17046 17 . , . , . , . , . , . , . .. , .. « » 2003 17046 502.3:338 20.18+65.28 72 .. , .. . , . , . , . , . , . , . 72 . / . .; . .. , .. . -- 2 . -- .: , 2003. -- 128 . ISBN 5 7777 0271 6 () , , . , , , . . , « » 2000 . 1997 . Expanding the Measure of Wealth. Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development. The World Bank. Washington D.C. ISBN 0 8213 3956 7 « » : 101831, , , , 9 .: (095) 923 68 39, 923 85 68 : (095) 925 42 69 e mail: vesmirorder@vesmirbooks.ru http://www.vesmirbooks.ru -- « » : .. 03510 15.12.2000 (« ») 04.02.2003 . . 60841/8. . . 16,0 « » 101831, , ., 9 ISBN 5 7777 0271 6 © The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank, 1997 © .. , .. , ., 2000 © .. , .. , , 2000 17046 .4 1. .6 I. , . .9 2. ? .10 3. .24 4. . . .42 II. .75 5. .76 6. : ? . .85 7. : . . .104 8. .110 .123 .125 3 17046 , , , , , , , «» ., , . -- , -- . , , . . . . . 1970 1990 . , : .. , (1987), (1992). , , , « ? » (green accounting) , , . , , , , . . , ( (), , -- (), () .) -- , , , . ( ). . , , . . , 4 , , . . , , . . ., . « . » (.: « », 2000), , . « . » (). , , . 1. , , . -- . , , , . , , ( ) , , , , . , , . , ( I) 8 , . , ( II) , . I. , . , , , , , . , . , , , , , . . , ( 2 3 « ) » ; 2 , . , . -- -- , , , , 6 . , , . , , , , -- 4. , «» , , . . , , , -- , « », . . , 100 . 1990/91 . 60 . 1995/96 . , , . 3 , . ( , , , , . .) ( 1994 .). , , , . . -- II: () , ( . , () ) , . , . , . , -- («»), , , , , . . 7 7 . , . 3, , , 80% , . , . , . 5 () -- , , , . . , , . , . , . . ( : , , ) . 6 7 , . . 6 , , . , , , 2 ( ), 3 ( ) , 5 -- . . , , . , . . , -- . , , , , . . I , 2. ? , « , » (Hamilton, Lutz, 1996) -- , , . . 1987 ., , , , , , . , . «» , , . . ( ) 1992 . . . , (), , . . , . , , , , , , 1995 . « » . : , , , . ; 10 ? , (1993). , . . 2.1 , . . . : . 2.1 , , , . . , , , , , . . , . . , , ( , ) « , », . : . () . () . , -- , , , , , , , , , , , , . -- , , , : 2.1. , 1970 1994 . , , , . , (), , . , . 11 , , . , . , , , ( . «» ). () , , (. Hamilton 1994). , . ( , , ; . , , ) , , , . , , , , . , , ( ) . 20 . / (Fankhauser, . , 1995). (, , , ), , , , . 2.1 . ( , -- , ) , , . . . , (, , , , ) . ( ) . . , , 12 ? 2.1. . 2,5% , , . 2.1 . 1991 . : , , . 3,5% 1991 . (Hamilton, 1996) , , (1,0% ) . () . (, , , ) , (, ) 5,6% . , (, , , ). , , , , , . , , , , (Brandon, Hommann, 1995). , . , 23% , , , ( , ) 14,3 1991 . 8% 1991 . , 330 ., , 2.1. , $4,7 . 1991 . . , , % , . , , ( 10 (PM10), ) , . , , , 2,1 . 1991 . , (1996), , , , . , 6,8 . 13 2.2. , : -- , 40% . . , , (1989), 10 10%, . , , , , , . , 4 , , 16% () . . (Solorzano ., 1991) , , , 10% , . , , . . , , , , , , . , . , . , , , , . . , , . , ( . , , , ) () , (, , , , ). . , -- , -- , ( , , , . ), . , 5 10%. , , , , . , , , . ( , , ). , , , , , . , , , . , . (. (1989) , 5). . , , , . , , , , , (, . ) 14 ? , , . , , . . , , , . , , , 3, . . , , , . . , ( , ) . , , 2.2, , ( , , , , . ). , , -- , , . . , . , , , , (, , ) . , , , , . , , , , , , , . . . 15 , , , . , . 2.2. (. 2.2). 5% 1970 , , . 1990 ., 7%. ' , 16% , , 20 30% . 1980 , . 15% , . 1980 , , , , , , ( ) . , . , , , , , , ( , 1996 ). . , , , 8 9% . 1982 ., . , 5%. , ? , . , 5% , 16 ? (. 2.3). -- 1 3% 25 , 40% , , , 10 15%. 1982 1990 1990 . , , , . , , , 150% 1978 1979 ? , . , , , , . , . , , 50% , , 1970 70% 1980 , , , -- . 2.3. 1970 1980 ( , 1996). , 1980 , , % 10­15%. / , 10% . 3% . , , , , , . , , ( , ) 10% . , , , . 17 , , , . , , , . , , , 1990 . 3,1% (. 2.4). , 1980 , . , . 1993 1994 . 10% , , , , , , . . , , . 2.4. . , , . , (Hamilton, 1994). , (. , Jorgensen Fraumeni, 1992). ? , , . , , , . , . , , , 5% . (. 2.5). 18 ? . , , , 8% (. 2.1). . , , . , . , 3. . , , 2.5. , ( 1987 1990 .) , % . « : ?» (Gelb, 1988) , . 2.2 , , , 2.3 , 2.1. ( ) , , 1970 1979 1980 1998 1990 1991 1992 1993 7,3 3,2 3,8 1,2 0,6 1,1 10,4 1,9 5,5 4,1 4,7 6,1 15,1 12,6 18,6 18,7 18,7 21,3 8,9 7,7 8,8 10,8 6,6 1,8 7,2 6,5 7,6 6,3 7,1 6,4 15,7 12,4 15,7 14,5 14,0 13,9 9,8 3,3 5,7 7,5 9,0 10,5 7,2 2,9 10,0 9,7 7,8 8,1 15,2 12,3 15,9 14,6 14,1 14,1 : , . : . 19 , , , , , . , , . ( , -- , Sachs Warner, 1995). -- . , , . , , . , , . ; . « ». , , . . , . , . 2.4, , . , . , , , . . , . -- . . . . 2.1 , , , . . -- . ( ) , , . , , , , , , . 20 ? . , , , . , . , , . , . . , , , . (Nehru Dhareshwar, 1994) , , , , , . , , GFCt+1 -- GFCt = GDIt Dt, , GFC -- . t, GDI -- , t, D -- , t. , . -- . , , . , , c 1970 1994 . R = (P -- C)Q, R -- , P -- , C -- ( , ), Q -- () . ( , R , . ), , ( ), . , 21 , , . . . , , , 3 -- , , , , , . . : -- , , , -- , , , , , , , , , , .. -- . , , . . , , . , ; , . , , , , , , . , . , , , . ; , , . . , , , , . . , , . , , . -- 20 . (Fankhauser, 1995). , , , , . , , . 22 ? , ( ) , , . , , , . , , , (), 1. (1995) , , . . 1970 . , « ». 3. 220 « « » » ( , 1995) (Serageldin, 1996) , , , : , , . , , , , , : . « -- , . 3.1 , , . , , .» . , ; , , . . , : « , , , , , , » (Serageldin Steer, 1994). -- « , , , ». , , 220 . , . (, , ) , , , , . . , , , , . . , 24 3.1. , «» 1994 . . 3.1, , , () ( 52 . . , ? ), , , -- , , , . , , , (), . , «» . , , 23 , 68 . , -- , 65 , , . 42 , ; , , (), , , , , () -- 4%. , . , , , , . , , -- 31% , , , , 42% . 32 , . 8 . . 3.1. , , 1994 . . , , . , . 41 79 3 6 8 15 3 . ., , 52 100 , , . , : . , ( . ) , , , () . , . , . , , , , . , , , . , . 25 , . , , , , , -- , -- (), . , (), , . « ». , , . : , , , . : ( 750 . ); ( 750 2 2900 . ), . ( 2900 9000 . -- -- ) ( , 9000 . ). 1996 . . (). -- , . : « , ?» . , , , : . · , , ? · . ? « », , , . , . , 26 3.2. , . , . 10000 , , . , 1000 . . . , . , , , . , , . , , , . , , , , . , . , , , . . , , , . , , . . ( . 3.2). , . , . , , 100 . . -- , , , ? , . , , , , , , , . , , . , . . , , , . , 27 3.3. : . , . , : -- 4% , . . , -- . (, , . , -- . () ) . : -- + , ( ). , . , , ; , , , . . « » -- , , 10% -- 65 1 . (, , .), , , . , , 112 145 . . . -- , , . 2025 . : . , , , , , . ; , 80% . . -- -- , . . , , . , -- . , 3.3. . , , . , 3.1, 3.1 ( , , ). . , , 100, 28 3.1. , , 1994 . (. ) 300 400 250 300 200 250 150 200 100 150 75 100 50 75 25 50 <25 . . . ' : , . , . , . 29 : . , 17. . , , 3.2. , ( . , ) , , 3.1, (. ./ . .) , 15 12 9 7 . 7 35 7 8 , 6 5 5 5 5 51 . . 4 6 4 3 100 . 200 . 3 37 . , 3 7 3 6 : (, ), ( ), . 2 8 (), 2 72 2 1 (, ), . : . , , , 50 150 . . . , , , , 50 100 . . , , 50 . ., . . , . ( 3.3), , 3.2. , . 30 3.3. , 1994 . . ,% 326 249 62 16 76 19 5 302 205 90 8 68 30 2 237 177 55 6 74 23 2 150 65 27 58 43 18 39 95 70 16 9 74 17 9 55 38 14 3 69 26 5 52 41 8 3 79 15 6 48 33 10 5 69 21 11 47 36 7 4 77 15 8 30 20 7 3 66 25 10 22 13 4 5 60 18 21 22 14 4 4 65 19 16 : , . : . , , 60% , , 70% 5 12 . . . 3.1, 15% 30%, . 20% . , : 2% 39% . 13% 9% , 23% 17%, . , 64% 74% . , , 1 . , -- 39% . : , . , . , , 31 3.2. , . , , , 8% , 48% ( ). , . (20%). . 3.2. , , 1994 . , , . , ( 3.4). , ( ) : , . : . . , , 80% , , 4%. , , 3% 10% . , , , , , . 3.4 -- . , -- , 3.1. , , 1994 . 32 3.4 , 1994 . , , , , 41 15 10 4 11 19 28 10 6 5 2 48 56 5 5 3 4 27 80 4 3 2 2 8 : . , ., 25 25 . , . , : « , ? 250 . . . , · -- , ?» , 10% 50% , 50% , . ( ). , 80% . , , -- . , , . , · . , 10% , : , · . · (), , , , 8% 50% . · , , , . , 40% 80% . . , · , « » , . : 42 90 , 50 . 1970 33 3.4. , . . , , . , . , , . . . , , , , -- , , . ( ). . . , , , , . . , ); , (Sachs Warner, 1995). ; . , , , . , , , , . . , , , , , . , . ( 6). . : ( 3.4). , , , . 3.2:, , , , , : ? , , , : . ; () (, , . 34 , , , , , . , , , , . . , . . , , , , . . . , , . , , . , . . : , · , , , , . . · 1 , . , , . , · , , . , . , · , , . , : , 1. . ( ) . 2. ? . , , : , , . , . 35 , . , , (), , , . ( . ) , . , , , . . (Nehru Dhareshwar, 1993). . , 1990 . 1994 . ( , + , -- ). ; , , , , , , , . . , -- -- , . , . , . , . , ( 1985 .) , , 33% . , , . , . . , , , . , . , , 36 , . . , , , , . . , (SRRI, ) . : SRRI = r + u c, . , r -- ( ), u -- . , , -- , . , , , ( (, , Pearce Ulph, ), 1995) 2% 4%. , , , , . , , : , ? 7 9%. , , , . . ( «» , ) 4%. , , . , . , . «» ( , , , ( ), ). , . , , , , , , 37 . , , , , , , . . -- , . , , , . ( , 45%). 4% , . , . , -- ( . -- ) , -- , -- ( ), . , . , ( ( ) ). , ( , 1992, 1993, 1995) , , 4% 30% 50%. . , , ( () , , Evenson Rosegrant, . 1995; Rosegrant ., 1995), 4% -- , , , , () . . , 80% , ( . , ), , -- (, , , , ). . , , , , , , . . , , , 38 , 1990 1994 . . 4% : 1) , , . , , ; 2) , (. 1 ). , , -- , , , . , , , , ( , ) , . , . , 20 . . , -- , . , . (145 ./ 112 ./ ; . Lampietti Dixon, 1995). 1990 1994 . 4% 4% , . . « » , , , ( ) . -- (. 1 , ). , , . , 20 . , , , -- . , . (. , 2). () , , , , : , , , ( , , , . 39 1 . -- ( . : , «» ), ( . ) , , , , . . -- , ; -- : « » « ». , , . : , : , , , , . . « « » » ( ., 1989) . , : , , « . », , « » « ». , ; , , , . « , » : « ». , , , . . , , ) 45% , , . 65 . , 1 , , , , ( ) . , . 1 61 , 27 , , 34 . ( 65 , ) 1 78 , . -- 40 . 40 65 , , , 25 . , () , , . 4% . , . . , 1996 . , 320 ., 1280 .; , 34630 . . , 21140 . . , , , , , , , , . , «», . , , . , 6. 4. , . , . , ( . , ), « » (win win policy), , , , , (market failures). -- , . , , . . . , , , . . . « » , : , ; . , ; . ; , . . . . , . . , . . 42 , , , , , , . -- , . ; , , . , , , , . ( -- , ). . , , , , , . . , . -- , , . , . , , , , . . , , . , , . , , . , , , . . , . , (explicit subsidies). , , ( , 1992; Panayotou, 1993; Munasinghe . Cruz, 1995). 43 4.1. « » , , , , , . Ds D. . , 4.1. , , , , . , . , , , . 4.1 (MR) (P). , Q. . , Ps. , Qs. . , . . . , , . , , . , . , , , , , , D Ds. « ». , , « », . , . , . , , , . . , , 44 , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , . , ( ) . ( 4.1). , , , . ( 4.1). , , . . : , ; . , . . « , ». (, , ) , , , , , . . . , , , , , , , . , , , . , , , , . « ». . , . 45 ( , , ) , -- ( ) , (Rajkumar, 1996). ( , ). ( , , ) -- . . : · . , . (NO) (SO2), (). , -- , , , . . 1985 . . ( ( , ) ), 330 . ., 130 , . . (Burniaux ., 1992). ( , 1995 ., .) 1990 1992 . . 235 245 . · . (Larsen Shah, 1992; Larsen, 1994), , 12 . , 1990 1991 . (IEA 1995). , , . -- . , · . , 90% , ( , , ). . · . 46 4.1. . ( ) . SO2 NOx CO2 4.1 , . 21 1900 11 2500 43 440 93 99000 , 14 1300 11 2500 43 440 85 91000 1 2 3 45 290 38 40000 -- 10 1400 0,5 93 100 400 62 66000 2000 3000 1600 460000 SO2. , : , , , , . . 1 = 1015 . , , , : IEA, 1989; Homer, 1993. , . , -- , . , , . , -- . . , , . . . , , . , , . , , , . , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , . , , -- -- . , . , 47 , , . . , , , . . · , , . . , , , . . . , , . , , . 1991 1992 . 1995 1996 . . (Rajkumar, 1996). , , , 77% . , 38% . ( 4.2). · , , , . , , . , 1990 1991 . , . , . . . · , (1996), , , . . . · , , . 48 . , . , . , «» , «» . , . . , . , ( ) . . ( ). , , , ( , 1990 1991 . 1995 1996 ., ). . , . , · . . . . , , , , , . , -- . . · , , , -- , ( 4.2). , . , , . . , , , , . . : , , · 1990 . 1995 . , , , 49 4.2. (1992 .), (1994 .), (1994 .), . (1993 .), . ( /.. 1995 .) 607 683 758 2650 148 2,06 29 15 8 1250 8 1,20 100 19 12 3200 10 1,40 20 23 16 3840 10 0,89 283 37 16 2410 39 1,11 39 35 43 1270 23 1,43 2088 398 30 530 1191 1,37 552 161 22 320 914 0,65 93 167 9 8260 45 0,37 16 73 15 2410 58 0,36 3 57 16 720 57 0,87 15 97 40 880 190 0,51 6 152 48 2120 63 0,58 13 251 53 4180 89 0,39 0 37 9 280 108 0,43 0 124 66 7050 18 0,70 1 57 47 2760 21 0,80 3 59 48 8110 34 0,29 40 154 8 2970 159 0,21 239 48 0 3040 41 0,88 8588 9050 3828 : , , . . : ; , 1996; , 1995. 25% 20% . , . ( , , . , .) , · . , · . ; , . , , , , . , , , 50 . , , . . , , -- , . , -- , (. 4.1), . . . , 4.3 . 4.1. , -- . 1990 1991 . . 119 . 1990 , 1991 . 58 . 1995 1996 . . . , , 4.3, , , , , . , . 60 . ( 4.2). . 1990 , 1991 . 1995 . , 1970 1980 . . . . , , , , , . , , ( 4.3). . 20 . 1990 1994 . ( ., 1996). . 1991 ., 42% 20%, 24 . . 10 ., , 25% 19%, . 4,2 . . 2,6 . 51 4.2. . , . , , . , , 1994 . 50% , , , . , . , , ; . . , , , . 10% ( , -- , , , -- ). . , , . . : -- , , -- . ( , 4.4). 1980 , . 1990 . . , , . , . 30%, 1984 ., , , , . , , , . . . , 1990 . -- , , . , , 1991 ., . , . . , . . , . , , 52 4.2. , % . ( 1995 .) 1990 1995 1990 1995 1990 1995 1990 1995 1990 1995 1995 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996 1991 1996 1996 38 16 67 42 48 25 45 31 28797 9427 1,50 43 24 27 23 65 33 54 29 2003 733 7,05 / 0 39 29 29 28 24 22 1173 978 2,96 2 2 28 34 / / 13 16 548 560 1,47 28 1 40 6 63 26 50 18 4653 1692 1,97 27 2 64 54 80 33 54 37 4743 1876 7,24 22 4 48 37 53 26 42 23 13120 5838 3,19 55 2 / / 37 29 42 20 24545 10297 2,42 21 15 / / 32 27 25 19 4250 2663 1,06 0 / / / / / 0 0 42 12 0,00 10 9 / / / / 10 9 524 459 0,37 30 5 / / 35 29 33 16 29362 13430 1,19 50 33 70 56 / / 55 40 2299 1336 3,39 28 21 43 17 / / 29 21 2071 1333 0,92 88 77 82 75 / / 86 77 13076 9622 8,68 32 12 31 39 / / 32 16 5403 2271 0,66 60 38 / / / / 60 38 928 592 1,87 63 28 76 61 / / 66 34 3837 1720 1,42 70 55 86 85 / / 76 66 3455 2397 4,00 +54 38 64 59 / / 56 42 31067 19272 2,26 4 3 24. 3 / / 12 3 659 150 0,06 26 0 / / / / 26 0 2193 11 0,00 8 6 / / 20 / 12 4 981 367 0,31 16 3 24 3 20 / 17 2 3833 528 0,06 / / / / / / / / 12453 9890 0,05 36 16 58 44 57 44 45 28 118632 58385 0,27 : , , . . : ; , 1996; , 1995. , . , , (Kosmo, 1987). , , . 1985 . 5,6% (Kosmo, 1987). , , 1980 ., ; 1980 ., ; , , 1991 . , 1985 . 9% . 53 4.3. : ? , 290 1,3% . . . 4.3. , , , , 1997 2010 . . , 5% 2000 ., , . , 10% 1990 ., 1990 . . , , 2010 . 40%, 14% , 1990 . : . , , . 1996 . , . , 500%, (). 56% 42%. 1990 . . 1995 ., , . , , 4.4. : , , 20% , 24 10 . , . . -- , , 1980 . . 1994 ., , , 73% , . . 61% 1984 . (Kosmo, 1987) 29% 1995 . , ( . -- ). -- 50% 30%, 1985 . (Wang, 1996). , : Kosmo, 1987; Wang, 1986. 54 4.1. 1990 1991 1995 1996 . . . ( 1995 .) : . . 4.3 . : . , , . . , , . . , , : 3,2 , 11,2 . ( , 1990 . . 1990 , , 18 1995 .). . , . . . . . . -- , , , , , ( ). . . , , , 1980 , . , . . 1980 , 55 4.5. 34% . ; , , . , , . , , , , . , , , . , -- . . . ; . , ; . . , . . 1990 , 54 ., , , 3,6% ; , . . , , 1998 . O , . , , . , , , . . 1980 ; , , , (Kosmo, 1987). 1980 . 1993 ., , 9,5 ., 70% ( . , 1995). , , 1970 , , , . . 56 O 1971 1988 . , 38%. , , . , , 0,5% , (Anderson, 1995), . , (., , . Hope Singh, 1995; Julius, 1986; Tybout Moss, 1992; Eskeland ., 1994). , , «» , (Freund Wallich, 1995). . O . , 1,5% (DOE 1989; Okugu Birol, 1992), . 0,4%. , . , . , , , , , . . , , , , , . . , . . , (Pitt, 1985). , . . , , . 57 , , (Repetto, 1985). . , , , , , , , , , (Antle . Pingali, 1995). . . , , . 1970 1980 . . , , (Repetto, 1985), , , , 1980 . 20 80%. , , , 80%. , , . . , 1980 120 ., . 500 . . . 35 ., . , 1500 . . , 1975 1980 1985 . . . -- , . ; , 1970 . ( 4.6). . : 1986 988 . ( , 4.7). , 1988 . 1992 . , . , 1980 , 10 . , 400 . . 58 4.6. « », , . . : . , . (Pagiola, 1995). 1970 1994 1995 . . , . 1973 1974 . 13% , , 1978 . . , , . 3 5 1971 1974 . 1 , 0,5 (Pagiola, 1995). , , (Duloy Nicholas, 1991). 1980 , , 1970 , , « ». , 10 20% , , : Pagiola, 1995. , . 4.4 . 1993 . , (Farah, 1994). , , 100% , , 1988 . (Kiss , Meerman, 1991). 100% , . , , 1990 . (Farah, 1994). . , 1980 , . , 1991 . , ( 4.7). ( 1,1% , , ) (, 1995). . , (Antle Pingali, 1995). , (Valdes Schaeffer, 1995a, 1995b). 59 4.7. 4.7. 50% 20% . . , 1960 . () . , , 1990 . 90%, 1970 1990 . . 1985 . , , . 1986 . , . , , ( ). 1980 85% (Pincus, 1994). 1986 1987 . 151 (126 .). 6 . 1972 . 53,1 . 1985 . : ; Pincus 1994; (Pincus, 1994), , Pearson,1991. . , . . , 1989 . , , . . , . . 1990 . , 22,1 . , , , 1980 . 27 1986 ., 30 . 1990 . , , , , , , -- . , , , . , , , . : , . , , , . . 1976 . , , , . 2,5 (Kenmore, 1991). 1986 . , (. . 4.7.). . 60 4.4 , 1993 . / / / / / / / / / / / / : Fleischer Waibel,1993. (). , , . , . , , , , , , , , (Fleischer Waibel, 1993). 1990 . , ; , . , . ; ( . ) ( ); , , , . , , , , , , 61 . , , , . , (Matteson Meltzer, 1995). ( 4.4). · . , -- -- , , , . , , ( ) . , · , . , , . , 37% 1996 . (Thrupp, 1990). , , , , , . . , , . ', , . , , , 4 5% (Adesina, 1994). . · , . , , , , 5%, ( (N), 20% (P), (K)) -- 27 (Waibel, 1990). 1960 . 146 1988 . ( , 4.2). , , . . . , . . 62 . . , . . , , , , , . . , , . . , . . . . , . , , , . , , , , . . ; , , , , . (Pagiola ., 1997). . (Pagiola, 1995). , , . , , 50% , , . () . . . , , , , . . , . , , , 63 , , . , ( 4.6). , , 1984 . 1 . , , 1985 . 270 . . (32% ), 1988 . 2,8 : 1971 1980 . . , 4.2. (Couston, 1985). , . , . 1960 1970 , 1970 -- 1980 , ( 4.5). 1970 25 50% (Repetto, 1988). , 1968 1972 . 56% ( 4.8), 50% , 36% 1980 , 50% , 47% , (Maene, 1994; Isherwood, 1996). 81% . (. . 4.5). , , (. . 4.6). , , . . , , 1970 , , , ; . . , -- , 1980 , -- . . 1980 50 70% ( , 1986). 1983 , 1984 ., , , . 36% , 61% , 33% , 60% T (Repetto, 1988). , , 64 4.5. , 1971 1990 . (. 1 , 1995.) 1971 1975 1976 1980 1981 1985 1986 1990 90 99 17 19 / / 51 66 411 294 239 101 108 69 77 / O 335 / / 52 164 / / 55 253 177 136 12 / 60 59 / 38 20 / / Too 367 299 200 99 * 38 132 181 100 / 152 / 188 57 57 112 67 90 42 12 / 84 73 16 / / 197 308 / 106 95 98 52 : , . 1990 . * . : . 4.6. , 1982 1994 . . ( 1995 .) 1982 1984 1985 1997 1988 1990 1991 1993 1994 56 21 68 19 0 1194 2006 2833 2010 1685 732 530 515 333 96 478 432 505 658 / 106 387 15 / / 9 6 13 17 / 178 156 102 33 2 48 46 20 0 / 64 44 12 0 / 5 3 3 n/ / : FADINAP, (1991 1994), . 65 (Maene, 1994). , , , ; . , . , , (Maene, 1994). 31% , . , : · . . · . . , , . , . , « , » , -- . , , -- . , . , , . , , , , , , . . , . . -- -- , . , . , , . . , , . . . , -- 66 , , . . , , , , , , , 2% , 1960 1970 , . 1% 1980 1990 , 250 . , -- , . . . , , . , , . , . . . , ( 4.7). , , . (O&M), · . , , (Repetto, . 1986; Tsur Dinar, 1995). , , , , , . , , (Umali, 1993). · , (, . ). -- . . , , . . , 67 . , . 1983 1993 ., 2,8 ; 0,24 , 2,28 0,28 . (, 1994). 1980 5300 . / ( , 23400 . / 11600 89%) . / (Jones, . 1995). , , 1980 ., 930 . 21 . . , 150 ( 60% 10% ), (Repetto, 1986), , 23 . (Gleick, 1993). , 65% , , 22 . (. 4.8). (Briscoe Garn, 1994). , . . , -- , 30% , , (Xie ., 1993). , , . , , , , , , . (Repetto, 1986). , , , . . , , . 68 , , , 4.7. . -- . O&M, , . /a . /a , , . . /a /a , 33 387 26 78 . , . 210 1523 192 91 16 207 9 57 14 166 17 121 , 30 272 8 28 21 375 4 18 , , : Repetto, 1986. . : , , , , . . , 1960 1984 . , 46% , -- (Schiff 5 . Valdes, 1992). , . , , . , «» , . , , . , . , , , ( 4.8). , , . , , , , . . 69 4.8. -- . . , 1990 . , . 38% 70% . , , 1990 1993 ., 294 .: 253 . , 2%. , 33 . -- , 7 . -- . 1971 1993 . 0,3 2,3 . , , , , 67%. , 1978 . , 1980 . , , : , (BADC) 1970 1990 . 10%. (BCIC). : 4.8. , ; , ; , ; . , . 1970 4% (Mokarrum, 1994). , . BADC 1973 1978 . 240%, , 90% (Mokarrum, 1994). , , , , (Karim n.d.; Huq Wheeler, 1993; Pagiola, 1995). 1978 . . 1983 . . , . 1988 . . 1989 . -- , . 1991 1992 . : Renfro, 1992; , . 70 4.8 , 1983 1993 . , , . , , , . . . / O&M, . 0,24 23400 5710 571 6281 5909 0,28 11600 3271 327 3598 3386 2,28 5300 12058 1206 13263 12480 2,80 21038 2104 23142 21775 : : 10% ; -- 65% . : -- , 1994; -- Jones, 1995 ( 1995 .). (Rajkumar, 1996). . , , , , , , 19 ( , ). . , , , . . , , , , , , , , , , . , . . , , . , , , : . -- , , . , -- . , . , , 71 . ). . . () , , (1996). , , 1994 . : ( , , ( ), (, ) ) (). ( , , 1996 , . , , ). , , , , 1996 . , 500%. ( ), , (, ). , . . . . , , , . . . , , , , . 4.3 , 4.1 . , 1995 96 . . , 1991 . ( ). 1995 . . . 19% 48% ; 51% , 72% ; () 12% 14% ; 18% . , , ( 4.3 -- , 72 , , 1990 (, 1991 1995 1996 ., , ). . , . . , , , , ( , ), . . . . , , , , . ; . . II 5. . . ( 5.1). . , , , . , , , , -- , ( , , ) , . . , () , , . , (), (), , (), . , (). , , , . , , , , , . . , : , , . , , , , , , , (Scherr Yadav, 1996). . , . , 76 5.1. , 1994 . , (). . : , , , , , , . . , , , , (), . (), ( (), ), , (). . , , (), , , -- , (IFPRI), . (Fieri ., 1995). , , , . , , , . -- , -- , . . 5.2 , , , , ( ) , ( , , . : Adriaanse, 1993). , , , . , , (, . , , ; ). , , , . , , ( , , , ) -- . . . , , 77 5.2. (P), (S), (R) : P: · · , · · · , · , · · · S: · · · · , ( S: ) · ( · ) · · · · R: · · , · , · · , , , · , 10 · R: · · , · · · , « -- -- » · , ( , · , , · ; , , · , , ), . «» . -- , ( 8.5). , «» , . . , . . . , , «» , . , , . , , , , , 78 . . . . , . , , , 5.2 . . , « , », , . . , ( 5.3) . , . , . , ( , -- , , ), -- , , , , . . , ) , , ) , ) , . , . , , . () 5.2 -- , , -- , ; . , , , . , , . . 79 , . -- . , , , IFPRI , . , , , . . -- , . , , . , 1965 1982 . , , , , , . . , 8% , -- , , . -- . , . 1992 ., . , , . 1993 . , . , ( . , ). . , (IFPRI) . 5.3. , , ( ) · · ( , , , , ) · · (, ) · (, · , , ) · · (, 'R' ) · · · · · · , · 80 , , . . , . , , . , (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994). , , , , (Pretty Shah, 1993). -- , , , . . . . . , . , . . , . . , , , , . , (1993), ( 22 ). , , , , . . . , , 5.2. , , . . , 81 , . , , . . (, , ) , , , 5.2 , , , . . , , , , , . . , : ) ( ; ) . ) , , ; ) . , . , , , . . , . . , -- , , , , , , -- . , . ; . ( , . , , , ). , , , , , . . , , 82 . , , , -- , , . . , . . -- . , . . , , , . , . . , , , , , , . , , . , , , , «» . . « ». . , . . , , , «» . (), . , . . , 83 , , . , , . , , , . . , , . . , , , , , , (, . ) . « », , , , , , . . : «» «» , ; , , ; . . , . , . , , . . , , . . . . , . . 6. : ? , , , (Serageldin, 1996a / 1996b). . , , ( ) . . · 1. (« »), . , . . . ( « ), , » , . . , , , , ( , 1993; Stiglitz, 1996). · 2. , , . -- . , , . (Putnam ., 1993). , · 3. 1991 . , , , , . . , . . *. (Buckley, 1996). * , . 85 · 4. () -- (« ») , , , . . , : 1) , ; 2) , . (Pathan ., 1993). , , . « » , , , , , , « » ( . , ) . , , 1920 , . « ». (Putnam, 1993). , , , . , , *. . . , , , , , , , . . , , , , . , , , . , (Putnam, 1993; Putnam ., 1993). . « » : * , " " , . , , , . 86 : ? (Coleman, 1988)*, « ? : , , -- , -- -- , » (p. 598). . , , , , **. . (Bardhan, 1995) , . , , . -- , , . : « . , , : » (p. 598). , , , , . , , . , , , . , . , , , , , , ( 6.1). , , . , , , , , , , () . (North, . 1990) (Olson, 1982), , . . * « » « », , 1988 .. 1977 . . ** , , (Williamson, 1985, 1993). 87 . « , » , . . , -- *. . , , , , «» , . . , , , , . . -- , . . , . . , -- , , , , , , . , -- . . , . « , » , . : , , ( 1993; Campos Root, 1996). . , ( ) . , , , . . , . , . ( , , ), * , . 88 : ? 6.1. : · , «» . , , . : ; , · , . . , · , . , · . , , ( ) . . . . (Dasgupta, 1988). «» («backward looking») . . « (. ), » («forward looking») , . (« . ») . ( , ) , , -- , . , , . . , , (Meinzen Dik ., 1995; Ostrom, 1995). , , , : , -- , . , -- ** *. * , ( ) . -- , , . ** , (), . , -- ( ). . (1988) (1995). 89 : «» , . , . , , . , , , (, ( , ). ). , , , , -- , , , . . . , -- , , . , . -- . , . , . . , , , . ( . -- . ) , , , . , . «» , : . , , . . . , . -- . , , , . 90 : ? , ». . , . : , , , ( . , ). , , , , . . , , . , , . ( . ), . , , , , , . . -- . ( , , . , ), , . . « » ( (Rose, 1995b). ), « » . , . , , , . . , « « », » , . , , « 91 (Rose, 1995a). , « , » (Rose, 1995c). . , , , , . . : « , ». (Coleman, 1988,1990). , , , . , , . . , ( , , ). . , , . . , ? . , -- . , , -- , . , -- , , , ( , . ). , . , -- , . , , . , , « . , »: -- , -- , . . . , 92 : ? . , -- , . , , , «» . . , , , , . , . (Fox, 1995). (. ), , , . . , , , . , / , : , , . . , , , . , . . , , , , , : , , , . , , . , , . , , . -- , , (« »). 1993 . : « . , » (p. 36). ( ) , , ( ) , , , . 93 . , , . , , , , . , . . , , : 1) , ; 2) . , , . , , . ( ; ; , , ; . ). . , , , , . . , , , (, , ?) . ( 6.2). . , , , ( ), , . 6.2. , , . : · ; ; · ; · ; · ( · ; , ); · , · ( (, ); : « -- -- · -- »). 94 : ? , ) . , . «» , , . , (, , , , , ). . (), , , . ( , , , ) ( . , ) «» , , ( ). , , , . , , , : . : , ( ), , (, . , ), , , . , , . , , , , . (Townsend, 1994). 750 45 ( ) , , , . , , . , . , ( 95 , , , , , , . , , (Meinzen Dick ., 1995; Narayan, . 1995; Ostrom, 1995). ( ) , , (Narayan Pritchett 1996). , , ' . , . , , , , (Pathan ., 1993). (Coleman, 1988). . . , , , , . , , (Scoones Matose, 1993). (Moser, 1996). , , , , , , , (, ). (Narayan, 1995). . ', , . , , . . 50% 11% 2/3. (Cerea) , , , : (Hinp, 1993). , (Freedheim, 1988). 96 : ? , -- , (de Soto, 1989). (Stone ., 1992). , , . , . , (Tendler ., 1982). , , . . , , , , . , (Bebbington, , . 1996). , , , , , , , . , , . . . , . , (Watts, 1983). , , , , . , , , , . , . , . ( , , ). , . . , () , 97 , . , . , «», . () ( ) . , , . , , , . . , , , ( , , , (Knack Keefer, 1996). ). , « », , , , . , 17 36% , ( , 1993)*. -- (Scully, , 1988; Grier Tullock, 1989; Barro, 1989). . . , , , . ( . , , ); , ; , , , , , ; . , ( , , , , , ..). 6.3 (Haan Siermann, 1996). , * . , ( , ) (Krugman, 1994). , , , , , (Birdsall and others., 1995). . (Stiglitz, 1996). 98 : ? 6.3 · , . · , , · « » . · · . · · · « » · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · « » · · · · · · , · · · · · 100 . · · · · · · (, « ») · , · · · · ( /M2) · , · · · · , . , , , , ( ). , , , , . . , ( ) (Isham , and others, 1995). , . , 99 , . ( , , , , , . , ). . , , , 10% , 10 , -- 40% . , , , . , (Knack Keefer, 1995). , , . , (Knack Keefer, 1996). , . . , (Easterly Levine, 1995). , , . , , , , , (1995), « , , , ». , . , . , , . , 35% , . , . , , , , 45%. , , , (Klitgaard Fedderke, 1995). , -- . «» , 100 : ? , . , . « » , , . , , . .* , , . . , () 1993 . , , , , , , . , « . » « » ( . ). , . , , (1996) (Serageldin, 1996a, 1996b; Hamilton Lutz, 1996). , , , . , «» , . . . , () . , , , . , , : . = + , ± . * , , «» . , . 101 . , , . . , , «» . «». , , , , , , . . , , , ( ), -- , . , , -- . , , . , . . . , , , , « » . . , , , . , . , , . . 102 : ? . , . , 1996 . , , . , , . 17 18 1996 . , . , . , . , . , . , . , . , . . . , . 7. : , ? ? , , , ? . ? , , ? , ? . ? . , ? . , , , , . . , , , , . . , , . , . . , . , , . . . , . , , , , , . . , , , . , , , , . , , . , 104 : . , , 2400 , . (Deininger Minten, 1996). , . . 7.1, . , , , 1980 . , , : , · , . 7.1 , ? · , ( ) , . , ? . -- · , ? . : , ( 70% 1980 .) , , , , , . , (Reardon 7.1. Vosti, 1995). , , 1980 1990 . , , % , 1980 . . , ; , ; ; . 1980 19 2,9%. . Deininger Minten, 1996. 105 1/2 3/4 (Irian Jaya). 300 . 1 . , , , . . , , , . . , , , , , , . , , -- , -- , . . , , , , , , , (Chomitz Griffiths, 1996). . , , : ? . , , , , . , , . , , , , . (Dasgupta 1995; Cleaver Schreiber, , 36% 1994). . . . , , ? 106 : . , , . -- , . , , , 1991 . (Filmer Pritchett, 1996). (Hettige .). , , , . , , , (Huq Wheeler, 1993). . , , , , , . . , . , , , . « ». , , , « ». , (1994), . , 38 , . , (Pargal Wheeler, 1995) , : (. 7.2). , . , . 107 , , -- (Wang Wheeler, . 1996). (Hettige ., 1995). (NEPA), , , , . , , ( ) . . , , , 1987 1993 . , . , . , , , (, . , , ) , . , . , . , , 7.2. , , . , . , , . , , . , . , , : Pargal Wheeler, 1995. , 108 : , , ? . , . , , , . , , . , , . . , , . 8. , . . , , , (Hettelingh ., 1995). , . (. Swart Bakkes, 1995; UNEP), , « », (European Environment Agency, 1995), , . , . , . , . , . , -- , ; . , . , , . (), , , « -- -- », (, , , , , , , , , ); , . ( , . , ( ). ) «» , , , , , , , , . , . ( ) -- 110 , ( , , « -- -- » . ) · , : . , , , · . , · , . , , , , « -- -- . », , . . , . , , , , , () -- , « » (. . 5). , «» -- -- , . (Pieri ., 1995). 5.2 , , . . ( ), . 1990 . , 1989 . « » : · , (DPCSD 1996). 111 , . . 21 «» . « -- -- », , , . 8.1 . . , . . , 142 , . . , , , , , , . (, ), , (, . « -- -- », ). , , , , . ( , 8.2). , , -- . . * , , « » . . , ( . , , ,1996) , -- 118. . * , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 112 8.1. A. C. 1970 ., 6500 , , ( . 1970 . ), ( 600 . ) 90% . B. D. NO NOx 1974 ., NO 50% 2,5 , . . , . . . . : , 1996. 113 « 21 ». , , *. . , , (USAID) (, ). (USAID 1995 1996). , , 8.1: . , , . ( . , , , , ). , « -- -- » , . , . , . , . , . , 8.1, . . , , (, ). . , , . , , , . , . , . , . **. , , -- , , , . . , « », * . ** , . 114 8.2. ( 100 200 . ) . , . . , . , , , , : , 50 100 , ; , , ( , 1996). , . . ( . ). , , . -- , , 8.1, , , , . . , , , . . , , , , . , . , . -- , (), . (1997). , , , , , ( -- . , , , ) ( . 8.3). -- ? , , , -- « ( » -- 150 ). 115 8.1. 1. « » () , (Hg), (Cd), , ( ) ( ) , : , 1995. 2. , , , : : van Esch, S. A., , 1996. 116 3. : , 1996. , , . , , . . , . , « » « » (Rump, 1996). « «» , » (Hammond , 1995), . . , , , . : , , . , . , . , 1970 1980 . , 2 3 , . . , : , . , , . , , , 117 8.3. () 1997 . -- : ·: · ; · ·o ; · . ; , , : ; · : ; ; ; , , ; · ; : · 1000 : ; ; ; , , , ; , · : 1000 ; · : , , ; · : ; · : ; ; ; ; ; , ; , , · , , : . ; ; : , 1997. , 8.4. , , , , . , , . , , . . , « » . , 118 8.4. , , , , . 1991 . . 45 85 , . 20 , ( 8.4.1) , . , , , () ( 8.4.2). , ( ). , , . , . , , , , , , ( , 8.4.3). , , , , . ( , 1997). 8.4.1. -- , () . -- , . , . « ». , , (, , , ) . 55 75% . , , . 8.4.2. , , 1991 . , , . . , 35 70%. , , . , . 119 8.4.3. , (/ ) , , , , . , , ( ) . , -- , ; ; , , , -- . , , , , , . , , , . . , . . , . , , ( ) . ( ( ) ). . . , , , 1960 , , : , , ( , ). . , (. 5, , . ). -- ( 8.5). , . 8.5. , . -- 120 8.5. , , (Smaling, 1993 1996; Stoorvogel Smaling, 1990): = ( )/, «» -- , «» -- , «» -- . . 1460 / 1993 . () 25 / (Stoorvogel Smaling, 1990) . 95 . . 20% . 19 . *d . 25% , 4,75 . 0,25*e . , 1,2 a ) . , 4 /a (F*g) () . 3750 /a * : (25 4) /3750 = 0,0056. , Smaling (1993), , . < 0 0 < < 0,005 0,005 < < 0,01 0,01 < < 0,05 0,05 < < 0,2 0,2 < , 1990 (van Eerdt ., 1996) , , , . . N ( ) N ( ) ** 486 456 ( ) 412 53 5 330 161 124 31 173 41 1136 1136 : * : 50% , 0,1% N = 2500 N/a 50% , , 0,2% N = 5000 N/a ** , (43 ). . . , : , . , , , 121 (, . , , , ). . ( . ). , . , , , , . , . « » (Hammond , ., 1995), : « -- -- », . « -- -- -- »; , , , ; . . , ( , UNEP, 1997) , ( DPCSD). , (Porter, 1995). . . . , , ( ) . 1. . (% ) 35 340 7 270(21) 14 150(40) 1 030(3) 2 150(6) 1 650(5) 9 080(26) 7 570 1 480(20) 2 410(32) 1 720(23) 150(2) 1 580(21) 230(3) 9 850 3 270(33) 5 200(53) 280(3) 480(5) 100(1) 520(5) 3 110 60(2) 3 000(97) 0(0) 0(0) 10(0) 20(1) 1 750 470(27) 1 110(63) 100(6) 20(1) 50(3) 10(1) 1 930 70(4) 1 030(54) 440(23) 250(13) 120(6) 10(1) 6 060 690(11) 2 520(42) 160(3) 1 820(30) 240(4) 640(11) 5 620 1 180(21) 260(5) 420(8) 2 700(48) 490(9) 570(10) 7 060 1 070(15) 2 740(39) 1 200(17) 960(14) 190(3) 910(13) 2 400 210(9) 1 870(78) 100(4) 120(5) 90(4) .... 1 940 90(5) 1,820(94) 10(0) 10(1) 10(0) 0(0) 4 940 1,540(31) 1 820(37) 110(2) 20(0) 710(14) 730(15) 20 820 860(4) 3 130(15) 40(0) 570(3) 1 270(6) 14 960(72) 3 990 70(2) 3 490(87) 70(2) 30(1) 260(7) 70(2) 840 110(13) 720(86) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2 120 190(9) 1 850(87) 10(1) 20(1) 50(2) .... 1 920 60(3) 1 510(78) 190(10) 150(8) 10(1) 10(1) 1 720 300(18) 930(54) 170(10) 110(6) 150(9) 60(4) 4 150 430(10) 2 100(51) 490(12) 30(1) 750(18) 350(8) 7 970 200(2) 7 440(93) 330(4) .... .... .... 3 380 410(12) 1 610(47) 820(24) 210(6) 230(7) 100(3) 5 210 1 490(29) 3 080(59) 170(3) 90(2) 60(1) 320(6) 11 070 270(2) 7 210(65) 380(3) 30(0) 1 930(17) 1 260(11) . . 8 380 560(7) 7 310(87) 90(1) 30(0) 280(3) 100(1) 2 360 420(18) 1 540(65) 0(0) 0(0) 70(3) 330(14) 5 490 160(3) 3 330(61) 660(12) 940(17) 30(1) 360(7) 2 520 450(18) 990(39) 400(16) 220(9) 280(11) 170(7) 3 910 90(2) 3 440(88) 50(1) 20(0) 110(3) 210(5) 7 480 60(1) 5 780(77) 720(10) 150(2) 100(1) 670(9) 1 020 260(26) 360(35) 0(0) 0(0) 100(9) 300(29) 5 740 940(16) 3 690(64) 430(8) 140(3) 390(7) 140(3) 3 400 430(13) 2 430(71) 110(3) 40(1) 230(7) 160(5) 6 800 270(4) 4 840(71) 650(10) 430(6) 270(4) 340(5) 36 590 2 310(6) 9 910(27) 6 230(17) 4 560(12) 6 830(19) 6 750(18) 1 730 740(43) 840(49) 10(1) 10(1) 120(7) 0(0) 2 670 100(4) 2 010(75) 90(3) 30(1) 10(1) 420(16) 6 100 1 160(19) 2 490(41) 390(6) 410(7) 270(4) 1 380(23) 4 420 20(1) 200(4) 1 040(24) 2 200(50) 0(0) 960(22) . 2 940 50(2) 2 290(78) 120(4) 40(1) 390(13) 50(2) 7 860 1 480(19) 5 690(72) 180(2) 100(1) 410(5) .... ' 3 790 80(2) 2 870(76) 570(15) 210(6) 10(0) 30(1) 940 340(36) 600(64) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) .... 5 100 1 060(21) 2 270(45) 0(0) 70(1) 50(1) 1 640(32) 1 240 20(2) 1 180(95) 10(1) 10(1) 10(1) .... 6 510 500(8) 5 350(82) 310(5) 330(5) 20(0) .... 880 60(7) 600(68) 90(11) 80(10) 40(4) .... 11 820 20(0) 6 190(52) 1 310(11) 230(2) 840(7) 3 230(27) 4 840 530(11) 3 620(75) 270(6) 340(7) 70(1) .... 2 210 480(22) 1 480(67) 60(3) 100(5) 10(0) 80(4) 1 0, 10 ./. (0), 1%. .. , . : . . . 123 6 630 810(12) 1 520(23) 200(3) 140(2) 110(2) 3 860(58) 1 130 90(8) 360(32) 400(35) 280(25) 0(0) 0(0) 7 180 1 400(20) 1 230(17) .... 2 310(32) 380(5) 1 860(26) 2 900 380(13) 2 150(74) 90(3) 60(2) 210(7) 10(0) 12 340 310(3) 11 600(94) 50(0) 80(1) 300(2) 0(0) 4 140 560(14) 1 020(25) 80(2) 10(0) 230(6) 2 250(54) 3 690 540(15) 2 110(57) 580(16) 360(10) 90(2) 0(0) 51 090 22 130(43) 12 600(25) 4 340(9) 770(1) 9 950(19) 1 300(3) 30 220 110(0) 1 680(6) 2 520(8) 700(2) 5 110(17) 20 090(66) 1 880 140(7) 1 480(79) 0(0) 0(0) 100(6) 150(8) 6 300 930(15) 3 960(63) 270(4) 310(5) 830(13) .... 7 490 10(0) 560(7) 1 550(21) 2 370(32) 20(0) 2 980(40) 6 990 1 490(21) 3 590(51) 1 150(16) 650(9) 100(1) .... 4 630 350(8) 2 770(60) 220(5) 800(17) 50(1) 430(9) 4,040 280(7) 2 140(53) 1 140(28) 110(3) 190(5) 190(5) 1 110 100(9) 930(84) 0(0) 10(1) 70(6) 0(0) 1 150 250(22) 890(77) 10(1) 10(0) 0(0) .... 71 880 330(0) 3 600(5) .... 20(0) 20(0) 67 910(94) 5 300 290(6) 4 180(79) 310(6) 250(5) 210(4) 60(1) 16 500 2 570(16) 7 210(44) 1 730(10) 410(2) 1 400(8) 3 180(19) 3 040 60(2) 2 570(84) 180(6) 110(4) 0(0) 120(4) 7 600 110(1) 6 270(83) 110(1) 50(1) 980(13) 80(1) 2 200 310(14) 920(42) 530(24) 310(14) 120(6) 0(0) 2 670 50(2) 2 250(84) 0(0) 90(3) 170(6) 120(4) 12 110 70(1) 2 540(21) 40(0) 40(0) 100(1) 9 310(77) 6 370 550(9) 5 070(80) 10(0) 20(0) 10(0) 710(11) 3 940 490(12) 2 950(75) 170(4) 90(2) 40(1) 200(5) 2 230 120(5) 1 680(75) 210(9) 90(4) 130(6) 0(0) 14 810 6 040(41) 8 530(58) 160(1) 60(0) 10(0) .... 2 730 50(2) 2 400(88) 140(5) 30(1) 30(1) 80(3) 15 930 90(1) 4 670(29) 6 970(44) 1 660(10) 2 420(15) 110(1) 8 120 1 350(17) 5 210(64) 700(9) 90(1) 700(9) 60(1) . 6 470 440(7) 2 010(31) 520(8) 2 600(40) 900(14) .... 5 550 470(9) 4 110(74) 340(6) 500(9) 120(2) .... 14 440 1 100(8) 4 910(34) 1 560(11) 180(1) 1 110(8) 5 580(39) 3 050 950(31) 820(27) 600(20) 50(2) 620(20) 0(0) 14 590 440(3) 4 390(30) 5 890(40) 1 160(8) 2 300(16) 410(3) 3 480 140(4) 2 970(85) 90(3) 30(1) 250(7) 0(0) 11 330 1 160(10) 4 880(43) 440(4) 270(2) 2 610(23) 1 970(17) 4 200 880(21) 1 790(43) 90(2) 30(1) 80(2) 1 340(32) 3 080 110(4) 280(9) 50(2) 10(0) 0(0) 2 630(85) 2 300 120(5) 1 360(59) 220(10) 70(3) 490(21) 40(2) 2 Serageldin, I. 1996. 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