NOTE 3 HIGHER EDUCATION GOVERNANCE IN GUINEA NOTE 3 HIGHER EDUCATION GOVERNANCE IN GUINEA ©2015 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Publishing and Knowledge Division, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Contents Acknowledgements v Abbreviations and Acronyms vii Executive Summary 1 Introduction: Why Are Governance Reforms Needed? 1.  4 2. Higher Education Governance 4 Best Practices: International Examples (What Can We Learn?) 3.  9 4. Policy Recommendations 11 References 13 Annex I 14 Annex II 15 List of Figures Higher Education Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER), Figure 1:  SSA and World, 1970–2010 4 Accountability Relationships Figure 2:  6 List of Tables Table 1:  Models of Governance 4 Table 2:  Models of Financial Control 7 List of Boxes Box 1:  Translating Autonomy into more Socially Efficient Outcomes 7 Box 2:  African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education (CAMES) 8 Governance Reform Successes in Selected Countries Box 3:  9 Box 4:  Higher Education and Governance Reform: The Case of Vietnam 10 Acknowledgements The four higher education policy notes were prepared by Na- ruma, Fatoumata Camara Poly, Abdoulaye Mbemba Camara, thalie Lahire (Task Team Leader), with contributions from Atigou Bah, and Ousmane Kaba Sonali Ballal, Francois Keslair, Jaques L’Ecuyer, Adrien Lor- The peer reviewers were Lucy Fye, Harsha Aturupane, Atou enceau, Achille Mignondo Tchibozo, and Claire Morel. These Seck and Roberta Bassett. Valuable comments on initial drafts notes were prepared in partnership with the Guinean Min- were received from Peter Materu, and Emanuela Di Gropello. istry of Higher Education team led by Abdoulaye Diakité Cheick F. Kante and Peter Materu provided overall guidance (Secretaire General) and comprising of the following mem- for the project. bers: Tidjane Diallo, Sékou Konaté, Momo Bangoura, Mama- The World Bank is grateful for the funding received from dou Kodiougou Diallo, Abdoul Karim Diallo, Mamadi Ku- the Norwegian Education Trust Fund. Higher Education Governance in Guinea | v Abbreviations and Acronyms AAU Addis Ababa University ANEESRS National Evaluation Agency CAMES African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education CNRP National Commission for Recruitment and Promotion CPS Country Partnership Strategy GER Gross Enrollment Ratio ICT Information and Communication Technology LMD Licence-Master-Doctorate MENA Middle East and North Africa MOE Ministry of Education M&E Monitoring and Evaluation PBC Performance Based Contract PC Performance Contract PPP Public-Private Partnership PREMA Program for Reformation of the State and Modernization of Administration PRSP3 Third National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RBM Results Based Management SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training Higher Education Governance in Guinea | vii Executive Summary The World Bank’s Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) for The education system must equip graduates with the skills Guinea in FY 2014–171 confirmed the Government’s priority needed by the emerging export-oriented economy. Develop- to build 21st century skills for improved employability and to ing relevant skills programs that provide students with the implement systemic reforms. Guinea is emerging from years competencies in demand and will subsequently enable them of political and economic isolation and instability. The demo- to be employed in an economy that values a technological and cratic election of President Alpha Condé has opened the door scientific skill set. Government needs to lay the groundwork for the international donor community, including the World to offer training in the relevant fields at the secondary, voca- Bank, to come forward and support the new government. Its tional, and higher education levels. important reform agenda, PREMA,2 has helped restore the Despite its abundant natural resources, Guinea has strug- confidence of the international community. The World Bank gled to become attractive to investors and entrepreneurs. In will partner with the Government of Guinea to develop sys- the Ease of doing Business report, Guinea ranks 175th out of tems that will “improve lagging human development indica- 189 countries.3 Firms operate in a heavily constrained envi- tors for absolute poverty reduction, through more efficient and ronment and face frequent power shortages and a slow bu- transparent allocation of resources, and to build shared prosper- reaucracy. All of these factors contribute to poor business pol- ity by aligning the business environment and education system icies. This unfavorable business environment is also partly the with Guinea’s economy” (World Bank, 2013, pp. 1). This is in result of poor governance and petty corruption. The Interna- line with the government’s priorities, as per the Third National tional Finance Corporation is providing substantial support to Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP3) approved in 2013. strengthen Guinea’s business environment. Lack of local skills The PRSP3 aims to reduce poverty and to create and sustain is an important constraint, and in order for jobs in the emerg- a vibrant private economy by maximizing rents from Guin- ing sectors (mining, construction, hotel industry, banking and ea’s substantial mining sector. The Bank supports the Govern- finance) to be filled by Guineans rather than foreigners, the ment’s agenda on improving human capital by: (a) promoting Government must equip its youth with the skills required. both the quantity and quality of education and (b) upgrading In 2012, the Government requested special support from the skills for the needs of emerging and export-oriented sectors Bank in the form of technical assistance to conduct an analysis such as agriculture, tourism, mining, and telecommunications of the higher education system. This analysis would be used and Information and Communications Technology (ICT). to prepare a comprehensive higher education strategy to meet The education system has made significant progress, with the needs of both the economy and the labor market. Since the the primary gross enrollment rate reaching 83 percent as of early 2000s, the Bank had limited involvement in this critical 2013. However, challenges remain in the areas of coverage, sub-sector. Per the Government’s request, the Bank mobilized quality, and relevance. Approximately 60 percent of the stu- resources to engage in policy and analytical work in the areas dent population between the ages of 8 and 14 are out of school, of governance, financing, and diagnostic of skills demand and and learning assessments conclude that the government must supply from a new employer survey prepared specifically un- step up its efforts to improve completion rates, gender parity, der this technical assistance project. and learning outcomes. University enrollments have increased tenfold over 10 years, reaching more than 95,000 students in 1. Supply and Demand: Higher Education and Skills. This note 2012. However, Guinea’s higher education coverage rate re- reviews the current state of education and workforce skills mains relatively low compared to its neighbors, at 916 students from an employer perspective. It identifies the key bottle- at 100,000 inhabitants. In addition, the traditional opportu- necks faced by firms in hiring qualified workers and provides nities for Guinean graduates on the labor market through concrete recommendations to improve workforce quality. the civil service are no longer sufficient. Graduates between 2. Current Outcomes and Challenges: Diagnostic of the High- the ages of 25 and 35 are facing unemployment rates close to er Education System. In this note, we trace the evolution of 30 percent, increasing the likelihood of social instability. the higher education system. The note shows trends over All of these goals must be achieved while ensuring that the time, highlights tracer characteristics, and draws compari- needs of the labor market are met by the education system. sons between the public and private provision of education. 1 The other two areas are: improving governance and service delivery and 3. Governance of Higher Education. The key governance issues stimulating growth and economic diversification (World Bank. 2013. Country faced by the Guinean higher education system are presented. Partnership Strategy for Guinea). The note delves into the reforms undertaken by the govern- 2 PREMA stands for Program of Reform of the State and Modernization of ment after 2011 with a focus on the two presidential decrees. the Administration and it has the following items on agenda: organization of the country, management of the human resources available in the public sector, improvement of fiscal and economic governance, and overhaul of the judiciary. 3 World Bank (2014). Doing Business Report. Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 1 Conceptual Framework market, the agriculture, construction and mining industries recommend a focus on the entire system. • Reforms between • Education and skills pro le As Guinea strives to embark on an accelerated development 1989–2010 • Employment in the current path, its ability to meet the demands of a diversified economy • State of business climate will be partly determined by the quantity and quality of its higher education • Production and skill needs • Labor market insights trained workforce. An emphasis on growing Guinea’s Tech- nical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector, Diagnostic Supply & Demand adjusting university programs for greater relevance, and de- veloping strategic partnerships with the private sector will gradually close the gap between skills supply and demand. Financing Governance Current Outcomes and Note 2:  • Education nance • Governance challenges Challenges: Diagnostic of the • Higher education nancing • Higher education • E ciency & Equity governance Higher Education System • Best practices: international examples Human capital is increasingly a key ingredient for economic success: in Guinea, vast mineral reserves paired with a lack of appropriate skills to exploit their potential keeps the country trapped in poverty. Though enrollment rates have significant- 4. Financing of Higher Education. The note provides a brief ly improved over the past decade, Guinea has yet to ensure overview of education funding and structure; the main fo- that its education system produces a labor force composed of cus is on the sources and uses of public and private funds for workers with the low, middle, and high level skills required by higher education. high-growth-potential sectors. Access to higher education remains a more significant bar- These four distinct policy notes are intended for policy rier for girls. In 2011–12, only one fourth of higher education makers and technical staff. They may be read individually or students were girls, in contrast to high schools where about 40 as a series. The results from this work will also form the cor- percent of students were girls.4 However, the share of girls by nerstone for a new higher education operation in Guinea. level remains rather stable over time. This implies: girls have as good, if not superior, academic performance as boys, and once they enter higher education, they do not face many constraints Higher Education and Skills: Note 1:  in continuing to pursue their education. Supply and Demand Between 1989 and 2010, three major reforms—the trans- formation of Higher Education Institutions into public ad- Economic development and civic participation in Guinea ministrative institutions, extension and diversification of are hampered by an extremely low literacy rate and a poorly universities, and transition to the Licence-Master-Doctor- educated working population, especially in rural areas. Near- at system—have set the higher education system on a more ly 22 percent of youth were either economically inactive or promising path, though progress remains to be made in the unemployed in 2012, with the highest unemployment rates areas of institutional autonomy, access in equity, institutional found among the educated population, pointing to a marked capacity, and teaching quality. mismatch between the supply and demand of skills. Higher education receives a disproportionate share of all In general, the education system is neither responsive to nor public education spending, relative to enrollment levels. More currently producing graduates equipped to adequately meet troubling is the allocation: nearly half of the budget goes to the needs of the labor market. Universities offer a predomi- scholarships, and of that, the majority supports predominant- nantly theoretical education, despite the fact that firms value ly wealthier students enrolled in private institutions. experience and practical skills. The school to work transition With the simultaneous removal of entry requirements and offers further insight into the extent of the training-labor mar- substantial increase in high school graduates, higher educa- ket absorption mismatch. Graduates of longer-term programs tion enrollment has soared. Though private institutions are enter the job market earlier than those completing short pro- multiplying and thus helping to absorb the surge, Guinea re- grams, but there is no distinction between the different levels of mains below the Sub-Saharan average for private higher edu- programs. Employers report difficulty finding employees with cation enrollment. It should be noted that while access has ex- the skills they require, and the informality of the labor market, panded, secondary education access, completion, and course aggravated by the preference for hiring through personal net- selection largely determine the distribution of tertiary educa- works, has important consequences for equity and efficiency. tion students across program areas, with obvious consequenc- Universities offer predominantly theoretical education, es for subsequent employment opportunities. Furthermore, when firms value experience and practical skills. For exam- the current system offers little flexibility and few opportunities ple, in the construction, industry and service sectors, one in for adjustments to labor market needs. High repetition rates five firms state that they cannot find the type of qualifications they need, leading to a substantial proportion of vacancies. To increase the relevance of the education system to the labor 4 ELEP (2012). 2 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea throughout primary and secondary education creates delays the budget not only prevent better leveraging of public funds; in university enrollment and thus the entry of the most skilled they also remove incentives to develop relevant and innova- labor onto the labor market. tive higher education programs. Indeed, funding for higher Guinea’s higher education landscape offers ample public-pri- education is neither allocated nor used efficiently: almost half vate partnership possibilities, from forecasting to curriculum of the higher education funding for operating expenditures development, training, job placement, and equipment provi- is used to support students in public and private universities sion. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are the key to devel- through stipends and scholarships, regardless of the academic oping the healthy, equitable, and high-quality education system merits of the student and the value of the program in the labor that will enable Guinea to develop and sustain a skilled and market. Furthermore, evidence shows that this support is both versatile workforce that will enable Guinea to take advantage of insufficient to cover students’ needs, and not allocated to the its immense natural resources and achieve economic stability. students most in need. Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the sector will require revamping of the scholarship and subsidy payments Note 3: Governance of Higher Education to higher education students and institutions, greater involve- ment of the private sector as partners, and the introduction of Over the past decade, governance reforms, which include in- performance-based contracts for increased accountability of creased institutional autonomy, diversification of programs, and both public and private institutions. additional resources for institutions, have contributed to the re- awakening of the higher education sector in Africa’s developing countries. In Guinea, the central government has pursued three Policy Recommendations decentralization strategies: delegation to (a) a lower level of gov- ernment, (b) a buffer body, or (c) institutions themselves. Policy challenge Recommendations Moving towards a fully autonomous system should be an Skills supply and demand Develop and improve skills relevant incremental process. Given the differences in economic con- mismatch programs aligned with employer ditions and development of the higher education system, this demand note examines countries on a similar scale, particularly in the Involve the private sector Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region, namely: Ethiopia, Nigeria, as partners in curriculum Ghana, and Kenya. development, practical training, and financing. The successful reforms among the ones adopted are high- lighted to provide examples of best practices. Disconnect between schools/ Facilitate intermediaries to link skills Guinean institutions do not have the institutional autono- graduates and potential profiles with jobs employers my to hire and fire permanent teaching staff, and the growth Reform labor market access of teaching staff has not kept pace with enrollments. Private Uneven access to relevant Reduce geographical inequities institutions “poach” teachers from public institutions, aggra- training programs and ensure school and labor market vating the shortage, and the low level of international facul- reform and adequate distribution of training programs throughout ty indicates that opportunities for research collaboration and the country innovation are insufficient. More than one third of qualified Expand education opportunities for teachers will retire within the next two years. Guinea recently the poor and girls adopted and is in the process of adopting Decrees that will Lack of autonomy of The government and the higher change the higher education landscape. This roadmap for a institutions education institutions need successful transition towards a more decentralized system of support to facilitate their transition higher education should be combined with initiatives to re- towards a decentralized and more lax the stringent conditions attached to the budget and allow autonomous higher education system more flexibility in its use; give control to institutions over the recruitment, promotion, and management of their teaching Higher education institutions should be given control over and research staff; and implement adequate accountability the recruitment, promotion, and and quality assurance mechanisms. management of their teaching and research staff. Note 4: Financing of Higher Education Autonomy with adequate accountability and quality assurance mechanisms. The education sector is supported by three sources of financ- Inflexible budget Relax the stringent conditions ing: government, household, and donor financing, respective- attached to the budget and allow ly. Major challenges include highly centralized funding, dis- more flexibility in its use connect between the budget and sectoral goals, fluctuation in Inefficient and Revamp the scholarship and expenditures and consequent lack of predictability. disproportionate spending on subsidy payments to higher Guinea’s suboptimal allocation of resources is among the student scholarships education students and institutions most important challenges facing the education sector. One- Lack of accountability Introduce performance- third of total public education funding goes to higher educa- based contracts for increased tion, even though enrollment accounts for only eight percent accountability of both public and private institutions. of the entire student body, and the subsidies eating up most of Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 3 Introduction: Why Are Governance 1.  Table 1: Models of Governance Reforms Needed? Institutional Governance Model Status of Public Universities Examples The importance of higher education for economic growth and A. State Control Can be an agency of the MOE or a Malaysia prosperity is well documented; as is the increasing social and state-owned corporation Guinea private benefits attributed to higher education. While sub- B. Semi- Can be an agency of the MOE, New stantial efforts have been made over the past few decades to Autonomous a state-owned corporation, or a Zealand increase access to higher education, progress in access has not statutory body France always been commensurate with equivalent improvements C. Semi- A statutory body, charity, or non- Singapore in equity, efficiency, and quality. The most advanced systems Independent profit corporation subject to MOE have shifted from a state-governed and controlled education control system towards one shifting greater responsibility to the in- D. Independent A statutory body, charity, or Australia stitutions themselves to blossom and innovate. Governance non-profit corporation with United reforms are needed to tackle the growing demand for higher no government participation Kingdom education across the continent (Figure 1), while ensuring eq- and control linked to national strategies and related only to uity in access and achievement. public funding Over the past decade, governance reforms, which include Source: Fielden (2008). increased institutional autonomy, diversification of pro- grams, and additional resources for institutions, have con- tributed to the reawakening of the higher education sector representatives from individual institutions. This note pres- in Africa’s developing countries. Since 2000, aside from an ex- ents the key governance issues facing the higher education sys- pansion in student enrollment, allocations to higher education tem since 2011 and the reforms initiated since, including the budgets have increased, and both staff salaries and teaching two presidential decrees: Decree 62 refers to the governance of conditions have improved. In fact, the expansion of higher ed- public higher education institutions, and Decree 63 addresses ucation has required reforms to enable Africa to keep pace with the governance of private of higher education institutions. the demand for higher education. The initial stages to higher education system reforms stem from the pro market reforms of the 1990s, which led many countries to move from state-run 2. Higher Education Governance to market economies. Fiscal constraints towed the initial re- forms: the promotion of private institutions, and in some cases Governance in higher education is presented in the context of the privatization of public institutions (Varghese, 2006, 2013). Fielden’s framework of “basic elements of higher education” Another reform, proposed by the African Union Convention, (Fielden, 2008).5 attempted to standardize the higher education system across Africa in terms of degree structure, student assessment, and 1.  Who Manages the System? external quality assurance (Varghese, 2013). This reform has In recent years, reforms in higher education have contribut- yet to be ratified by every country in the region. ed to more decentralized systems. The central government has As frequently observed in other countries, especially in pursued three decentralization strategies: delegation to (a) a SSA, governance is also the weakest link in the Guinean lower level of government, (b) a buffer body, or (c) institutions higher education system, both at the central and institutional themselves (Table 1). To further illustrate these strategies: (a) In levels. As part of its technical assistance, the World Bank re- some countries, control has been transferred to provincial gov- viewed the existing legal texts governing higher education and ernments, with the central government maintaining responsi- held discussions with the Ministry of Higher Education and bility for the general state policy. This is the case in Australia, the United States, and to a certain extent, China. Upon gaining independence in 1958, Guinea, similar to other Francophone Figure 1:  Higher Education Gross Enrollment Ratios West African countries, inherited a highly centralized higher (GER), SSA and World, 1970–2010 education system. Until 2012, Guinea’s higher education sys- tem shared many characteristics with state-controlled systems 35 of governance, with just a few small steps taken towards auton- 30 omy, which will be described in the next section. (b) In coun- 25 tries like the UK, India, and Pakistan, powers ranging from 20 strategic planning to academic program review and funding 15 advice or allocation have been granted to buffer bodies. How- 10 ever, the central government always retains the policy power, 5 i.e. the power to set national strategies related to education. 0 Buffer bodies offer the key advantages of removing detailed 1970 1980 1990 1997 2010 SSA World 5 Fielden is one of the world renowned experts in governance of higher ed- Source: Modified table 1 from Varghese (2013). ucation. 4 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea operational issues from the Ministry of Education (MOE), en- assigned to the Ministry of Higher Education are outlined in couraging institutional autonomy, and to a certain extent, re- the 2013 Decrees regarding public and private institutions. lieving the MOE from lobbying. It may be difficult to maintain These responsibilities include: a good relationship with MOE while retaining independence. (c) Finally, the central government can delegate considerable 1. Define the vision, policies, and goals of the higher education powers to the institutions themselves and keep only the power and research system; submit the strategic development plan to establish strategies for the higher education system. to the government; 2. Determine the structure—in terms of shape and size—of What Powers Are Retained at the Center, If 2.  the higher education and research system; Some Are Devolved to Buffers or Institutions? 3. Ensure that the institutional strategic plans are aligned with Even in decentralized systems, certain powers are retained at the national strategy; the central level. Predominant among them are the right to 4. Submit proposals for the creation of new public institutions; set overall policy for the higher education system (including its size and shape), develop strategic planning for the system, 5. Authorize the creation of private institutions; negotiate funding with the government, and coordinate with 6. Allocate public resources to institutions; other governmental ministries or agencies. In the 1980s all higher education institutions in Guinea were under the pur- 7. Assess the performance of institutions; view of the Central Government. From the 1990s onwards, the 8. Compile higher education statistics in a database and pro- government initiated reforms that conferred a limited degree vide indicators to monitor higher education and scientific of autonomy to the public institutions. These reforms included research performance. the creation of an administrative council, which, along with the authority of the institution, had administrative, financial, In line with international trends, Guinea is gradually tran- and teaching management responsibilities. The World Bank sitioning towards a decentralized system by clearly limit- was at the origin of some of these reforms through its higher ing the responsibilities and duties of the Ministry of Higher education project that ended in 2001. The Bank project spurred Education. improvements in the management capacity of staff at both the central and institutional levels, development of strategic plans 4.  How Much Autonomy Should Institutions Have? in all higher education institutions, discontinuation of irrele- vant programs, increase in the number of teaching hours, and The basic principle behind institutional autonomy is that insti- a reduction in the overall higher education share of the edu- tutions operate best when they are in control of their own des- cation budget. Other improvements included new equipment, tiny. Institutional autonomy is not static; that is, institutional staff training, and installation of telephones, computers, and autonomy has evolved over time and its evolution is dictated software to improve communication between the Ministry by the inherent traits of the country. This means that the de- and the institutions. Administrative councils gained authority gree of autonomy institutions have in one country may not be in the fields of finance, teaching, and administration. applicable in another. Institutions may also react differently to autonomy from the central government, even within the same country. According to Fielden, governments may be reluctant 3.  What Types of Central Agencies Are Needed? to devolve powers to institutions because they do not believe Role of the Ministry of Higher Education: Until 2013, Guinea was the institutions are fully ready to assume that power. In some lacking important bodies. For example, a clear higher education countries, Indonesia for instance, a capacity improvement policy, with explicit and comprehensive objectives and strate- program had to be established as a prerequisite for autonomy. gies had yet to be developed. In cases where institutional strate- Further reforms were introduced by the Government of gic plans were developed, the quality assurance and evaluation Guinea with the aim of decentralizing decision-making to of the institutions was insufficient. The financial needs analysis the institutional level and better aligning academic programs of the system was incomplete, and because the institutions had with the needs of the Guinean people and economy. The es- not developed a formula or mechanism to distribute financial tablishment of a governing board for each institution and the resources, the Ministry of Finance was fully responsible for re- adoption of the Licence-Master-Doctorate (LMD) system source allocation and lacking a key tool to guide and coordinate were to be the pillars of these new reforms. However, due to the development of the system. Various units within the Minis- increased demand for higher education, lack of resources, and try of Higher Education were involved in the governance of the poor management of the higher education system, some of higher education system, but their goals or responsibilities were the progress achieved prior to 2001 was lost, and later reforms not properly defined, leading to inefficiencies. were disappointing. New functions: Drawing inspiration from the Senegal sys- Public Institutions: Since 2001, the Ministry has taken mea- tem, Guinea proposed a financially independent National Di- sures to devolve power to institutions. These include the cre- rectorate of Higher Education. The Directorate would be un- ation of governing boards; however, the boards had limited der the purview of the Ministry and undertake the following power as their members were representatives of Ministers and tasks: policy development, planning, resource allocation, data all decisions had to be approved by the Ministry of Higher Ed- collection, system evaluation, accreditation of private institu- ucation. In most cases, these boards did not exist nor did they tions, and monitoring of institutions. The new responsibilities play an active role in the governance of institutions, which Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 5 remained under the influence of the Ministries of Higher Ed- institutions. The central government directly or indirectly ucation, Finance, and Civil Service. Professors continued to (through buffer bodies) retains control of the following areas: be hired centrally and there were stringent requirements on allocated financial resources. • Review and approval of draft statutes/articles before grant- Addressing the shortcoming in the decentralization of ing autonomous status to universities; governance required bolstering the power of the gover- • Grant degree-awarding power to new public or private nance boards in public institutions. More clarity in the de- institutions; termination of the board responsibilities was critical, particu- larly those related to planning, budget approval and follow-up, • Set a cap on the total number of students funded by the state, nomination and evaluation of the president, and hiring of and sometimes the total in selected high cost areas (e.g. med- personnel. The size and composition of the board were also ical and veterinary students). If the state is funding the bulk examined. The new Boards would have nine to 11 members, of the cost of higher education, it is reasonable that it control the majority coming from the economic and professional this cost by limiting the students it subsidizes. The distribu- world. In addition to the governing board, an institutional tion of students within this cap is decided by the buffer body council was proposed, to be chaired by the president of the through a bidding or allocation process. None of this would institution to deal with academic affairs. The council would be affect the right of institutions to enroll full fee-paying private composed of 15 to 30 members selected among faculty, staff, students, if the state agrees to this principle. and students of the institution. The council would work under the governing board. These proposals were accepted and con- Further restrictions are based on national policy. For ex- firmed in decree 62. ample, institutions within the US, Australia, and South Africa The most significant change detailed in Decree 62 is that may set academic salaries, a power not given to Guinean insti- institutions will now take the lead on the development of tutions (see Table 2 for different models of financial control). their strategic plans. Institutions will be able to change their In most countries, institutions have the right to establish new organizational structure, adopt regulations, and hire person- academic programs; but in a few others, this power is exer- nel, all without Ministry intervention. For these changes to cised through buffer bodies. be successful, the relevant ministries will need to cooperate Figure 2 below illustrates accountability relationships in an closely: the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Fi- institutional autonomy setting. nance, the Ministry of Civil Service, and the National Direc- Management of financial resources. Usually, an institution’s torate of Higher Education, now responsible for steering the recurrent budget is approved by the Board, and the Rector entire higher education system. or Director General is the authorizing officer. The Board and Private institutions: In general, private universities, while the Rector/Director General have flexibility in using their fi- operating within the framework of the laws and policies of the nancial resources. This is not the case in Guinean public in- government, have a larger degree of freedom in governance stitutions, where financial affairs are subject to control by the and management compared to their public counterparts. This Ministry of Finance. The Ministry of Finance oversees financ- is only partly true, as observed in Decree 63 concerning pri- es through the Division of Financial Affairs along the assis- vate institutions, this decree resembles the Decree concerning tance of a controller and an accountant. The institution’s bud- public institutions in a number of ways. According to this de- get has restrictions regarding the use of funds and movement cree, private institutions in Guinea will be managed by four between different budget items. If institutions are to become entities: the Founder, Governing Board, Institution Council, and Director General. The governing boards of private and public institutions have the same responsibilities, except that Accountability Relationships Figure 2:  private governing boards leave the financial and resource management aspects to the Founder. The Founder chairs the Governing Board, serves as the chief authorizing officer, and has authority over both the administrative and technical staff. The composition and responsibilities of the Institution Coun- Politicians Policy makers cil for private institutions are identical to those of public insti- s tutions. Finally, the responsibilities of the Director General of litic Co Po m pa private institutions are similar to those of the Rector of public — ice ct Vo institutions, barring the duties assumed by the Founder. 5.  How Are Institutions Held Accountable? Students Management parents Client power As greater autonomy is granted to institutions, governments community Faculty, Institutions managers must determine how to balance this autonomy with the re- Participation and/or exit sponsibility of the State to offer quality education and ensure efficient use of public resources. In other words, how will Schooling they balance autonomy with the need to keep institutions accountable? As direct control was abandoned, governments Source: Putting Higher Education to Work, authors’ elaboration based on developed complex accountability mechanisms to supervise World Bank 2013. 6 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea Table 2: Models of Financial Control on the state of the relationships between the relevant actors, and the involvement of students and communities. Box 1 dis- Topic Centralized Control Full Control cusses how to reap the full benefits of autonomy. Annual Budgets Agreed in detail by Agreed by the Board MOE or the funding (but possibly reported to body MOE or the buffer body) 6.  How Is Quality Assured? Expenditure “Line item control” Total freedom to allocate Quality is controlled through several stages. They are: (i) so that institutions and spend as required authorization—first, approval allowing an institution to op- cannot switch within the overall erate; (ii) accreditation—approval granted once the institu- expenditures between total grant or budget the agreed budget awarded by the MOE tion has established its system, that is, its programs, staff, and headings facilities; (iii) continuous quality assurance system requiring Under-spending Surrender of all under- Freedom to carry institutions to be accredited at regular intervals; (iv) re-autho- at the end of an spent sums to MOE/ forward under-spending rization—if/when new programs are offered; and (v) periodic accounting period Ministry of Finance (and to absorb any over- review—to ensure that existing institution are up to standard. spending from future The Ministry recognized quality assurance and evaluation funds within limits) as a major impediment to strengthen institutional quality for External earnings Surrender to the Freedom to retain and both public and private institutions. To counter the weakness from non- Ministry of Finance spend freely all sums in accountability, the Government sought advice on setting governmental or MOE all external earned from non- sources earnings government sources up a quality assurance agency, the Agence Nationale d’Evalua- tion de l’Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche Scientifique Tuition fees for Fees cannot be Fee levels can be set domestic “local,” charged or, if they freely and the money (ANEESRS). A Decree has been prepared and submitted to the domestic “out are, have to be set at retained without Government for adoption. The Decree states that the mandate of state”, and a fixed rate and then affecting the budget of the ANEESRS is to evaluate teaching and research in both international surrendered to the allocation from the public and private institutions and examine how they stack up students Ministry of Finance government. against pre-determined standards. The Decree also specifies the Source: Taken from Fielden (2008). powers, duties, membership, and organization of the ANEESRS. Although the agency would be under the supervision of the Min- istry of Higher Education, but independent and autonomous. truly autonomous and accountable, and the prescriptions of The Decree also specifies the quality assurance process to decree 62 rigorously applied, grants must be provided with as follow before a private institution can operate. To establish a few restrictions as possible. The Division of Financial Affairs private institution, the founders must obtain authorization from should be under the sole authority of the Rector or Director the minister. The institution’s board must present a file contain- General without being accountabile to the Ministry of Fi- ing the institutional plan, adequate financial resources, informa- nance. The role of the accountant should be limited to ensur- tion on senior members, and pedagogic records. The ANEESRS ing proper execution of financial decisions. evaluates the file, then issues its recommendation regarding Autonomy has the potential to improve higher education operational status. This is then forwarded to the Minister, who and skills development, but exploiting this potential depends will authorize or deny the formal opening of the institution. Box 1: Translating Autonomy into more Socially Efficient Outcomes Translating autonomy into more socially efficient outcomes The main argument for higher institutions’ autonomy lies in the potential gains that flexibility in substantive and procedural issues provides in responding to changes in the labor market, in addressing differentiated local needs and in allowing qual- ity-enhancing choices. None of these benefits will really materialize, however, if the client power and internal management relationships do not work. While a university may know the needs of its local community better than the central government, those needs are most likely better addressed if the community can directly express its preferences by, for example, participat- ing in the university board. More importantly, involving members of the local community may be necessary to ensure that the university uses its knowledge to satisfy local needs. Similar reasoning holds for student involvement; and equally important are the possibilities for students to express prefer- ences by voting with their feet (the “exit” option). Beyond client power, internal control and quality measures (illustrating the internal management relationship) are also essential to support quality enhancing choices in higher education institutions. Such measures typically include self-admin- istered quality assurance (including self-evaluations), tenure systems, and other performance incentives for faculty, as well as university boards that can hold the university management accountable for its decisions. Institutional autonomy without a culture of internal quality—including holding staff and management accountable for performance—runs the risk of simply not producing the desired outcomes. Source: Putting Higher Education to Work. World Bank (2013). Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 7 Box 2: African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education (CAMES) African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education (CAMES) The African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education, also known as the Conseil Africain et Malgache pour l’Enseignement Superieur (CAMES) came into being in 1968 in Niger. The organization was established by the Heads of States of the Orga- nization Commune Africaine et Malgache to co-ordinate, harmonize and foster co-operation in African countries in higher education and research. The organization which has 19 member states: Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central Af- rican Republic, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea-Conakry, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Senegal, Chad and Togo, manages accreditation, quality assurance, recognition of diplomas and management of teaching and research for its member states. In 2006, CAMES, through a resolution elected to reorganize the university structure and syllabi so as to implement the LMD. It is believed to provide a path towards aligning higher education systems in Anglophone and Francophone Africa. CAMES has created a database or register of qualified personnel in higher education and research. This register is a step onto ensuring that qualifications of personnel and standard are recognized across the different nations and that there can be an open space for mobility of both professionals and students. For a personnel to enter into the register, committees of specialists will examine applicants in all fields of study and across grades (lecturer, professor etc.). The criteria include the method of recruitment, the professional qualifications of the personnel as well as quality of teaching measures. Source: African Union (2007). ANEESRS will continue to evaluate the institution in the first and Promotion (Commission Nationale de Recrutement et few years of operation; positive evaluations will determine the de Promotion (CNRP) is responsible for the recruitment of conclusive status of the institution. ANEESRS ensures that pub- teachers and researchers, both of whom are considered civ- lic and private universities are held to the same standard. il servants. The CNRP’s short list of successful candidates is The low quality of higher education in Guinea is com- forwarded to the Ministry of Civil Service, which then hires pounded by the severe lack of qualified teachers. Many po- these persons and assigns them to institutions. In this system, sitions are occupied by ‘homologues’ who are young graduates the hiring of teachers does not directly take into account the whose only qualification is a license or a master’s degree. The needs of the institutions. As civil servants, permanent teachers lack of qualified teachers has led Guinea to adopt promotion and researchers receive attractive pensions but low salaries. standards that are not equivalent to those used by the Conseil The civil service makes it easier for them to change positions, africain et malgache pour l’enseignement supérieur (CAMES) in which hampers institutional stability. Furthermore, since the the other Francophone countries of Sub Saharan Africa, there- institution is not the paymaster, the Rectors and the Directors fore limiting mobility of teachers and students and recognition General encounter difficulties in managing their teaching and of its diplomas. Recently Guinea has indicated its intention to research staff. For instance, faculty members are not required adopt the CAMES standards within two years (Box 2). to report and explain leaves of absence. These challenges cast doubt on the motivation and commit- 7.  How Is Research in the Higher Education ment of faculty members. The main stakeholders (Ministry of Higher Education, Ministry of Civil Service and universities) Sector Managed? should conduct an in-depth review of the status of teachers The management and distribution of funds for research de- and researchers against the backdrop of the new autonomous pends on the national funding priorities and systems in place. powers granted to institutions by the Decrees discussed above. Some countries prefer to allocate funds though the ministry The recruitment issue is compounded by a severe lack of or buffer bodies; other countries allow universities to receive qualified teachers in Guinea. Many positions are occupied multiple research fund sources, each with its own set of rules, by ‘homologues’, young graduates whose only qualification is criteria, and expectations. a license or a master’s degree. The lack of qualified teachers has In Guinea, there is currently no financing available for re- led Guinea to adopt promotion standards that do not match search, and the first reform to be initiated in the coming years those of the Conseil africain et malgache pour l’enseignement will be the reform establishing a competitive fund. The fund supérieur (CAMES) in the other Francophone countries of aims to encourage innovation and greater relevance in aca- Sub Saharan Africa, therefore limiting faculty and student demic programs by awarding grants on a competitive basis mobility and recognition of Guinean diplomas. Guinea re- to programs developed through academic institution-private cently indicated its intention to adopt the CAMES standards sector partnerships. From equipment and materials to curric- within two years. ulum development, the fund will finance any program jointly In the future, high priority should be placed on the devel- developed by educators and employers that demonstrates po- opment of competencies and motivation of teachers and re- tential to narrow the education-employment skills mismatch. searchers. Recruitment of qualified teachers, adoption of a Status of teachers and researchers: One of the biggest barriers professional development plan for existing faculty, and im- to improvements in the Guinean higher education system is proved living and working conditions are among the actions the inability of institutions to select their own teachers and re- necessary to raise competency and motivation levels of faculty searchers. Currently, the National Commission of Recruitment to the level of that of other CAMES members. 8 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea Best Practices: International 3.  Governance Reform Successes in Selected Box 3:  Countries Examples (What Can We Learn?) Governance Reform successes in selected countries Governance in higher education has long been trending from 1. POSTECH in the Republic of Korea, a private univer- a state-controlled system towards greater autonomy. African sity, enjoys high levels of managerial autonomy. One of education systems are far from the forefront, given this inter- its successes has been the collaboration with the elec- national trend in governance reforms (Saint, Lao and Materu, tronics and mechanics sector to ensure that the univer- 2009), but there have been interesting developments in Africa sity is meeting the needs of the industry (Rhee, 2011). and elsewhere from which lessons can be learned. On the path 2. The National University of Singapore has improved its towards a system under institutional control, buffer bodies have performance on university rankings after switching to emerged to manage finances and perform other sector tasks. the model of higher institutional autonomy. New funding models are emerging that provide incentives for 3. The Hong Kong University of Technology reached the institutions to raise income from non-governmental models top echelons of university ranking within a decade of while easing the restrictions on state money. Institutions have its founding. Its success is attributed to the freedom the been encouraged to collaborate with organizations to kick start university is allowed in recruitment and private sector creativity, provide research benefits, and generate other sources partnerships (Postiglione, 2011). of income. Since the concept of institutional autonomy is close- 4. Curriculum reform in the Prince of Songkla University ly tied to accountability, while governments have promoted in Thailand has been encouraged by the institutional re- greater institutional autonomy, they have demanded better ac- forms in this country. As a result, the university which countability and quality assurance mechanisms. External agen- is located in a region where the labor market needs are cies have been created to evaluate institutions, and there has related to the rubber industry, has created new pro- been a focus on establishing reporting and monitoring systems. grams in chemical engineering that will ensure there is Indicators on performance and operational data are collected no mismatch between graduates and the labor market and evaluation results are presented. An important trait is the needs (Doner et al, 2013). treatment of human capital. Since autonomous institutions have the power to hire, promote, and fire their teaching and research staff, qualification requirements and evaluations are Ghana – The governance reforms in Ghana resulted from necessary to ensure the high quality of research and teaching. the reforms initiated internally in the University of Ghana in Finally, reforms have led to the creation of governing bodies, 2007; these reforms replaced the previously existing Act of such as university boards, which have taken over the deci- Parliament and statutes governing public universities. New sion-making power from governments. Some examples of the institutional evaluation procedures, curricula redesign, a new abovementioned trends are outlined in Box 3. credit system, cost-recovery measures, a new funding formu- Moving towards a fully autonomous system should be la, the creation of new governing bodies and buffer institu- an incremental process. Given the differences in economic tions, the transition of the staff from civil service to university conditions and development of the higher education system, employees were some of the reforms undertaken. it is most beneficial to examine countries on a similar scale Kenya – The initial public sector reforms of the 1990s were (see Box 4 for a description of the Vietnam reform process), improved upon by the results-based management (RBM) ap- particularly in the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region. The evo- proach to governance adopted by the government. The key- lution of governance (or specific reforms) in higher education stone of RBM was the performance contract (PC) between the systems in the following countries: Ethiopia, Nigeria, Ghana, government and public institutions. The contract focused on and Kenya will be examined.6 The successful reforms among institution performance and outcomes. In return, the institu- the ones adopted are highlighted at the end of this section to tions retained managerial and operational autonomy. provide examples of best practices from SSA countries. Nigeria – Since the 1998 Magna Charta Universitatum, pub- Ethiopia – The Higher Education Proclamation of 2003 lic universities must meet accountability standards; however, (No. 351/2003) grants every higher education institution they are autonomous and free from governmental overregu- autonomy and accountability. Autonomy is defined in terms lation. With autonomy, universities are able to appoint offi- of personnel, finances, internal organization, and links with cers, have some say in staff employment conditions (including national and international organizations; cost sharing, enroll- introducing evaluations by the institution), and have control ment budgeting and block grant were introduced. The gover- over student admissions, academic curricula, and finances. In nance structure includes an independent board of governors, 2003, the law was further amended to improve autonomy for a senate comprising academic deans and directors along with the university system by allowing them the freedom to govern a few elected academics, an academic commission and depart- and regulate themselves without any government interference; ment assemblies. There was also a shift from a collegial to a in essence, the amendment took away the government’s ability managerial model, the creation of buffer organizations and an to appoint and remove the Vice Chancellor. outcome-based strategic plan. Finally, the reform ushered in Senegal – In 2010, Senegal started a major reorganization the era of private institutions of higher learning in Ethiopia. of its higher education system. The National Directorate of Higher Education (Direction Générale de l’Enseignement Supérieur) was restructured and reinforced. Its planning ca- 6 Adapted from Varghese (2013) pacity has improved, with the Directorate now able to manage Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 9 Box 4: Higher Education and Governance Reform: The Case of Vietnam Higher Education and Governance Reform: The Case of Vietnam The higher education system in Vietnam is highly centralized with a history of decision making at the central level. The Minis- try of Education and Training is the dominant force, but there are a few other ministries involved. There is a struggle to balance the desire of the central government to provide institutions with more powers while at the same time retain the socialistic trait of higher education. Higher education, always a significant part of Vietnam, has in recent years contributed to the growth in economic development. Reforms were introduced to bridge the gap between Vietnam and further advanced Western nations; the reforms were also necessary to keep pace with the burgeoning demand. In 2004, the department of testing and educational quality evaluation was established within the MoET. Reforms were made in every aspect of higher education such as training structure, staff recruitment, financial management, research and management. The government issued ‘curriculum frames’ that are in effect guidelines giving institutions power to create their own curricula. Reforms in quality assurance have involved setting up centers for quality assurance, accreditation and testing. Teaching and training materials have been standardized across institutions in the country. These reforms have resulted in a system that removes bureaucratic red tape and allows for more equity, financial sustainability, a focus on research etc. The law also eliminates ‘line-ministry control’, which supports the devolution of control from the state to the higher education institutions (Dao and Hayden, 2010, p.133). Additional reforms allowed for collaboration with international organizations and individuals to further improve the research and teaching stan- dards. Staff recruitment received a significant boost from the reform process. The following results were noted from a survey of 10 decision makers at the MoET:a • Organizational structures were simplified at the national level after governance reforms and their efficiency improved. The focus of the ministry is now directed towards strategic planning, educational law and policy setting and management of quality. • Governance reforms also had a positive impact on the decision making process at the national level. Due to the simplification of the structure as well as clarification of roles, it is now faster to make decisions at the national level. Given the devolution of powers, efficiency was noticed in the decision making process as the government’s role was narrowed down. • For financial planning and control to succeed at the institutional level, the capacity of the institutions in these fields must be increased. • Increased autonomy for higher education institutions had a positive impact on monitoring and evaluation. Institutions were found to be more responsive to the assessment process. • In terms of academic management at the institutional level, more than half of the respondents agreed that the institutions took a more active role in management. However, this additional responsibility called for qualified decision makers and professionnalss at the institutional level. • The financial management was altered by the reforms. It was noted that decision makers tend to be more creative and flexible with financial management. However, the reforms benefited more the established institutions as newer institutions had less capacity to manage the financial affairs and need more guidelines. • Human resources was positively impacted by the reforms. This is because institutions were now free to use their own judgment on how best to use their human capital. In particular, the decision of employee appointment in addition to the quality of recruitment is now in the hands of the institution. The central government monitors the institutions when it comes to human resources, but the decision is at the institution level. Source: Thinh. a The response rate for the survey is 70 percent. performance-based contracts (PBC). A quality assurance quality, linkage with the labor market, and university gover- agency was created and is now operational. It has developed nance. The universities have set targets for improvement and procedures and standards on par with international practic- are free to use the methods they believe to be most effective es. Public universities will soon have a Board, with half of its in reaching these goals. New means of communication have members coming from civil society; its main responsibilities been developed to share information with the community on will be to approve the strategic plan of the institution, make progress made in the implementation of the PBC. sure it is followed, approve its budget and assure follow-up. Those reforms were developed with the active participation of Since universities have more autonomy in Senegal, a PBC can rectors, professors, and representatives of the Ministry. Teacher’s be prepared and signed with each of the five existing universi- Union and student representatives were also regularly consult- ties. The Ministry has indicated five priorities for improvement ed. One of the most interesting features of the reform was the for the PBC: internal efficiency, new technologies, education establishment of the program SAMA PC, which aims to provide 10 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea each student with a computer. After one year of operation, more and success. Similar conclusions can be drawn from studies in than half of undergraduate students have their own computer, Asia (Varghese and Martin, 2013) and Francophone countries and the majority of teachers use ICT in their courses. Similar (Martin, 2013). See Box 4 for a case study of Vietnam. progress has been made in other aspects of the PBC. 1. Management processes: Addis Ababa University (AAU) in- Good Practices in the Middle East and North troduced a Business Process Reengineering for university affairs and aimed to optimize service delivery and core pro- Africa (MENA) Region cesses. In Nigeria, democratic processes were established to The World Bank/Center for Mediterranean Integration MENA select heads of departments and deans. A committee system Regional Program on Higher Education aims at addressing key that would introduce due process and procedures was set challenges faced by higher education systems and at enhancing up, and most importantly, selection procedures for staff hir- governance and accountability of universities through capaci- ing were codified, along with rules for promotion. Kenya ty-building measures grounded in an evidence-based and in- saw more transparent, accountable, participative, and inclu- clusive approach (http://cmimarseille.org/highereducation/). sive management processes. Through the program, a University Governance Screening 2. Academic programs: AAU established multidisciplinary Card has been developed that assesses the extent to which uni- centers, diversified programs of study, and improvements in versities in the MENA region are following governance prac- science, technology, engineering and mathematic subjects, tices aligned with their institutional goals and international and introduced curriculum redesign. In Nairobi University, trends, whilst monitoring their progress over time in terms of performance contracts led to more academic programs with mission, managerial orientation, autonomy, responsibility and increased student enrollment, and increase in research out- accountability towards the society (corollary of autonomy) puts. Innovative curricula with courses created in response and participation to all system stakeholders, namely students, to needs were the result in Nigeria. Ghana redesigned its administrative staff and the private sector. This benchmark- system, introduced a four-year structure, new grading sys- ing tool has proven useful not only for MENA institutions, tem, review committees for curriculums and redid require- but is also in demand by other regions, therein offering the ments (PhD) for staff selection. potential to be up-scaled and replicated trans-regionally. At present, 100 universities from across seven countries (Algeria, 3. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E): A quarterly monitor- Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia and the West Bank ing system was established in Kenya along with the publi- and Gaza) have participated in the benchmarking exercise. cations of results. Critics pointed out that funds were not Innovative funds to support Academic Quality and Insti- always available, and while the University of Nairobi was tutional Performance: the Tunisian experience. A competi- always diligent with M&E, the same could not be said for tive fund was set up in 2006 with the support of the Bank to the entire system. In Nigeria, staff accountability/evaluation improve the academic quality and institutional performance procedures were changed, and a carrot and stick system for of higher education institutions. The competitive fund is a teaching was created. mechanism to transfer funds in the form of block grants to 4. Financial Management: In Nigeria, diversified income institutions to supplement their recurrent budget. These funds sources came into being—competitive research funding, are meant to encourage innovative experiences to improve the special project fund, tuition fees, income generating ven- quality of teaching and learning while strengthening manage- tures, etc. Universities directly contracted with international ment capacity of beneficiary institutions. It also supports pro- organizations. In Ghana, public universities were required grams with high employability potential. to raise 30 percent of their budgets. An internal evaluation of the fund shows faster acquisition 5. Overall improvement in the Higher Education System: In of student learning and increased availability of access learning Kenya, research productivity, autonomy, and efficiency in- materials; an increased sensitization of teachers to student needs creased. In Ghana, staff gained responsibility, decision mak- and the labor market while making the curriculum more rele- ing improved at the faculty level, and there was more clarity vant; improved sensitization of institutions to government pri- in terms of institutional direction. orities amongst others in terms of employability of young grad- uates and equity; improved accountability in public resource utilization through contractual arrangements; emergence of les- sons learnt to pilot results based budget allocation which could 4. Policy Recommendations be disseminated to other sectors. An external evaluation will pro- vide further in- depth analysis related to relevance of programs, This note summarized the current state of higher education efficiency, and its impact and sustainability of interventions. governance in Guinea, and examined undergoing reforms in Guinea and recently adopted reforms in other countries. A new policy for higher education: The recently adopted and Which Reforms Worked? pending Decrees will change the higher education landscape In all of the cases outlined above, new governance structures in Guinea. In order to ensure a successful transition towards a were created as a result of the reform process. In most cases, re- more decentralized system of higher education, it is essential forms helped governance and operational efficiency. There was to carefully plan for the changes. The draft national policy for less reliance on state funds. However, there is less agreement higher education (2013–2020) acknowledges this need. The on the quality of services provided, and on equity in access nine areas marked as priorities are: Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 11 1. Improvement of higher education and research governance; The following additional policy recommendations to en- 2. Development of teacher, researcher, and technical staff sure the success of reforms in Guinea are listed below, and de- competencies and motivation; scribed in more detail in Annex 2. 3. Improvement of access to higher education, as well as infra- 1. The government and the higher education institutions structure and working environment; need support to facilitate their transition towards a decen- 4. Promotion of short programs with an emphasis on relevance; tralized and more autonomous higher education system. 5. Improvement of teaching and learning quality; 2. Relax the stringent conditions attached to the budget and 6. Promotion of private higher education, public/private part- allow more flexibility in its use. nerships, inter-university co-operation and co-operation 3. Higher education institutions should be given control with the Guinean diaspora; over the recruitment, promotion, and management of 7. Development of scientific research and innovation; their teaching and research staff. 8. Promotion of ICT; 4. Autonomy with adequate accountability and quality as- surance mechanisms. 9. Efficient management of financial resources. The specific strategies and actions suggested for each axis may be found in Annex 1. 12 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea References African Union. 2007. Harmonization of higher education Rhee, B.S. 2011. A World-Class Research University on programs in Africa: Opportunities and challenges. A the Periphery: The Pohang University of Science and report of the third ordinary session of the conference Technology, The Republic of Korea. In P. Altbach and J. of ministers of education of the African Union. Salmi (Eds.). The Road to Academic Excellence: Emerging Johannesburg, South Africa. Research Universities in developing and transition Dao, V.K., and M. Hayden. 2010. Reforming the countries. Washington, DC: World Bank. governance of higher education in Vietnam. In Saint, W., C. Lao and P. Materu. 2009. Legal Frameworks for Harman, Grant, Hayden and Nghi (Eds.). Reforming Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Quest for Higher Education in Vietnam – Challenges and Institutional Responsiveness. Washington, DC: World Priorities. Series: Higher Education Dynamic, Volume Bank. 29. Dortrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Thinh, D.H. “Governance Reform in Higher Education of Springer, pp. 129–42. Vietnam.” Vietnam: SEAMO. Doner, R.F., P. Intarakumnerd, and B.K. Ritchie. 2013. Varghese, N.V. 2006. Growth and expansion of private higher “University-Industry Linkages in Thailand: Sources of education in Africa (ed.). Paris: IIEP/UNESCO. Weakness in Economic Upgrading,” Science, Technology . 2013. “Governance Reforms in African Higher & Society, 18(2): 213–29. Education: The Missing Link”, Chronicle of African Estermann, T., and T. Nokkola. 2009. University Autonomy Higher Education, (Centre for International Higher in Europe I. Exploratory Study. Brussels: European Education, Boston, Boston College), No. 3. March 2013. University Association. . 2013. Governance Reform in Higher Education: Fielden, J. 2008. Global Trends in University Governance. A Study of Selected Countries in Africa.” Paris: IIEP/ Washington, DC: The World Bank. UNESCO. Martin, M. 2013. La gouvernance dans l’enseignement World Bank, 2013. Putting Higher Education to Work: Skills superieur: Quelles politique avec quells effets? Paris: IIEP/ and Research for Growth in East Asia. Washington, DC: UNESCO. The World Bank. Postiglione, G.A. 2011. The Rise of Research Universities: . 2013. Country Partnership Strategy for Guinea. The Case of the Hong Kong University of Science and Washington, DC: World Bank. Technology. In P. Altbach and J. Salmi (Eds.). The Road . 2014. Doing Business Report. Washington, DC: to Academic Excellence: Emerging Research Universities World Bank. in developing and transition countries. Washington, DC: Varghese, N.V., and M. Martin. 2013. Governance reforms in World Bank. higher education: A study of institutional autonomy in Asian countries (forthcoming). Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 13 Annex I For each axis, a series of specific strategies and actions have • Stimulation of public/private partnerships by restructuring been suggested. The following aim to improve the system and and redefining the relationships between institutions, en- institutional governance more directly: terprises, and local government This is to be done by de- veloping projects to improve infrastructure, promoting gifts • Reinforcement of institutional autonomy by the establish- of equipment to promote pedagogy, and promoting studies, ment of governing boards and training of its members, in training, and research for local communities. conjunction with the creation of the National Evaluation Agency (ANEESRS); Specific strategies with regards to private education are: • Improvement of coordination of the different levels of edu- • Foster the expansion of a quality private education sector cation by the creation of a consulting body and by the adop- by improving the National Directorate of Higher Education tion of a Higher Education Act; capacity, making private institutions eligible for competitive • Creation of centers of excellence and thematic networks to Ministry funds, and connecting to the optical fiber. promote sharing of good practices and the development of research; To reinforce funding capacity, the following strategies are envisaged: • Adoption of adequate norms to ensure an adequate work- space and capacity to accommodate students, teachers, re- • Develop criteria and procedures for sustainably allocating searchers, and support staff; student scholarships. This is to be done by adopting appro- • Reinforcement of the management and financial capacity of the priate criteria and procedures and creating a national schol- Ministry of Higher Education and the institutions by introduc- arship agency; ing training programs for authorities and staff. These programs • Ensure that a portion of the state grant to institutions is would train participants in the areas of leadership, communica- based on the results of their development, validation and tion, planning, management of human and financial resources, adoption of the institutional development plan, adoption of and the implementation of a higher education system; legislative texts allowing contracts between the institutions • Reinforcement of the information system of the Ministry and the government, and by the negotiation of performance and the institutions by the adoption and extension of an in- based contracts. tegrated, modern, efficient, and secure system; • Reinforce and diversify institutions’ revenue sources by • Promotion of excellence and equity by ensuring that schol- identifying new sources and by adopting a rules and oper- arships are allocated based on academic excellence while ational manual for the management of said resources; pro- also taking into account inequities related to gender, dis- mote the development of competitive funding for Higher ability, and income. Promote more women into decision Education and Research; and develop science and technolo- making positions. gy and academic innovation. 14 | Higher Education Governance in Guinea Annex II Additional policy recommendations: Giving institutions the right to choose their own staff will ensure that they hire the staff best suited to their mission. • The government and the higher education institutions This will also help to maintain stability. To make sure that need support to facilitate their transition towards a de- this new responsibility is performed with transparency centralized and more autonomous higher education sys- and effectiveness, guidelines and requirements should be tem. Without adequate support mechanisms, the proposed provided, and controls could be put in place during the reforms are likely to exist only on paper. The government transition period to avoid conflicts of interest in the re- needs support in relinquishing control while ensuring that cruitment of new teachers. A corollary to this recommen- standards are met. The higher education institutions need dation is that institutions improve the working conditions an efficient Board, a relevant institution council and effec- of staff. Increasing salaries will attract higher quality staff, tive committees in order to carry out the changes. These as will opportunities for growth in research and teaching. should go hand in hand with providing training and capac- CAMES standards should be used to ensure that newly re- ity-building to institutions in the areas of management, in- cruited or newly trained teachers meet its minimum stan- cluding fiduciary management. dards and are in line with the rest of the region. • Relax the stringent conditions attached to the budget and • Autonomy with adequate accountability and quality as- allow more flexibility in its use. In financial matters, au- surance mechanisms. While the Guinean government is tonomy means that universities have a say in the allocation releasing direct control over the institutions, accountabil- of their budgets (Estermann and Nokkala, 2009). If they do ity mechanisms must be put in place with follow-up pro- not, one cannot really speak of autonomy. While allowing cedures. An annual report must be presented by the Board for greater flexibility in the use of budgets, the Government to the Ministry. Accreditation at various phases of the life should encourage institutions to be proactive in increasing of an institution, public and private, will ensure compli- their share of own-source funds. They should also be en- ance with reform procedures and quality standards. Perfor- couraged to form partnerships with international organiza- mance-based contracts—contracts between the state and tions and industry, in order to foster research and to serve higher education institutions—can also keep institutions as a potential source of income. accountable. The contract is between the state and a higher • Higher education institutions should be given control education institution. To reward performance or the reali- over the recruitment, promotion, and management of zation of a development plan, a certain amount of funding their teaching and research staff. This note document- is added to the regular grant the institution receives from ed the consequences of centrally managing civil servants. the Government. Higher Education Governance in Guinea | 15