitted in the course of deforestation, as well as emis- annual emissions have reached almost 22 billion met- sions of methane (CH4) and chlorofluorocarbons ric tons. Indeed, they have increased by 260 percent (CFCs), other important greenhouse gases. This table since 1950 (on a per capita basis they have increased describes the global anthropogenic emissions and their more than 75 percent). Emissions from solid fuel con- distribution by source and by country. sumption have more than doubled, those from liquid Deforestation remains an important source of CO2 in fuel consumption have increased almost 500 percent, the atmosphere, making up about one quarter of total and those from gas consumption have increased al- anthropogenic emissions. Although deforestation in most 900 percent. Brazil has declined considerably in recent years (see Not all anthropogenic emissions of pollutants are in- Chapter 8, "Forests and Rangelands"), it accounts for creasing inexorably. Data from the industrialized coun- almost 15 percent of CO2 from deforestation and is the tries (Table 24.5) show that sulfur and nitrogen emis- largest single country source. The countries of South sions have declined in countries that have attempted and Southeast Asia together, however, account for to control them. In general, the countries in Europe (in- fully 41 percent of CO2 emissions from deforestation. cluding the European part of the U.S.S.R.) have made Overall China emits the most CH4 at 40 million met- headway in controlling sulfur dioxide emissions over ric tons, followed by the United States (37 million), the past 20 years. However, efforts to control nitrogen India (36 million), and the U.S.S.R. (34 million). Ani- emissions have had mixed results. Sulfur and nitrogen mal husbandry provides the largest component of an- emissions are precursors of acid rain as well as air pol- thropogenic emissions of CH4, and India—the country lutants that affect human health. with the largest number of cattle—emits almost 14 per- Table 24.6 shows that the United States has decreased cent of the global livestock total. Another anthropogenic emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter source of CH4 is wet rice agriculture. India and China (PM), and hydrocarbons (HC) since 1980. In contrast, each emit 26 percent of CH4 attributable to this source; the United Kingdom's CO and HC emissions increased only small amounts are emitted outside Asia. The over the same time period; PM emissions decreased U.S.S.R. is the largest emitter of CH4 from gas produc- only slightly. World Resources 1992-93 345 24 Atmosphere and Climate T a b l e 2 4 . 1 CO2 Emissions from Industrial Processes, 1989 Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Emissions (000 metric tons) Emissions Gas Cement (metric Solid Liquid Gas Flaring Manufacture Total tons) WORLD 8,764,288 8,863,216 3,466,144 205,184 556,928 21,863,088 4.21 AFRICA 270,029 256,462 51,985 45,162 23,867 647,352 1.03 Algeria 3,019 20,731 17,034 2,466 3,243 46,492 1.91 Angola 0 1,707 319 2,440 498 4,965 0.51 Benin 0 418 0 0 249 667 0.15 Botswana 1,700 0 0 0 0 1,700 1.36 Burkina Faso 0 520 0 0 0 520 0.07 Burundi 18 158 176 0.04 Cameroon 4 5,771 5,774 0.51 Cape Verde 0 77 77 0.22 Central African Rep 0 264 264 0.07 Chad 0 202 202 0.04 Comoros 0 51 0 0 0 51 0.11 Congo 0 1,576 4 169 29 1,773 0.81 Cote d'lvoire 0 7,247 0 0 348 7,595 0.66 Djibouti o 326 0 0 0 326 0.81 Egypt 2,939 59,349 12,355 0 4,836 79,483 1.54 Equatorial Guinea 106 0 0 0 106 0.29 Ethiopia 2,440 0 0 125 2,565 0.04 Gabon 4,983 531 2,242 70 7,826 6.89 Gambia, The 183 0 0 0 183 0.22 Ghana 3,232 0 0 282 3,521 0.26 Guinea 0 1,000 0 0 0 1,000 0.18 Guinea-Bissau 0 147 0 0 0 147 0.15 Kenya 355 4,232 0 0 605 5,192 0.22 Lesotho 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Liberia 0 729 0 0 44 773 0.29 Libya 4 23,629 11,168 1,682 1,356 37,842 8.65 Madagascar 37 850 0 0 18 901 0.07 Malawi 176 425 0 0 37 634 0.07 Mali 0 414 0 0 15 425 0.04 Mauritania 15 2,964 0 0 44 3,023 1.54 Mauritius 202 802 0 0 1,000 0.95 Morocco 4,994 15,107 121 1,898 22,120 0.92 Mozambique 172 835 0 198 1,205 0.07 Namibia 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Niger 421 575 0 15 1,008 0.15 Nigeria 264 32,826 8,295 36,131 1,744 79,263 0.77 Rwanda 0 381 4 0 0 381 0.04 Senegal 0 2,964 0 0 191 3,151 0.44 Sierra Leone 0 671 0 0 0 671 0.18 Somalia 0 960 0 0 0 960 0.15 ooooo ooooo South Africa 239,362 34,768 4,338 278,468 8.06 Sudan 0 3,265 73 3,338 0.15 Swaziland 443 0 0 443 0.59 Tanzania 11 1,938 150 2,099 0.07 Togo 0 432 194 627 0.18 Tunisia 344 8,904 2,154 33 2,488 13,923 1.76 Uganda 0 876 0 0 4 879 0.04 Zaire 887 2,708 0 0 227 3,822 0.11 Zambia 887 1,535 0 0 191 2,612 0.33 Zimbabwe 13,769 1,931 0 0 359 16,059 1.72 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 1,955,110 2,616,103 1,109,584 21,629 58,422 5,760,830 13.60 Barbados 0 810 55 0 106 971 3.81 Belize 0 180 0 0 0 180 0.95 Canada 107,352 209,383 128,130 4,789 5,877 455,530 17.33 Costa Rica 0 2,286 0 0 271 2,557 0.88 Cuba 601 33,778 62 0 1,854 36,292 3.44 Dominican Rep 0 5,976 0 769 6,745 0.95 El Salvador 0 2,037 0 315 2,352 0.44 Guatemala 0 3,268 0 806 4,071 0.44 Haiti 0 616 0 110 725 0.11 Honduras 0 1,682 0 297 1,979 0.40 Jamaica 0 4,719 0 0 180 4,899 2.02 Mexico 20,445 234,624 49,255 3,671 11,710 319,702 3.70 Nicaragua 0 2,129 0 0 51 2,180 0.59 Panama 26 2,437 95 0 176 2,730 1.14 Trinidad and Tobago 0 5,518 7,251 5,621 191 18,580 14.73 United States 1,826,149 2,075,685 924,735 7,548 34,892 4,869,005 19.68 SOUTH AMERICA 67,044 345,193 102,610 18,881 23,563 557,298 1.91 Argentina 4,316 62,834 42,850 5,932 2,228 118,157 3.70 Bolivia 0 3,111 1,385 315 253 5,064 0.70 Brazil 39,124 146,816 6,533 2,023 12,458 206,957 1.39 Chile 9,200 18,294 3,177 300 857 31,833 2.45 Colombia 13,212 28,290 8,533 678 3,118 53,831 1.65 Ecuador 0 12,769 191 1,363 993 15,316 1.47 Guyana 0 660 0 0 0 660 0.84 Paraguay 0 1,557 0 0 161 1,722 0.40 Peru 484 18,423 997 282 993 21,174 0.99 Suriname 26 1,385 0 0 26 1,440 3.48 Uruguay 0 4,514 0 0 231 4,749 1.54 Venezuela 667 46,042 38,945 7,988 2,246 95,887 4.98 World Resources 1992-93 346 Atmosphere and Climate 24 Table 24.1 Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Emissions {000 metric tons) Emissions Gas Cement (metric Solid Liquid Gas Flaring Manufacture Total tons) ASIA 3,147,431 1,948,556 392,605 66,670 256,795 5,812,064 1.93 Afghanistan 388 1,810 3,660 363 51 6,273 0.40 Bahrain 0 2,554 9,607 0 0 12,161 24.37 Bangladesh 480 6,031 7,416 0 187 14,114 0.11 Bhutan 4 29 0 0 0 33 0.04 Cambodia 0 451 0 0 0 451 0.07 China 1,964,032 292,699 28,817 0 103,068 2,388,613 2.16 Cyprus 202 3,561 0 0 429 4,192 6.05 India 461,803 143,929 15,535 9,688 20,980 651,936 0.77 Indonesia 8,999 81,722 15,334 24,648 7,024 137,726 0.77 Iran, Islamic Rep 4,170 110,191 42,590 2,884 6,240 166,074 3.11 Iraq 4 50,794 2,481 9,384 6,240 68,898 3.77 Israel 9,318 22,376 77 0 1,129 32,903 7.25 Japan 303,995 603,157 92,816 81 40,506 1,040,554 8.46 Jordan 0 8,530 0 0 887 9,416 2.42 Korea, Dem People's Rep 136,946 9,570 0 0 4,972 151,488 7.07 Korea, Rep 97,037 103,468 5,415 0 15,187 221,104 5.20 Kuwait 0 11,263 17,353 2,114 447 31,181 15.76 Lao People's Dem Rep 0 227 0 0 0 227 0.07 Lebanon 0 8,266 0 0 451 8,720 3.26 Malaysia 2,972 30,419 9,732 3,550 2,389 49,061 2.82 Mongolia 7,694 2,308 0 0 297 10,303 4.84 Myanmar 271 2,378 2,074 99 187 5,009 0.11 Nepal 216 586 0 0 132 934 0.04 Oman 0 3,986 4,455 1,341 473 10,259 7.07 Pakistan 7,181 29,037 19,218 2,059 3,481 60,973 0.51 Philippines 5,097 33,874 0 0 1,990 40,960 0.66 Qatar 0 2,631 10,527 0 150 13,308 37.59 Saudi Arabia 0 110,261 51,270 7,497 4,749 173,776 12.79 Singapore 44 34,962 0 0 850 35,860 13.34 Sri Lanka 0 3,836 0 0 198 4,034 0.22 Syrian Arab Rep 0 25,230 443 740 1,744 28,154 2.34 Thailand 9,673 50,604 9,915 0 7,486 77,680 1.43 Turkey 50,036 58,118 6,064 0 11,860 126,078 2.31 United Arab Emirates 0 15,766 31,210 2,173 1,795 50,944 32.94 Viet Nam 13,187 4,188 0 0 795 18,170 0.29 Yemen (Arab Rep){a] 0 3,147 0 0 348 3,495 0.40 (People's Dem Rep){aj X X X X X X X EUROPE 1,970,071 1,616,223 623,972 15,129 122,440 4,347,794 8.74 Albania 3,895 4,679 762 0 399 9,732 3.04 Austria 13,549 25,919 9,842 0 2,393 51,699 6.82 Belgium 40,253 37,856 16,558 0 3,437 98,104 9.97 Bulgaria 60,544 31,998 11,692 0 2,759 106,989 11.87 Czechoslovakia 156,138 44,979 19,808 0 5,426 226,347 14.47 Denmark 20,691 22,222 3,081 18 993 47,009 9.16 Finland 20,313 25,981 4,261 0 747 51,300 10.33 France 74,409 214,813 55,964 0 11,981 357,163 6.38 Germany (Fed Rep){a} 283,623 247,478 96,568 531 13,201 641,398 10.48 (Dem Rep){a} X X X X X X X Greece 29,195 34,936 282 4 6,511 70,920 7.07 Hungary 28,015 13,139 20,976 0 1,946 64,076 6.05 Iceland 238 1,649 0 0 59 1,942 7.69 Ireland 14,073 10,263 4,199 0 813 29,352 7.95 Italy 52,710 241,938 76,926 0 18,173 389,747 6.82 Luxembourg 3,972 4,093 927 0 275 9,266 24.92 Malta 692 982 0 0 0 1,674 4.76 Netherlands 31,228 27,667 64,105 227 1,762 124,990 8.43 Norway 3,811 24,717 6,540 10,259 685 46,009 10.96 Poland 370,005 43,939 19,529 0 7,460 440,929 11.54 Portugal 9,655 28,271 0 0 2,982 40,912 3.99 Romania 86,628 52,439 66,165 0 6,962 212,193 9.16 Spain 73,635 107,231 10,010 147 12,205 203,227 5.20 Sweden 13,659 43,184 949 0 1,096 58,888 7.00 Switzerland 1,488 31,631 3,488 0 2,722 39,326 5.94 United Kingdom 251,277 201,560 104,710 3,942 6,962 568,451 9.89 Yugoslavia 74,203 42,704 11,747 0 4,250 132,901 5.61 U.S.S.R. 1,328,885 1,237,842 1,129,996 37,530 69,752 3,804,001 13.26 OCEANIA 146,985 100,764 39,758 0 3,745 291,248 11.16 Australia 141,932 81,748 30,558 0 3,239 257,480 15.46 Fiji 37 645 0 0 0 678 0.92 New Zealand 4,609 11,893 9,200 0 476 26,176 7.77 Papua New Guinea 4 2,246 0 0 0 2,250 0.59 Solomon Islands 0 161 0 0 0 161 0.51 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Notes: a. Data for Yemen and Germany combine data from their previous divisions. Estimates are ot the carbon dioxide emitted, 3.664 times the carbon it contains. World and regional totals include countries not listed. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 347 24 Atmosphere and Climate T a b l e 2 4 . 2 Other Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1989 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Land Use Methane from Anthropogenic Sources (000 metric tons) Chlorofluoro- Change Solid Coal Oil and Gas Wet rice carbons (000 metric tons) Waste Mining Production Agriculture Livestock Total (000 metric tons) WORLD 6,400,000 46,000 39,000 37,000 72,000 76,000 270,000 580 AFRICA 1,500,000 2,000 2,000 4,200 2,300 9.500 19,000 16 Algeria X 56 X 770 X 140 970 1 Angola 33,000 22 X 180 8 130 340 X Benin 9,500 10 X X 2 43 54 X Botswana 2,600 3 3 X X 91 97 X Burkina Faso 17,000 17 X X 14 140 170 X Burundi 530 12 X X 6 18 34 X Cameroon 60,000 25 X X 8 190 230 X Cape Verde X 1 X X X 1 2 X Central African Rep 13,000 6 X X 4 90 100 X Chad 15,000 13 X X 9 200 220 X Comoros X 1 X X 6 4 11 X Congo 12,000 4 X 12 2 4 21 X Cote d'lvoire 350,000 26 X X 140 50 200 1 Djibouti X 1 X X X 10 11 X Egypt X 120 11 99 260 220 670 3 Equatorial Guinea 1,800 1 X X X 0 1 X Ethiopia 30,000 93 X X X 1,300 1,400 X Gabon 9,300 3 X 170 0 1 170 0 Gambia, The 1,900 2 X X 4 13 18 X Ghana 31,000 34 X X 25 69 120 1 Guinea 37,000 14 X X 250 68 300 X Guinea-Bissau 18,000 2 X X 63 14 72 X Kenya 13,000 52 X X 8 590 640 0 Lesotho X X X X X X X X Liberia 39,000 5 X X 61 4 63 0 Libya X 10 X 230 X 53 290 X Madagascar 120,000 25 X X 740 370 860 0 Malawi 58,000 18 X X 14 45 73 X Mali 7,700 20 X X 51 240 310 X Mauritania X 5 X X 2 130 140 X Mauritius X 2 X X 0 2 4 X Morocco X 57 12 1 2 230 310 1 Mozambique 30,000 35 X X 47 51 130 X Namibia X X X X X X X X Niger 7,400 16 X X 6 210 230 X Nigeria 270,000 240 X 2,700 140 630 3,700 0 Rwanda 2,100 15 X 0 1 29 46 0 Senegal 11,000 17 X X 15 120 160 0 Sierra Leone 4,600 9 X X 100 14 97 X Somalia 5,200 14 X X 1 740 760 X South Africa X 680 1,900 X 1 820 3,400 7 Sudan 98,000 54 X X 1 1,100 1,200 X Swaziland X 2 X X X 25 27 X Tanzania 21,000 55 X X 190 550 740 X Togo 2,900 8 X X 9 20 34 0 Tunisia X 18 X 8 X 64 90 0 Uganda 10,000 40 X X 10 160 210 X Zaire 130,000 87 X X 120 71 290 X Zambia 27,000 15 0 X 6 100 120 X Zimbabwe 16,000 21 42 X 0 240 310 1 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 420,000 19,000 8,800 7,400 1,000 8,900 45,000 150 Barbados X 1 X 0 X 1 2 0 Belize X 0 X X 0 2 2 X Canada X 1,700 560 1,100 X 740 4,100 11 Costa Rica 26,000 6 X X 8 64 78 0 Cuba 890 24 X 0 120 190 310 0 Dominican Rep 1,300 15 X X 49 88 160 0 El Salvador 1,600 14 X X 3 43 59 0 Guatemala 41,000 21 X X 6 81 110 1 Haiti 860 13 X X 8 70 90 X Honduras 42,000 10 X X 3 95 110 0 Jamaica 810 6 X X 0 13 18 1 Mexico 200,000 190 130 660 30 1,300 2,300 5 Nicaragua 59,000 8 X X 18 63 87 0 Panama 19,000 5 X X 13 56 75 0 Trinidad and Tobago 330 3 X 470 0 4 470 0 United States 22,000 17,000 8,100 5,200 740 6,000 37,000 130 SOUTH AMERICA 1,800,000 660 180 2,200 940 14,000 18,000 15 Argentina X 73 0 740 16 2,900 3,800 3 Bolivia 37,000 16 X 68 13 260 360 0 Brazil 950,000 340 4 200 430 7,700 8,800 6 Chile X 30 15 48 8 170 270 0 Colombia 420,000 71 160 120 270 920 1,500 2 Ecuador 160,000 23 X 100 40 160 330 0 Guyana 1,100 2 X X 19 9 27 X Paraguay 67,000 9 X X 5 290 310 0 Peru 140,000 48 2 29 53 220 330 0 Suriname 1,100 1 X X 45 3 43 0 Uruguay X 9 X X 22 500 530 0 Venezuela 59,000 43 2 900 18 480 1,400 2 World Resources 1992-93 348 Atmosphere and Climate 24 Table 24.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Land-Use Methane from Anthropogenic Sources (000 metric tons) Chlorofluoro- Change Solid Coal Oil and Gas Wet rice carbons (000 metric tons) Waste Mining Production Agriculture Livestock Total (000 metric tons) ASIA 2,600,000 9,100 16,000 6,000 67,000 25,000 130,000 140 Afghanistan X 45 72 110 250 480 Bahrain X 1 77 X 0 79 Bangladesh 8,700 250 60 5,100 970 6,900 Bhutan 860 4 X 30 16 40 Cambodia 11,000 18 X 740 110 1,100 China X 2,600 13,000 230 19,000 5,300 40,000 12 Cyprus X 2 X X X 5 6 0 India 120,000 1,900 1,600 830 19,000 11,000 36,000 4 Indonesia 870,000 400 12 580 5,100 600 6,500 1 Iran, Islamic Rep X 110 6 550 240 550 1,500 3 Iraq X 40 X 760 34 120 950 1 Israel X 120 X f X 15 140 3 Japan X 2.400 150 37 1,400 280 4,100 95 Jordan X 7 X X X 10 17 1 Korea, Dem People's Rep X 49 600 X 410 52 1,200 X Korea, Rep X 99 360 X 640 82 1,200 5 Kuwait X 5 X 240 X 3 250 1 Lao People's Dem Rep 240,000 11 X X 180 83 370 X Lebanon X 5 X X X 5 10 X Malaysia 280,000 39 X 480 270 38 890 2 Mongolia X 5 5 X X 250 260 Myanmar 380,000 95 X 24 3,100 470 3,200 Nepal 32,000 41 X X 430 400 1,000 Oman X 3 X 130 X 15 150 Pakistan 4,000 250 1 300 1,100 1,700 3,400 1 O CO O O O Philippines CO 190,000 140 1 X 1,500 2,400 Qatar X 1 X 85 X 88 X Saudi Arabia 3 Ol X 29 X 960 X 1,100 Singapore X 6 X X X 7 1 OJ Sri Lanka 22,000 39 X X 410 540 0 Syrian Arab Rep X 25 X 58 X 100 190 1 Thailand 290,000 130 X 80 5,700 480 6,300 3 Turkey X 120 29 3 33 700 880 1 United Arab Emirates X 3 X 460 X 15 480 1 Viet Nam 150,000 150 84 X 3,200 270 3,600 X CO O Yemen (Arab Rep) X 17 X X X 80 X (People's Dem Rep) X 6 X X X 26 X EUROPE X 9,400 3,900 3,600 250 8,400 26,000 180 xxxxx Albania 50 X 6 2 37 95 X Austria 150 X 12 X 150 310 3 Belgium 220 54 0 X 170 450 4 Bulgaria 150 2 0 8 170 330 1 Czechoslovakia 250 270 11 X 290 820 4 Denmark X 100 X 30 X 140 270 2 Finland X 98 X X X 79 180 1 France X 1,100 120 33 14 1,300 2,600 24 Germany (Fed Rep) X 1,200 790 170 X 890 3,000 27 (Dem Rep) X 300 X 26 X 360 680 7 Greece X 200 X 2 12 150 360 4 Hungary X 170 20 92 9 120 410 3 Iceland X 5 X X X 11 16 0 Ireland X 70 X 23 X 340 430 2 Italy X 1,100 X 160 110 600 2,000 25 Luxembourg X 7 X X X X 7 0 Malta X 8 X X X 1 8 0 Netherlands X 290 X 630 X 260 1,200 6 Norway X 83 0 1,100 X 71 1,300 1 Poland X 600 1,200 57 X 650 2,500 5 Portugal X 200 3 X 22 130 350 4 Romania X 380 41 440 33 600 1,500 2 Spain X 770 230 27 32 520 1,600 17 Sweden X 170 X X X 99 270 3 Switzerland X 130 X 0 X 110 240 2 United Kingdom X 1,100 1,200 750 X 900 3,900 25 Yugoslavia X 460 3 34 6 240 750 4 U.S.S.R. X 4,600 7,600 13,000 370 7,900 34,000 67 OCEANIA 12,000 1,200 1,600 320 75 3,000 6,200 9 Australia X 1,100 1,600 250 68 2,000 5,000 8 Fiji X 2 X X 6 7 18 0 New Zealand X 64 18 74 X 980 1,100 1 Papua New Guinea 12,000 9 X X X 5 15 X Solomon Islands X 1 X X 0 1 1 X Source: World Resources Institute. Notes: Carbon dioxide mass is 3.664 times its carbon content. 0 = zero or less than half the unit of measure; X = not available. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 349 24 Atmosphere and Climate T a b l e 2 4 . 3 Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse and Ozone-Depleting Gases, 1959-90 Carbon Methyl Carbon tetra- chloro- Total Nitrous Carbon Dioxide chloride form CFC-11 CFC-12 CFC-22 CFC-113 Gaseous Oxide Methane Monoxide (CO2) (CCW) (CH3CCI3) (CCI3F) (CCI2F2) (CHCIF2) (C2CI3F3) Chlorine (N2O) (CH4) (CO) Year ppm ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppb ppb ppb Preindustrial 280.0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 285.0 a 700 a X 1959 315.8 X X X X X X X X X X 1960 316.8 X X X X X X X X X X 1961 317.5 X X X X X X X X X X 1962 318.3 X X X X X X X X 1,354 X 1963 318.8 X X X X X X X X X X 1964 X X X X X X X X X X X 1965 319.9 X X X X X X X X 1,386 X 1966 321.2 X X X X X X X X 1,338 X 1967 322.0 X X X X X X X X 1,480 X 1968 322.8 X X X X X X X X 1,373 X 1969 323.9 X X X X X X X X 1,385 X 1970 325.3 X X X X X X X X 1,431 X 1971 326.2 X X X X X X X X 1,436 X 1972 327.3 X X X X X X X X 1,500 X 1973 329.5 X X X X X X X X 1,624 X 1974 330.1 X X X X X X X X 1,596 X 1975 331.0 104 70 120 200 X X 1,386 291.4 1,541 X 1976 332.0 106 78 133 217 X X 1,491 293.3 1,490 X 1977 333.7 115 86 148 239 X X 1,640 294.6 1,471 X 1978 335.3 123 94 159 266 X X 1,783 296.4 1,531 X 1979 336.7 116 112 167 283 46 X 1,913 296.3 1,545 X 1980 338.5 121 126 179 307 52 X 2,065 297.6 1,554 X 1981 339.8 122 127 185 315 59 X 2,113 298.5 1,569 72 1982 341.0 121 133 193 330 64 X 2,186 301.0 1,591 72 1983 342.6 126 144 205 350 71 24 2,393 300.9 1,615 70 1984 344.3 130 150 213 366 76 27 2,498 300.4 1,629 73 1985 345.7 130 158 223 384 85 31 2,609 301.5 1,643 75 1986 347.0 127 169 232 404 98 35 2,722 302.5 1,656 75 1987 348.8 X X X X X X X 304.5 1,667 b X 1988 351.4 126 b 166 b 256 b 416 b 109 b 44 b 2,843 306.3 1,681 b X 1989 352.8 126 b 172 b 265 b 433 b X 51 b 2,834 X 1,694 b X 1990 354.0 127 b 182 b 275 b 466 b X 53 b 2,970 X 1,704 b X Sources: Charles D. Keeling of Scripps Institution of Oceanography for Carbon dioxide and Oregon Graduate Center for other g.ases. Notes: a. Approximately, b. Preliminary data, previous years are not calibrated to the same standard. All estimates are by volume; ppm = parts per million; ppb = parts per billion ; ppt = parts per trillion. X = not available. For further information, see Sources and Technical Notes. T a b l e 2 4 . 4 World CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Consumption and Cement Manufacture, 1950-89 Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Emissions (miIlions of metric tons) Emissions Year Total Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gas Fuels Gas Flaring Cement Manufacture (metric tons) 1950 6,002 3,946 1,550 355 84 66 2.38 1951 6,504 4,166 1,755 421 88 73 2.53 1952 6,606 4,129 1,847 454 95 81 2.53 1953 6,771 4,148 1,953 480 99 88 2.56 1954 6,855 4,115 2,041 506 99 99 2.53 1955 7,511 4,452 2,290 550 114 110 2.71 1956 8,006 4,694 2,488 590 117 117 2.86 1957 8,347 4,825 2,616 652 128 125 2.93 1958 8,566 4,924 2,682 703 128 132 2.93 1959 9,054 5,093 2,895 784 132 147 3.04 1960 9,475 5,199 3,114 861 143 158 3.15 1961 9,534 4,968 3,316 931 154 165 3.11 1962 9,922 4,976 3,594 1,015 161 180 3.15 1963 10,461 5,144 3,858 1,099 172 187 3.26 1964 11,051 5,283 4,170 1,202 187 209 3.37 1965 11,556 5,379 4,474 1,286 202 216 3.48 1966 12,142 5,441 4,855 1,392 220 231 3.55 1967 12,531 5,331 5,218 1,502 242 238 3.59 1968 13,176 5,335 5,687 1,630 267 256 3.70 1969 . 13,956 5,474 6,134 1,784 293 271 3.85 1970 14,989 5,756 6,734 1,891 319 286 4.07 1971 15,543 5,756 7,130 2,030 322 308 4.10 1972 16,155 5,815 7,533 2,136 344 326 4.21 1973 17,030 5,840 8,207 2,228 403 348 4.32 1974 17,060 5,829 8,222 2,264 392 352 4.25 1975 16,961 6,178 7,808 2,283 341 348 4.14 1976 17,935 6,313 8,475 2,371 399 377 4.32 1977 18,445 6,544 8,757 2,367 381 396 4.36 1978 18,620 6,603 8,731 2,470 392 425 4.32 1979 19,661 6,958 9,288 2,616 366 436 4.51 1980 19,287 7,039 8,827 2,656 326 440 4.32 1981 18,793 7,072 8,325 2,693 264 443 4.14 1982 18,664 7,302 7,980 2,689 253 443 4.07 1983 18,631 7,321 7,925 2,697 231 458 3.99 1984 19,210 7,650 8,010 2,876 209 469 4.03 1985 19,672 8,046 7,947 3,001 202 480 4.07 1986 20,339 8,255 8,332 3,063 191 498 4.10 1987 20,742 8,464 8,372 3,210 176 520 4.14 1988 21,607 8,750 8,750 3,356 202 550 4.21 1989 21,863 8,764 8,863 3,466 205 557 4.21 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Notes: Mass of carbon dioxide. Totals differ from the sum of other columns because of rounding. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 350 Atmosphere and Climate 24 Table 24.5 Sulfur and Nitrogen Emissions, 1970-89 Sulfur Emissions Nitrogen Emissions (000 metric tons of SO2) (000 metric tons of NO2;i 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Canada 6,677 5,319 4,643 3,704 X 1,364 1,756 1,959 1,959 1,943 a United States 28,400 25,900 23,400 21,100 20,700 b 18,300 19,200 20,400 19,800 19,800 b ASIA Japan 4,973 2,586 1,263 X X 1,651 1,781 1,400 X X Turkey X X 276 322 354 X X X (175) (175) EUROPE Albania X X (50) (50) (50) X X X (9) (9) Austria X X 346 158 124 X X 232 219 211 Belgium X X 828 452 414 X X 317 281 297 Bulgaria X X 1,034 1,140 1,030 X X X 150 150 Czechoslovakia X X 3,100 3,150 2,800 X X X 1,127 950 Denmark 574 418 450 340 242 X 178 241 263 267 Finland 515 535 584 372 318 X 160 264 240 255 France 2,966 3,328 3,510 1,846 1,520 1,322 1,608 1,834 2,400 1,688 Germany (Fed Rep) 3,743 3,334 3,200 2,400 1,500 2,381 2,571 2,980 2,950 3,000 (Dem Rep) X X 5,000 5,000 5,210 X X X 955 708 Greece X X 400 360 360 X X X 150 150 Hungary X X 1,634 1,420 1,218 X X X 300 259 Iceland X X 6 6 6 X X X 12 12 Ireland X X 220 138 148 X 60 71 68 77 Italy 2,830 3,331 3,800 2,504 2,410 1,410 1,507 1,585 1,595 1,700 Luxembourg X X 24 16 12 X X 23 19 19 Netherlands 807 429 464 276 290 456 464 558 544 565 Norway 171 137 142 98 74 159 176 192 203 220 Poland X X 4,100 4,300 3,910 X X X 1,500 1,480 Portugal 116 178 266 204 204 72 104 166 96 96 Romania X X 200 200 200 X X X (390) (390) Spain X 3,003 3,250 3,250 3,250 X 625 951 950 950 Sweden 930 690 502 270 220 302 308 394 301 301 Switzerland 125 109 126 96 74 149 162 196 214 194 United Kingdom 6,424 5,370 4,848 3,676 3,552 2,510 2,427 2,442 2,278 2,513 Yugoslavia X X 1,176 1,500 1,650 X X 350 (190) (190) U.S.S.R. (c) X X 12,800 11,100 9,318 X X X 2,930 4,190 Sources: Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP); and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Notes: a. 1990 estimate, b. 1988 data. c. European part of the U.S.S.R. under the purview ol EMEP. X = not available. Emissions in parentheses were estimated by EMEP. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. Table 24.6 Common Anthropogenic Pollutants, 1980-89 Carbon Monoxide Paniculate Matter Hydrocarbons (000 metric tons) (000 metric tons) (000 metric tons) 1980 1985 1989 1980 1985 1989 1980 1985 1989 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Canada 10,273 10,781 X 1,907 1,709 X 2,099 2,315 2,256 a United States 79,600 69,600 60,900 8,500 7,100 6,900 b 22,300 20,000 18,500 b ASIA Japan X X X X X X X X X Turkey X X X X X X (700) (700) X EUROPE Albania X X X X X X (30) (30) X Austria 1,268 1,205 1,161 b 75 55 39 b 382 2,315 466 b Belgium X X X X X X 374 374 X Bulgaria X X X X X X 2,594 2,594 X Czechoslovakia X X X X X X 400 400 X Denmark X X X X X X 197 146 X Finland X X X X X X 163 181 X France 6,616 6,295 X 427 304 298 1,975 1,877 X Germany (Fed Rep) 12,006 8,894 8,872 517 397 268 2,754 2,624 2,536 (Dem Rep) X X X X X X 550 550 X Greece X X X X X X (260) (260) X Hungary X X X X X X (270) (270) X Iceland X X X X X X (13) (13) X Ireland 497 456 X 94 117 X 62 64 X Italy 5,487 5,426 5,923 386 390 452 b 696 737 827 b Luxembourg X 240 X X 3 X 13 20 X c Netherlands 1,413 1,162 1,152 163 101 76 502 416 399 Norway 606 588 592 27 23 20 158 224 245 Poland X X X X X X 700 700 X Portugal 533 X X 119 X X 55 134 156 b Romania X X X X X X (440) (440) X Spain 3,780 X X X X X 843 X X Sweden 1,250 X X 170 X 410 446 440 b,c Switzerland 711 X 462 28 X 21 311 339 304 United Kingdom 4,829 5,318 6,522 570 555 512 1,887 1,926 2,066 Yugoslavia X X X X X X (600) (600) X U.S.S.R. {d} X X X X X X 8,056 8,056 X Sources: Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP); and the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Notes: a. 1990 estimate, b. 1988 data. c. All hydrocarbons, d. European part of the U.S.S.R. under the purview of EMEP. X = not available. Emissions in parentheses were estimated by EMEP. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 351 24 Atmosphere and Climate Sources and Technical Notes Table 24.1 CO2 Emissions from 1.5 times the amount of CO2 released from ergy, Office of Energy Research, Carbon Di- Industrial Processes, 1989 burning natural gas; coal combustion re- oxide Research Program, No. TR047, April leases about twice the CO2 of natural gas. 1990); CDIAC, Environmental Sciences Divi- It was assumed that approximately 1 per- sion, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, "1989 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analy- cent of the coal used by industry and Estimates of CO2 Emissions from Fossil sis Center (CDIAC), Environmental Sci- power plants was not burned, and an addi- Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing ences Division, Oak Ridge National tional few percent were converted to non- Based on the United Nations Energy Statis- Laboratory, "1989 Estimates of CO2 Emis- oxidizing uses. Other oxidative reactions of tics and the U.S. Bureau of Mines Cement sions from Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement coal are assumed to be of negligible import- Manufacturing Data," ORNL/ Manufacturing Based on the United Na- ance in carbon budget modeling. CO2 emis- CDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an accessible numeri- tions Energy Statistics and the U.S. Bureau sions from gas flaring and cement produc- cal data base), (Oak Ridge, Tennessee, July of Mines Cement Manufacturing Data," tion make up about 3 percent of the CO2 1991); American Gas Association (AGA), ORNL/CDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an accessible emitted by fossil fuel combustion. "Natural Gas and Climate Change: The numerical data base), (Oak Ridge, Tennes- These data from CDIAC represent the Greenhouse Effect," Issue Brief 1989-7 see, July 1991). only complete global data set of CO2 emis- (AGA, Washington, D.C., June 14,1989); This table includes data on industrial ad- sions. Individual country estimates, based A.A. Makarov and LA. Basmakov, The So- ditions to the carbon dioxide flux from solid on more detailed information and a coun- viet Union: A Strategy of Energy Development fuels, liquid fuels, gas fuels, gas flaring, and try-specific methodology could differ. An with Minimum Emission of Greenhouse Gases cement manufacture. CDIAC annually calcu- experts meeting, convened by the Organisa- (Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, lates emissions of CO2 from the burning of tion for Economic Co-operation and Devel- Washington, U.S.A., 1990); and S. Hobart, fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement opment (OECD) in February 1991, has David Spottiswoode, James Ball et al, Meth- for most of the countries of the world. Esti- recommended (Estimation of Greenhouse Gas ane Leakage from Natural Gas Operations (The mates of country emissions do not include Emissions and Sinks, OECD, Paris, August Alphatania Group, London, 1989). "bunker fuels" used in international trans- 1991) that when countries calculate their CH4 from wet rice agriculture: Food and port. own emissions of CO2, they use a more de- Agriculture Organization of the United Na- CDIAC calculates emissions from data on tailed method when the data are available. tions (FAO), Agrostat PC (FAO, Rome, the net apparent consumption of fossil fuels Such data are available for only a few coun- 1991); Elaine Mathews, Inez Fung, and Jean (based on the World Energy Data Set main- tries, and resulting inventories, if any, are Lerner, "Methane Emission from Rice Culti- tained by the United Nations Statistical Of- not readily available. CDIAC's method has vation: Geographic and Seasonal Distribu- fice), and from data on world cement the advantage of calculating CO2 emissions tion of Cultivated Areas and Emissions," manufacture (based on the Cement Manu- from a single common data set available for Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 5, No. 1 facturing Data Set maintained by the U.S. all countries. (March 1991), pp. 3-24. Bureau of Mines). Emissions are calculated CH4 from livestock: Jean Lerner, Elaine using global average fuel chemistry and Mathews, and Inez Fung, "Methane Emis- usage. Table 24.2 Other Greenhouse sions from Animals: A Global High-Resolu- Although estimates of world emissions Gas Emissions, 1989 tion Data Base," Global Biogeochemical are probably within 10 percent of actual Cycles, Vol. 2, No. 2 (June 1988), pp. 139- emissions, individual country estimates Sources: Land-use change: R.A. Houghton, 156; Food and Agriculture Organization of may depart more severely from reality. R.D. Boone, J.R. Fruci, et al., "The Flux of the United Nations (FAO), Agrostat PC CDIAC points out that the time trends from Carbon from Terrestrial Ecosystems to the (FAO, Rome, 1991). a consistent and uniform time series Atmosphere in 1980 Due to Changes in Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions: "should be more accurate than the individ- Land Use: Geographic Distribution of the WRI estimate based on information in the ual values." Each year, CDIAC recalculates Global Flux," Tellus, Vol. 39B, No. 1-2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the entire time series from 1950 to the pres- (1987), pp. 122-139; World Resources Insti- Stratospheric Protection Program, Office of ent, incorporating their most recent under- tute (WRI) recent assessments of rates of de- Program Development, Office of Air and standing and the latest corrections to the forestation (See Table 19.1, Sources and Radiation, Appendices to Regulatory Impact data base. As a result, the carbon emissions Technical Notes); and R.A. Houghton, Analysis: Protection of Stratospheric Ozone estimate data set has become more consis- "Tropical Deforestation and Atmospheric (Washington, D.C., August 1988), Vol. 2, tent, and probably more accurate, each year. Carbon Dioxide," Climate Change, in press. Part 2, Appendix K, pp. K-2-4-K-2-6; Alli- Emissions of CO2 are often calculated and Methane (CH4) from municipal solid ance for Responsible CFC Use, unpublished reported in terms of their content of elemen- waste: Jean Lerner, personal communica- data (Alliance for Responsible CFC Use, Ar- tal carbon. CDIAC reports them that way. tion (National Aeronautics and Space Ad- lington, Virginia, 1989); United Nations En- For this table, their figures were converted ministration [NASA] Goddard Space Flight vironment Programme (UNEP), Environ- to the actual mass of CO2 by multiplying Center, Institute for Space Studies, May mental Data Report (Basil Blackwell Ltd., Ox- the carbon mass by 3.664 (the ratio of the 1989); H.G. Bingemer and P.J. Crutzen, ford, 1991, pp. 26-27; and UNEP, Report of mass of carbon to that of CO2). "The Production of CH4 from Solid the Secretariat on the Reporting of Data by the Solid, liquid, and gas fuels are primarily, Wastes," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. Parties in Accordance with Article 7 of the but not exclusively, coals, petroleum prod- 92, No. D2 (1987), pp. 2181-2187. Montreal Protocol, 1991. ucts, and natural gas. Gas flaring is the prac- CH4 from coal mining: David W. Barns Carbon dioxide, CH4, CFC-11, and CFC- tice of burning off gas released in the pro- and J. A. Edmonds, An Evaluation of the Rela- 12 are the four most important greenhouse cess of petroleum extraction, a practice that tionship Between the Production and Use of En- gases. This table provides estimates of an- is declining. During cement manufacture, ce- ergy and Atmospheric Methane Emissions nual emissions of CO2 from land use ment is calcined to produce calcium oxide. (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of En- change (i.e., deforestation), methane emis- In the process, 0.498 metric ton of CO2 is re- ergy Research, Carbon Dioxide Research sions by source, and current annual emis- leased for each ton of cement production. Program, No. TR047, April 1990); World En- sions of CFC-11 and CFC-12 combined. Total emissions consist of the sum of the car- ergy Conference (WEC), 1989 Survey of En- Nitrous oxide, tropospheric ozone, and bon in CO2 produced during the consump- ergy Resources (WEC, London, 1989). other chlorofluorocarbons are also import- tion of solid, liquid, and gas fuels, and from CH4 from oil and gas production and dis- ant to the greenhouse effect but less well gasflaringand the manufacture of cement. tribution: David W. Barns, J.A. Edmonds, studied and more difficult to estimate, espe- Combustion of different fossil fuels re- An Evaluation of the Relationship Between the cially at the national level. Tropospheric leases CO2 at different rates for the same en- Production and Use of Energy and Atmospheric ozone has an average lifetime measured in ergy production. Burning oil releases about Methane Emissions (U.S. Department of En- World Resources 1992-93 352 Atmosphere and Climate 24 hours and is a product of particular chemi- most of the world's tropical countries. The of R.A. Houghton, which has received peer cal processes involving the precursors CHU, burning of biomass, however, does not nec- review. carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and non- essarily contribute to the CO2 flux. Fire is a Choices must be made regarding the methane hydrocarbons in the presence of natural process, and as long as burning and exact parameters to use in these calcula- sunlight. Nitrous oxide emissions by coun- growth are in balance, there is no net move- tions, but the deforestation and carbon den- try have proven difficult to estimate, in part ment of carbon from biomass to the atmo- sity measures used here are the best because significant emissions are poorly un- sphere. general set available. The parameters used derstood. Production estimates and emis- The carbon densities used here are based for this calculation were based on consis- sion parameters from chlorofluorocarbons on more recent work by Houghton (1991) tent definitions and common data sources. other than CFC-11 and CFC-12 are not and used different estimates of carbon den- Even if slightly lower values were used for available. sities (including carbon sequestered in deforestation and biomass per area, the The Organisation for Economic Co-opera- soils). These CO2 emissions estimates ex- magnitude of carbon emissions would re- tion and Development (OECD) hosted an plicitly include shifting cultivation and the main about the same. These estimates then experts meeting in February 1991 on green- diversion of forest fallow to permanent are a good first approximation to current house emissions (a final report was pub- clearing. They are also consistent, based on (i.e., circa 1989) emissions that result from lished in August 1991, Estimation of Green- a sound methodology, and global in scope. land-use changes. There is some suggestion house Gas Emissions and Sinks [OECD, Paris]) New estimates of carbon densities by forest that northern temperate and boreal forest to discuss methodologies that countries type are expected from Brazil in 1992. (See areas are net sinks for atmospheric carbon, could use to estimate their own inventories Chapter 19, "Forests and Rangelands.") although this, too, is controversial. of greenhouse gases (other than CFCs) and They are the most complete estimates avail- CH4 emissions from municipal solid waste to point to areas requiring further research. able but are subject to modification should were calculated by multiplying the 1989 Although these discussions served to illu- better data become available. More recent population by per capita emission coeffi- minate and define the methods used here, estimates of deforested areas were used to cients developed for each country by H.G. the final published recommendations were update Houghton's 1987 study where ap- Bingemer and P.J. Crutzen, in "The Produc- directed toward informing governments on propriate. Please consult the sources for tion of CH4 from Solid Wastes," journal of what data they could collect and what kind more detail. Geophysical Research, Vol. 92, No. D2 (1987), of basic country-specific (and even ecosys- Although, in principle, emissions from pp. 2181-2187. RJ. Cicerone and R.S. Orem- tem-specific) research is required if they are land-use change should include the emis- land, "Biogeochemical Aspects of Atmo- to "assess their contribution to greenhouse sions of other gases from the burning of for- spheric Methane," Global Biogeochemical gas emissions in an international context." est land, as well as emissions from the Cycles, Vol. 2, No. 4, (December 1988), pp. The final report of the OECD experts meet- burning of grassland, the conversion of 299-327, suggest a likely range for annual ing included additional suggested data sets grassland to cropland, the creation of wet- world emissions from landfills at 30 million and methods not fully discussed or vali- lands, and the burning of crop and animal to 70 million metric tons. The method used dated during the meeting (such as a sug- residues, the international data sets needed here parallels that recommended by the gested source of deforestation data). to estimate these emissions do not exist OECD experts meeting. The estimates of emissions in this table (OECD experts meeting). Except for CO2 Methane from coal mining was estimated can be controversial but are believed to be emissions from deforestation, then, emis- using information on the average methane accurate estimates of the relative magni- sions from biomass burning in general are content of anthracite and bituminous coals, tudes of emissions and are believed to be not available. Grass or trees that grow back subbituminous coals, and lignite mined the best possible, given the available data after fire merely recycle the carbon and do (WEC) in each country of the world. This sets. WRI would welcome independent esti- not contribute CO2 to long-term green- latter data set is updated only every three mates of anthropogenic emissions of green- house heating. years, and so the most recent year for house gases from the countries of the WRI also subtracted the weight of carbon which the necessary data are available is world. The methods used here were chosen contained in sawlogs and veneer logs 1987. Less detailed data sets are available to maximize the use of the available interna- (Food and Agriculture Organization of the but inadequate to the task. This estimate as- tional data so as to be comparable among United Nations [FAO], Agrostat PC, [FAO, sumed that 100 percent of the CH4 in ex- countries. The international data set on any Rome, 1991]) produced in each tropical tracted coal was emitted, although this is a subject is limited, and so these estimates country from CO2 releases calculated from slight exaggeration. CH4 is emitted from are also limited. Until most of the countries land-use change. Carbon was estimated as mines in larger quantities than that con- of the world publish their own indepen- making up 45 percent of the weight of tained only in the coal removed—although dent estimates—based on common meth- these wood products. This step was taken in the long run, the CH4 in an extractable ods and scientifically valid to approximate the carbon sequestered deposit of coal will be emitted, on average, parameters—global comparisons will re- from the global carbon cycle by the produc- at the rate that it is mined. CH4 trapped quire the use of these methods of the least tion of durable wooden goods in each coun- within the rock is released by mining, and common data set. Common methods and try. This is only an estimate because it is one of the hazards of underground coal parameters were used between countries portions of other forest products are also se- mining. Cicerone and Oremland (Aspects of unless differing, but explicit and published, questered (e.g., books in libraries, pit props, Atmospheric Methane) show a likely range of parameters were available that covered all utility poles); and portions of saw and ve- 25^15 million metric tons of CH4 emitted countries. For example, estimates of CH4 neer logs are consumed (e.g., wastewood, annually in the course of mining coal. No from coal mining were based on published disposal of plywood sheets used in con- international data set exists that would data on the differing CH4 content of differ- crete form building). This should lead to a allow internationally comparable estimates ing coals and their production in each coun- small underestimate of total CO2 emissions using a methodology suggested by the try of the world. More complex because it includes logs from areas not OECD in its report on the experts meeting. calculations—that might have been possi- counted as deforested. The OECD, in its re- Substantial quantities of CH4 are released ble for one or two data-rich countries—are port on the experts meeting, suggested to the atmosphere in the course of oil and inappropriate for the world as a whole and using a data set on global deforestation gas production and distribution. CH4 were not attempted even for those few (Norman Myers, Deforestation Rates in Tropi- vented in the course of oil production is es- countries that might have sufficient (and cal Forests and Their Climatic Implications timated at 25 percent of the amount that is uncontroversial) data. [Friends of the Earth, London, 1989]) that is flared (Gregg Marland, Carbon Dioxide In- Carbon releases from land-use change are inadequate and so was not used in this formation and Analysis Center [CDIAC], based originally on the work of R.A. table. The methods for estimating emis- Oakridge, Tennessee [personal communica- Houghton, R.D. Boone, J.R. Fruci, et al. sions from land-use change, suggested by tion], 1990). Estimates of CO2 from gas flar- They estimated the world flux of carbon in the OECD experts meeting, requires data ing in Table 24.1 also include gas that is 1980 from deforestation, reforestation, log- and research into processes that do not yet vented (see also Barns and Edmonds, p. ging, and changes in agricultural area for exist. The method used here parallels that 3.9). CH4 emissions from natural gas pro- World Resources 1992-93 353 24 Atmosphere and Climate duction were estimated at 0.5 percent of ing recommended using a range of emis- tion by Domestic Animals, Wild Rumi- production (Barns and Edmonds, pp. 3.2- sions found in a study in China (0.19-0.69 nants, Other Herbivorous Fauna, and Hu- 3.3). Recent estimates are that CH4 leakage grams of CH4 per square meter per day, H. mans," Tellus, Vol. 38B [1986], pp. 271-284) from distribution systems is no more than 1 Schiitz, W. Seller, and H. Rennenberg, pre- estimated animal methane production on percent in the United States (American Gas sentation by Rennenberg at the Interna- the basis of energy intake under several dif- Association, "Natural Gas and Climate tional Conference on Soils and the ferent management methods for several Change: The Greenhouse Effect") and no Greenhouse Effect, August 14-18,1989, different feeding regimes. These differing more than 1.7 percent in the Soviet Union Wageningen, the Netherlands, reported by emission coefficients were then assigned to (Makarov and Basmakov, The Soviet Union: the OECD experts meeting). The estimate each country, based on the specifics of that A Strategy of Energy Development with Mini- here used the midpoint of that range (0.44 country's animal husbandry practices and mum Emission of Greenhouse Gases), although grams of CH4 per square meter per day), as- the nature and quality of feed available. Ci- careful surveys have not been done. There suming that this range is an unbiased esti- cerone and Oremland's Aspects of Atmo- is reason to believe that pipeline leaks in mate of the normally distributed range of spheric Methane shows a likely range of 65 the U.S.S.R. are grossly understated—al- emissions of methane. Alternate estimates million to 100 million metric tons of emis- though U.S.S.R. natural gas volume is some- are possible. sions from enteric fermentation in domes- times mistakenly overstated—but other A two-year study in the subtropical rice tic animals. Alternate methods of estima- estimates are non-existent. For these esti- bowl of China (Szechuan province) pro- tion, such as a complex modeling method mates, the U.S. experience was extended to duced an estimated median flux (from suggested in the OECD report, are not yet Western Europe, Canada was counted at some 3,000 flux estimates) of about 1.2 possible because of the lack of basic data. half the United States rate, and the Soviet grams of CH4 per square meter per day The only other major anthropogenic estimate was used for Central Europe and and a mean flux of 1.39 grams of CH4 per sources of CH4, unaccounted for here, are the developing world because their situa- square meter per day (M.A.K. Khalil, R.A. the emissions consequent to the burning of tions were thought to be similar (S. Hobart Rasmussen, Ming-Xing Wang, and Lixin biomass. Extensive biomass burning, espe- et ah, Methane Leakage from Natural Gas Oper- Ren, "Methane Emissions from Rice Fields cially in the tropics, is believed to release ations). Cicerone and Oremland (Aspects of in China," Environmental Science and Tech- large amounts of CH4. Cicerone and Orem- Atmospheric Methane) suggest a likely range nology, Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 979-981). Studies land (Aspects of Atmospheric Methane) put of 25 million to 50 million metric tons of in Europe and North America seem to sup- the likely range of those emissions at 50 CH4 emitted because of leaks associated port the range suggested by the OECD ex- million to 100 million metric tons. The with natural gas drilling, venting, and trans- perts meeting. See the sources for more OECD experts meeting elaborated on the mission. The OECD experts meeting devel- information. In general, estimates of CH4 data that would be necessary if countries oped a general conceptual model on how to flux are based on a technique that captures were to estimate CH4 emissions from bio- go about estimating emissions from these CH4 produced anaerobically before the mass burning. production and distribution systems, but it growth of the rice plant as well as captur- was unable to identify data on the factors Other natural sources of CH4 include ing the bulk of CH4 production that is wetlands, methane hydrate destabilization leading to emissions or any individual data transported through the rice plant through- source for this purpose. in permafrost, termites, freshwater lakes, out the growing period. Growing periods, oceans, and enteric emissions from other CH4 from the practice of wet rice agricul- rice cultivar, fertilizers, temperature, and animals. Natural sources account for an es- ture was calculated from the area of rice possibly pesticides, could influence timated 25 percent of all CH4 emissions. production (as reported by the FAO, methanogenesis. In the tropics, with mod- Cicerone and Oremland (Aspects of Atmos- AgrostatPC, FAO, Rome, 1991) subtracting ern varieties, sufficient fertilizer, and ade- pheric Methane) estimate likely ranges of those areas devoted to dry (upland) and quate water, two or even three rice crops CH4 emissions at 100 million to 200 million deepwater (floating) rice production in per year are possible. metric tons from natural wetlands, 10 mil- each country or, in the case of China and The cultivation of rice uses common tech- lion to 100 million metric tons from termites, India, in each province (Dana G. Dalrym- niques in both temperate and tropical 5 million to 25 million metric tons from the ple, Development and Spread of High-Yielding climes—even if the cultivars are not so well oceans, 1 million to 25 million metric tons Rice Varieties in Developing Countries, Bu- adapted. The preparation of the impound- from freshwater, and possible current re- reau of Science and Technology, U.S. ments wherein wet rice is grown—the cre- leases of 5 million metric tons (potentially Agency for International Development, ation of a hardpan overlain by soft anaero- rising to 100 million metric tons if tempera- Washington, D.C., 1986; and Robert E. bic muck—creates similar environmental tures increase in the high arctic) from meth- Huke, Rice Area by Type of Culture: South, and chemical regimes wherever it occurs. ane hydrate destabilization. Southeast, and East Asia, International Rice Nonetheless, variations in water quality, WRI has estimated total chlorofluorocarbon Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Phil- soils, ambient temperature, precision of use (CFC-11 and CFC-12) for many coun- ippines, 1982). This estimate follows the water control, and presence of cultivated tries. It used data on 1986 per capita produc- method suggested in the OECD report of algae or fish could also affect the total flux tion/use from 47 countries and the Europ- its experts meeting and calculates the num- of methane. ean Community (EC) to peg consumption ber of days of rice cultivation and the per- Wet rice agriculture is practiced under in other similar countries, and updated centage of total rice area in each crop cycle four main water regimes: irrigated (52.8 these estimates using consumption data for by country or, in the case of China and percent of the world's total rice area), rain- 15 countries plus the EC in 1989. This esti- India, by province (Elaine Mathews, Inez fed (similar to irrigated, 22.6 percent of the mate was based in part on the general level Fung, and Jean Lerner, "Methane Emis- total), deep water (often dry in the early of total CFC (including CFC-113 and CFC- sions from Rice Cultivation: Geographic part of the season, may be planted to float- 22) consumption (i.e., less than 0.3 kg, 0.3- and Seasonal Distribution of Cultivated ing rice, 8.2 percent of the world's rice area), 0.5 kg, and over 0.5 kg, from the Alliance Areas and Emissions," Global Biogeochemical and tidal (3.4 percent of the area). Cicero- for Responsible CFC Use) and other rele- Cycies, Vol. 5, pp. 3-24). ne and Oremland {Aspects of Atmospheric vant information. These data are, therefore, There are many different studies of CH4 Methane) suggest a likely range of 60 mil- a mix of reported and estimated numbers. emissions from wet rice agriculture. In the lion to 170 million metric tons for CH4 emis- Consumption data for the EC, as reported past, many of these studies had been criti- sions associated with wet rice agriculture. by the EC and UNEP, were allocated to cized because they had been undertaken on CH4 emissions from domestic livestock each member country in proportion to its temperate rices grown in North America or were calculated using FAO statistics on ani- share of the total EC population. Thus, all Europe. Recently published studies, based mal populations and published estimates of EC members are tied and among the high- on similar rigorous methods, from subtropi- methane emissions from each animal. The est per capita consumers of CFCs. (The EC cal China have dispelled some of that criti- animals studied included cattle and dairy could have reported consumption by coun- cism. Studies using similar methodologies cows, water buffalo, sheep, goats, camels, try but chose not to.) are expected soon from Indonesia and pigs, horses, and caribou. P.J. Crutzen, I. As- India. The OECD report of its experts meet- elmann, and W. Seiler ("Methane Produc- World Resources 1992-93 354 Atmosphere and Climate 24 Table 24.3 Atmospheric Con- view: 1982, W.C. Clark, ed. (Oxford Univer- given time vary among monitoring sites, centrations of Greenhouse and sity Press, New York, 1982). the data reported here reflect global trends. Calibration is necessary for all instru- Data for CO were taken from several sites Ozone-Depleting Gases, 1959-90 ments used to measure trace gases. Al- and averaged to reflect global concentra- though collected at the same site by the tions and trends. Sources: Carbon dioxide: Charles D. Keel- same investigators, trace gas concentrations ing, R.B. Bacastow, A.F. Carter, et ah, "A before 1986 have not been recalibrated as Table 24.4 World CO2 have measurements from 1986 to 1990, Three-Dimensional Model of Atmospheric which themselves should be considered Emissions from Fossil Fuel CO2 Transport Based on Observed Winds: Consumption and Cement 1. Observational Data and Preliminary preliminary. Carbon tetrachloride (CCU) is an Analysis," Aspects of Climate Variability in intermediate product in the production of Manufacture, 1950-89 the Pacific and the Western Americas, Ameri- CFC-11 and CFC-12. It is also used in other can Geophysical Union (AGU) Monograph chemical and pharmaceutical applications and for grain fumigation. Compared with Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analy- No. 55 (AGU, Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. sis Center (CDIAC), Environmental Sciences 165-236; and Charles D. Keeling, personal other gases, CCU makes a small contribu- tion to the greenhouse effect and to strato- Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, communication (Scripps Institution of Oak Ridge, Tennessee, unpublished data, Oceanography, La Jolla, California, 1991). spheric ozone depletion. July 1991. Other gases: R.A. Rasmussen and M.A.K. Methyl chloroform (CH3CCI3) is used pri- CDIAC calculates world emissions from Khalil, "Atmospheric Trace Gases: Trends marily as an industrial degreasing agent data on the global production of fossil fuels and Distributions Over the Last Decade," and as a solvent for paints and adhesives. (based on the World Energy Data Set main- Science, Vol. 232, pp. 1623-1624. Concentra- Its contribution to the greenhouse effect tained by the United Nations Statistical Of- tions after 1985 of CCU, CH3CCI3, CCI3F and to stratospheric ozone depletion is also fice), and from data on world cement manu- (CFC-11), CCI2F2 (CFC-12), and N2O: small. facturing (based on the Cement Manufac- M.A.K. Khalil and R.A. Rasmussen, unpub- CFC-11 (CChF), CFC-12 (CCI2F2), CFC-22 turing Data Set maintained by the U.S. Bu- lished data (Oregon Graduate Center, Bea- (CHCIF2) and CFC-113 (C2CI3F3) are potent reau of Mines). Emissions are calculated verton, September 1989). C2CI3F3 depletors of stratospheric ozone. Together, using global average fuel chemistry and (CFC-113):M.A.K. Khalil and R.A. Rasmus- their cumulative effect may equal one fourth usage. These data account for all fuels in- sen, unpublished data (Oregon Graduate of the greenhouse contribution of CO2. cluding "bunker fuels" not accounted for in Center, Beaverton, September 1989). CHt Total gaseous chlorine is calculated by mul- Table 24.1. For further information, see the data, 1979-88: M.A.K. Khalil, R.A. Rasmus- tiplying the number of chlorine atoms in Technical Notes for Table 24.1. sen, "Atmospheric Methane: Recent Global each of the chlorine-containing gases (car- Trends," in preparation (1989). CH4 data, bon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and 1962-78: M.A.K. Khalil, R.A. Rasmussen, the CFCs) by the concentration of that gas. Table 24.5 Sulfur and Nitrogen and M.J. Shearer, "Trends of Atmospheric Nitrous oxide (N2O) is emitted by aerobic Emissions, 1970-89 Methane During the 1960's and 70's," Jour- decomposition of organic matter in oceans nal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 94, No. D15 and soils, by bacteria, by combustion of fos- (December 1989), pp. 18,279-18,288. Recent Source: J.M Pacyna and K.E. Joerss, Co-oper- sil fuels and biomass (fuelwood and ative Programme for Monitoring and Evalua- data 1986-90: M.A.K. Khalil, personal com- cleared forests), by the use of nitrogen fertil- munication, 1991. tion of the Long Range Transmission of Air izers, and through other processes. N2O is Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), Proceedings of an important depletor of stratospheric the Workshop on International Emission Inven- The trace gases listed here affect atmo- ozone; present levels may contribute one spheric ozone or contribute to the green- tories, Regensburg, Federal Republic of Ger- twelfth the amount contributed by CO2 to- many, July 3-6,1990, EMEP/CCC-Report house effect or both. ward the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide (CO2) accounts for about 7/90 (Norsk Institutt for Lurtforskning, half the increase in the greenhouse effect Methane (CH4) is emitted through the re- Lillestrom, Norway, 1991), pp. 67-68; and and is emitted to the atmosphere by natural lease of natural gas and as one of the prod- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and anthropogenic processes. See the Tech- ucts of anaerobic respiration. Sources of and Development (OECD), OECD Environ- nical Notes for Tables 24.1 and 24.2 for fur- anaerobic respiration include the soils of mental Data Compendium 1991 (OECD, ther details. moist forests, wetlands, bogs, tundra, and Paris, 1991), pp. 17-18. lakes. Emission sources associated with Emissions of sulfur in the form of sulfur Atmospheric CO2 concentrations are human activities include livestock manage- monitored at many sites worldwide; the oxides and nitrogen in the form of its vari- ment (enteric fermentation in ruminants), ous oxides together contribute to acid rain data presented here are from Mauna Loa, anaerobic respiration in the soils associated Hawaii (19.53°North latitude, 155.58° West and adversely affect agriculture, forests, with wet rice agriculture, and combustion aquatic habitat, and the weathering of longitude). Trends at Mauna Loa reflect of fossil fuels and biomass (fuelwood and global trends, although CO2 concentrations building materials. Sulfate and nitrate aero- cleared forests). CH4 acts to increase ozone sols impair visibility. These data on anthro- differ significantly among monitoring sites in the troposphere and lower stratosphere; at any given time. For example, the average pogenic sources should be used carefully. its cumulative greenhouse effect is cur- Because different methods and procedures annual concentration at the South Pole in rently thought to be one third that of CO2, 1988, for example, was 2.4 parts per million may have been used in each country, the but on a molecule-for-molecule basis, its ef- best comparative data may be time trends (ppm) lower than at Mauna Loa. fect, ignoring any feedback or involvement Annual means disguise large daily and within a country. in any atmospheric processes, is 20-30 seasonal variations in CO2 concentrations. times that of CO2. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is created by natural The seasonal variation is caused by photo- as well as anthropogenic activities. High synthetic plants storing larger amounts of Carbon monoxide (CO) is emitted by motor concentrations of SO2 have important carbon from CO2 during the summer than traffic, other fossil fuel combustion, slash- health effects, and there is particular con- in the winter. Some annual mean figures and-burn agriculture, and chemical pro- cern for the health of young children, the el- were derived from interpolated data. cesses in the atmosphere such as the oxida- derly, and people with existing respiratory Data are revised to correct for drift in in- tion of CH4. Increasing levels of CO can illness (e.g., asthma). SO2 in the presence of strument calibration, hardware changes, lead to an increase in tropospheric ozone moisture contributes to acid precipitation and perturbations to "background" condi- and a buildup of other trace gases, particu- as sulfuric acid. tions. Details concerning data collection, re- larly CH4, in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic sources of nitrogen ox- visions, and analysis are contained in CD. Data for all gases except CO2 and CO are ides come mainly from industrial sources Keeling, et al., "Measurement of the Con- from values monitored at Cape Meares, Or- and contribute to photochemical smog and centration of Carbon Dioxide at Mauna Loa egon (45"North latitude, 124" West longi- the production of tropospheric ozone—an Observatory, Hawaii," Carbon Dioxide Re- tude). Although gas concentrations at any important greenhouse gas. All oxides of ni- World Resources 1992-93 355 24 Atmosphere and Climate trogen also contribute to acid precipitation, Table 24.6 Common Anthropo- ducing chronic anoxia leading to illness or, in the form of nitric acid. in the case of massive and acute poisoning, This table combines data from both genic Pollutants, 1980-89 even death. CO scavenges hydroxyl radi- EMEP and the OECD. EMEP is an activity cals that would otherwise contribute to the of the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Source: J.M Pacyna and K.E. Joerss, Co- removal of methane—a potent greenhouse Transboundary Air Pollution. Data on sul- operative Programme for Monitoring and Eval- gas—from the atmosphere. fur and nitrogen emissions are submitted to uation of the Long Range Transmission of Air The health effects of particulate matter EMEP by parties to the 1985 Protocol on Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), Proceedings of (PM) are in part dependent on the biologi- SO2 emissions and the 1988 Protocol on the Workshop on International Emission Inven- cal and chemical makeup and activity of emissions of nitrogen oxides. Parties to tories, Regensburg, Federal Republic of Ger- the particles. Heavy metal particles or hy- these protocols should submit preliminary many, July 3-6,1990, EMEP/CCC-Report drocarbons condensed onto dust particles estimates of sulfur and nitrogen emissions 7/90 (Norsk Institutt for Lurtforskning, can be especially toxic. PM arises from nu- by May of the year following and final esti- Lillestrom, Norway, 1991), p. 69; and Or- merous anthropogenic and natural sources. mates within a year after that. In the event ganisation for Economic Co-operation and Among the anthropogenic sources are com- of missing official data, EMEP interpolates Development (OECD), OECD Environmen- bustion, industrial and agricultural prac- between years of official data. In the event tal Data Compendium 1991 (OECD, Paris, tices, and the formation of sulfates from that this is not possible, EMEP will use its 1991), pp. 21-26. sulfur dioxide emissions. own—or others'—estimates of emissions. This table reports OECD data for carbon In the presence of sunlight, hydrocarbons OECD polls its members on emissions monoxide and particulate matter emissions are, along with oxides of nitrogen, responsi- with questionnaires that are completed by and combines both EMEP and OECD data ble for photochemical smog. Anthropo- the relevant national statistical service or to describe the emissions of hydrocarbons. genic emissions of hydrocarbons arise in designee. OECD does not have any inde- See the sources and the notes to Table 24.5 part from the incomplete combustion of pendent estimation capability. for additional information. Differences in fuels or the evaporation of fuels, lubricants, EMEP reports emissions in terms of the el- definition can limit the comparability of and solvents as well as the incomplete burn- emental content of sulfur, whereas OECD these estimates. ing of biomass. These data combine hydro- reports its emissions in terms of tons of ox- Carbon monoxide (CO), is formed both nat- carbon emission data from OECD with ides of sulfur. EMEP emission estimates urally and from industrial processes, includ- volatile organic compound data from were converted to their weight in SO2. ing the incomplete combustion of fossil and EMEP. EMEP uses OECD hydrocarbon EMEP and OECD report nitrogen emis- other carbon-bearing fuels. Emissions from data as volatile organic compound data for sions in terms of nitrogen dioxide. automobiles are the most important source, selected countries. Please consult the sources for further in- especially in urban environments. CO inter- formation. feres with oxygen uptake in the blood, pro- World Resources 1992-93 356 25. Policies and Institutions Two indicators of a country's commitment to environ- 1991, this amendment had not yet been ratified by mental protection are its effective participation in rele- enough countries to enter into force. vant international agreements and its collection and Countries continue to sign and ratify older conven- dissemination of environmental information. Interna- tions such as the Antarctic Treaty of 1959. The Protocol tional cooperation on the environment continues to on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty grow and will be a focus of discussion at the United was signed by the contracting parties to the Antarctic Nations Conference on Environment and Develop- Treaty on October 4,1991, in Madrid. This protocol ment (UNCED) in June 1992. International conven- designates Antarctica as a natural reserve and prohi- tions on global climate change, biological diversity, bits mineral mining for the next 50 years. and forestry, if signed and ratified, would add to the Table 25.3 lists sources of national environmental inventory of agreements to safeguard the global envi- and natural resource information. These sources pro- ronment. vide comprehensive assessments of natural resource Tables 25.1 and 25.2 present information on current and environmental conditions and often document country participation in critical international conven- trends and suggest policies for resource management. tions and regional agreements protecting the environ- These assessments are becoming more comprehensive ment. In Africa, for example, realization of the dangers and analytical as complex environmental issues be- of uncontrolled toxic wastes has led to a convention on come better understood. hazardous waste movement and management that An increasing number of countries are preparing was signed in 1991 in Bamako, Mali by 17 countries country and regional natural resource and environ- and is in the ratification process. In Europe and North mental assessments, strategies, action plans, and com- America, the Convention on Environmental Impact As- pendia of environmental statistics. In addition, in prep- sessment in a Transboundary Context, which would aration for UNCED, country reports are being pro- help prevent, mitigate, and monitor significant trans- duced by UN member states to reflect national experi- boundary environmental impacts, was signed in 1991 ences and perspectives on environment and develop- in Helsinki by 26 countries and two republics of the ment. Much environmental information is requested U.S.S.R. In response to increasing levels of air pollu- or instigated by foreign aid donors, development plan- tants from industrial sources, 27 industrialized nations ners, resource policymakers, and finance ministers. (26 listed here, plus Liechtenstein) and two republics This information is often an adjunct to action plans of the U.S.S.R. have ratified the 1979 Geneva Conven- (e.g., the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, the National tion on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. In Conservation Strategy) or describes a sector or special response to the Chernobyl nuclear accident in April issue (Biological Diversity Profile). 1986, two conventions were created on nuclear acci- The World Bank has increased its support of na- dent notification and assistance. tional environmental assessments and action plans for The most recent global environmental convention, developing nations (particularly in Africa) that are pro- the Basel Convention on the Control of Transbound- duced by, or in cooperation with, governments. How- ary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Dis- ever, more resources are needed to help countries posal, March 1989, was not yet in force in late 1991. At develop their own capacity for monitoring and assess- that time, 13 countries had ratified the convention and ing environmental problems. another 41 countries had signed it (including Liech- Table 25.4 lists sources of global and regional environ- tenstein, which is not listed in Table 25.2). mental information. The OECD state of the environment An amendment has been made in 1990 to the Proto- report and the Asian and Pacific state of the environment col on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer to report are examples of the increasing number of regional gradually reduce and finally phase out fully halogen- environmental assessments. Large gaps remain in envi- ated chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, and ronmental information on the Soviet Union, the newly in- methyl chloroform between 1990 and 2005. As of late dependent Baltic republics, and Central Europe. World Resources 1992-93 357 25 Policies and Institutions Table 25.1 Participation in Major Global Conventions— Wildlife and Habitat Antarctic Endangered Ship Treaty and Wetlands World Species Migratory Ocean Pollution Law of Convention (Ramsar) Heritage (CITES) Species Dumping (MARPOL) the Sea {a} 1959 & 1980 1971 1972 1973 1979 1972 1978 1982 WORLD AFRICA Algeria CP CP CP CP s Angola CP Benin CP CP CP s Botswana CP CP Burkina Faso CP CP CP CP s Burundi CP CP s Cameroon CP CP CP CP Cape Verde CP CP CP Central African Rep CP CP s s Chad CP CP s s s Comoros s Congo CP CP s Cote d'lvoire CP s CP CP CP Djibouti CP s Egypt CP CP CP CP CP CP Equatorial Guinea s Ethiopia CP CP s Gabon CP CP CP CP CP s Gambia, The CP CP CP Ghana CP CP CP CP CP Guinea CP CP CP Guinea-Bissau CP CP Kenya CP CP CP CP Lesotho CP s s s Liberia CP s CP s Libya CP CP s Madagascar CP CP s s Malawi CP CP s Mali CP CP CP CP Mauritania CP CP s Mauritius CP s Morocco CP CP CP s CP s Mozambique CP CP s Namibia CP CP Niger CP CP CP CP s Nigeria CP CP CP CP CP Rwanda CP s Senegal CP CP CP CP s CP Sierra Leone s Somalia CP CP s CP South Africa CP, MLR CP CP CP CP s Sudan CP CP CP Swaziland s Tanzania CP CP CP Togo CP s s CP CP Tunisia CP CP CP CP CP CP CP Uganda CP CP CP s CP Zaire CP CP CP CP CP Zambia CP CP CP Zimbabwe CP CP s NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Barbados s Belize CP CP CP Canada NCP, MLR CP CP CP CP s Costa Rica CP CP CP s Cuba NCP CP CP CP CP Dominican Rep CP CP CP s El Salvador CP s Guatemala CP CP CP CP s Haiti CP CP s Honduras CP CP CP s Jamaica CP s CP Mexico CP CP CP CP s CP Nicaragua CP CP s Panama CP CP CP CP CP CP s Trinidad and Tobago CP CP United States CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP SOUTH AMERICA Argentina CP, MLR CP CP CP s Bolivia CP CP CP s s Brazil CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP Chile CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Colombia NCP CP CP s CP s Ecuador CP CP CP CP CP Guyana CP CP s Paraguay CP CP CP Peru CP, MLR CP CP CP Suriname CP{b} CP CP CP CP CP s Uruguay CP, MLR CP CP CP CP s CP s Venezuela CP CP CP s World Resources 1992-93 358 Policies and Institutions 25 Wildlife and Habitat, Oceans, 1991 Table 25.1 Wildlife & Habitat Oceans Antarctic Endangered Ship Treaty and Wetlands World Species Migratory Ocean Pollution Law of Convention (Ramsar) Heritage (CITES) Species Dumping (MARPOL) the Sea {a} 1959 & 1980 1971 1972 1973 1979 1972 1978 1982 ASIA Afghanistan CP CP CP s Bahrain CP Bangladesh CP CP s Bhutan s Cambodia s s s China CP CP CP CP CP s Cyprus CP CP CP CP CP India CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Indonesia CP CP CP CP Iran, Islamic Rep CP CP CP s Iraq CP CP Israel CP CP CP Japan CP, MLR CP CP CP CP s Jordan CP CP CP CP Korea, Dem People's Rep NCP CP s Korea, Rep CP, MLR CP CP s Kuwait s s CP Lao People's Dem Rep CP s Lebanon CP s CP s Malaysia CP CP s Mongolia CP s Myanmar CP s Nepal CP CP CP s s Oman CP CP CP CP Pakistan CP CP CP CP s Philippines CP CP s CP CP Qatar CP s Saudi Arabia CP CP s Singapore CP CP s Sri Lanka CP CP CP CP s Syrian Arab Rep CP CP Thailand CP CP s Turkey CP CP United Arab Emirates CP CP s Viet Nam CP CP s s Yemen (Arab Rep) CP s (People's Dem Rep) CP CP EUROPE Albania CP Austria NCP CP CP CP s Belgium CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Bulgaria NCP CP CP CP CP s Czechoslovakia NCP CP CP CP s Denmark NCP CP CP CP CP CP CP s Finland CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s France CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s Germany CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP Greece NCP, MLR CP CP s CP CP s Hungary NCP CP CP CP CP CP CP s Iceland CP CP CP CP Ireland CP s CP CP s Italy CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s Luxembourg CP CP CP s s Malta CP CP CP CP s Netherlands CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Norway CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s Poland CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Portugal CP CP CP CP CP CP s Romania NCP CP s Spain CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s Sweden CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP s Switzerland NCP CP CP CP CP CP s United Kingdom CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP CP Yugoslavia CP CP CP CP CP U.S.S.R. CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s OCEANIA Australia CP, MLR CP CP CP CP CP s Fiji CP CP New Zealand CP, MLR CP CP CP CP s Papua New Guinea NCP CP CP s Solomon Islands CP s Sources: Environmental Law Information System of the IUCN Environmental Law Centre and United Nations Environment Programme. Notes: a. Convention not yet in force. b. Extended through the Netherlands. CP = contracting party (has ratified or taken equivalent action); S = signatory (has signed but not ratified); MLR = contracting party to the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources; NCP = nonconsultative contracting party to the Antarctic Treaty. Some small countries-signatories or contracting parties to the conventions and protocols listed--are not included in this table. For formal titles of the conventions and protocols listed, and for additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 359 25 Policies and Institutions Table 25.2 Participation in Major Global Conventions— Global Conventions Atmosphere Hazardous Substances Biological Nudear Nuclear Hazardous Regional Agreements (b) Nuclear Ozone CFC and Toxin Accident Accident Waste UNEP Other Test Ban Layer Control Weapons Notification Assistance Movement {a} Regional Regional 1963 1985 1987 1972 1986 1986 1989 Seas Agreements WORLD AFRICA Algeria S s s M+ AFC Angola Benin CP CP WCA* AFC, HW Botswana CP s AFC* Burkina Faso S CP CP AFC, EC, H W Burundi S s AFC, HW* Cameroon S CP CP s s WCA AFC, HW* Cape Verde CP CP Central African Rep CP s AFC, HW* Chad CP CP AFC* Comoros AFC* Congo s CP WCA AFC Cote d'lvoire CP s s s WCA AFC, HW* Djibouti AFC Egypt CP CP CP s CP CP M+, RS AFC, HW* Equatorial Guinea CP CP Ethiopia S CP AFC* Gabon CP s WCA AFC* Gambia, The CP CP CP s WCA AFC* Ghana CP CP CP CP WCA AFC Guinea WCA AFC, HW Guinea-Bissau CP CP HW* Kenya CP CP CP CP EA+ AFC Lesotho CP AFC, HW* Liberia CP WCA* AFC Libya CP CP CP CP CP M+ A F C , HW* Madagascar CP s EA* AFC Malawi CP s AFC Mali S s s s AFC, HW* Mauritania CP WCA* AFC Mauritius CP CP AFC Morocco CP s s s s M+ AFC Mozambique AFC Namibia Niger CP CP s s AFC, H W Nigeria CP CP CP CP CP CP CP WCA AFC Rwanda CP CP AFC Senegal CP s CP s s WCA AFC, EC, HW* Sierra Leone CP CP s s AFC Somalia s s EA*,RS AFC, HW* South Africa CP CP CP CP CP CP Sudan CP s s RS AFC Swaziland CP AFC Tanzania CP s AFC Togo CP s CP WCA AFC, H W Tunisia CP CP CP CP CP CP M+ AFC Uganda CP CP CP AFC, HW* Zaire CP CP s s AFC Zambia CP CP CP AFC Zimbabwe CP s s NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Barbados CP c Belize CP Canada CP CP CP CP CP s s LR+, EIA* Costa Rica CP CP s s Cuba CP s s c Dominican Rep CP CP El Salvador CP s s Guatemala CP CP CP CP CP CP s c Haiti s s s Honduras CP CP c Jamaica s CP c Mexico CP CP CP CP CP CP CP c Nicaragua CP CP c* Panama CP CP CP CP s s CP SEP+, C Trinidad and Tobago CP CP CP c United States CP CP CP CP CP CP s CSP* LR+, EIA* SOUTH AMERICA Argentina CP CP CP CP CP CP CP Bolivia CP CP s AMC Brazil CP CP CP CP s s AMC Chile CP CP CP CP s s s SEP+ Colombia CP CP s SEP+.C AMC Ecuador CP CP CP CP s SEP+ AMC Guyana s AMC Paraguay s CP s s Peru CP CP CP SEP+ AMC Suriname AMC Uruguay CP CP CP CP CP s Venezuela CP CP CP CP s C AMC World Resources 1992-93 360 Policies and Institutions 25 Atmosphere, Hazardous Substances, 1991 Table 25.2 Global Conventions Atmosphere Hazardous Substances Biological Nuclear Nuclear Hazardous Regional Agreements (b) Nuclear Ozone CFC and Toxin Accident Accident Waste UNEP Other Test Ban Layer Control Weapons Notification Assistance Movement {a} Regional Regional 1963 1985 1987 1972 1986 1986 1989 Seas Agreements ASM Afghanistan CP CP s S Bahrain CP CP CP K+ Bangladesh CP CP CP CP CP CP Bhutan CP CP Cambodia CP China CP CP CP CP CP s Cyprus CP CP CP CP s M+ EC India CP CP CP CP s Indonesia CP s s s s ASC Iran, Islamic Rep CP CP CP s s K+ CP Iraq CP S CP CP K+ Israel CP S CP CP s M+ Japan CP CP CP CP CP CP Jordan CP CP CP CP CP CP CP RS Korea, Dem People's Rep CP s s Korea, Rep CP CP CP CP Kuwait CP CP s K+ Lao People's Dem Rep CP CP Lebanon CP CP s s s M+ Malaysia CP CP CP S CP CP ASC Mongolia CP CP CP CP Myanmar CP s Nepal CP s Oman Pakistan CP CP CP Philippines CP S CP s ASC Qatar CP K+ Saudi Arabia CP CP CP CP K+.RS Singapore CP CP CP CP ASC Sri Lanka CP CP CP CP Syrian Arab Rep CP CP CP s s s s M+ Thailand CP CP CP CP CP CP s ASC Turkey CP CP s s s M+ EC, LR United Arab Emirates CP CP s CP CP s K+ Viet Nam S CP CP CP Yemen (Arab Rep) S RS (People's Dem Rep) CP CP EUROPE Albania M+ EIA* Austria CP CP CP CP CP CP s EC, LR+, EIA* Belgium CP CP CP CP s s s EC, LR+, EIA* Bulgaria CP CP CP CP CP CP EC, LR+, EIA* Czechoslovakia CP CP CP CP CP CP CP LR+ Denmark CP CP CP CP CP S s EC, LR+, EIA* Finland CP CP CP CP CP s s EC, LR+, EIA* France CP CP CP CP s CP M+,C,EA+,SP+ EC, SPC, LR+, EIA Germany CP CP CP CP S CP s EC, LR+, EIA* Greece CP CP CP CP S s s M+ EC, LR, EIA* Hungary CP CP CP CP CP CP CP EC, LR+, EIA* Iceland CP CP CP CP CP s LR, EIA* Ireland CP CP CP CP s s s EC, LR, EIA* Italy CP CP CP CP CP s s M+ EC, LR+, EIA* Luxembourg CP CP CP CP s s EC, LR+, EIA* Malta CP CP CP CP M+ Netherlands CP CP CP CP s s s C{c} EC, LR+, EIA* Norway CP CP CP CP CP CP CP EC, LR, EIA* Poland CP CP CP CP CP CP s LR+, EIA* Portugal S CP CP CP s s s EC, LR, EIA* Romania CP CP CP CP CP EIA* Spain CP CP CP CP CP CP s M+ EC, LR+, EIA* Sweden CP CP CP CP CP s CP EC, LR+, EIA* Switzerland CP CP CP CP CP CP CP EC, LR+ United Kingdom CP CP CP CP CP CP s C {d},SP* EC, LR+, EIA* Yugoslavia CP CP CP CP CP M+ LR U.S.S.R. CP CP CP CP CP CP s LR+ OCEANIA Australia CP CP CP CP CP CP SP+ SPC Fiji CP CP CP CP SP+ SPC New Zealand CP CP CP CP CP CP s SP+ Papua New Guinea CP CP SP+ SPC* Solomon Islands CP SP+ Sources: Environmental Law Information System of the IUCN Environmental Law Centre and United Nations Environment Programme. Notes: a. Convention not yet in force, b. Regional agreement letter codes (M, ML, etc.) indicate ratification of specific regional agreement, c c. Ratified on behalf of Aruba .__, Cayman and the Netherlands Antilles Federation, d. Ratified on behalf of British Virgin Islands, ..., . Islands, .. . . and - the Turks and Caicos Islands. slands. : : : J CP = contracting party (has ratified or taken equivalent action); S = signatory; 'has signed ' - ~* ' or ratified at 'least " " * two protocols •---'- — «-••- to this - convention. * = signatory to regional agreement. UNEP Regional Seas agreements: M = Mediterranean convention against pollution; WCA = West and Central African convention on environmental cooperation; EA = East African convention on environmental protection; RS = Red Sea and Gulf of Aden convention on conservation; C = Caribbean convention on environmental protection; SEP = South-East Pacific convention on environmental protection; SP = South Pacific convention on environmental protection; K = Kuwait convention on environmental cooperation. Other Regional Agreements: AFC = African conservation convention; HW = African hazardous waste convention; EC = European conservation convention; LR = transboundary air pollution convention; EIA = environmental impact assessment convention; AMC = Amazonian cooperation treaty; ASC = ASEAN conservation agreement; SPC = South Pacific conservation convention. Some small countries-signatories or contracting parties to the conventions and protocols listed-are not included in this table. For formal titles of the conventions and protocols listed, and for additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 361 25 Policies and Institutions Table 25.3 Sources of Environmental and Natural Resource Sources of National Environmental Information (a) National Tropical Tropical State of the Environmental Country Forest/ Biological National Environmental Forestry INFOTERRA Environment Statistical Environmental Biodiversity Diversity Conservation Action Action Member Report Compendium Profile Assessment Profile Strategy Plan Plan AFRICA Algeria Yes Angola Yes Benin Yes Botswana Yes 1990 1988,1989 1991 {b} 1990 Burkina Faso Yes 1980, 1982 IP FSRIP Burundi Yes 1981 1989 Cameroon Yes 1981 1989 TFAP 1989 Cape Verde Yes 1980 FSRIP Central African Rep Yes FSRIP Chad Yes Comoros Yes Congo Yes 1990 FSRIP Cote d'lvoire Yes 1991 {b} IP IP FSRIP Djibouti No Egypt Yes 1980 1988 Equatorial Guinea No FSRIP Ethiopia Yes IP 1991 {b} IP FSRIP Gabon Yes 1990 FSRIP Gambia, The Yes 1981 1989 {d} FSRIP Ghana Yes 1980 1988 {c} IP FSR1988 Guinea Yes 1983 IP 1988 (c) IP TFAP1988 Guinea-Bissau Yes 1991 Ib) IP FSRIP Kenya Yes 1987 1988(d} 1988{cj IP FSR 1987/TFAP IP Lesotho Yes 1982 1991 FSRIP Liberia Yes 1980 1987 Libya Yes Madagascar Yes 1987 1988, 1991 {b} 1984 1988 FSRIP Malawi Yes 1982 IP IP Mali Yes 1980 1989 FSRIP Mauritania Yes 1979, 1981 1988 IP FSR 1990 Mauritius Yes 1985 1991 Morocco Yes IP 1980 Mozambique Yes 1985 Namibia No Niger Yes 1980 FSRIP Nigeria Yes 1988 1990 1991 FSRIP Rwanda Yes 1981, 1987 IP FSRIP Sao Tome and Principe Yes Senegal Yes 1980 1991 {b} IP FSRIP Seychelles Yes 1990 IP Sierra Leone No IP TFAP 1990 Somalia Yes 1979 1990 FSR 1990 South Africa No 1980 Sudan Yes 1989 FSR 1986 Swaziland No 1980 Tanzania Yes 1988 IP TFAP 1989 Togo Yes IP FSRIP Tunisia Yes 1980 1988 Uganda Yes 1982 IP 1988{c) Zaire Yes 1981 1988 1990 TFAP 1990 Zambia Yes 1988 1982 1985 FSRIP Zimbabwe Yes 1988,1990 1982 1987 FSRIP NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Barbados Yes 1982 IP IP Bahamas Yes Belize Yes 1984 1988 IP IP TFAP 1989 Canada Yes 1986, IP 1986 1986 Costa Rica Yes 1988 1982 1990 TFAP 1990 Cuba Yes TFAP 1991 Dominican Rep No 1981 1988 TFAP 1990 El Salvador Yes 1985 1988 Guatemala Yes 1984 1988 IP TFAP 1991 Haiti Yes IP 1985 FSRIP Honduras Yes 1982 TFAP 1988 Jamaica Yes IP 1987 TFAP 1990 Mexico Yes 1991 1988 TFAP 1991 Nicaragua No 1981 IP FSRIP Panama Yes 1985 1980 IP TFAP 1991 St. Lucia Yes 1991 1987 IP Trinidad and Tobago No IP IP FSRIP United States Yes 1989, 1990,1991 1983, 1990 IP SOUTH AMERICA Argentina Yes IP TFAP 1988 Bolivia Yes 1986 1988 TFAP 1989 Brazil Yes 1984 1985 1988 Chile Yes 1985 1984 1990 FSRIP Colombia Yes 1990 1988 IP TFAP 1989 Ecuador Yes IP 1987 1989 1988 IP TFAP 1991 Guyana Yes 1982 TFAP 1990 Paraguay Yes 1985 1985 Peru Yes 1986 1988 1988 IP TFAP 1988 Uruguay Yes Venezuela Yes IP FSRIP World Resources 1992-93 362 Policies and Institutions 25 Information, 1991 Table 25.3 Sources of National Environmental Information {a} National Tropical Tropical State of the Environmental Country Forest/ Biological National Environmental Forestry INFOTERRA Environment Statistical Environmental Biodiversity Diversity Conservation Action Action Member Report Compendium Profile Assessment Profile Strategy Plan Plan ASIA Afghanistan No Bahrain Yes 1988 Bangladesh Yes 1980 1990 1987 MPFD IP Bhutan Yes MPFD IP Cambodia No 1989 China Yes IP 1988 Cyprus Yes 1987, 1989 Hong Kong Yes 1988 India Yes 1985 1980 1989 IP IP TFAP IP Indonesia Yes 1990 1983 1987 IP IP TFAP 1990 Iran, Islamic Rep Yes Iraq Yes Israel Yes 1988 Japan Yes 1991 1980 Jordan Yes IP 1979 IP Korea, Dem People's Rep Yes Korea, Rep Yes 1988 Kuwait Yes 1987 Lao People's Dem Rep No TFAP 1990 Lebanon Yes Malaysia Yes 1990 1988 IP TFAP 1991 Mongolia Yes Myanmar No 1982 1987 1989 Nepal Yes IP 1979 1987 MPFD 1988 Oman Yes IP 1981 IP Pakistan Yes 1986 1984 1986, 1988 1991 (c) 1986 MPFD IP Philippines Yes 1986 1979 1980 1989 IP 1991 MPFD 1990 Qatar Yes 1987 Saudi Arabia Yes 1989 Singapore Yes 1990 1988 Sri Lanka Yes 1991 1988 1988 1988 IP MPFD 1989 Syrian Arab Rep Yes IP 1981 Thailand Yes IP 1987 IP MPFD IP Turkey Yes 1989 United Arab Emirates Yes Viet Nam Yes 1985 FSRIP Yemen (Arab Rep) Yes 1982 (People's Dem Rep) Yes EUROPE Austria Yes 1988, 1989 1985 Belgium Yes 1979 1989 Bulgaria Yes Czechoslovakia Yes Denmark Yes 1982 1990 Finland Yes 1988, IP 1987 France Yes 1990 1989 IP Germany (Fed Rep) Yes 1989,1990 1989 (Dem Rep) Yes 1990 Greece Yes 1983 Hungary Yes 1990 1981 Iceland Yes 1986 Ireland Yes 1985 1987 Italy Yes 1989 1987,1989 ND Luxembourg Yes 1988 Malta Yes Netherlands Yes 1989, 1990 1987 Norway Yes 1988 IP PolancI Yes 1989, 1990 1987 Portugal Yes 1989 Romania Yes Spain Yes 1977 IP Sweden Yes 1984 1990 Switzerland Yes 1989 IP United Kingdom Yes 1990 1989 1983,1990 Yugoslavia Yes 1987 1985 IP USSR Yes 1988 OCEANIA Australia Yes 1987, 1988 1985 1988 Fiji Yes IP FSR 1990/TFAP IP New Zealand Yes 1988 1985 Papua New Guinea Yes TFAP 1990 Samoa Yes Solomon Islands No Vanuatu Yes 1986 1988 IP FSRIP Sources: World Resources Institute, International Institute for Environment and Development, lUCN-The World Conservation Union, U.S. Agency for International Development, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, and the United Nations Environment Programme. Notes: a. Publication date of most recent edition; multiple dates indicate different reports. b. Accompanied with poster maps. c. draft. d. Natural Resource Management Study. INFOTERRA: member of INFOTERRA, the global environmental information system; FSR = Forestry Sector Review; TFAP = Tropical Forestry Action Plan; MPFD = Master Plan for Forestry Development; IP = in preparation; ND = published, no date. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 363 25 Policies and Institutions T a b l e 2 5 . 4 Sources of Published Global and Regional Environmental Information, 1991 World: lUCN-the World Conservation Union, IUCN Sahel Studies, 1989 (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 1989). Lester R. Brown, etal., State of the World 1992M.W. Norton, New York, 1992). {a}* L.O. Lewis and L. Berry, African Environments and Resources (Unwin Hyman, Boston, 1988). Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Global Freshwater Quality: A First Assessment (World Health Organization and United Nations The World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (World Environment Programme, Oxford, 1989). Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989). lUCN-the World Conservation Union, United Nations Environment Latin America: Programme (UNEP), and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainability (\UCN, UNEP, and WWF, Gland, Eric Cardich, ed., Conservando el Patrimonio Natural de la Region Neotropical Switzerland, 1991). (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1986). United Nations, World Population Prospects 1990 (Population Division, Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Natural Resources in Latin America (IDB, United Nations, New York, 1991). Washington, D.C., 1983). United Nations, Department of International Economic and Social Affairs Latin American and Caribbean Commission on Development and Environment, Our (DIESA), Prospects of World Urbanization 1988 (United Nations, New OwnAgenda(\DB and UNEP, Washington, D.C., 1990). York, 1989). Jeffrey Leonard, Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and United Nations America: A Regional Environmental Profile (Transaction Books, Oxford, 1987). Children's Fund (UNICEF), The State of the Environment 1990: Children Jorge Morello, Perfil Ecologico de Sudamerica (Instituto de Cooperacion and the Environment (UNEP and UNICEF, Nairobi and New York, 1990). Iberoamericana, Barcelona, 1984). United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), The State of the World's Children United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean 1991 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1991). {a} (UNECLAC), Sustainable Development: Changing Production Patterns, Social United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Equity and the Environment(UNECLAC, Chile, 1991). Report 1991 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1991). {a} Asia and Oceania: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Environmental Data Report (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1991). {b} Asian Development Bank (ADB), Economic Policies for Sustainable Development (ADB, Manila, 1990). United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), State of the Environment: 1972-1992{UNEP, Nairobi, 1992).* Mark N. Collins, Jeffrey A. Sayer, Timothy C. Whitmore, The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacific (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1991). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The State of the Environment 1990 (UNEP, Nairobi, 1990). {a} A.L. Dahl and L.L. Baumgart, The State of the Environment in the South Pacific (UNEP, Geneva, 1983). United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), The World Environment 1972-82: A Report (UNEP, Nairobi, 1982). United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 1990, The World Bank, World Development Report (Oxford University, New York, (UNESCAP, Bangkok, 1990). 1991). {a} Europe, North America, and Other Developed Countries: World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (Oxford University Press, New York, 1987). Commission of the European Communities (CEC), The State of the Environment in World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Global Biodiversity 1992; the European Community 1989 (CEC, Luxembourg, 1990). The Status of the Earth's Living Resources (WCMC, Cambridge, 1992). DocTer Institute for Environmental Studies, Milan, European Environmental World Health Organization, World Health Statistics Annual (WHO, Geneva, Yearbook 1991 (DocTer International U.K., London, 1991). {a} 1990). {a} European Community, The European Community and the Environment (European World Resources Institute, in collaboration with the United Nations Community, Luxembourg, 1987). Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1992-93 (Oxford University Press, New Eurostat, Environment Statistics 1989 (Eurostat, Luxembourg, 1990). York, 1992). {b} Stanley P. Johnson and Guy Corcelle, The Environmental Policy of the European Communities (Graham and Trotman/Kluwer, London, 1989). All Regions: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Environmental United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Regional Seas Programme Indicators(OECD, Paris, 1991). Studiesand Reports (UNEP, Nairobi). Regional series include West and Central Africa, Eastern Africa, Wider Caribbean, Mediterranean, Kuwait Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), OECD Action Plan, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Asian Seas, South Asian Environmental Data Compendium 1991 (OECD, Paris, 1991). Seas, South East Pacific, South Pacific, and South West Atlantic Regions. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), The State of the Environment 1991 (OECD, Paris, 1991). Africa: United Nations Statistical Commission and United Nations Economic Commission Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO), Natural for Europe, Environment Statistics in Europe and North America: An Resources and the Human Environment for Food and Agriculture in Africa Experimental Compendium {United Nations, New York, 1988). (FAO, Rome, 1986). lUCN-the World Conservation Union, Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 1990). Source: Compiled by World Resources Institute. Notes: * = forthcoming; {a} = annual series; {b} = biennial series. For additional information, see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resources 1992-93 364 Policies and Institutions 25 Sources and Technical Notes Table 25.1 Participation in Natural Heritage (Paris, 1972) establishes a Agreements in the Field of the Environment Major Global Conventions—Wild- system of collective protection of the cul- (UNEP, Nairobi, May 1991); UNEP, Status tural and natural heritage sites of outstand- of Regional Agreements Negotiated in the life, Habitat, and Oceans, 1991 ing universal value, organized on a perma- Framework of the Regional Seas Programme, nent basis and in accordance with modern Rev. 3 (UNEP, Nairobi, August 1991); Envi- Sources: United Nations Environment Pro- scientific methods. ronmental Law Information System of the gramme (UNEP), UNEP Governing Coun- • Endangered species (CITES): The Convention World Conservation Union (IUCN) Envi- cil, Register of International Treaties and Other on International Trade in Endangered Spe- ronmental Law Centre, unpublished data Agreements in the Field of the Environment cies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (IUCN, Bonn, August 1991). (UNEP, Nairobi, May 1991); Environmental (Washington, D.C., 1973) protects endan- See Technical Note for Table 25.1 for gen- Law Information System of the World Con- gered species from overexploitation by con- eral information on the meaning of conven- servation Union (IUCN-the World Conser- trolling trade in live or dead animals and in tions, signing, and ratification. vation Union) Environmental Law Centre, animal parts through a system of permits. The complete titles of the conventions unpublished data (IUCN-the World Conser- • Migratory species: The Convention on the and treaties summarized in Table 25.2, and vation Union, Bonn, August 1991). Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild places and dates of adoption, follow: A country becomes a signatory of a treaty Animals (Bonn, 1979) protects wild animal • Nuclear test ban: The Treaty Banning Nu- when a person given authority by the na- species that migrate across international clear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in tional government signs it. Unless other- borders, by promoting international agree- Outer Space, and Under Water (Moscow, wise provided in the treaty, a signatory is ments. 1963) prohibits atmospheric and underwa- under no duty to perform the obligations • Ocean dumping: The Convention on the Pre- ter nuclear weapons tests and other nuclear stipulated before the treaty comes into vention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of explosions and prohibits tests in any other force for the country. The authorized signa- Wastes and Other Matter (London, Mexico environment if radioactive debris would be ture indicates a commitment to undertake City, Moscow, Washington, D.C., 1972) con- present outside the territory of the country domestic action to ratify, accept, approve, trols pollution of the seas by prohibiting conducting the test. or accede to the treaty. A country is a con- • Ozone layer: The Vienna Convention for the tracting party when the treaty comes into the dumping of certain materials and regu- lating ocean disposal of others, encourag- Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna, force with respect to the country. Typically, 1985) is to protect human health and the en- this occurs when the country has ratified ing regional agreements, and establishing a mechanism for assessing liability and set- vironment by conducting research on the treaty or otherwise adopted the provis- ozone layer modification and its effects and ions of the treaty as national law and when tling disputes. a prescribed number of countries indicates • Ship pollution (MARPOL): The Protocol of on alternative substances and technologies, 1978 Relating to the International Conven- monitoring the ozone layer, and taking consent to be bound by the treaty and regis- measures to control activities that produce ter instruments of ratification, acceptance, tion for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (London, 1978) is a modifica- adverse effects. approval, or accession with the treaty's de- positary (which may be a national govern- tion of the 1973 convention to eliminate in- • CFC control: The Protocol on Substances ment, a United Nations organization, or ternational pollution by oil and other harm- That Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal, another international organization; some ful substances and to minimize accidental 1987) requires nations to cut consumption treaties have multiple depositaries). discharge of such substances. of five chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and The complete titles of the conventions • Lam of the sea: The United Nations Conven- three halons by 20 percent of their 1986 tion on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, level by 1994 and by 50 percent of their and treaties summarized in Table 25.1, and 1986 level by 1999, with allowances for in- their places and dates of adoption, are as Jamaica, 1982) establishes a comprehensive legal regime for the seas and oceans, estab- creases in consumption by developing follows: countries. lishes rules for environmental standards • Antarctic treaty and convention: The Antarc- and enforcement provisions, and develops • Biological and toxin weapons: The Conven- tic Treaty (Washington, D.C., 1959) is to en- international rules and national legislation tion on the Prohibition of the Development, sure that Antarctica is used for peaceful to prevent and control marine pollution. Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriologi- purposes, for international cooperation in cal (Biological) and Toxin Weapons, and on scientific research, and that Antarctica does The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea has not yet entered into Their Destruction (London, Moscow, Wash- not become the scene or object of interna- ington, D.C., 1972) prohibits acquisition tional discord. The Convention on the Con- force. Sixty ratifications are required and until now only 43 countries have ratified it. and retention of biological agents and tox- servation of Antarctic Marine Living ins that are not justified for peaceful pur- Resources (Canberra, 1980) is to safeguard The European Community has signed the Convention on the Conservation of Migra- poses and of the means of delivering them the environment and protect the integrity for hostile purposes or armed conflict. tory Species of Wild Animals and the of the ecosystem of the seas surrounding United Nations Convention on the Law of • Nuclear accident notification: The Convention Antarctica, and to conserve Antarctic ma- the Sea. on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident rine living resources. (Vienna, 1986) provides relevant informa- Information on the number of Natural • Wetlands (Ramsar): The Convention on Wet- World Heritage Sites and Wetlands of Inter- tion about nuclear accidents as early as pos- lands of International Importance Espe- national Importance is contained in Chap- sible in order that transboundary radio- cially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, ter 20, "Wildlife and Habitat," Table 20.1. logical consequences can be minimized. 1971) is to stem the progressive encroach- For information on treaty terms, refer to the • Nuclear accident assistance: The Convention ment on and loss of wetlands now and in sources. on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Acci- the future, recognizing the fundamental dent or Radiological Emergency (Vienna, ecological functions of wetlands and their Table 25.2 Participation in 1986) facilitates the prompt provision of as- economic, cultural, scientific, and recrea- Major Global Conventions— sistance in the event of a nuclear accident tional value, by establishing a List of Wet- or radiological emergency. lands of International Importance, and Atmosphere, Hazardous • Hazardous waste movement: The Basel Con- providing that parties will establish wet- Substances, and Regional vention on the Control of Transboundary land nature reserves and consider their in- Agreements, 1991 Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their ternational responsibilities for migratory Disposal (Basel, 1989) sets up obligations to waterfowl. Sources: United Nations Environment Pro- reduce transboundary movement of • World heritage: The Convention Concerning gramme (UNEP), UNEP Governing Coun- wastes; to minimize the amount and toxic- the Protection of the World Cultural and cil, Register of International Treaties and Other ity of hazardous wastes generated and to World Resources 1982-93 365 25 Policies and Institutions ensure their environmentally sound man- • SEP; Convention for the Protection of the • AMC: Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation agement; and to assist developing countries Marine Environment and Coastal Area of (Brasilia, 1978). in environmentally sound management of the South-East Pacific (1981). Agreement on • ASC: ASEAN Agreement on the Conserva- hazardous wastes. Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollu- tion of Nature and Natural Resources • The UNEP Regional Seas Programme, initi- tion of the South-East Pacific by Hydrocar- (Kuala Lumpur, 1985). ated by UNEP in 1974, has developed re- bons or Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1981). Supplementary Proto- B SPC: Convention on Conservation of Na- gional action plans for controlling marine ture in the South Pacific (Apia, Western pollution and managing marine and coastal col to the Agreement on Regional Co-opera- tion in Combating Pollution of the South- Samoa, 1976). resources. The action plans usually include regional environmental assessments, envi- East Pacific by Hydrocarbons or Other The Convention on the Control of Trans- ronmental management, environmental leg- Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency boundary Movements of Hazardous islation, institutional arrangements, and (1983). Protocol for the Protection of the Wastes and Their Disposal has not yet en- financial arrangements. The regional con- South-East Pacific Against Pollution from tered into force. This will happen when 20 ventions and associated protocols that are a Land-Based Sources (1983). Protocol for the countries have ratified it. The Vienna Con- part of these action plans are included in Conservation and Management of Protect- vention for the Protection of the Ozone the table and they address region-specific ed Marine and Coastal Areas of the South- Layer entered into force on September 22, marine-related environmental issues. East Pacific Against Radioactive Contami- 1988, after the required 20 countries ratified nation (1989). it. The Protocol on Substances That Deplete Some of the symbols used to indicate par- the Ozone Layer entered into force January ticipation in a Regional Sea convention de- • SP: Convention for the Protection of the 1,1989, when the requirement of ratifica- note several related conventions and proto- Natural Resources and Environment of the tion by at least 11 countries, accounting for cols. An asterisk (*) follows the convention South Pacific Region (1986). Protocol Con- at least two thirds of 1986 estimated world abbreviation if a country has signed, but cerning Co-operation in Combating Pollu- chlorofluorocarbon consumption, had been not ratified the regional convention. A plus tion Emergencies in the South Pacific met. (+) sign follows the convention abbrevia- Region (1986). Protocol for the Prevention The European Community has signed the tion if a country has signed or ratified at of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Vienna Convention for the Protection of the least two of the associated protocols to the Dumping (1986). Ozone Layer and the Protocol on Sub- regional convention. The abbreviations and • K: Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-op- stances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. It full titles of Regional Seas conventions, eration on the Protection of the Marine En- has also signed conventions on three re- dates of adoption, and associated protocols vironment from Pollution (1978). Protocol gional seas with associated protocols, on mentioned in the table are listed below. Concerning Regional Co-operation in Com- the conservation of wildlife, on environ- I M: Convention for the Protection of the bating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful mental impact assessments, and on long- Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (1976). Substances in Cases of Emergency (1978). range transboundary air pollution. Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Protocol concerning Marine Pollution re- The Eastern African and South Pacific Re- Ships and Aircraft (1976). Protocol Concern- sulting from Exploration and Exploitation gional Seas conventions and their protocols ing Co-operation in Combating Pollution of of the Continental Shelf (1989). Protocol for have not yet entered into force. For informa- the Mediterranean Sea by Oil and Other the Protection of the Marine Environment tion on treaty terms, refer to the sources. Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency against Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1976). Protocol for the Protection of the (1990). Table 25.3 Sources of Other regional agreements include a variety Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from of agreements addressing region-specific Environmental and Natural Land-based Sources (1980). Protocol Con- Resource Information, 1991 cerning Mediterranean Specially Protected environmental issues. The abbreviations Areas (1982). and full titles of the agreements, and their date and place of adoption, are listed Source: Compiled by the World Resources • WCA: Convention for Co-operation in the below. Institute. Protection and Development of the Marine • AFC: African Convention on the Conserva- INFOTERRA, the global environmental and Coastal Environment of the West and tion of Nature and Natural Resources (Al- information system, is a network of na- Central African Region (1981). Protocol giers, 1968). tional information centers established by Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pol- • HW: Bamako Convention on the Ban of the the United Nations Environment Pro- lution in Cases of Emergency (1981). Import into Africa and the Control of Trans- gramme (UNEP) for the exchange of envi- boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes ronmental information. Each member • EA: Convention for the Protection, Manage- country compiles a register of institutions ment and Development of the Marine and Within Africa (1991). willing to share expertise in environmen- Coastal Environment of the Eastern African • EC: Convention on the Conservation of Eu- tally related areas, such as atmosphere and Region (1985). Protocol Concerning Protec- ropean Wildlife and Natural Habitats climate, energy, food and agriculture, plant ted Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the (Bern, 1979) and animal wildlife, and pollution. An inter- Eastern African Region (1985). Protocol • LR: Convention on Long-Range Trans- national directory is developed from the na- Concerning Co-operation in Combating Ma- boundary Air Pollution (Geneva, 1979); Pro- tional registers; the national offices use the rine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the tocol to the 1979 Convention on Long- directory to select experts who can answer Eastern African Region (1985). Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the queries. In 1990, the network answered • RS: Regional Convention for the Conserva- Long-Term Financing of the Co-operative more than 18,000 queries, over half of tion of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Envi- Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation which came from developing countries. ronment (1982). Protocol Concerning of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pol- National State of the Environment Reports Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollu- lutants in Europe (EMEP) (Geneva, 1984); are published by government agencies, mul- tion by Oil and Other Harmful Substances Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long- tilateral organizations, universities, and in Cases of Emergency (1982). Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the nongovernmental organizations. They ana- B C: Convention for the Protection and Devel- Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or Their lyze the condition and management of a opment of the Marine Environment of the Transboundary Fluxes by at Least 30 Per- country's natural resources and document Wider Caribbean Region (1983). Protocol cent (Helsinki, 1985); Protocol to the 1979 its progress or failure in sustaining its natu- Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Convention on Long-Range Transboundary ral resource base. UNEP supports the devel- Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (1983). Air Pollution Concerning the Control of opment of state-of-the-environment reports Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Emissions of Nitrogen or their Transbound- in several countries. Their goal is to help de- Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for ary Fluxes (Sofia, 1988). veloping countries improve their know- the Protection and Development of the Ma- B EM; Convention on Environmental Impact ledge of their environment and thus formu- rine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Assessment in a Transboundary Context late more environmentally sound national Region (1990). (Espoo, Finland, 1991). strategies. UNEP provides consultants on a World Resources 1992-93 366 Policies and Institutions 25 short-term basis and helps prepare and tion needs of these sites for decisionmakers restore forest resources in the tropics. TFAP publish the final report. and development agencies. exercises are developed by individual coun- Environmental Statistical Compendium, usu- National Conservation Strategy (NCS) re- tries with the assistance of the international ally prepared by a government agency, re- ports involve the consideration of current community and must produce informed de- ports national environmental statistical and future needs and aspirations of the peo- cisions and action programs with explicit data primarily through graphs and tables, ple, the institutional capacities of the coun- national targets on policies and practices to and contains little analysis. try, the prevailing technical conditions, and halt deforestation, the contribution of forest Country Environmental Profiles are spon- the status of its natural resources. On the resources to sustainable economic develop- sored by the United States Agency for Inter- basis of review, analysis, and assignment of ment through afforestation and forest man- national Development (U.S. AID). These priorities, an NCS seeks to define the best agement, the conservation of forest profiles assess a country's natural resource possible allocation of human and financial resources, and the integration of forest- potential in relation to economic growth resources to achieve the goals of sustain- related issues in the priorities of other sec- and development. The environmental pro- able development. Host governments bear tors. The planning phase usually involves a file program helps to establish an informa- the main responsibility for implementing comprehensive forestry sector review (FSR) tion base that can be used in planning and NCSs and must take the lead in their prepa- leading to the formulation of a national policy development. ration. For more information on the status TFAP, which includes a long-term strategy, Tropical Forest/Biodiversity Assessments are of National Conservation Strategies, see mid-term programs, and immediate pro- also sponsored by U.S. AID. These assess- past issues of the IUCN Bulletin Supplement. jects. The Master Plans for Forestry Devel- ments provide a background on tropical Environmental Action Plans (EAP) are opment (MPFD) are linked to the TFAP forest and biodiversity conservation needs sponsored by the World Bank and prepared effort but are carried out by the Asian De- in each developing country and include in- by Bank staff and consultants in close col- velopment Bank (ADB) for its member formation on laws and institutions affecting laboration with governments, various inter- countries (Bhutan, China, Laos, Nepal, Paki- biological resources, the status and manage- national organizations, NGOs, and other stan, the Philippines, and Thailand). ment of protected areas, the status and pro- donors. These plans are detailed studies MPFDs aim at long-term development of tection of endangered species, conservation that culminate in the implementation of en- the forestry sector, including a five-year efforts outside protected areas, major issues vironmental projects and policies. Some plan and annual programs and projects for in tropical forest and biological diversity EAPs provide a framework for integrating implementation. The goal is to increase in- conservation, and recommendations and environmental considerations into a stitutional capacity in these countries, coor- proposed activities. nation's overall economic and social devel- dinate donor assistance, and increase opment programs. The EAPs also make rec- funding for forestry. Biological Diversity Profiles are published by the Habitats Data Unit of the World Con- ommendations for specific actions, outlin- servation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) and ing the environmental policies, investment the Tropical Forest Programme of the strategies, legislation, and institutional ar- Table 25.4 Sources of World Conservation Union (IUCN) in sup- rangements required. Published Global and Regional port of the conservation of biological diver- Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) is a Environmental Information, 1991 sity. The profiles provide basic background global strategy developed by the Food and on species diversity, major ecosystems and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- habitat types, protected area systems, and tions (FAO), the United Nations Develop- Source: Compiled by the World Resources legislative and administrative support; they ment Program, the World Bank, and the Institute. identify the status of sites of critical impor- World Resources Institute, with the cooper- The bibliography of Sources of Published tance for biological diversity and ecosystem ation of some 40 bilateral donors, interna- Global and Regional Environmental Infor- conservation; and they provide a concise re- tional organizations and NGOs. It provides mation includes general statistical and ana- port on the values, threats, and conserva- a framework for concerted national and in- lytical publications. It includes neither ternational action to manage, protect, and specialized reports nor journal articles. World Resources 1992-93 367 Index A ortion, 256-57 Agency for International Develop- production index, by country, 272- hazardous, 42,50 ^^bor i Acid precipitation, 7,17,20,25,104, ment (U.S.), 98,123,156 73 health effects, 88 166,194,197-98 Agriculture raised-bed gardening, 124 indoor, 88,195 Acids, 162 see also Alternative agriculture; in rapidly industrializing countries, industrial, 88 Adirondack regional park, 137 Cropland; Crops; Food produc- 42,47 and mortality, 62 Afghanistan, 11 tion reforms needed, 24-25,105-07,108, from motor vehicles, 42,62-65, Africa and air pollution, 104,348-49 121-22 203-04 see also specific countries biodiversity losses, 104,139 regulations, 106-07 from Persian Gulf War, 11 AIDS/HIV infection, 90 biotechnology applications, 26 runoff, 42,102-04,139,170-71,175, regional, 197-201 agricultural technology, 36 central government expenditures, 176 responses to, 199,200 child mortality, 78 by country, 240-41 rural development policies, 5,8,10 smog, 23,50,57,62,64,194-96 cholera epidemics, 81 chemical inputs, 24,35,42,97,103- slash-and-burn, 48,121,124 smokestack height and, 61-62 contraceptive use, 77 04,274-75 small-scale, 108,122,124 solutions to, 201-04 deforestation, 118,169 and coastal water degradation, 185 soil degradation and, 6,10,24,96- sources, 88,148 education in, 31 commodity prices, 97-98 97,101,104,114,115,290-91 standards and incentives for energy production, consumption, communal farms, 33 soil improvement, 124 cleanup, 201 and sources, 37,144,148,149 conventional practices, 100-04 subsidies, 10,24,35,38,47,97,98, stationary sources, 201-02 fertility rates, 76,77 definition, 99-100 104,105-06,107,135,139 target reductions, 67 food production and supplies, 20, in ecologically sensitive areas, 30 sustainable practices, 6,10,98,101, technology and, 20,201-02 93-96,97,163 economics, 97-98,99,107-08 163 urban, 7,194-97 freshwater, 159 employment in, 47,49,108 taxes, fees, and tax incentives, 106 Air quality, 42,43,51 infant mortality, 78 energy consumption/intensity, technology development, 20,26,36 Air transport, 266-67 land tenure rerform, 121-22 149,151,318-19 tillage practices, 101,102 Airports, 266-67 mangrove losses, 178 energy efficiency in, 151 tractors, 274-75 Albania, 61,63,64,65,146 nongovernmental organizations, environmental costs of, 24,36,42, trade, 10,24,38,98,105 Alcohol (ethanol), 88 220-21 93,96-97,101-05 traditional techniques, 36,100 Aldehydes, 63,195 population growth, 76,77,93,94, European policy and practices, 65, U.S. farm law, 104-05 Algal toxins, 177 96,163 105,108 wet rice, 104,348-49 Algeria, 148,163 precipitation, 160 extensive, 100 water availability for, 163 Alternative agriculture protected areas, 136 freshwater withdrawals, 93,97,328- water pollution from, 6,10,24,42, agroforestry, 33,36,122,124 regional trade initiatives, 34 29 65,168-69,170-71,185 barriers to, 93,104-05 Rift Valley, 132 Green Revolution, 97,132 World Bank lending, 98 conventional agriculture contrasted Sahel, 160 gross domestic product, 236-37 at world heritage sites, 302-03 with, 100-01 Social Dimensions of Adjustment harvesters, 274-75 world production, 3 crop-livestock operations, 100,102- Project, 33 in industrial countries, 24,98-108 Agroecological zoning, 46 03,105,108,169 social expenditures, 31 intensive, 100 Agroforestry, 33,36,122,124 crop rotations, 100-04,107-08,163, soil degradation, 112,114,115,116 irrigation, 47,93,97,98,159,274-75 Aid, see Development assistance; 170 species diversity, 130 labor force, by country, 264-65 Food aid defined, 99,100 structural adjustment and develop- land conservation in, 10,106 AIDS, 79,90 inputs, 100 ment programs, 33 and landscape degradation, 104 Air pollution integrated pest management, 47, water shortages, 163 management agreements, 106 see also specific pollutants 48,100,103,124 African monocultures, 10,36,100,102,139 acid deposition from, 25,197-98 intercropping, 36,102,124 Association for Literacy and Adult NGO role in, 226 from agriculture, 104 models, 101,107-08 Communication, 230 off-farm impacts, 103-04 in Central Europe, 57,61-64 organic recycling, 36 Center for Technology Studies, 231 on-farm impacts, 101-03 and coastal water degradation, 186 profitability, 24,97-98,100,107-08 Development Bank, 33 organic farming, 24,36,99,107 corporate responsibility move- reforms supporting, 105-07 Development Foundation, 217 pest control, 20,124 ment, 202-03 runoff control, 170-71 Women's Development and Com- population and, 94,96 and crop yields, 42 small-scale irrigation, 36 munications Network, 230 "polluter pays" principle applied emission trends, 199,201 soil nutrition, 100,102-03 Agarwal, Anil, 209 to, 10,24,105 energy conservation and, 202 soil erosion, 107,108 price distortions, 34,35,105,108 forest product losses to, 199 Page numbers in italics refer to tables or figures. This index does not include page numbers for specific country data shown in Part TV tables. See Table of Contents for list of table titles. Most tables include data for 146 countries. World Resources 1992-93 369 Index tillage practices, 36,100,101,102, Azov Sea, 185,186 Botanical gardens, 136-37,306-08 and smog formation, 197 170 Botswana, 30,80,81,96,129,133,135 sources, 61,62-63,65,70,104,149, water management, 163 Brazil, 41 196,352 weed control, 100 air pollution, 88 Carbon tetrachloride, 350 yields, 100,101,107 "altic Marine Environment Pro- child mortality, 86 Cardiovascular diseases, 62,79 Aluminum, 320 tection Commission, 68 cholera epidemic, 81 CARE, 217 Amazon Basin Baltic Sea, 65,68,175,176,181,184, contraceptive use, 77 Caribbean Sea, 131 agroforestry project, 124 186 debt-for-nature swaps, 51,53 Caspian Sea, 185 area, 166 Bangladesh deforestation, 46,47,51,119,121 Catholic church, grassroots organiza- biological diversity, 46 aquaculture, 169 energy consumption and produc- tions, 220,225 conservation, 46 children's health, 34,83-84 tion, 46,51,53,148,151 Catholic Relief Services, 217 deforestation, 46,51,119,121 education, 31 energy efficiency, 157 Cattle, 96,276-77 hydroelectric projects, 123 energy sources, 37,144,148 exports, 47,155 Cement manufacture, 350 precipitation, 160 floods, 160 family planning programs, 45 Central America tribal people, 123-25,135,230-31 health services, 32 income distribution, 79,81 see also Latin America; specific coun- American Fisheries Society, 132 nongovernment organizations, 33, lead poisoning, 88 tries Ammonia, 61,65,104,153 218,224 literacy rates, 43 deforestation, 118 Amphibians, threatened species, 304- poverty alleviation, 33 nongovernment organizations, 219, mangrove losses, 278 05 Bank for European Reconstruction 220,227,231 nongovernmentalorganizations, Amu Darya, 166,168-69 and Development, 68 pollution control, 53 220 Angola, 11,96 Bauxite, 322-23 population growth, 45 soil degradation, 222,114,116 Antarctic Treaty and Convention, 358- Bavaria, 102,103-04 poverty in, 45,46,86 species diversity, 130 39 Belgium, 64,65,161 profile, 46 Central Europe Anticancer drugs, 133 Belize, 140 transportation, 157 agriculture, 65 Aquaculture Benin, 223 Xingu River dam, 123 auto emissions, 62-64 and mangrove forest losses, 49,135- Bhutan, 140 Breastfeeding, 83,85 atmospheric pollution, 11,57,61-64 36,180 Bicycle industry, 54 Brown tree snake, 132 banking institution initiatives, 68 production, 96,181,340A1 Bioaccumulation of toxic substances, Buffaloes and camels, 276-77 cause of environmental problems, sewage used in, 169 165,168,177 Buffer zones, 137 57-58,60 Aquino, Corazon, 220 Biodiversity losses, 4 Bulgaria, 61,63,64,65,66,146 coal belt, 57 Arabian orynx, 128 assessment, 362-63 Burkina Faso, 36,220,223,224,225 coal dependence, 61,67,70-71,143 Aral Sea, 166,168-69 causes, 96,129-30,134-36,138 Burundi, 129 countries of, 58 Arfak Mountains, 138 conservation and, 10,54,136-38,140 Byelorussia, 66 democratization, 57-58,59,66-67, Argentina, 82,123,130,148 convention, 10,134 143,146 Arsenic, 61,177 crops, 104,132-33 employment, 57 Ascension, 131 deforestation and, 118,120,125,127 energy policies, 60-61,66-69,71-72, Asia demand reduction and, 141 , 64,66,107,177,186, 143,144,145-46,151 see also specific countries ecosystem, 128 320 energy reserves, 248 child mortality, 78 estimation, 128,139 California, wind power, 22 environmental damage, 57,60,61- deforestation, 118 genetic, 10,47,54,128,132-33 Cambodia, 11 66 energy production and consump- global strategy, 130,133-34,138-39 Canada, 19,101-02 environmental protection options, tion, 144 habitat fragmentation, 118 child mortality, 78 66-67,70-72 energy reserves, 148,149 high-level areas, 46,130,132-33 Cree community property system, forest damage, 66 fertility rates, 77 human cultural, 128 135 government-to-government aid food production, 96 ignorance about species and eco- energy sources, 145 programs, 68 freshwater, 160 systems, 134-35 forestry initiative, 123 health prospects, 57,62-63 infant mortality, 78 local aspects, 130 infant mortality, 82 industrial development, 58,60-61 malnutrition in, 84 national policies and, 130,138-41 lead pollution, 161 infrastructure projects, 68 mangrove losses, 178 natural resource consumption and, marine pollution, 176,177 laws and regulations, environmen- nongovernmental organizations, 134 population distribution, 177 tal, 72 218,220 policies contributing to, 135,139 resource/material consumption, life expectancy, 62,63 population growth, 76,77 population growth and, 96,134 18,145 market forces management, 67-70 protected areas, 136 profile, 362-63 species diversity, 130 motor vehicles, 69-70 rapidly industrializing countries, 41 resource consumption and, 134 temperate rainforests, 131 nature conservation opportunities, soil degradation, 112,114,116 resource distribution inequities Canalization, 185 59 Asian Development Bank, 98 and, 135 Canary Islands, 131 nuclear energy, 71 Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Re- species, 127-28 Cancer, 62,79,168,195 pollution control, 60 form and Rural Development, 224, trade and, 135 Captive breeding, 128,132,136-37 smokestacks, 61-62 230 valuation of, 135,139 Carbon dioxide emissions soil damage, 66 Association of African Women for Re- Biogas, 195,223 atmospheric levels, 2,5,21,350 transboundary pollution, 66,68 search and Development, 230 Biohydrometallurgy, 26 from cement manufacture, 350 water pollution, 11,64-66,72 Association of Southeast Asian Na- Biomass energy, 36-37,144,148,155, by country, 211 Western partnerships with, 68 tions, 53 195 deforestation and, 205-06 Central government expenditures, Asthma, 42 Bioparks, 137 industrial, 222,346-47 240-42 Atlantic Ocean, 131,338-39 Bioregional management, 137 from fossil fuel consumption, 151, Cephalopods,339 Atmosphere Biosphere reserves, 137,138,298-99 163,205-06,350 Cereals see also Air pollution Biotechnology, 10,26 and global warming, 205 consumption, 94 conventions, 8,152-53,199,360-63 Birds from land-use change, 348-49 feed,105 levels of greenhouse and ozone-de- species losses, 132 natural sinks, 209 food aid, 94,278-80 pleting gases, 205,350 losses to oil spills, 150 projections, 5,149 prices, 97 Australia threatened species, 129,132,304-05 reduction strategies, 8,21,22,27, production and yields, 94,272-73 agriculture, 105 trade in, 27,300-01 71,147,196,204 surpluses, 107 biodiversity, 131 waterfowl populations, 163 sources, 5,7,21-22,23,25,149,200, trade, 105,278-79 energy production, 145 Births 348-50 Cerebral palsy, 88 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, attended by trained personnel, target limits, 210 Chad, 11,34,129 137,139 254-55 taxes on, 10,23 Charcoal, 288-89 land conservation, 106 rates, 32,45,81,248-49 worldwide, 5 Chemical companies, environmental precipitation, 160 BlackForest,160,197 Carbon monoxide emissions, 196-97 strategies, 25 soil degradation, 102,112,115 Black Sea, pollution, 65,176,182-83, atmospheric levels, 196,350 Chernobyl nuclear accident, 13,71, water conservation, 106 185,186 by country, 352 78,145 Austria, 64,65,66,105,106,107,145 Blacks, poverty and illness among health effects, 88,197 Chesapeake Bay, watershed manage- Aylwin, Patricio, 50 children, 83,88 indoor, 195 ment, 184-89 Azerbaijan, 150 Bolivia, 123,231 reduction, 70,196,203 Chickens, 96,276-77 World Resources 1992-93 370 Index Child mortality, 250-51 fertility trends, 15,76 agricultural, 24,97-98,105,108 Costa Rica see also Infant mortality freshwater, 159,163 distortions, 97,105,108 agriculture, 222-23 causes of death, 78,82 GNP, 14 NGO negotiations, 226 drug company agreement on ge- contraception and, 86,87 livestock populations, 96 reforms, 108 netic rights, 10,54,137-38 and fertility, 85 malnutrition in, 84 tropical timber, 122 energy demand management, 151 human development and, 85,86 population control program, 76 world, 242 human development, 80,81 in industrialized countries, 81-82 primary school enrollment, 14,15 Communities nongovernmental organizations, literacy and, 86,87 Chlorine/chlorides, 66,162,167,172, education role, 31 222-23,231 per capita income and, 86 350 health care role, 87 species monitoring in, 137-38 in poor/developing countries, 30, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), 9,152-53, participation in environmental C6te d'lvoire, 30,79 81,82 194,200,204, 348-50,360-61 decisionmaking, 134 Cotton, 102 population growth and, 76,85 Chloroquimr>e,84 resource management by, 33,35 Council for Mutual Economic Assis- poverty and, 86 Cholera epidemics, 81,177 Condoms, 256-58 tance, 58,146 in rapidly industrializing countries, Chromium, 183,190,322-23 Conservation of natural resources Cretinism, 85 43,44,46,48,49,50,52 Chronic obstructive lung disease, 79 access to resources and, 8 Cropland by region, 78 Ciguatera, 177 bioregional management, 137 area, 22, 95,101,262-63,274-75 trends, 25,75 Cities biosphere reserves, 137 fallow management, 163 in urban areas, 89 see also Urban areas and urbaniza- buffer zones, 137 fertilizer use, 274-75 water quality and, 86 tion Central European opportunities, 59 forestland conversion to, 3,23,115- Children's health air pollution from road transport, custodial management, 136 16,168 see also Infants 196 demand reduction strategies, 122, irrigated, 274-75 AIDS/HIV infection, 90 coastal water pollution, 131,185 141 per capita area, 96 availability of care, 19,87 one-million population, 264-65 and economic development, 4,27, pesticide use, 274-75 cholera, 81 Climate 47,51 Crops chronic or disabling conditions, 83, see also Global wanning endowments, 140 see also specific crops 88 fossil fuel use and, 2 ex situ, 136 areas of high biodiversity, 132-33 deaths, 78,82-85 land area classified by, 281-82 external debt and, 135 genetic diversity, 132-33,135 diarrhea, 32,75-76,78,82-83,84,85, Mt. Pinatubo eruption and, 200 financing, 140,141 improvement programs, 124 89,254-55 rainfall/precipitation, 160,332-33 global "hot spot" approach, 130, rotations, 101,103,163 diphtheria, 83 stabilization, 9-10 133-34 surpluses, 38,97,98,100,105 drinking water safety and, 81,86 sustainable development and, 6 human development and, 6 yields, 42,47,94,95,104,117 environmental conditions and, 81- treaty, 204 local community involvement, 10, Crustaceans, 339-41 82,88 Coal 33,35,136 Cuba, 82 immunization, 32,75,83,87,89, Central European dependence on, national strategy, 362-63 Czechoslovakia 254-55 61, 67,70-71,143,146 new techniques, 137-38 energy consumption, 61,146 improvement strategies, 19,85-87 consumption trends, 145,147,148, population stabilization and, 35 environmental disasters and dam- indoor air pollution, 195 202 poverty alleviation and, 35 age, 57,61,64 lead poisoning, 62,83,88 conversion to natural gas, 71 reorientation of old strategies, 136- environmental protection, 58,60,72 malaria, 82,84 flue gas desulfurization, 70-71 37 forest defoliation, 66 measles, 82,83,84,85 gasification, 65 reserve management, 138 industrial infrastructure, 57 measures of, 85 methane emissions from mining, soils, 113 infant mortality, 62 mental health disorders, 83,86,88 348-49 species monitoring, 137-38 life expectancy, 63 neonatal and perinatal complica- mining, 168 Contraception, 6 modernization projects, 68 tions, 78,82,83 pollution control options, 67,68-69, breastfeeding and, 85 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 nutrition, 30,37,52,81,83,84-85, 70-71,194,202 and child mortality, 86,87 nuclear power, 71 89,250-51 pollution from, 57,61,65,146,148, and fertility, 77 preserves (potential), 5.9 oral rehydration therapy, 32,81,82- 168 and population, 32,45,76-78 sulfur dioxide emissions, 61,64 83,87,89,254-55 prices, 68-69 prevalence and availability, 32, transboundary sulfur pollution, 66 pertussis, 82,83 production trends, 144,145,147 256-57 water pollution trends, 65 polio, 83 reserves, 148,148 trends, 77 pollution and, 42,57 washing, 67,70,194 Conventions poverty and, 83,86 Coasts and coastal waters Antarctic, 358-39 respiratory infections, 42,78,82,83, algal blooms, 161,176,185 atmosphere, 8,152-53,199,360-61 •#ams, 123 84,88,89 area, by country, 336-37 biodiversity, 10,134,140 environmental problems, 22,165, rubella, 83 coordination of pollution control ef- children's rights, 89,90 185,187 sanitation and, 81,86 forts, 187 driftnet fishing, 181 number and hydropower potential, stunting, 86,250-52 economic valuation, 183 endangered species, 133,301-02, 330-31 tetanus, 83 habitat destruction, 131,175,176, 358-59 opposition to, 221-22 tuberculosis, 83,88,89 177-78 forest, 119,120 Data bases and clearinghouses in urban areas, 89 inland activities affecting, 187 hazardous substances, 360-61 earthquake relief, 229 vaccine-preventable disease, 83-84 management case studies, 187-91 migratory species, 358-59 energy efficiency, 154 wasting, 250-51 maritime area, 336-37 ocean, 140,181,183,358-59 UNCED information system, 219 women's role, 35,37,86-87 Mussel Watch program, 177 participants in, 358-61 World Soils and Terrain Digital Chile, 41 nutrient discharges into, 175,176, regional agreements, 171-72,360-61 Database, 112 deforestation, 47,51,123,131 184,185,186,338-39 transboundary pollution, 171-72, DDT, 103,177,186 energy consumption, 51,53 oil and gas reserves, 336-37 199 Debt, see External debt exports of primary products, 47 pollution trends, 7,175,176,181-83, wetlands, 140,358-59 Debt for Child Development Pro- human development, 80,81 184 world heritage, 140,358-59 gram, 38 infant mortality, 45 population, 336-37 Coordinadora de las Organizaciones Debt-for-nature swaps, 38 life expectancy, 45 upstream activities that affect, 185- Indigenas de la Cuenca Amazonica, Amazon, 51 literacy rates, 43,45 86 124-25 input from indigenous peoples, external debt, 123 volume of goods loaded and un- Copper, 50,177,186,320,322-23 124-25 profile, 50 loaded in, 336-37 Coral reefs management of, 140 species diversity, 130 vulnerability to pollution, 186-87 bleaching, 131,178 mechanism, 123 China Cobalt, 322-23 destruction, 6,177,183 NGO role in, 226-27 aquaculture, 169 Cocoa, 98 global distribution, 131 participants, 309 bicycle industry, 54 Coffee, 98 Great Barrier Reef, 137,139 Deere & Co., 202 CFC consumption, 152-53 Collor de Mello, Fernando, 46,51 pollution damage to, 139,176,177, Defense expenditures child mortality, 15 Colombia, 31,81 183 central government, by country, energy consumption and produc- Colorado River, 166 sedimentation of, 183,185,189 240-41 tion, 15,148,149 Columbia River, 187 species diversity and losses, 131, and human development, 8-9,37-38 energy reserves, 149 Commodity indexes, world, 97,242 132 Deforestation, 5 exports, 47,155 Commodity prices Corn, 102,103,104 agriculture and, 23,121,168 World Resources 1892-93 371 Index add precipitation and, 197-98 Sustainable development at world gross domestic product, 236-37 regulations, 23 biodiversity losses, 46,125,131 heritage sites, 302-03 gross national product, 236-37 savings /costs, 72,151 causes, 47,96,121,123,163 Development assistance world commodity indexes and service companies, 156 and climate change, 10,118,125 by country, 236-37 prices, 242 technology cooperation in, 36-37, by country, 286-87 for forestry, 120 Economy 69,149-57 development assistance and, 123 percentage of GNP, 236-37 agricultural, 97-98 in transportation, 21,53 economic effects, 131 per capita, 236-37 world, 1 Energy consumption and external debt, 120,122-23 policies, 38 Ecosystems see also specific sources and greenhouse gas emissions, 10, reforms, 123 diversity, 128 in Central Europe, 61,145-46 205-06 Diarrhea ignorance about, 134-35 commercial, 145-47,316-19 health effects of, 84 breastfeeding and, 85 old-growth forests, 24 demand-side management, 23 intervention initiatives, 47-48,51, child mortality, 75-76,79,82 "services" provided by, 127 in developing countries, 143,144, 119-20 causes, 78,82,84,89 Ecuador, 81,140,187,218,226-27,231 145,147-51 logging and, 51,118 oral rehydration therapy, 32,83, Education economic policies and, 23,67 method for estimating, 119 254-55 see also Literacy emission taxes, 8 monitoring, 119 shellfish poisoning, 177 assistant teachers, 31 imports as a percentage of, 316-17 in poor countries, 30 water pollution and, 162 biological/bioparks, 137 in industrialized countries, 18,143, in rapidly industrializing countries, Diphtheria, 83 central government expenditures, 144-47 47,51 Disease, see Health; and specific dis- by country, 240-41 energy intensity, 21,60-61,145,318- and runoff, 160,169 eases child mortality and, 85 19 soil degradation from, 47,48,49, Doctors, availability by country, 252- community involvement in, 31, per capita, 144 96,114,115-16,118 53 226,227 and pollution, 20,149 tax incentives, 35 Dow Chemical Company, 202 in developing countries, 79 price reform and, 21,23,51,68-69 threat to native peoples, 44 Drinking water, safe economic development and, 31,75 projected trends, 146-47 timber trade restrictions and, 122 see also Freshwater; Rivers and in poor countries, 4,5,31,38 in rapidly industrializing countries, trends, 118-119 river basins; Water; Water pollu- postsecondary, 254-55 43,44,46,48,49,50,51, tropical,46,47, 111, 118-19,127, tion primary school, 14,15,31,34,35, 52,53 128,131 access to, 48,85,86,164,252-53 38,43,44,45,48,254-55 regulation of, 23 Demand management, 23,71-72,122, and children's health, 81,83,85,86 in rapidly industrializing countries, requirements, by country, 316-17 139,141,151 heavy metal contamination, 42 43,44,45,48,50, 52 renewable sources, 145 Denmark pesticides in, 100-01,103 and resource conservation, 6 by sector, 21,149-51,318-19 agricultural reform, 106-07 in poor countries, 30,38 technology development and, 7 traditional fuels, 36-37,144,148 animal manure controls, 107 Drought, 94,163 of women, 6,34,35 trends, 2,4,15,20-21 Association for International Coop- Egypt, 95,163 Energy production eration, 217 El Salvador, 11 see also specific sources energy intensities, 21,145 Electricity commercial, by country, 314-15 forest defoliation, 66 • • .1. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., demand, 51 in developing countries, 144,147-48 runoff control, 107 202 households without, 264-65 in industrialized countries, 144-47 threatened species, 129 East Asia, contraceptive use, 77 least-cost planning, 151,154,156 trends, 143,144-47 water quality, 161 East China Sea, 176 power shortages, 51 waste incineration and, 319 wind power, 22-23 Eastern Europe, see Central Europe production trends, 144,147,314-15 Energy resources Desertification, 30,112 Eaton Corporation, 170 Elephant ivory ban, 133 in industrialized countries, 20-23 Deserts, 23 Ecological Studies Institute, 69 Employment renewable, 20,22-23,202 Developing countries Economic Commission for Africa, 32 in Central Europe, 57 reserves, 49,148,149,336-37 see also External debt; Poor coun- Economic development in poor countries, 32-35 transitions in use, 20-21 tries; specific countries see also Sustainable development in rapidly industrializing countries, Environment and Development in air pollution, 88,195 assisted self-reliance, 34 47,49 the Third World, 231 agricultural practices, 97 conservation of natural resources rural, 34,47,96 Environment Liaison Centre Interna- causes of death, 78,79,82 and, 4 strategies for providing, 19,34 tional, 231 child mortality, 78,82 credit availability and, 33 Endangered species, 24,133,163,358- Environmental Defense Fund, 231 child population, 81 and economic growth, 2 59 Environmental issues, 1 coastal habitat losses, 177 and employment opportunities, 34 Endowments, 140 disasters, 57,78 contraceptive use, 77 and human development, 2,4,6, Energy conservation/efficiency health-related, 62 crop biodiversity, 132 31-32,79 and air pollution control, 202 information sources, 362-64 energy efficiency technology, 154-57 income distribution, 79,80,81 in appliances, 154,157 in newly industrializing countries, energy production and use, 143, and land tenure reform, 34 audits, 69 42 144,147-51 levels, see Case studies of economic benefits, 22,149-51 poverty alleviation and, 3,4,30-31 energy reserves, 148,149 development in buildings, 22,151,154,157 Environmental impact assessments, fertility rates, 77 local participation in, 33-34 carbon taxes, 8,10 72,123 food imports and exports, 95 measure of, 14,29 in Central Europe, 60-61,69,71-72 Environmental Law Institute, 69 food production, 95-96 military and state security budgets data bases and clearinghouses, 154 Environmental laws and regulations forestry funding from industrial and, 5 end-use, 53 agricultural, 106-07 countries, 123 in poor countries, 32-35 energy demand and, 149-54 in Central Europe, 60,72 human development in, 8-9 in rapidly industrializing countries, energy prices and, 68-69,156 disclosure of toxic releases, 10-11, infant mortality, 78,81 45,47 exports and imports, 69,154-55 25 literacy rates, 43 stabilization and structural adjust- gains possible, 10,21,53,143 effects, 25 military/state security expendi- ment policies, 32-33 and greenhouse gases, 10,22,151 energy efficiency-related, 23 tures, 8-9,11-12 and subsidies, 34 home, 21,23 enforcement, 35,53 oil-exporting, 144,147 trade barriers to, 4 incentives, 53,143 in rapidly industrializing countries, oil-importing, 144,147,148 women's opportunities and, 34-35 in industrial countries, 21-22 53 population assistance programs, 76- Economic growth industrial development and, 43,60- trade-related, 67-68 77 and economic development, 2 61 Environmental movements, 60 population growth, 75,76,77 and energy demand, 67 joint ventures, 155 Environmental protection resource pricing, 8 energy taxes and, 10 least-cost planning, 151 see also Pollution control and pre- sewage treatment, 167-68 and sustainable development, 20, licensing, 155 vention tourism, 140 32,81 manufacturing, 21 action plan, 362-63 trade barriers, 24 trend comparison, 15 model programs, 156-57 cooperative ventures, 52 wars and conflicts, 11 wars and conflicts and, 11 motor vehicles, 21,22,23,154 government role in, 35 water consumption, 160-61 Economic indicators and pollution control, 202 media role, 35 water pollution, 88-89,161-62,165 central government expenditures, Program for Commercial Energy in poor countries, 35 Development 240-41 Research,156 public access to information and, 72 see also Economic development; development assistance, 236-37 in rapidly industrializing countries, socialism and, 60 external debt, 238-39 53 World Resources 1992-93 372 Index Environmental Statistical Compen- and population growth, 80 Agenda 21,120 and sustainable agricultural devel- dium, 362-63 trends, 5,15,76-78 central government expenditures, opment, 163 Environmentally sensitive areas, pro- women's education and, 6 by country, 240-41 use, 159,160-61,328-29 tection, 106 Fertilizers in industrial countries, 24 valuation, 183 Equines, 276-77 animal manure, 65,102-06,163, Malasian National Forestry Policy, Friends of the Earth, 69,226 Estuaries 169,171 51 Fuel cells, 22 see also Coasts and coastal waters effectiveness, 100 sustainable, 44,119-20,223,225-26 Fuels drainage area, 338-39 green mulches, 124 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 120, alternative, for motor vehicles, 203 nutrient discharges into, 104,338-39 off-farm effects, 42,25,65,89,93, 124,140 animal waste as, 143 pollution, 7,175,184 103-04,139 Forests subsidies, 35,51 Ethiopia, 11,37,38 organic, 37 see also Deforestation; Reforesta- Fuelwood Euphrates River basin, 163 sewage sludge, 64,103 tion; Tropical forests consumption, 143,148 Europe (European Community) standards, 107 agriculture and, 3,6,115-16 overexploitation, 37,115,116,148 see also Central Europe subsidies, 8,10 ancient, 104 production, 288-89 agriculture, 10,24,99,102,103-04, taxes on use, 105,106 Central European, 66 Fundacion Nature, 218,226-27 105,106 use trends, 3,6,42,97,101,274-75 closed, 286-87 Fujii, Yasumasa, 209 air pollution, 64,65,104 water pollution, 62,65,89,97,139, conversion to rangeland, 121 Fynbos, 131 child mortality, 78 163,168,169 defoliation in Europe, 66,197,198 drinking water contamination, 103- Filariasis, 79 fragmentation, 118 04 Finland, 66,68,129,105,106,107,130 land area, by country, 262-63,286- energy production, consumption, Fish 87 I abon, 96 and sources, 37,61,144,148 consumption, 340-41 managed, 286-87 The Gambia, 81 energy taxes, 8 contamination, 177,185 management by local women, 130 Gandhi, Mohandas, 218 fisheries, 179 freshwater catches, 163,178,181, old-growth, 133 Gas turbine combined-cycle systems, HIV infection, 79 340-43 open, 286-87 22 infant mortality, 78 habitat losses, 177-78,180 overharvesting at world heritage Gene banks, 136 land management agreements, 106 kills, 185 sites, 302-03 General Agreement on Tariffs and Less-Favoured Areas Directive, 106 marine catches, 7,96,175,177-78, ownership, 121-22 Trade life expectancy, 63 181,339-41 principles on management, conser- agricultural trade liberalization, 98 Phare Programme, 68 ponds, 124,169-70 vation, and sustainable develop- timber trade restrictions, 122 population growth, 76 production for food, 94 ment, 119-20 tuna import ban, 182 protected areas, 136 quotas, 178,179,180 protected, 286-87 Genetic resources, 10,47,54,128,134, soil degradation, 112,114,116 species losses, 169,172,180 in rapidly industrializing countries, 140 tropical timber import taxes, 122 threatened and endangered spe- 47,51 Geothermal energy, 144,145,314-15 trade, 53,122 cies, 132,304-05 resource pricing, 8 Germany (East) water pollution, 89 world catches, 96 riparian, 167 energy consumption, 61 European Fisheries runoff control, 160 environmental conditions, 57,61 Investment Bank, 68 see also Aquaculture temperate and boreal, 118 environmental laws and regula- Monitoring and Evaluation Pro- agreements, 176 valuation of, 121 tions, 72 gramme, 66 composition changes, 180 Formaldehyde, 195 forest defoliation, 66 Trust for Natural and Cultural In- freshwater, 132 Fossil fuels industrial pollution, 67 heritance, 59 habitat losses, 180 see also Coal; Natural gas; Oil integration with West Germany, Evapotranspiration, 166 ocean, 7,339 and climate change, 2,3,7-8,9-10, 58,72 Everglades, 171 overharvesting of, 6,30,49,131, 143 life expectancy, 63 External debt 132,175,180 consumption, 2,4,17,20,21,143 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 by country, 52,238-39 policy reforms, 141 electric power production from, 22 nuclear reactor accident, 71 current borrowing, 238-39 pollution effects, 7,42,159,168 emissions, 2,5,7-8,20,21,22,205- sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 Debt for Child Development pro- trends, 178-80 06,350 transboundary sulfur pollution, 66 gram, 38 yield and potential, 339 prices, 10 water pollution, 65 debt-for-nature swaps, 38,51,122- Fishing subsidies, 8 Germany (West) 23,140,309 central government expenditures, France agriculture, 103-06 and deforestation, 120 by country, 240-41 energy consumption, 18,145 aquaculture, 169 and development projects, 98 driftnet, 180,181 forest defoliation, 66 biodiversity losses, 104 disbursed long-term public debt, tuna-dolphin controversy, 180,181, land conservation, 106 carbon dioxide emissions, 147 238-39 182 manufacturing energy intensity, 21 forest defoliation, 66 economic effects, 32,46,52 Flooding, 160,166,185 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 industrial pollution, 168 energy financing and, 149 Flue gas desulfurization, 70-71 petrol prices andfleetefficiency, 21 infant mortality, 62 OPEC policies and, 147 Fluoride/fluroine emissions, 60,61 poverty in, 19 lead pollution, 161 percentage of GNP, 238-239 Food resource/materials consumption, manufacturing energy intensities, and resource conservation, 135 aid, 38,94,98,220,278-80 18 21 service, 38,147,238-39 contaminants, 88 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64,201 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 total, 238-39 fish and fish products, 88,96,340-41 threatened species, 129 petrol prices and fuel efficiencies, 21 U.S. reduction of, 123 handling practices, 83 water pollution, 104,171-72 pollution control in, 70,107,171-72, Exxon Valdez oil spill, 13,139,182 from livestock, 95-96 Freshwater 201 price controls, 93,97,98,139 see also Irrigation; River basins; poverty in, 19 population growth and, 93 Water pollution resource/materials consumption, production trends, 1-2,3,93,94-96, conservation, 163 18 • amily planning programs, 8 272-73 from desalination, 159,164 sewage treatment, 161,169 and birth rates, 49,85 security, 132 environmental stresses, 159 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 and demand reduction for re- subsidies, 34,86,97,98 fish catches, 340-41 timber bans, 122 sources, 141 supplies, 94,98 industrial withdrawals, 159,166 wetlands losses, 129 for men, 45,78 trade, 98,278-79 lakes, species losses, 132 Ghana, 81 models, 9 Food and Agriculture Organization, Middle East supplies, 163 agroforestry, 33 population assistance programs, 76- 96,118,120,217 per capita consumption, 161 Global Biodiversity Strategy, 133-34, 77 Forest products politics, 163,171 138-39 and population growth, 32 see also Timber quality, 161-63 Global Environmental Facility, 140 Pro-Pater male health clinics, 45 consumers and consumption pollution/pollutants, 24,159,161-63 Global warming, 3 and women's health, 77 trends, 17,18 resources, 159,160,328-29 action program for 21st Century, 26 Famine, 94 losses to air pollution, 199 salinization, 163,166,168,186 carbon dioxide emissions and, 5,7, Fertility rates producers, 24 and sanitation, 164 208-09 child mortality and, 85 valuation of, 121 shortages, 159,163 deforestation and, 10,118,125 by country, 44,46,48,49,50,52,76, wood production and trade, 288-89 sources, 159,160 effects of, 7,131,160,178 248-49 Forestry supply, 159 World Resources 1992-63 373 Index fossil fuel use and, 2,3,7-8,9-10, losses, 6,24,30,104,128-30,132, Hovanyi, Gabor, 60 Industrial Credit and Investment 143 137,175-78 Hudson River, 176 Corporation, 156 ozone depletion and, 200 Mediterranean climate areas, 131 Human cultural diversity, 128,131 infant mortality, 86 treaty, 204 status of, 130-33 Human development irrigation investments, 98 trends, 205 temperate rainforests, 131 see also Education; Health service joint technology ventures, 156 Goiter, 85 tropical forests, 130-31 community improvement pro- lead poisoning, 88 Grain, 95,276-77 Haiti, 11,29,36 grams, 9 livestock populations, 95-96 Grameen Bank, 33,218,224 Haribon Foundation, 231 and economic development, 2,4,6, nongovernmental organizations, Grasslands, losses, 128,129,168 Hawaiian Islands, 131,166 8,31-32,81 218,221-22,223,225-26,227,231 Grassroots organizations Hazardous substances, 11 and environmental protection, 31 primary school enrollment, 14,15 economic development role, 33-34 biological and toxin weapons, 360- foreign assistance for, 37 soil degradation, 97 funding of, 219 61 freedom and, 80 Indian Ocean, 131 mobilizing collective action, 221 conventions, 360-61 measurement of, 14,79-81 Indigenous peoples, see Local cul- purpose, 216 exports of waste, 67-68 military/state security expendi- tures and peoples strengths, 221-22 full-disclosure requirement, 25 tures and, 8-9,37-38 Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Com- weaknesses, 222 nuclear accidents, 360-61 in poor countries, 8,31-32 mission, 187 Grazing ocean pollution, 175,177 priority-setting, 8 Indonesia rights, 8 storage areas, 66 in rapidly industrializing countries, agricultural subsidies, 135 soil degradation from, 97,114,115, transport of, 360-61 43,45 aquaculture, 169 169,290 water pollution, 64,159 targeted government intervention deforestation, 47,48,51 at world heritage sites, 302-03 Health and, 81 education, 43,45 Great Barrier Reef, 137,139 see also Children's health; specific technology development and, 7 employment, 47 Great Lakes water quality agree- diseases and conditions trend comparison, 15 energy consumption, 48,53 ments, 187 births attended by trained person- urban self-help programs, 9 energy efficiency, 157 Greenhouse gas emissions nel, 254-55 Human Development Index, 29 Environmental Forum, 230 see also Carbon dioxide emissions anticancer drugs, 133 Human problems, 1 exports of primary products, 47 atmospheric levels, 205,350 indoor air pollution and, 195 Human settlements, see Cities; Urban external debt, 38 cost of reduction, 10 major causes of death and disease, areas and urbanization fertility rates, 76 by country, 208 62,78 Hungary irrigation investments, 98 current, 206 occupational factors, 62 aquaculture, 169 nongovernmental organizations, deforestation and, 205-06 pollution and, 62-63,78,169,194-97 energy consumption, 61,146 218-19,224,227,229-30,231 effects, 7,20,27 trends, 78-79 energy efficiency, 157 pollution control, 229-30 indexes, 207-10 vector-borne diseases, 79 environmental conditions and di- profile, 48 international agreements, 10 women's, 6,34,77 sasters, 57,61,64-65 reserve management, 137,138 methane, 348-49 sewage discharges and, 159,165, environmental laws and regula- Industrial materials, consumption, 18 national rankings, 208 168 tions, 72 Industrial pollution, 6 past, 206 Health services environmental movement, 60 carbon dioxide, 346-47 per capita rankings, 208-10 access to, 85,252-53 forest defoliation, 66 in Central Europe, 64-65 sources, 2,7,17,20,348-49 administration of antibiotics, 82 infant mortality, 62 of coastal waters, 185 reduction strategies, 10 in Central Europe, 62-63 life expectancy, 63 and children's health, 88 target limits, 210-11 central government expenditures, modernization projects, 68 costs of control, 170 volume and distribution, 205-10 by country, 240-41 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 control technologies, 54,170 Greenpeace, 226 and child mortality, 86 nuclear power, 71 of freshwater, 62,159,168 Gross domestic product for children, 85,87 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 in newly indistrializing countries, distribution, 236-37 community-based, 9,31 transboundary sulfur pollution, 66 42 central government expenditures immunization, 32 unpolluted areas, 58 by OECD countries, 25 as percentage of, 240-41 improvement strategies, 5,9,31-32, water quality, 64-65 prevention, 25,51 Gross national product (GNP) 81 Hunger, 30 in rapidly industrializing countries, by country, 236-37 and infant mortality, 31-32 Hydrocarbons, 23,63,64,65,70,149, 50,52 defense expenditures, 37 medical personnel, by country, 252- 167,203,351 reduction strategies, 52,53,54,170 development assistance as a per- 53 Hydrogen fuel, 23,202 Industrialization centage of, 236-37 occupational, 63 Hydrogen sulfide, 61 and energy efficiency, 60-61 disbursed long-term public debt as in poor countries, 5,9,31-32 Hydrological cycle, 165 measure of, 14-15 a percentage of, 23S-39 preventive, 31,48 Hydropower, 84,123,314-15,330-31 and pollution, 6,87-89 external debt and, 32 in rapidly industrializing countries, consumption and production, 144, and soil degradation, 114,116 in newly industrializing countries, 45,50 145,148 strategies, 54 42 rural, 31,32,252-53 drought and, 163 see also Rapidly industrializing per capita, 14,32,44,46,236-37 traditional healers, 32 environmental problems, 22 countries pollutant emissions per dollar, 64- Heathland, 104 resources, 50 Industrialized countries 65 Heavy metals Hygiene, personal, 83,86 agricultural resources and policies, in rapidly industrializing countries, see also specific metals 23-25,104-05 41,42,44,46,48,49,50,52 bioaccumulation, 168,177 causes of death, 78,79 real, average annual change, 236-37 total, 236-37 Ground water in drinking water, 42 marine pollution, 178 and soil degradation, 62,66 I I celand, 131 Ichi River basin, 168 child mortality, 78 contraceptive use, 77 economic development levels, 14 depletion, 30,166 pollution control, 53,183 Incineration of waste, 319 energy efficiency, 143 movement intoriverbasins, 166 sources, 66,103,168 India energy production and consump- pollution, 42,62,64,89,102,104, water pollution, 42,62,64,65,159, agriculture, 36 tion, 143,144-47 107 161,162,168,177,183 aquaculture, 169 energy resources, 20-21,148 recharge zones, protection, 107 Hedgerows, 104 bicycle industry, 54 environmental cleanup, 25 Group of Seven, 120 Helsinki Commission, 68 CFC consumption and production, fertility rates, 76,77 Guam, 131 Hepatitis, 42,177 152 food supplies, 94 Guatemala, 81,82,86,140 Himalayan watershed, 160 child mortality, 15,31 foreign assistance for human devel- Gulf of Mexico, 176 HIV infection, 79,90 economic development, 156 opment, 9 Homelessness, 30 energy consumption and produc- forest resources, 23-25 Honduras, 36 tion, 4,15,37,144,148,149-50,151 forestry fund transfers to develop- Hong Kong, 42,43, 75,176 energy efficiency technology, 154, ing countries, 123 abitats Households 155, 223 habitat losses, 128-29,177 coastal, 175,176,178-79 energy consumption, 318-19 exports, 155 human development in, 9,18 coral reefs, 131,178 female-headed, 83 fertility trends, 25,76 infant mortality, 78,89 fragmentation, 129 size, by country, 264-65 forest management by local manufacturing efficiencies, 25-26 freshwater, 132,159 without electricity, 264-65 women, 130,225 natural resource consumption, 4 islands, 131-32 freshwater withdrawals for, 328-29 GNP, 34,37 pollution contribution, 4 World Resources 1992-93 374 Index population growth, 76,77 International Debt Management Au- Java, 47 Legumes, 101,102-03,124 poverty in, 19 thority, 140 Jordan,163 Libya, 95 producer subsidy equivalents, 105 International Drinking Water Supply Jordan River basin, 163 Life expectancies renewable energy resources, 22-23 and Sanitation Decade, 86,164 by country, 44,45,48,62,63,248-49 responsibilities for sustainable de- International Energy Agency, 154 in developing countries, 79 velopment, 4 International Fund in poor countries, 30 sustainable development dimen- for Agricultural Development, 33 Kaliningrad, 66 and population growth, 80 sions, 17-20 for Conservation of Biological Di- Kaminski, Bronislaw, 67 trends, 78,80 technologies, 19-20,26-27 versity, 140 Kattegat strait, 176 Literacy Industry for Plant Genetic Resources, 140 Kavanagh, Mikaail, 51 by country, 30,49,254-55 energy conservation, 71 International Institute for Applied Kelleher, Graeme, 139 in developing countries, 79 energy consumption, by country, Systems Analysis, 69 Kenya, 30,81,133,140,195,220,223, child mortality and, 85,86,87 328-39 International Institute for Energy 225-26,231 in poor countries, 30,31 energy intensity, 318-19 Conservation, 53,154 Korea, Democratic People's Republic, in rapidly industrializing countries, freshwater withdrawals by, 328-29 International Monetary Fund, 32,46 148 43,45 gross domestic product, 236-37 International Society of Soil Science, Korea, Republic of, 53 of women, 35,49, 77, 85,254-55 labor force, by country, 264-65 112 contraceptive use, 77 Lithium, 322-23 water withdrawals for, 159,166 International Soil Reference and Infor- economic development, 42,75 Livestock and livestock farms Infant health mation Centre, 112 energy production and consump- grain consumption, 276-77 birth defects, 86,88,177 International Tropical Timber Organi- tion, 43,148 manure storage and disposal, 100, breastfeeding, 83,85 zation, 122,124,140 human development, 80 102-03,106,107,171 cerebral palsy, 88 International Women's Year, 218 pollution, 42 methane emissions, 104,349-50 low birth weight, 83, 84,85,86,88, Iran, 11,181 Kornai, Janos, 60 overgrazing, 115 254-55 Iraq, 11,163,181 Kuwait, 150,164,182 populations, 95-96,276-77 methemoglobinemia, 89 Ireland, 131 production, 95-96 neonatal tetanus, 83,84 Iron deficiency anemia, 86 subsidies, 8 pollution effects, 88,89 Iron ore, 186,323-23 water pollution from, 102-03,107, prematurity, 86 Irrigation, 6 ^ • a b o r force 169,171 respiratory infection, 82 area under, 98,161 by country, 246-47,264-65 Local cultures and peoples Infant mortality cropland, 274-75 by sector, 264-65 activism, 123-24,227,230-31 health services and, 31-32 diversions of water for, 168-69,185 women in, 264-65 agricultural practices, 36 in industrialized countries, 78,89 energy consumption, 151 Lakes, freshwater, 132,166 conservation role, 130,136,137-38 pollution and, 162 health effects, 84,85 Land control of resources, 135 in poor countries, 31-32,45,62,81, investments in, 98 area, by country, 262-63,283-82 Coordinating Body of the Indige- 82,83, 84, 86,88,250-51 with polluted water, 50 bioregional management, 137 nous Organizations of the Ama- in rural areas, 31 small-scale, 36,85 by climatic classes, 282-82 zon Basin, in urban areas, 89 and soil degradation, 97,101-02, degradation, 1,3,5; see also Soil deg- 230-31 Information technologies 105,115,116 radation health care role, 87 applications in rapidly industrializ- subsidies, 8,23,47,105,135 transport infrastructure area, by knowledge of, 135 ing countries, 54 water charges, 105 country, 266-67 land tenure, 121-22 clearinghouse on environmental water harvesting and spreading use, by country, 262-63 participation in development, 31, technology, 69 techniques, 163 Land reforms 36,120,123-24,134,222-23 networking, 231 and water pollution, 163,168,185 conservation and management, 106 protection of, 46 NGO applications, 69,231 water users association, 223 heritage agreements, 106 threats to, at world heritage sites, pollution prevention and control, 26 water withdrawals, 93,97,159,161, NGO role in, 226 302-03 INFOTERRA, 362-63 166,328-29 ownership of tropical forests, 121-22 Logging, 96 Infrastructure, rehabilitation, 34 Islands, species losses, 131-32 taxes,8 see also Timber Institute for European Environmental Israel, 169,181 tenure-related, 4,8,34,45,46,135 bans, 47,48,51,122 Policy, 69 Italy Landfills, 329 benefits vs. costs, 121 Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 170 forest defoliation, 66 Landscape degradation, 104 and biodiversity losses, 120,139 Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 Latin America and coastal water degradation, 183, 137-38 petrol prices and fuel efficiencies, 21 see also specific countries 185 Inter-American Development Bank, poverty in, 19 child mortality, 78 deforestation rates, 51,118 38,187 resource/materials consumption, cholera epidemics, 81 of old-growth forests, 24 Inter-American Foundation, 217,221 38 deforestation, 118 opposition by local peoples, 123, Interethnic Association for Develop- sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 energy production and consump- 227 ment of the Peruvian Jungle, 124 threatened species, 229 tion, 144,148 runoff and runoff control, 171,175 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate IUDs, 256-57 energy reserves, 148,149 subsidies, 8,46,121 Change, 2,5,21,205 Ivermectin, 79 fertility rates, 76 taxes on exports, 51 International Commission for the Pro- food production, 95,96 water pollution from, 159,165,169, tection of the Rhine Against Pollu- infant mortality, 78 171,185 tion, information networking, 231 London Dumping Convention, 183 171-72,187 %0 amaica, 80,81,123,151 land tenure rerform, 121-22 Luxembourg, 171 International Conference on Water Japan malnutrition in, 84 and the Environment, 164 agricultural policies, 10,24,99-100, nongovernmental oganizations, 220 International cooperation 101,104 population distribution, 30 see also Conventions energy consumption/intensities, population growth, 76,77 ladagascar, 118,129,133,135 Central European-Western partner- 38,145,150 poverty alleviation, 45 Maize, 100,101,102,104,105,107,132 ships, 68 fisheries and fishing practices, 179, rapidly industrializing countries, 41 Malaria, 79,82,84,177 Comprehensive Mexico-United 180,181 soil fertility, 96 Malawi, Lake, 132,133 States Environmental Border Pro- GNP,42 Laws, see Environmental laws and Malaysia gram, 52 greenhouse gas emission reduction regulations air quality, 51 Indonesia-Canada Twinning Proj- strategy, 26 Lead aquaculture, 169 ect, 229-30 heavy metal pollution, 161,168 emissions, 61, 63,65,177,197 birth rates, 45 information exchange, 69 life expectancy, 62,63 health effects, 62,70,88,197 energy consumption, 51,148 nongovernemntal organizations, manufacturing energy intensities, poisoning, 62,83,88 energy efficiency, 157 228-300 21 pollution reduction, 51,70,72,197 exports of primary products, 47 pollution control, 68-69,159 materials consumption, 38 production and consumption, 320 human development, 43,45,80 river basin management, 159,171- oil imports, 145 reserves, 320,322-23 lead poisoning, 88 73 sewage treatment, 161 soil levels, highest, 66 logging, 47,51,121,123 International Council of Voluntary threatened species, 329 sources, 62,63,65,70,88 nongovernmental organizations, Agencies, 217 Japanese Overseas Economic Cooper- water pollution, 161,177,183,186 223,226 ation Fund, 98 Lebanon, 11 profile, 44 World Resources 1992-83 375 Index Malnutrition, 1,31,34,81,83,84-85, Montreal Protocol on Substances That Nitrogen protein consumption, by country, 89 Deplete the Ozone Layer, 8,152-53, dioxide, 61,65,195 250-51 Mammals 200 emissions, 65,351 strategies, 34 marine, fatal viral diseases, 177 Mortality rates, by country, 250-51 estuarine loadings, 175,188-89,338- vitamin A deficiency, 85 threatened species, 129,304-05 Motor vehicles 39 trade in, 300-01 air pollution contribution, 296,197- fertilizers, 102-03 Man and Biosphere Programme, 137 98 marine pollution, 175,176-77,184, Management Sciences for Health, 69 catalytic converters, 70,72,196,203 185,186,338-39 'aks,66 Manganese, 322-23 in Central Europe, 62-64,69-70 Nitrogen oxide emissions, 42 Oats, 101 Mangrove forests, 135-36,160 electric, 23,150 control of, 70, 71,199,201,203 Ocean pollution and damage aquaculture and, 49,180 emissions, 23,42,51,62-65,70 environmental effects, 17 see also Fisheries losses, 6,49,175,177,178 fuel alternatives, 23,203 health effects, 196 algal blooms, 161,176,185,190 Manufacturing fuel/energy efficiency, 21,22,67, smog formation, 64,194,196 control efforts, 183-85 energy intensities, 21 70,150,154 sources, 17,23, 61,62,63,65,104, conventions, 183,358-62 environmental strategies, 25-26 "lean manufacturing" system, 26 149,196 dumping of hazardous and radioac- Marginal lands, 5,6,33,94,96 market growth, 69-70 target reductions, 67,199 tive materials, 175-76,177 Market forces passenger miles traveled, 266-67 Nitrous oxide, 104,206,350 from nutrients, 176-77 deregulation, 11 persons per car, 266-67 Nongovernmental organizations from ozone layer thinning, 178 energy prices, 68-69 pollution reduction, 23,51,70,72, see also Grassroots organizations; regional approach to prevention, management in Central Europe, 67- 203-04 Service organizations; specific orga- 175,176,180—81 70 traffic congestion reduction, 53,204 nizations Regional Seas Programme, 176,180- motor vehicles, 69-70 trips by purpose and length, 22 in Africa, 220-21 81,183,188,190 and natural resource valuation, 11 use rates, 21-22 in Asia, 31,218,220 surface threats, 178 privatization, 11 Mozambique, 11,96 communications technology, 231 toxic chemicals, 177 Materials technology, 26 Myanmar, 11,122,129 confrontational strategy, 227 trends, 176-77 Maternal mortality, 34-35,77,84,250- economic development role, 33-34 Oceania 51 education role, 31 child mortality, 78 Mead, Margaret, 219 emerging trends, 228-31 energy production and consump- Measles, 82,83,84 I amibia, 133 government relations with, 226-28 tion, 244 Mediterranean climate areas, 102,131 Natain, Sunita, 209 funding of, 218,219 infant mortality, 78 Mediterranean Sea, 175,177,183,184, National Audubon Society, 219 information technology, 69,231 population growth, 76 187-88,190-91 National parks, 136 in Latin America, 220 protected areas, 136 Men, literacy rates, 254-55 National State of the Environment Re- leadership, 224 soil degradation, 122,114,116 Mental retardation, 85,86,88 port, 362-63 legal defense role, 231 Oil Merck & Co., Inc., 138 National Wildlife Federation, 217 networks and associations, 230-32 consumption, 145,150 Mercury, 88,177,183,190,320 Natural gas North-South relations, 216-17,228- demand, 149 Metals consumption, 143,145,146,148,202 30 exporters, 147 see also Heavy metals; specific metals conversion of coal-fired systems to, organizational factors, 224-26 extraction, 168 consumers and consumption 70,71 origins and regional differences, and external debt servicing, 147 trends, 17,18,320-21 methane emissions from produc- 216-21 imports by OECD countries, 145 production, 320-21 tion, 348-49 policy research role, 231 methane emissions from produc- reserves, 320-23 production, 244,145,147 population stabilization role, 32 tion, 348-49 Methane, 71,195,200,205,206,348-50 reserves, 49,147,248,149,336-37 public policy role, 226-27,232 price shocks, 46,48,60,97,143,144, Methemoglobinemia, 89,101 Natural resources strengths and weaknesses, 221-24 145,147-50,154,156 Methyl chloroform, 350 see also Conservation of natural re- and United Nations system, 219 production trends, 144,145,147, Methyl mercury, 13,88 sources; specific resources women's role and organizations, 150 Mexico, 41,43 access to, 8 225-26 reserves, 52,248,149,150,336-37 cholera epidemics, 81 consumption, 4,14-15,134 working with governments, 227-28 spills, 11,13,139,150,181 deforestation, 47,118 inequities in distrubution, 135 and World Bank, 217 well fires, 11,150 earthquake relief, 228 information sources, 362-63 Nordic Investment Bank, 68 Oils economic development, 45 management, 2 North America food aid, 278-79 endangered species, 132 pressures on, 1,5 see also specific countries production, 94 energy policies, 148 pricing, 8,121 agricultural subsidies, 104 trade, 278-79 exports, 47,155 subsidies, 8 child mortality, 78 Onchocerciasis, 79 lead poisoning, 88 valuation, 11 energy production, consumption, Oral contraceptives, 256-57 life expectancy, 45 Natural Resources Defense Council, and sources, 37,244, 248 Oral rehydration therapy, 32,81,82- nongovernmental organizations, 217 HIV infection, 79 83,254-55 221,227-228 Nepal, 34,36,37,79,148 infant mortality, 78 Organic farming, 24,36,99-100,107 oil economy, 147 Netherlands life expectancy, 63 Organisation for Economic Co-opera- pollution control, 53 agricultural policies, 105,106 population growth, 76,77 tion and Development population distribution, 177 animal manure controls, 107 protected areas, 136 agricultural policies, 24,101,105, profile, 52 groundwater protection, 107 soil degradation, 212,114,116 106 soil degradation, 222,116 livestock production, 105,107,171 North Sea, 145,171,176,177,178 child mortality, 25 Superbario, 228 poverty, 19 Norway, 21,66,107,129,130,131 economic disparities within coun- Middle East sewage treatment, 161 Norway spruce, 66 tries, 18 food production, 95 threatened species, 229 Nuclear energy production and consump- freshwater, 159,163,171 timber trade, 122 accidents, 71,78,145,360-61 tion, 4, 25,18,21, 244,145 precipitation, 160 water pollution, 104,168,171-72 conventions, 360-61 energy reserves, 248,149 Migratory species, 358-59 wetlands losses, 129 energy, 22,71,244,145,146,148, fertility trends, 15 Milk, 94,105,278-79 Neurotoxicity, 62 324-25 forest products consumption, 28 Minamata Bay methyl mercury poi- New Guinea, 138 test ban, 360-61 GNP, 24,15,17 soning, 13 New Zealand, 105,129,131 Nurses and midwives, availability by income per capita, 17 Mining, water pollution from, 72,168, Newly industrializing countries, sus- country, 252-53 industrial materials consumption, 175 tainable development in, 42-43,53, Nutrients, water pollution from, 161, 28 Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing "5 162 metals consumption, 28 Company, 25,170 Nicaragua, 11 Nutrition municipal waste, 329 Mississippi River, 185,187 Nickel, 322,322 breastfeeding, 83,85 natural resource demand, 17 Molluscs, 340^2 Nigeria, 11,81,147 calories available, by country, 250- oil imports, 145 Molybdenum, 322-23 Nile River, 171 52 pollution burden, 17,18,21,27 Monsanto Company, 25,202 Nile Water Agreement, 187 child mortality and, 85 pollution cleanup strategies, 25 Montreal Guidelines on Land-Based Nitrate pollution, 65,100-01,103-04, iodine deficiency, 85 population, 17 Pollution, 288 107,172 iron deficiency anemia, 86 primary school enrollment, 14,15 Nitrite, in groundwater, 64,89 threatened species in, 129 World Resources 1992-93 376 Index wastewater treatment, 167 nongovernmental organizations, economic policies, 37-38 human development and, 5-6,8,9, Organization of Petroleum Exporting 220,224,226,231 education in, 31 19,75 Countries, 344,147,148 population density, 96 employment opportunities, 34 income support programs, 19 Ozal, Turqut, 163 traditional fuel use, 148 energy consumption and sources, land tenure reform and, 34,45 Ozone Phosphate detergent ban, 185 4,35,36-37 in rapidly industrializing countries, agricultural productivity losses to, Phosphorus, estuarine loadings, 175, environmental degradation in, 30- 45,47 199 176,182-85,188-89,338-39 31 redistribution of wealth, 2 depletion of stratospheric layer, 6, Photovoltaic cells, 22 environmental protection, 35 by service organizations, 222 8,9,152-53,178,194,200 Phytoplankton, 130,178 fertility trends, 15 in structural adjustment and devel- ground-level, 198-99,206 Pigs, 96,276-77 food aid, 98 opment plans, 33,45,47 health effects, 196 Pinochet, Augusto, 50 GNP, 34,15,29,37 Precipitation, 160,165,166,169; see Montreal Protocol, 8,152-53,200, Plants health care in, 31-32 also Acid precipitation 360-63 birth control, 135 human development investments, Preserves, 59,133 and smog formation, 64,194,196, high-diversity areas, 130 31-32,37-38 Prices, see Commodity prices 198,206 species losses, 104 land tenure, 30,34 Private sector, role in sustainable de- in urban areas, 20 rare and threatened, 104,131, local participation in development velopment, 6-7 toxicity to plants, 199 306-08 initiatives, 33-34 Processed wood, 288-89 tropospheric, 205 trade in, 300-01 military expenditures, 37 Propane, 153 Pneumonia, 82,88 population growth, 30,32 Property rights Poland poverty in, 30-31 to genetic resources, 10,54,137-38, auto emissions, 62-63,65 primary school enrollment, 34 141 I acific Ocean, 131 energy consumption, 63,146 resource mobilization, 37-38 land ownership by indigenous peo- Pacific yew, 133 energy policy, 67,68,71 self-reliance, assisted, 34 ples, 121-22 Pakistan, 37,81,144,148,151,157 environmental conditions, 57,58, stabilization and structural adjust- technology transfer and, 152-53 Pan American Health Organization, 60,61,62, 64,66 ment policies, 32-33 Protected areas 84 environmental policies, 60,67,72 subsidies in, 34 biodiversity conservation in, 136 Paper production, 288-89 forest defoliation, 66 sustainable development in, 29,30 by country, 298-99 Paraguay,224 infant mortality, 62 technology development, 35-37 custodial management, 136 Paralytic shellfish poisoning, 177 life expectancy, 63 women's economic opportunities, importance, 35 Particulate emissions, 61,62,194 modernization, 68 34-35 marine and coastal, 139,29«-99 control measures, 53,67,70,71 motor vehicles, 63 Population density threats to, 136 sources, 82,353 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 and agriculture, 96 World Heritage Sites, 136,298-99, target reductions, 67 pollution control, 68,70,71 and coastal pollution, 176,177 302-03,358-59 WHO maximum, 82 soil degradation, 66 by country, 262-63 Pulses, 94,105,278-79 Pastureland Solidarity trade union, 60 Population distribution area, by country, 96,262-63 stabilization program, 67 see also Urbanization incentives for establishing, 106 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 by age group, 76,80,248-49 losses, 104 transboundary sulfur pollution, 66 children, 81 I Hadioactive releases, 11,183 runoff, 171 water pollution, 64,67,72,168 in coastal areas, 331,176,177,336- Railroads woodland conversion to, 23 Polio, 83,84 37 area, by country, 266-67 Pathogens, in freshwater, 161,162,177 "Polluter pays" principle, 10,11,24, by country, 246-49 commuter, 53 Peat lands, 104 25,67,173,175 environmental effects, 5 freight ton-kilometers, 266-67 Pennsylvania, alternative agriculture Pollution laborforceby sector, 264-65 passenger miles traveled, 266-67 practices, 24 see also Air pollution; Industrial pol- by region, 76 Rainforests, temperate, 131 Pentagonal Initiative, 68 lution; Water pollution in rural areas, 30,31,264-65 Rangelands, forest conversion to, 121 Persian Gulf War, 11,150,182 agricultural, 6,10,65 in urban areas, 30-31,50,131,177, Rapidly industrializing countries Pertussis, 82,83 areas of ecological hazard or disas- 264-65,336-37 see also specific countries Peru, 11,81,124,169,179,223,226, ter, 58 Population growth agriculture in, 47 227-28 cleanup, 25,57 and agricultural practices, 94 air quality, 50,51 Pesticide Action Network, 230 energy price reforms and, 68-69 and biodiversity losses, 134 child mortality, 35,43,44,46,48, Pesticides, 6,10 and health, 62-63,78 causes, 76 49,50,52 bioaccumulation, 168 in industrialized countries, 25 contraception and, 9,76-78 contraceptive use, 77 biological, 103,124 and marketforces,67-68,201 in coastal areas, 336-37 definitional destruction of natural predators, monitoring, 11,66 and child mortality, 76,85 deforestation, 47,51,52 47,135 and public opinion, 10-11 by country, 246-47,264-65 economic development in, 14,45, fish kills, 185 transboundary, 66,68,171 environmental effects, 2,5 47,49,50 health threat, 88,102,103,185 at world heritage sites, 302-03 fertility and, 76-78 economic growth, 44,48,52 off-farm effects, 42,103 Pollution control and prevention and food production, 3,94 education, 14,15,43,44,45,48,50 pest resistance to, 79,84,102 coordination of, 187 and human development, 5,9 energy consumption, 35,43,44,46, poisoning of humans, 78,97 costs, 25,72,172 percentage change annually, 246-47 48-52 and soil degradation, 24,104 end-of-pipe, 25 poverty and, 4,9 fertility trends, 35,44,46,48,49,50, taxes on use, 106 energy prices and, 23,67 projections, 5,76,77,80,246-47, 52 testing and licensing, 106 expenditures, 25 336-37 GNP, 34,15,42,44,46,49,50,52 use trends, 42,100,101,274-75 incentives for, 10-11 in rapidly industrializing countries, human development in, 42,43,45, water pollution, 62,100,103,104, industry measures, 170,202-03 45,50 48,49,50,52 168,169,172,183 information technologies and, 26 stabilization in poor countries, 9,32 life expectancy, 44,45,48 Petrol marine, 183-85 trends, 15,75,76-78 natural resource conservation, 42, alternatives to, 203 regional approach to, 68,180-81 Portugal, 102,105,106,329 47,51 leaded, 63,88,177,186,203 from runoff, 170-71 Potomac River basin, 167,171,176 Pacificrim,42-43 motor vehicle fuel efficiency, 21 taxes, 8,11 Poverty population growth, 45,50 prices, 21,63 technology, 67 see also Poverty alleviation pollution, 52,168 taxes, 23 tradable emission permits, 8 children in, 83,86 technological development, 42,51, Phenol, 61,65 transboundary, 68 health and, 86 53 Philippines Polychlorinated biphenyls, 88,168, in industrial countries, 19,83 trade, 47,53-54 agriculture, 96 177,185 number of people in, 30 Recycling and reuse, 6,25,26,27,36 aquaculture and mangrove losses, Poor countries in rapidly industrializing countries, and demand reduction, 141 135-36 see also Developing countries; spe- 44,45,47,48,52 metal-bearing wastes, 170 coral reef destruction, 183,185 cific countries Poverty alleviation metalworking fluids, 170 energy efficiency, 157 characteristics of, 29-30 children's health and, 86 nutrient, 99 irrigation, 98 child mortality, 35 credit programs, 9 water, 163 logging, 96,121,185 debt burden, 32 and environmental issues, 3,4,30- Reforestation Mt. Pinatubo eruption, 200 development assistance, 38 31,47 through human development pro- economic development, 14,32-35 grams, 9 World Resources 1982-93 377 Index monocultural, 48 Salt marshes, 177 compaction, 97,101,115,292 Sri Lanka, 76,80,86,226 rates, by country, 286-87 Salvation Army, 216 conservation programs, 106,113 Steel and steelmaking, 60-61,149-50, subsidies, 51,106 Sanitation services costs, 104 155,321 Refrigeration technology, 152-53 access to, 85,86,164,252-53 definition, 112-13 Sterilization, contraceptive, 256-57 Regional Environmental Center for in developing countries, 38 deforestation and, 47,48,49,97, Stockholm Conference on the Human Central and Eastern Europe, 69 health and, 83,85 114,115-16,118 Environment, 2 Regional Seas Programme, 176,180- Saudi Arabia, 164,182 degrees, 112-13 Sub-Saharan Africa 81,183,188,190 Savannahs, losses, 128,129 estimates, 111-12 child health in, 84 Regulations, see Environmental laws Sawnwood, 288-89 and health, 84 energy sources, 36-37,144 and regulations Schistosomiasis, 79,169 interventions, 102,223 GNP,32 Reptiles Scotland, 131 industrialization and, 66,114,116, HIV infection, 79 threatened species, 304-05 Scots pine, 66 290 malnutrition in, 84 trade in, 300-01 Seagrasses, 177,185 irrigation and, 97,101-02 population growth, 30,31,32,164 Reserves, management, 136,138 Sediment pollution nutrient loss, 30,96,97,100,101, sanitation, 164 Respiratory infections and condi- and coral reef destruction, 183,185 290 soil fertility, 96 tions, 62,78, 79, 82,84,88, 89 loads of rivers, 104,159,168,332-33 from overexploitation, 114,290 water supplies, 164 Rhine River basin, 159,161,168,171- sources, 175 from overgrazing, 97,114,115,290 Subsidies 72,183-84 Selenium, 177 physical, 114,115,292 agricultural, 8,10,24,35,47, Rice, 47,97,98,104,132,168,348-49 Senegal, 31,220,221 from pollution, 115,291 105-06,107,135,139 River blindness, 79 Service organizations in poor countries, 30 beneficial, 51,106,107 Rivers and river basins innovative solutions to problems, by region, 222 commodity support programs, 10 see also Freshwater; Water pollution 223 from salinization, 96,97,101-02, food, 34 differences in, 166-67 managerial and technical capacity, 105,115,116,291 fuel/energy, 35,51 dynamics, 160,165,166-67 224 subsidence of organic soils, 115,291 irrigation, 8,23,47,105,135 environmental stresses, 159 participation of beneficiaries, 222-23 trends, 111, 112,290-92 livestock, 8 flows, 160 purpose, 216 types, 114-15 logging, 35,46,121 international management, 171-73 reaching the poor, 222 from vegetation removal, 290 mining, 72 major, world, 165 self-evaluation and accountability, from war and conflicts, 11 reforestation, 51,106 management, 171-73 223-24 waterlogging, 97,115,292 organic farming, 107 nutrient discharges into, 176 weaknesses, 223 world areas of, 116 in poor countries, 34 pollution control, 169-71 Service sector Soil erosion reduction strategies, 8,105 Rhine, 171-72 gross domestic product, 236-37 agriculture and, 6,24,96-97,104, Sudan, 11,37,94,95 salinization, 64,72,163 labor force, by country, 264-65 107,108,168 Sugar beets, 105 sediment loads, 104,165,169,332- Seto Inland Sea, 176 degrees of, by region, 290 Sulfur 33 Sewage interventions, 102,106,113 emissions, 352 sources of pollutants, 62,167-69 health problems associated with, and malaria, 84 transboundary pollution, 66 volume of flows, 328-29 177 processes, 115 Sulfur dioxide emissions Roads sludge, 64,167,184 types, by region, 114 amounts, by country, 64 area, by country, 266-67 untreated, 159,167,177,185 and water pollution, 131,161,162, cities with high levels, 42,43 freight ton-kilometers, 266-67 water pollution, 62,64,159,161, 166,168,176 control of, 70,71,199,201 Ivory Coast rainforest, 123 162,176 winter wheat losses, 118 effects, 17,194 runoff control, 171 Sewage treatment Solar power, 22 indoor, 195 Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 69 alternatives, 159 Somalia, 11 sources, 17, 57,61, 62,64,65,149, Romania, 58 and aquaculture, 169 Soot, 57,62 194 energy consumption, 62,146 costs, 72,169 South America target reductions, 67,199 environmental conditions, 57 in developing countries, 167-68 see also Latin America; specific coun- Surface water, movement into river life expectancy, 63 in newly industrializing countries, tries basins, 166 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 42 freshwater, 160 Sustainable development sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 for pathogens, 167 protected areas, 136 definition, 2-4,17-18,41-42 transboundary sulfur pollution, 66 pollutants removed by, 167,176 soil degradation, 112,114,116 diversity of perspectives on, 13 Roots and tubers, production and by region, 268 species diversity, 130 economic aspects, 2,4-5,8,12,17, yields, 94,105,272-73 and river water quality, 161 water pollution, 88-89,168 20,32 Rosy periwinkle, 133,135 in wetlands and fish ponds, 159, South Africa, 131,148 environmental issues, 6,9-12 Roundwood, 288-89 169-70 South Asia equity and, 3,81 Rubella, 83 Sheep and goats, 276-77 see also specific countries global issues, 11-12 Ruhr River, 168 Sierra Club, 219 contraceptive use, 77 human development and, 4,5-6,8- Runoff Silver firs, 66 population distribution, 30 9,12 agricultural, 42,97,102-04,139, Singapore, 42,43,75,76 precipitation, 160 indicators, 14-15 169,170-71,175 Singapore River, 176 Southeast Asia in industrial countries, 17-20 control, 107,163,170-71,189 Skagerrak strait, 176 see also specific countries policy tools, 8-11 deforestation and, 160,169 SKF Steel, Inc., 170 deforestation, 118 in poor countries, 29-39 detention ponds, 170 Slovenia, 66 land tenure rerform, 121-22 poverty alleviation and, 4,12 from livestock farms, 107,171 Smallpox, 84 precipitation, 160 population growth and distribu- from mining, 175 Smith, Kirk, 209 species diversity, 130 tion, 5-6,9,12,75 from logging, 171,175 Smog, 23,50,62,64,194,96,197 Southern African Ivory Marketing problems in achieving, 13 urban, 167,170 Social services Centre, 133 resource mobilization for, 37-38 volume flowing into rivers, 160,166 central government expenditures, Soybeans, 101,102,107 strategies, 3-4 Rural areas by country, 240-41 Spain, 66 technological dimension, 3,6-8,11, development, 5,8,10,98 in poor countries, 31 Species 12 education, 31 Socialism, and environmental deterio- diversity, 128 war and, 11-12 employment, 34 ration, 60 endemic, 130,131,132 Sweden, 61 energy sources, 36-37,144 Soil conservation and rehabilitation, extinction crisis, 134,136 agricultural reforms, 105,106 health services, 31,32,252-53 113,124 ignorance about, 134 energy efficiency technology infor- population distribution, 30-31,264- Soil degradation, 3 information collection by mation, 154 65 acidification, 66,115,198,201,292 parataxonomists, 137 energy sources, 145 safe drinking water, 31,86,252-53 agriculture and, 6,10,24,66,96-97, introduced, 130,132,141,302-03 forest defoliation, 66 sanitation services, 31,86,252-53 100,101,104,113-16,290 losses, 30,104,127-28 manufacturing energy intensities, Rwanda, 96,140 areas of concern, 117-18 monitoring in Costa Rica, 137-38 21 assessment, 112,116 number, 127-28 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 causes, 66,96-97,111-12,114,115- threatened and endangered, 35, petrol prices and fuel efficiencies, 21 16,290-92 129,163,304-05 pollution control, 68,107 ^ ^ a i n t Lawrence Seaway, 177 in Central Europe, 66 tropical, 130 poverty in, 19 Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 52,53 chemical, 114,115,292 Spotted owl, 24,133 sewage treatment, 161 World Resources 1992-93 378 Index species diversity, 130 sewage treatment, 167-68 status of, 130-31 Department of Energy, 69 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 trade policies, 155 rights of local peoples, 123-25 desalination plants, 164 waste reduction, 170 Threatened and endangered species, timber demand, 122 Earth Day, 218 wetlands losses, 129 35,129,304-05 trade reforms, 122 education, 19 Switzerland, 66,106,107,145,161, Timber, 47,122 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 120 energy consumption, 4,18,21,27, 171-72 Tigris River basin, 163 Tsetsefly,20 150 Syr Darya, 166,168-69 Tin, 177,321-23 Tuberculosis, 79,83,88,89 energy efficiency industry, 154 Syria, 163 Titanium, 322-23 Tungsten, 322-23 energy reserves, 149 Szola River, 168 Tobacco use, 79,88 Tunisia, 154-55,157,163 Environmental Protection Agency, Tolba, Mostafa, 200 Turkey, 163 52,69 Tourism Typhoid fever, 50,177 fisheries, 179 nature, 140 Food for Peace Program, 123 • aiwan,42,53,54,75 aquaculture, 169 contraceptive use, 77 energy production and consump- tion, 148 and pollution, 49,131 at world heritage sites, 302-03 Toxic chemicals, see Hazardous sub- stances Trade u 'ganda,ll,30,37 Undugu Group, 163 UNICEF, 38,89,219,226 Food Security Act of 1985,106 forests and forestry, 123,131 GNP,42 grasslands and savannah losses, 129 lead poisoning, 88 Tabganyika, Lake, 132 agricultural, 10,24,38,97,98,105, United Arab Emirates, 164 livestock populations, 96 Tanzania, 30,36,80 27S-79 United Kingdom, 102 manufacturing energy intensities, Tasmania, 131 and biodiversity losses, 135 agriculture, 104,106 21 Taxes and tax incentives boycotts, 122 child mortality, 86 materials consumption, 18 agricultural, 105,106,108,170 in coastal areas, 336-37 Countryside Commission, 106 National Marine Fisheries Service, energy, 8,10,23,53 cooperative associations, 53 energy intensities, 145 178 export/import, 122 debt service as percentage of ex- forest defoliation, 66 National Oceanic and Atmospheric family size and, 45 ports, 23S-39 groundwater pollution, 104 Administration, 177 land, 8 energy efficiency technology, 154-55 lead pollution, 161 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 logging/timber, 35,51,122 energy imports, 37,316-17 manufacturing energy intensities, oil imports, 145 manure, 105 environmental standards, 67-68,69 21 Peace Corps, 217 pollution, 8,11,23,72,201 export subsidies, 97,98 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 pesticides in groundwater, 103 Taxol, 133 flows, 155-56 Oxford Committee for Famine Re- petrol prices and fuel efficiencies, 21 Tea, 98 food, 95,278-79 lief, 217 pollution reduction strategies, 11, Teak, 122 forest products, 122 petrol prices and fuel efficiencies, 21 25 Technologies/technological develop- GATT negotiations, 98 poverty in, 19 population distribution, 177 ment hazardous materials exports, 27,67- resource/materials consumption, poverty in, 19,86 see also Information technologies 68 18 soil degradation, 104,112 in agriculture, 20,26,36 import barriers, 4,10,24,38 rural landscape losses, 104 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 and air pollution control, 201-02 labeling and certification schemes, sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 threatened species, 129 applicability to developing coun- 122 threatened species, 129 timber trade restrictions, 122 tries, 155-56 liberalization, 98 timber trade, 122 water pollution, 104,176,177,184 approaches, 11 North American free trade agree- Voluntary Service Overseas, 217 water shortages, 163 cooperation in development and ment, 52,53 United Nations wetlands losses, 129,177 transfer, 151-56 protectionist pricing policies, 4,34, Conference on Environment and Uphoff, Norman, 34 demand creation, 11 105,122,154,155 Development, 2,46,119,120,133, Urban areas and urbanization and economic productivity, 7 in rapidly industrializing countries, 157,172,180,219 and energy consumption, 21-22 economically competitive, 26-27 53-54 Conference of the Human Environ- environmental effects, 5,81,89,165 energy-related, 22,36-37,151-57 reforms, 34,53,122,155 ment, 172 health services, by country, 252-53 flows, 155-56 regional, 34 Convention on the Rights of the housing shortages, 50 flue gas desulfurization, 70-71 taxes and surcharges, 122 Child, 89,90 pollution/smog, 23,50,53,146, in industrial countries, 19-20 timber, 122,288-89 Decade for Women, 218 177,194-96 information sharing on, 11 wildlife and wildlife products, 300- Development Programme, 2,29, population, by country, 30-31,50, licensing, 11,155 01 32,38,68,79,219 264-65 local, 35-37 Transportation Education, Scientific and Cultural river basin pollution, 166-67 joint ventures, 11,54,72,155-56 see also Motor vehicles Organization, 137 runoff, 167,170 and pollution, 25 and air pollution, 196 Environment Programme, 2,68, safe drinking water, 48,86,164,252- for pollution control, 54,72 bicycle industry, 54 112,133,134,140,176,204,205, 53 in poor countries, 35-37 central government expenditures, 219,360-61 sanitation services, 86,159,164,252- Program for Advancement of Com- by country, 240-41 Global Assessment of Soil Degrada- 53 mercial Technology, 156 energy consumption, 149,150-51, tion, 112,116 squatter settlements, 89 in rapidly industrializing countries, 318-19 Global Environmental Monitoring traffic and transport management, 51,53 energy efficiency in, 21,53,70,150- System, 194 204 and sustainable development, 2,6- 51,157 Group of Experts on Scientific As- Uruguay, 221,226 8,11,12,19-20 of goods and passengers, 266-67 pects of Marine Pollution, 176,177 User charges, 34 transfer to low-income countries, infrastructure, by country, 266-67 International Oceanographic Com- U.S.S.R. 10,11,27,69,134,152-53,156-57 public, 21,22,23,150-51,157,266-67 mission, 176 child mortality, 78 Tetanus, 83,84 renewable energy technology in, 23 members, 42 energy policies, 61,71,143,244, Thailand Tropical forests, 6 and nongovernmental organiza- 145,146 aquaculture, 169 Action Plan, 124,140,362-63 tions, 219 energy reserves, 148,149 coastal management in Phuket assessments, 362-63 population projections, 80 farm economy, 94 Province, 187,188 biodiversity losses, 128,130-31 recommendations on freshwater re- infant mortality, 78,86 contraceptive use, 77 carbon sequestration, 46 sources, 172 irrigation, 166,168-69 energy policies, 53,148,151,155, and climate, 46,131 Regional Seas Programme, 176,180- life expectancy, 63 157 "debt-for-nature" swaps, 122 81 livestock populations, 96 family planning program, 45 deforestation, 47, 111, 118-19,127, Water Conference, 164 nitrogen dioxide emissions, 65 fertility rates, 76 128,131 United States oil production, 150 human development, 80 development assistance reforms, agriculture and farm policy, 10,24, population growth, 76 irrigation, 47,98 123 102,103,104-05,123 species diversity, 130 literacy rates, 43 financial support from industrial- child health, 82,83,86,88 structural changes, 150 local cultures, 135 ized countries, 123 child mortality, 78 sulfur dioxide emissions, 64 logging and deforestation, 47,49, international actions, 122-23 climate treaty position, 204 transboundary pollution, 68 122 land ownership, 121-22 coal production, 145 U.S. World Wildlife Fund/Conserva- nongovernmental organizations, management plans, 120-25 Conservation Reserve Program, 106 tion Foundation, 69 224 national policy reforms, 121-22 debt reduction for developing coun- profile, 49 natural resource accounting, 121 tries, 123 World Resources 1992-93 379 Index lw accine-preventable disease, 83- from agriculture, 6,10,24,42,65, internationally important, 140,298- review of biodiversity conservation 84 97,103-04,168-69 99 projects, 138 Vaginal barrier contraceptives, 256-57 areas of concern, 162-63 losses, 129,163,177 stabilization and structural adjust- Vanadium, 322-23 biochemical oxygen demand, 65, sewage treatment in, 159,169-70 ment policies, 32,33 Venezuela, 148 67,161 Wheat, 101,103,118,132 World Commission on Environment Victoria, Lake, 132 in Central Europe, 64-65,72 Wilderness areas and Development, 2 Viet Nam, 37,169 chlorides, 162 land area by country, 262-63 World Conservation Union, 3-4,69, Volatile organic compounds, 61,62, effect on aquatic organisms, 162 Wildlands, 6 133,140,219 194,195,196,198,199 health problems, 162,165,177 Wildlife World Council of Churches, 217 heavy metals, 162 overexploitation, 5,30,302-03 World Environment Center, 69 w ' addenSea,176 Ward, Barbara, 219 from human settlements, 167-68 industrial, 88-89,162,168 from livestock farming, 169 from logging, 169 pesticide effects on, 103 poaching, 136 at world heritage sites, 302-03 Wind power, 22-23,144,145,324-25 World Health Organization child survival strategy, 89 malaria meeting, 84 particulate limits, 82 Wars and conflicts, 11,94,150 marine, 139,141,175 Women sulfur dioxide limits and ratings, Waste measure of, 67 and children's health care, 35,37, 42,62 composition,329 from mining, 168 85,86-87 World Heritage Sites, 136,140,29S- disposal methods, 329 monitoring, 171 conferences, 218 99,302-03,358-59 disposal sites, 25 in newly indistrializing countries, contraception, 6,77 World Meteorological Organization, energy conversion, 155 42 earnings, 35 2,204,205 methane emissions, 348-49 nitrates, 65,100-01,103-04,107,172 economic opportunities in poor World Parks Endowment, 140 incentives for reducing, 10-11 from nutrients, 25,97,103,104,162, countries, 34-35 World Resources Data Base Index, industrial, 17,53 163,176-77 education, 6,34,35,87 381-82 municipal, 329 pathogens, 162 employment, 34 World Summit for Children, 81,86, reduction, 159,170 in poor countries, 30 forest management by, 130 89,90 solid, 348-49 reduction strategies, 68,72,169-71, health, 6,34,77 World Wide Fund for Nature, 51,218 Wastewater 180-81,183-85 labor force population, 264-65 World Wildlife Fund, 218 from agriculture, 161 regional approach to, 141,171-72, literacy rates, 35,49,77,85,254-55 costs of treatment, 72 180—81 loans for, 33 in OECD countries, 267 salinization, 64,72,163,168 maternal mortality, 34-35,250-52 reuse of, 159 sediments, 162 nongovernmentalorganizations arkon/Taninim aquifer, 163 treatment, 164,167,168,175 sources, 162,165,166 for, 33,225-26,230 Yarmuk River basin, 163 untreated, 64,65 target reductions, 67 poverty, 31 Yosemite National Park, 136 ' Water temperature elevation, 162 role in developing countries, 6 Yugoslavia, 62,63,64,65 see also Drinking water; Freshwater from toxic chemicals, 162,177 role in nongovernmental organiza- energy consumption, 146 conservation, 6,135,163 Watersheds tions, 225 forest defoliation, 66 desalination, 159,163,164 management, 117-18,187-91 rural, 87 modernization projects, 68 disputes, international, 171 pollution, 182-83 World Bank political stability, 58 erosion of soils, 290 protection areas, 140 agricultural lending, 98 quality, 64-65,67,86,163 temperate forests and, 131 Central European investments, 68 prices, 163 Waterways, transport, 266-67,332-33 criticisms of development projects, supply, 6,93 West Africa, 35,36 187,217-18,221-22 HHambia, 25,133,222 treaties, 171 Wetlands, 6 dam construction projects, 187,217, Zebra mussel, 130 Water pollution convention, 140,358-59 221-22 Zimbabwe, 81,88,133,220,221,222, see also Oceans; River basins conversion to cropland, 23,106 nongovernmental organizations 226,231 acids, 162 ecological role of, 166,167 and, 217-18,221-22 Zinc, 67,88,183,186,322-23 Zoos, 128,132,136-137 World Resources 1992-93 380 World Resources Data Base Index The data base contains data in electronic Percent of married couples using IUDs Total cereal donations form on diskette. Except where unavail- Percent of married couples using condoms Total cereal receipts able, the data range for each variable Percent of married couples using vaginal barrier Total edible oil donations includes annual data for the years listed contraception Total edible oil receipts Percent ofmarried couples using other birth Total milk donations and data for up to 153 countries, except control methods Total milk receipts where noted with an asterisk (*). The data Percent of married couples with affordable access Total cereal aid can be searched by variable, by country, or to female sterilization Total cereal aid from Canada by year; it can also be exported to other Percent of married couples with affordable access Total cereal aid from USA electronic formats or graphed or put in to the pill Total cereal aid from Japan chart form. For technical notes and sources, Percent of married couples with affordable access Total cereal aid from EC refer to the corresponding chapter of World to condoms Total cereal aid from others Percent of married couples with affordable access Total arid land area Resources 1992-93. to abortion Total semiarid land area Percent of married couples with affordable access Total humid land area Basic Economic Indicators to other methods of birth control Total land area with no inherent soil constraints Gross national product in constant 1987 U.S. Arid land area with no inherent soil constraints dollars, 1970-89 Land Cover and Settlements Semiarid land area with no inherent soil Gross national product in current U.S. dollars, Total area, 1970-89 constraints 1970-89 Land area, 1970-89 Humid land area with no inherent soil constraints Official development assistance data, 1982-89 Cropland area, 1970-89 Cold land area with no inherent soil constraints Gross national product per capita in current Permanent pasture area, 1970-89 Total tropical land area dollars, 1970-89 Forest and woodland area, 1970-89 Total subtropical land area Gross domestic product (GDP) in local currency, Other land area, 1970-89 Total temperate land area 1970-39 Wilderness area Agricultural share of GDP in local currency, Total urban population, 1970-90 Forests and Rangelands 1970-89 Total rural population, 1970-90 Extent of closed forest Industrial share of GDP in local currency, 1970-89 Number of cities with one or more million Extent of open forest Services share of GDP in local currency, 1970-89 inhabitants Extent of plantation Conversion factors between local to U.S. Percentage of population residing in cities with at Extent of other wooded area currency,1970-89 least 1 million inhabitants, 1950-2000 Average annual deforestation, closed forest Central government spending in local currency, Number of people residing in cities with at least 1 Average annual deforestation, total forest 1970-89 million inhabitants, 1950-2000 Average annual reforestation Disbursed long-term public debt in U.S. dollars, Occupants per household Extent of managed closed forest 1970-89 Rooms per household Extent of protected closed forest Total external debt in U.S. dollars, 1970-89 Percentage of households without electricity Roundwood production, total, 1970-89 Current borrowing in U.S. dollars, 1970-89 Total labor force, 1950-2005 Fuel and charcoal, production, 1970-89 Total debt service in U.S. dollars, 1970-89 Percentage of labor force in agriculture Industrial roundwood, production, 1970-89 Total exports of goods and services in U.S. Percentage of labor force in industry Sawnwood, production, 1970-89 dollars, 1970-89 Percentage of labor force in services Panels, production, 1970-89 Selected world commodity indexes and prices in Total extent of paved and unpaved road Paper, production, 1970-89 constant 1987 U.S. dollars, 1975-89 * Total extent of paved road Net trade, roundwood, 1970-89 Selected central government expenditures for the Total extent of rail track Exports, roundwood, 1970-89 most recent year available Total extent of inland navigable waterway Imports, roundwood, 1970-89 Total extent of paved road per 1,000 square km Soil degradation—total area, by region * Population and Human Development land area Soil degradation—degraded area as percent of Total population, 1950-2025 Total extent of rail track per 1,000 square km land vegetated land, by region * Population growth rate, 1950-2025 area Soil degradation—totalarea affected by water Total economically active population, 1950-2005 Total extent of inland navigable waterway per erosion, by region * Crude birth rate, 1950-2025 1,000 square km and area Soil degradation—total area affected by water Life expectancy—both sexes, 1950-2025 Total number of cars induced topsoil loss, by region * Life expectancy—females, 1950-2025 Passenger-km transported by public car/bus Soil degradation—total area affected by water Life expectancy—males, 1950-2025 Passenger-km transported by private car/bus induced terrain deformation, by region * Total fertility rate, 1950-2025 Passenger-km transported by train Soil degradation—total area affected by wind Total population over age 65,1950-2025 Passenger-km transported by commercial aircraft erosion, by region * Crude death rates, 1950-2025 Ton-km of freight transported by road Soil degradation—total area affected by wind Infant mortality, 1950-2025 Ton-km of freight transported by rail induced topsoil loss, by region * Maternal deaths Ton-km of freight transported by inland Soil degradation—total area affected by wind Child malnutrition—wasting waterway induced terrain deformation, by region * Child malnutrition—stunting Ton-km or freight transported by air Soil degradation—total area affected Dy Safe drinking water availability—urban (1980 and overblowing, by region * 1988) Food and Agriculture Soil degradation—total area affected by chemical Safe drinking water availability—rural (1980 and Index of agricultural production, total, 1970-90 degradation, by region * 1988) Index of agricultural production, per capita, Soil degradation—total area affected by nutrient Sanitation services availability—urban (1980 and 1970-90 loss, by region * 1988) Index of food production, total, 1970-90 Soil degradation—total area affected by Sanitation services availability—rural (1980 and Index of food production, per capita, 1970-90 salinization, by region * 1988) Production of cereals, 1971-90 Soil degradation—total area affected by pollution, Health services availability—all Area harvested for cereals, 1971-90 by region * Health services availability—urban Production of roots and tubers, 1971-90 Soil degradation—total area affected by Health services availability—rural Area harvested for roots and tubers, 1971-90 acidification, by region * Number of doctors Total cropland area, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area affected by physical Number of midwives and nurses Total irrigated land, 1970-89 degradation, by region * Number of other medical personnel Total fertilizers consumed, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area affected by Adult female literacy (1970 and 1990) Total tractors in use, 1970-89 compaction, by region * Adult male literacy (1970 and 1990) Total harvesters in use, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area affected by Percentage of population over age 25—completed Total number of cattle, 1971-90 waterlogging, by region * primary school Total number of sheep, 1971-90 Soil degradation—total area affected by Percentage of population over age 25—some Total number of goats, 1971-90 subsidence of organic soils, by region * postsecondary education Total number of pigs, 1971-90 Undegraded area classified as permanent Percent of 1-year-olds immunized against TB Total number of horses, 1971-90 agriculture and stabilized terrain, by region * Percent of 1-year-olds immunized against DPT Total number of mules, 1971-90 Undegraded area classified as natural area, by Percent of 1-year-olds immunized against polio Total number of asses, 1971-90 region * Percent of 1-year-olds immunized against measles Total number of buffaloes, 1971-90 Undegraded area classified as nonvegetated land, Percent of married couples using any birth Total number of camels, 1971-90 by region * control method Total number of chickens, 1971-90 Soil degradation—total area degraded by Percent of married couples using female Grain fed to livestock vegetation removal * sterilization Total cereal imports, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area degraded by Percent of married couples using male Total cereal exports, 1970-89 overexploitation * sterilization Total pulse imports, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area degraded by Percent of married couples using oral Total pulse exports, 1970-89 overgrazing * contraception Total edible oil imports, 1970-89 Soil degradation—total area degraded by Percent of married couples using injectable Total edible oil exports, 1970-89 agricultural activities * contraception World Resources 1992-93 381 Soil degradation—total area degraded by Percentage of commercial energy used, Oceans and Coasts industrial and bioindustrial activities * agriculture, 1971-89 Length of coastline Percentage of commercial energy used, Maritime area—shelf to 200 meter depth Wildlife and Habitat commercial, 1971-89 Maritime area—exclusive economic zone Number of IUCN category I-V protected areas Percentage of commercial energy used, Percentage of urban population in large coastal Total area under IUCN category I-V protection residential, 1971-89 cities Number of IUCN category 1-IIi protected areas Percentage of commercial energy used, other, Goods loaded—crude petroleum Total area under IUCN category I-III protection 1971-89 Goods unloaded—crude petroleum Number of IUCN category IV and V protected Energy intensity, industry Goods loaded—-petroleum products areas Energy intensity, agriculture Goods unloadecf—petroleum products Total area under IUCN category IV and V Annual municipal waste generation, total Goods loaded—dry cargo protection Annual municipal waste generation, per capita Goods unloaded^dry cargo Number of protected marine and coastal areas Composition of municipal waste, paper, and Offshore annual production—oil (1980 and 1990) Total marine and coastal area protected cardboard Offshore annual production—gas (1980 and 1990) Number of biosphere reserves Composition of municipal waste, plastic Offshore proven reserves—oil Total area protected as biosphere reserves Composition of municipal waste, glass Offshore proven reserves—gas Number of natural and mixed natural/cultural Composition of municipal waste, metals Average annual marine catch, by region, 1970-89 heritage sites Composition of municipal waste, organic as Average annual freshwater catch, 1970-89 Number of wetlands of international importance percentage of inorganic Average annual aquaculture production— Total area protected as wetlands of international Disposal or municipal waste, landfill freshwater fish importance Disposal of municipal waste, total incineration Average annual aquaculture production— Percent of CITES reporting requirement met Disposal of municipal waste, incineration with diadromous fish Number of live primates imported energy recovery Average annual aquaculture production—marine Number of live primates exported Disposal of municipal waste, other fish Number of cat sldns imported Production, bauxite Average annual aquaculture production— Number of cat skins exported Consumption, aluminum crustaceans Number of live parrots imported Production, cadmium Average annual aquaculture production— Number of live parrots exported Consumption, cadmium molluscs Number of reptile skins imported Production, copper Average annual aquaculture production—total Number of reptile skins exported Consumption, copper fish and shellfish Number of live cacti imported Production, lead Average annual aquaculture production—other Number of live cacti exported Consumption, lead Total average annual food supply from fish and Number of live orchids imported Production, mercury fishery products Number of live orchids exported Consumption, mercury Per capita average annual food supply from fish Number of known mammal species Production, nickel and fishery products Number of threatened mammal species Consumption, nickel Threatened mammal species per 10,000 square km Production, tin Atmosphere and Climate Number of known bird species Consumption, tin Carbon dioxide emissions from industrial Number of threatened bird species Production, zinc sources—solid fuels, 1970-89 Threatened bird species per 10,000 square km Consumption, zinc Carbon dioxide emissions from industrial Number of amphibian species Production, iron ore sources—liquid fuels, 1970-89 Number of threatened amphibian species Consumption, iron ore Carbon dioxide emissions from industrial Threatened amphibian species per 10,000 square Production, steel crude sources—gas fuels, 1970-89 km Consumption, steel crude Carbon dioxide emissions from industrial Number of freshwater fish species Reserves, copper sources—cement manufacture, 1970-89 Number of threatened freshwater fish species Reserves, leaa Total carbon dioxide emissions from industrial Number of plant taxa Reserves, tin sources, 1970-89 Endemic flora as a percentage of total Reserves, zinc Carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation Rare and threatened plant taxa per 1,000 existing Reserves, iron ore Methane emissions from solid waste taxa Reserves, manganese Methane emissions from coal mining Rare and threatened plant taxa per 10,000 square Reserves, nickel Methane emissions from oil and gas production km Reserves, chromium Methane emissions from wet rice agriculture Number of botanical gardens Reserves, cobalt Methane emissions from livestock Number of botanical gardens that are BCGI Reserves, molybdenum Total methane emissions members Reserves, tungsten Total emissions of chlorofluorocarbons Reserves, vanadium Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Energy and Materials Reserves, bauxite ozone depleting gases—carbon dioxide, 1959-90 Commercial energy production, total, 1970-89 Reserves, titanium Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Commercial energy production, solid fuel, Reserves, lithium ozone depleting gases—carbon tetrachloride, 1970-89 Metal reserves index 1975-90 Commercial energy production, liquid fuel, Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and 1970-89 Freshwater ozone depleting gases—methyl chloroform, Commercial energy production, gaseous fuel, Annual internal renewable water resources—total 1975-90 1970-89 Annual internal renewable water resources—per Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Commercial energy production, geothermal and capita ozone depleting gases—CFC11,1975-90 wind, 1970-89 Annual river flows from other countries Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Commercial energy production, hydro, 1970-89 Annual river flows to other countries ozone depleting gases—CFC12,1975-90 Commercial energy production, nuclear, 1970-89 Year of data: annual withdrawal Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Commercial energy consumption, total, 1970-89 Annual withdrawal—total ozone depleting gases—CFC22,1979-88 Commercial energy consumption per capita Annual withdrawal—percentage of water Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Commercial energy consumption per constant resources ozone depleting gases—CFC113,1983-90 1987 U.S. dollars of GNP Annual withdrawal per capita Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Imports as percentage of consumption, 1970-89 Sectoral withdrawal—domestic ozone depleting gases—total gaseous chlorine, Energy requirements in conventional fuel Sectoral withdrawal—industry 1975-90 equivalent, total Sectoral withdrawal—agriculture Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Energy requirements in conventional fuel Number of large dams over 15 meters in height ozone depleting gases—nitrous oxide, 1975-88 equivalent per capita (1977 and 1986) Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Energy requirements in conventional fuel Number of large dams over 30 meters in height ozone depleting gases—methane, 1965-90 equivalent per constant 1987 U.S. dollars of GNP Number of large dams under construction Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse and Traditional fuels consumption, 1970-89 Gross theoretical hydropower potential ozone depleting gases—carbon monoxide, Traditional fuels as percentage of total Exploitable hydropower potential 1981-86 requirements Total installed hydropower capacity Percentage of commercial energy used, industry, Installed microhydro hydropower capacity 1971-89 Total hydropower generation Percentage of commercial energy used, transport, Hydropower generation as a percentage of 1971-89 capacity World Resources 1992-93 382 EL U The World Resources Institute (WRI) is a research and World Resources Institute policy institute helping governments, the private sec- 1709 New York Avenue, N.W. tor, environmental and development organizations, Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A. and others address a fundamental question: How can societies meet human needs and nurture economic growth without destroying the natural resources and WRI's Board of Directors: environmental integrity that make prosperity possible? Matthew Nimetz, Chairman Through its policy studies, WRI aims to generate ac- Roger Sant, Vice Chairman curate information about global resources and environ- John H. Adams mental conditions, analyze emerging issues, and Robert O. Anderson develop creative yet workable policy responses. In Robert O. Blake John E. Bryson seeking to deepen public understanding, it publishes a John E. Cantlon variety of reports and papers; undertakes briefings, Pamela G. Carlton seminars, and conferences; and offers material for use Ward B. Chamberlin in the press and on the air. Richard M. Clarke In developing countries, WRI provides technical sup- Edwin C. Cohen port, policy analysis, and other services for govern- Louisa C. Duemling ments and nongovernmental organizations that are Alice F. Emerson trying to manage natural resources sustainably. John Firor Cynthia R. Helms A central task of WRI is to build bridges between Curtis A. Hessler scholarship and action, bringing the insights of scien- Martin Holdgate tific research, economic analysis, and practical experi- Thomas E. Lovejoy ence to the attention of policymakers and other leaders C. Payne Lucas around the world. Alan R. McFarland, Jr. WRI's projects are now directed at two principal con- Robert S. McNamara cerns: Scott McVay • The effects of natural resources deterioration on eco- Paulo Nogueira-Neto Thomas R. Odhiambo nomic development and on the alleviation of poverty Saburo Okita and hunger in developing countries; and Ronald L. Olson • The new generation of globally important environ- Ruth Patrick mental and resource problems that threaten the eco- Alfred M. Rankin, Jr. nomic and environmental interests of all the nations of James Gustave Speth the world. M.S. Swaminathan WRI is an independent, not-for-profit corporation Mostafa K. Tolba that receives its financial support from private founda- Russell E. Train Alvaro Umafta tions and corporations, governmental and intergovern- Victor L. Urquidi mental institutions, and interested individuals. George M. Wood well WRI is currently carrying out policy research in six major areas: Climate, Energy, and Pollution; Forests and Biodiversity; Economics; Technology; Resource and Environmental Information; and Institutions. Officers: In developing countries, WRI's Center for Interna- tional Development and Environment provides policy James Gustave Speth, President advice, technical assistance and other supporting ser- J. Alan Brewster, Senior Vice President and Director of Administration and Finance vices to governments, nongovernmental organizations Jessica T. Mathews, Vice President and local groups charged with managing natural re- Walter V. Reid, Vice President for Program sources and economic development. Robert C. Repetto, Vice President and Senior Economist Donna W. Wise, Vice President for Policy Affairs Wallace D. Bowman, Secretary and Treasurer World Resources 1992-93 383 United Nations Environment Programme The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) P.O. Box 30552 was established in 1972 and given by the United Nations Nairobi, Kenya General Assembly a broad and challenging mandate to stimulate, coordinate, and provide policy guidance for Executive Director sound environmental action throughout the world. Ini- Mostafa K. Tolba tial impetus for UNEP's formation came out of the largely Deputy Executive Director nongovernmental and antipollution lobby in industrial- ized countries. This interest in pollutants remains, but William H. Mansfield III right from the early years, as perceptions of environmen- Regional and Liaison Offices tal problems broadened to encompass those arising from the misuse and abuse of renewable natural resources, the Latin America and the Caribbean: promotion of environmentally sound or sustainable de- UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and Caribbean velopment became a main purpose of UNEP. Edificio de Naciones Unidas Presidente Mazaryk 29 From the global headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya, and Apartado Postal 6-718 seven regional and liaison offices worldwide, UNEP's Mexico 5, D.F., Mexico staff of some 200 scientists, lawyers, administrators, and information specialists carry out UNEP's program, which West Asia: is laid down and revised every two years by a Governing UNEP Regional Office for West Asia Council of representatives from its 58 member states. 1083 Road No. 425 These members are elected on a staggered basis for three Jufair 342 years by the United Nations General Assembly. P.O. Box 26814 Broadly, this program aims to stimulate research into Manama, Bahrain major environmental problems, promote environmen- Asia and the Pacific: tally sound management at both national and interna- (UNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific) tional levels by encouraging the application of research United Nations Building results, and make such actions and findings known to the Rajadamnern Avenue public—from scientists and policymakers to industrialists Bangkok 10200 Thailand and school children. By the terms of its mandate, UNEP runs its program in Europe: cooperation with numerous other United Nations agen- UNEP Regional Office for Europe Palais des Nations cies, governments, intergovernmental organizations, and CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland nongovernmental organizations. Its main concerns are climate change, pollution, water resources, desertification Africa: control, forests, oceans, and regional seas' biological di- UNEP Regional Office for Africa versity, human settlements, renewable sources of energy, UNEP Headquarters environmentally sound management of industry, toxic P.O. Box 30552 chemicals, and international environmental lawmaking. Nairobi, Kenya The essential base for environmentally sound manage- New York: ment is provided by UNEP's work on the monitoring and UNEP Liaison Office assessment of the state and trends of the global environ- UNDC Two Building ment. This is carried out in conjunction with agency part- Room 0803 Two, United Nations Plaza ners, through the Global Environment Monitoring New York, New York 10017 U.S.A. System (GEMS). The Global Resource Information Database (GRID) stores and analyzes geographically ref- Washington: erenced environmental and resource data, and provides UNEP Liaison Office the essential link between monitoring and assessment Ground Floor and sound environmental management by putting infor- 1889 F Street, N.W. mation in forms useful to planners and managers. Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A GEMS, the Geneva based International Register of Poten- tially Toxic Chemicals, and INFOTERRA provide both the international community and individual countries and organizations with the vital environmental informa- tion they need to take action. World Resources 1992-93 384 The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is United Nations Development Programme the world's largest multilateral source of grant funding 1 U.N. Plaza for development cooperation. It was created in 1965 New York, New York 10017 U.S.A. through a merger of two predecessor programs for United Nations technical cooperation. Its funds, which Administrator total $1.5 billion for 1991, come from the yearly voluntary William H. Draper III contributions of member states of the United Nations or Associate Administrator its affiliated agencies. A 48-nation Governing Council Luis Maria Gomez composed of both developed and developing countries approves major programs and policy decisions. Bureau for Programmes and Policies Through a network of offices in 114 developing coun- Assistant Administrator and Director tries, and in cooperation with over 30 international and re- Gus Edgren gional agencies, UNDP works with 152 governments to Regional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific promote higher standards of living, faster economic Assistant Administrator and Director growth, and environmentally sound development. Cur- Krishan G. Singh rently, it is providing financial and technical support for over 6,000 projects designed to build governments' man- Regional Bureau for Arab States and Europe agement capacities, train human resources, and transfer Assistant Administrator and Director Ali A. Attiga technology. These projects cover such fields as agricul- ture, forestry, land reclamation, water supply, environ- Regional Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean mental sanitation, energy, meteorology, industry, Assistant Administrator and Director education, transport, communications, public administra- Fernando Zumbado tion, health, housing, trade, and development finance. Currently, projects valued at approximately $500 million Regional Bureau for Africa are targeted on activities concerned with environmental Officer-in- Charge Garth ap Rees aspects of development. All UNDP-supported activities emphasize the perma- Bureau for External Relations nent enhancement of self-reliant, sustainable develop- Assistant Administrator and Director ment. Projects are therefore designed to: Aldo Ajello • Survey, assess, and promote the effective management of natural resources; industrial, commercial, and export po- Office for Project Service Assistant Administrator and Director tentials; and other development assets. Daan Everts • Stimulate capital investments to help realize these possi- bilities. • Train people in a wide range of vocational and profes- sional skills. • Transfer appropriate technologies that respect and en- hance the environment and stimulate the growth of local technological capabilities. • Foster economic and social development, with particular emphasis on meeting the needs of the poorest segments of the population. In each developing country, UNDP also plays the chief coordinating role for operational development activities undertaken by the whole United Nations system. Glo- bally, UNDP has been assigned numerous coordinating roles—from administering special-purpose funds such as those entrusted to the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office, to chairing the interagency steering committee of the International Drinking Water and Supply and Sanita- tion Decade. It also focuses on bringing women more fully into the process, fostering participatory grassroots development, and encouraging entrepreneurship. World Resources 1992-93 385 Essential 'World Resources is fascinating reading. Data for 146 It is an indispensable guide to Countries all those whose decisions impact on the world's natural resource systems." Maurice F. Strong, Secretary General, 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Basic Economic Indicators Data "An unparalleled educational resource for today's students. Whatever you needto know Land Cover and about the global environment can most Settlements Data likely be found in this book." Gilbert Grosvenor, President, National Geographic Society "World Resources is a uniquely valuable source of data and ideas for addressing the natural resource and environmental problems of the developing world." Alvaro Umana, former Minister of Natural Population and Resources, Energy, and Mines, Human Costa Rica Development Data Food and Agriculture Data "World Resources performs a valuable service for government leaders, Forests and policymakers, corporations, and citizens' RangelandsData organizations around the world." William D. Ruckelshaus, Chief Executive Officer, Wildlife and Browning-Ferris Industries Habitats Data Energy and "Ifyou like almanacs and have even a passing Materials Data interest in the environment, you'll love this book. And ifyou're a student, a teacher, or an Freshwater Data activist, you won 'tbe able to do without it." San Francisco Chronicle Oceans and Coasts Data 90000> Atmosphere and Climate Data 9 780195 062311 Policies and Institutions Data IISBN D-n-5Dt531-D|