95960 v2 Volume II Study on Impacts and Costs of Forced Displacement State of the Art Literature Review June 2011 In partnership with Table of Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................... 6 PART ONE: INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 7 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 7 1. Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................... 11 2. A Note on Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Displacement.................................................. 14 2.1 Impacts on or of Displaced Populations, Host Populations, Host State, State of Origin, Stayee Population and the International Community .................................................................. 14 2.2 Types, Phases and Scenarios of Displacement ................................................................. 15 3. A Note on Measuring “Impacts” of Displacement .................................................................... 22 3.1 Impact of Displacement or Violence? ............................................................................... 22 3.2 Impact of Displacement or General Social Change? ......................................................... 22 3.3 Impact over time? ............................................................................................................. 23 3.4 Implicit and Explicit Value Judgements............................................................................. 24 3.5 Challenges of Drawing on Empirical Data to Develop Policy Recommendations and Responses ..................................................................................................................................... 25 PART TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 28 4. Typology of the Literature Reviewed ........................................................................................ 28 4.1 Inclusion/Exclusion Criterion for Literature Review ......................................................... 28 4.2 Author Type and Publication Data .................................................................................... 29 4.3 Impact on... ....................................................................................................................... 32 4.4 Stakeholders: .................................................................................................................... 33 4.5 Emerging Case-study Countries ........................................................................................ 35 4.6 Quantitative – Qualitative Research ................................................................................. 38 4.7 Key Funders ....................................................................................................................... 42 5. Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Displacement on Displaced Populations ......................... 44 5.1 Key impacts emerging in the literature............................................................................. 44 5.2 Differential Impacts According to Displaced Populations’ Characteristics ....................... 45 5.3 Gender Relations and Gendered Dynamics ...................................................................... 46 5.4 Health and Well-being ...................................................................................................... 49 5.5 Demography, Fertility and Reproductive Health .............................................................. 51 5.6 Children ............................................................................................................................. 54 5.7 Displaced People Supporting Other Refugees/IDPs ......................................................... 57 1 5.8 Identity and Governance: “positive” or “negative” impacts?........................................... 58 5.9 Human Security, Human Insecurity and Violence............................................................. 59 5.10 Economic Impacts ............................................................................................................. 61 6. Assessing the Impacts on and of Hosting Communities ........................................................... 67 6.1 Impacts of the Displaced Population on the Host Population .......................................... 68 6.2 Characteristics of the Host and Displaced Populations .................................................... 69 6.3 Tracing the Source of “Impacts”? ..................................................................................... 71 6.4 Impacts of the Host Population on the Displaced Population .......................................... 84 7. Assessing Impacts on and of the Host State ............................................................................. 86 7.1 Impacts on and of Southern Host States .......................................................................... 86 7.2 Impacts on and of Northern Host States .......................................................................... 91 8. Assessing the Impacts on and of the Country of Origin and the Stayee Population ................ 94 8.1 Impacts of Displacement on the Country of Origin and the Stayee Population ............... 96 8.2 Impacts of Repatriation and Return on the Country of Origin and Stayee Population .... 97 8.3 The Costs and Benefits of the Resettlement of IDPs ........................................................ 99 8.4 The Impact of the State of Origin and/or of the Population of Origin u Displaced Populations ................................................................................................................................. 100 9. Assessing the Impacts on and of the International Community ............................................. 101 10. Limitations in existing literature: Rationale and methodology for new study ................... 105 10.1 Selection of Case-Studies for Phase Two ........................................................................ 107 APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES .................................................................................................... 111 Appendix 1: Bibliographical sources and existing quantitative and qualitative datasets per displaced population/host country................................................................................................. 112 Appendix 2: Key research methods drawn upon by existing studies ............................................. 181 Appendix 3: Overview of NGO and Agency evaluations of programmes and policies designed to address the impact of displacement upon displaced and host populations .................................. 183 Appendix 4: Studies and evaluations of projects designed to address the impact of displacement on reproductive health ................................................................................................................... 200 Appendix 5: Relevant Millennium Development Goal indicators................................................... 202 Appendix 6: Publication trends for each impact area: 1970 – 2010............................................... 204 BIBLIOGRAPHIES ................................................................................................................................. 207 Complete Bibliography................................................................................................................ 207 Thematic Bibliographies.............................................................................................................. 235 2 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: AN OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE SCENARIOS OF DISPLACEMENT, NOTING THE DEGREE OF INTERACTION WITH THE HOST POPULATION ACCORDING TO BOTH THE “SCENARIO” OF DISPLACEMENT, AND THE PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS OF A GIVEN “SCENARIO” ..................................................................................................................................................... 19 TABLE 2 - SCENARIOS OF DISPLACEMENT (GLOBAL NORTH) ............................................................................................... 20 TABLE 3 - RANKING OF THE KEY IMPACTS EMERGING IN THE LITERATURE ............................................................................. 32 TABLE 4 - VIABLE CASE-STUDIES EMERGING IN THE LITERATURE ......................................................................................... 37 TABLE 5 - VIABLE CASE-STUDIES EMERGING IN THE LITERATURE ....................................................................................... 108 3 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 - OVERVIEW OF KEY PUBLICATIONS REVIEWED, BY AUTHOR TYPE AND DECADE OF PUBLICATION .................................... 29 FIGURE 2 - CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PHASES OF FORCED MIGRATION OR CONFLICT ON DEMOGRAPHY. ...................................... 53 FIGURE 3 - STYLIZED REFUGEE CAMP ECONOMY.............................................................................................................. 62 FIGURE 4 - SUGGESTED EFFECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ............................................................................................... 72 FIGURE 5 - A MODEL FOR THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF REFUGEE ADAPTATION ................................................................. 80 4 LIST OF BOXES BOX 1 - FLUID PHASES OF DISPLACEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 16 BOX 2 - VARIOUS SCENARIOS OF DISPLACEMENT ............................................................................................................. 17 BOX 3 - SCENARIOS OF REPATRIATION AND REINTEGRATION .............................................................................................. 21 BOX 4 - KEY IMPACTS ON DISPLACED POPULATIONS ......................................................................................................... 44 BOX 5 - KEY IMPACTS ON HOST POPULATIONS ................................................................................................................ 73 BOX 6 - DIRECT AND INDIRECT COSTS AND BENEFITS TO HOST STATES ................................................................................. 89 5 Executive Summary Since the 1970s, academics, practitioners and policy-makers from across the humanitarian and development fields have increasingly recognised the need to utilise rigorously collected and analysed data to develop appropriate responses to contexts of forced displacement. This report presents a comprehensive review of over 480 articles and reports published over the past forty years which analyse qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to the impact of displacement on the following key stakeholders: displaced populations (refugees and internally-displaced people); host populations; host state; country of origin and stayee population in the country of origin; and the international community. The review highlights 7 key points: 1. Despite a wealth of theoretical and conceptual discussions, only a relatively small number of qualitative and quantitative studies have drawn on empirical data. These studies identify an extensive array of potential socio-economic impacts through an equally diverse range of methodologies. 2. The existing literature primarily focuses on the impacts of displacement on displaced and hosting communities on local (camp, settlement, village and urban contexts) and national levels (host countries from the global South and global North). 3. Only a few studies attempt to assess both the costs and benefits of displacement on the host population and the host state; these are typically ―accounting exercises‖ which attempt to calculate the direct and indirect costs incurred by states which host refugees. 4. There is an overarching absence of literature assessing the impact of displacement on the country of origin and the stayee population. 5. There is a tendency within the existing literature to elide ―impact studies‖ with general situation reports outlining the living conditions of displaced and host populations, and subsequent evaluations of humanitarian/development programmes. 6. To date, there has been no comprehensive analysis of the overarching costs and benefits of a specific process of displacement on all stakeholders, across all levels. 7. Although there is ever-increasing interest in exploring the impact of displacement, and a diversity of large-N datasets exist vis-a-vis specific stakeholders in relation to specific contexts of displacement, there is currently no systematic methodological framework drawing on a comprehensive and meaningful array of indicators to estimate the costs and benefits of displacement on all stakeholders. This detailed literature review therefore points to the urgency of developing a comprehensive mixed-methods framework to assess the balance of the positive and negative impacts on interconnected levels and interconnected actors, and to identify and evaluate means to minimise the negative impacts and maximise the positive opportunities arising from specific contexts of displacement. The report concludes by identifying a range of case-studies for which viable qualitative and quantitative datasets are currently available, and which could be explored in greater detail in Phase Two. 6 PART ONE: INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY Introduction Since the 1970s, academics, practitioners and policy-makers from across the humanitarian and development fields have increasingly recognised the importance of recording and evaluating the multifaceted impacts of forced displacement on diverse stakeholders. In particular, they have noted the need to utilise rigorously collected data to develop appropriate responses to contexts of displacement. However, despite a wealth of theoretical and conceptual discussions vis-à-vis the importance of measuring the impacts of displacement on refugees and internally-displaced people on the one hand, and on host populations on the other, there are relatively few empirical studies which draw on and analyse reliable data. Such data is necessary in order to substantiate and/or challenge the diverse assumptions which have typically underpinned local, national, regional and international responses to displacement; as such, it is essential to draw on empirical studies ―to de-mythologise some aspects of the state of knowledge [about refugee impact] which through repetition have become accepted as ‗scientific truth‘‖ (Kibreab, 1997: 20). As noted by Zetter (1995:34), the impacts of and responses to displacement must be evaluated in terms of the overall costs and benefits for all interest groups: displaced populations, hosts, governments, donors and agencies. Reconfiguring these interest groups somewhat, this report provides a state-of-the-art review of existing studies of the costs and benefits of displacement on five key stakeholders: i. displaced populations (refugees and internally-displaced people); ii. host populations; iii. host state; 7 iv. country of origin and stayee population in the state of origin; and v. the international community. The review of the existing literature firstly highlights that only a relatively small number of qualitative and quantitative studies have drawn on empirical data to evaluate the economic and social impacts on displaced and hosting communities on local (camp, settlement, village and urban contexts) and national levels (host countries from the global South and global North). Secondly, it notes that there has to date been no comprehensive analysis of the overarching costs and benefits of a specific process of displacement on all stakeholders across all levels. Thirdly, the review reveals a tendency within the existing literature to elide ―impact studies‖ with general situation reports outlining the living conditions of displaced and host populations, and subsequent evaluations of humanitarian/development programmes. Overall, the state-of-the-art literature review confirms the absence of a systematic methodological framework drawing on a comprehensive and meaningful array of indicators to estimate the costs and benefits of displacement on all stakeholders. The aim of the review is to document the different ways in which researchers have thus far approached the challenge of identifying and estimating the costs and benefits of displacement. As such, the review presents a wide array of factors and dynamics which have been of interest to academics, practitioners and policy-makers over the past four decades; in so doing, it does not presuppose that is will be possible, or indeed desirable, to integrate all of these potential impacts in Phase Two of this project. Nonetheless, the literature reviewed clearly points to the urgency of developing a comprehensive mixed-methods framework to assess the balance of the positive and negative impacts on interconnected levels and interconnected actors, and to identify and evaluate means to minimise the negative impacts and maximise the positive opportunities arising from specific contexts of displacement. Indeed, it is by now widely accepted that, ―whether 8 refugee-generated resources and benefits are sufficient to balance the burden imposed by the refugees is an empirical question and must be decided on a case-by-case basis‖ (Jacobsen, 2002: 584). The report therefore identifies a range of case-studies to be explored in greater detail in Phase Two of the present project by drawing on existing datasets where available (see Appendix 1), and by implementing new surveys and collecting relevant qualitative and quantitative data where necessary. Structure of the Report The report is structured as follows. Part One outlines the scope of the study (Section 1), before briefly reflecting on some of the particular difficulties of assessing the costs and benefits of displacement (Section 2), with particular reference to the multiple types, phases and scenarios of displacement across the global South and global North. Part One then concludes (Section 3) by noting five key challenges which arise when attempting to analyse the ―impacts‖ of displacement per se: firstly, the difficulties of distinguishing between the impact of displacement and the impact of violence or conflict; secondly, the difficulties of differentiating between the impact of displacement and processes of general social change; thirdly, the complexity of tracing and estimating short-, medium- and long-term changes over time; fourthly, the extent to which implicit or explicit value judgements may influence the ways in which data is collected analysed during the course of an impact analysis; and, lastly, the challenges of drawing upon empirical data to develop policy recommendations and responses. The literature review itself is presented in Part Two, which starts with a typology of the materials reviewed (Section 4). The subsequent five sections correspond to literature pertaining to the impact of displacement on each of the main stakeholders outlined above: the displaced population (Section 5), the host population (Section 6), the host country (Section 9 7), the country of origin and the stayee population (Section 8), and the international community (Section 9). Part Two concludes (Section 10) by highlighting the limitations of the existing literature, and proposes the need for a new, comprehensive study. A range of case-studies are proposed for further analysis in Phase Two. Seven Appendices then follow. Appendix 1 is the most substantive of these, as it provides a detailed overview of the academic literature and data-sets available for each of the key case-studies proposed in the report, in addition to documenting the main sources of funding for diverse research projects. A comprehensive Bibliography of all of the literature reviewed is then included, in addition to separate Thematic Bibliographies. 10 1. Scope of the Study Whilst recognizing the reality of mixed migration flows, and the protection needs of diverse populations around the world, in the context of this study ―displaced populations‖ refers to: Refugees as defined in international1 and regional conventions;2 Palestinian refugees excluded from international and regional conventions; 3 and Populations which have been internally-displaced by conflict and widespread human rights abuses.4 The case-studies arising in the literature reviewed, and proposed for further analysis in Phase Two primarily correspond to contexts of mass protracted displacement5 from across the 1 The 1951 Geneva Convention defines a refugee as ―A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.‖ 2 Two key regional definitions supplement the 1951 Geneva Convention definition outlined above, and are applicable only to refugees within African countries on the one hand, and Latin and Central American countries on the other. The 1969 Organisation of African Unity‘s Convention Governing The Specific Aspects Of Refugee Problems In Africa (OAU Convention) incorporates the 1951 Geneva Convention definition, but supplements it with a second, broader definition: ―The term "refugee" shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality.‖ The 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees (Cartagena Declaration) equally incorporates the 1951 Geneva Convention definition, and supplements it as follows: ―includes among refugees persons who have fled their country because their lives, safety, or freedom have been threatened by generalized violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violation of human rights or other circumstances which have seriously disturbed public order.‖ 3 The United Nations Reliefs and Works Agency‘s operational definition of Palestinian refugees is as follows: ―Palestine refugees are people whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict,‖ in addition to their descendants. 4 Internally displaced persons are ―persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border‖ (The 1998 UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, para.2; reasserted in the 2009 African Union Convention For The Protection And Assistance Of Internally Displaced Persons In Africa , Art. 1(k)). 5 UNHCR defines a protracted refugee situation one in which refugees have remained in exile ‗for 5 years or more after their initial displacement, without immediate prospects for implementation of durable solutions‘ (UNHCR 2009); refugees in such situations find ―themselves in a long-lasting and intractable state of limbo. Their lives may not be at risk, but their basic rights and essential economic, social and psychological needs remain unfulfilled after years in exile‖ (UNHCR EXCOM 2004). As noted by ESCWA (2009:8), ―a similar definition can be derived for and applied to protracted IDPs.‖ 11 global South and global North,6 in which conflict and widespread human rights violations are the prime factor leading to displacement.7 The study aims, firstly, to identify and survey existing studies which measure the socio-economic8 impact of displacement9 on: 1. The displaced population (in camp and non-camp situations); 2. The non-displaced population hosting the displaced population (in urban and non- urban settings); 3. The country hosting the displaced population; and 4. The community and country of origin of the displaced population This includes identifying relevant qualitative and quantitative research, rigorous large-N data- sets, and different methodologies proposed to measure the impact of displacement on the above stakeholders. Secondly, it will identify existing evaluations of the socio-economic impacts of operational approaches to forced displacement situations,10 including evaluations of: 5. International assistance to the displaced while in displacement; and 6. Interventions to promote solutions to displacement. In so doing, the report will simultaneously provide an overview of existing literature which explores the multifaceted impact of displacement on the international community, and equally the impact which the international community may have on contexts of displacement. 6 Key factors leading to the identification of these cases include: the scale, severity, duration and location (non- urban/urban; geographical/regional distribution). In line with the TOR, cases are proposed for Phase Two if viable large-N qualitative and quantitative datasets are available. 7 As such, cases of development-induced displacement and climate-induced displacement have been excluded from this review. 8 Given ongoing debates surrounding the conceptual meaning and means of empirically measuring ―socio - economic‖ status or impact (Sirin, 2005), the current review adopts a broad interpretation of ―social‖ and ―economic‖ dynamics, reflecting the variety of conceptuali sations and methods arising in the literature. 9 The transnational nature and impacts of displacement will be explored throughout. 10 A comprehensive identification and analysis of evaluation reports will be completed on a case-by-case basis, once cases have been selected for Phase Two of this project. 12 Drawing insights from this state-of-the-art literature review, the wider study then aims to develop a comprehensive methodology to estimate: (a) the socio-economic impacts of forced displacement, and (b) the socio-economic impacts of operational approaches to respond to forced displacement situations. It is important to note that the literature review presented in the present report is not itself a platform for the methodology proposed in the separate documents entitled Study on Impacts and Costs of Forced Displacement: A Mixed Methods Approach. Rather, the review presented in Part Two inductively identifies the key socio-economic impacts of displacement which have been examined by academics, practitioners, organizations and states to date. In so doing, it refers to a broad spectrum of academic, practitioner and governmental publications which draw on small- and large-N studies and both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The review is purposefully extensive, reflecting the diversity of approaches which have been developed in existing studies. Before turning to the literature review per se in Part Two, Sections 2 and Section 3 briefly reflect on the challenges of assessing the costs and benefits of displacement on the one hand, and of determining the ―impacts‖ of displacement on the other. Such a reflection is important in order to contextualise the complexity of any endeavour to develop a comprehensive framework to estimate the impacts of displacement on such a broad range of stakeholders. 13 2. A Note on Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Displacement 2.1 Impacts on or of Displaced Populations, Host Populations, Host State, State of Origin, Stayee Population and the International Community Displaced populations are typically either conceptualised as highly vulnerable as a result of their displacement, or, alternatively, as a potential threat and/or burden to the host environment, host population, host state, and neighbouring countries. When assessing the impact of displacement vis-à-vis displaced populations, it is therefore possible to distinguish between the impacts of displacement on displaced people, and the impacts of displaced people on a range of stakeholders. The first part of the literature review (Section 5) primarily focuses on the different approaches and priorities emerging in existing studies which address the impacts of displacement on displaced persons (refugees and IDPs alike) in relatively closed social systems (i.e. closed encampment and isolated self-settlements). Subsequent sections (Sections 6-10) address both the impacts of displaced people on other stakeholders, and the impact of these stakeholders on displaced people in contexts of closed and open encampment, integrated self-settlements, and scenarios of cohabitation with host populations in urban and non-urban locations. In line with Chambers‘ conclusions (1979, 1986), and broader political economy analyses of displacement, this report and the methodological framework presented in separate documents are founded upon the premise that different members of hosting and displaced populations may variously benefit or lose from processes of displacement. Data collection and analysis must therefore be disaggregated according to levels (eg. different skill, income levels or health) and types (eg. gender, demographics). Transcending mainstream victimisation and threat frameworks which typically homogenise both the displaced population and host population, this report will therefore recognise the presence of winners 14 and losers within all stakeholding groups, and across all contexts of displacement. This raises important methodological challenges which are addressed in the accompanying methodology documents. 2.2 Types, Phases and Scenarios of Displacement The impact of displacement on diverse stakeholders will firstly depend on the type and nature of displacement during the different phases of displacement. Drawing on Kunz‘s kinetic model of refugee movements (1973), Kuhlman distinguishes between acute (emergency requiring immediate flight), anticipatory (able to plan departure having anticipated danger) and intermediate movements, with acute movements further classified ―into categories such as mass flight, deportation, flight of soldiers, etc.‖ (1991:14). Other classifications refer to emergency, post-emergency, transitional, development, and return/repatriation phases (i.e. Jacobsen, 1997), or propose a distinction between proactive versus reactive migration (Richmond, 1993). In order to assess the impact of displacement, baseline data is required regarding the pre-displacement context, in addition to quantitative and qualitative information regarding the stated reasons for displacement, the nature of the decision-making process (including who made decisions on whose behalf within households and broader groups, and the extent to which alternative options were assessed and prioritized, or explicit force or threat were used), and resources available to displaced and hosting populations before and during different phases of displacement. Whilst recognizing the agency of displaced peoples, especially in the context of anticipatory and proactive movements, structural factors will nonetheless influence their capacity to enact specific choices, with agency arguably being most severely restricted in contexts of acute movement (Adam, 2008, also Richmond, 1993). Such limiting or enabling structural factors include the availability and transportability of material resources and social 15 capital, and varying (in)security levels in the place of origin, areas of transition, and proposed destination points over different periods of time. Phases of displacement will vary in duration, and, despite earlier teleological assumptions regarding the stages of ―the refugee cycle‖ (pre-displacement  displacement  durable solution), no clear unidirectional cycle can be presumed to exist (see Black and Koser, 1999). Displaced populations often experience multiple processes of on-going (secondary, tertiary, etc) displacement, rather than securing one of the three durable solutions (local integration, repatriation or resettlement to a third country) which UNHCR is mandated to identify and secure for displaced populations (see Box 1). All of these intersecting factors create a particular challenge when designing and implementing a comprehensive methodological framework, given that a common structure or set of stages may not exist across the different scenarios selected for Phase Two of this project; this may render it especially difficult to compare across cases. Box 1 - Fluid Phases of Displacement preparation for displacement initial stage of displacement transitory displacement preliminary shelter/settlement protracted settlement/encampment preliminary stages of integration o durable integration  meaningful and effective integration/naturalisation preparation for return o durable repatriation  meaningful and effective protection from state of origin preparation for resettlement to a third country o durable resettlement  meaningful and effective integration/naturalisation preparation for secondary, tertiary etc displacement o secondary, tertiary, etc. displacement… 16 A given displaced population may therefore experience various phases of displacement, with differential experiences and impacts felt within a given group throughout the course of the different phases (see below). With this multidirectionality of movement in mind, a wide variety of scenarios of displacement11 exist, including the following (see Box 2): Box 2 - Various Scenarios of Displacement (Global South and Global North) Encampment o Open Encampment o Closed Encampment Self-Settlement Non-Urban Cohabitation with Hosts Urban Cohabitation with Hosts Local Integration Resettlement This list of scenarios is neither exhaustive nor are they mutually exclusive (see Tables 1 and 2 below for tentative definitions of these and other scenarios of displacement).The cases proposed for further analysis in Phase Two of this study cover a wide variety of these phases and diverse scenarios of displacement from across the global South and global North. While much of the literature distinguishes between and compares organised encampment on the one hand and self-settlement of displaced populations on the other, Hoertz and GTZ (drawing on Smawfield, 1994) argue that settlement types represent a continuum rather than clearly defined and separate contexts (1995:16). Building on Hoertz and GTZ‘s continuum, a wide diversity of contexts of displacement can thus be identified as including those outlined in Table 1. In this Table, the vertical column corresponds to the 11 The term ―scenario of displacement‖ is used here instead of ―settlement type‖ given that ―settlement‖ has both a strong sedentary connotation, and is also used to refer to a ―resolution‖ or ―conclusion.‖ Dis placement is a process which may entail various phases of mobility and immobility, forced migration and forced sedentarisation (Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2009). 17 overall ―type‖ (i.e. closed encampment, open encampment, self-settlement), while the horizontal row corresponds to the continuum of characteristics for each scenario. This non- exhaustive list of possible displacement scenarios reflects the extent to which the degree of interaction with the host population will depend not only on the overall ―type‖ of displacement scenario (i.e. ―encampment‖) but also the particular characteristics: for example, interactions with the host population in the context of open encampment may, in some cases, be as high as in a self-settlement context. It is important to note that a given displaced individual or population will potentially move between different scenarios of displacement and settlement throughout ongoing processes of displacement. It must equally be recognised that there has been an increasing overall trend towards urban displacement around the world, despite the majority of research having focused, and largely continuing to focus, on mass displacement within rural areas. 18 Table 1: An Overview of Possible Scenarios of Displacement, noting the degree of interaction with the host population according to both the “scenario” of displacement, and the particular characteristics of a given “scenario” Higher degree of Lower degrees of interaction with host interaction with population host population Scenario of Characteristics of the Displacement Scenario Displacement Closed Complete separation encampment between displaced and A degree of internal local populations; trade (i.e. sale of displaced populations vegetables, livestock While the majority of the displaced population may be restricted to the unable to move outside produce; pre- encampment, certain members may be able to leave and reenter the of the camp; displacement assets) encampment humanitarian may exist between assistance provided by displaced individuals external actors inside of the camp Open Displaced population Displaced population encampment living in camps, but and some members of Displaced population and some members of host population living in camps, able to move and trade host population living able to move and trade; different legal statuses held, but equal opportunities for inside and outside of in camps, able to move displaced and host populations; displaced population may move between open the camp and trade camps and towns/cities in the host state Self-settlement Displaced population Separate location and establishes own separate legal status, settlement; may or but equal opportunities Displaced population may move between self-settlement and towns/cities in may not interact with with local population the host state local population Non-urban Displaced population cohabitation lives in same village as Degree of socio-economic and political interactions will vary across the spectrum local population Urban Displaced population cohabitation lives in the same urban Degree of socio-economic and political interactions will vary across the spectrum context as local population Higher degree of interaction with host population The majority of the settlement contexts outlined above pertain to international and internal displacement in the global South. Asylum-seekers and refugees based in the global North may initially have experienced one or more of the contexts of displacement in the Global South as listed in Table 2, and then encounter one or more of the following contexts of displacement in the global North; this may depend on whether the displaced individual or population has applied for asylum upon arrival, or has been resettled to a third country from their initial country of asylum: Table 2 - Scenarios of Displacement (Global North) Closed detention Complete separation from local population in detention centre Required to reside in a detention centre, but able to move in and out Open detention at stated times Asylum state identifies location for displaced population to settle Mandatory (―dispersal‖ policies); degree of socio-economic and political settlement interactions with local population will vary Displaced individual/population identifies context for settlement; Self-settlement degree of socio-economic and political interactions with local population will vary Displaced individual/population resides in same village/town as local Village/town population; degree of socio-economic and political interactions with cohabitation local population will vary Displaced individual/population resides in same urban context as Urban cohabitation local population; degree of socio-economic and political interactions with local population will vary A final set of displacement scenarios outlined in the cases explored below relate to returnee contexts (see Box 3), in which displaced populations come to be denominated as ―returnees‖ who may have different degrees of choice in their initial, transit and final points of destination: 20 The impact of displacement on diverse stakeholders will therefore depend upon the type and nature of displacement, the phase and duration of displacement, and the scenario(s) of displacement, in addition to other characteristics, experiences and interactions outlined below. Such factors and dynamics must be taken into account when developing a methodology to measure the costs and benefits of displacement. Box 3 - Scenarios of Repatriation and Reintegration Repatriation to town/village/city of origin Repatriation to neighbouring town/village/city of origin Repatriation to region of origin Repatriation to region other than the region of origin 21 3. A Note on Measuring “Impacts” of Displacement Identifying the impact of displacement on key stakeholders across such a diversity of displacement contexts is particularly difficult for a variety of reasons, including the following: 3.1 Impact of Displacement or Violence? Firstly, in contexts of violence- and conflict-induced displacement it may be difficult to distinguish between the impact of displacement and the impacts of violence more generally. This will especially be the case in situations of generalized violence and conflict. Furthermore, in contexts such as Iraq, displacement may be both an effect and a cause of subsequent cycles of violence (Al-Khalidi and Tanner, 2007:8). It may therefore both be difficult, and indeed inappropriate, to attempt to create a separation between the impact of violence and the impact of displacement on affected stakeholders in some contexts. Nonetheless, since widespread violence or destruction does not necessarily result in displacement, in some cases it may be possible to trace a relationship between processes of displacement and certain costs and impacts. 3.2 Impact of Displacement or General Social Change? Secondly, all contexts, whether characterised by displacement or not, are constantly undergoing different forms of socio-economic and political change. It may therefore be difficult to posit a direct and total causal relationship arising from displacement per se, entirely separate from general social change, as noted by Kibreab et al (1990). This may be particularly difficult to discern in contexts of protracted displacement. One approach developed to overcome this difficulty is presented in a small number of studies which have assessed the impact of 22 displacement on displaced populations by comparing the characteristics, experiences and outcomes of displaced and non-displaced populations. Such studies include: Attanasio et al (2005), and work by Ibañez throughout the 2000s, who both draw on datasets of Colombian IDPs and stayees from Familias En Acción and Econometría; Lehrer (2010a, b, c) who draws on a variety of datasets vis-à-vis Ugandan IDPs and stayees; Sarvimäki et al (2009) who draw on historical data to compare displaced and non- displaced Finnish populations when Finland ceded part of its territory to the Soviet Union; Singh (2001), Karunakara (2004) and Singh et al (2005) who draw on a single-round survey of the Demography of Forced Migration Project to examine the impact of displacement on population structure, household composition and fertility amongst Sudanese refugees, Sudanese stayees and Ugandan nationals. However, it must be noted that ―stayees‖ are also impacted upon by displacement (see below), and such a comparison between displaced and non-displaced populations is therefore limited in numerous ways. 3.3 Impact over time? Thirdly, the impact of displacement will vary according to a range of key factors, including the time-frame, the duration of and since displacement, and whether short- or long-term impacts are to be identified and estimated. The immediate impacts of displacement may variously be compounded or remedied as the period of displacement becomes more prolonged, depending on the policies implemented. Equally, the longer-term impacts of even short periods of displacement 23 may be difficult to trace directly to displacement per se rather than general social change. This raises a particular methodological challenge. 3.4 Implicit and Explicit Value Judgements Fourthly, in addition to the challenges arising from the limited availability of baseline data predating displacement, and the extent to which existing data may not be disaggregated according to levels (eg. different skill, income levels or health) and types (eg. gender, demographics), a range of implicit and explicit value judgements will also prevail throughout the course of any impact analysis. Key questions regarding value judgements which must be borne in mind, including the following: a. From the universe of impacts which could potentially be measured, which types of impacts will be selected for analysis and which types of impact will be considered less important? b. How will certain impacts be measured?12 c. Can variables be assessed independently of each other? d. Will qualitative or quantitative approaches be considered more or less valuable? By whom, and why? e. If a mixed-methods approach is adopted, how will the data variously derived via qualitative and quantitative methodologies be ―weighted‖ overall? f. Will a monetary value be assigned to certain impacts but not to others? Why/why not? g. Whose perspective and priorities will lead to the categorisation of a particular impact as positive or negative? 12 On the measurement of ―NGO impact‖, see Cingranelli and Richards, 2001; also see ECB Project 2007 and NORAD 2008. 24 Indeed, with reference to the latter point, a key question which arises in an analysis of the costs and benefits of displacement is: costs and benefits for whom? In line with political economy approaches to conflict and displacement, the cases outlined below highlight that different individuals and organisations across and within each of the stakeholder groups can variously be identified as ―winners or losers.‖ Precisely whose perspective is taken in the assessment of a particular impact as ―positive‖ or ―negative‖ must be clarified throughout the development, implementation and analysis of such research. 3.5 Challenges of Drawing on Empirical Data to Develop Policy Recommendations and Responses Lastly, the above point pertaining to implicit and explicit value judgements is particularly pertinent when considering whose priorities are represented in the policy recommendations which may be made based on the collection and analysis of reliable data. Questions may therefore include: which of the three traditional durable solutions are considered by different stakeholders to be more or less favourable for members of a displaced population, and where should humanitarian and development investment be channelled? It is therefore essential to mitigate a variety of potential dangers which may arise when estimating the costs of displacement. For instance, the different socio-economic profiles of displaced populations might potentially lead to the conclusion that the displacement of a relatively small number of skilled individuals leads to a greater loss to the economy of the state of origin, and therefore requires a more significant international response, as compared with the displacement of a much larger number of, for instance, subsistence farmers or nomadic 25 pastoralists. The example of displacement from and within Iraq is a pertinent one here. 13 A further danger is that of internally homogenising the respective stakeholders; it is therefore necessary to assess appropriate levels of aggregation/disaggregation of the population throughout the course of the collection and analysis of data. In addition to taking these steps, empirically-informed policy responses aiming to maximise socio-economic outcomes for affected stakeholders must uphold international obligations vis-à-vis the protection of displaced people‘s rights and needs specifically, and broader, non-displacement-related commitments to human rights and human development. Key amongst these international commitments are the Millennium Development Goals, and the rights delineated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; displaced peoples‘ rights as outlined in the 1951 Geneva Convention (including the right to freedom of movement and the right to work) and regional Conventions/Declarations including the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa; and those upheld by other relevant international human rights declarations and covenants.14 One approach which might thus be usefully utilised when designing appropriate policy responses to the impact of displacement on diverse stakeholders is the development of a multifaceted ―gap analysis‖ which recognises deficits in economic, social, health, human security, political (etc.) spheres. In essence, a gap analysis identifies and analyses discrepancies between conditions in a displacement-affected context, and internationally accepted standards premised on universal human rights.15 UNHCR argues that these ―gaps can be closed by directly providing external inputs or by increasing the resource base of the community‖ (2006: 285). 13 The potential for skilled refugees to then be resettled and to contribute to the economies of third countries will be addressed below. 14 Including the International Covenant on Social and Political Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 15 Jamal recommends that UNHCR should utilise an ―essential needs‖ framework, premised on universal human rights and evolving human needs grounded in the reality of displacement situations, rather than static ―minimum standards‖ to develop appropriate responses to displacement contexts (2000:3-4). 26 Indeed, as noted by Hoerz and GTZ (1995), and by Dryden-Peterson et al (2003), maximising positive opportunities for displacement and local populations requires the purposeful intervention of national and international actors, and the development and implementation of appropriate policies. 27 PART TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 4. Typology of the Literature Reviewed From over 3,000 sources initially identified as broadly relating to the ―impact of displacement‖ on the stakeholders and various contexts outlined above, 480 academic and policy documents have been prioritised for the purposes of this study (see Bibliography). In addition to a review of the academic and policy literature, over 100 relevant large-N data-sets have been identified; these data sources are listed by displacement case-study in Appendix 1. 4.1 Inclusion/Exclusion Criterion for Literature Review Studies have been identified through on-line and catalogue-based bibliographical searches, communication with leading researchers in the field,16 non-governmental organisations and partner organisations. Published materials have been supplemented with relevant grey literature from the extensive Refugee Studies Centre‘s collection held in the University of Oxford‘s Bodleian Social Science library. Following the initial identification process, sources have been excluded if they a) solely summarise existing literature and debates at the time of publication, b) do not draw on significant qualitative or quantitative empirical material and c) make no direct significant contribution to the development of a methodological framework to assess the socio- economic impact of displacement on the selected stakeholders. Since the materials identified below, in the bibliography and in the Appendices are not exhaustive, additional datasets may be publically available for each of the case-studies proposed for Phase Two. Once the selection of 16 Acknowledgements and thanks are due in particular to Jennifer Alix-Garcia, Orazio Attanasio, Javier Baez, Ayla Bonfiglio, Mathias Czaika, Ana Maria Ibañez, Kim Lehrer, Jean-François Maystadt, and Alice Mesnard. Also to and Svein Erik Stave, Cindy Horst, Kristian Hoelscher, Yonatan Yehdego Araya, Asger Christensen and, Gary Milante our partners at FAFO, PRIO and the World Bank. 28 the case-studies for Phase Two has been finalised, an additional literature and dataset search will be conducted by the relevant country team. 4.2 Author Type and Publication Data The literature reviewed for the purposes of this study has primarily been produced by and based upon data collected by1) academics and research centres, 2) UN agencies (including the UNHCR), 3) NGOs, and 4) the World Bank. A small number of research projects and reports have also been commissioned by various host and donor governments. The body of literature addressing the impact of displacement through empirical analysis, and humanitarian and development programmes attempting to mitigate the negative impacts of displacement and maximise the positive impacts, have increased significantly since the 1970s (see Figure 1).17 Figure 1 - Overview of key publications reviewed, by author type and decade of publication 300 250 IOM Report 200 Other World Bank (incl. Staff) 150 State Report or Statement 100 NGO Report Research Centre/Institute 50 UN Agencies (Total) 0 Academic Author Not 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Classified (spans decades) 17 It is important to note that academics, practitioners and governments had explored the impacts of displacement throughout the early-twentieth century, and many of the reports published since the 1970s draw upon these earlier reflections. It is beyond the scope of the current review to provide a detailed overview of analyses produced before 1970. 29 – Academic sources Over half of the publications identified have been written by academic researchers; approximately a quarter of these reports have been commissioned and/or funded by non- governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutes, UN agencies or the World Bank. The majority of academic studies examine the impact of displacement on displaced populations through detailed qualitative methodologies, followed by an increasing proportion of studies which assess the multifaceted impact on displaced and host populations. – UN agencies The UNHCR has undertaken detailed surveys of diverse displaced populations and their impacts on host populations and host countries around the world. Since 1997 in particular, UNHCR has undertaken a number of quantitative assessments of Social and Economic Impact of Large Refugee Populations on Host Developing Countries (EC/47/SC/CRP.7). The first of these assessments (EC/48/SC/CRP.40, 1998) estimated the impacts of displacement on Central American countries (CIREFCA), Malawi and the United Republic of Tanzania. UNHCR has recently (2010) commissioned an assessment of the socio-economic impact of Afghans in Pakistan, which is currently ongoing and complements an earlier assessment published in 1989 (English and UNHCR, 1989). Other UN agencies which have completed demographic, health and needs assessments of displaced and host populations include UNDP (which has increasingly cooperated with partner organisations to complete surveys and develop responses) and regional agencies (in particular the UN Economic Commission for Africa). Indeed, in 1991, the UN ECA published its Guidelines on the methods of evaluating the socio-economic and demographic consequences of refugees in African countries. Complementing UNHCR‘s renewed interest in estimating the socio-economic impacts of displacement on host countries, regional UN agencies such as the UN‘s Economic 30 and Social Commission for Western Asia have also recently indicated their interest to obtain detailed data in order to develop appropriate responses to displacement in their particular regions (ESCWA 2009 a and b). – NGOs For the purposes of this study, NGO reports primarily identify the socio-economic impacts of displacement on displaced populations, and evaluate the efficacy of their responses to these contexts. Appendix 2 provides an overview of NGO and agency evaluations of programmes and policies designed to address the impact of displacement upon displaced and host populations. – The World Bank In the 1990s, the World Bank jointly assessed the impact of displacement on hosting countries, including in particular an estimation of the cost of hosting Mozambican refugees incurred by the Malawian government (Government of Malawi et al, 1990). In the 2000s, an increasing number of World Bank projects, assessments and publications on the one hand, and academic publications produced by World Bank researchers on the other, have utilised large-N quantitative data-sets to assess the multifaceted impacts and developmental challenges of contexts of mass displacement. These include detailed data collection and analysis of internal displacement in Colombia (multiple single- and co-authored publications by Ibañez), Bosnia-Herzegovina (Kondylis, 2007, 2010) Northern Uganda (Rugayda et al, 2008), and refugees from Rwanda and Burundi in Tanzania (Baez, 2010). Christensen and Harild (2009) and Gomez et al (2010) have further detailed the developmental challenges of forced displacement, and the impact of refugees on neighbouring countries in particular. Evaluations of World Bank funded projects targeting displaced and hosting populations have also been completed (for instance, evaluations of Familias en Acción in Colombia, by Attanasio et al, 2005, and numerous publications by Ibañez). 31 4.3 Impact on... The literature has been inductively classified according to each article‘s stated focus on the impact of protracted displacement on diverse socio-economic and political issues, dynamics and realities. The following list (Table 3) offers a brief summary (ranked according to relative frequency) of the key areas covered in the literature as a whole: Table 3 - Ranking of the Key Impacts Emerging in the Literature 1. Economic and Fiscal (macro-level) 2. Health and Wellbeing 3. Employment and Unemployment 4. Gender Relations 5. Education 6. Income (micro-level) 7. Food Security 8. Social Relations 9. Demography 10. Environment 11. Children 12. Housing and Property Rights 13. Security 14. Welfare 15. Human Security/Human Vulnerability 16. Self-Sufficiency 17. Agriculture 18. Political Dynamics It must be noted that many of these ―impact areas‖ are interconnected, and often have broad and fluid definitions. The ranking above offers a general overview of the main types of impact identified and analysed by researchers to date, and includes impacts on and of all of the stakeholders addressed in this project. Thematic bibliographies, listing key publications exploring each of these ―impact areas‖ are included at the end of this report, while Appendix 6 32 documents the publication trends vis-a-vis each of these types of ―impact‖ over the course of the past four decades. 4.4 Stakeholders: – Displaced Populations (refugees and internally-displaced people) Over half of all of the literature focuses specifically on the impact of displacement on the displaced population, primarily addressing contexts of displacement in the global South, and focusing in particular on the negative effects of displacement on the health and well-being of IDPs and refugees, on employment and income, food security and social relations. – Host Populations Remedying Chambers‘ charge, first made in 1979, that ―the costs to host populations of supporting refugees are easily overlooked‖ (1979: 388; also see 1989), t he second largest body of literature recognises and assesses the differential impact of displacement on different members of the host population. – Host State Articles and reports assessing the impact of displacement on the host state (the third largest body of literature) can be divided into two broad areas: 1. countries of first asylum in the global South and 2. countries of first asylum and countries of resettlement in the global North. Almost all of the studies assessing the impact on countries of first asylum in the global South address cases in Sub-Saharan Africa (especially: Kenya, Malawi, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and 33 Zambia).18 A smaller set of literature addresses the impact of Afghan refugees on the Pakistani state, while an emerging body of literature and datasets pertain to the impact of both Palestinian and Iraqi refugees in host countries of the Middle East (especially Lebanon, Jordan and Syria). A significant range of studies have also examined the impact of internal displacement in Colombia. While a small number of studies examines the impact of internal displacement in the context of Indonesia and the Philippines, and of refugee displacement in Thailand, the relative absence of studies vis-à-vis the impact of displacement on South-East Asian host countries is notable. The impact of displaced South-East Asian populations is, rather, primarily discussed with reference to Northern host countries (i.e. Indochinese refugees in the Northern America and Europe, the Sri Lankan and Tamil diasporas in Europe, etc.). With reference to countries of first asylum and countries of resettlement in the global North, the vast majority of studies estimate the economic costs and benefits of refugees through an evaluation of longitudinal, large-N datasets. The key Northern host countries for which literature and data are available are: Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and, in particular, the United States. These studies are typically ―accounting exercises‖ which calculate the direct and indirect costs of the host‘s asylum-system, and generally report on the situation of refugees based in the host state. Reference is therefore made to the costs and benefits of resettlement, refugees‘ participation in the host state‘s labour market and the impacts of education, trauma and immigration policies on these levels of economic participation. However, there is an absence of comprehensive studies, or methodological frameworks designed to explore refugees‘ impacts on different variables in the host countries, or vice versa. 18 That Sub-Saharan Africa should be the focus of the majority of studies reviewed is in line with the nature, number and duration of conflict across the region, with Sub-Saharan Africa having historically accounted for a particularly large proportion of both refugee and IDP populations displaced by conflict worldwide. 34 – Country of Origin and Stayee Population in the Country of Origin The impact of displacement on the country of origin and the stayee population accounted for the smallest number of the publications reviewed, with the majority of these studies either focusing on the extent and impact of remittances sent by refugees, or on the impact of IDP and refugee returnees to their countries and regions of origin. The relative absence of studies examining the impact of displacement on the state of origin and stayee population of origin may be related to the difficulty of tracing an impact to displacement per se, rather than violence or conflict more broadly (see below). – International Community As per the TOR, articles, reports and evaluations were also identified pertaining to the socio- economic impacts of international operational approaches to forced displacement situations. In addition to NGO and agency evaluations of the impact of the international community on the diverse stakeholders in contexts of displacement, the effects, limitations and potential of humanitarian and development programmes arise throughout the academic literature. This ranges from a recognition of the international community‘s role in starting or resolving conflicts, to the provision of resources, services and programmes to assist affected stakeholders. The diverse ways in which displacement impacts upon international agencies is less frequently discussed in the literature, and no large N-studies have been identified which examine this form of impact. 4.5 Emerging Case-study Countries The following case-study countries (Table 4) emerged most frequently in the literature, organized according to the origin of the displaced population and the relevant host countries, and whether the population was internally (IDP) or internationally (refugee) displaced. This list of host countries is not exclusive, but rather identifies those host contexts which emerge most 35 frequently in the literature reviewed, and for which 5 or more empirically founded bibliographical references and/or significant, large-N qualitative or quantitative datasets have been identified (see Appendix 1). 36 Table 4 - Viable Case-Studies Emerging in the Literature Continent/Region of Origin and Hosting Country or Country of IDPs and/or State of Origin Asylum Refugees Asia Afghanistan Afghanistan IDPs/Returnees Pakistan Refugees Australia Indochina Canada Refugees France Norway USA Indonesia Indonesia IDPs/Returnees Philippines Philippines (Mindanao) IDPs Europe Balkans Balkan states IDPs/ Returnees Other European states Refugees Cyprus Cyprus IDPs Finland Former-USSR (post-WWII) IDP/Refugees Latin America Colombia Colombia IDPs/Returnees Middle East Iraq Iraq IDPs/Returnees Lebanon Refugees Jordan Syria Australia Palestine Gaza and West Bank IDPs Lebanon Refugees Jordan Syria Sub-Saharan Africa Angola Angola IDPs/Returnees Zambia Refugees Burundi Burundi IDPs/Returnees Tanzania Refugees Democratic Rep. of Congo DRC IDPs/Returnees Eritrea Eritrea IDPs Sudan (Eastern Sudan) Refugees Kenya Ethiopia Ethiopia IDPs Somalia (Ogaden) Refugees Sudan (Eastern Sudan) Kenya Liberia Liberia IDPs Mozambique Mozambique IDPs Rwanda Rwanda IDPs/Returnees Tanzania Refugees Somalia Somalia IDPs Kenya Refugees Sudan Sudan (Darfur & Southern Sudan) IDPs Egypt Refugees Kenya Uganda Uganda Uganda IDPs/Returnees Sudan Refugees 37 Of these, the following cases correspond to four of the five priority situations identified by the UNHCR‘s 2008 Initiative on Protracted Refugee Situations (UNHCR, 2008:3): Afghan refugees in Pakistan Bosnian and Croatian refugees in Serbia Burundian refugees in Tanzania Eritrean refugees in Eastern Sudan Concurrently, the following cases correspond to four of the six priority protracted refugee situations identified by the United States Department of State in February 2011 (Schwartz, 2011): Afghan refugees in Pakistan Bosnians and Croats in Serbia Liberians in West Africa Somalis in Kenya A range of urban contexts hosting a diversity of displaced populations also repeatedly arose throughout the literature review, and might be considered for Phase Two alongside the case- studies outlined above. The key urban contexts include Amman (Jordan), Cairo (Egypt), Damascus (Syria), Kampala (Uganda) and Nairobi (Kenya). 4.6 Quantitative – Qualitative Research Of the literature and datasets reviewed, the vast majority of academic reports are qualitative in nature and rely on non-random small-N samples. Most academic analyses draw on a combination of the following methods to analyse and understand the lived experiences, priorities, contributions and stated goals of displaced and hosting populations: ethnography, long-term 38 fieldwork, oral histories, testimonies, informal interviews, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, attitudinal surveys, participant research methods.19 Simultaneously, the literature review highlights the overarching absence of analyses drawing upon systematic and comparative methodologies, with studies typically drawing on only a limited array of indicators. Appendix 1 provides a detailed overview of existing qualitative and quantitative datasets for each of the specific case-studies identified in Phase One. It is important to note that the majority of quantitative research projects identified have a significant qualitative component, and all of the researchers consulted throughout the course of this review advocate for a mixed-methods approach to researching displacement contexts. As noted in Appendix 1, relevant baseline information and/or relevant qualitative and quantitative data exist primarily for the following case-studies: Afghan refugees in Pakistan Balkan IDPs, refugees and returnees Burundian IDPs, refugees and returnees Colombian IDPs Darfur IDPs Democratic Republic of Congo IDPs and returnees Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees in Eastern Sudan Eritrean and Ethiopian IDPs and returnees Finnish resettlement to USSR (post-World War II historical case-study) Indochinese refugees Indonesian IDPs Iraqi IDPs and refugees 19 Appendix 2 lists the key research methods upon which the existing academic literature is based. 39 Liberian IDPs and returnees Mozambican IDPs, refugees (Malawi-based) and returnees Northern Ugandan IDPs and refugees (esp. in Southern Sudan) Palestinian IDPs and refugees (Gaza, West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) Philippine IDPs in Mindanao Refugees hosted in Kenya (esp. Somali and Sudanese refugees) Rwandan and Burundian refugees in Tanzania Somali refugees (esp. in Kenya), IDPs and returnees Southern Sudanese refugees, IDPs and returnees As suggested by this list, an analysis of the socio-economic impact of displacement could variously be based around a particular displaced population (i.e. Burundian IDPs, refugees and returnees), or alternatively around a particular hosting context (i.e. Rwandan and Burundian refugees in Tanzania). Another means of constructing a case-study could be to identify a nexus between two or more locations which are simultaneously the point of departure for one group (refugee ―producing‖ areas) and the point of destination for another group (refugee hosting areas); for instance, a ―case-study‖ could potentially encompass Northern Uganda/Southern Sudan, given the presence of Southern Sudanese refugees in Northern Uganda, and of Northern Ugandan refugees in Southern Sudan. Indeed, whilst not included in the original TOR, it may also be desirable and feasible to assess the impact of displacement on the overall region, rather than individual host countries/areas or countries/areas of origin. ESCWA (2009), for instance, states in the context of the Middle East: that 40 The various cases of displacement in the region, either emergency or protracted, have subregional implications and impacts on the region as a whole. Displacement creates a potential threat to interregional relations, impacts regional security and impedes social stability and development on a regional level. The advantages and disadvantages of each approach must be considered when selecting viable case-studies for Phase Two. 41 4.7 Key Funders Appendix 1 also identifies the key funders who have commissioned or supported the research drawn upon in each case-study. In summary, the following organisations have provided support for much of the quantitative research conducted to date: Colombia‘s National Department for Planning (DNP) Dutch Statistical Office CBS European Union Acholi Programme European Commission‘s Humanitarian Office (ECHO) Global Development Network Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Norwegian Research Council Mellon–MIT Programme on Non-Governmental Organizations and Forced Migration MICROCON Oxfam Save the Children Ugandan Office of the Prime Minister, Department of Disaster Preparedness and Refugees UK Home Office United Republic of Tanzania UNDP UNHCR UNICEF 42 UNPF USAID World Bank World Food Programme 43 5. Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Displacement on Displaced Populations The majority of existing studies addressing the impact of displacement explicitly focus on the effect of displacement on the displaced population. Over two thirds of these studies identify the impacts on refugee populations, while an increasing number of studies explore the impacts on internally-displaced populations (IDPs). As indicated above, the majority of academic studies to date have been qualitative in focus, primarily relying upon micro-level studies and research methods. A smaller number of studies draw upon quantitative or mixed-methods studies to develop their assessments of the impact on the displaced population; the majority of these large- N studies focus on: Colombian IDPs, Northern Ugandan IDPs, Palestinian IDPs and refugees, and on-going research with Darfur IDPs. 5.1 Key impacts emerging in the literature Box 4 provides an overview of the main impact areas arising in the literature reviewed, including key socio-economic impacts of displacement on displaced populations, and issues potentially affecting socio-economic outputs in the short- and long-term: Box 4 - Key Impacts on Displaced Populations Differential impacts on displaced population Gender relations and gendered dynamics Health and well-being Demography, fertility and reproductive health Children (incl. education) Displaced people supporting other refugees/IDPs Identity and governance Human security Violence Economic impacts and camp economies 44 These impacts have been organised in the present document to represent a range of impacts from the micro- to the more macro-level. The overview of the literature pertaining to the impact of displacement on displaced populations starts with a general recognition of the differential impacts according to the characteristics of a displaced population and the particular significance of gendered experiences of displacement. With this in mind, the summary subsequently addresses the impacts of displacement on health and well-being, including in particular maternal and infant health. The broader impacts of displacement on children will then be discussed, followed by a brief summary of the effects which displaced populations may have on other refugees/IDPs with regard to financial support, political structures, and human security outcomes. The final section then provides an overview of the emerging literature pertaining to economic dynamics within refugee camps in particular, including vis-à-vis assets and expenditure, employment type, and remittances.20 5.2 Differential Impacts According to Displaced Populations’ Characteristics Much of the literature reviewed stresses that the demographic composition of a given displaced population will vary according to the type and nature of displacement experienced (i.e. who has been displaced vs. who has stayed in the context of origin), and potentially differ between camp and non-camp settings (i.e. Werker, 2007). The demographic composition will also, in turn, influence the kinds of socio-economic impacts experienced as a result of displacement. The gender, age, family size and composition, physical ability, educational levels, existing skills, and nature of social networks of a displaced population are amongst the characteristics which will 20 The review of key impacts on the remaining stakeholders follows a similar structure to that presented in the following pages. 45 influence the extent to which different members of the population are able to negotiate and respond to the challenges of the different phases of displacement. A further distinction to be made vis-à-vis the characteristics of the displaced population relates to whether the majority of the total population of origin was displaced (i.e. the case of Cyprus) or whether a smaller proportion of the total population of origin was displaced (i.e the case of Bosnia Herzegovina),21 and to what extent displacement has been individual and household based (i.e. Colombia) or collective mass displacement (i.e. Uganda). 5.3 Gender Relations and Gendered Dynamics A significant proportion of the academic, NGO and UNHCR literature reviewed addresses the gendered nature and impacts of displacement, demonstrating the differential impacts of displacement on the displaced population. The majority of this literature focuses almost exclusively on the impact of displacement on women, while an emerging body of literature exploring the impacts of displacement on diverse groups of men and boys. Literature regarding the impact of displacement on children is considered below. – Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) In line with UN guidelines and international commitments, baseline data and evaluations of displaced contexts should (at a minimum) be disaggregated by gender and include indicators which are gender sensitive (also see the MDG indicator list in Appendix 5). UNHCR specifies a range of indicators which should be utilised to measure the prevalence of SGBV against refugees, returnees and IDPs (UNEGM, 2007). Evaluations of UNHCR‘s work vis-à-vis SGBV provide concrete guidance on the ways in which data should be collected and analysed, and indicators used to prevent SGBV in contexts of displacement (also see Appendix 4). 21 Zetter, personal communication, 26 January 2011. 46 Oxfam draws on focus groups with 91 IDPs and a survey of 600 IDPs across the Acholi region of Uganda to note that amongst female IDPs ―sexual violence was the third most commonly cited security threat after Karimojong raiders and the LRA‖ (2007:11). The Oxfam report equally recognised that ―young men also identified sexual violence as one of the biggest security risks, not only to their families but to themselves‖ (ibid), with a small, but emerging body of literature and programmes attempting to identify the frequency, nature and implications of SGBV against men. Given that non-displaced populations also experience SGBV, whether the incidence and reporting of SGBV is related to displacement or to broader violence and conflict remains to be assessed in detail. An increasing body of literature documents and traces the changing incidence and reporting of domestic abuse in displacement contexts (Carlson, 2005), often suggesting that external interventions which provide women with employment opportunities may change gender roles within the displaced population which may, in turn, lead to increased rates of domestic violence (i.e. Rasco and Miller, 2004; Horn, 2010, esp. 365-366, and 367-368). Equally, literature documenting the short- and long-term impacts of displacement-related unemployment, reportedly include: mental health conditions, tensions within and between displaced populations, and increased reporting rates of domestic violence and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence. Other studies highlight the ways in which vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in IDP camps is gendered (including as a result of transactional sexual encounters and abuse by aid providers), with clear implications for policy development (i.e. Bukuluki et al 2008 vis-à-vis Uganda). An emerging body of literature also uses detailed datasets to assess whether there is a correlation between displacement and vulnerability to trafficking (Akee et al, 2010). 47 – Age, Gender and Diversity Mainstreaming and Gender Empowerment While the studies referred to above typically reinforce depictions of displacement contexts in general and refugee/IDP camps more specifically as criminalised spaces where political and power structures reinforce and strengthen patriarchal tendencies of the displaced community (see Callamard, 1999:198), in certain contexts displacement is identified as potential providing a space for ―positive‖ change and gender empowerment. Indeed, UNHCR‘s Development Assistance to Refugees (DAR) initiative (EXCOM, 2003, D(33)) notes that, amongst its aims DAR is designed to achieve and facilitate Gender equality, dignity and improved quality of refugee life; Empowerment and enhancement of productive capacities and self-reliance of refugees, particularly of women, pending durable solutions.22 More broadly, Millennium Development Goal 3 also revolves around the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women.23 Programmes developed in displacement contexts may specifically aim to maximise women‘s economic opportunities, providing the foundations for self-reliance and productivity. Throughout the monitoring programmes developed to assess the meaningful participation of displaced women, girls, boys and men,24 certain refugee camps have been identified by camp managers and international organisations alike as cases of ―best practice,‖ asserting that these camps enable the promotion of female camp leaders and facilitate opportunities for women and youth to establish and maintain social, educational and health systems.25 However, academic studies emphasise that gender, age, stage of life-cycle and generation (amongst other 22 The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is one quantitative measure developed to facilitate the assessment of meaningful male and female participation in a variety of arenas (Apodaca, 1998). 23 See Appendix 5 for relevant MDG indicators. 24 See the UNHCR‘s Age, Gender and Diversity Mainstreaming policy (in effect since 2004). 25 For instance, UNHCR EXCOM (2001) and UNHCR Refugee Women and Gender Equality Unit (2001); also see Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (2010b). 48 characteristics) influence the extent to which a social group can be identified as potential winners or losers within displacement contexts, and whether changes in gender relations are categorised as ―positive‖ or ―negative‖ in the short- and long-term.26 Whether displacement impacts upon gender relations in ―positive,‖ meaningful, and durable ways which embody UNHCR‘s stated goals of ―gender equality, dignity and improved quality of refugee life‖ and ―empowerment and enhancement of productive capacities and self - reliance of refugees‖ on the one hand, and refugees‘ priorities and preferences on the other, remains a contested issue within the literature. 5.4 Health and Well-being The literature surveyed highlights that the process of displacement typically has particularly notable impacts on the health and well-being of displaced populations, including: injuries sustained before and during displacement27 increased susceptibility to infectious diseases and illnesses trauma and mental health conditions28 consumption and nutrition29 Baseline studies of health and nutritional conditions are regularly completed by NGOs (i.e. Save the Children 2000 for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) and by UN agencies including WFP and WHO. Extensive studies and evaluations of projects designed to address the impact of 26 See, for instance, Turner (2004) regarding young refugee men in Tanzania; Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (2009 and 2010b) regarding female-centered economies in the Sahrawi refugee camps; and Gale (2007) vis-à-vis Sierra Leonean women and men in Guinean refugee camps. 27 The ability for individuals to engage in livelihood activities may be negatively affected by injuries sustained prior to displacement, such as disabilities resulting from conflict. 28 For instance, see Ajdukovic and Ajdukovic (1998), McCallin et al (1990), Porter and Haslem (2005), Mogollón Pérez and Vázquez Navarrete (2006) and Mels et al (2010). The Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma also provides a useful entry point to investigate measures of trauma. 29 See, for instance, the special issue of the Journal of Refugee Studies on displacement and nutrition (1992). Key indicators pertaining to nutrition may include height by age, and weight by height, as discussed in the second methodology document. 49 displacement on reproductive health (also see below) have been completed by the Inter-agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises and its partners (see Appendix 4). With respect to the increased susceptibility to diseases and illnesses, this may be due to unbalanced nutritional intake, low levels of immunisation and vaccination, exposure to new illnesses in transit and host environments, illnesses related to poor sanitary infrastructure and/or over-crowding, and limited access to clean water and healthcare services. Black (1994) also notes that certain impacts may derive from a population increase per se, as opposed to the specific characteristics of displaced populations. A range of studies attempt to develop comparative analyses by contrasting the health outcomes of displaced and non-displaced populations; these include a 2003 study by the Organización Panamericana de la Salud, and a study by Porter and Haslam (2005). The first study compares health outcomes amongst displaced and resident populations across six Colombian cities, noting that IDPs‘ living conditions and limited access to medical resources are amongst the factors leading to a higher prevalence of acute respiratory infections and acute diarrhea amongst IDPs than amongst non-displaced hosts (Organización Panamericana de la Salud, 2003). The latter study by Porter and Haslam (2005) traces the impact of displacement on mental health through a meta-analysis of studies investigating mental health amongst refugees and at least one non-refugee comparison group, identifying 59 independent comparisons including 67,294 participants. As noted in this study, mental health is particularly negatively affected when individuals are based in institutional accommodation, have limited economic opportunities, are displaced internally or have been repatriated to their state of origin; worse outcomes were also observed amongst older, more educated, female displaces. One key conclusion reached by Porter and Haslam is that mental health outcomes can be improved in favourable post-displacement conditions. 50 Whether health outcomes will have short- or long-term impacts will depend on a variety of factors including the nature of the injury (i.e. permanent or temporary disability), the duration and magnitude of the illness (i.e. acute or chronic; contagious or non-contagious), and the services offered throughout the different phases of displacement. Fiala (2009) interprets Northern Ugandan IDP‘s decreased meat consumption as an indicator of worsening general health amongst IDPs, and suggests ―a possible serious long-run decrease in the economic growth potential of households‖. An additional area emerging in the literature is the impact which host populations and host environments in the global South and global North may have on refugees‘ wellbeing, as discussed by Ryan et al (2008; also see Section 6 below). Policies and programmes developed to address the impacts of displacement upon displaced populations‘ health and wellbeing must be evaluated in line with Millennium Development Goals 1 (to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger), 4 (to reduce child mortality), and Goal 6 (to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases).30 With reference to the latter, it is notable that many of the academic publications examining the impact of displacement on health focus in particular on HIV/AIDS and malaria.31 5.5 Demography, Fertility and Reproductive Health In line with the above, the literature reviewed confirms that the sex ratio, age profile and marital status of the displaced population may influence the type of effects arising as a result of displacement. Displacement may therefore directly or indirectly impact upon the population structure, household composition and fertility of displaced populations. Changes in marriage 30 Relevant indicators will include those proposed for the MDGs 1, 4 and 6 (see Appendix 5) 31 On Afghan displacement and malaria and HIV/AIDS in Pakistan, see Kazmi and Pandit (2001), Rowland et al (2002), Khanani et al (2010); also see Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2007). 51 practices may be identified, variously including the promotion of early marriages,32 increased age at first marriage, or changes in the amount of mahr (brideprice) available to new brides over the course of different phases of displacement (Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2009). These changes may have serious implications for the short- and long-term security of the individuals and families involved. The relationship between displacement, fertility and child mortality is assessed by Singh (2001), Karunakara (2004) and Singh et al (2005) who rely on data collected by the Demography of Forced Migration Project single-round survey of 3339 Sudanese and Ugandan refugees, stayees, and returnees. It must be noted that while stayees are not themselves displaced, they are nonetheless affected by displacement in numerous ways (also see Section 8 below). Singh argues (2001: iv) that the study of the impact of forced migration on long-term mortality indicated that migration itself is not a negative event in terms of child mortality. The children with the highest mortality were those born to mothers who were ―stayees‖ or ―displaced before age 15.‖ While she argues that ―the substantive findings from these study populations are not generalizable to any other displaced population setting…. The methods, however, are intended for use in any long-term displaced population‖ (ibid). Karunakara (2004) concludes that ―Family separation, experience of child death and reduced access to food showed significant associations to fertility outcomes‖ in contexts of displacement. 32 For instance, on child marriages in Rwandan refugee camps see de Smedt (1998). 52 Randall (2004) also explores the impact of forced migration on the fertility of the Malian Tamasheq by comparing the pre-displacement and post-displacement fertility of 8,270 individuals. In spite of the limitations of linear representations of conflict and displacement (as outlined above), Randall proposes the following conceptualisation (see Figure 2)of phases of forced migration and their respective indirect and direct impacts on fertility (2005: 294): Figure 2 - Conceptualization of phases of forced migration or conflict on Demography. While this depiction is limited in a number of ways, it is nonetheless helpful in identifying a multiplicity of forces and outcomes which might more usefully be factored into a comprehensive methodology to estimate the impacts of displacement on demographic outcomes. 53 Research into the impact of displacement on reproductive health more broadly has also been completed by the Inter-agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises and the Reproductive Health Response in Conflict Consortium.33 The short- and long-term socio-economic impacts of changing marriage patterns, fertility levels, infant/child mortality and morbidity, maternal and reproductive health remain to be examined on case-by-case bases. Policy responses should be developed and evaluated in line with MDGs 4 and 5 which aim to reduce child mortality and improve maternal health respectively.34 5.6 Children As in the case of literature surrounding the impact of displacement on (adult) gender relations, the majority of studies about children highlight both the short- and long-term negative impacts of displacement, while a smaller proportion identify a range of positive opportunities or mechanisms to mitigate for the negative impacts in the longer term. The denomination of ―negative‖ impacts and ―positive‖ impacts on children arises systematically throughout the literature. With reference to the negative impacts of displacement on children, Save the Children (2009) and Hart and Lo Forte‘s (2010) reports on Palestinian children in the Occupied Palestinian Territories document children‘s exposure to intersecting forms of structural, physical and political violence. In the case of Northern Uganda, Fiala (2009) highlights the impacts of displacement-related child malnutrition on long-term child development, while Bozzoli and Brück find that ―while children in IDP camps and in returnee locations exhibit the same mean morbidity rates, IDP camp residency almost doubles morbidity while poor access to safe 33 See Appendix 4. 34 Relevant indicators are listed in Appendix 5. 54 drinking water in return locations counteracts the positive health effects of camp decongestion‖ (2010:1).35 A significant body of literature documents the psychological impacts of displacement on children around the world (i.e. McCallin et al, 1990 on Mozambican refugees, Ajdukovic and Ajdukovic, 1998 regarding Croatian refugees and IDPs) and on adolescents (Mels et al, 2010), highlighting the significance of the child‘s age at displacement, experiences of displacement, family separation and parents‘ coping strategies.36 In the context of a survey of 819 Congolese adolescent Mels et al conclude that ―as IDPs are highly exposed to violence and daily stressors, they report most psychological distress, when compared to returnees and non-displaced peers‖ (2010:1096). Whether humanitarian and development initiatives in the post-displacement or return phases can mitigate for the negative impacts of the emergency and post-emergency phases of displacement on infants, children and adolescents remains a key concern for academics and policy makers alike.37 Other factors identified in the literature include the intersections between gender, age at displacement and educational levels (UNDP, 2006, UNESCO, 2011), and the extent to which children may be withdrawn from education to look after family members, work within the home, engage in child labour or enter into early marriages. A variety of policies and programmes developed to increase school enrolment rates have been evaluated, including in particular the Food for Education programme in Northern Uganda (Adelman 2008 a and b; Alderman 2008; Lehrer, 2010). Policies and programmes should be developed and evaluated in relation to MDG 2, to achieve universal primary education.38 35 This analysis is based on a large household survey from post-war northern Uganda in 2007 (conducted by the Ugandan Bureau of Statistics and FAFO). 36 Ager has also written extensively about children‘s experiences of displacement (i.e. Ager, 2010, and Stark and Ager, 2009). 37 It must be noted that the collection and analysis of data, and subsequent policy recommendations, are strongly based on Western conceptualizations of childhood and well-being, and draw heavily upon normative Western assumptions which may not correspond to the world-views of the displaced population in question. 38 Relevant indicators are listed in Appendix 5. 55 In some instances, however, displaced children may have greater access to education than stayee children. As noted by UNDP (2006), IDP children and adolescents as a whole have higher educational attainment levels in Bosnia Herzegovina than ―non-displaced‖ Roma, reflecting the internal heterogeneity of the ―stayee‖ population. Camp- or urban-based education systems may offer displaced children an opportunity which are unavailable to host populations and stayee children alike. Displaced populations may establish their own education programmes, adopt the host country‘s syllabus, or follow a curriculum designed by international actors; these programmes may provide them with transferrable skills which will potentially then enable them to work in camp, local integration, return or resettlement contexts. Sahrawi children based in camps in South-Western Algeria, for instance, have access to 29 pre-school centres, 31 primary schools and 7 secondary schools in the camps (WFP, 2009/2010:2), with some students eventually moving to a ―national‖ boarding school to complete their secondary studies (Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2009, 2010a). A smaller cohort of Sahrawi youth regularly leaves the camps to complete their secondary and tertiary educations abroad, including in Algeria, Cuba, Libya and Syria in the past; during the post-emergency phase of the protracted refugee situation they have returned to the camps as trained doctors, nurses, engineers, teachers, etc., facilitating a relatively high level of professional self-sufficiency in the camps (ibid). Furthermore, through the Sahrawi-Spanish Holidays in Peace programme, approximately 10,000 Sahrawi children travel to Spain every summer to spend two months with host families, returning to the refugee camps bearing gifts, money, medical supplies and food for their immediate and extended families; as such, Sahrawi children both have high school enrolment levels and simultaneously act as significant mediators of aid in this protracted refugee context (Crivello and Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2010). 56 5.7 Displaced People Supporting Other Refugees/IDPs The characterisation of displaced populations as passive and dependent recipients of humanitarian aid has been carefully challenged by academics and policy makers alike (i.e. Harrell-Bond, 1986; Kibreab, 1993; Crisp, 2006). Various researchers have documented that refugees and IDPs provide significant support to other members of the displaced population, whether they are based in camps or urban contexts in the global South or global North (i.e. Dick 2002, 2003; Jacobsen 2006; Horst 2006a and b, 2007, 2008a and b). The roles of refugee/IDP information networks, non-state actors, direct refugee-refugee, refugee-IDP or IDP-IDP remittances, and displaced children as mediators of aid are all emerging themes within the existing literature. These studies recognize the agency of refugees even within the context of significant structural limitations; providing assistance to others in need is an important part of that agency. Although the nature of social networks often changes throughout processes of displacement, the existing literature demonstrates that the importance of social networks does not necessarily diminish (Horst, 2006b). Support by and to displaced people takes place both locally and transnationally. Locally, displaced people in camps might share food with relatives and friends, engage in unpaid labour, enable purchases on credit or offer job opportunities (Kibreab,1993; Horst, 2006b). Those who have moved within the region or have resettled in a third country, often send remittances. It is important to note that displaced households and communities are often only able to survive by strategically placing members inside and outside camps, with the most vulnerable individuals remaining inside camps in order to minimise risks and maximise access to food and non-food rations (Harrell-Bond, 1986; Jacobsen, 2005; Horst, 2006b). 57 5.8 Identity and Governance: “positive” or “negative” impacts? The literature also recognises that displacement contexts may impact upon collectivities by variously undermining displaced populations‘ sense of identity, or providing displaced populations with a space to develop ―new‖ or ―stronger‖ identities. This leads us to return to the question of whose perspective is to be prioritised when assessing whether a particular impact is to be categorised as a ―loss‖ or an ―opportunity‖. Existing studies highlight that encampment may lead to a shift in the leadership structures of a displaced population, as new leaders emerge which are able to engage with aid actors, for instance. The leadership of a displaced population may identify a range of political benefits of encampment, since enclosed spaces may facilitate nationalistic education programmes and the strengthening of national narratives, or may enable an element of cultural revival (as is arguably the case witnessed in the ―Mayan revival‖ of Guatemalan refugees in exile). External observers may variously identify this politicisation of identity as beneficial or as potentially threatening national, regional or international security. Indeed, in some contexts the host state and international community more broadly may welcome high levels of socio-political self-administration by displaced populations, in line with the purported goals of enabling displaced peoples to achieve self-sufficiency whilst awaiting the identification of a viable durable solution (Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2009, 2010). The Polisario Front‘s self-management of the Sahrawi refugee camps is a case in question, as are the self-reliance strategies in Uganda which have led to the creation of refugee ‗local councils‘ that parallel and coordinate with the host community‘s local councils. In direct contrast, the Hamas government has been identified by international actors as a security threat, despite being democratically- elected, and maintaining high levels of self-administration. 58 5.9 Human Security, Human Insecurity and Violence A significant proportion of the literature identifies the ways in which different structures and environments impact upon human security in displacement contexts. While ―human security‖ is a complex and much debated concept (i.e. Edwards, 2009; Edwards and Ferstman, 2010), the United Nations Commission on Human Security (2003) defines it as follows: Human security means protecting vital freedoms. It means protecting people from critical and pervasive threats and situations, building on their strengths and aspirations. It also means creating systems that give people the building blocks of survival, dignity and livelihood. Two main bodies of literature arise in this regard: firstly, studies of food security and livelihood strategies, and secondly, analyses of the types, sources, experiences and impacts of different forms of violence on and amongst displaced populations. – Food security and livelihoods A significant proportion of the literature addresses the impact of displacement on displaced populations‘ food security and livelihood strategies. Such studies include quantitative nutrition surveys (i.e. Oxfam, 2000 vis-à-vis IDPs in Mindanao; Ochola, 2006, 2007 regarding Dadaab camp), analyses of the nature and impact of changes in access to staple food items in displacement (i.e. Leach, 1991), and both qualitative and quantitative analyses of IDPs‘ experiences of food insecurity and the ways in which diverse coping strategies may undermine displaced people‘s human security (i.e. Bukuluki, 2008 vis-à-vis food insecurity and HIV/AIDS in Northern Uganda). Other studies focus on the impact of international programmes designed to improve food security levels and enhance livelihood options; these include studies which draw 59 on ethnographic research and large-N datasets to examine the multi-faceted effects of food aid (see Harvey, 2010) and food-for-education programmes (i.e. Adelman et al, 2008; Lehrer, 2010, both on Northern Uganda), and the correlations between food rations, livelihood programmes and human security.39 In addition to the studies identified in the thematic bibliograph y, relevant research is also currently being conducted as part of the parallel World Bank/Overseas Development Institute project exploring the impacts of displacement on livelihood strategies. – Different types of violence While the literature confirms that displaced populations often support other members of their own or other displaced communities, studies equally demonstrate that displaced populations can also exploit, attack and violate members of their own and other displaced communities, whilst also being targeted by militias, armed forced, international actors and members of the host population. In addition to the emergence of new forms of violence, in some cases, a continuation and accentuation of pre-flight violence is evidenced in camp and hosting environments alike. Detailed assessments of the continuation and at times intensification of violence in IDP camps include Hovil et al (2002), who rely on testimonies to document the continued insecurity and violence experienced by Northern Ugandan IDPs in IDP camps. With reference to refugee camps, Crisp (1999) identifies the internal and external sources of different forms of violence against refugees based in Kakuma and Dadaab camps in Kenya. Whilst noting that ―it is impossible to quantify the amount of violence that takes place in and around Kenya‘s refugee camps‖,40 Crisp develops a typology of different types of violence prevalent within these camps: domestic and community violence; sexual abuse and violence; armed robbery; violence within 39 For instance, see Waldron (1992), Smith (1993), Jacobsen (2003), Hill et al (2006), and the 2006 Special Issue of Refugee Survey Quarterly. 40 This reference to it being ―impossible to quantify the amount of violence‖ is grounded in the nature of information currently available. It may arguably be possible to undertake a detailed scoping study to obtain more reliable data regarding the frequency, nature and impact of violence in such contexts. 60 national refugee groups; violence between national refugee groups; and violence between refugees and local populations (1999). Evaluations of policies and programmes aiming to prevent different forms of violence and protect and compensate survivors of violence during displacement are included in Appendices 3 and 4. The short- and long-term implications of these different forms of violence may include health-related impacts (including permanent disabilities resulting from violence; contraction of a variety of chronic and acute infections and diseases, debilitating psychological conditions), the ability to engage in diverse livelihood strategies to enhance food security, and economic performance. 5.10 Economic Impacts – Camp economies Even in closed encampments, and despite policies which may limit or entirely prohibit socio- economic interactions outside of the encampment, it is increasingly recognised in the literature that camp economies typically develop in which different members of a given displaced population attempt to maximise their access to or profits arising from limited resources and services. Drawing on research conducted in the Kyangwali settlement in Uganda, arguably one of the most economically successful camp economies in Uganda under the self-reliance strategy, Werker proposes the following stylized model of camp economies ―to serve as a len s to understand any camp economy‖ (2007:471). 61 Figure 3 - Stylized Refugee Camp Economy Source: Werker, 2007:475 Whilst claiming to be applicable to any camp economy, Werker‘s model is limited in a number of ways given that it depicts a largely closed and isolated camp, rather than recognising diverse forms of interactions and connectivity. When developing a model to assess the economic outcomes within refugee camps, factors such as the integration of the camp economy into the wider local economy (Dick, 2002) and the transnational connections between refugees in camps and their relatives elsewhere (Gale, 2006, Horst, 2007, Jansen, 2008) must also be considered. The impact of legal status on economic participation and outcomes in particular is highlighted throughout a wide variety of case-studies,41 alongside reflections on the impact of registration 41 Assessing the intersection between the impact of displacement and legal status on the one hand, and economic outcomes on the other, could be usefully developed through a comparison of refugee and IDP employment levels and employment types in a similar host context (for instance, Sudanese refugees and Ugandan IDPs in Northern Uganda). 62 rights, the degree of freedom of movement held by displaced populations,42 and the extent to which displaced people are able to work in different spheres of the formal and informal economy. The environment in which camps are based will also influence the extent to which diverse livelihood strategies are feasible inside and outside of the camp (i.e the availability of arable land or arid desert-like conditions43). The location of camps and proximity to or isolation from existing market and trading centres will affect the nature, extent and viability of the camp economy. Whether economic activities and outcomes should be maximised within refugee camps, or whether policies should rather prioritise granting displaced people freedom of movement and permission to work outside of camps, remains a contested issue within policy research, while a large proportion of academic research openly advocates for the latter. With reference to this point, Werker (2007: 476) notes that: Thinking about maximizing economic outcomes within refugee camps is a fairly unorthodox way to view the goal of refugee interventions. It is not clear that a healthier economy inside the camp is necessarily optimal, if in other respects it is more desirable to have refugees living integrated with the host population. That having been said, there are many situations where improving the economic outcomes within the camp can be a simple, robust way to improve the lives of refugees. While informal camp economies are often established, run and managed by displaced people themselves, international policies which attempt to maximise displaced people‘s economic 42 For instance, see Refugee Law Project‘s research on freedom of movement in the context of Uganda (2002). 43 The Sahrawi refugee camps provide an interesting example of the effect of internationally funded-projects to create ―desert-gardens‖ to provide refugees with camp -sourced vegetable rations (onions, carrots and potatoes in particular). 63 activities in refugee camps, are often premised upon the desirability of promoting self- sufficiency in camps in order to facilitate self-sufficiency upon return (i.e. Dube and Koenig, 2005 re Dadaab and Kakuma camps in Kenya). The diverse motivations behind, and impacts of the promotion of economic activities and outcomes in refugee camps must be borne in mind during the collection and analysis of data. Numerous evaluations of the short-, medium- and long-term impact of livelihood programmes have been completed and are in progress (see parallel WB/ODI project). Hill also assesses the extent to which livelihoods programmes may enhance the personal security of IDPs in Colombia and Sudan (2006). – Assets and expenditure Regarding the impact of displacement on Northern Ugandan IDPs, Fiala (2009:1) finds ―that being forced to move has had a positive effect on the value of assets for households that originally had little or no assets but decreases the value of assets of all other households between 17% and 26%.‖ According to Ssewanyana et al (2007:1), displacement to IDP camps ―does not have significant impact on expenditure‖, arguing that only the top two deciles were negatively affected by displacement and that ―it is the better off households who lose the most (indeed, lose at all), when forced to move to a camp.‖ Such evaluations are in line with the recognition that certain displaced people/households will be ―losers‖ while others are ―winners‖. Further research is required to establish whether these findings are generalizable. – Employment levels and types Large- and small-scale studies assess the impact of displacement upon employment levels and employment types. Comparisons of unemployment levels and gendered employment levels amongst displaced populations and stayees is offered in the context of the Balkans by Kondylis (2007; also see UNDP 2006). Lehrer‘s study of IDPs in Northern Uganda explores the impact of displacement on labour market participation, and finds that ―the longer the existence of the camp 64 to which people moved, the less men work. In contrast, women's labour market decisions are not influenced by the age of the Internally Displaced People‘s camp in which they live‖ (2010:ii). As displaced populations are increasingly based in urban contexts, a wider variety of coping mechanisms and livelihood strategies are being recognised (on the intersection between humanitarian assistance and diverse Palestinian coping mechanisms see Roberts, 2004 and 2010), as are analyses of the long-term impacts of ―socially undesirable‖ activities undertaken b y certain cohorts of displaced populations (i.e. Smith, 1993). In the context of Nairobi, Campbell argues that while urban refugees are economically self-sufficient and survive largely without material assistance, they remain vulnerable to arrest and xenophobic violence, illustrating the significance of contextualising employment levels and types within the broader political economy of displacement (2006). – Remittances A highly significant body of literature examines the nature and impacts of displacement-related remittances, including evaluations of the amounts, usages, and pressures experienced by refugees and IDPs who send remittances to other displaced populations.44 This research has been conducted with both senders and receivers, with remittances providing a clear example of the transnational impacts of displacement. There are a range of studies focusing on a small number of countries, in particular Sri Lanka (Erdal and Stokke, 2009; Fuglerud, 1999; Orjuela, 2008) and Somalia (Gundel, 2002; Lindley, 2010), whereas other countries are less well covered. A recent comparative study of Somalis and Pakistanis in Norway concluded that ongoing civil war and the situation of those in regional refugee situations (leading to urgent and high levels of needs), greatly impacted the desire of remittance senders to remit (Carling et al, forthcoming). 44 See Al-Ali (2001); Riak Akuei (2005); Fagen and Bump (2006); Savage and Harvey (2007); and research by the Research Consortium on Remittances in Conflict and Crises. 65 Displaced populations may send remittances between camps, from host contexts to camps, from resettlement countries to camps or host locations, or from a variety of scenarios to the state of origin. A key methodological challenge in tracing international remittances sent by displaced populations emerges when attempting to distinguish between ―refugee‖, ―IDP‖ and ―other‖ senders (Riak Akuei, 2005), in addition to the diversity of formal and informal channels used by displaced remittance senders and recipients. 66 6. Assessing the Impacts on and of Hosting Communities The second largest body of literature identified for the purposes of this study pertains to the impact of displaced populations on host populations. Over three quarters of these reports assess the impact of refugees on host populations in neighbouring countries in the Global South. Despite an empirical shift towards urban displacement, most studies nonetheless prioritise the impact on rural hosts. The majority academic studies are qualitative, although a smaller number of studies draw upon quantitative or mixed-methods studies to develop their assessments of the impact of mass displacement on the host population; the majority of these large-N academic studies focus on the following case-studies: Impact of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda on Tanzanian hosts Impact of Eritrean refugees on Eastern Sudanese hosts (Kassala region) Impact of Ogaden refugees on Somali hosts Impact of Afghan refugees on Pakistani hosts Impact of Mozambican refugees on Malawian hosts A relatively small number of studies in turn attempt to address the socio-economic impact of refugees on host populations in the Global North, whether this pertains to individuals who have applied for asylum in the Global North, or refugees who have been resettled to a third country. Such studies are typically partial in nature given the type of data available vis-à-vis refugees in the Global North; hence, studies may assume that ―all migrants born in Iraq are refugees‖, leading to imprecise estimates of the impact of refugees on host populations. Two emerging bodies of literature 1) assess the impact of IDPs on host populations (especially vis-a-vis Colombia, Darfur and Northern Uganda), and 2) draw on empirical examples to document the impact of host communities on displaced populations. 67 Before turning to the key impacts emerging in this body of literature, three key issues will be briefly discussed: Firstly, regarding the development of academic and policy analyses of the impact of displacement on host populations; secondly, vis-à-vis conceptualisations of ―host populations‖ per se; and lastly, the challenges of attempting to trace the source of various impacts. 6.1 Impacts of the Displaced Population on the Host Population Chambers first highlighted the absence of studies into the effects of displacement on hosts in 1979. By differentiating between the impacts which rural, self-settled and urban refugees could have on hosts, Chambers stressed that displacement could create significant benefits for some hosts (the winners), whilst negatively impacting others (the losers). Noting that hosts may be as vulnerable and disadvantaged as the displaced population itself, if not more so, he concluded that ―generally, unless there are special interventions, the poorer people in a host population are, at the least, at risk and may be seriously impoverished‖ (1979:389). From the early-1980s in particular, increasing numbers of ―Refugee Aid and Development‖ (RAD) programmes jointly funded by the World Bank, UN agencies, governments and regional donors emerged in order to mitigate for some of the negative impacts experienced by host populations (for a detailed overview of the development of these programmes, see Betts, 2004). While the earlier studies typically focused on the ―burden‖ of hosting refugees in order to secure appropriate funds and develop policies accordingly, it has increasingly been argued that the positive impacts for the broader community must also be recognised and maximised where appropriate, as noted by the UNHCR (1998:106). Key initiatives developing responses to the impact of displacement on host communities include UNDP‘s long-term assistance to areas hosting displaced persons in Malawi (UNDP, 68 1987), and UNHCR/World Bank‘s income generating project for refugee-hosting areas in Pakistan (see World Bank 1989, 1992, 2001; English and UNHCR, 1989; UNHCR 2010-2011). Evaluations of the impact of these initiatives include internal and external assessments (see Appendix 3 for a selection of these evaluations), and, for instance, Ward‘s evaluation of the UNHCR/World Bank income generating project in Pakistan (1988). 6.2 Characteristics of the Host and Displaced Populations Chambers (1986) examined the extent to which hosts‘ characteristics might lead them to be winners or losers, distinguishing between three categories of hosts (surplus farmers, subsistence farmers and labourers) and five types of burden (food (driving up prices); land, labour and wages; services (infrastructure); common property resources (environment); and economic development) (1986:249-54).45 While much of the existing academic literature directly builds upon and complements Chambers‘ work, such taxonomies are increasingly recognized by academics and practitioners alike as being overly reductionist, for instance, as a result of the focus on agricultural host populations to the exclusion of non-agricultural and/or urban hosts. While the impact of displaced populations on pastoralist and nomadic hosts remains understudied (exceptions include Kibreab et al, 1990; Hoerz and GTZ, 1995; and Government of Denmark et al, 2010), the primary focus on rural host environments is increasingly being readdressed due to the increased incidence of urban displacement. The distinction between ―host‖ and ―displaced‖ populations is also increasingly challenged by empirical examples (also see Bakewell, 2004). In the context of Northern Uganda, Levin and Adoko (2006) indicate that ―Since host populations live in the same camps, and may also have limited access to land, they are also generally considered to be IDPs,‖ leading 45 Given the focus of much literature on the purported impact of displaced populations on hosts‘ health outcomes, it is perhaps notable that ―health‖ is not included by Chambers amongst these potential burdens. 69 the authors to refer to ―IDP hosts‖ in their article (2006:23). While they note that ―in most other situations of displacement, IDPs and host communities are distinguished from each other, and are often considered to have competing interests‖ (ibid), the distinction between displaced population and host population may nonetheless be unclear. In the border region between Southern Sudan and Northern Uganda, Singh equally notes that ―former hosts become the hosted‖ (2001: iv). As such, ongoing cycles of displacement, and the multi-directionality of movement therefore problematise the categories of ―stayee‖, ―displaced person‖ and ―host.‖ This creates a methodological challenge for any estimations of the impact of displacement on distinct stakeholders, as it is likely that the meaning of ―host population‖ will differ in every displacement context. The characteristics of both the host and displaced populations may influence the type and degree of impacts experienced as a result of displacement. Many studies assert that common ethnicity, language and religion may facilitate interactions between hosts and displaced populations, with authors at times drawing on notions of ―African traditional hospitality‖ as a means of assessing host responses to displacement in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, Smith (1993) notes that both Chambers (1986) and Kibreab (1985) question this idealisation of ―traditional hospitality,‖ suggesting that ―hospitality is in fact a function of resource availability and the local demand for labour‖ (1993:46). Another critique is that, although host and displaced populations may be denominated by external observers as ―sharing‖ a ―common‖ ethnicity, language or religion, the populations involved may experience purported commonalities and differences in a variety of ways, and may dismiss claims to a ―shared‖ identity. On the other hand, Kuhlman highlights the internal heterogeneity of both displaced and host populations by noting that tensions often exist within each population. As such, a lack of interactions and exchange with a host community may reflect broader divisions within the host population, rather 70 than a specific form of discrimination against displaced populations: ―social distance or antagonism between refugees and nationals may not be higher than between different groups of nationals‖ (1994:120-121). 6.3 Tracing the Source of “Impacts”? As noted by Kibreab et al (1990) with reference to the impact of Ogaden refugees on Somali hosts, it may be difficult to ―ascertain whether the present standard of living would have been different if no refugees had arrived‖ (Kibreab et al, 1990:104). Equally, Kuhlman (1991:16) notes in the context of a study into the impact of Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees on Eastern Sudanese hosts, that ―measuring this impact is actually very difficult: out of the total economic change which the host region will have undergone since the influx of refugees began, the effect of this one factor must be separated out. To do this may well mean a general study of economic change, as was done in the Kassala research.‖ With this in mind, the methodological framework developed in the accompanying documents explores the possibility of comparing outcomes between a displacement-affected region and a region which has not received large numbers of displaced people. A further question arises regarding the extent to which socio-economic or political change may be directly related to displacement per se, rather than a more general population increase. Drawing on his research into the socio-economic impact of Mozambican refugees on Zambian hosts, Black (1994:258) proposes the following model to help differentiate between demographic increase and refugee arrivals per se: 71 Figure 4 - Suggested Effects of Population Growth Whether a socio-economic change can be traced directly to displacement per se, as opposed to a general population increase on the one hand, or specific national, regional or international policy responses designed and implemented in displacement contexts on the other, remains unexplored to date. 72 6.3.1 Key impacts A review of the literature highlights that studies have been completed vis-à-vis the following socio-economic impacts on host populations: Box 5 - Key Impacts on Host Populations Environmental impact Health and well-being of hosts Social impacts o Demography and fertility o Education o Host concerns, social tensions, violence and crime Economic impacts on host populations The overview of the literature pertaining to the impact of displacement on host populations is organised as follows: the review starts with a general overview of studies pertaining to the environmental impact of displacement; such studies account for approximately a fifth of the literature regarding the impact of displacement on hosts. Reflecting the two key impacts which are implicitly or explicitly related to environmental displacement within the existing literature, the subsequent summaries then address the impact of displacement on 1) hosts‘ health and well- being, and 2) various effects on the degree and nature of social interactions between host and displaced populations. The broader impacts of displacement on the economic behaviour and outcomes of the host population will then be discussed, before concluding with a summary of the emerging literature which documents the impacts of host populations on the displaced population. 73 6.3.1.1 Environmental Impact From the early-1990s,46 the impact of displacement on host environments became a particular concern for academics and practitioners alike; a fifth of the literature reviewed examined the environmental impact of displacement and policies to address this. A key study includes that conducted by the Government of Malawi, with World Bank support, in the early-1990s (1992).47 While early studies often represented displaced populations as ―exceptional degraders,‖ Black identifies different forms of environmental degradation which may be ―initiated or stimulated by a rapid rise in population density associated with forced migration‖, as opposed to displaced populations per se (Black, 1994: 262, emphasis added). The environmental impact of mass population displacement will also depend on the nature of the hosting area; drawing on data from the World Resources Institute, Dennis (1993) developed a Refugee Absorption Capacity Index, providing ―a ranking of refugee receiving countries according to their availability of arable land per capita‖ (quoted in Hoertz and GTZ, 1995). The nature, degree and short- to long-term implications of forced migration have continued to be examined in detail with a variety of policies developed by humanitarian and development agencies. Jacobsen (1997) argues that the environmental impact will depend on the ―settlement type,‖ advocating for local integration to encourage both refugees and hosts to minimise environmental degradation. Reflecting the internal heterogeneity of host populations, Hoerz and GTZ (1995) and Kibreab et al (1990) suggest that displacement-associated environmental degradation may have a particularly significant effect on host populations which engage in nomadic and/or pastoralist livelihoods, although a more recent study by the 46 UNHCR has in particular focused on environmental impact since the Rio Summit on the Environment and Development. The SPHERE standards provide a means of collecting measurable evaluations of environmental standards, particularly within camps. 47 As noted by the World Bank, ―managing and reducing our environmental impact is essential to sustainable development‖ (see http://crinfo.worldbank.org/environmental_responsibility/index). 74 Government of Denmark et al (2010) challenges this finding. Whitaker in turn argues that although displacement may initially result in a negative impact on the hosting environment, host perceptions and host approaches to the environment may improve in the long-term (1999). Two key impacts are in turn frequently associated with environmental degradation: firstly, on the health of hosts and secondly, as a factor leading to increased tension and potentially violence between host and displaced populations. Such tensions may arise as a result of competition over limited agricultural spaces and natural resources which are amongst the environmental factors and elements which may have been impacted upon by the presence of displaced populations. 6.3.1.2 Health and Well-being of Hosts A significant proportion (approximately a sixth) of the literature reviewed refers to the impact of displacement on the health of host populations. However, as noted by Baez (2010) few studies rely on an analysis of empirical data to explore the impact of displacement on hosts‘ well -being, with existing studies leading to mixed conclusions. Drawing on large-N cross-sectional data sets from the Tanzania Demographic and Health Surveys (1992-1996) and the Kagera Health and Development Survey (1991-2004), Baez estimates the short- and long-term ―causal effects of hosting refugees on the outcomes of local children.‖ Equally, Singh (2001 and Singh et al (2005) draw on survey data from the Demography of Forced Migration Project to compare the health outcomes of Ugandan host children exposed to self-settled Sudanese refugees, those unexposed to refugees and those exposed to settled refugees. Both of these studies argue that the health outcomes of host children are adversely affected by hosting displaced populations. Montalvo and Reynal-Querol also draw on WHO data and use civil wars as an instrumental variable, concluding that ―on average 13% of the cases of malaria reported by the WHO are caused by forced migration as a consequence of civil wars‖ (2007:165). 75 On the other hand, however, Rowland et al. (2002:2061) compare refugee and host health-data in Pakistan, concluding that they found no ―evidence for the presence of refugees having increased the malaria burden in the Pakistani population, as is sometimes alleged.‖ They highlight ―the risk of misinterpreting health trends when parallel health services are operating‖ (ibid). Van Damme et al (1998) also examine health data from refugee-affected areas of Guinea to establish ―whether the host population gained better access to hospital care‖ as a result of the presence of displaced Liberians and Sierra Leoneans; the authors identify higher levels of hosts‘ access to hospital care ―in the area with high numbers of refugees than in the other two areas... In areas with high numbers of refugees, the refugee-assistance programme improved the health system and transport infrastructure‖ (1998:1609). Further empirical studies are required to identify the differential impacts of displacement on host populations‘ health and well-being, and the extent to which policies may mitigate potential negative impacts and maximise opportunities to improve displaced and host populations‘ health outcomes.48 6.3.1.3 Social Impacts A significant number of studies are based on small-scale attitudinal surveys to explore host populations‘ social interactions with displaced populations.49 Studies typically indicate that potentially negative impacts on hosts can be mitigated through the development and implementation of appropriate policies. Key areas falling within the broad area of social impacts of displacement include: changes in the demography and fertility of the host population; host children‘s access to educational programmes; and hosts‘ concerns and responses to the presence of displaced populations, including social tension, violence, and perceptions of crime rates/ 48 Relevant indicators will include those proposed for the MDGs 1, 4 and 6 (see Appendix 5) 49 For instance, see Kibreab et al, (1990) regarding Somalia; Mijere (1995) and Sinyangwe (1995) vis-a-vis Zambia; ad Campbell (2006) regarding urban displacement in Nairobi. 76 – Demography and fertility A small number of studies have focused on the impact of displacement on host populations‘ demography and fertility. These studies have typically explored intermarriage between hosts and displaced populations. Kibreab et al (1990) draw on surveys of 898 households to explore intermarriage amongst Somali hosts and Ogaden refugees, highlighting that the sex ratio of refugee and host populations, the ratio of refugees:hosts, and population density more broadly may influence the likelihood of changing marriage patterns between and amongst refugee and host populations. As noted above, changing marriage patterns may in turn affect fertility levels, reproductive, maternal and infant health outcomes, and demographic structures in the medium- to long-term. – Education The impact of displacement on host children‘s access to education has been assessed by academics and practitioners through both qualitative and quantitative approaches (i.e. Bonfiglio, 2010). Black argues that Zambian host children benefitted from the presence of Mozambican refugees, enhancing both their access to primary level education (1990, 1994; also Mabwe, 1995), and variously affecting the nature of social interactions between host and displaced populations. Other key studies specifically advocate for the provision of integrated primary education for host and displaced children, including Dryden-Peterson et al (2003), while the NORDECO evaluation of the impact of Dadaab camp on host populations states that hosts reported that they had improved access to education (2010:8). Studies addressing adult education typically focus on vocational training programmes which enhance diversified livelihood strategies, with some studies examining displaced populations‘ access to upper-secondary and tertiary educations (ie. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2011), and others assessing the development of non- 77 formal education projects in urban contexts which benefit both displaced populations and non- displaced urban residents (i.e. Bonfiglio, 2010). – Host concerns: social tensions, violence and crime Hosts‘ concerns regarding the presence of displaced populations, and their access to land and resources in particular, are documented in a large number of qualitative and quantitative studies. Qualitative studies form the largest part of this body of literature. Key case-studies emerging in this regard are Malawian host communities‘ social interactions and concerns regarding Mozambican refugees, fears regarding the impact of Eritrean refugees on Eastern Sudanese hosts, and tensions between host and displaced populations in Northern Uganda. Whether refugees or IDPs are perceived to be a greater burden within the same host population remains to be explored.50 Particular concerns emerge surrounding the impact of displacement on the host population‘s overall security. Here a distinction must be made between perceptions/fears and actual changes in insecurity levels on human, societal and state levels (Schmeidl, 2002). Militarised refugee/IDP camps and settlements are prevalent in certain displacement contexts, with rebel groups and militias potentially targeting both displaced and host populations. A number of empirical studies correlate refugee-presence with increased security risks for the host population and host country (i.e. Salehyan, 2007; Collier, 2000; Collier and Hoeffler, 2004). However, Schmeidl (2002) draws on the case-study of Afghan refugees in Pakistan to argue that it is neither displacement per se nor the size of the displaced population which enhances insecurity, but rather, the duration of displacement and the type of regional and international policies developed. Equally, Rutinwa and Kamanga (2003) analyse crime statistics in refugee- 50 The case-studies of Sudanese refugees and Ugandan IDPs in Northern Uganda, and of Sudanese IDPs, Eritrean, Ethiopian and Ugandan refugees in Sudan may be particularly appropriate in this regard. 78 hosting areas of Tanzania and find that no evidence exists to correlate refugee presence with increased crime. Although these and other empirical studies explicitly challenge hosts‘ conceptualisations of displaced populations as security threats, the significance of hosts‘ perceptions and attitudes to displaced populations cannot be underestimated (as argued, for instance, by Kibreab et al, 1990). Importantly, these perceptions may directly influence host behaviour and the nature of interactions with the displaced population, limiting the possibility of meaningful local integration being achieved (also see below). Furthermore, they may have the potential to lead to diverse policies being developed and implemented on local, regional and national levels. In turn, the literature suggests that host attitudes and perceptions may be influenced by local, regional and national politics. 6.3.1.4 Economic Impacts on Host Populations A pivotal study identified throughout the literature review is Kuhlman‘s work on the economic integration of Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees in Eastern Sudan, and refugees‘ impact on the economic behaviour and outcomes of the host population (Kuhlman, 1990, 1991, 1994). Kuhlman proposes the following model for the economic dimension of refugee adaptation, which can also be extended/adapted to IDPs: 79 Figure 5 - A Model for the Economic Dimension of Refugee Adaptation Kuhlman‘s research into the economic dimension of local integration is one of the most regularly cited academic pieces within the literature reviewed (alongside Chambers, 1986), and provides a detailed methodological framework to assess the economic impact of displacement on both displaced and host populations. Importantly, Kuhlman argues that ―local integration‖ can only be considered to exist when 1) the displaced population‘s economic participation in the economy is adequate, providing 2) an acceptable income and 3) equal access to goods and services as those available to hosts, on 80 the condition that 4) ―the impact of refugees on the host society[…], on balance,‖ has not led to a deterioration in ―the position of the various socio-economic categories within the indigenous population‖ with respect to 1), 2) and 3). This definition of local integration thereby depends on supporting displaced populations‘ economic performance and outcomes, while simultaneously ensuring that host populations‘ socio-economic outcomes are not negatively affected. Key areas addressed in the broader literature include: Impact on the price and availability of food and non-food items Impact on the price and availability of accommodation and land Impact on employment levels and types Impact on income levels and trade Impact on expenditure, including consumption smoothing Impact of new industries and markets A small number of quantitatively based studies argue that displacement may lead to the accelerated economic integration of hosting populations into national and regional markets. English and UNHCR (1989), for instance, argue that Afghan refugees and international responses to displacement in the 1980s led to the integration of the North West Frontier Province into the social and economic mainstream of Pakistan. Highlighting the potential for displacement contexts to prompt economic expansion and innovation, Kibreab et al (1990) draw on survey data to argue that the Ogaden refugee camps established in Qoryoley and Jalalaqsi (Somalia) ―has breathed a new life and dynamism into the regional economies of the areas. The two towns have, as a result of this, grown from small and stagnant villages into important regional markets with relatively thriving economies‖. The 81 potential for displacement to prompt a ―boon‖ rather than being a ―burden‖ is also assessed by Kuhlman‘s large-N survey of the impact of refugees on Sudanese hosts in the Kassala region (1990, 1991, 1994). Other significant large-N studies include Alix-García and Saah (2010) who draw on economic datasets from the mid-1980s to late-1990s, and Maystadt and Verwimp (2009) who utilise Tanzanian household panel data from 1991-2004 to analyse the effect of Burundian and Rwandan refugees on host populations in western Tanzania. While numerous studies have argued that the injection of food aid can lower food prices in the local economy, Alix-García and Saah (2010:148) found: large increases in the prices of non-aid food items and more modest price effects for aid- related food items. Food aid is shown to mitigate these effects, though its impact is smaller than that of the increases in the refugee population. Examination of household assets suggests positive wealth effects of refugee camps on nearby rural households and negative wealth effects on households in urban areas. Equally, Maystadt and Verwimp (2009:1) conclude that local hosts do not necessarily suffer from the refugee presence. Net economic benefits could even emerge provided a sufficient mass of refugees is gathered. Furthermore, the economic benefits appear to be unevenly distributed among the refugee- hosting population. Agricultural workers are likely to suffer the most from an increase in competition on the labor markets and the surging prices of several goods. On the contrary, non-agricultural workers and self-employed farmers are in a better position to 82 benefit from such a refugee inflow. We also conjecture that the welfare deterioration experienced by those involved into business could be explained a selection effect resulting from the reported entry of larger-scale entrepreneurs from other regions. Whether changes in host‘s economic behaviour can be traced to a general population increase, the arrival of a displaced population per se, the implementation of humanitarian and development programmes, displacement-related remittance flows, or macro-economic policies remains to be explored through careful empirical studies. Whether displacement leads to short- or long-term impacts, and what the economic prospects may be for hosts following the departure of displaced population (Huisman (2003), are also issues requiring further analysis. Key studies which draw on large-N surveys and datasets to explore the economic impact of displacement on host populations include the following: Economic and welfare impacts of Colombian IDPs on Colombian hosts: Attanasio et al (2005) Ibañez and Moya (esp. 2006) Economic impact of Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees on hosts in Kassala (Eastern Sudan): Kok (1989) Kuhlman (1990, 1991, 1994) Ongoing study into the impact of Darfur IDPs on hosts: Alix-García et al (2010-2011) Socio-economic impacts of Mozambican refugees on Malawian hosts: Long et al (1990) Callamard (1994) Socio-economic impacts of Burundian and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania: 83 Alix-García (1997, 2000) Gentry (2009) Huisman (2003) Landau (2002, 2003, 2004) Mwakasege (1995) Maystadt and Verwimp (2009) Rutinwa and Kamanga (2003) Green and UNICEF (1994) Whitaker (1999, 2002) World Bank (De Weerdt et al, 2006) 6.4 Impacts of the Host Population on the Displaced Population A small number of studies highlight the extent to which host populations may both influence the type and degree of impact resulting from displacement, and, equally, may directly affect the outcomes and opportunities of displaced people themselves. For instance, social attitudes and perceptions may lead to enhanced xenophobia towards displaced populations, which may in turn lead to discrimination which limits displaced people‘s effective access to formal employment opportunities and their ability to participate in the formal economic sphere, even if displaced people officially have the right to work in a particular context. Hence, Ryan et al (2008) point to the potential impacts of hosts on refugees‘ psychological well-being in the global South and global North; Dick (2002) highlights the nature and impacts of hosts‘ discrimination towards refugees, thereby accentuating the impact of national policies; and Jacobsen (2006) points to the ways in which refugees negotiate discrimination, xenophobia and abuse, noting the extent to which legal status and national 84 refugee policies may influence hosts‘ behaviour towards refugees. The reverse (the extent to which host‘s attitudes towards refugees may influence the development of national and international policies) is also noted. A larger body of literature implicitly documents the exploitation of displaced populations by certain cohorts of hosting populations, with many of these studies being qualitative in nature. Such exploitation may benefit certain ―winners‖ in the host population, whilst seriously affecting displaced people‘s well-being and socio-economic outcomes. The different experiences of refugees and IDPs in the same host context are suggested in Hovil et al‘s study (based on testimonies) of displacement in Northern Uganda (2002); further empirical research is required to explore the differential impacts of internal versus international displacement on the nature and implications of social interactions with host populations. 85 7. Assessing Impacts on and of the Host State Approximately a fifth of the literature reviewed notes the particular impact of international displacement on host states in the global South. A small number of these studies attempt to estimate the impact on Southern host governments through economic data. Although there are fewer studies evaluating the impact of IDPs on the host state (which in the context of internal displacement will be same as the state of origin), a larger proportion of these studies are based on large-N datasets, and focus primarily on Colombia, the Balkans and various regions of Sudan. A large proportion of the studies examining the impact of displacement on Northern states draw on detailed quantitative data to assess the economic impact of displacement on European and North American states. A significant body of literature also implicitly and explicitly assesses the impact which Southern and Northern host states have on displaced populations by virtue of the different policies which they (do or do not) promote and implement. A detailed overview of literature pertaining to the impact of hosting refugees on neighbouring states is presented in a World Bank report by Gomez et al (2010). The summary of existing approaches to studying the impacts on and of host states is divided in two parts: firstly, the report provides an overview of key studies pertaining to host states in the global South, and secondly, it addresses the literature vis-à-vis Northern host states. 7.1 Impacts on and of Southern Host States Since the 1980s in particular (with ICARA I and ICARA II), Southern governments and international agencies have highlighted the need for international donors to support host countries to cope with the state‘s ―burden‖ of hosting displaced populations (see Smythe, 198; Gorman, 1986; Callamard, 1994). A number of studies have been completed by host 86 governments in partnership with international agencies and/or donor states, as in the following cases: Government of Malawi (1990, 1992), study conducted with the World Bank (1990); an earlier study commissioned by the Government of Malawi estimated the total one year macro-level cost of hosting Mozambican refugees (UNDP, Burgess et al, 1987, jointly- run with UNHCR) United Republic of Tanzania (1994), which prepared sectoral assessment reports on the negative impact of hosting refugees, and documented the estimated national expenditure on hosting refugees through a general ―accounting exercise‖ Republic of Kenya (2010), study conducted with the Royal Danish Embassy and the Norwegian Embassy As noted by Long et al (1990) in response to the Government of Malawi and World Bank study of the national impact of hosting refugees, it is essential to complement macro-level studies with micro-level analyses of the impact of hosting refugees on the host population itself. Kuhlman et al (1987) also argue that the main ―burden‖ of hosting refugees is typically felt by the host population, not by the government per se (also see Rutinwa and Kamanga, 2003 regarding Tanzania). This points to the need for a comprehensive methodology taking into account the impact of displacement on all stakeholders, rather than prioritising partial perspectives through the application of partial indicators to selected displacement scenarios. To date, no such study has been conducted, and the present project therefore fills a significant gap in the field. The (state) burden of hosting refugees is often identified as relating to increased pressure on the environment, existing infrastructure, political systems, and economic outcomes (i.e. Stein and Clark, 1985). However, Kibreab notes that although many studies concur vis-à-vis the negative impact of displacement on the first three (environment, infrastructure and political 87 systems), there are contesting views regarding the overall economic impact of hosting displaced populations (1990, quoted in Callamard, 1994:40). Kuhlman notes that the effect of displacement on a host state will depend on the macro- economic situation of that state, and that this will determine the ―capacity of the country to integrate an influx of refugees‖ (1991: 14). He continues by stressing that ―economic data on the country or region of settlement have to be collected in order to assess the impact of refugees. A distinction may be made between structural and conjunctural characteristics of the host economy‖ (ibid). With reference to measuring the impact of hosting Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees on the Sudanese national economy as a whole, Kuhlman (1994:165) argues that it was impossible for him, since the regional differences across Sudan were ―too wide‖: It has not been possible to measure aggregate regional income, let alone the refugees‘ impact on it. No data are available for that quantity, neither for the period of the study nor for the time before the influx of the refugees. Whilst recognizing these limitations, it may be possible to overcome these challenges through a comprehensive methodology. However, the extent to which impacts can or cannot be measured on regional or national levels remains a key methodological challenge (also see Huisman, 2003) which is closely connected to the difficulty of assessing whether local, regional, national or international policies and programmes are directly related to a particular socio-economic impact amongst the different stakeholders. Furthermore, since a given state may host multiple refugee and/or IDP populations (i.e. Uganda, Sudan, Tanzania, etc), and simultaneously may be a source country for refugees hosted in other states, it may be particularly difficult to estimate the national balance of the costs and benefits of hosting these different displaced populations. 88 Czaika‘s development of a methodology to develop a Refugee Burden Index (2005, 2009) is an innovative study which attempts to meaningfully measure the distribution of the ―burden‖ of displacement on host states. Czaika‘s methodology utilizes proxy indicators which represent the economic, socio-demographic, and politico-institutional environment of the host state to make ―refugee burdens more comparable on a cross-country basis‖ (2005:101). He then applies the methodology on a sample of 174 countries to reveal ―the extent of a globally and regionally highly unequal refugee burden-sharing pattern‖ (ibid). Such a methodology, which focuses on the ―burden‖ of refugees, could potentially be complemented by a Refugee Benefits Index to highlight the potential advantages and opportunities arising from hosting refugees. An alternative might be the development of a broader Refugee Impact Index, which could meaningfully assess the balance of costs and benefits of hosting refugees and/or IDPs. Existing studies which assess the impact on the national economy of host states in general include estimations of the following direct and indirect costs and benefits (Box 6): Box 6 - Direct and Indirect Costs and Benefits to Host States Encampment Care and maintenance programmes Governmental employees working on refugee/IDP related work; o Hosting displaced populations outside of camps51 o Refugee status determination process o Detention o Dispersal policies52 Deportation Integration in labour market Remittances Tax revenues53 Growth and inflation54 51 On hosting Kosovan refugees in Albania, see Angjeli (1999). 52 For instance, see Damm and Rosholm (2003). 53 For instance, see Martin et al (2005) and Czaika (2005). 54 For instance, see Saif and DeBartolo (2007), regarding Iraqi refugees in Jordan. 89 In all of these contexts, measuring the impact on the host state requires, at a minimum, recognition of the costs and benefits arising from the displaced population per se, and the costs and benefits resulting from local, national and international policies and programmes developed and implemented in response to displacement. Regarding direct and indirect benefits to the state, Jacobsen (2002) differentiates between short- and long-term benefits of socio-economic and political types. She argues that, since refugee camps are often located close to international borders, responding to displacement in these contexts may enable host states to strengthen their political and institutional control over peripheral areas (also Laissally-Jacob, 2002). However, while this may at times strengthen state control over such areas and be conceptualised as a benefit by state actors, it may simultaneously have a negative impact on local populations‘ wellbeing and socio-economic outcomes. Nomadic and pastoralist groups in such areas may be particularly affected in this regard. While measuring socio-economic impacts is complex, evaluating the political benefits and costs to the host and neighbouring states is arguably even more so. As noted above, a particular danger of estimating the costs of displacement may be that states are identified as benefitting from hosting highly-skilled individuals whilst ―losing‖ from hosting, for instance, subsistence farmers or nomadic pastoralists. The conceptualisation of certain refugees as more beneficial than others due to their skill-sets and assets could potentially lead to the development and implementation of policies which do not correspond to or uphold the international protection and human rights obligations of host states and the international community more broadly. As noted earlier in this report, any policy recommendations arising from the estimations of the costs and benefits of hosting displaced populations on host states must be in line with international protection and human rights frameworks, and commitments such as the Millennium Development Goals. 90 7.2 Impacts on and of Northern Host States Detailed quantitative studies have been conducted on the economic impact of hosting displaced populations in the Global North. That such a large proportion of studies focusing on the global North should correspond to economic analyses both confirms the availability of relevant longitudinal data which may not be readily available in Southern host states, and equally highlights the particular interest which academics, practitioners, host governments and regional bodies such as the European Union have in quantifying the economic costs and benefits of hosting refugees in the North. The most detailed study into the direct fiscal costs of hosting displaced populations is presented in a study of seven European states55 by Jandl (1995), which in turn draws on an earlier preliminary survey of asylum costs in 13 Western States (Widgren, 1990). Regular estimations of fiscal and other costs are completed by European states, such as the UK Home Office and the Government of Sweden (see Martin et al, 2003). In the context of the three available durable solutions, studies which focus on the impact of displacement on Northern host states enable a detailed assessment of the costs and benefits of at least two key durable solutions: the local integration of refugees who seek asylum in Northern countries,56 and the resettlement of refugees previously based in the global South. Such studies provide the foundation for a comparison of the costs and benefits of each of the three durable solutions (the third being repatriation to the country of origin) for each of the stakeholders involved. In some cases, the costs and benefits of all three durable solutions could be identified within the context of the global North: i.e. the historical case-study of Finland (Sarvimäki et al, 2009) and mass internal and international displacement within and from the Balkans. 55 These are: Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland. 56 See the Council of Europe‘s 1997 framework for the ―measurement‖ of integration, which provides a potential list of indicators of integration; detailed critiques and elaborations of these integration indicators are presented by Ager et al, 2002, Ager and Eyber, 2002, Strang et al, 2003, Ager, 2004 and Ager and Strang, 2008. 91 A significant body of literature also traces the impacts of different policies implemented by Northern host states on the outcomes and experiences of displaced populations. Numerous large-N studies evaluate the impact of policies which variously prevent or encourage asylum- seekers and refugees from contributing to the host state‘s formal economy, including the following: Australia: Wooden (1991) and Waxman (2001) Canada: Krahn et al (2000) and DeVoretz et al (2004) Denmark: Husted et al (2000) and Damm and Rosholm (2003) Netherlands: Hartog and Zorlu (2005) and Brink (2007) Norway: Hauff and Vaglum (1993) UK: Bloch (1999) and Aldridge and Waddington (2001) USA: Finnan (1981), Strand (1984), Caplan et al (1985), Tran (1991), Borjas (1994), Potocky (1997, 2001, 2003, 2004), Cortes (2004), and Connor (2010) A number of these studies attempt to compare the economic outcomes of refugees with those of other groups of (non-refugee) immigrants, and explore the reasons underpinning differences in employment levels, employment type, income levels, etc (i.e. Potocky, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004; Cortes, 2004; Connor, 2010). Many of these studies present policy-recommendations to maximize the benefits of hosting refugees in the short- and long-term (including Porter and Haslam, 2005; and Takeda, 2000). However, the comparison between refugees and non-refugee immigrants, as presented in the above mentioned studies, typically fail to present a comprehensive estimate of the impact of refugees on diverse stakeholders. Indeed, given the lack of data, numerous assumptions are drawn upon to conduct these exercises (i.e. Cortes, 2004). Host states in the global North and global South may also have directly or indirectly contributed to the factors leading to displacement through a range of means including 1) sale of 92 arms to military and/or militia in country of origin; 2) direct military intervention in the country of origin; and 3) diplomatic pressure upon the country of origin. Northern and Southern host states may also intervene to resolve a context of displacement. Such military and other costs should also be incorporated into an evaluation of the costs and benefits of displacement in relation to host states.57 57 The context of Iraq may be particularly appropriate in this regard. 93 8. Assessing the Impacts on and of the Country of Origin and the Stayee Population Other than publications which explore the impact of IDPs on their state of origin, 58 there are few studies which directly consider the costs and benefits of the different phases and scenarios of displacement on refugees‘ state of origin. A comprehensive review of the literature highlights that the impact on the state of origin is the least researched of the stakeholders identified in the introduction to this report. A greater number of studies 1) generally assess the impact of mass displacement and return on the ―stayee‖ population in the area and country of origin, and 2) focus on the impact of the ―stayee‖ population on the process of mass displacement itself. The impact of the departure, protracted absence, and subsequent return and repatriation on the stayee population of the state and local area of origin has been assessed in a number of large-N academic studies and policy evaluations,59 including the following: Northern Ugandan/Southern Sudanese stayees: Singh (2001), Karunakara (2004) Balkan stayees: Kondylis (2007 and 2010) Colombia stayees: Ibañez and Velez (2003 and 2005) DRC stayees: Mels et al (2010) Finnish stayees: Sarvimäki et al (2009) While many of these studies are comparative in nature, and often conceptualise ―stayees‖ as a control group against which a displaced populations‘ outcomes can be contrasted, it is essential to note that different members of the stayee population are themselves affected by the mass departure of individuals, families, households and communities from their locality. The non- 58 See above regarding the impact of IDP displacement on the hosting area, and see below regarding the impact of IDP returnees on the area of origin. The IDMC datasets may be particularly pertinent with reference to returnee IDPs. 59 A number of these datasets have been funded by the World Bank, including in particular the data pertaining to the Balkans and Colombia. 94 displaced population of origin may face both major challenges and opportunities associated with the demographic shifts, changing access to economic activities and particular services, and changing plans for the future which arise throughout processes of mass displacement. The heterogeneity of the stayee population must be noted throughout any assessment of the impact of displacement upon non-displaced individuals and communities. The summary of the literature pertaining to the impact of displacement on the country of origin and the stayee population is structured as follows: it starts with an overview of wide variety of impacts which emerge in the literature pertaining to the impact of displacement on the country of origin and the stayee population, before turning more specifically to the impacts of repatriation and return of refugees on these stakeholders, the costs and benefits of the resettlement of IDPs, and, finally, the impact of the state of origin and/or of the stayee population on displaced populations. 95 8.1 Impacts of Displacement on the Country of Origin and the Stayee Population Impacts highlighted in the existing literature include references to different scenarios of displacement and potential durable solutions: - National Capacity: The short- and long-term impact on national institutional capacity at different levels when state employees (for example) are displaced. As noted by Kondylis, with reference to the effects of displacement on labour market outcomes in Bosnia- Herzegovina (2007, 2010), in some contexts there may be positive selection into displacement (i.e. ―the more ‗able‘ individuals in terms of labor market performance were more likely to be displaced‖, 2010: 247). Such shifts may affect national and local economic outcomes, in addition to affecting stayees‘ access to a diversity of services, which may in turn potentially impact upon employment and income types and levels, health indicators, and educational levels. - Remittances: The benefits arising from refugees‘ remittances to the country of origin and the stayee population of origin, as sent from either host contexts in the global South, or host/resettlement contexts in the global North. Regarding Somali remittances, see Horst (including 2007 and 2008b) and Lindley (2010); on refugee remittances to Cuba and Nicaragua, see Díaz-Briquets and Pérez-López (1997). More broadly, a variety of relevant studies have been produced by the Research Consortium on Remittances in Conflict and Crises. - Political Stability: The effect of widespread displacement and return on political stability in the country of origin may be traced via the World Bank‘s historical LICUS index. Such shifts may have a direct impact upon the (in)security of the stayee population. 96 - International Initiatives: International development and humanitarian initiatives developed in response to displacement, and facilitating or supporting repatriation and reintegration into the country of origin. Such initiatives may variously impact upon different members of the stayee population, whose access to services and employment opportunities may either improve or worsen, depending on the nature of the initiative. 8.2 Impacts of Repatriation and Return on the Country of Origin and Stayee Population As indicated above, whether the displacement context was one in which the majority or a minority of the overall population of origin was displaced may also have an effect on the scale and impact of return to the state of origin. With reference to the costs and benefits of repatriation to the country of origin and stayee population,60 the following points are examined in large-N studies: - Compensation and Reparation Costs: Overarching compensation and reparation costs provided by the state, including individual property losses, compensation for human capital losses and psychological damage and pain, ―in kind‖ compensation (i.e. truth commissions), and investment in physical and social infrastructure (i.e. BADIL, 1999 and Samy, 2010 vis-à- vis estimations for Palestinian refugees; IDMC datasets more broadly). - Repatriation and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Studies identify the relationship between repatriation and post-conflict reconstruction; in the case of the Balkans, for instance, return was presented as a pre-requisite for post-conflict reconstruction (for an evaluation of this policy, see Black, 2001). 60 The UNHCR provides indicators to assess the impact of repatriation on ―Returnee Areas‖; these are defined as geographically and administratively identifiable areas ‖in which at least 30% of the population are returnees‖ (2006 97 - Land Tenure: Direct and indirect costs and benefits related to land, including direct compensation (see above), indirect costs resulting from inadequate land-tenure systems which may lead to renewed displacement, and indirect and direct benefits of developing systems which might increase the likelihood of voluntary return to the country of origin.61 - National Labour Market: Short-, mid- and long-term impacts of displacement on national labour market outcomes. Large-N, longitudinal studies have been completed by Kondylis vis-à-vis the Balkans (2007 and 2010), and regarding Rwanda (2008). The potential impact of returnees on the state of origin and population of origin will depend on the macro- economic situation of the country in question, and equally on the skills and resources of returnees. Kondylis (2008) also examines the success of schemes which focus on long-term skill maximisation of returnees in the context of Rwanda. - Demography and Fertility: Short-, mid- and long-term impacts of and on returnees‘ demography and fertility rates. Singh (2001 and 2005) analyses the impact of return on child and maternal outcomes in Southern Sudan and Northern Uganda, while Bozzoli and Brück (2010) rely on a large household survey to identify the impact of conditions in return areas on morbidity levels, finding that ―poor access to safe drinking water in return locations counteracts the positive health effects of camp decongestion‖ (2010:1). The demographic composition and fertility levels of the state of origin and both displaced and stayee populations may have short-, medium- and long-term impacts on socio-economic outcomes. 61 For instance, see Garlick, 2000; Leckie, 2000; Zetter, 2005; Levin and Adoko, 2006; Sebba, 2006; UNHCR, 2006; Williams, 2006; Rugadya et al, 2008; and Pantuliano‘s edited collection, 2009. Also see United Nations Sub Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (1998). 98 - Undesirable Activities: Short-, mid- and long-term impacts of both displaced and stayee populations having engaged in ―socially undesirable‖ activities during displacement (including transactional sex, child labour, early marriage, etc). 8.3 The Costs and Benefits of the Resettlement of IDPs With reference to the short- and long-term impacts of the resettlement of IDPs on the state of origin, the following case-studies have in particular emerged in the literature: – Cyprus: Zetter (1992) draws on large-N data regarding a large scale re-housing programme for 150,000 Greek-Cypriot IDPs/refugees in 1974, to argue that IDPs were successfully deployed as a dynamic development resource, improving the performance of the national economy. – Iraq: Acharya-Koirala (2009) draws on large-N data to argue that the resettlement of IDPs does not necessarily lead to automatic improvement in children‘s nutritional wellbeing, with long-term impacts on micro-level and macro-level socio-economic outcomes. – Northern Uganda: Lehrer (2010) draws on panel data to evaluate the outcomes and experiences of IDPs during displacement and upon return to their context of origin. Rugayda et al (2008) highlight the extent to which mass return may lead to the escalation of conflict, arguing for the development of appropriate land-tenure policies to facilitate the reintegration of IDPs and prevent subsequent displacement. 99 8.4 The Impact of the State of Origin and/or of the Population of Origin u Displaced Populations Political economy analyses reveal that, in contexts of state-led displacement, the state will incur direct and indirect costs and benefits throughout different phases of displacing populations originally based within its territory. Examples of state costs might include direct military and police expenditure to forcibly displace a population, while benefits might arise in the form of potential material and political gains associated with displacing a population. The state may perceive that it is beneficial for a strong political opposition to be externally displaced, and for state-sponsored human rights violations to take place, while it may be able to more readily access natural resources as a result of displacement, and simultaneously strengthen its national capacity to both control and serve a smaller citizenry. The literature notes that in contexts of displacement instigated by both state and non-state actors, a range of direct and indirect costs and benefits may be accrued by local stayee populations who may or may not have been involved in displacing other members of the population of origin. Whether such changes are identified as ―benefits‖ or ―costs‖ to the country of origin or the population of origin will therefore depend on the perspective of the stakeholder involved. Equally, whether these costs and benefits can be traced to displacement per se, rather than conflict, will depend on the nature of the case-study under consideration. 100 9. Assessing the Impacts on and of the International Community The potential impacts of the international community on displacement contexts have been addressed throughout the literature reviewed throughout the preceding sections. On the one hand, there is a broad recognition of the responsibility of the international community to mitigate the negative impact of mass displacement and to develop, fund and implement appropriate policy responses and programmes. In turn, a significant body of literature presents internal and externally-commissioned evaluations of projects and programmes run by international agencies and donor states (see Appendix 3, ALNAP, etc). Christensen and Harild (2009) present a detailed overview of the impacts of international development initiatives in response to contexts of mass displacement. However, although key databases document humanitarian agency activities (i.e. DAF, INCAF, OCHA Financial Tracking System), the literature review confirms the absence of a comprehensive, per situation analysis. 62 A cumulative evaluation of the impact of projects implemented in the selected case-studies will be prepared by the relevant case-leaders in Phase Two of this project.63 Key issues arising in the general literature review include: The International Community and Displacement: The international community‘s direct or indirect contribution to the factors leading to displacement through a range of means including 1) the sale of arms to military and/or militia in country of origin; 2) direct military intervention in the country of origin; and 62 UNHCR (1997) argues that the most successful refugee aid and development project undertaken by the agency (with World Bank support) has been the Income Generating Projects for Refugee Areas (IGPRAs) undertaken in Pakistan. An evaluation of the project has been completed by Operations Evaluation Department (OED) of the World Bank. 63 The context of Northern Uganda may be particularly appropriate in this regard, drawing together the large-N surveys analysed by Adelman et al (2008), Lehrer (2010) and Harvey et al (2010). 101 3) diplomatic pressure upon the country of origin. The international community may also intervene to resolve a context of displacement, and military, diplomatic and other costs must be incorporated into an evaluation of the costs and benefits of displacement. Humanitarian and Development Aid: A problematisation of the meaningful distinction between development and humanitarian aid: in the case of Malawi, for instance, aid denominated by international donors as ―development aid‖ was in fact used for ―humanitarian‖ contexts, and vice-versa (Zetter, 1995). The extent to which development aid may or may not be utilized to support refugee populations will vary on a case-by-case basis. Humanitarian and Development Industry: The direct and indirect impacts of international humanitarians and development workers on the population and country of origin. This may include increased prices for certain food and non-food items, increased price of accommodation due to increased demand, and changes in work opportunities. While some stayees and the local/national economy may benefit from the presence of international workers, others may lose, and may ultimately have to relocate if accommodation and sustenance become too expensive. Informal Contributions: Unknown quantities of material and financial resources are provided by members of the international community through informal channels; this may range from local civil society networks, to faith-based humanitarianism, or mafia-type organisations. This is a central challenge to tracing the impact of the international community on displacement contexts. Political Systems and Legal Principles: A broader challenge arises when attempting to measure the impact of the overarching refugee regime, of international legal principles, and human rights commitments, as opposed to traceable donations and programmes. The 102 international community‘s ―impact‖ on displacement contexts may arguably be related to political will and commitment in addition to more readily quantifiable financial donations. For instance, with reference to the UNHCR/WB IGPRA in Pakistan, the success of the project was identified as being intimately related to the ―extraordinary level of donor support for the project, which, in turn, was a tangible recognition of Pakistan's ―open door‖ policy with regard to Afghan refugees‖ (UNHCR, 1997). Policy Priorities: The impact of the international community in prioritising certain durable solutions, or facilitating the continuation of protracted encampment is also difficult to measure, and yet may play a significant role in the development and funding of particular policies. A crucial question emerging in the literature review in this regard is how to distinguish between the following: 1) the costs and benefits related to the international community‘s attempts to secure a durable solution for a displaced population; 2) a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of different durable solutions to the international community; and 3) whether the impact of assistance provided by members of the international community should be measured in relation to durable solutions or overall conditions amongst the displaced population. More broadly, however, the literature reviewed recognises that ―negative‖ impacts will typically arise spontaneously, while ―positive‖ impacts require support, investment and commitment by the different stakeholders involved. Such forms of support may include the development and effective implementation of local and national policies granting freedom of movement and permission to work in hosting countries. The role of the international community is also 103 particularly notable in this respect. Hence, Freund and Kalumba (1986:311) argue that self- settled refugees will not necessarily be ―better-off‖ than those based in encampments, unless a specific policy is in place to this effect, and appropriate administrative mechanisms for protection and integration exist; such mechanisms may include granting identity papers documenting the holder‘s permission to work in the host country, and offering protection from xenophobic violence and discrimination. Given that refugees sometimes prefer encampment over local integration (Kibreab et al, 1990), national and international actors could consider changing the cost-benefit schedule of refugees‘ residential choice, with Werker arguing that ―aid can impact whether refugees choose to live in camps or not‖ (2007). In light of the increasing prevalence and duration of protracted refugee situations, maximising at least partial reliance, and minimising the need for either external assistance or engagement in activities which are detrimental in the short- and long-term, much of the literature argues that a clear policy commitment by the host country and relevant international actors is required (i.e. Jordan, 1993). 104 10. Limitations in the existing literature: Rationale and methodology for new study A detailed review of the existing literature confirms the following: 1. Since the 1970s there has been an increased interest amongst academics, practitioners and governmental actors to study and estimate the costs and benefits of displacement on particular stakeholders. This is reflected in the shifting number and type of studies published over the last forty years. 2. The majority of existing studies published throughout this period are qualitative in nature, and include detailed case-studies based around a given displaced population or a particular hosting location; the experiences of displaced individuals, families and communities are carefully documented and explored in these studies. The ethnographic foundation of many of these analyses is in line with the historical significance of anthropology to the field of refugee and forced migration studies. 3. A small number of studies have attempted to evaluate the overall costs and impacts of displacement on more than one stakeholder in the context of a particular case-study. The most notable of these are: Kibreab et al‘s (1990) evaluation of the impact of Ogaden refugees in Somalia in the 1980s and 1990s, and Kuhlman‘s (1990, 1994) assessment of the impact of hosting Eritrean and Ethopian refugees in Eastern Sudan. 4. Significant quantitative assessments of the costs and impacts of displacement on specific indicators and particular welfare and economic outcomes have also been developed by Kondylis in the case of Rwanda and the Balkans (2007, 2008, 2010); Ibañez regarding IDPs in Colombia (multiple single-authored and joint-authored pieces between 2003 and 2010; Adelman et al (2008a and b) and Lehrer (2010) apropos IDPs in Northern Uganda, and Alix- 105 García focusing on refugees in Tanzania and IDPs in Darfur (2007, 2010a, b, c, and ongoing). 5. Despite the insights provided by these partial studies, overall there is an absence of a systematic methodological framework to evaluate the costs and benefits of displacement on each individual stakeholder on the one hand, and of the balance of costs and benefits on all of the key stakeholders involved in a given context of displacement on the other. While a ―snap- shot‖ of a particular displacement context may exist, no studies to date have develo ped longitudinal studies which enable the collection and analysis of data throughout all of the phases of displacement in a given context. 6. The development of a mixed-methods methodological framework, complementing quantitative with qualitative indicators, would enable the rigorous analysis of available data pertaining to selected case-studies which can then inform policy development and ensure that negative impacts are mitigated while positive opportunities are maximised. 7. A mixed-methods approach is essential to enhance the reliability of the data collected, and to ensure that the data is collected and analysed in a meaningful way for the different stakeholders. Key international commitments and guidelines regarding the collection of data in contexts of displacement should be followed throughout Phase Two, including the UN Economic Commission for Africa‘s (1991) Guidelines on the methods of evaluating the socio-economic and demographic consequences of refugees in African countries, and the indicators proposed in the context of the Millennium Development Goals. 106 10.1 Selection of Case-Studies for Phase Two As indicated above, the following case-studies (Table 5) emerged most frequently in the literature, organized according to the origin of the displaced population and the relevant host countries, and indicating whether the population was internally (IDP) or internationally (refugee) displaced. The list of host countries is not exclusive, but rather identifies those host contexts which emerge most frequently in the literature reviewed, and for which 5 or more empirically founded bibliographical references or significant, large-N datasets have been identified. 107 Table 5 - Viable Case-Studies Emerging in the Literature Continent/Region of Hosting Country or Country of IDPs and/or Origin and State of Origin Asylum Refugees Asia Afghanistan Afghanistan IDPs Pakistan Refugees Australia Indochina Canada Refugees France Norway USA Indonesia Indonesia IDPs Philippines Philippines (Mindanao) IDPs Europe Balkans Balkan states IDPs Other European states Refugees Finland Former-USSR (post-WWII) IDP/Refugees Latin America Colombia Colombia IDPs Middle East Iraq Iraq IDPs Lebanon Refugees Jordan Syria Australia Palestine Gaza and West Bank IDPs Lebanon Refugees Jordan Syria Sub-Saharan Africa Angola Angola IDPs Zambia Refugees Burundi Burundi IDPs Tanzania Refugees Democratic Republic of DRC IDPs Congo Eritrea Eritrea IDPs Sudan (Eastern Sudan) Refugees Kenya Ethiopia Ethiopia IDPs Somalia (Ogaden) Refugees Sudan (Eastern Sudan) Kenya Liberia Liberia IDPs Mozambique Mozambique IDPs Rwanda Rwanda IDPs Tanzania Refugees Somalia Somalia IDPs Kenya Refugees Sudan Sudan (Darfur & Southern Sudan) IDPs Kenya Refugees Uganda Uganda Uganda IDPs Sudan Refugees 108 Of these, the following cases correspond to four of the five priority situations identified by the UNHCR‘s 2008 Initiative on Protracted Refugee Situations: Afghan refugees in Pakistan Bosnian and Croatian refugees in Serbia Burundian refugees in Tanzania Eritrean refugees in Eastern Sudan The cases which are proposed for further analysis in Phase Two are:  Afghan refugees in Pakistan IDPs and Refugees from and in the Balkans Burundian and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania  Palestinian refugees in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, OTP, Gaza and West Bank  Iraqi refugees in Syria and Jordan  IDPs in Colombia  Somali refugees in Kenya  IDPs and Sudanese refugees in Northern Uganda IDPs and Ugandan refugees in Southern Sudan Eritrean refugees in Eastern Sudan IDPs in Darfur The cases indicated in bold are those for which the most comprehensive data-sets are currently available (including, in particular, FAFO data-sets, and research funded or completed by the World Bank), requiring minimal additional data collection in Phase Two of this project. 109 10.1.1 Collaboration: On the basis of the literature reviewed, the potential for capacity-building through South-South and North-South partnerships with research institutes, NGOs and other organisations has been recognised. Depending on the cases selected for further analysis in Phase Two, the following organisations may be appropriate partners for the collection and analysis of data: Uganda‘s Refugee Law Project Centre for the Study of Forced Migration (Dar es Salaam) Witwatersrand University Nairobi University Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit ESCWA /ECRI (Emerging and Crisis Related Issues Section) Complementing the expertise of the RSC, PRIO, FAFO and Clingendael researchers working on Phase One and Phase Two of this project, the following researchers may be appropriate research partners for the collection and analysis of data in Phase Two, given their access to relevant data- sets, and their existing research expertise vis-à-vis a number of the cases proposed above: Alix-García, J. (Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wisconsin): Refugees in Tanzania and/or IDPs in Darfur. Baez, J. (World Bank): Refugees in Tanzania Ibañez, A. (Department of Economics, Universidad de los Andes): IDPs in Colombia. Lehrer, K. (Department of Economics, University of Oxford): IDPs in Northern Uganda. Nassim Magidi (Academic Visitor at the University of Oxford‘s Department of Politics and International Relations): Afghan refugees in Pakistan 110 APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES 111 Appendix 1: Bibliographical sources and existing quantitative and qualitative datasets per displaced population/host country Contents GENERAL DATASETS and SOURCES OF DATA:............................................................................. 114 AFGHAN REFUGEES IN PAKISTAN ............................................................................................... 115 ANGOLAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA ................................................................................................ 117 BALKANS: IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES ............................................................................... 119 BURUNDI : IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES ............................................................................. 121 BURUNDIAN AND CONGOLESE REFUGEES IN TANZANIA ........................................................... 122 COLOMBIA: IDPs ......................................................................................................................... 123 CUBAN REFUGEES IN US ............................................................................................................. 128 DARFUR: IDPs .............................................................................................................................. 129 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO: IDPs .................................................................................. 131 ERITREAN AND ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN EASTERN SUDAN ....................................................... 132 ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN SOMALIA ............................................................................................ 134 FINNISH RESETTLEMENT TO USSR (Post-WWII).......................................................................... 135 INDOCHINESE REFUGEES ............................................................................................................ 136 INDONESIA: IDPS ......................................................................................................................... 137 IRAQ: IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES...................................................................................... 138 LIBERIA: IDPs AND RETURNEES ................................................................................................... 140 LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN GHANA .................................................................................................. 141 LIBERIAN AND SIERRA LEONEAN REFUGEES IN GUINEA............................................................. 142 LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN SIERRA LEONE........................................................................................ 143 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN MALAWI ....................................................................................... 144 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH AFRICA.............................................................................. 146 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA......................................................................................... 147 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZIMBABWE ................................................................................... 149 NORTHERN UGANDA: IDPS and RETURNEES .............................................................................. 150 PALESTINIAN REFUGEES AND IDPS: GAZA, WEST BANK, JORDAN, LEBANON and SYRIA ........... 155 PHILLIPINES: IDPs in MINDANAO ................................................................................................ 159 112 REFUGEES IN KENYA: esp. SOMALI AND SUDANESE REFUGEES ................................................. 160 REFUGEES HOSTED IN AUSTRALIA .............................................................................................. 162 REFUGEES HOSTED IN CANADA .................................................................................................. 163 REFUGEES HOSTED IN DENMARK ............................................................................................... 164 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE EUROPEAN UNION .......................................................................... 165 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE NETHERLANDS ................................................................................. 166 REFUGEES HOSTED IN NORWAY ................................................................................................. 167 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE UK .................................................................................................... 168 REFUGEES HOSTED IN UNITED STATES ....................................................................................... 169 RWANDA: IDPs and RWANDAN RETURNEES .............................................................................. 172 RWANDAN AND BURUNDIAN REFUGEES IN TANZANIA ............................................................. 173 SOMALI REFUGEES AND IDPS...................................................................................................... 177 SOUTHERN SUDAN: UGANDAN REFUGEES, IDPs and SUDANESE RETURNEES........................... 180 113 GENERAL DATASETS and SOURCES OF DATA: ALNAP CIA database Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Development Awareness Fund (DAF) Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) FAFO Fusenet Globalization of Protracted Refugee Situations (GPRS) Integrated Regional Information Networks of the United Nations (IRIN) Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) International Committee for the Red Cross and Red Crescent (ICRC-RC) International Catholic Migration Commission (ICMC) International Food Aid Information System (INTERFAIS; WFP) International Labour Organisation (ILO) IFRC International Network on Conflict and Fragility (INCAF) International Organisation for Migration (IOM) Latin American Migration Project Living Standards Measurement Survey Longitudinal Immigration Database (Canada: 1980-2007) New Immigrant Survey (US) Minnesota Population Centre Microdata Series Norwegian Refugee Centre OCHA OXFAM PRIO replication data and CSCW datasets Refugee absorption capacity indices Remittances of Immigrants in Norway (RIN) Save the Children UNDP UNDP Vulnerable Group Survey UNFPA UNHCR UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys UNRWA USCRI World Refugee Survey World Bank World Food Programme (WFP) World Health Organization (WHO) World Resources Institute 114 AFGHAN REFUGEES IN PAKISTAN Also see o REFUGEES HOSTED IN AUSTRALIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Allan, N. J. R. (1987). "Impact of Afghan Refugees on the Vegetation Resource of Pakistan's Hindukush-HimaJaya." Mountain Research and Development 7(3): 200-204. Ashraf, A. and A. Majid (1988). Economic impact of Afghan refugees in NWFP. Peshawar, Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. De Mercey, P. et al (2006). Moving Out of Poverty: Understanding Freedom, Democracy and Growth from the Bottom-Up. Afghanistan National Synthesis Report. World Bank English, R. and UNHCR Technical Support Service. (1989). Pakistan: the economic impact of Afghan refugee settlement on the tribal areas of Northwest Pakistan. Geneva, UNHCR. Kazmi, J. H. and K. Pandit (2001). "Disease and dislocation: the impact of refugee movements on the geography of malaria in NWFP, Pakistan." Social Science & Medicine 52(7): 1043-1055. Khanani, M. R., A. S. Ansari, et al. (2010). "Concentrated epidemics of HIV, HCV, and HBV among Afghan refugees." Journal of Infection. Miller, G. and D. Atkinson (1985). Refugees from Afghanistan. London, Cleveland Press. Rowland, M., M. A. Rab, et al. (2002). "Afghan refugees and the temporal and spatial distribution of malaria in Pakistan." Social Science & Medicine 55(11): 2061-2072. Save the Children (USA). (2000). School health and nutrition initiative: a baseline report for Afghan refugees in Balochistan, Pakistan. Schmeidl, S. (2002). "(Human) Security Dilemmas: Long-Term Implications of the Afghan Refugee Crisis." World Quarterly 23(1): 7-29. UNHCR (2010-2011). Afghan Citizens' Contribution to the Economy of Pakistan. UNHCR Ward, W. A. and Institute for Development Programs (McLean Virginia) (1988). Impact evaluation report: Pakistan - income generating project for refugee areas (phase I). Institute for Development Programs. World Bank (1989). Draft Project Completion Report, Pakistan. Income Generating Project for Refugee Areas. World Bank. World Bank (1992). Draft Project Completion Report, Pakistan: Second Income Generating Project for Refugee Areas. World Bank. World Bank (2001). Generating Income for Afghan Refugees in Pakistan. Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) DATASETS Afghan National Development Strategy (ANDS) Ashraf and Majid (1988) Impact on hosts and international actors UNHCR, WFP and Gov. Pakistan Expenditures 115 Trading centres surveyed Prices identified using published data National newspapers drawn upon to report on essential food items Questionnaires to establish impact on local employment and ways (three samples of 100 respondents each) English and UNHCR (1989) Impact on hosts UNHCR and WFP Expenditures (1980-1988) Survey of shopkeepers (160 respondents) Survey of transporters (100 surveys) Survey of local village economy in vicinity of each bazaar (95 survey schedules) Kamzi (2001) Assessing the impact of Afghan refugees on distribution of Malaria Annual Reports of Director General Health, Pakistan Unpublished records of the Malaria Control Program (MCP) Rowland et al (2002) Assessing the impact of Afghan refugees on distribution of Malaria UNHCR Afghan Refugee Health Programme (1990-1997) Pakistan Ministry of Health database Khanani et al (2010) Impact of displacement on STD prevalence amongst Afghan refugees Survey of 556 Afghan refugees UNHCR (ongoing: 2010-2011) Afghan Citizens' Contribution to the Economy of Pakistan (PPVR) http://www.befare.org/Population%20profile.htm World Bank NSP II - ADDITIONAL FINANCING Kabul Urban Reconstruction Project Teacher Training Programs for Afghan Refugees Balochistan Refugee Village Teacher-Training Project Afghan Female Teachers In-service Training in Peshwar (Pakistan) Watching Brief Income Generating Projects for Refugee Areas (IGPRA) 116 ANGOLAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Freund, A. and K. Kalumba (1986). "Spontaneously Settled Refugees in Northwestern Province, Zambia." International Migration Review 20(2). Hansen, A. (1990). Refugee self-settlement versus settlement on government schemes: The long- term consequences for security, integration and economic development of Angolan refugees (1966-1989) in Zambia. UNRISD, Discussion Paper 17. Hansen, A. (1995). The Refugee Integration Aspects in Two Settlement Models in Zambia: The Case of the North-Western Province. African refugees and human rights in host countries : the long-term demographic, environmental, economic, social, and psychological impacts of Angolan refugees in Zambia; N. J. Mijere. New York, Vantage Press. Mabwe, T. (1995). The impact of the beekeeping industry on a refugee-affected area of Zambia: a report funded by ESCOR : ODA grant number R6276. Oxford, Refugee Studies Programme. Mijere, N. J. (1990). The long term impact and consequences of two refugee settlement options: the case of Angolan refugees in Zambia. Mijere, N. J., Ed. (1995). African refugees and human rights in host countries: the long-term demographic, environmental, economic, social, and psychological impacts of Angolan refugees in Zambia. New York, Vantage Press. Mijere, N. J. (1995). The socioeconomic impact of settled refugees on host communities in Zambia: the case of Meheba. African refugees and human rights in host countries : the long-term demographic, environmental, economic, social, and psychological impacts of Angolan refugees in Zambia; N. J. Mijere. New York, Vantage Press. Mwanza, A. (1995). The Economic Contribution of Angolan Refugees to Zambia. African refugees and human rights in host countries : the long-term demographic, environmental, economic, social, and psychological impacts of Angolan refugees in Zambia; N. J. Mijere. New York, Vantage Press. Randall, S., (2004). Fertility of Malian Tamasheq repatriated refugees: the impact of forced migration. Washington DC, National Academies Press. Sinyangwe, I. R. (1995). Attitudes of Angolan Refugees and Their Zambian Hosts towards Each other. African refugees and human rights in host countries : the long-term demographic, environmental, economic, social, and psychological impacts of Angolan refugees in Zambia; N. J. Mijere. New York, Vantage Press. DATASETS Mijere (1990) Interviews with 13 refugee men, 21 refugee women, 40 Zambian men, 32 Zambian women; Additional interview sample of 100 Participant observation 117 Hansen (1990 and 1995) Research conducted between May – October 1989 compares refugees across settlement types and surveys refugee-host relations. Interviews conducted with 93 refugees and 53 Zambians. Mabwe (1995) Interviews with beekeepers, hosts, refugees and institutional personnel 82 survey questionnaires (10% random sample of beekeepers: 62 Zambians, 17 Angolan refugees; 3 Zairian refugees) Semi-structured interviews Focus groups Participant observation Zambian Central Statistical Office (1990 Census) Mwanza (1995) Central Statistical Office Government of Zambia World Bank Angola Emergency Multi-Sector Recovery – Phases 1 and 2 118 BALKANS: IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Ajdukovic, M. and D. Ajdukovic (1998). "Impact of displacement on the psychological well- being of refugee children." International Review of Psychiatry 10: 186-195. Angjeli, A. (1999). "The Political Impact and Economic Cost to Albania of the Crisis in Kosovo." Mediterranean Quarterly 10(3): 7-14. Black, R. (1994). "Livelihoods under stress: a case study of refugee vulnerability in Greece." Journal of Refugee Studies 7(4): 360-377. Black, R. (2001). "Return and Reconstruction in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Missing Link, or Mistaken Priority?" SAIS Review 21(2): 177-199. Government of Sweden. (1999) A survey of Bosnian Returnees from Sweden, Stockholm: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Department for Migration and Asylum Policy. International Organization for Migration. (1998) Back to Bosnia: Initial Findings of a Survey of Returnees, Sarajevo: International Organization for Migration. Kondylis, F. (2007). Conflict-induced displacement and labour market outcomes: evidence from post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. London, Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science. Kondylis, F. (2010). "Conflict displacement and labor market outcomes in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina." Journal of Development Economics 93(2): 235-248. Kondylis, F. (2007 (Revised)). Conflict-induced displacement and labour market outcomes evidence from post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. CEP discussion paper no. 777. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science. UNDP. (2006). Impact of displacement on education and employment. Waxman, P. (2001). "The Economic Adjustment of Recently Arrived Bosnian, Afghan and Iraqi Refugees in Sydney, Australia." International Migration Review 35: 472-505. DATASETS Ajdukovic and Ajdukovic (1998) Impact of displacement on children (Croatia) Repeat psychosocial assessments of displaced children (1992 – 1995) UNDP (2006) Impact of displacement on education and employment UNDP‘s Vulnerable Groups Survey (2004) Kondylis (2007 and 2010) Labour market outcomes for displaced vs non-displaced 2001/04 Living in BiH (LBiH) panel: stratified sampling; 25 municipalities; 5400 households interviewed between September and November in 2001; 2700 households re- interviewed each year from 2002 to 2004; panel surveyed about 4800 individuals aged 18–64 from all main ethnic backgrounds per year (70 to 442 individuals in each municipality). 119 Municipality level data on (1) war casualties, published by the Research and Documentation Centre in Sarajevo (RDCS, 2007), and (2) on ethnicity and population size, from the 1991 BiH population census. The data used in the analysis are courtesy of the World Bank and the Office of Statistics in Sarajevo. World Bank Albania Refugee Impact and Prospects Study (Albania) Support to Areas of Albania Hosting Refugees from Kosovo (Albania) Emergency Demobilization & Reintegration Project (Bosnia-Herzegovina) Employment for displaced women (Bosnia-Herzegovina) Community-based Mental Health Program (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Travnik Canton) Mostar Water Supply & Sanitation Project (Bosnia-Herzegovina) Land Registration (Bosnia-Herzegovina) Refugee impact grant monitoring (Croatia) Social & Economic Recovery Project (Croatia) Croatia: Refugees Return and Regional Development - Strengthening Capacity of Local Initiatives (Croatia) Kosovo community development fund (Kosovo) Promoting inter-ethnic dialogue and supporting the learning environment of children (Macedonia) Southern Serbia municipal improvement and recovery program (Serbia) 120 BURUNDI : IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES Also see o BURUNDIAN AND CONGOLESE REFUGEES IN TANZANIA o RWANDAN AND BURUNDIAN REFUGEES IN TANZANIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Ferstman, C. C. R. L. (2008). Fostering Integrated Communities in Burundi: Addressing Challenges Relating to the Reintegration of Burundian Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons, NRC Evaluations. Sabimbona, S. (2001). The Problems of Displaced and Returnee Women Faced with Current Land Tenure Policies in Burundi. Background Paper, UNIFEM, (2001), Women‘s Land and Property Rights in Situations of Conflict and Reconstruction, A READER Based on the February, 1998 Inter-Regional Consultation in Kigali, Rwanda DATASETS Ferstman (2008) NRC Evaluation. Surveys of IDPs and refugees in Burundi; including refugee-host perspectives. World Bank Public Works and Urban Management Project Community and Social Development Project Support to the Reintegration of Returning Refugees and Displaced People Burundi Community Rehabilitation Project Support the Demobilization, Reintegration and Recruitment Prevention of Child Ex- Combatants Emergency Demobilization and Transitional Reintegration Project Burundi Ex-Combatants Assistance Program (BEAP) 121 BURUNDIAN AND CONGOLESE REFUGEES IN TANZANIA Also see o BURUNDI : IDPs and REFUGEES o RWANDAN AND BURUNDIAN REFUGEES IN TANZANIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Landau, L. B. (2003). "Beyond the Losers: Transforming Governmental Practice in Refugee- Affected Tanzania." Journal of Refugee Studies 16: 20-43. Landau, L. B. (2004) "Challenge without transformation: refugees, aid and trade in Western Tanzania." Journal of Modern African Affairs 42, 31-59. DATASETS Landau (2004) 90 intensive interviews (44 in Mpwapwa, 52 in Kasulu) across six sites (four villages and the district capitals) using a pre-written questionnaire mixing demographic, economic, and attitudinal questions, both closed and open-ended. A formal written survey of civic attitudes administered in four secondary schools 122 COLOMBIA: IDPs BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Arboleda, J. and H. Correa (2002). ―Forced Internal Displacement‖ in Colombia: The Economic Foundation of Peace. Washington D.C, World Bank Attanasio, O., C. Castro, et al. (2005). Displacement, Conflict and Welfare: An Empirical Analysis. Institute for Fiscal Studies, Progress Report. Bogotá, Colombia. Calderon, V. and A. Ibáñez (2009). Labor Market Effects of Migration-Related Supply Shocks: Evidence from Internally Displaced Populations in Colombia. MICROCON Research Working Paper 14. Centro Nacional de Consultoría.. (2003). "Informe de resultados de la encuesta de caracterización a la población desplazada." Red de Solidaridad Social. www.red.gov.co. Deininger, K., A. M. Ibáñez, et al. (2004). Towards Sustainable Return Policies for the Displaced Population: Why Are Some Displaced Households More Willing to Return than Others? HiCN Working Paper 07. DNP (2005). Costo de atención del desplazamiento forzado por la violencia, Bogotá, Colombia. Bibliografía. Econometria S.A. Colombia survey. Engel, S. and A. Ibáñez (2007). "Displacement Due to Violence in Colombia: A Household- Level Analysis." Erazo, J. A., F. A. Galán, et al. (2000). Diversas Causas y Costos del Desplazamiento: Quién los compensa? (Different Reasons and Costs of Displacement: Who is compensating them?). Bogotá, Colombia, Departamento de Planificación Nacional. Hill, R., K. Jorgensen Diener, et al. (2006). "IDP Livelihoods and Personal Security: Case Studies from Colombia and Sudan." Refugee Survey Quarterly 25(2): 40-59. Ibáñez, A. (2008). El desplazamiento forzoso en Colombia: Un camino sin retorno hacia la pobreza. Bogotá, D.C., Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de Economía, 2008. Ibáñez, A. and A. Moya (2006). "¿Como el desplazamiento forzado deteriora el bienestar de los hogares desplazados?". Documento CEDE 2006-26. Ibáñez, A. and A. Moya (2009). Do Conflicts Create Poverty Traps? Asset Losses and Recovery for Displaced Households in Colombia, MICROCON Research Working Paper 10. Ibáñez, A.M. and A. Velásquez (2007). Vulnerabilidad de los hogares con jefatura femenina y de los hogares pertenecientes a minorías étnicas ante el impacto del desplazamiento forzoso. Informe final presentado al Banco Mundial. Bogotá, Colombia. World Bank Ibáñez, A. and A. Velásquez (2008). "El Impacto Del Desplazamiento: condiciones socioeconómicas de la población desplazada, vinculación a los mercados laborales y políticas públicas." Serie Politicas Sociales 145. Ibáñez, A. and A. Velásquez (2009). "Identifying Victims of Civil Conflicts: An Evaluation of Forced Displaced Households in Colombia." Journal of Peace Research 46(3): 431-451. Ibáñez, A. and C. E. Velez (2003). Instrumentos de atencion de la poblacion desplazada en Colombia: Una distribucion desigual de las responsabilidades municipales. Documento CEDE 2003-37. Ibáñez, A. and C. E. Vélez (2003). Forced Displacement in Colombia: Causality and Welfare Losses. 123 Ibáñez, A. and C. E. Vélez (2005). Civil Conflict and Forced Migration: The Micro Determinants and the Welfare Losses of Displacement in Colombia. , Facultad de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Ibáñez, A. M. and C. Jaramillo (2008). "Oportunidades de desarrollo económico en el posconflicto: propuestas de política." Ibáñez, A. M. and A. Moya (2006). "The Impact of Intra-State Conflict on Economic Welfare and Consumption Smoothing: Empirical Evidence for the Displaced Population in Colombia." Households in Conflict Network Working Paper 23. Ibáñez, A. M. and A. Moya (2007). La poblacion desplazada en Colombia: examen de sus condiciones socio-economicas y analisis de politicas actuales, Departamento Nacional de Planificacion. Ibáñez, A. M. and A. Moya (2010). "Vulnerability of victims of civil conflict: Empirical Evidence for the Displaced Population in Colombia." World Development 38(4): 647– 663. Ibáñez, A. M., A. Moya, et al. (2006). Hacia una política proactiva para la población desplazada en Colombia. , Informe final presentado a USAID. Facultad de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Ibáñez, A. M. and P. Neira (2004). Análisis de experiencias en restablecimiento de la población en situación de desplazamiento - Recomendaciones de política. , Informe final presentado a la Organización Internacional de las Migraciones. ICRC and WFP (2007). Una mirada a la población desplazada en ocho ciudades de Colombia: respuesta institucional local, condiciones de vida y recomendaciones para su atención. Resumen de resultados, reflexiones generales y recomendaciones, ICRC/WFP. Kirchhoff, S. and A. M. Ibáñez (2001). Displacement Due To Violence In Colombia: Determinants And Consequences At The Household Level. Bonn, ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy Matjiasevic, M. T et al (2006) Moving Out Of Poverty: Understanding Freedom, Growth And Democracy From The Bottom-Up: National Synthesis Report: Colombia. World Bank Mogollón Pérez, A. and M. Vázquez Navarrete (2006). "Displaced women's opinion of the impact of forced displacement on their health." Gaceta Sanitaria 20(4): 260-265. Organización Panamericana de la Salud (2003). Comparación de la situación de salud entre población en situación de desplazamiento y receptora, en seis ciudades. 2002-2003 Serie Salud y Desplazamiento en Colombia. Medellín, Antioquia. Secretariado Nacional de Pastoral Social , C. C. (2006). Desplazamiento forzado, conflicto armado y derechos humanos en Colombia. Magnitud, tendencias, problemática de tierras (ppt). World Bank. Washington. USAID Office of Inspector General. (2005). Audit of USAID/Colombia's IDP program. Audit Report No. 1-514-05-009-P San Salvador, El Salvador. DATASETS General data sources on IDPs in Colombia: Acción Social Centro de Estudios sobre Desarrollo Económico (CEDE) Centro Nacional de Consultoría (CNC) Conferencia Episcopal de Colombia (RUT survey) 124 Consultoría para los Derechos Humanos y el Desplazamiento (CODHES) Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP) Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE) Econometría Encuesta Detallada de Hogares Desplazados, (EDHD-2004-2005) Encuesta Nacional de Hogares Desplazados (ENHD-2004) Evaluation of Familias en Acción. Living Standards Measurement Survey ‗Moving Out of Poverty‘ (World Bank) National Household Survey 2001-2005 Organización Panamericana de la Salud (2003) Red de Solidaridad Social Sistema Único de Registro (SUR) Sistema de Estimación por Fuentes Constrastadas (SEFC) Registro Único de Población Desplazada (RUPD) Sistema de Información sobre Desplazamiento Forzado y Derechos Humanos en Colombia (SISDES) Survey for Internally Displaced Population (SIDP-2000) Ibañez and Velez (2003 and 2005) Impact of displacement on Welfare Losses; comparison of displaced and host populations Survey for Internally Displaced Population (SIDP-2000) Compares IDPs and non-IDPs 200 displaced households and 176 non-displaced households. Funded by World Bank Deininger et al (2004) Willingness to Return Household survey applied to the displaced population by the Catholic Church (Conferencia Episcopal de Colombia); 32.093 households, approx. 150.000 people; implemented since 1997; households displaced since 1980. USAID funding Attanasio et al (2005) Impact of displacement on IDPs, compared with impact on hosts Evaluation of Familias en Acción. 2002 survey (used as the baseline): 11,500 households in 122 municipalities (57 of which were targeted by the new programme and 65 of which were not). 2003: Basic questionnaire plus additional modules for the resurvey (attrition rate of 6%) Extensive locality questionnaires administered to three ‗local‘ authorities. Experimental games in 12 of the 122 towns in the sample. Econometria (http://www.econometria.com.co/www/index.jsp) Survey: 6510 households in 12 cities, including 1503 displaced families interviewed in towns that are traditionally recipients of displaced individuals. Engel and Ibañez (2005) Comparison of displaced and host populations 125 2000 household survey: total 376 households (200 displaced and 176 non displaced households across municipalities). Municipal data collected at Centro de Estudios sobre Desarrollo Económico (2005). See Erazo et al. (2000) Funded by Colciencias, and National Department for Planning World Bank (2006) ‗Moving Out of Poverty‘ (Case study) Ibáñez and Moya (2006, 2009 and 2010) Impact of displacement on welfare; assessment of USAID income generation programme Survey with 2322 displaced households in 48 municipalities and 21 departments (Encuesta Detallada de Hogares Desplazados, EDHD-2004-2005). Supplemented by RUT dataset (Catholic Church): 794 RUT households and 759 non- RUT households in the immediate vicinity. Complemented by information in el Sistema Único de Registro de la Red de Solidaridad Social. Assess impact of USAID income generation programmes by surveying a control group covering 1,553 displaced households non-beneficiaries of these programs. Support from the World Bank, GDN, MICROCON and USAID. Ibáñez et al (2006) EDHD-2004 survey: 3000 displaced households surveyed: 1000 registered with RUT 1000 non-RUT 1000 household beneficiaries of USAID programme Funded by USAID Ibáñez and Velásquez (2008) Encuesta Nacional de Hogares Desplazados (ENHD-2004) Sistema de Información sobre Desplazamiento Forzado y Derechos Humanos en Colombia (SISDES) CODHES RUPD Ibáñez and Velásquez (2009) Survey applied to 1,553 households located in 48 Colombian municipalities; also RUPD, and RUT datasets. Calderon and Ibañez (2009) National Household Survey 2001-2005: repeated cross-section of household Survey; data representative of the 13 largest metropolitan areas. Data on IDPs from Acción Social (1999 ff). Data on violence by municipality constructed by CEDE (University of Los Andes). Funded by MICROCON World Bank Grant for Integration of Internally Displaced People 126 Peace and Development Project (1st Phase APL) Peace Programmatic III: Reparation and Reintegration Program CO-Youth Reintegrate (Colegio del Cuerpo) Protection of Lands and Patrimony of Internally Displaced Population People - Phase III CO Peace Programmatic I: Demobilization and reintegration of ex-fighters 127 CUBAN REFUGEES IN US Also see o REFUGEES HOSTED IN US BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Díaz-Briquets, S. and J. Pérez-López (1997). "Refugee Remittances: Conceptual Issues and the Cuban and Nicaraguan Experiences." International Migration Review 31(2): 411-437. Potocky, M. (1997). "Predictors of Refugee Economic Status: A Replication." Journal of Social Science Research 23: 41-70. Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2001). "Micro and Macro Determinants of Refugee Economic Status." Journal of Social Service Research 27: 33-60. Potocky (1997) Predictors of refugee economic status Replication study focused on Cuban, Haitian, Nicaraguan, and Soviet/East European refugees in Dade County, Florida, using data from the 1990 Census of Population and Housing Potocky-Tripodi (2001) Macro and micro determinants of refugee economic status Nationally representative samples of Soviet/ East European (n = 4241), South east Asian (n = 4748), and Cuban (n = 4707) working-age refugees resettled in the United States. 128 DARFUR: IDPs BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Alix-García, J. et al (2010) Displaced Populations, Humanitarian Assistance, and Hosts: a framework for analyzing impacts on semi-urban households. Working Paper, Spatial Informatics Group, LLC & University of San Francisco Alix-García, J. et al (2011) The Landscape of Conflict: IDPs, aid, and land use change in Darfur. Working Paper, Spatial Informatics Group, LLC & University of San Francisco Buchanan-Smith, M. and Abdulla Fadul, A. (2008). Adaptation and Devastation: The Impact of the Conflict on Trade and Markets in Darfur. Findings of a Scoping Study. Feinstein International Center, 2008. CARE and IOM (2003) Sudan IDP Demographic, Socio-Economic Profiles For Return And Reintegration Planning Activities Khartoum IDP Households. In Partnership With Gos (Hac), UNDP Hill, R., K. Jorgensen Diener, et al. (2006). "IDP Livelihoods and Personal Security: Case Studies from Colombia and Sudan." Refugee Survey Quarterly 25(2): 40-59. IOM (2005) IDP Intentions Concerning Return to their Places of Origin. Sample Survey: Khartoum, North, East, Central Sudan and Nuba. Report on survey results. IOM IOM (2006) IDP Intentions Survey North Sudan. IOM IOM/UNDP (2003) Sudan IDP demographic, socio-economic profiles for return and reintegration planning activities – Nuba IDP households. IOM. Morgos, D. et al (2007) ‗Psychosocial effects of war experiences among displaced children in Southern Darfur,‘ Omega Journal of Death and Dying, 56 (3) pp. 229-253. Young, H. (2007), `Looking beyond food aid to livelihoods, protection and partnerships: strategies for WFP in the Darfur states', Disasters 31, S40-S56. DATASETS CARE and IOM (2003) 6,300 IDP households were interviewed in formal and informal camps in Khartoum IOM 2003 – 2006 Intention Surveys Alix-García et al (2010) Combination of satellite imagery, price data, information on aid deliveries and IDP populations with qualitative interviews. Ethnographic research in Nyala Interviews with local business owners, sellers and buyers in open air markets, and various NGO workers. Monthly price data on various food products from 2005-2007 provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), along with yearly averages from the years 2000-2004. Supported by the Jesuit Foundation and the Faculty Development Fund at the University of San Francisco. 129 Alix-García et al (2011) Using data from a variety of satellite images, statistics on IDPs, and food aid deliveries, we analyze land use change in Darfur from 1970 to 2007 using both parametric and non- parametric approaches Alix-García et al (2011) Ongoing qualitative/quantitative data collection in Nyala. 130 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO: IDPs Also see o BURUNDIAN AND CONGOLESE REFUGEES IN TANZANIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Mels, C., I. Derluyn, et al. (2010). "The psychological impact of forced displacement and related risk factors on Eastern Congolese adolescents affected by war." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51(10): 1096-1104. DATASETS Mels et al (2010) Mental health effect of displacement, compares IDP adolescents with returnees and non- displaced peers. Community sample of 819 adolescents (13-21) World Bank DRC Health Sector Rehabilitation Support Project Emergency Recovery and Community Support Project Community Action for Reintegration and Recovery Community Action for Reintegration and Recovery of youth and women Demobilization and Reintegration--Development Grant Fund (DGF) Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Project Demobilization and Community Reintegration of Child Ex-Combatants -- Save the Children Community Recovery & Re-Integration of ex-combatants in Eastern Congo Demobilization and Reintegration of Child Soldiers in Orientale, N. Katanga, Maniema Rapid Reaction Mechanism in support of the Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex- combatants in the DRC Family and Community Reintegration Of Demobilized Child Soldiers Prevention of Recruitment, Demobilization & Reintegration of Children Associated with Armed Forces DRC: Emergency Demobilization & Reintegration - Additional Financing Support to the Social & Economic Reintegration of Demobilised CAFF and OVC in the DRC Support to the Social and Economic Reintegration of Demobilized Ex-combatants in the Provinces of North and South Kivu Republic of Congo - Emergency Reintegration Program 131 ERITREAN AND ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN EASTERN SUDAN Also see o ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN SOMALIA o REFUGEES IN KENYA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Ek, R. and A. Karadawi (1991). "Implications of refugee flows on political stability in the Sudan." Ambio: Journal of the Human Environment 20(5): 196-203. Elamin, H. B. Our refugee guests in the Sudan and their burden of ill health. Paper presented to the Refugee Seminar held in Khartoum - Sudan., 13-16 September 1982 Goitom, E. (1987). Systems of Social Interaction of Refugee Adjustment Processes: the case of Eritrean refugees in Khartoum, Sudan. Refugees - A Third World Dilemma. J. R. Rogge. Totowa, Rowman and Littlefield. Kok, W. (1989). "Self-settled refugees and the socio-economic impact of their presence on Kassala, Eastern Sudan." Journal of Refugee Studies 2(4): 419-440. Kuhlman, T. (1990). Burden or Boon? A Study of Eritrean Refugees in the Sudan. Amsterdam, Free University Press. Kuhlman, T. (1991). "The economic integration of refugees in developing countries: A research model." Journal of Refugee Studies 4: 1-20. Kuhlman, T. (1994). Asylum or aid? : the economic integration of Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the Sudan. Aldershot, Ashgate. Kuhlman, T., S. E. Shazali, et al. (1987). Refugees and Regional Development: Final Report of the Research project "Eritreans in Kassala". Kassala, [s.n.]. Kursany, I.,et al. (1985). Eritrean refugees in Kassala Province of Eastern Sudan : an economic assessment. Oxford, London, Refugees Studies Programme, British Refugee Council. Osman, A. M. and I. Kursany (1984). The impact of refugees on social services in refugee affected areas in the Sudan. Khartoum, [s.n.]. Post, J. (1983). Considerations on the settlement of urban refugees in eastern Sudan. Department of Town and Village Planning; Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Free University. Wijbrandi, J. B. (1986). Organized and Spontaneous Settlement in Eastern Sudan: Two Case Studies on Integration of Rural Refugees. Amsterdam, Free University. DATASETS Kok (1989) Questionnaire survey of 786 individuals (Sudanese nationals and people of Eritrean descent in 1987) Financial assistance from the Department of International Education and Research in the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Kuhlman (1994) Economic integration 786 households interviewed in Kassala sample (243 Eritreans). 132 SFE geographical mobility of refugees project in 1986/87 DPRS study in 1984/85: 1127 households interviewed (728 refugee households and 298 Sudanese) Anthropological case-study Life histories of individual refugees and Sudanese drought victims Labour-market surveys World Bank Community Development Fund Project (Eritrea) Emergency Demobilization & Reintegration (Eritrea) Emergency Recovery and Rehab. Project (Ethiopia) Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Project (Ethiopia) 133 ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN SOMALIA Also see o ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN SUDAN o REFUGEES IN KENYA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Ciabarri, L. (2008). "Productivity of refugee camps: social and political dynamics from the Somaliland-Ethiopia border (1988-2001)." Afrika Spectrum 1. Kibreab, G., Y. H. Mahmoud, et al. (1990). Refugees in Somalia: a burden and an opportunity for the local population and a challenge to the government and the international community. Department of Economic History, Uppsala University. DATASETS Kibreab et al (1990) Interviews with 898 displaced households Interviews with 403 heads of household from local population Interviews with government staff and NGOs in camps and capital Ministerial archives Key informants Group discussions Informal discussions Focus groups. Oral histories Random sampling of refugees; multistage area sampling for local population given absence of census. 134 FINNISH RESETTLEMENT TO USSR (Post-WWII) BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Sarvimäki, M., R. Uusitalo, et al. (2009). Long-Term Effects of Forced Migration. Bonn, IZA DP (Institute for the Study of Labor). DATASETS Sarvimäki et al (2009) Individual-level longitudinal data on the displaced and non-displaced populations from strictly comparable sources; over 20,000 individuals before and after war. 135 INDOCHINESE REFUGEES Also see o REFUGEES HOSTED IN CANADA o REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE EU o REFUGEES HOSTED IN NORWAY o REFUGEES HOSTED IN US BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Hauff, E. and P. Vaglum (1993). "Integration of Vietnamese Refugees into the Norwegian Labor Market: The Impact of War Trauma." International Migration Review 27(2): 388-405. Lamphier, C. M. (1987). Indochinese Resettlement: Cost and Adaptation in Canada, the United States and France. Refugees - A Third World Dilemma. J. R. Rogge. Totowa, Rowman and Littlefield. Strand, P. J. (1984). "Employment Predictors among Indochinese Refugees." International Migration Review 18: 50-64. Suhrke, A. (1983). "Indochinese Refugees: The Law and Politics of First Asylum." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 467: 102-115. Suhrke, A. and US Congress Joint Economic Committee. (1980). Indochinese refugees: the impact on first asylum countries and implications for American policy : a study. Washington, U.S. G.P.O. Tran, V. (1991). "Sponsorship and Employment Status among Indochinese Refugees in the United States." International Migration Review 25: 536-550. DATASETS Strand (1984) Employment predictors Draws on personal interviews with random sample of 800 heads of refugee households (Vietnamese, Lao, Hmong and Cambodian) from San Diego. Lamphier (1987) Costs of resettlement Costs of resettlement to Canada, US and France provided Tran (1991) Sponsorship and Employment Status Sample of 1960 refugees (3 ethnic groups; aged between 18-64) who arrived in the United States between 1978 and 1982. Hauff and Vaglum (1993) Impact of War Trauma on Integration in to Norwegian labour market 145 Vietnamese refugees interviewed on arrival and after three years in Norway. 136 INDONESIA: IDPS BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Adam, J. (2008). Displacement, Coping Mechanisms and the Emergence of New Markets in Ambon (Indonesia), Conflict Research Group. Working paper N°9. Aragon, L. V. (2004). "Profiting from Displacement. In Search of Honest, Well-Designed aid for People Displaced by the Poso Conflict." Inside Indonesia. DATASETS Adam (2008) Informal market activities and new market emergence Focus-group discussions, PRA methodology 70 in-depth household interviews; application of questionnaire (qual and quant.) Interviews among stakeholders. Partnership with C-ChilDS, Center for Child and Development Studies Maluku. World Bank Support for Poor and Disadvantaged Areas Project Supporting Post-Conflict Development in Indonesia 137 IRAQ: IDPs, REFUGEES and RETURNEES Also see o REFUGEES HOSTED IN AUSTRALIA o REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE EU BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Acharya-Koirala, P. (2009). Humanitarian impact of resettlement of IDPs: a case of northern Iraq: focus on nutrition. Saarbrücken, Germany, VDM Verlag Dr. Muller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG. Al-Khalidi, A, Hoffmann, S. and Tanner, V. (2007). Iraqi Refugees in the Syrian Arab Republic: A Field-Based Snapshot. Occasional Paper, June 2007 Black, R. (1994). "Livelihoods under stress: a case study of refugee vulnerability in Greece." Journal of Refugee Studies 7(4): 360-377. Chatelard, G. (2008). ‗Jordan‘s Transient Iraqi Guests: Transnational Dynamics and the National Agenda.‘ Viewpoints, Special Edition on Iraq's Refugee and IDP Crisis, pp. 20-22. Crisp, J., J. Janz, et al. (2009). Surviving in the City, a Review of UNHCR’s Operation for Iraqi Refugees in Urban Areas of Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Danish Refugee Council (2007). Iraqi Population Survey in Lebanon Dorai, M. K. (2010). "Palestinian and Iraqi Refugees and Urban Change in Lebanon and Syria." In Viewpoints: Migration and the Mashreq, The Middle East Institute Washington, DC. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). (2009). Report of the brainstorming session on the impact of conflict-driven displacement in the ESCWA region (and powerpoint of presentation). Beirut, Lebanon, Emerging and Crisis Related Issues (ECRI) Section. FAFO (2007) Iraqis in Jordan: Their Number and Characteristics. Oslo: FAFO, Funded by the Norwegian Government, and UNFPA Harper, A. (2008). "Iraq's refugees: ignored and unwanted." International Review of the Red Cross 90: 169-190. IOM (2009) Emergency Needs Assessments, Post-February 2006 Displacement in Iraq, Monthly Report. IOM. Iraqi Red Crescent Organization (2008) The Internally Displaced in Iraq, Update 35, June. Lischer, S. K. (2008). "Security and Displacement in Iraq: Responding to the Forced Migration Crisis." International Security 33(2): 95-119. Saif, I. and D. M. DeBartolo (2007) The Iraq War’s Impact on Growth and Inflation in Jordan, Center For Strategic Studies, University of Jordan. Sassoon, J. (2009). The Iraqi refugees: the new crisis in the Middle East, London, I.B. Tauris. Seeley, N. (2010). "The Politics of Aid to Displaced Iraqis in Jordan." Middle East Report 256. Takeda, J. (2000). "Psychological and Economic Adaptation of Iraqi Adult Male Refugees: Implications for Social Work Practice." Journal of Social Service Research 26: 1-21. UNHCR (2008). Trauma Survey in Syria Waxman, P. (2001). "The Economic Adjustment of Recently Arrived Bosnian, Afghan and Iraqi Refugees in Sydney, Australia." International Migration Review 35: 472-505. DATASETS 138 Black (1994) Refugee vulnerability in Greece Interviews in Athens in 1992 with a sample of 90 refugee households, comprising 30 Iranian, 28 Iraqi Christian and 32 Kurdish households. FAFO datasets Survey Data: IDPs and Refugees in MENA region Comprehensive survey data available Takeda (2000) Psychological and economic adaptation of Iraqi adult male refugees 105 interviews, based on self-administered questionnaires Waxman (2001) Economic adjustment of Iraqis in Australia Interviews with 35 Afghans, 77 Iraqi community workers and volunteers, 50 Bosnian refugees. Aharya-Koirala (2009) Impact of Resettlement of IDPs on nutrition Cross sectional study of the causes of malnutrition and nutritional status of IDP and resettled children World Bank Jordan/Lebanon: Supporting a Sub-regional Response to Displaced Iraqis through Ta‘leem 5M-Displaced Iraqis in the Sub-Region Program 139 LIBERIA: IDPs AND RETURNEES Also See o LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN GHANA o LIBERIAN AND SIERRA LEONEAN REFUGEES IN GUINEA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Gale, L. (2006). Sustaining relationships across borders: Gendered livelihoods and mobility among Sierra Leonean refugees. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 25, 69-80. Kirkby, S. J. and J. Rose (2007) Going Home: Making a Life after Conflict. Return and Reintegration of IDPs and Returnees in Bomi, Grand Cape Mount and Gbarpolu Counties, Liberia. Evaluation of NRC. DATASETS: General data sources on IDPs and Returnees in Liberia: NRC Returnee Monitoring Projects NRC Return and Reintegration Project NRC database Kirkby and Rose (2007) Key informant interviews in Monrovia; Visits to field sites to examine activities, interview beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries and interview key informants; Group interviews Focus groups Individual interviews (structured, semi-structured and informal) World Bank Community Empowerment Project Community Empowerment II Community Reintegration and Rehabilitation Health Sector Reconstruction and Development Project HIV/AIDS Response Project Integrated Health Sector Investment Project 140 LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN GHANA Also see o LIBERIA: IDPs AND RETURNEES o LIBERIAN AND SIERRA LEONEAN REFUGEES IN GUINEA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Dick, S. (2002). Liberians in Ghana: Living without Humanitarian Assistance. Geneva, UNHCR. DATASETS Dick (2002) Urban refugees living without humanitarian assistance Interviews with 35 Liberian refugees Survey of 16 camp-based churches 141 LIBERIAN AND SIERRA LEONEAN REFUGEES IN GUINEA Also See o LIBERIA: IDPs AND RETURNEES o LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN GHANA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Andrews Gale, L. (2007). "Bulgur Marriages and 'Big' Women: Navigating Relatedness in Guinean Refugee Camps." Anthropological Quarterly 80(2): 355-378. UNEP. (2000). Environmental impact of refugees in Guinea: report to the Secretary General on the findings and recommendations of the pre-assessment on the environmental impact of refugees in Guinea. Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme. Van Damme, W. (1995). "Do refugees belong in camps? Experiences from Goma and Guinea." The Lancet 346: 360-362. Van Damme, W., De Brouwere, V., Boelaert, M., and Van Lerberghe, W., (1998). "Effects of a refugee-assistance programme on host population in Guinea as measured by obstetric interventions." The Lancet 35(1): 609–13. DATASETS Van Damme et al (1998) Effects of assistance programme on host population Data on major obstetric interventions performed for refugees and host population in district hospital (1988-1996) 142 LIBERIAN REFUGEES IN SIERRA LEONE Also see o LIBERIAN AND SIERRA LEONEAN REFUGEES IN GUINEA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Leach, M. (1991). Refugee-host relations in local perspective: food security and environmental implications of the Liberian influx into rural communities of Sierra Leone, 1990-91. Brighton, Institute of Development Studies. Leach, M. (1992). Dealing with displacement: refugee-host relations, food and forest resources in Sierra Leonean Mende communities during the Liberian infux, 1990-91. Brighton, Institute of Development Studies. 143 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN MALAWI Also see o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH AFRICA o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZIMBABWE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Barnett, C. (2003). Mozambican Refugees in Malawi: Livelihoods and their Impact on the Natural Resource Base. Geneva, UNHCR. Callamard, A. (1994). "Refugees and Local Hosts: A Study of the Trading Interactions between Mozambican Refugees and Malawian Villagers in the District of Mwanza*." Journal of Refugee Studies 7(1): 39-62. Carlson, S. (2005). Contesting and Reinforcing Patriarchy: An Analysis of Domestic Violence in the Dzaleka Refugee Camp. RSC Working Paper. Oxford: RSC. Dzimbiri, L. (1992). Refugee participation in relief and development activities: The case of Tengani and Chifuoga camps in Malawi. Blantyre, Malawi, Conference on First Country of Asylum and Development Aid in Malawi. Gorman, R. F. (1992). Refugees, development and Malawi: Comparative Perspective. Conference on First Country of Asylum and Development Aid in Malawi. Blantyre, Malawi. Government of Malawi., World Bank., et al. (1990). Report to the Consultative Group of Malawi on the Impact of Refugees on the Government Public Expenditure. Malawi. Government of Malawi.. (1992). Impact of refugees on Malawi environment, social & economic infrastructure. First Country of Asylum & Development Aid in Malawi. Malawi. Jacobsen, K. (1997). "Refugees' environmental impact: the effect of patterns of settlement." Journal of Refugee Studies 10(1): 19-36. Jacobsen, K. (2002). "Can refugees benefit the state? Refugee resources and African state building." The Journal of Modern African Studies 40: 577-596. Lassailly-Jacob, V. (1992). Mozambican refugees in countries of first asylum: development aid and local integration. Long, L., et al. (1990). The local impact of Mozambican refugees in Malawi, Study prepared for US Embassy and USAID/Malawi. . Smith, I. M. (1993). The importance of the environment and aid to refugee integration in sub- Saharan Africa: a case study of Mozambican refugees in Nsanje District, Malawi, York University, Toronto, 1993. UNDP., P. Burgess, et al. (1987). Report on a programming mission for long-term assistance to areas hosting displaced persons in Malawi October-December 1987. Undulu, J. C. (1991). Report on fuelwood distributions to Mozambican refugees and needy Malawians: April, 1990 to May, 1991. Lilongwe, Malawi Red Cross Society. UNHCR (1998). Towards Sustainable Environment Management Practices in Refugee-Affected Areas. Country reports : Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, UNHCR. UNHCR, E. (1998). "Economic and Social Impact of Massive Refugee Populations on host developing countries, as well as other countries. A quantitative assessment on the basis of special case studies. ." Refugee Survey Quarterly 17(4): 102-110. 144 Whande, N. and UNHCR (1992). Malawi: assessment of existing programmes, their impact and recommendations for promotion of refugee women's participation. Geneva, UNHCR, Programme and Technical Support Section. Zetter, R. (1995). "Incorporation and exclusion: The life cycle of Malawi's Refugee assistance program." World Development 23(10): 1653-1667. Zetter, R. (1996) ‗Refugee Survival and NGO Project Assistance for Mozambican Refugees in Malawi,‘ Community Development Journal, 31(3):214-229. Zetter, R. (1996) ‗Indigenous NGOs and Refugee Assistance: Some Lessons from Malawi and Zimbabwe,‘ Development in Practice, 6(1): 37-49. DATASETS UNDP., et al. (1987) Evaluation of impact of Mozambican refugees in Malawi (Study by UNDP, UNHCR and Government of Malawi) Survey of socio-economic data Estimations of cost for one year response to refugees‘ presence. Government of Malawi, World Bank., et al. (1990) Quantitative assessment of impact of displacement on Government of Malawi Long et al (1990) Differential impact of displacement on Malawian host population 107 interviewees, including focus groups Government of Malawi (1992). Governmental net expenditure across sectors Smith (1993) Interactions between refugees, hosts and aid providers Detailed qualitative and quantitative primary research data Callamard (1994) Trading interactions between refugees and hosts Qualitative interviews (local villagers and refugees; 1992 and 1993). Interviews in market place (32 Malawian and Mozambican traders, as random sample) Interviews with adult refugees in Intensive Feeding Centre. 53 local households surveyed (approx. 10% of household population of four villages) World Bank Health and Nutrition Project for Mozambican IDPs 145 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH AFRICA Also see o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN MALAWI o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZIMBABWE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Dolan, C. and Flyktningeråd (1997). Research project: the changing status of Mozambicans in South Africa and the impact of this on repatriation to and re-integration in Mozambique. Flyktningeråd. Lassailly-Jacob, V. (1992). Mozambican refugees in countries of first asylum: development aid and local integration. DATASETS Dolan and Flyktningeråd (1997) Data collected by the University of the Witwatersrand's Health Systems Development Unit (HSDU). Since 1992 the unit has been engaged in large scale demographic census work, including approximately 15,000 refugees. 146 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA Also see o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN MALAWI o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH AFRICA o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZIMBABWE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Black, R. et al (1990). Ukwimi refugee settlement: livelihood and settlement planning: a preliminary report of field research and recommendations. Black, R. (1994). "Refugee migration and local economic development in Eastern Zambia." Journal of Economic and Social Geography 85(3): 249-262. Clark, L. (1987). Key issues in post-emergency refugee assistance in Eastern and Southern Africa. Washington, D.C., Refugee Policy Group. Freund, A. and K. Kalumba (1986). "Spontaneously Settled Refugees in Northwestern Province, Zambia." International Migration Review 20(2). Lassailly-Jacob, V. (1992). Mozambican refugees in countries of first asylum: development aid and local integration. Lassailly-Jacob, V. (1993). "Refugee-Host Interactions: A Field Report from the Ukwimi Mozambican Refugee Settlement, Zambia." Refuge 13(6). Lassailly-Jacob, V. (2002). Revisiting Ukwimi resettlement scheme : the impact of the new refugee camp (Petauke District, Zambia) November-December 2001 : a fieldwork report. Paris, Centre for African Studies. Smith, I. M. (1993). The importance of the environment and aid to refugee integration in sub- Saharan Africa: a case study of Mozambican refugees in Nsanje District, Malawi, York University, Toronto, 1993.: xvi, 129 leaves & apps. DATASETS Freund and Kalumba (1986) University of Zambia socioeconomic survey and census commissioned by UNHCR; Focus on "spontaneously settled" Zairean and Angolan refugees in the Northwestern Province of Zambia in 1982. Sample: 188 Angolans, 201 Zaireans, and 2 South Africans. Black et al (1990) Refugees and economic development of host area Qualitative and quantitative research into the socio-economic situation of refugees and their rural hosts Lassailly-Jacob (1993, 2002, 2004) Host perceptions vis-a-vis refugees Interviews with random sample of local Zambians (25) Mozambican refugees (6) and agency workers and local government officials (10). Various surveys conducted with hosts and refugees over a decade. 147 Black (1994) Refugees and economic development of host area Field research (1990): in-depth interviews with refugees and Zambians, local government officials, agency workers and other key respondents in four villages within the settlement, and nine adjacent Zambian villages. Field observations of ecological change Group discussions 148 MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZIMBABWE Also see o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH AFRICA o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN MALAWI o MOZAMBICAN REFUGEES IN ZAMBIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Lassailly-Jacob, V. (1992) Mozambican refugees in countries of first asylum: development aid and local integration. Le Breton, G. (1994). An assessment of the environmental damage in the areas surrounding the Mozambican refugee camps in Zimbabwe. Fuelwood Crisis Consortium. Sparrow, A. (1993). Indigenous woodland resources: Chambuta refugee camp. [S.l., s.n.]. UNHCR (1998). Towards Sustainable Environment Management Practices in Refugee-Affected Areas. Country reports: Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, UNHCR. DATASETS Le Breton (1994) Attempt to quantify the environmental impact of refugee settlements on host government. Combination of ecological and social research techniques 149 NORTHERN UGANDA: IDPS and RETURNEES Also see o SOUTHERN SUDAN: UGANDAN REFUGEES, IDPS AND SUDANESE RETURNEES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Adelman, S., H. Alderman, et al. (2008). "The Impact of Alternative Food for Education Programs on Learning Achievement and Cognitive Development in Northern Uganda." Alderman, H., D. O. Gilligan, et al. (2008). "The Impact of Alternative Food for Education Programs School Participation and Education Attainment in Northern Uganda." Bøås, M. and Hatløy, A. (2005) Northern Uganda Internally Displaced Persons Profiling Study, UNDP/Office of the Prime Minister. Bonfiglio, A. (2010). Learning outside the classroom: non-formal refugee education in Uganda. UNHCR Research Paper No. 193. Geneva: UNHCR. Bourgeois, C., N. Wright, et al. (2007). Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Uganda. Bozzoli, C. and T. Brück (2010). Child Morbidity and Camp Decongestion in Post-war Uganda. MICROCON Research Working Paper 24. Brighton, MICROCON. Bukuluki, P., F. Mugumya, et al. (2008). Gender Dimensions, Food Security, and HIV and AIDS in Internally Displaced People‘s (IDPs) Camps in Uganda: Implications for HIV- Responsive Policy and Programming. International Food Policy Research Institute. DHS (2006). Uganda Demographic and Health Survey 2006. Kampala: Uganda Bureau of Statistics and Calverton, Maryland: Macro International Inc. Dryden-Peterson, S., L. Hovil, et al. (2003). Local integration as a durable solution: refugees, host populations and education in Uganda. Geneva, Switzerland. Fiala, N. (2009). The Businesses of the Rural Poor: Market Survey for Gulu and Kitgum Districts (incl. dataset), AVSI. Fiala, N. (2009). The Consequences of Forced Displacement in Northern Uganda HiCN Working Paper 65. Hovil, L., A. Moorhead, et al. (2002). War as norma: the impact of violence on the lives of displaced communities in Pader District, northern Uganda / Lucy Hovil and Alex Moorhead. Kampala, Uganda, Refugee Law Project. Immanuel, K. F. (2010). Challenges and Opportunities for Women‘s Land Rights in Post- Conflict Northern Uganda. MICROCON Research Working Paper 26. Jacobsen, K. (2006). "Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Urban Areas: A Livelihoods Perspective " Journal of Refugee Studies 19(3): 273-286. Karunakara, U. (2004). The Demography of Forced Migration: Displacement and Fertility in the West Nile Region of Northern Uganda and Southern Sudan, Unpublished Dissertation. Ketel, H. and UNHCR (1995). Uganda: refugee-affected areas in Uganda: an environmental assessment 30 April - 18 May 1995. UNHCR Programme & Technical Support Section. Lehrer, K. (2010). Economic Behaviour During Conflict: Education and Labour Market Participation in Internally Displaced People's Camps in Northern Uganda. Doctoral Dissertation, Faculty of Graduate Studies (Economics), The University of British Columbia. 150 Lehrer, K. (2010). "Gender Differences in Labour Market Participation During Conflict: Evidence from Displaced People's Camps in Northern Uganda." Lehrer, K. (2010). Personal Communication. Levin, S. and J. Adoko (2006). "Land rights and displacement in northern Uganda." HPN Humanitarian Exchange Magazine 34. Macchiavello, M. (2003). Forced Migrants as an Under-utilized Asset: Refugee Skills, Livelihoods, and Achievements in Kampala, Uganda. Geneva, UNHCR. MSF-Holland (2004). Internally Displaced Camps in Lira and Pader Northern Uganda: A Baseline Health Survey. Office of the Prime Minister & Uganda, U. (1998). Strategy Paper: Self-Reliance for Refugee Hosting Areas in Moyo, Arua and Adjumani Districts, 1999-2006. Geneva: UNHCR. OXFAM (2007). The building blocks of sustainable peace. The views of internally displaced people in Northern Uganda. Refugee Law Project. (2002). Refugees in Kyangwali Settlement: Constraints on Economic Freedom. Working Paper No. 7. Rugadya, M. A., E. Nsamba-Gayiiya, et al. (2008). Northern Uganda Land Study: Analysis of Post Conflict Land Policy and Land Administration: A Survey of IDP Return and Resettlement Issues and Lessons. Acholi and Lango Regions. Report prepared for the World Bank, to input into Northern Uganda Peace, Recovery and Development Plan and the Draft National Land Policy. Sebba, K. R. and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit. (2006). Land conflicts and their impact on refugee women's livelihoods in southwestern Uganda. Geneva, UNHCR. Singh, K. (2001). Forced Migration and Under-Five Mortality in Northwestern Uganda and Southern Sudan. Unpublished Dissertation. Singh K., Karunakara, U., Burnham, G., and Hill, K. (2005) ―Forced migration and under-five mortality: A comparison of refugees and hosts in north-western Uganda and southern Sudan‖ European Journal of Population, 21 (2-3) pp. 247-270. Ssewanyana, S., et al (2006) Uganda: Moving out of Poverty. World Bank. Ssewanyana, S., S. Younger, et al. (2007). Poverty Under Conflict: The Case for Northern Uganda. Economic Development in Africa. CSASE, Oxford. Werker, E. (2007). "Refugee Camp Economies." Journal of Refugee Studies 20(3): 461-480. UNHCR. (2004) Development Assistance for Refugee Hosting Areas in Uganda. In: UNHCR (ed.) UNHCR Programme Document 1999-2003. Geneva: UNHCR. WHO and The Republic of Uganda Ministry Of Health (2005). "Health and mortality survey among internally displaced persons in Gulu, Kitgum, and Pader districts, northern Uganda." Ministry of Health and WHO DATASETS Hovil and Moorhead (2002) Impact of violence on IDPs Testimonies of 49 refugees and 30 IDPs Interviews with government officials, UN staff and NGO representatives. Macchiavello (2003) Urban based refugees in Kampala 151 Interviews with 221 urban refugees (DRC, Sudanese, Burundians, Rwandese, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Kenyan, Sri Lankan) (purposive sample). Directorate of Refugees Ministry of Disaster Preparedness and Refugees in the Office of the Prime Minister Ministry of Education Old Kampala Police Station MSF-Holland (2004) Baseline health survey of IDPs Baseline health survey of 6 IDP camps; five rural camps out of 24 in Lira district and 1 in Pader Town Centre out of 24 in Pader district. WHO and Republic of Uganda Ministry of Health (2005) Health and mortality amongst IDPs Aimed to research 30 clusters of 32 households (i.e. 960 households) in each of the four survey populations. In total, In total, 3830 households were interviewed. Complete demographic information was available for 30 304 individuals (7659 in Gulu District, 7904 in Gulu Municipality, 7328 in Kitgum District, and 7413 in Pader District) FAFO datasets and reports (2005 ff) IDP profiling and livelihood programmes Funding: Office of the Prime Minister, Department of Disaster Preparedness and Refugees; Lead Donor Agency was United Nations Development Programme with co- financing support from European Union Acholi Programme, USAID Uganda and the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. OXFAM (2007) Focus-group discussions with 91 IDPs Interviews with camp leaders and local Government representatives Survey of 600 IDPs across the Acholi region in May and June 2007 Ssewanyana et el (2007) Determinants of household living standards; impact of displacement on expenditure 2004 Uganda Bureau of Statistics survey: baseline for the Northern Uganda Social Action Fund project, including IDP households. Part of World Bank project (Strengthening the understanding of the dynamics of poverty in Northern Uganda) Werker (2007) Refugee Camp Economy, based on Kyangwali Refugee Settlement in Uganda. Fieldwork in 2002, hosted by Refugee Law Project; funded by the Mellon–MIT Programme on Non-Governmental Organizations and Forced Migration. Adelman et al (2008) and Alderman et al (2008) Northern Uganda Food For Education Programs and Evaluation Study Data (2005-2007) Prospective, randomized controlled evaluation; 152 Financial support for the data collection and analysis from the World Food Programme, the World Bank, and UNICEF. Collaboration in data collection: Institute of Public Health, Makerere University Bukuluki et al (2008) Gender Dimensions, Food Security, and HIV and AIDS in IDP Camps in Uganda 403 household interviews among IDPs in selected camps of Katakwi and Gulu Districts. 26 community dialogue meetings 4 case studies 22 key informant interviews 19 in-depth interviews Rugadya (2008) Survey of IDP Return and Resettlement vis-à-vis conflicts and disputes re. land tenure Highly structured questionnaires; stratified sample community of 1,119 (541 female, 578 male) Key informant interviews or focus group discussions for institutions, organizations and stakeholders undertaking interventions Interviews with the District Local Government staff and the District Disaster Management Committees of the selected districts (an average of 35 respondents in each of the six districts Interviews (individual or focus groups) with NGOs Funded by the World Bank. Fiala (2009a) Effect of displacement on livelihoods and health Cross-sectional household demographic survey (2004): Northern Uganda Survey (NUS), which was collected by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBoS) between July and December 2004 for use in a development program funded in part by the World Bank. Survey covered all 18 districts in the northern and eastern regions of Uganda. Randomly selected communities within each district, and 10 households per community. Fiala (2009b) IDPs and rural poor/markets Two week survey in 2009 in 60 randomly-selected sites across two districts Business surveys in each of the 60 sites Interviews with various stakeholders. Bozzoli and Brück (2010) Child Morbidity and Camp Decongestion in Post-war Uganda Morbidity data collected as part of a large household survey from post-war northern Uganda in 2007, combined with geo-coded conflict event data at the individual level. Data collected by Ugandan Bureau of Statistics and FAFO Immanuel (2010) IDP Women’s Land Rights 6 separate group discussions in 2 IDP camps, between 12-14 participants per group 153 In-depth interviews with 6 camp leaders and 2 sub-county chiefs Lehrer (personal communication, 2010) Relevant Sources Panel data: approx. 900 households; dataset will be publically available; IDPs in 32 camps were surveyed in the camps, then IDPs in approx. 60 satellite camps during transition "home". Third round of survey (Spring 2010) includes qualitative section. Government of Uganda's Statistics Bureau (from circa 2002) Uganda's Statistics Bureau (2005) Household dataset across Uganda, but excluding Northern Uganda = circa 2005/2006. Ugandan Displaced People's Profiling survey by the Office of the Prime Minister. Lehrer (2010a and b) Male and female labour force participation and children’s educational outcomes 1999 Uganda National Household Survey 2005 baseline study: 32 camps in Lira and Pader; Average of 29 households per camp; final sample of 911 households in the baseline 2007 resurvey: following resettlement of approx. 70% of baseline sample households re- interviewed 76 percent of baseline households. Detailed household questionnaire and an IDP camp questionnaire Research partner: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Bøås, M. (ongoing) Livelihoods affected by humanitarian crisis, Uganda. FAFO project commissioned by World Food Programme World Bank Northern Uganda Social Action Fund II (NUSAF II) The Local Government Management and Service Delivery Project (LGMSD) Technical Support to the National Plan for Peace Recovery and Development Plan (PRDP) in North Uganda Uganda: Repatriation, Rehabilitation, Resettlement and Reintegration of Reporters in Uganda Uganda Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Project 154 PALESTINIAN REFUGEES AND IDPS: GAZA, WEST BANK, JORDAN, LEBANON and SYRIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Abu-Libdeh, H. (2007) ―Statistical Data on Palestinian Refugees: What We Know and What We Don‘t,‖ in Rex Brynen and Roula El-Rifai (eds). Palestinian Refugees: Challenges of Repatriation and Development. IB Tauris. Arneber, M. (1997) Living Conditions Among Palestinian Refugees and Displaced in Jordan, Oslo: FAFO. 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(ed) (2003) Finding Means: Summary Report: UNRWA’s Financial Situation and the Living Conditions of Palestinian Refugees, Oslo: FAFO. Jacobsen, J.B. (2004) Educated Housewives: Living Conditions among Palestinian Refugee Women, Oslo: FAFO Khawaja, M. and Titlnes, A.A. (2002) On the margins: migration and living conditions of Palestinian camp refugees in Jordan. Oslo: FAFO Liu, J. and Tiltnes, A.A. (2010) Surveying Palestinian Opinion. Results from an opinion poll in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip February and May 2010, Oslo: FAFO. Liu, J. and Tiltnes, A.A. (2010) Surveying Palestinian Opinion. Results from an opinion poll in the West Bank February 2010, Oslo: FAFO. Liu, J. and Tiltnes, A.A. (2010) Surveying Palestinian Opinion. Results from an opinion poll in the Gaza Strip May 2010, Oslo: FAFO. MacAllister, K. and Khalil, K. (2009). Internal displacement in the occupied Palestinian territory. HPN, Issue 44. Mitchell, L.E. (2009) Making Ends Meet: Gender and Household Coping Strategies in the West Bank. Oslo: FAFO Mitchell, L.E. (2010) Coping, Closure and Gendered Life Transitions: Palestinians’ Responses to the Erosion of Male Breadwinning Work. Oslo: FAFO. OCHA (2007) The Barrier Gate and Permit Regime Four Years on: Humanitarian Impact in the Northern West Bank OCHA (2008) Special Focus: “Lack of Permit” Demolitions and Resultant Displacement in Area C OCHA (2009) Special Focus: Locked In: The Humanitarian Impact of Two Years of Blockade on the Gaza Strip, August 2009. Øvensen, G. (1994) Responding to change: Trends in Palestinian household economy, Oslo: FAFO. Pedersen, J. (1995) The Demography of Palestinians: New surveys in the Occupied Territories and Jordan, Oslo: FAFO. Pedersen, J. (1997) West Bank and Gaza Living conditions: Are refugees different? Oslo: FAFO. Pedersen, J. and Hooper, R. (1998) (ed.) Developing Palestinian Society: Socio-economic trends and their implications for development strategies, Oslo: FAFO. 156 Pedersen, J. et al (2001) (eds). Growing Fast: The Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Oslo: FAFO. Pedersen, J. et al (2002) Paying a Price: Coping with Closure in Gaza City, Oslo: FAFO. Pedersen, J. et al (2002) Paying a Price: Coping with Closure in two Palestinian Villages, Oslo: FAFO. Roberts, R. (2010) Palestinians in Lebanon: Long-term Displacement and Refugee Coping Mechanisms. IB Tauris. Roberts, R. (2004) The Impact of Assistance on the Coping Mechanisms of Long-term Refugees: the Case of the Palestinian Refugees in Camps in Lebanon. Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit, University of York. Save the Children Fund (UK) (2009). Life on the Edge: The Struggle to Survive and the Impact of Forced Displacement in High Risk Areas of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Survey conducted by Near East Consulting., Supported by the Humanitarian Aid department of the European Commission (ECHO). Tiltnes, A.A. (1998) Ability and Willingness to Pay for Water and Sewage Services in Two Palestinian Cities: Results from a Household Survey in Nablus and Gaza City, Oslo: FAFO. Tiltnes, A.A. (2005) Falling behind: A Brief on Living Conditions of Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon. FAFO 2005:464 Tiltnes, A.A. (2006) (ed.) Palestinian Refugees in Syria: Human Capital, Economic Resources and Living Conditions, Fafo-report 2006: 514 Tiltnes, A.A. (2007) A Socio-economic Profile of the Nahr El-Bared and Beddawi Refugee Camps of Lebanon, Based on the 2006 Labour Force Survey Among Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon, Fafo-paper 2007:16 Tiltnes, A.A. (2007) Keeping Up: A Brief on The Living Conditions of Palestinian Refugees in Syria, Fafo-report 2007 Tiltnes, A.A. (2008) Characteristics of Displaced Palestinian Refugees from the Nahr El-Bared Refugee Camp, A Report to UNRWA and ILO, Fafo-paper 2008 Tiltnes, A.A. (2009) Living conditions in the Gaza Strip. Fafo-paper 2009:18 Ugland, O.F. (2003) (ed). Difficult Past, Uncertain Future: Living Conditions Among Palestinian Refugees in Camps and Gatherings in Lebanon. Fafo-report 2003:409. UNCTAD. 2008. Report on UNCTAD Assistance to the Palestinian People. Trade and Development Board, fifty-fifth session, TD/B/55/2, Geneva, UNEP (2009) Environmental Assessment of the Gaza Strip Following the Escalation of Hostilities in December 2008 – January 2009 World Bank (2009) West Bank and Gaza, Check Points and Barriers: Searching for Livelihoods in the West Bank and Gaza, Gender Dimensions of Economic Collapse, Washington D.C. DATASETS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics FAFO datasets (see above) World Bank (closed and ongoing) GZ-DISPLACED PERSONS (West Bank and Gaza) GZ-Integrated Community Development Supplemental (West Bank and Gaza) Housing Project (West Bank and Gaza) Nahr al-Bared Post-Conflict Emergency Grant in Lebanon 157 Roberts (2004) Impact of assistance on coping mechanisms of long-term Palestinian refugees Capacities and vulnerabilities analysis based on information gathered from key informants and members of the camp communities. Rapid but accurate participatory methodologies which could be easily replicated, provided opportunities for triangulation, and were appropriate to the camp environment. Household studies Save the Children (2009) Survey conducted by Near East Consulting., Supported by the Humanitarian Aid department of the European Commission (ECHO). Sample of Palestinians living in selected High Risk Areas (HRAs): survey administered through face-to-face interviews with 472 Palestinians over the age of 18. Specific communities pre-selected (13 in the West Bank and 16 in Gaza) in HRAs based on locations in which Save the Children‘s forced displacement work was ongoing as well as in close consultation with OCHA and other members of the DWG. Within each community, fieldworkers randomly surveyed 10-15 households. General survey serves as a control: telephone interviews using random digit dialling via landline: total of 1,057 random telephone interviews; each respondent represents a unique household and is not necessarily the head of household. 158 PHILLIPINES: IDPs in MINDANAO BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES OXFAM-GB (2000). Anthropometric and Household Food Security Survey among Displaced Families in Central Mindanao, Coordinated by Parthasarathy V. Ippadi, HSP-Nutrition, Oxfam-GB. DATASETS OXFAM-GB (2000) Food security data from 371 households Measured 669 children 6M – 59M old for anthropometry using a two-stage cluster sampling technique World Bank Mindanao Reconstruction and Development ARMM Social Fund Project Mindanao Reconstruction and Development Fund (MRDF) Promoting the Transition from Conflict to Peace in Mindanao 159 REFUGEES IN KENYA: esp. SOMALI AND SUDANESE REFUGEES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Campbell, E. (2005). Formalizing the Informal Economy: Somali Refugee and Migrant Trade Networks in Nairobi. Geneva, GCIM. Campbell, E. (2006). "Urban refugees in Nairobi: problems of protection, mechanisms for survival and possibilities for integration." Journal of Refugee Studies 19(3): 396-413. Crisp, J. (1999). A State of Insecurity: The Political Economy of Violence in Refugee-populated Areas of Kenya. Geneva, UNHCR. Dube, A. and A. Koenig (2005). Self-reliance and sustainable livelihoods for refugees in Dadaab and Kakuma camps. Geneva, UNHCR and ILO. Elmi, K. (2007) Participation in Sustainable Livelihoods: An Assessment of Socio-Economic Conditions in Dadaab and the Impact of DRC-Care Interventions. Report to Danish Refugee Council. Danish Refugee Council, Nairobi. Horn, R. (2010). ―Exploring the Impact of Displacement and Encampment on Domestic Violence in Kakuma Refugee Camp.‖ Journal of Refugee Studies, 23, 356-376. Horst, C. (2006). Transnational Nomads. How Somalis cope with refugee life in the Dadaab camps of Kenya. Oxford and New York, Berghahn Books. Horst, C. (2008). "A Monopoly on Assistance: International Aid to Refugee Camps and the Neglected Role of the Somali Diaspora." Afrika Spectrum 43(1): 121-131. Horst, C. and K. Elmi (2007). Participation in Sustainable Livelihoods. An assessment of socio- economic conditions in Dadaab and the impact of DRC-CARE interventions. Nairobi, Danish Refugee Council. Jacobsen, K. (2002). "Can refugees benefit the state? Refugee resources and African state building." The Journal of Modern African Studies 40: 577-596. Jacobsen, K. (2006). "Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Urban Areas: A Livelihoods Perspective " Journal of Refugee Studies 19(3): 273-286. Jamal, A. (2000). Minimum standards and essential needs in a protracted refugee situation: a review of the UNHCR programmes in Kakuma, Kenya. Geneva, Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit, UNHCR. Kagwanja, P. (2002). "Subjects of the Good Samaritan: 'Traditional' Culture and Refugee Protection in the Kenyan Camps." Politique Africaine 85: 45-55. Lindley, A. (2007). The early morning phonecall: Remittances from a refugee diaspora perspective. Oxford, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS). Lindley, A. (2007). Protracted Displacement and Remittances: The view from Eastleigh, Nairobi. Geneva, UNHCR. Lindley, A. (2010). The Early Morning Phone Call: Somali Refugees' Remittances. Oxford & New York, Berghahn. Lukhanyo, F. W., Drought Monitoring Project., et al. (1994). Economic impact assessment of Oxfam's relief operation in North Turkana, Kenya, 1992/94: final report to Oxfam, Nairobi, 1 October, 1994. Maralal ; Lodwar, Drought Monitoring Project : Turkana Drought Contingency Planning Unit. Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology. (2010). Impacts of Dadaab Refugee Camps on Host Communities. (Draft Study Report). NORDECO. Ochola, S. (2006). Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2006. Nairobi, BMZ/UNHCR. 160 Ochola, S. (2007). Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2007. Summary of Findings and Recommendations. Nairobi, BMZ/UNHCR. Perouse de Montclos, M. A. and P. Kagwanja (2000). "Refugee Camps or Cities? The Socio- economic Dynamics of the Dadaab and Kakuma Camps in Northern Kenya." Journal of Refugee Studies 13(2): 205-222. UNHCR (2007). Dadaab Operations in Brief. Nairobi, UNHCR Sub-Office Dadaab. DATASETS HORST (1995-2007) Detailed data collected in Dadaab and Nairobi (1995 – 2007) Dube and Koenig (2005): UNHCR, CARE etc data on Somali refugees in Dadaab (Kenya); Sudanese refugees in Kakuma (Kenya) Campbell (2005 and 2006) Economic participation, host relations Over 150 structured, unstructured, formal and informal interviews of refugees mainly from the Somali, Ethiopian, and Congolese communities residing and working in Eastleigh. Semi-structured survey (data on pricing and trade networks): 50 Somali respondents 2004 survey on xenophobia: 50 non-Somali Kenyans Door-to-door survey of 30 Kenyan businessmen. Ochola (2006-2007) Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2006 and 2007 Werker (2007) Fieldwork in Uganda; Collaboration with the Refugee Law Project in Kampala (2002) Lindley (2007 - 2010) Refugee remittances Multiple qualitative interviews with refugees, remittance senders, UNHCR and NGO staff. NORDECO (2010) 398 quantitative questionnaires/structured interviews over 8 sites; 115 qualitative questionnaires with randomly-selected households; semi-structured in- depth interviews Focus group discussions Community meetings in sampled settlements and surrounding areas. 8 out of 20 host community settlements and associated sub-locations were randomly sampled as study sites. 5-7% of households were included in a quantitative, questionnaire-based survey Average of 15 in-depth qualitative interviews as well as one or two focus group discussions were held. 161 REFUGEES HOSTED IN AUSTRALIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Waxman, P. (2001). "The Economic Adjustment of Recently Arrived Bosnian, Afghan and Iraqi Refugees in Sydney, Australia." International Migration Review 35: 472-505. Wooden, M. (1991). "The Experience of Refugees in the Australian Labor Market." International Migration Review 25(3): 514-35. DATASETS Wooden (1991) Refugees in the Labor Market Supplementary survey conducted in conjunction with the regular monthly population survey of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) in March 1987. Total sample of 7,331. Waxman (2001) Economic adjustment of Afghans, Bosnians and Iraqis in Australia Interviews with 35 Afghans, 77 Iraqi community workers and volunteers, 50 Bosnian refugees. 162 REFUGEES HOSTED IN CANADA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES DeVoretz, D., S. Pivnenko, et al. (2004). "The Economic Experiences of Refugees in Canada." IZA Discussion Paper No. 1088. Jacobsen, K. (2006). "Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Urban Areas: A Livelihoods Perspective " Journal of Refugee Studies 19(3): 273-286. Krahn, H., T. Derwing, et al. (2000). "Educated and Underemployed: Refugee Integration into the Canadian Labour Market." Journal of International Migration and Integration 1(1): 59–84. Lamphier, C. M. (1987). Indochinese Resettlement: Cost and Adaptation in Canada, the United States and France. Refugees - A Third World Dilemma. J. R. Rogge. Totowa, Rowman and Littlefield. Neuwirth, G. (1987). Socioeconomic adjustment of Southeast Asian Refugees in Canada. Refugees - A Third World Dilemma. J. R. Rogge. Totowa, Rowman and Littlefield. Statistics Canada. (1980 to 2007). Longitudinal Immigration Database. DATASETS Lamphier (1987) Costs of resettlement Costs of resettlement to Canada, US and France provided Neuwirth (1987) Adaptation according to government assistance vs private sponsorship Comprehensive longitudinal survey of Southeast Asians by Employment and Immigration. Comparison of adaptation of government-assisted and privately sponsored refugees: sample of 120 privately and 50 government-assisted refugee households in 2 counties. Combined sample of 1645 persons. Krahn et al (2000) Education and refugee employment Interviews with a sample of 525 adult refugees who were initially resettled in the province of Alberta between 1992 and 1997. DeVoretz et al (2004) Economic experiences Set of economic indicators from Canada‘s Longitudinal Immigration Data Base (IMDB) database to assess the post 1981 Canadian refugee economic experience. standard human capital model Landed Immigrant Data System Refugee Resettlement Project 163 REFUGEES HOSTED IN DENMARK BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES Husted, L., H. S. Nielsen, et al. (2000). "Employment and Wage Assimilation of Male First Generation Immigrants in Denmark." IZA DP No. 101. Jandl, M. (1995). Structure and Costs of the Asylum Systems in Seven European Countries. Vienna, ICPMD. Martin, S. F., A. I. Schoenholtz, et al. (2003). Impact of asylum on receiving countries. Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, United Nations University. DATASETS Jandl (1995) Structure and Costs of the Asylum Systems in Seven European Countries Husted et al (2000) Labour market assimilation Two panel data sets covering the population of immigrants and 10% of the Danish population during 1984-1995; compares refugees and non-refugee immigrants. Damm and Rosholm (2003) Dispersal Policies and Employment Effects Longitudinal register data set covering all immigrants in Denmark. labour market spells of immigrants constructed by the Institute of Local Government Studies. Municipality time series data to construct location characteristics 164 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE EUROPEAN UNION Also see o REFUGEES HOSTED IN DENMARK o REFUGEES HOSTED IN NETHERLANDS o REFUGEES HOSTED IN NORWAY o REFUGEES HOSTED IN UK BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES Bloch, A. (1999). Refugees in the Job Market: A Case of Unused Skills in the British Economy. Refugees, Citizenship and Social Policy in Europe. (Ed) A. Bloch, and C. Levy. New York, Macmillan Press: 187–210. Brink, M. (1997). The Labour Market Integration of Refugees in the Netherlands. Exclusion and Inclusion of Refugees in Contemporary Europe. P. Muss. Utrecht, European Research Center of Migration and Ethnic Relations: 187–203. Jandl, M. (1995). Structure and Costs of the Asylum Systems in Seven European Countries. Vienna, ICPMD. Martin, S. F., A. I. Schoenholtz, et al. (2003). Impact of asylum on receiving countries. Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, United Nations University. UNDP. (2006). Impact of displacement on education and employment. DATASETS Jandl (1995) Detailed data regarding the structure and costs of the asylum systems in 7 EuropeanCountries (Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland) 165 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE NETHERLANDS BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Brink, M. (1997). The Labour Market Integration of Refugees in the Netherlands. Exclusion and Inclusion of Refugees in Contemporary Europe. P. Muss. Utrecht, European Research Center of Migration and Ethnic Relations: 187–203. Hartog, J. and A. Zorlu (2005). "How Important Is Homeland Education for Refugees' Economic Position in The Netherlands?" IZA DP No. 1753. DATASETS Hartog and Zorlu (2005) Homeland Education and Refugees’ Economic Position; joint project with the Dutch Statistical Office CBS Dataset: Immigrant Panel, created by linking registration of entering immigrants by the Dutch immigration service IND with observations on socio-economic variables by the national statistical bureau in the RIO files; data for applicants who are still present in the Netherland in 2000. 2000 data: 13 436 matched individuals present; with 31 323 observations on the period 1995-2000. 166 REFUGEES HOSTED IN NORWAY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Hauff, E. and P. Vaglum (1993). "Integration of Vietnamese Refugees into the Norwegian Labor Market: The Impact of War Trauma." International Migration Review 27(2): 388-405. Jandl, M. (1995). Structure and Costs of the Asylum Systems in Seven European Countries. Vienna, ICPMD. Martin, S. F., A. I. Schoenholtz, et al. (2003). Impact of asylum on receiving countries. Helsinki, United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research. DATASETS Hauf and Vaglum (1993) Impact of war trauma on integration into labour market Interviews with 145 Vietnamese refugees upon arrival and after three years in Norway. 167 REFUGEES HOSTED IN THE UK BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Aldridge, F. and S. Waddington (2001). "Asylum Seekers‘ Skills and Qualifications Audit Pilot Project.‖ National Institute for Adult Continuing Education. Martin, S. F., et al. (2003). Impact of asylum on receiving countries. Helsinki, World Institute for Development Economics Research, United Nations University. UK Home Office.. (2002). Asylum Seeker Support – Estimates of Public Expenditure. DATASETS Aldridge (2001) Asylum Seekers’ Skills and Qualifications 121 responses (27.5% of population of 440) were received to the initial questionnaire. 101 respondents were male (83%), 20 were female (17%) UK Home Office (2002) Asylum-seeker support: Estimates of Public Expenditure 168 REFUGEES HOSTED IN UNITED STATES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Beaman, L.A. (2008) ―Social Networks and the Dynamics of Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Refugees,‖ Berkley University Working Paper. Caplan, N., J. K. Whitmmore, et al. (1985). "Economic self-sufficiency among recently-arrived refugees from South east Asia." Economic Outlook USA 12: 60-63. Card, D. (1990) ―The impact of the Mariel boatlift on the Miami labor market,‖ Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 43(2):245-257. Connor, P. (2010). "Explaining the Refugee Gap: Economic Outcomes of Refugees versus Other Immigrants." Journal of Refugee Studies 23(3): 377-397. Cortes, K. (2004). "Are Refugees Different From Economic Immigrants? Some Empirical Evidence on the Hetergeneity of Immigrant Groups in the United States." The Review of Economics and Statistics 86(2): 465-480. Díaz-Briquets, S. and J. Pérez-López (1997). "Refugee Remittances: Conceptual Issues and the Cuban and Nicaraguan Experiences." International Migration Review 31(2): 411-437. Finnan, C. R. (1981). "Occupational Assimilation of Refugees." International Migration Review 15: 292-309. Lamphier, C. M. (1987). Indochinese Resettlement: Cost and Adaptation in Canada, the United States and France. Refugees - A Third World Dilemma. J. R. Rogge. Totowa, Rowman and Littlefield. Martin, S. F., A. I. Schoenholtz, et al. (2003). Impact of asylum on receiving countries. Helsinki, United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research. Potocky, M. (1997). "Predictors of Refugee Economic Status: A Replication." Journal of Social Science Research 23: 41-70. Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2001). "Micro and Macro Determinants of Refugee Economic Status." Journal of Social Service Research 27: 33-60. Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2003). "Refugee Economic Adaptation: Theory, Evidence and Implications for Policy and Practice." Journal of Social Service Research 30(63–90). Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2004). "The Role of Social Capital in Immigrant and Refugee Economic Adaptation." Journal of Social Service Research 31: 59-91. Riak Akuei, S. (2005). Remittances as Unforeseen Burdens: The Livelihoods and Social Obligations of Sudanese Refugees. Geneva, GCIM. Strand, P. J. (1984). "Employment Predictors among Indochinese Refugees." International Migration Review 18: 50-64. Suhrke, A. (1983). "Indochinese Refugees: The Law and Politics of First Asylum." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 467: 102-115. Suhrke, A. and US Congress Joint Economic Committee. (1980). Indochinese refugees : the impact on first asylum countries and implications for American policy : a study. Washington, DC. Takeda, J. (2000). "Psychological and Economic Adaptation of Iraqi Adult Male Refugees: Implications for Social Work Practice." Journal of Social Service Research 26: 1-21. Tran, V. (1991). "Sponsorship and Employment Status among Indochinese Refugees in the United States." International Migration Review 25: 536-550. 169 US General Accounting Office. (1984). Central American refugees: regional conditions and prospects and potential impact on the United States : report to the Congress of the United States. Washington, D.C., U.S. General Accounting Office. DATASETS Strand (1984) Employment predictors Personal interviews with random sample of 800 heads of refugee households (Vietnamese, Lao, Hmong and Cambodian) from San Diego. Caplan et al (1985) Economic self-sufficiency of Southeast Asian refugees in US since 1978 Institute of Social Research study: Three groups of refugees (Vietnamese, Chinese from Vietnam, and lowland Lao) interviewed in five sites administrative lists and area probability sampling 1384 household interviews: 4160 adults (16+) and 2615 children Lamphier (1987) Costs of resettlement Costs of resettlement to Canada, US and France provided Tran (1991) Sponsorship and Employment Status Sample of 1960 refugees (3 ethnic groups; aged between 18-64) who arrived in the United States between 1978 and 1982. Potocky (1997) Predictors of refugee economic status Replication study focused on Cuban, Haitian, Nicaraguan, and Soviet/East European refugees in Dade County, Florida, using data from the 1990 Census of Population and Housing Takeda (2000) Psychological and economic adaptation of Iraqi adult male refugees 105 interviews, based on self-administered questionnaires Potocky-Tripodi (2001) Macro and micro determinants of refugee economic status Nationally representative samples of Soviet/ East European (n = 4241), South east Asian (n = 4748), and Cuban (n = 4707) working-age refugees resettled in the United States. 170 Potocky-Tripodi (2003) Refugee economic adaptation Data from a telephone survey of a random sample of Hmong, Somali, and Russian refugees resettled in Minneapolis-St. Paul. (276 Hmong, 218 Somali, and 198 Russian adult refugees) Cortes (2004) Refugees vs non-refugee migrants’ economic performance in US: 1980/1990 Integrated Public Use Samples of the Census; labor market outcomes of immigrants who arrived in the U.S. from 1975 to 1980 Beaman (2008) Compiled data-set on refugees resettled in the U.S. between 2001 and 2005 using administrative records from the International Rescue Committee (IRC), a large resettlement agency. Connor (2010) Refugees vs non-refugee migrants’ economic performance in US: First wave of the New Immigrant Survey (N = 8573), a random, nationally representative sample of immigrants receiving permanent residency in 2003 (baseline 2003-2004; resurvey 2007). 171 RWANDA: IDPs and RWANDAN RETURNEES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Kondylis, F. (2008). "Agricultural Households and Conflict Displacement: Evidence from a Policy Intervention in Rwanda." Economic Development and Cultural Change. 57(1): 31- 66. Lehrer, K. (2010). Personal Communication. Demographic and Health Surveys (2007-2008). "Rwanda: Interim DHS, 2007-08." Taylor, P., R. Mazur, et al. (1992). Rwandese refugees study. Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick. DATASETS Kondylis (2008) National Rwandan Enquete Integree des Conditions de Vie des Menages (EICV) funded by the World Bank; over 6,400 households surveyed across all 12 Rwandan prefectures; 5,271 households were visited in rural areas and 1,149 in urban areas. Community Survey, which was carried out in the same villages and at the same time as the EICV and contains pre- and post-1994 village-level characteristics UNDP Ministry of Land, Human Resettlement, and Environmental Protection (1999). ―Survey of the Imidugudu in Rwanda.‖ Rwandan Office for Statistics World Bank Emergency Reintegration and Recovery Project Community Reintegration and Development Project Rwanda Demobilization and Reintegration Project Second Rwanda Demobilization and Reintegration Project 172 RWANDAN AND BURUNDIAN REFUGEES IN TANZANIA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Alix-García, J. (2007). The Effects of Refugee Inflows on Host Country Populations: Evidence from Tanzania. University of Montana. Alix-García, J. and D. Saah (2010). "The Effect of Refugee Inflows on Host Communities: Evidence from Tanzania." The World Bank Economic Review 24(1): 148-170. Baez, J. E. (2010). "Civil Wars beyond their Borders: The Human Capital and Health Consequences of Hosting Refugees." Journal of Development Economics. Clark, L. (1987). Key issues in post-emergency refugee assistance in Eastern and Southern Africa. Washington, D.C., Refugee Policy Group. De Weerdt et al (2006) Moving Out of Poverty in Tanzania’s Kagera Region. World Bank. Feldman, D. (1971). "Appraisal of the economic viability of four refugee settlements in Southern Tanzania." Gentry, D. J. (2009). Refugee impacts on host communities in Western Tanzania: A GIS and mixed-method geographic analysis. Geography and Planning, Appalachian State University. Green, R. H. and UNICEF (1994). That they may be whole again: Off-setting the refugee influx burden on Ngara and Karagwe districts. Executive summary : Report for UNICEF, UNICEF. Huisman, H. (2003). "Refugee Aid and its Impact on the Host Country‘s Regional Economy. The Case of Ngara District, NW Tanzania." Die Erde 134(1): 65-80. Jacobsen, K. (1997). "Refugees' environmental impact: the effect of patterns of settlement." Journal of Refugee Studies 10(1): 19-36. Ketel, H. and UNHCR Programme and Technical Support Section. (1994). Environmental assessment report of the Rwandese refugee camps and the affected local communities in Kagera Region, Tanzania. Dar Es Salaam, UNHCR/FAO Environmental Assessment Mission. Ketel, H. and UNHCR/FAO (1994). Tanzania: Environmental Assessment Report of the Rwandese Refugee Camps and the Affected Local Communities In Kagera Region, 2-30 June 1994. Dar es Salaam, UNHCR/FAO Environmental Assessment Mission. Landau, L. B. (2003). "Beyond the Losers: Transforming Governmental Practice in Refugee- Affected Tanzania." Journal of Refugee Studies 16: 20-43. Landau, L. B. (2004) "Challenge without transformation: refugees, aid and trade in Western Tanzania." Journal of Modern African Affairs 42, 31-59. Maystadt, J.-F. and P. Verwimp. (2009). Winners and Losers among a Refugee-Hosting Population. International Association for Research and Teaching, ECORE, Belgium. Musoke, I. K. (1995). The impact of the refugee crisis in the Kagera region of Tanzania: local community responses and the Government's reaction. International Workshop on the Refugee Crisis in the Great Lakes Region. Arusha. Mwakasege, C. (1995). Study report: impact of refugees on host communities, the case of Kasulu, Ngara and Karagwe Districts in Tanzania. International Workshop on the Refugee Crisis in the Great Lakes Region. Arusha. Ongpim, P. A. (2009). "Refugees: asset or burden?" Forced Migration Review 33. Rutinwa, B. and K. Kamanga (2003). The Impact of the Presence of Refugees in Northwestern Tanzania, The Center for Study of Forced Migration, University of Dar es Salaam. Tanzania Demographic Health Surveys (1992 and 1996) 173 Taylor, P., R. Mazur, et al. (1992). Rwandese refugees study. UNHCR and United Republic of Tanzania. Turner, S. (1999). Angry Young Men in Camps: Gender, Age and Class Relations Among Burundian Refugees in Tanzania. Geneva, UNHCR. Turner, S. (2004). New Opportunities: Angry Young Men in a Tanzanian Refugee Camp. Refugees and the Transformation of Societies: Agency, Policies, Ethics, and Politics. P. Essed, G. Frerks and J. Schrijvers. Oxford and New York, Berghahn. UNEP and Habitat Task Force on the Continuum from Relief to Development. (1995). Proposals for Measures to Mitigate the Impact of Refugees on the Environment and Settlement and Contribute to Sustainable Development, Kagera Region, Tanzania: Report of the Rapid Appraisal Mission. UNHCR (1998). Towards Sustainable Environment Management Practices in Refugee-Affected Areas. Country reports : Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, UNHCR. UNHCR (2005). Impacts of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons on the Environment in Tanzania. Assessment Report, Disaster Management Branch and UNEP Division of Environmental Policy Implementation. UNHCR, E. (1998). "Economic and Social Impact of Massive Refugee Populations on host developing countries, as well as other countries. A quantitative assessment on the basis of special case studies. ." Refugee Survey Quarterly 17(4): 102-110. United Republic of Tanzania. (1994). "Assessment Report on the Impact of Refugees on the Local Communities in Kagera and Kigotna Regions.‖ United Republic of Tanzania and Office of the Prime Minister and First Vice President (1994) Assessment report on the impact of refugees on the local communities in Kagerl and Kigoma regions. Kagera region. Dar es Salaam, Office of the Prime Minister and First Vice President. Waters, T. (1999). "Assessing the impact of the Rwanda refugee crisis on development planning in rural Tanzania 1994-1996." Human Organization 58(2): 142-152. Whitaker, B. E. (1997). Refugees, Hosts and the Struggle for Resources: The Impact of Rwandan Refugees on Tanzanians in Karagwe District Whitaker, B. E. (2002). "Refugees in Western Tanzania: The Distribution of Burdens and Benefits among Local Hosts." Journal of Refugee Studies 15: 339-358. Whitaker, B. E., et al. (1999). Changing opportunities: refugees and host communities in western Tanzania. Geneva, UNHCR. DATASETS Taylor et al (1992) UNHCR study Socio-economic survey with 106 randomly selected households. United Republic of Tanzania (1994) Gov formed a Task Force to assess the negative impact resulting from the influxes of refugees in the Kagera and Kigoma regions. Prepared sectoral assessment reports on the negative impact. Estimated expenditure documented. Mwakasege (1995) OXFAM study 174 Interviews and surveys to evaluate 1. the impact of the refugee influx on socio-economic and political structures 2. the effects and impact of relief operations Turner (1999) Survey of 62 (out of a total of ca. 100) street and village leaders Group interviews, individual interviews, and casual discussions in the camp Interviews with UNHCR and NGO staff Whitaker (2002) Burdens and benefits among local hosts Fieldwork from 1996-1998. Intensive fieldwork in one site, and comparative data collected from 4 others. 15 villages in 5 districts surveyed. Interviews with local leaders, government officials, UNHCR and NGO staff Participatory research methods Semi-structured interviews, snowball sampling Focus groups (discussion and PRA: cost/benefit rankings, time use surveys, map drawing) Participant observation Over 950 people consulted over course of research Funding: Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Abroad Fellowship, a P.E.O. Scholar Award, and a Doctoral Dissertation Research Fellowship from the Institute for the Study of World Politics. Huisman (2003) Primary data (more information to be requested) Green and UNICEF (2004) Estimation of immediate cost burden to Tanzanian villages Landau (2004) 90 intensive interviews (44 in Mpwapwa, 52 in Kasulu) across six sites (four villages and the district capitals) using a pre-written questionnaire mixing demographic, economic, and attitudinal questions, both closed and open-ended. A formal written survey of civic attitudes administered in four secondary schools Alix-García (2007) Famine Early Warning System (FEWS): monthly prices from 44 urban markets in Tanzania (1985 -1998); and Monthly Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) readings for each market. Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in 1991/92 and 1996 (over 12,000 households surveyed over 2 years, including over 1,000 households in refugee affected areas) Gentry (2009) Interviews, focus groups, GIS 175 Maystadt and Verwimp (2009) Household panel data collected in the region of Kagera in Tanzania. 30 interviews 3794 individuals interviewed in 1991 and 2004 Kagera Health and Development Survey (KHDS) dataset collected by Economic Development Initiatives (EDI) and the World Bank (Beegle et al., 2006); 915 households from 51 communities. Baez (2010) Cross-sectional data at the household level from the 1992 and 1996 Tanzania Demographic and Health Surveys (TDHS) to estimate the short-term effects of displacement. The 1992 TDHS used a random cluster process to draw a total sample of 8,327 households. The 1996 TDHS, the survey followed the same sample frame and clusters covered in the 1992 TDHS and reached a total of 7,969 households. GIS module from the 1996 TDHS Kagera Health and Development Survey (KHDS), a five-round longitudinal household survey conducted in all the districts of the Kagera region. The first four waves were collected almost yearly between 1991 and 1994, while the latest round was carried out in 2004. GIS module from the KHDS 176 SOMALI REFUGEES AND IDPS Also see o ETHIOPIAN REFUGEES IN SOMALIA o REFUGEES IN KENYA BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Abdi Ahmed, O., M. Yasin Hagi, et al. (1988). A study on the socio-economic situation and attitudinal perceptions of refugees and refugee-impacted communities in Somalia: the case of Jalalaqsi and Qorioley Districts. Somalia, Haqabtir. Ciabarri, L. (2008). "Productivity of refugee camps: social and political dynamics from the Somaliland-Ethiopia border (1988-2001)." Afrika Spectrum 1. Clark, L. (1987). Key issues in post-emergency refugee assistance in Eastern and Southern Africa. Washington, D.C., Refugee Policy Group. Crisp, J. (1999). A State of Insecurity: The Political Economy of Violence in Refugee-populated Areas of Kenya. Geneva, UNHCR. Dube, A. and A. Koenig (2005). Self-reliance and sustainable livelihoods for refugees in Dadaab and Kakuma camps. Geneva, UNHCR and ILO. Gundel, J.( 2002). ―The Migration-Development Nexus: Somalia Case Study.‖ International Migration, 40, 255-281. Horst, C. (2008). "A Monopoly on Assistance: International Aid to Refugee Camps and the Neglected Role of the Somali Diaspora." Afrika Spectrum 43(1): 121-131. Jacobsen, K. (2006). "Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Urban Areas: A Livelihoods Perspective " Journal of Refugee Studies 19(3): 273-286. Kibreab, G. (1993). "The Myth of Dependency Among Camp Refugees in Somalia." Journal of Refugee Studies 6(4): 321-349. Kibreab, G., Y. H. Mahmoud, et al. (1990). Refugees in Somalia: a burden and an opportunity for the local population and a challenge to the government and the international community. Uppsala, Department of Economic History, Uppsala University. Lindley, A. (2007). Protracted Displacement and Remittances: The view from Eastleigh, Nairobi. Geneva, UNHCR. Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology. (2010). Impacts of Dadaab Refugee Camps on Host Communities. (Draft Study Report). NORDECO. Ochola, S. (2006). Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2006. Nairobi, BMZ/UNHCR. Ochola, S. (2007). Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2007. Summary of Findings and Recommendations. Nairobi, BMZ/UNHCR. Perouse de Montclos, M. A. and P. Kagwanja (2000). "Refugee Camps or Cities? The Socio- economic Dynamics of the Dadaab and Kakuma Camps in Northern Kenya." Journal of Refugee Studies 13(2): 205-222. Savage, E., N. Wright, et al. (2007). Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Somalia, United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNDP- RRIDP (2005) Assessment on vulnerable population in the settlement camps of Bosasso Puntland State of Somalia. Evaluation of Humanitarian Assistance to Internally Displaced persons in Somalia 1999-2003. UNDP-RRIDP, conducted by the SRWU, May 2005. 177 DATASETS General: Livelihoods and Solutions for the Displaced cluster of the UN/World Bank Somali Joint Needs Assessment (JNA) Kibreab et al (1990) Ethiopian Refugees in Somalia Interviews with 898 displaced households Interviews with 403 heads of household from local population Interviews with government staff and NGOs in camps and capital Ministerial archives Key informants Group discussions Informal discussions Focus groups. Oral histories Random sampling of refugees; multistage area sampling for local population given absence of census. HORST (1995-present) Detailed data collected in Dadaab and Nairobi (1995 – present) Dube and Koenig (2005): UNHCR, CARE etc data on Somali refugees in Dadaab (Kenya); Sudanese refugees in Kakuma (Kenya) Campbell (2005 and 2006) Economic participation, host relations Over 150 structured, unstructured, formal and informal interviews of refugees mainly from the Somali, Ethiopian, and Congolese communities residing and working in Eastleigh. Semi-structured survey (data on pricing and trade networks): 50 Somali respondents 2004 survey on xenophobia: 50 non-Somali Kenyans Door-to-door survey of 30 Kenyan businessmen. Ochola (2006-2007) Dadaab Nutrition Survey 2006 and 2007 Werker (2007) Collaboration with the Refugee Law Project in Kampala (2002) Lindley (2007 - 2010) Refugee remittances Multiple qualitative interviews with refugees, remittance senders, UNHCR and NGO staff. 178 NORDECO (2010) 398 quantitative questionnaires/structured interviews over 8 sites; 115 qualitative questionnaires with randomly-selected households; semi-structured in- depth interviews Focus group discussions Community meetings in sampled settlements and surrounding areas. 8 out of 20 host community settlements and associated sub-locations were randomly sampled as study sites. 5-7% of households were included in a quantitative, questionnaire-based survey Average of 15 in-depth qualitative interviews as well as one or two focus group discussions were held. World Bank Community Driven Recovery and Development (CDRD) Project - Recipient-executed Portion 179 SOUTHERN SUDAN: UGANDAN REFUGEES, IDPs and SUDANESE RETURNEES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Black, R. (1986). Refugees and agrarian change: a case study of Goli, southern Sudan. Karunakara, U. (2004). The Demography of Forced Migration: Displacement and Fertility in the West Nile Region of Northern Uganda and Southern Sudan, Unpublished Dissertation. Jordan, J. W. (1993). Sudanese Refugees' Settlement Programme, Uganda - Environmental Assessment, Energy Supply and Forestry. Frankfurt, GFA. Paardekooper, B., et al (1999) ‗The Psychological Impact of War and the Refugee Situation on South Sudanese Children in Refugee Camps in Northern Uganda: An Exploratory Study,‘ Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40 (4): 529- 536. Phelan, J. and Wood, G. (2006) ’Sudan: An uncertain return - Report on the current and potential impact of displaced people returning to southern Sudan‘ Ockenden International Survey Singh, K. (2001). Forced Migration and Under-Five Mortality in Northwestern Uganda and Southern Sudan, Unpublished Dissertation. Singh K., Karunakara, U., Burnham, G., and Hill, K. (2005) ―Forced migration and under-five mortality: A comparison of refugees and hosts in north-western Uganda and southern Sudan‖ European Journal of Population, 21 (2-3) pp. 247-270. Wilson, K. (1985) ‗Impact of Ugandan refugees in Yei River District of the Southern Sudan‘ Horn of Africa Journal, 8(1) p. 73-78 DATASETS Black (1986) Host perspectives of the impact of displacement Questionnaire: 40 households surveyed in Mundu and 31 in Pojulu; perspective of hosts. Singh (2001) Impact of displacement on under-5 Mortality Demography of Forced Migration Project: Survey of 3339 Ugandan and Sudanese women and men (stayees, displacees and returnees) Karunakara (2004) Impact of Displacement on Fertility (Southern Sudanese stayees and refugees compared with Ugandan refugees, IDPs and hosts) Single-round survey conducted by the Demography of Forced Migration Project: Sudanese refugees, Sudanese stayees and Ugandan nationals — were surveyed between 1 November 1999 and 4 March 2000. 2,521 women and 818 men from 1,831 households were interviewed in Lugbara and Arabic using structured questionnaires. 180 Appendix 2: Key research methods drawn upon by existing studies Key research methods relied upon in the academic literature include: Archival research Participant observation Intensive fieldwork Individual informants: Oral histories Testimonies In-depth interviews Semi-structured interviews Informal interviews Key informant interviews Elite interviews Attitudinal surveys Health surveys Semi-structured, open-ended qualitative and quantitative questionnaires Groups of informants Focus groups Community meetings Participatory research methods Household surveys Business surveys Market surveys Ecological surveys The majority of academic reports rely upon convenience or snow-ball sampling. In line with the literature reviewed, a mixed-methods framework for Phase Two could draw upon the following: a) Qualitative methods and indicators Qualitative methods and indicators can provide significant data pertaining to experiences and perceptions of, and responses to displacement, in addition to being particularly important to inform the development and implementation of quantitative tools and analysis. With reference to the latter, qualitative methods can facilitate the identification of: what to measure and how; and the ways in which different stakeholders rank or give a particular value to specific indicators and outcomes. Equally, they can ensure the recognition of the internal heterogeneity of each stakeholder. Qualitative methods can thus maximise the identification and operationalisation of 181 indicators which are considered to be meaningful and relevant according to the different stakeholders involved. Although the cases proposed for Phase Two will largely be selected according to the availability of viable data-sets (as per the TOR), if additional data is to be collected in Phase Two of the study, qualitative data could be elicited via: Semi-structured, open-ended interviews with representative key stakeholders, including both individual and household interviews with displaced and hosting populations. Oral histories with and testimonies of displaced populations and hosting populations Focus groups with representatives of all key stakeholders Participant observation of camps, settlements and hosting contexts b) Quantitative Methods A detailed quantitative methodology is presented in the separate documents entitled Measuring the Socio-Economic Impact of Displacement. As noted in the majority of quantitative studies completed to date, it is essential for quantitative methods to be complemented with qualitative approaches throughout the course of data collection and data-analysis. Indeed, case-studies can be particular appropriate to combine qualitative and quantitative methods. Relevant participatory methods which produce a combination of qualitative and quantitative data might include: o Matrices o Ranking systems o Transect walks o Venn diagrams 182 Appendix 3: Overview of NGO and Agency evaluations of programmes and policies designed to address the impact of displacement upon displaced and host populations (Preliminary list to be supplemented by each country team in Phase II) THEMATIC EVALUATIONS The Policies of Mercy UN Coordination in Afghanistan, Mozambique, and Rwanda Report type: Lesson learning study Date: 1 January 1990 Author(s): Donini, A. Acacia Consultants Language: English Objectives: Draw lessons, from 3 case studies of coordination in the humanitarian response to complex emergencies, that are relevant to other coordination situations and to the wider humanitarian syst... Water and Sanitation in Emergencies Report type: Good practice study Date: June 1994 Author(s): Chalinder, A. Language: English Objectives: Provide a short accessible overview of what may be considered 'good practice' in the field of emergency water and sanitation. Focus: Watsan, refugee camps. Emergency Supplementary Feeding Programmes Report type: Good practice study Date: December 1994 Author(s): Shoham, J. Language: English Objectives: Provide a short, accessible overview of good practice in designing and implementing emergency supplementary feeding programmes (SFPs). Focus: Nutrition, food security. Thematic Evaluation of the Finnish Humanitarian Assistance Evaluation Report 1996:2 Report type: Synthesis report Commissioning agency: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland Date: July 1996 Author(s): Nyholm, K., Kristensen, J., Wulff, K., Torronen, J., Brusset, E., and L. Christensen. Language: English Objectives: Provide independent and objective review and analysis of the Finnish humanitarian assistance in the light of principles and strategies and recent development in international humanitarian ... Toward more Humane and Effective Sanctions Management Enhancing the Capacity of the United Nations System Report type: Review Commissioning agency: United Nations Inter Agency Standing Committee Date: January 1998 Author(s): Minear, L., Cortright, D., Wagler, J., Lopez, G. and T. Weiss. Language: English Objectives: Review recent UN experiences with multilateral sanctions; identify methodologies for assessing humanitarian impacts of sanctions and assess capacity of UN system to monitor impacts and dea... 183 Assessment of Lessons Learned from Sida Support to Conflict Management and Peacebuilding State of the Art / Annotated Bibliography Report type: Synthesis report Commissioning agency: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Date: December 2000 Author(s): Nyberg Sorensen, N., Stepputat, F. and N. Van Hear. Language: English Objectives: Represent the main content of, and the differences between, specific evaluations and synthesise and systematise their findings to critically assess the content of peacebuilding interventio... Sharing New Ground in Post-Conflict Situations The role of UNDP in support of reintegration programmes Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations Development Program Date: January 2000 Author(s): Barnes, S., Brucchaus, E., Kelly, J., Kulessa, M., Ormsby, G., Rahman, T. and L. Silva Language: English Objectives: Analyse UNDP's work in complex emergencies with a focus on reintegration operations regarding IDPs, refugees and ex-combatants. Focus: Policy, coordination, programming, response capacity... SPR Sector Policy Review - Synthesis Report Report type: Synthesis report Commissioning agency: Danish Refugee Council Date: March 2003 Author(s): International Development Partners Language: English Objectives: To synthesise the findings of the assessment of DRC's Shelter and Physical Rehabilitation activities since 1994. Focus: Post-conflict, rehabilitation, reconstruction, refugees, IDPs, poli... External Evaluation of OCHA's Internal Displacement Unit Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Date: January 2004 Author(s): Stites, E. and V. Tanner Language: English Objectives: To assess the relevance, efficiency and effectiveness of the Unit. ECHO's Policy of Treating Affected Populations without Regards to Pre-conceived Categories Report type: Synthesis report Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: January 2004 Author(s): Channel Research Ltd Language: English Objectives: To consider the findings of three ECHO evaluations in Sudan, Angola and Afghanistan. Full Report of the Thematic Evaluation of the WFP School Feeding in Emergency Situations Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: World Food Programme Date: February 2007 Author(s): Steinmeyer, M. Language: English Objectives: The purpose of this evaluation was therefore to draw lessons for the future implementation of ESF in the various emergency contexts in which WFP operates; to identify aspects of ESF on whi... 184 Evaluation of UNHCR's efforts to prevent and respond to sexual and gender-based violence in situations of forced displacement Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: October 2008 Author(s): Rothkegel, S., Poluda, J., Wonani, C., Papy, J., Engelhardt-Wendt, E., Weyermann, B. and R. Hennig. Objectives: To review the implementation, quality, and impact of the suggested activities in relation to SGBV prevention and response; to assess the effectiveness and impact of UNHCR‘s recommend... COUNTRY EVALUATIONS AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan - Coordination in a Fragmented State A Lessons Learned Report Report type: Lesson learning study Commissioning agency: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Date: December 1996 Author(s): Donini, A., Dudley, E. and R. Ockwell. Language: English Objectives: Review the coordination of United Nations humanitarian assistance in Afghanistan since 1988 and identify lessons of wider relevance that can be learned and applied in the future. Focus: C... Evaluation of CARE Afghanistan's Emergency Response Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: CARE International Date: September 2002 Author(s): Cosgrave, J. and J. Baker Language: English Objectives: Conduct an assessment and make recommendations concerning the CARE International response to the Afghan crisis, from September 2001 to May 2002, according to specified criteria. Focus: Fo... ANGOLA Complex Crisis and Complex Peace Humanitarian Coordination in Angola Report type: Lesson learning study Commissioning agency: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Date: March 1998 Author(s): Ball, N. and K. Campbell. Language: English Objectives: Examine the coordination activities of UN DHA between 1993 and 1996, in an independent fashion, to document and disseminate best practices and to learn from experience for application in o... Evaluation of Danish Humanitarian Assistance 1992-98: Volume 3, Angola Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: November 1999 Language: English 185 Objectives: Assess and document the performance of Danish humanitarian assistance to Angola. Focus: Rehabilitation, reintegration, mine action, coordination, refugees, IDPs, health, policy, preparedn... Evaluation of the ECHO Global Plan 2000 Angola: Emergency Relief (Non-food Item) Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: January 2001 Author(s): Gustav Schild, F. Language: English Objectives: Assess the suitability and effectiveness of the Global Plan 2000; quantify the impact in terms of output; and, analyse the link between emergency, rehabilitation and development. Focus: N... Evaluation: USAID/OFDA Humanitarian Assistance Program in Angola 2000-2003 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: US Agency for International Development Date: November 2003 Author(s): Clark, J., Garas, N. and A. de Carvalho Language: English Objectives: To assess humanitarian assistance operations undertaken by USAID's Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) in Angola during the period of 2000 to 2003. Focus: Health, nutr... Danish Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons in Angola 1999-2003 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: March 2004 Author(s): Channel Research Ltd Language: English Objectives: To allow ECHO to concentrate its efforts and improve its results in emergency assistance in Angola and to review ECHO's policy of addressing humanitarian needs of affected populations rega... Full Report of the Evaluation of the Angola Relief and Recovery Operations Portfolio Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: World Food Programme Date: September 2005 Author(s): Girerd-Barclay, E., Martin, M., Coutinho, E. and R. Sirois Language: English Objectives: To review and assess the Angola portfolio, providing evidence-based findings of results, and proposing ways for improvement of the PRRo and Sos, with particular focus on relief and recover... BALKANS Tearfund Balkans Emergency Response April 1999 - July 2000 Evaluation Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Tearfund Date: July 2000 Author(s): Bakewell, O., Hume, W., Lavy, R. and C. Piper. Language: English Objectives: Evaluate appropriateness and effectiveness of Tearfund International's response to the Balkans Crisis from March 1999 to May 2000. Focus: Strategy, internal organisation, coordination. C... 186 BURUNDI Evaluation Report Oxfam-GB humanitarian programme in Bujumbura Rurale (BUR 191, 199) Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Oxfam Date: March 2002 Author(s): Smith, R. Language: English Objectives: Assess Oxfam's work in Bujumbura Rural between 2000 and 2002 and identify key lessons for Oxfam's future work in Burundi. Focus: Water, sanitation, strategy, management, coordination, IDP... Fostering Integrated Communities in Burundi Addressing Challenges Relating to the Reintegration of Burundian Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Norwegian Refugee Council Date: March 2008 Author(s): Ferstman, C. Channel Research Ltd Language: English Objectives: To provide an independent assessment of the effectiveness, impact, relevance and sustainability of the past activities of the ICLA programme, in order to facilitate the elaboration of an e... CAUCASUS Evaluation of the ICRC and Netherlands Red Cross Emergency Programme in the South Caucasus 1995 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Netherlands Directorate-General for International Cooperation Date: July 1996 Author(s): Kirkby, J. and I. Convery. Language: English Objectives: Evaluate Netherlands Government supported Netherlands Red Cross/ICRC operations in the South Caucasus in relation to Netherlands aid conditionalities, strengths and weakness; identify less... Evaluation of Danish Humanitarian Assistance 1992-98: Volume 4, Caucasus Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: November 1999 Language: English Objectives: Assess and document the performance of Danish humanitarian assistance to the Caucasus. Focus: Food aid, health, shelter, coordination, logistics, security, preparedness, advocacy, policy,... CHAD Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Eastern Chad Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: July 2007 Author(s): Diagne, K., Savage, E. and E. Kiragu Language: English 187 Objectives: To analyse UNHCR's initial experience in the implementation of the cluster approach as part of the humanitarian reform process, with the aim of identifying lessons learned and effective pr... DARFUR The Darfur Early Warning and Food Information System Report type: Review Commissioning agency: Save the Children Fund Date: June 2004 Author(s): Majid, N. Language: English Objectives: To help SC UK to assess whether the DFIS project was implemented as planned in the original proposal document and in the manner most likely to meet the stated objectives; to include assess... CARE International's Humanitarian Response to the Darfur Crisis, Phase II Real-Time Evaluation (RTE) Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: CARE International Date: December 2004 Author(s): Baker, J., F. Hikmat and S. Gywen Vaughan Language: English Objectives: To assess the relevance, connectedness and structure of the various CARE members involved in the response, Lead Members, other CI members, ECARMU, ERWG, relevant Country Offices in support... Joint UNICEF-DFID Evaluation of UNICEF Preparedness and Early Response to the Darfur Emergency Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Department for International Development (UK); United Nations Children's Fund Date: March 2005 Author(s): Grunewald, F., Gades, A., Barr, E. and A. Toscano Language: English Objectives: To strengthen the on-going UNICEF response to the Darfur crisis through a systematic assessment of the experience and performance of UNICEF in planning, organising and managing the early… Inter-agency Real-time Evaluation of the Humanitarian Response to the Darfur Crisis Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Date: March 2006 Author(s): Broughton, B., Maguire, S. and K. David- Toweh Language: English Objectives: To recommend actions that may be taken to improve the operational response in the real time; to identify broader lessons learned in Darfur for future humanitarian action there and elsewher... Tearfund: Integrated Emergency Nutrition, Water, Sanitation And Health Promotion Project - Ed Daein & Adilla: Echo Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Tearfund Date: March 2007 Author(s): Cutter, S., McKemey, K., Jan van Uffelen, G. Language: English Objectives: The main purpose of the evaluation is to assess the appropriateness, relevance and impact of both planned and unplanned project interventions and produce recommendations for future operati... 188 Evaluation of Tearfund's Programmes Conducted in the South West Corridor of Darfur April 2006 - April 2007 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Tearfund Date: March 2007 Author(s): Cutter, S., Mckemey, K., Jan van Uffelen, G. Language: English Objectives: The purpose of the evaluation is to assess the appropriateness, relevance and impact of both planned and unplanned project interventions and produce recommendations for future operations. ... DARFUR/CHAD Darfur / Chad Appeal Evaluation Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Tearfund Date: May 2007 Author(s): Cutter, S., McKemey, K., van Uffelen, G-J. Language: English Objectives: The specific objectives of this assignment were to assess the outcomes of the appeal strategy against five aspects: effectiveness; impact; relevance; efficiency; sustainability; co- ordinat... DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO Evaluation of USAID's Humanitarian Response in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2000-2004 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: US Agency for International Development Date: September 2004 Author(s): Reed, S., Weiss, H. and M. Mubagwa. Checchi and Company Consulting Language: English Objectives: To seek a more effective way to target humanitarian assistance in the DRC, to gain a deeper understanding of field practice in regard to the protection of IDP's and other vulnerable groups... Evaluation of ECHO's Actions in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: November 2004 Author(s): Michael, M., Thouvenot, V., Hoerz, T. and L. Rossi. Prolog Consult Language: English Objectives: To assess the appropriateness of ECHO's actions, to establish whether they have achieved their objectives, to help defining a coherent and viable LRRD approach, and to produce recommendati... Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: September 2007 Author(s): Bourgeois, C., Diagne, K. and V. Tennant Language: English Objectives: To analyze and assess UNHCR's initial experience in the implementation of the Cluster Approach, with the aim of identifying lessons learned and effective practices which may be drawn upon ... 189 EAST TIMOR Evaluation of UNHCR's Repatriation and Reintegration programme in East Timor, 1999- 2003 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: February 2004 Author(s): Dolan, C. and J. Large Language: English Objectives: To provide a compehensive and empirically-supported analysis of UNHCR's repatriation and reintegration programme in East Timor, identifying lessons learned from the programme and drawing a... GREAT LAKES Strategic Humanitarian Co-ordination in the Great Lakes Region 1996-1997 An Independent Study for the Inter-Agency Standing Committee Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations Inter Agency Standing Committee Date: March 1998 Author(s): Lautze, S., Jones, B. and M. Duffield Language: English Objectives: Identify lessons learned from UN arrangements for strategic humanitarian activities and provide a series of recommendations for future action. Focus: Strategic coordination, policy, infor... Evaluation of Danish Humanitarian Assistance 1992-98: Volume 6, Great Lakes Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: November 1999 Author(s): Channel Research Ltd Language: English Objectives: Assess and document the performance of Danish humanitarian assistance to the Great Lakes Region. Focus: Refugees, IDPs, coordination, funding, policy, protection, food aid, shelter. Crit... GREATER HORN OF AFRICA Care, Rehabilitation and Greater Horn Project Rehabilitation in South Sudan Report type: Review Commissioning agency: CARE International Date: August 1997 Author(s): Campbell, W. Language: English Objectives: Review the experience of CARE and other agencies in the field of rehabilitation in South Sudan before 1997, in order to assist CARE's future programming. Focus: Rehabilitation, LRRD, poli... Evaluation of FAO's Emergency & Rehabilitation Assistance in the Greater Horn of Africa 2004-2007 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Date: October 2007 Author(s): Nicholson, N., Majid, N., Cossée, O., Gebru, H., Mutale, M. and N. Asingwire Language: English 190 Objectives: To provide feedback and guidance to the FAO Management on strategic and operational achievements and constraints in order to improve relevance to beneficiaries, effectiveness and efficienc... GUINEA The Income Generation Program of American Refugee Committee for Liberian Refugees in the Forest Region of Guinea Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: American Refugee Committee Date: June 2004 Author(s): Klerk, T. de Language: English Objectives: To evaluate the activities and impact of the income generation program that serve Liberian refugees in the Kissidougou and N'zerekore camps in Guinea. THE GULF United Nations Coordination of the International Humanitarian Response to the Gulf Crisis 1990 - 1992 Report type: Lesson learning study Commissioning agency: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Date: January 1992 Author(s): Minear, L., Chelliah, U.B.P., Crisp, J., Mackinlay, J. and T. Weiss. Language: English Objectives: Review the spectrum of approaches to coordination evidenced in the Gulf Crisis, examining the strengths and weaknesses of each in achieving stated humanitarian objectives. Focus: Coordina... INDONESIA Evaluation of Assistance to IDPs in Indonesia Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Date: August 2004 Author(s): Brusset, E., Nautrup, B., Immajati, Y., Pedersen, S. and P. Rudge Language: English Objectives: To evaluate whether the international community, with special emphasis on some donors, has responded accurately to the IDP emergency in Indonesia, i.e. to evaluate results of donor respons... 191 IRAQ Independent Evaluation: Iraq NGO Coordination and Security Office (ECHO/IRQ/210/2003/05029) Report type: Evaluation Date: June 2004 Author(s): Hansen, G. Language: English Objectives: To obtain the necessary information to allow NCCI to establish whether it has achieved its objectives and to produce guidelines for improving the effectiveness of its future activities. Independent Evaluation: Iraq NGO Coordination and Security Office Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: NGO Coordination Committee in Iraq Date: June 2004 Author(s): Hansen, G. Language: English Objectives: To obtain the necessary information to allow NCCI to establish whether it has achieved its objectives and to produce guidelines for improving the effectiveness of its future activities. Th... KENYA Kenya RTE mission 02/10 to 13/10/2006 Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations Children's Fund Date: December 2006 Author(s): Grünewald, F., Robins, K., Odicoh, A., Nicholson, N. Language: English Objectives: Specific objectives of the RTE are to assess: . The timeliness, adequacy and effectiveness of the emergency response in 2006. . The performance of the emergency preparedness including earl... KOSOVO Learning From Kosovo Report type: Review Commissioning agency: Norwegian Refugee Council Date: August 1999 Language: English Objectives: Events in the Balkans gave rise to Europe‘s largest movement of forced migrants in recent history. Faced with these developments, and a wealth of interest amoung academics and practitioners i... Kosovo Crisis Lesson learning study Report type: Lesson learning study Commissioning agency: Disasters Emergency Committee Date: November 1999 Language: English Objectives: A lesson learning study looking at the role played by the international community in the Balkans in 1999 and the involvement of host governments. Focus: Humanitarian principles, neutralit... 192 The Kosovo Refugee Crisis An Independent Evaluation of UNHCR's Emergency Preparedness and Response Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: February 2000 Author(s): Garlock, R., Barutciski, M., Sandison, P. and A. Suhrke. Language: English Objectives: Review a range of policy, operational and management issues focusing on UNHCR's preparedness in the year leading up to the crisis and its response following the March 1999 exodus. Focus: ... Full Report of the Evaluation of the Kosovo Emergency Operation 6040 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: World Food Programme Date: May 2000 Author(s): Schelhas, B. Language: English Objectives: Assess WFP's preparedness in 1998/99, its response to the crisis, and the effectiveness of its intervention and coordination mechanisms. Focus: Preparedness, coordination, food aid, refug... Independent Evaluation of Expenditure of DEC Kosovo Appeal Funds Phases I and II, April 1999-January 2000, Volumes I, II & III Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Disasters Emergency Committee Date: August 2000 Author(s): Wiles, P., Bradbury, M., Buchanan-Smith, M., Collins, S., Cosgrave, J., Hallam, A., Mece, M., Norman, N., Prodanovic, A., Shackman, J., and F. Watson. Language: English Objectives: Accountability to fundraising partners and British public; promoting learning among DEC agencies; and monitoring of agencies' compliance to DEC rules and guidelines. Focus: Food aid, nutr... Humanitarian and Rehabilitation Assistance in Kosovo, 1999-2003 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: November 2004 Author(s): T&B Consult Language: English Objectives: To identify "lessons learnt" from the Danish intervention in Kosovo to improve the policy, strategy and operational approach to forthcoming Danish interventions in conflict situations. LIBERIA Independent Evaluation of the Disasters Emergency Committee's Liberia Crisis Appeal Volume 1: Main Report Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Disasters Emergency Committee Date: August 2004 Author(s): Sandison, P. Language: English Objectives: To evaluate the DEC funded Appeal for the Liberia crisis, in which ten DEC member NGOs participated. Focus: Protection, IDPs, shelter, psychosocial, nutrition, non-food items, rehabilitat... 193 Evaluation of the ECHO Funded Tearfund Integrated WatSan and Public Health Promotion Programme in Nimba County, Liberia Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Tearfund Date: August 2007 Author(s): Webster, J. Language: English Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of the programme and the extent to which the programme purposes and results, as laid out in the programme proposals, have been achieved; to identify lessons l... Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Liberia Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: July 2007 Author(s): Wright, N., Savage, E. and V. Tennant Language: English Objectives: To analyse UNHCR's initial experience in the implementation of the cluster approach as part of the humanitarian reform process, with the aim of identifying lessons learned and effective pr... Going Home: Making a Life after Conflict Return and Reintegration of IDPs and Returnees in Bomi, Grand Cape Mount and Gbarpolu Counties, Liberia Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Norwegian Refugee Council Date: November 2007 Author(s): Kirkby, S.J. and J. Rose. ETC UK Language: English Objectives: The evaluation is a mid-term assessment of effectiveness, relevance, appropriateness and impact; it advises on improvements to present activities and lessons for future NRC interventions. ... MALAWI The Malawi NGO Consortium Model: Experiences, Lessons Learnt and Future Opportunities Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Department for International Development (UK) Date: October 2003 Author(s): Goyder, H. and R. James Language: English Objectives: To document the experiences and lessons learned during the food crisis as a result of adopting the NGO Consortium model. Focus: Agriculture, economy, food aid, governance, multilateral ai... MOZAMBIQUE Rebuilding a War-Torn Society A Review Of The UNHCR Reintegration Programme for Mozambican Returnees Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: July 1996 Author(s): Crisp, J., Fahlen, M., Christie, F., O'Keefe, P., Danilowicz, J. and S. De Wolf. Language: English Objectives: Draw lessons learned from UNHCR's programme in Mozambique, in the 30 month period following the October 1992 Peace agreement, that can be applied to reintegration programmes elsewhere in t... 194 NICARAGUA Evaluation of the reintegration process of the CIREFCA population in the central and northern regions of Nicaragua Report type: Review Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: July 1996 Author(s): Cordero, R. and C. Maldonado. Language: English Objectives: Evaluate the reintegration process of the so-called CIREFCA population in the central and northern regions of Nicaragua; identify lessons and initiate a systematisation process of indicato... NORTH OSSETIA DRC Housing Project in North Ossetia - Alanya Impact of housing on social integration Report type: Review Commissioning agency: Danish Refugee Council Date: December 2005 Author(s): Blomquist, H. Language: English Objectives: To assess the impact of the DRC housing programme in North Ossetia-Alanya on social integration of refugees from South Ossetia. RWANDA The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience Humanitarian Aid and Effects Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Danish International Development Assistance Date: March 1996 Author(s): Borton, J., Brusset, E. and A. Hallam. Overseas Development Institute Language: English Objectives: Draw lessons from the Rwanda experience relevant for future complex emergencies as well as for current operations in Rwanda and the region such as early warning and conflict management, th... Full Report of the Evaluation of WFP's Portfolio of Activities in Rwanda Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: World Food Programme Date: August 2004 Author(s): Frenay, P. Language: English Objectives: To assess WFP's portfolio of activities in Rwanda over the period 1999-2003; to examine in particular the emergency-recovery-development linkages. SERBIA Evaluation of ECHO Interventions in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia) Synthesis Report Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: June 2003 Author(s): Prolog Consult Language: English 195 Objectives: To assess the appropriateness of ECHO's intervention and to what extent the overall objective - phasing out activities in Serbia, providing durable solutions and consolidating previous ECH... Evaluation of ECHO Interventions in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia) Health Report Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: June 2003 Author(s): Prolog Consult Language: English Objectives: To assess the appropriateness of ECHO's intervention and to what extent the overall objective - phasing out activities in Serbia, providing durable solutions and consolidating previous ECH... Evaluation of ECHO Interventions in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia) Shelter and Return Report Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: June 2003 Author(s): Prolog Consult Language: English Objectives: To assess the appropriateness of ECHO's intervention and to what extend the overall objective - phasing out activities in Serbia, providing durable solutions and consolidating previous ECH... SIERRA LEONE Final Report - Sierra Leone, ECHO Global Plan 2000/Intervention Plan 2001 Health, Nutrition, Water and Sanitation - 2001 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: 2001 Author(s): Bousquet, C. Language: English Objectives: To assess the suitability of the 2000-2001 ECHO's operations for the health, nutrition, water and sanitation sectors and to make recommendations on the basis of the lessons learned. Focus... SOMALIA Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Somalia Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: September 2007 Author(s): Savage, E. Wright, N. and E. Kiragu Language: English Objectives: To analyze and assess UNHCR's initial experience in the implementation of the Cluster Approach, with the aim of identifying lessons learned and effective practices which may be drawn upon ... 196 SOUTH-EAST AFRICA AND SOUTH-WEST INDIAN OCEAN Ex-ante Evaluation of Potential DIPECHO Interventions in South East Africa and South West Indian Ocean Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: May 2007 Author(s): Holdsworth, P. and M. Mutale. S.H.E.R. Ingenieurs-Conseils s.a. Language: English Objectives: To assess the state of disaster preparedness and current status and the feasibility of possible interventions in countries in this region, specifically, Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozamb... SOUTH EASTERN EUROPE Gender Audit of Reconstruction Programmes in South Eastern Europe Report type: Review Commissioning agency: Urgent Action Fund; Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children Date: June 2000 Author(s): Corrin, C. Language: English Objectives: An analysis of the effectiveness of programmes from a gender perspective with a primary focus on UNMIK and the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. Focus: Gender, reconstruction, reha... SRI LANKA Sri Lanka Humanitarian Assistance Review Report on Relief Operations, Humanitarian Aid Issues and Programming Options for CIDA in Relation to the Conflict in the Northeast of Sri Lanka Commissioning agency: Canadian International Development Agency Date: June 1992 Author(s): Brem, M. Language: English Objectives: Provide an assessment of humanitarian needs in Sri Lanka, the roles of implementing agencies and local capacities on the scene and the potential for new programming options. Focus: Food a... Review of UNHCR's Programme in Sri Lanka Report type: Review Commissioning agency: Department for International Development (UK) Date: March 2000 Author(s): Maguire, S., Avery, D., McAlpine, J. and M. Dawson Language: English Objectives: Review UNHCR's policies and programme performance and to consider what further support, if any, DFID might provide to UNHCR in Sri Lanka. Focus: IDPs, refugees, protection, policy, prepar... NRC Sri Lanka: Promoting the Rights of Displaced Persons through Legal Aid Information, Counselling and Legal Assistance (ICLA) Programme in Sri Lanka Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Norwegian Refugee Council Date: March 2008 Author(s): Asiimwe, A. Language: English Objectives: To provide an independent assessment of NRC's ICLA program in Sri Lanka including the protection and advocacy efforts towards assuring the interest and rights of IDPs. 197 SUDAN An Evaluation of CONCERN's 1990-91 Emergency Programme in Kosti Province, Sudan Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Concern Date: February 1992 Author(s): Borton, J., Nicholds, N., Shoham, J. and M. Omer Mukhier Language: English Objectives: Assess the chief activities and programme components, and the support role of the Africa Division, of the emergency response to the subsistence crisis in the programme area of the South Wh... Evaluation of Expenditure of Sudan Appeal Funds Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Disasters Emergency Committee Date: June 1999 Author(s): Corbett, M., Kejji, E., Kirkby, J., Jerome, M., O'Keefe, P. and F. Wekesa. Language: English Objectives: Analyse expenditure of appeal funds from the 1998 appeal for famine in Sudan and assess effectiveness, strengths and weaknesses of projects funded. Focus: Nutrition, famine relief, health... The Sudan/Eritrea Emergency, May-July 2000 An Evaluation of UNHCR's Response Report type: Review Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: February 2001 Author(s): Jamal, A. Language: English Objectives: Determine the effectiveness of UNHCR's response to the Sudan/Eritrea crisis of mid- 2000 and assess the adequacy of UNHCR's emergency response mechanisms in general. Focus: Refugees, IDPs,... Independent Evaluation of DEC Appeal Sudan Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Disasters Emergency Committee Date: March 2006 Author(s): Wilding, J., Capdegelle, P. and M. Buchanan-Smith. Disasters Emergency Committee Objectives: To evaluate the response of CARE International, World Vision, Save the Children, OXFAM, Concern, Tearfund, British Red Cross Society, Christian Aid, CAFOD, Help the Aged, Merlin and their... THAILAND Evaluation of ECHO-funded Nutrition and Food Aid Activities for Burmese Refugees in Thailand Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: European Commission Humanitarian Office Date: April 2004 Author(s): Schuftan, C., Veen, A. van der, Baquet, V. and P. Winichagoon. S.H.E.R. Ingenieurs-Conseils s.a. Language: English Objectives: To obtain the necessary information for improvement of nutrition and food aid actions and the future strategy of ECHO in favour of the Burmese refugees in Thailand and of IDPs at three res... 198 UGANDA Evaluation of the IPSER programme for the identification, management and prevention of psycho-social and mental health problems of adult refugees, refugee children and other victims of man-made disaster in Northern Uganda, 1995-1996 Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: Netherlands Directorate-General for International Cooperation Date: July 1996 Author(s): Kirkby, J., Barton, T., Mwiti, G. and G. Wamai. Language: English Objectives: Evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the emergency programme to investigate the delivery of services to identify, manage and prevent psycho-social and mental health problems. Focu... Real-time Evaluation of UNHCR's IDP Operation in Uganda Report type: Real-time evaluation Commissioning agency: United Nations High Commission for Refugees Date: August 2007 Author(s): Bourgeois, C., Wright, N. and J. Crisp Language: English Objectives: To analyse UNHCR's initial experience in the implementation of the cluster approach as part of the humanitarian reform process, with the aim of identifying lessons learned and effective pr... WEST AFRICA Protracted Emergency Humanitarian Relief Food Aid Toward "Productive Relief" Programme Policy Evaluation of the 1990-1995 period of WFP- assisted refugee and displaced persons operations in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire Report type: Evaluation Commissioning agency: World Food Programme Date: October 1996 Author(s): Apthorpe, R., Waeschle, A., Atkinson, P., Watson, F., Landart, G. and R. Corsino. Language: English Objectives: Carry out a programme policy analysis of 1990-95 period of WFP's assistance, taking a thematic overview of policy and institutional design and identify lessons to be learned. Focus: Polic… 199 Appendix 4: Studies and evaluations of projects designed to address the impact of displacement on reproductive health American Refugee Committee (2002) Building Boldness and Breaking Barriers CARE (2007) Building Partnerships for Health in Conflict Affected Settings Bosmans, M. and Temmerman, M. (2003) Towards a Comprehensive Approach of Sexual and Reproductive Rights and Needs Of Women Displaced by War and Armed Conflict, International Centre for Reproductive Health. CARE, EngenderHealth (2009) Engaging Boys and Men in GBV Prevention and Reproductive Health in Conflict and Emergency-Response Settings: A Workshop Module Krause, S. Jones, R. and Purdin, S. (2000) Programmatic Responses to Refugees' Reproductive Health Needs Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Refugee Situations (2004) Reproductive Health Services for Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: Report of an Inter- agency Global Evaluation Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Refugee Situations (2005) Progress, Gaps and Challenges Ahead: Inter-agency Global Evaluation of Reproductive Health for Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises (2010) Inter-agency Field Manual on Reproductive Health in Humanitarian Settings Marie Stopes International and Women's Refugee Commission on behalf of the RHRC Consortium (2003) Colombia, 2003: Displaced and Desperate: Assessment of Reproductive Health for Colombia's Internally Displaced Persons RAISE (2009) Reproductive Health in Emergencies: A Review of the Policy Environment RHRC Consortium (2002) Democratic Republic of Congo, 2002: Assessment of Reproductive Health in the Democratic Republic of Congo Save the Children/UNFPA (2009) Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Toolkit for Humanitarian Settings UNFPA/WHO/Andalusian School of Public Health (2009) Granada Consensus on Sexual and Reproductive Health in Protracted Crises and Recovery Women‘s Commission for Refugee Women and Children and UNPF (2007) We Want Birth Control: Reproductive Health Findings in Northern Uganda 200 WHO (2000) Reproductive Health During Conflict and Displacement Women‘s Refugee Commission (2001) Assessment of Reproductive Health for Refugees in Zambia Women‘s Refugee Commission (2003) Desplazados y Deseperados: Evaluacion sobre la Salud Reproductiva en la Poblacion Desplazada en Colombia Women‘s Refugee Commission (2003) Pakistan, 2003: Still in Need: Reproductive Health Care for Afghan Refugees in Pakistan Women‘s Refugee Commission (2006) Perils of Direct Provision: The UNHCR's Response to the Fuel Needs of Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal Women's Refugee Commission (2007) Iraqi Refugee Women and Youth in Jordan: Reproductive Health Findings. A Snapshot from the Field Women's Refugee Commission, et al (2001) Angola, 2001: Assessment of Reproductive Health in Internally Displaced Persons, RHRC Consoritum Women's Refugee Commission and UNFPA (2004) Chad 2004: Lifesaving Reproductive Health Care: Ignored and Neglected, Assessment of the Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) of Reproductive Health for Sudanese Refugees in Chad 201 Appendix 5: Relevant Millennium Development Goal indicators MDG 1: Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day Poverty gap ratio Share of poorest quintile in national consumption Growth rate of GDP per person employed Employment-to-population ratio Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption MDG 2: Net enrolment ratio in primary education Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men MDG 3: Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament. MDG 4: Under-five mortality rate Infant mortality rate Proportion of 1 year-old children immunised against measles MDG 5: Maternal mortality ratio Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel Contraceptive prevalence rate Adolescent birth rate Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits) Unmet need for family planning MDG 6: HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years Condom use at last high-risk sex Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS 202 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to antiretroviral drugs Incidence and death rates associated with malaria Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course 203 Appendix 6: Publication trends for each impact area: 1970 – 2010 Number of References per Theme per Decade Not Classified 1970s 1980s 1990s Not dated (spans decades) References References References 2000s References TOTAL Agricultural Impacts 4 6 4 14 Children: Impacts on 1 1 8 36 46 Conflict: Impacts of 1 3 9 13 Demographic Impact 3 1 16 22 42 Economic and Fiscal Impacts 14 39 59 112 Educational Impacts 1 1 3 13 43 61 Employment: Impacts on 8 14 39 61 Encampment: Impacts of 4 33 53 90 Environmental Impacts 7 44 31 82 Food Security and Livelihoods 1 3 16 31 51 Gendered Impacts 1 3 27 56 87 Health and Well-Being Impacts 2 7 21 52 82 Housing and Property Rights 5 10 28 43 How to Manuals, Guidelines for Research and Evaluations 2 1 4 17 28 52 Human Security and Vulnerability 2 6 31 39 IDPs: Impacts on 1 1 4 91 97 Income: Impacts on 1 5 20 28 54 Local Integration: Impacts of 2 12 13 27 Political Impacts 3 5 7 15 Remittances: Impacts on and of 2 17 19 Repatriation: Impacts on and of 1 1 22 55 79 Resettlement: Impacts on and of 1 7 11 26 45 Security: Impacts on 1 10 42 53 204 Number of References per Theme per Decade Not Classified 1970s 1980s 1990s Not dated (spans decades) References References References 2000s References TOTAL Self-Settlement: Impacts of 1 6 17 6 30 Self-Sufficiency: Impacts on and of 3 6 6 15 Social Impacts 8 19 17 44 Urban Displaced: Impact on 1 2 2 20 25 Welfare: Impact on 1 5 15 21 205 120 100 80 60 40 2000s References 20 1990s References 1980s References 0 1970s References Not Classified (spans decades) Not dated Figure A1: Publication Trends for Themes/Impact Areas 206 BIBLIOGRAPHIES Complete Bibliography ABDI AHMED, O., YASIN HAGI, M. & ALI MOHAMED, B. 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