Report No. 3249b-IND Indonesia: Technical and Professional FIE CDIPy Manpower in Agriculture (In Two Volumes) Volume 1: Main Report August 20, 1981 Projects Department East Asia and Pacific Regional Office FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Fank authorization. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency Unit - Indonesian Rupiah US$1.00 = Rp 625 Rp 1.00 = US$0.0016 GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS /1 AAETE - Agency for Agricultural Education, Training and Extension AARD - Agency for Agricultural Research and Development AAUCS - Australian-Asian Universities Cooperation Scheme ADB - Asian Development Bank ADC - Agricultural Development Council BAKN - Badan Administratif Kepegawaian Negara - National Personnel Administration BAPPENAS - Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional - National Development Planning Board BIMAS - Bimbingan Masal Swa Sembada Bahan Makanan - Mass Guidance for Self-Sufficiency in Foodstuffs BP3K - Badan Penelitian dan Pengambangan Pendidikan dan Kebudayan - Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development CAS - Consortium for Agricultural Sciences CHE - Consortium for Higher Education DGHE - Directorate General of Higher Education DTVE - Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education DIPLOMA (SO) - Two to Three Year University Graduate FAO/CP - Food and Agriculture Organization/Cooperative Program GOI - Government of Indonesia IIE - Institute for International Education IKIP - Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan - Teacher Training Institution Insinjur - Engineer KIP - Konsorsium Ilmu Ilmu Pertanian - Consortium for Agricultural Sciences KKN - Kuliah Kerja Nyata (learning through real work) - a national study-service scheme LAN - Lembaga Administrasi Negara - National Institute of Administration MOA - Ministry of Agriculture MOE - Ministry of Education and Culture MPK - Memo Program Koordinatif - Coordinative Program Mlemo MUCIA - Midwest Universities Consortium for International Activities /1 Acronyms for the universities with agricultural faculties can be found in Table 6 of Annex 1. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY -2 - NATI - National Agricultural Training Institute Pasca Sarjana (S2) - Post Sarjana (equivalent to MSc degree) Pembina - Feeder PPL - Penyuluh Pertanian Lapangan - Extension Field Worker PPM - Penyuluh Pertanian Madia - Field Extension Supervisor PPS - Penyuluh Pertanian Specialis - Extension Subject Matter Specialist Repelita - Government Five Year Development Plan: Repelita I covered 1968/69 to 1973/74; Repelita II covered 1974/75 to 1978/79 and Repelita III covers 1979/80 to 1983/84 Sarjana Muda - Junior scholar - Three to four year university graduate (being phased out) Sarjana (SI) - Scholar - Four year university graduate SEARCA - South East Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Skripsi - Written work/thesis SMA - Sekolah Menengah Atas-General Senior Secondary School (Grades 10-12) SMTP - Sekolah Menengah Technologi Pertanian - Agricultural Technology School (upper secondary level school - MOE) SPMA - Sekolah Pertanian Menengah Atas-Agricultural High School SPP - Sekolah Pembangunan Pertanian-Agricultural Development School (upper secondary level school - MOA) STM - Sekolah Teknik Menengah - Technical High School USAID - United States Agency for International Development FISCAL YEAR April 1 - March 31 This document hus a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. INDONESIA TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER IN AGRICULTURE Table of Contents - Main Report (Volume I) Page No. SUMMARY . . . .......................... (i) Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Structure of Agricultural Education and Training. . . . (ii) Education Policy ............. . (iii) Major Issues in Higher Agricultural Education . . . . . . . (iv) Supply and Demand/Requirements for Manpower . . . . . . . . (iv) In-service and Overseas Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . .(v) Major Recommendations ....... .......... (v) 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Background .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Objectives of the Study ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 Structure of Report and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Mission Work .... . . . . . .. 4 2. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION - STRUCTURE, DIMENSIONS AND POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Structure of Agricultural Education . . . . . . . . . . 5 Secondary Education (Vocational Schools) . . . . . . . . 5 Higher Education (Universities and Academies) . . . . . . 6 The Dimensions of the Agricultural Education System . . . . 7 Secondary Education (Vocational Schools). . . . . . . . . 7 Higher Education (Universities and Academies) . . . . . . 7 Agricultural Education Policy and Management . . . . . . . 10 Secondary Education (Vocational Schools). . . . . . . . . 10 Higher Education (Universities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences. . . . . . . . . . 13 Financial Support for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Management of Agricultural and Related Faculties . . . . . 15 3. MAJOR ISSUES IN UNIVERSITY LEVEL AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION . . . 16 Issues Affecting the Output of Graduates . . . . . . . . . 16 Enrollment Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Productivity of the Education System . . . . . . . . . . 17 Financial Support for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Issues Affecting the Quality of Graduates . . . . . . . . . 19 Quality of Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Quality of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Curriculum.. ..... . . 25 Practical Training ................... 27 -2- Page No. Housing Facilities . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . 28 Libraries, Library Services and Teaching Materials . . . . 28 Research ...... . 30 English Language Capabilities of Students ..31 4. THE FUTURE SUPPLY AND DEMAND/REQUIREMENTS FOR MANPOWER . . . . 33 Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Technical Manpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Professional Manpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Demand/Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Current Stock of Manpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Future Demand/Requirements for Manpower . . . . . . . . . . 38 Extrapolation of Historical Trends (Effective Demand) . . 38 Stated Requirements .... . . . . . ...... . . . . 40 Theoretical Requirements ... . . . . ...... . . . 40 The Quality of Manpower Demand/Requirements . . . . . . . . 42 Managerial Manpower ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Utilization of Manpower .................. . 44 Comparison Between Supply and Demand/Requirements ... . . . 44 Numerical Gap . . ...... . . 44 Implications for the Type of Manpower Required. 46 Regional Distribution of Additional Manpower Requirements . 47 5. IN-SERVICE AND OVERSEAS TRAINING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 In-service Training ........ ... .. ... .. .. . 48 Overseas Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Mechanisms for Arranging Overseas Education and Training . 49 The Sister University ........... . 50 The Foundation Approach .......... . 50 The University Consortium .......... . 51 Subcontracted Technical Assistance Loans. . . . . . . . . 51 Clearing House and Advisory Service . . . . . . . . . . . 52 The Type of Mechanism Indicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Foreign Language Fluency ..... ......... .. . 53 Selection Procedures ...... ........... . . 53 Other Factors Constraining Overseas Education . . . . . . . 53 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMM1ENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Management and Administration of the Agricultural Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS) ... . . 54 Identification and Management of Overseas Education and Training Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Language Training .... . . . ..... . . . . . . . . 55 Communication Between Employer Groups and the Agricultural Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 -3- Page No. Data on Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Capacity of the Education and Training System . . . . . . . 56 Technician-level Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 In-service Training ... . . . . . . . ... ..... . . . 56 Higher Agricultural Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The Quality of the Education and Training System. . . . . . 57 Productivity of Education System. . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Composition of Curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Separation Between Faculties of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry o . . . . ....... .. . . . . . 57 Quality of Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Libraries and Teaching Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Staff and Student Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Staff Salaries and Other Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Research Activities ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 59 Overseas Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Employment Policies of Government and the Private Sector . 59 List of Tables in Main Report 2.1 Distribution of Enrollments and Sarjana Degrees in Public Higher Agricultural Education by Region and Province (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2 Enrollments in Agricultural Sciences and Biology by Major Discipline, 1973-78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1 Graduating Ratios of Indonesian Agricultural Faculties by Major Discipline (1974-78) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.2 Academic Qualifications of Teaching Staff in Agricultural Science Faculties by Province (1980). . . . . 24 4.1 Projected Annual Supply of Technical Manpower (1983/84 and 1988/89). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.2 Projected Annual Supply of Professional Manpower (Sarjana Graduates) from Agricultural Faculties (1983/84 and 1988/89) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.3 Current Stock of Technical and Professional Manpower by Major Employer Group and Qualification (1978/79). . . . 37 4.4 Projected Annual Effective Manpower Demand by Major Employer Group and Qualification (1983/84 and 1988/89) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.5 Projected Annual Stated Manpower Requirements by Major Employer Group and Qualification (1983/84 and 1988/89) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 -4- Page No. 4.6 Projected Annual Theoretical Manpower Requirements by Major Employer Group and Qualification (1983/84 and 1988/89) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.7 Summary of Projected Manpower Supply and Demand/ Requirements (1983/84 and 1988/89) . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Chart 1: Education Structure, 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 MAP (12696R3): Administration and Population ANNEXES - Volume II PART A: STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM 1. Organization, Policies and Planning in Agricultural Education 2. Definition of Educational Levels and Fields 3. Structure of Secondary Vocational Education in Agriculture PART B: OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER STOCKS, NEEDS AND SALARIES 4. Staff Levels in the Government and the Private Sector 5. Trends and Projected Technical and Professional Manpower Needs 6. Salaries and Other Payments to Government Employees PART C: TECHNICAL MANPOWER 7. Supply and Demand for Technical Level Manpower 8. In-service Training 9. Diploma Training PART D: PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER 10. The Projected Supply of University Graduates in Agriculture and Related Fields 11. Quality of UJniversity Level Agricultural Education 12. Overseas Education and Training 13. The Demand and Supply of Veterinarians, Animal Production, Specialists, and Animal Health Assistants PART E- BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL ASSISTANCE 14. Summary of Education and Training Projects/Programs Financed by Multilateral and Bilateral Donors -5.- SUPPLEMENTARY DOCUMENTS /1 1. Supply of Managerial and Technical Manpower in the Agricultural Sciences in Indonesia 2. Stocks and Future Demand for Agricultural Manpower 3. Training in Agricultural Economics in Indonesian Universities: Proposals for Reform 4. The Quality of Teaching and Research in Crop Agriculture and Forestry in Indonesian Universities 5. Supply/Demand for Technical and Managerial Manpower in Indonesian Agriculture - Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and Veterinary Medicine 6. Policy Paper on Higher Agricultural Education in Indonesia 7. Training for Indonesian Agriculture: The Need for People 8. Review of the Supply and Demand for Technical Manpower (Agricultural Engineering) in Agriculture in Indonesia 9. A Methodology of Estimating Agricultural Extension Personnel Required over a 15-year Period, 1975-1990 10. Some Analysis of Theoretical Demand for Technical and Professional Manpower in Agriculture /1 Available on request from the World Bank. I. SUMMARY Introduction 1. The Indonesian technical and professional education systems have made outstanding progress from very difficult circumstances which followed World War II. While technical training in agriculture started in the early 1900s, the first College of Agriculture was not established until 1940; however, due to the hostilities in the Pacific, it was forced to close and total enrollment was only 53 students in 1948. In the following year a Faculty of Agriculture was established at Gadjah Mada University. The College of Agriculture at Bogor joined the University of Indonesia as the Faculty of Agriculture in 1950 and was established as the independent Institut Pertanian Bogor (Institute of Agriculture Bogor) in 1963. At present there are about 20,000 students enrolled in university agricultural science faculties and a similar number in secondary schools for agricultural technicians. Notwithstanding this progress, Indonesia faces an important challenge to provide trained manpower for the continued development of agriculture which remains one of the most important sectors of the economy. 2. Despite the high agricultural growth rate, currently around 3.5% p.a., rural incomes are low compared with urban incomes; agricultural exports have increased by less than 3% p.a. in recent years; and projections indicate a need for cereal (mainly rice and wheat) imports of between 3 and 4 million tons p.a. over the next 5 to 10 years. Many factors influence production growth in the agricultural sector. However, there is already evidence that a shortage of technical, professional and managerial manpower is an important constraint on this growth. In addition many future agri- cultural development programs are likely to fail, be substantially curtailed or delayed unless major improvements are achieved in the supply of technical and professional manpower. This report sketches the broad dimensions of the manpower situation, draws conclusions and makes recommendations on policies and strategies for the development of manpower to serve the agricultural sector. 3. For the purposes of this report technical manpower includes those with certificates or diplomas from Agricultural Development Schools, Agricultural Technology Schools, various academies and vocational schools or university qualifications (Diploma or Sarjana Muda) below the Sarjana (first degree) level. Professional manpower is made up of Sarjana graduates from universities as well as MSc and PhD graduates. Managerial manpower is more difficult to define since managerial positions are based on the type of job held rather than qualifications; the report is therefore less precise with respect to this group. 4. The major conclusions of the study (listed in detail in Chapter 6) are that, given Indonesia's agricultural development objectives: (a) a substantial numerical deficiency will continue at least for the next decade between the supply and demand for agricultural technicians; (b) supply and demand for professional-level agricultural manpower trained to the Sarjana level will be in balance over the next ten years; within this aggregate balance there may be deficiencies for specific disciplines; - ii - (c) the present significant deficit in PhD and MSc-level manpower will remain over the next decade; (d) the quality of technical and professional level agricultural education varies considerably, but is generally lower than in most countries in the region; and (e) policies and strategies can be, and in many cases have already been, evolved to rectify the problems of short supply and low quality of technical and professional agricultural manpower. 5. The Government of Indonesia (GOI) is well aware of these issues and is continually reviewing and evolving policies on education and training. Earlier education sector studies by the Bank and others have also reached similar conclusions on the quality of education and training. This report takes the discussion of quality issues further than previous Bank reports; however its main purpose is to make quantitative estimates of supply and demand for technical and professional manpower. The importance of the subject derives from the key role of the agricultural sector in the economy and the urgency of hastening the adoption of improved technology in agricul- ture, upgrading a variety of services, and raising the standard of management of development projects. The Structure of Agricultural Education and Training 6. Technician-level education in agriculture is provided mainly by Agricultural Technology Schools (SMTP) and Agricultural Development Schools (SPP). Most of these schools are managed and financed by the Government. Higher agricultural education is predominantly at government universities. An intermediate type of diploma level education is offered, again mainly at government institutions, namely, in universities, or schools managed by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). Enrollments in all these institutions have increased rapidly in recent years; for example a 24% increase in SPP enroll- ments to 14,400 between 1978 and 1979. Total enrollment in SMTPs and SPPs was close to 19,000 in 1979. The annual number of graduates from these schools typically account for about 30% of the total student body (total enrollment), which is commendable for a three-year program although it is inflated by additional entrants into the final year. Enrollment in agricul- tural faculties at universities increased by between 12% and 15% p.a. between 1973 and 1978; it now stands at about 20,000, but the annual number of grad- uates from agricultural faculties is typically only about 6% to 7% of total enrollments. This is low even for the traditional five to six year degree program and results from high dropout rates and the slow progress of students. 7. An analysis of GOI budgetary allocations to education is not a major objective of this review. However, recent data show that public expenditure on education is currently 2.4% of GNP which is lower than in neighboring countries in South East Asia. Education accounts for about 9% of total public expenditure; of this about 20% is devoted to higher - iii - education. No information is available on private financing of education. The allocations to most universities appear to be inadequate in relation to need, but in the absence of more specific data and analysis no recommenda- tions are made. Increased allocations to undergraduate scholarships at universities may be one important area of need which would have a positive impact on the output of students. Education Policy 8. Public policy on education, which is an important component of the Government's development program, has been undergoing an intensive review in recent years. In Repelita III the major objectives of the general education sector are: (a) improvement of the quality of education; (b) expansion of educational opportunities; (c) increase in the relevance of education to manpower needs; (d) preparation of the young generation to assume future responsibilities in development; and (e) increase in the efficiency and effectiveness of educational management. 9. Within this general framework the GOI has established the following higher education policy objectives: (a) improvement in performance and enrollment capacity; (b) formal establishment of the tripartite objectives of education, research and public service; (c) formal phasing of university development which takes account of resources and national objectives; (d) establishment of educational achievement into four degree levels, SO, Si, S2, S3 (equivalent to Diploma, Sarjana, MSc and PhD) and the award of these degrees following the successful completion of a specified number of credit units; and (e) a move away from the designation of a few universities as centers of excellence to regional groupings of universities, with one chosen as the focal point for leadership and coordination of regional educational programs. 10. The Bank endorses these policies although it is recognized that their complete implementation will be difficult and slow. The Ministry of Education and Culture (MOE) has the responsibility for the implementation of - iv - education policy, although the MOA has a heavy involvement in technical agri- cultural education through the Agency for Agricultural Education, Training and Extension (AAETE). The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS) [an advisory body to the Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE)] has the responsibility for designing guidelines for curricula and standards in higher agricultural education. While the AAETE will command additional resources as its role and staffing expands, the CAS should be strengthened as soon as possible to enable it to cope with its task. A strengthening of the CAS should not, however, reduce the independence of universities in respect of matters such as the details of curricula and fields of concentra- tion. Major Issues in Higher Agricultural Education 11. The major issues in higher agricultural education are low produc- tivity and the quality of education. However, the demand for higher education may lead to an increase in student numbers with a detrimental effect on quality. This trade-off is a major concern for education policy. 12. Productivity in higher agricultural education institutions is low. This is due to many factors including high dropout rates in early years, inadequate staff time given to students, poor teaching methods, and unpre- pared students. Factors which affect the quality of student education are low standards of instruction, inadequate curricula with much too high a degree of specialization, inadequate science training of students in second- ary schools, nonexistent or poor quality practical training, minimal housing facilities for staff and students, inefficient libraries and library servi- ces, poor foreign language ability of staff and students, and often narrow and low level research activities. Supply and Demand/Requirements for Manpower /1 13. The supply and demand/requirements for technical, professional and managerial manpower are impossible to state precisely, but in 1983/84 the shortfall of technician-level manpower is expected to be between 1,200 and 2,000 (20% to 30% of projected demand/requirements). In 1988/89 the shortfall could be between 4,000 and 6,000 (45% to 55% of projected demand/ requirements). As the productive efficiency of technician level training institutions is, in general, satisfactory, increases in output will have to be achieved mainly through expansion of facilities and higher enrollments. 14. For higher-level manpower, supply and demand/requirements projec- tions indicate that the current shortfalls at the PhD and MSc levels are expected to continue until at least 1988/89. Unless there is a substantial /1 Demand refers to effective demand (budget constrained). Requirements refers to needs if specific development objectives are to be met. Use of the word "manpower" does not imply that only males are covered. -v - and unexpected upward shift in demand, general expansion of capacity for Sarjana level education is not a high priority. There may, however, be justifications for the expansion of specific Sarjana programs in some areas. On the other hand, the quality of curricula, teaching and physical facilities at many universities need to be upgraded. In-service and Overseas Training 15. Strategies for improving the quality of technical and professional agricultural manpower should include intensification of in-service and overseas training. In-service training at all levels should be used to improve the quality of existing manpower particularly for career development and management. The Government's in-service training programs should increasingly emphasize these objectives. Overseas education and training is important in augmenting rapidly the supply of higher trained manpower for which there is an immediate and urgent demand. At present the mechanisms for planning, managing and implementing overseas training are inadequate, although there are obviously exceptions. The GOI needs to formulate policies on the extent of overseas training, and develop institutions which will be capable of coordinating the total effort. Major Recommendations 16. The major recommendations (see Chapter 6 for details) are summa- rized below. The report does not rank these recommendations; however it is suggested that actions to increase the number of technicians should have the highest priority. (a) Management and Administration of the Agricultural Education System. - The staffing and budget of the CAS should be increased, although overcentralization of its powers should be avoided. - An organization should be established within the MOE or the CAS to function as an advisory center for the identification and management of all overseas education and training. (b) The Education and Training System - Education standards at primary and secondary levels need to be upgraded to improve the quality of entrants to technical voca- tional and university-level education./I /1 Because this report does not cover primary and most secondary education, no specific recommendations are made on this matter. However, the issues are discussed in Annex 11. - vi - - The capacity for agricultural technician training needs to be increased to deliver at least an additional 1,200 p.a. well- trained graduates during 1983/84 and about 4,000 p.a. by 1988/89. - The quality of agricultural technicians currently employed in the Government needs to be raised by increasing and improving staff development through in-service training. - The quality of university agricultural science education at the Sarjana level should be improved; in particular more attention should be paid to increasing and improving the science content of curricula and to reducing the extent of specializa- tion. - Only small increases in Sarjana enrollment capacity for specific disciplines are needed over the next five years even with modest improvements in productivity. - The capacity of universities to teach and supervise PhD and MSc level programs in the agricultural sciences should be increased by expanding and improving facilities and staff development. - Overseas scholarships for students and staff should be increased to supplement local education capacity and to provide broader dimensions to professional growth. - The training and professional career development of teachers at all education levels should receive increased support. - Libraries and library services should be substantially improved. Funds should be provided for the preparation of Indonesian language texts and teaching materials. 1. INTRODUCTION Background 1.01 Although Indonesia's third Five-year Plan (Repelita III) projects a declining share of agriculture in total GDP, 27.2% in 1983/84 compared with 31.4% in 1979/80, it still represents the largest single sector in the economy. Achieving the projected growth rate of 3.5% for agriculture will depend heavily on private sector activity, but also requires considerable government investment and improved support programs. The rice industry is already achieving high levels of productivity by international standards and hence higher levels are becoming more difficult to attain. On the other hand, the productivity of nonrice and most tree crops is lagging compared with other countries in the region. The Government-s Repelita III target for agriculture includes a growth rate of between 5% and 7% p.a. for secondary food crops, and planting, replanting and rehabilitation of 700,000 ha of rubber. These are formidable targets, whether they will be achieved depends to an important extent on the availability of technical and professional manpower. 1.02 There is at present a substantial margin between the available production technology and the use of that technology by many farmers. This margin is in turn heavily influenced by the uncertain and restricted availability of the requisite inputs, services and extension advice, risk, inadequate incentives provided by current price levels and unreliable marketing arrangements. Poor irrigation, road development and maintenance are also major factors. Most of these constraints, generally most serious in the islands outside Java, are matters which call for improved policy analysis, management and administration of development and support programs. While Government is not, and probably should not, be responsible for overcoming all the production constraints which exist in agriculture, it is questionable whether the GOI or the private sector have adequate numbers of trained and experienced manpower to cope with the increasing demand for improvements in the management and administration of agricultural policies, programs and support services. 1.03 Evidence regarding the shortage of trained manpower in many sectors has become apparent on numerous occasions. For example, the appraisal report for the ninth Bank-assisted education project (Bank Report No. 3000a-IND, "Indonesia, Staff Appraisal Report, First Phase of a University Development Program") reports that about one third of the technical positions in the Department of Public Works had to be filled by underqualified technicians who needed an extensive period of on-the-job training. Vacancies in the MOA in 1978/79 were about 10% of total positions (see Annex 5, Table 8). Many bilat- eral and multilateral donors have devoted substantial funds to education and -2- training programs./l The latest Basic Economic Report for Indonesia /2 also referred to the scarcity of skilled managerial manpower in the civil service, including central and regional planning bodies. 1.04 The shortage of technical and managerial skills appears frequently in connection with Bank-assisted projects. Recent internal Bank reviews of project implementation concluded that institutional and managerial problems continued to be the most pervasive and serious and that these difficulties were likely to increase. Experienced project managers are hard to find and when, frequently on Bank insistence, appropriate staff are identified they have inevitably been taken from another task or project which is then likely to suffer unless a replacement can be provided. Where local staff with the required skills and experience are not available, the standard practice is to recruit expatriate consultants. This is useful but not a permanent solution, since such arrangements do not usually provide for satisfactory training of indigenous personnel./3 Furthermore, much of the local management cannot be provided by expatriate consultants. 1.05 The Government is well aware of these difficulties and is taking steps to overcome the manpower shortages. While considerable progress has been made in education and training, Repelita III refers to the need for upgrading manpower skills, vocational training and upgrading the business and administrative skills of managers in cooperatives. The Government also places major emphasis on strengthening the size and quality of the national education system. Objectives of the Study 1.06 The main objective of this report is to assess the future supply and demand/requirements /4 for technical and professional manpower in Indonesian agriculture, and come to conclusions on possible policies, stra- tegies and programs in agricultural education and training. It is recog- nized that these are ambitious objectives; even the assessment of future manpower supply and demand/requirements is surrounded with uncertainty. In addition these are sensitive issues for planners associated with education /1 Annex 14 to this report contains a summary of projects financed by multi- or bilateral donors for education and training in Indonesia. /2 Bank Report No. 2093-IND, "Indonesia - Growth Patterns, Social Progress and Development Prospects," February 20, 1979. /3 Local and foreign technical assistance, training and education represented about 12% of total costs of Indonesian agricultural and irrigation projects approved by the Bank in 1979 and 1980. /4 These terms are defined in para. 1.08. - 3 - and training. The objective is not to find fault with past or existing planning, rather to suggest some guides for the future. In terms of its coverage, the report attempts to assess the Government and private sectors separately. However the government sector is of overriding importance with respect to the demand for most technical and professional skills in agriculture. 1.07 On the supply side the study discusses the main secondary and tertiary agricultural education institutions in Indonesia. University-level curricula, training standards, quality of education and their relevance to development requirements of the agricultural sector are assessed. The report analyzes the relationship between student enrollment and graduates; comments on reasons for the low productivity of the higher education system; evaluates the extent and quality of government in-service training activities; and there is a brief reference to managerial manpower. 1.08 The analysis makes a distinction between the manpower "demand" (to fill vacancies in an organizational structure within a given or expected budget) and manpower "requirements" (to achieve a specific objective as defined by management or official development programs). The analysis of demand is based on trends in employment and the likely budgets available for staffing. The estimates of requirements are based on first a survey of staff managers and second a calculation of the staff required to execute the agricultural development programs in Repelita III. 1.09 This study is not a review of the education sector in Indonesia./1 Rather it is a limited review of agricultural education and training concen- trating mainly on the numerical and quality aspects of the supply and demand/ requirements for technical and professional manpower in agriculture. 1.10 For the purposes of this report technical manpower includes graduates from agricultural high schools, agricultural academies and those who have achieved the "Sarjana Muda" level (often referred to as "BSc") or have been granted a diploma at a university. Professional manpower includes those with a "Sarjana" level university degree, MSc or PhD. "Sarjana" is the Indonesian word for scholar. "Sarjana Muda" means junior scholar. /1 There is a range of reviews already available. For example, Bank Report No. 443a-IND, "Indonesia - Education Sector Survey Report, February 5, 1975; Bank Report No. 1837a-IND, "Indonesia - Higher Technical Education Subsector Survey, January 19, 1978. A Special internal staff report (No. 2364-IND) entitled "Indonesia - The Education Sector", November 1978; and British Council, "Indonesia - Education Profile, issued by the British Council, Jakarta, and Education Liaison Unit, London, March 1979. Beeby, C.E., "Assessment of Indonesian Education: A Guide to Planning", Wellington, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1979. -4- Structure of Report and Data 1.11 Chapter 2 reviews government policies for, and the structure of, the agricultural education system. This is followed by a discussion of the major issues facing university agricultural education, an assessment of the projected supply and demand/requirements for technical and professional man- power and the relationship between them. The strategies for staff develop- ment are then analyzed, finally with the conclusions and recommendations. Most of the data in the report are to 1978. Where possible more recent information was added before final printing. Mission Work 1.12 This report is based on the findings of a mission composed of Messrs. J.W. van Holst Pellekaan and S. Santos (Bank), D.W. Beal (FAO/CP), A.D. Tillman (Rockefeller Foundation), M.A. Smith (Ford Foundation), M.J.T. Norman, P. McCawley, and S. Miranda (consultants) which visited Indonesia in January/February 1980. Preparatory work was done by Kusmat Tanudimadja, W.P.J. Brandon and Chaidir Adenil (consultants). In addition, H. Thias and S. O'Humay (Bank) assisted with drafting specific annexes in the report and M. Zymelman (Bank) provided advice on a range of issues. A mission composed of J.W. van Holst Pellekaan (Bank), D.W. Beal (FAO/CP) and A. Strout (consultant) visited Indonesia during July 1980 to review a preliminary draft of this report. Mission members held discussions with officials in the National Planning Agency, the Ministries of Agriculture, and Education and Culture, Rectors and staff of agricultural faculties at a number of universities, and representatives of the private sector. All those contacted were generous with their time and advice, many also devoted considerable resources to preparing background data. The mission is grateful for the assistance which it received. In April 1981, an advanced draft of the report was discussed at a seminar in Indonesia arranged by the Consortium for Agricultural Sciences. This report takes account of suggestions and comments made at the seminar. - 5 - 2. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION - STRUCTURE, DIMENSIONS, AND POLICIES Background 2.01 Any analysis of Indonesia's current education system must acknowl- edge the major achievements made over the short time the system has evolved. Not until 1907 did the Dutch East Indies government make "its first broad-scale elementary education provisions for the local population. Agricultural education dated from that year. The first trade schools were set up in 1909."/1 In 1919 the number of pupils in native-language primary schools was 623,000 and in 1930 the number was 1,482,000 (2.4% of the estimated population of 61 million at that time, when children of primary school age must have accounted for at least 20%). It was not until 1920 that the first institution of higher education (Bandung Institute of Technology) was established. A College of Agriculture ("Landbouwkundige Faculteit") was established in Bogor in 1940. At the start of Repelita I, a time which followed a period of widespread unrest, the education system was characterized as "out of balance." The system was described by the plan as one in which "(i) the number of schools falls short of the demand for education; (ii) vocational training has been treated in a stepmotherly fashion; (iii) the preference in undergraduate studies still goes to humanities while Indonesia's development primarily requires skilled agriculturists and technologists."/2 Over the last decade education has made great strides; the continuing challenge is to build on the achievements of the past. The Structure of Agricultural Education (a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools) 2.02 Technician-level agricultural education is provided at the upper secondary level (grades 10-12, see Chart 1), which is given at two types of schools: the Agricultural Technology Schools called Sekolah Menengah Technology Pertanian (SMTP) and the Agricultural Development Schools known as Sekolah Pembangunan Pertanian (SPP). All of the SMTPs are financed by the Government and administered by the Directorate of Vocational Education of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOE); they concentrate mainly on agricultural and fishery technology and processing. The SPPs, which receive most attention in this review, provide a broad education in agricultural, animal and fisheries production. They are financed and administered in three different ways: /1 R. Murray Thomas, "A Chronicle of Indonesian Higher Education - The First Half Century 1920-1970," Eurasia Press, Singapore, 1973, p. 15. /2 "Development - Summary of Indonesia's First Five Year Development Plan, April 1, 1969 - March 31, 1974." Edited and published by Japenpa- Djakarta for the Department of Information, p. 58. - 6 - (a) 17 National SPPs are financed by the Government and administered by the Agency for Agricultural Education, Training and Extension (AAETE) of the MOA; (b) 53 Provincial and District SPPs are financed by provincial governments under the aegis of their agricultural offices; and (c) the remaining 25 are privately financed and administered, generally by foundations. Standards for all types of SPPs are set by AAETE. (b) Higher Education (Universities and Academies) 2.03 There are four main types of higher education institutions at present: (a) universities, which have a number of semi-autonomous faculties offering the Sarjana degree (including the intermediate Sarjana Muda) and, where authorized by the Government, higher degrees such as Masters and Doctorate degrees; some universities are also starting to develop diploma programs in a few fields including agriculture. (b) institutes, which comprise a number of faculties in a single professional field, and which also offer the full Sarjana and postgraduate degrees; (c) academies, granting the Sarjana Muda degree (or diploma qualifications) for technician-level courses; and (d) a variety of other institutions granting diploma-level qualifications. Higher agricultural education and training is provided at all these types of institutions, but overwhelmingly at the first two, which are predominantly government-financed. 2.04 At the university level the principal degree program has tradi- tionally been a five-year course (Sarjana), often referred to in Indonesia as equivalent to a Master's degree (see Annex 1, paras. 6 to 10 for details). There is an intermediate three-year qualification (Sarjana Muda, often referred to as "BSc") roughly corresponding to a western agricultural diploma. Recently the Government introduced a four-year Sarjana degree, which reflects a movement toward the Anglo-American model, broadly equivalent to a western Bachelor's degree. Diploma-level courses, which vary from two to three years in length, are offered at some universities and at a variety of public and private tertiary institutions (see Annex 9). 2.05 The Government of Indonesia (GOI) has begun a series of administra- tive reforms to promote greater comparability among courses, degrees/diplomas, and institutions (see Annex 1, para. 12, Annex 2 and para. 2.16 below). The basic rationalizing element will be a system of semester credits (e.g., the Sarjana degree will require 144-160 credits), backed by a more rigorous system of institutional classification/accreditation. These reforms have already been underway for some years, notably at the Institut Pertanian, Bogor (IPB) and were formalized by Ministerial Decree in 1979./l They reflect an increased awareness among the leaders of the education profession that many reforms are overdue. These and other policy issues are discussed in more detail below. The Dimensions of the Agricultural Education System (a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools) /2 2.06 There are 113 agricultural senior secondary schools in Indonesia. Eighteen are SMTPs, 95 are SPPs of which 17 are national, 53 are provincial and 25 are private. These schools are distributed among the major regions roughly according to population distribution. Of the 18 SMTPs, however, only five are known to follow an improved curriculum; these are the only schools which the MOE believes to have satisfactory training programs./3 Starting with the academic year of 1980/81, the 18 SMTPs will start to implement an improved curriculum which comprises mainly increasing the amount of practical work. The total enrollment of SMTPs in 1978 was 4,600. About half of the graduates in recent years have found employment with the Government. On the other hand the enrollment in SPPs for the same year was about 12,000. The SPPs are of major importance for vocational education in agriculture. They provide most of the technical staff for the MOA. Informa- tion on the distribution of enrollments between different disciplines at SPPs is incomplete, but Annex 3, Table 3 shows that most students are enrolled in crop husbandry. This suggests a general education in all aspects of crop agriculture; which is probably the most useful at this level. Table 4 in the same annex provides slightly different data, but confirms that enrollments are overwhelmingly in schools concentrating on crop husbandry. (b) Higher Education (Universities and Academies) 2.07 Higher agricultural education in government universities is available in 52 faculties distributed among 27 universities and institutes. /1 Ministerial Decree No. 0124/U/1979. /2 The coverage of vocational education institutions in agriculture in this report does not cover the junior level Rural Vocational Schools or SKK which are being developed to give young people in rural areas an opportunity for training as skilled workers to implement a technology one step higher than traditional technology. /3 Officially there are 23 SMTPs, but only 18 are being developed during Repelita III. - 8 - Geographically the distribution is: Sumatera - 10; Java - 21; Kalimantan - 6; Sulawesi - 7; Bali - 3 (see Annex 1, Table 6). The total enrollment was about 20,000 in 1978 (see Table 2.1). This distribution coincides approxi- mately with the distribution of population. The major degree programs are shown in Annex 1, Table 6. Three diploma programs in agriculture are offered at present, namely at the University of Hasanuddin for Agricultural Extension Workers since 1977 and at IPB for teachers at the SMTP since September 1979, with 105 (1978) and 95 (1979) students respectively, and the recently established diploma course in seed technology at IPB. Graduate programs leading to the MSc degree were initiated at IPB in 1976 and at the University of Padjadjaran (UNPAD) in Bandung in 1979. Graduate programs leading to Doktor or PhD qualifications are offered in all fields in agricultural sciences at IPB, UNPAD and Gadjah Mada (TJGM) as assigned by the Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE) since 1978 under the Government's policy of phased development./l 2.08 Private universities offering a higher agricultural education curriculum leading to Sarjana Muda or Sarjana degrees are relatively unim- portant in terms of total agricultural enrollments despite their important role in particular locations. In 1978 enrollments in the agricultural sciences in these universities was 2,400 from which there were 450 Sarjana Muda graduates. Private universities are usually established and controlled by a foundation, but some governmental support is given, for example instructional staff, finance etc. through the Directorate of Private Universities in the DGHE is provided. In some instances, the provincial government has academies under its control, e.g., Forestry Academy in Bandung and the Agricultural Academy in Tanjungsari, West Java. 2.09 Enrollments in agricultural faculties on Java account for about 60% of total enrollments, almost the same as Java's share of the total population (see Table 2.1). The distribution of enrollments between disciplines is detailed in Annex 4, Tables 2 and 3; however the summary in Table 2.2 below shows the overwhelming importance of agriculture (agronomy, soil science, tree crops and similar disciplines). While the distribution of total enrollments is similar to the distribution of population, the distribution between disciplines is skewed. For example, it is surprising that animal husbandry and veterinary medicine are of such importance (about 21% of total enrollments in 1978) compared with fisheries and forestry (6.2% and 6.3% respectively of total enrollments). By way of comparison the proportion of agricultural GDP from livestock in 1978 was 6%, compared with /1 This policy will be discussed in paragaphs 3.13 to 3.18. It appears, however, that at many universities MSc and PhD (or "Doktor" if still modelled on the former Dutch colonial system) programs are being offered prematurely before adequate staff are available to supervise such programs. - 9 - Table 2.1: DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENTS AND SARJANA DEGREES IN PUBLIC HIGHER AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BY REGION AND PROVINCE (1978) Sarjana de- Sarjana grees awarded degrees as proportion Enrollment awarded of enrollment Region/province No. x (No.) (%) Java W. Java 4,108 20.3 508 12.4 C. Java 1,878 9.3 38 2.0 Yogyakarta 3,924 19.4 362 9.2 E. Java 2,048 10.2 131 6.4 Subtotal 11,958 59.2 1,039 8.7 Sumatera Aceh 612 3.0 13 2.1 N. Sumatera 1,036 5.1 77 7.4 W. Sumatera 1,095 5.5 92 8.4 Riau 167 0.8 6 3.6 Jambi 195 1.0 n.a. n.a. S. Sumatera 454 2.2 15 3.3 Lampung 262 1.3 12 4.6 Subtotal 3,821 18.9 215 5.6 Kalimantan W. Kalimantan 216 1.1 1 0.5 E. Kalimantan 420 2.1 21 5.0 S. Kalimantan 504 2.5 8 1.6 Subtotal 1,140 5.7 30 2.6 Sulawesi N. Sulawesi 603 3.0 8 1.3 C. Sulawesi n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. S. Sulawesi 1,336 6.6 61 4.6 Subtotal 1,939 9.6 69 3.6 Nusa Tenggara and Maluku W. Nusa Tenggara 224 1.1 5 2.2 E. Nusa Tenggara 165 0.8 n.a. n.a. Maluku 324 1.6 4 1.2 Subtotal 713 3.5 9 1.3 Bali 500 2.5 35 7.0 Irian Jaya 122 0.6 7 5.7 Total /a 20,193 100.0 1,404 7.0 /a Excludes C. Sulawesi. n.a. - not available. Source: See Annex 1, Table 6. - 10 - 5% £rom fisheries and 11% from forestry. While a strict relationship between enrollment in university education and GDP is not expected, the large proportion of students enrolled in animal sciences is unusual./l Agricultural Education Policy and Management /2 (a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools) 2.10 It is GOI policy to develop vocational education and secondary level agricultural education and training has received significant atten- tion, particularly in recent years. Within the context of an integrated program to improve extension, research and training, the Government has taken steps since 1970 to improve technician-level agricultural education and training. Based on the findings and recommendations of an FAO survey mission (1971) on middle-level agricultural education and training, the Government developed a two-phased strategy for upgrading MOA staff (particularly extension personnel) and for agricultural training in Indonesia. The first phase was to concentrate on improving selected national institutions to meet the country's most urgent technicianlevel training and manpower needs. The second phase was focused on provincial institutions in the islands outside Java including marine fishery and forestry (pre-service) training which were not included in the first phase. 2.11 The first phase of the strategy was carried out by the Government with assistance under the Bank-assisted Second Education Project which was the first Bank-assisted agricultural training project (Credit 288-IND, 1972). Under this project, an institutional framework for coordination and administration of middle-level agricultural education and training was established in 1972 with the creation of the present AAETE within the MOA. In addition, the project upgraded 14 existing senior secondary agricultural schools, and introduced curricular improvements in all of these schools. FAO and other donor groups have also provided assistance through upgrading of one senior secondary school in marine fisheries and related activities (see Annex 14). /1 This matter will be examined in more detail in Annex 13. However, one caveat should be noted, namely that a large proportion of cattle and buffaloes are dual-purpose; they are used as a source of power and meat production. Only the latter would appear in an estimate of gross domestic production. /2 This section is not intended to be a complete review of all policy issues. Furthermore, many aspects of education policy in Indonesia are at present under intensive study. Among the matters being considered is the Report of the Commission for Reform of National Education, 1980, which prepared a draft of a total, comprehensive and integrated system of national education. Table 2.2: ENROLLMENTS IN AGRICIJLTURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGY BY MAJOR DISCIPLINE, 1973-78 /a Annual Number of growth rate faculties 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1974 to 1978 Major discipline (1978) ------ (Number) -------------------- (% p.a.) Veterinary medicine 3 n.a. 874 897 900 971 1,093 5.4 Animal husbandry /b 13 n.a. 2,106 2,414 2,649 3,254 3,163 11.8 Agricultural engineering 2 n.a. 830 974 899 1,644 1,993 25.6 Agriculture 23 n.a. 6,072 6,104 6,990 8,627 9,970 14.3 Forestry 7 n.a. 886 1,028 1,003 1,255 1,274 9.7 Fisheries /b 5 n.a. 339 585 727 917 1,251 35.8 Subtotal 52 11,372 11,107 12,002 13,168 16,668 18,744 14.7 Biology 1 n.a. 474 912 1,032 1,014 1,326 24.2 Total 53 11,372 11,581 12,914 14,200 17,682 20,070/c 15.2 /a This table provides data on enrollments in agricultural sciences in public universities only. Data for 1979 became available shortly prior to final printing and can be found in Annex 1, Table 7. The inclusion of 1979 data does not change the growth rate of enrollments. /b In 1976 to 1978 Animal Husbandry and Fisheries Faculties were combined in most universities. For the purposes of this table an arbitrary allocation of 50% to each discipline was made for these years. /c This total does not match the total in Table 2.1 and Annex 1, Table 6 (20,199). There are also small differences between figures in this table and those in Annex 10, Table 3. The reasons are probably related to slightly different time of enumeration. Source: Directorate General of Higher Education. - 12 - 2.12 A second Bank-assisted agricultural training project (Ln. 1692- IND) was approved on April 24, 1979. This project contributes to the second phase of the Government's strategy to improve agricultural training. It has a broader range of subjects (including fisheries, forestry, livestock and rural home improvement) than the first project and it extends assistance to training institutions administered by provincial governments and to those parts of the Other Islands where few training facilities exist. However, as in the first project, it confines itself to the development of agricultural manpower below the university level. 2.13 The GOI has also embarked on a program to develop the SITfPs. Reference has already been made in para. 2.06 to planned improvements in the curriculum for these schools; further proposals, such as the establishment of a rural and agricultural vocational education development center are being considered. The proposal available to the mission suggested that a center would be responsible for planning and programming agricultural vocational development, staff and curriculum development and the assessment of the relevance of teaching programs and employment opportunities for graduates. /l (b) Higher Education (Universities) 2.14 A summary of recent developments in higher education policy can be found in Annex 1. A number of reviews of the general and higher education systems have taken place over the last five years and have, after extensive consultation, resulted in specific policy and strategy statements which have been presented and discussed at meetings of university rectors./2 A task force is at present conducting an intensive review of the future development of higher agricultural education. The conclusions from that study were not available at the time this report was drafted. 2.15 The main objectives of higher education policy are: (a) improve- ment of the existing higher education system to achieve better performance and increased enrollment capacity; and (b) development towards a guided national higher education system./3 Each year the DTGHE prepares the /1 See "A Proposal for Establishment of a Rural and Agricultural Vocational Education Development Centre (RAVEDC)." Prepared by Agricultural Team, Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education, Ministry of Education and Culture, October 1980. /2 A review of past, present and future education policy is contained in, D.A. Tisna Amidjaja and S. Sapi*ie, "Higher Education in Indonesia, From Random Growth Towards a National System," Jakarta, December 1977. See also Supplementary Document No. 6," Policy Paper in Higher Agricul- tural Education in Indonesia". /3 A third aspect is the Planning, Programming and Budgeting System to assist with administration. - 13 - Coordinative Program Memo (MPK) which reflects the DGHE position on the educational situation and problems, as well as plans necessary to overcome the problems. A fundamental basis for the formulation and execution of future policy is that universities should aim at three objectives: teaching, research and community service. This principle is intended to broaden the universities' contribution to their region, province and community. It is understood that consideration is being given to a system which would require a university staff member to devote the major proportion of his time to one of these objectives. 2.16 Another important development was the decision in 1979 to formally stratify the education program into four levels, SO, SI, S2 and S3 (equiva- alent to Diploma, Sarjana, MSc and PhD) which are dependent on completing a specified number of credit units, with minimum and maximum periods of study. This system has passed through a successful pilot stage at IPB and has the effect of streamlining higher agricultural education, reducing the number of years required to achieve a basic degree /1 and making it more relevant to the needs of the market for professional manpower. 2.17 Finally, the system, introduced in 1971, in which specific universities (e.g. IPB and Gadjah Mada) were identified as centers of excellence in a particular field (including agriculture) is being phased out This policy assumed that it was not possible to achieve simultaneous development of all universities to the same standards with limited human and capital resources; it has been replaced by two other mechanisms to control standards. First, degree programs at specific levels (see Annex 1, Table 6) can only be initiated by universities on the authority of the DGHE./2 Secondly universities have been grouped regionally with one university providing leadership for that group. Some, because of their location, have been given the responsibility for concentrating on particular disciplines. To an extent, therefore, the identification of certain universities with programs of higher quality than others still exists. The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences 2.18 An instrument of education policy is the Consortium for Higher Education (CHE). A Ministerial Decree reorganized the structure of the CHE and at the same time made it an apparatus of the DGHE. The CHE now consists of 11 separate Consortia, for Educational Sciences, Mathematics and Sciences, Social Sciences, Psychology, Medical Sciences, Technology, Agri- cultural Sciences, Economics, Law, Art and Philosophy, and Interdisciplinary Studies. Each consortium has the responsibility to provide advice on the /1 The S1 degree is a four-year degree without the requirement to submit a thesis (skripsi). /2 Referred to as phase and sequence development (see Annex 1, para. 31). - 14 - design, management and monitoring of national higher education development programs in its own discipline. The consortia, therefore, have an important advisory role in shaping educational policy and curricula. For the Consor- tium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS), a peer group of Deans of all Agricul- ture and Related Faculties in Phase I of development fulfills the role of a governing council, but in practice they meet infrequently. Most of the work in each Consortium is done by the Executive Secretary assisted by three Program Directors. 2.19 With this arrangement, the CAS Secretariat inevitably assumes considerable responsibility. Its close association with the DGHE makes it the main policy advisory body for Higher Agricultural Education, subiect only to minor checks and controls by the system itself, and few if any from the employers of its graduates./l It is recommended that more effective communication mechanisms be established between employer groups and representatives of the agricultural education and training community. While the CAS would be the appropriate body to coordinate this at the higher levels, the AAETE could probably adopt that role at the technician level. While the CAS is concerned about establishing guidelines for standards, the DGHE faces increasing social pressure to provide higher education for secondary school leavers; this places additional pressures on the CAS to enlarge programs which may be at the cost of standards. The CAS reports directly to the DGHE on program implementation, there are dangers that its close association with the central government will result in over- centralization of decisions on matters such as curricula and quality standards. Financial Support for Education 2.20 An analysis of GOI budgetary allocations to education is not an objective for this review. However, the most recent data show that government expenditure on education is about 2.4% of GNP and 9% of total government expenditure; these allocations are lower than for any other country in the region;/2 of this about 20% has typically been allocated to higher education (this figure varies by years, but has been rising rapidly, see Table 8 in Annex 1). In 1980/81 agricultural education captured about 18% of the development budget allocated to universities and institutes (see Table 9 in Annex 1). Nearly 60% of the DGIIE Repelita III development budget goes to construction and equipment with about 10% to libraries, books, teaching materials, curricula and course development. /1 It is understood that consultation between CAS and employers does take place on an informal basis at times. /2 World Bank, "Comparative Education Indicators:, October 1980. See also Bank Staff Working Paper No. 246, "Patterns of Educational Expenditures," by Manuel Zymelman, November 1976. Note that there is no information available on expenditures going to private education. - 15 - Management of Agricultural and Related Faculties 2.21 With the exception of the IPB which is entirely agricultural, all other agriculture faculties are part of a multi-faculty State university, or in a limited number of cases, of a private university. The administration of public universities is the responsibility of the DGHE; for private universities, the DGHE acts as a coordinator and supervisor over some 340 institutions besides controlling government assistance to them in the form of staff (about 900 paid by Government) and material, determined by a set of criteria related to educational efficiency. GOI policy is to encourage private universities to increase their enrollment to assist with absorption of qualified school leavers. The Repelita III budget calls for a 15-20% annual increase for this purpose. 2.22 Faculties are the basic administrative and budgetary units within any multi-faculty university. Departments have functional but not admin- istrative roles. The lack of centralised university-wide organization is increasingly felt by universities, reducing flexibility for change and preventing the maximum use of human and physical resources. However, a recent Government Regulation (No. 5 of 1980) /1 which spells out the basic organization and structure of universities and institutes provides for changes toward centralization to be implemented during 1981. 2.23 Another matter which results in frequent changes in university management is the elective nature of Rectors and Faculty Deans, and their relatively short tenure (2 years), which can create instability and lack of continuity of policy. As a result the introduction of changes in response to changing circumstances, and measures to improve the internal efficiency as well as the external productivity of the faculty or university, may be postponed until they become inevitable. Either longer periods of tenure, or a system of having career appointees, as deputies appear necessary to overcome this. The recognized low productivity of state universities (typically well below 10% of total enrolled undergraduates complete their basic degrees each year) is influenced by this, as well as other factors. In agriculture and related faculties low productivity is the more serious because of the inherently high cost of such training. /1 Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia. Nomor: 5, Tahun 1980, tentang Pokok-Pokok Organisasi Universitas/Institut Negeri. - 16 - 3. MAJOR ISSUES IN IJNIVERSITY-LEVEL AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION /1 3.01 Many issues affect the productivity and quality of the agricultural education system at the technical and university level despite the acknowledged progress which has been made. The number of graduates is dependent on: (a) enrollment policies; (b) internal productivity of the system; and (c) financial support for students. Quality is affected by (a) the quality of students; (b) staff; (c) the curriculum; (d) the standard of practical training; (e) housing facilities; (f) learning resources (books, libraries, etc.); (g) research activities; and (h) language ability of students. Issues Affecting the Output of Graduates (a) Enrollment Policies 3.02 There are no published enrollment targets for agriculture, how- ever, GOI policy for Repelita III is to limit the increase of all university enrollments to 38.5% for the plan period (equivalent to 6.7% p.a.)./2 This is a substantial reduction from the trend rate of growth during the previous five years, about 13% p.a. (see Annex 10, Table 3). Enrollments at univer- sity Faculties of Agriculture have been increasing at about 14.7% p.a. (see Table 2.2). The growth rate would have been even higher but for strict selection procedures at the largest universities (see paras. 3.09 to 3.11 and Annex 11). For all agriculturpl facu'Lies, applications in 1978 num- bered 26,OC00 ot which only 5,300 (20%) were accepted./3 To some extent the number of applications is inflated as students may apply for tip to three universities. While the pressure for places at agricultural faculties can be expected to continue, however the relatively high cost of education in agriculture requires authorities to match graduate numbers as closely as possible to realistic manpower demand, or risk a waste of human and material resources. In view of the increasing social pressure for higher education together with the relatively small number of enrollments at vocational /1 While the general issues facing the Indonesian education system are similar irrespective of the level and field of education, there are differences. The discussion of issues in this chapter will concentrate to a large extent on university-level education in agriculture. /2 Ministry of Education and Culture, DGHE Coordinative Program Memo, May 1978, page 16 (derived from Table 2). The 1980 memo refers to planned increases in tertiary student numbers of 5-6% p.a. in national schools and 4-5% p.a. in private schools (page 12). /3 It is understood that throughout Indonesia about 126,000 students took the standard university entrance exam (PP I) in 1980. At that time it was anticipated that only about 20,000 students could be accepted. - 17 - education institutions compared with universities,/l the solution may lie in increasing the capacity of diploma programs at the universities and vocational schools. This would not only go some way to responding to the increasing social demand for higher education, it would also more directly address the supply/demand balance discussed in the next chapter. (b) Productivity of the Education System 3.03 While impossible to state precisely because of the unavailability of data, the numerical productivity of the higher agricultural education system is very low. There are no published data on dropouts each year and when these dropouts occur, but annual dropout rates as high as 40-50% are reported in most public and private universities. These high dropout rates are attributed to the financial situation of students, poor student selection, poor pre-university schooling (see paras. 3.08 et seq.), inadequate contact time between students and staff, and lengthy courses which until recently required a final written thesis or "skripsi" and took students a long time to complete. 3.04 Given the limited data available and uncertainties regarding the completion times for degrees, the only way to obtain any measure of productivity is to calculate the number of graduates in one year as a percentage of the total enrollments at the beginning of that year (perhaps best referred to as a "graduating ratio"). It is inadequate and misleading as a measure of productivity because dropouts raise the index instead of lowering it. An index which measures productivity in terms of the students' annual performance could monitor progress each year and give weightings to different levels of success. Irrespective of the measure chosen, parti- cularly in view of the Government's investment in education and its own emphasis on improving internal efficiency, it is of paramount importance that adequate productivity indicators be agreed and data collected to calculate them. The improvement of education statistics would be an important requirement for analyzing the productivity of the education system and is therefore supported as a priority activity. 3.05 The graduating ratio of Indonesia's university system (Sarjana graduates as a percentage of total enrollment) is only about 5.5%;/2 in a perfectly efficient five-year program of study, productivity is 20%7 when /1 In 1978 there were about 16,600 students enrolled at government-financed SMTPs and SPPs compared with 20,000 at agricultural faculties in govern- ment-financed universities. If private institutions were included then the enrollments at vocational schools would be somewhat higher than in faculties because there are few agricultural faculties at private uni- versities. However, the general validity of the argument would not change. /2 See Coordinative Memo, op. cit., 1978, p. 8. - 18 - intake is constant, 18% when intake is annually increased by 5%, and 16% when the annual increase in intake is 10%. Table 6 of Annex 1 shows the graduating ratio in university faculties of agriculture in 1978 ranging from 1% to 12% with an average of 7%. Table 3.1 shows that on average there has been no improvement in the graduating ratio over the last five years./l For some disciplines, however, the growth rate of graduate output is higher than the growth rate of enrollments, suggesting an improvement in productivity in these disciplines. The only other information available on productivity at the time of preparing this report was from a study prepared in connection with the Bank-assisted University Development Project (Ln. 1904-IND). That study showed that the proportion of students entering the University of Andalas in 1969 and graduating by 1979 was 11% in economics, 17% in science and 35% in agriculture. High failure and dropout rates are therefore a major and costly problem in the education system. Improvements in productivity alone could significantly increase the annual supply of graduates. /2 (c) Financial Support for Students 3.06 One of the factors contributing to dropouts is the inability of students to maintain their studies for financial reasons./3 The importance of financial stress varies between universities and faculties. Some have substantial reserves from which rectors and deans can provide financial support to deserving students. Nevertheless an effective scholarship program to support students from lower income groups is perceived to be increasingly important, given that some gifted agriculture students come from economically deprived homes and areas remote from the university city. Scholarships would be required to cover fees and in some cases a large part of the stlidents malnLenance, varying according to need. Tuition fees vary; at one university in West Java it was about Rp 100,000 for fees in the first year and Rp 50,000 p.a. thereafter. Accommodation costs, including meals, vary from Rp 15,000 to Rp 30,000 per month. Scholarships and other forms of support also vary. For example, living allowances may range from Rp 15,000/ month (MOE) to Rp 25,000/month (private companies). The proportion of students with scholarships is not known, but given that financial stringency /1 Table 3.1 indicates an average productivity of 6.3%. The discrepancy between this and 7% in Table 6 of Annex 1 is probably due to different sources and timing of data collection. /2 The discussion here has been confined to the relationship between the number of students enrolled and the number who finally graduate. This is an incomplete measure of efficiency not only on theoretical grounds, but also because of difficulties of data interpretation. See World Bank, Education Sector Policy Paper, April 1980, for a discussion of internal efficiency. /3 For example, see C.L. Beeby, op. cit., p. 167. - 19 - is the major cause of dropout in the first year, an expanded scholarship program awarded on the basis of need should improve the productivity of the universities as well as retain able yet poor students. An expanded undergraduate scholarship program is likely to provide many benefits. However any recommendations on this matter should await the outcome of current studies of the internal efficiency of Indonesian universities. A Study of Internal Efficiency of Indonesian Universities is being financed under the Bank-assisted Polytechnic Project (Cr. 869-IND). 3.07 Provision of utniversity-managed residential accommodation for a higher proportion of students would also be a major benefit for most students, but the high capital and recurrent costs make this less justified than other options for capital investment (see para. 3.29). However agriculture students, who are required to obtain practical experience at irregular hours on faculty/university farms, would of course benefit most from residential accommodation. Such arrangements would make practical training more fruitful, and students are more likely to participate in a wider range of extra-curricular activities, thus broadening their education. Issues Affecting the Quality of Graduates (a) Quality of Students 3.08 The educational qualification necessary for admission to a university/institute is the completion of upper secondary education (natural science stream) in general secondary (SMA) - as opposed to technical (STM) or other secondary schools. Not all such students can proceed to higher education; selection mechanisms are necessary to identify the best qualified, some 8-10% of the cohort continue to universities/institutes. 3.09 The university selection mechanism was traditionally an entrance examination organized according to each university's standards and norms. As rejection of applications became more common, students lost opportunities to apply to other universities due to synchronized examinations, or the need to travel long distances to take other entrance examinations. To overcome these disadvantages, in 1975 five universities in Java (UI, IPB, ITB, UGM and UNAIR) /1 organized a centralized entrance examination for SMA graduates to overcome these disadvantages. Before that, in the early 1970s, IPB recruited the top 10% of high school graduating students nationwide (and even overseas in embassy schools) without entrance examination (called talent scouting"), evaluation being based on performance over three years at SMA. These students (35% from outside Java) now account for about 80% of first year enrollment plus 20% from entrance examination procedures. This achieved two objectives, increased enrollment and a reduced dropout rate. /1 See Annex 1, Table 6 for an explanation of these acronyms. - 20 - Table 3.1: GRADUATING RATIOS OF INDONESIAN AGRICULTURAL FACULTIES BY MAJOR DISCIPLINE (1974-78) Annual growth rate Major discipline Item 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 (% p.a.) Veterinary science Sarjana degrees 51 73 109 127 107 22.6 Enrollment 874 897 900 971 1,093 5.4 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 5.8 8.1 12.1 13.1 9.8 - Animal husbandry Sarjana degrees 104 91 197 252 248 31.7 Enrollment 2,106 2,414 2,649 3,254 3,163 11.8 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 4.9 3.8 7.4 7.7 7.8 - Agricultural Sarjana degrees 66 46 97 157 190 39.7 technology Enrollment 830 974 899 1,644 1,993 25.6 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 8.0 4.7 10.8 9.5 9.5 - Agriculture Sarjana degrees 398 366 396 561 441 6.5 Enrollment 6,072 6,104 6,990 8,627 9,970 14.3 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 6.6 6.0 5.7 6.5 4.4 - Forestry Sarjana degrees 89 124 145 145 157 13.8 Enrollment 886 1,028 1,003 1,255 1,274 9.7 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 10.0 12.1 14.5 11.6 12.3 0 Fisheries Sarjana degrees 40 34 75 61 53 12.2 Enrollment 339 585 727 917 1,251 35.8 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 11.8 5.8 10.3 6.7 4.2 0 Subtotal Sarjana degrees 748 736 1,019 1,303 1,196 16.3 Enrollment 11,107 12,002 13,168 16,668 18,744 14.7 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 6.7 6.1 7.7 7.8 6.4 - Biology Sarjana degrees - - 108 44 70 0 Enrollment 474 912 1,032 1,014 1,326 24.2 Degrees/Enrollment (%) - - 10.5 4.3 5.3 - Total Sarjana degrees 748 736 1,127 1,347 1,266 18.0 Enrollment 11,581/b 12,914/b 14,200 17,682 20,070 15.2 Degrees/Enrollment (%) 6.4 5.6 7.9 7.6 6.3 - /a Enrollment data is the same as in Table 2.2. /b Includes biology. Source: Directorate General of Higher Education. - 21 - 3.10 In the longer term progression to a national entrance examination system for public universities is recommended. However, existing discrepan- cies between high school standards in different provinces and between urban-rural areas, and different standards and norms between universities, makes this impracticable at present. A national system should also await the result of current pilot projects. 3.11 Starting with academic year 1979/80 four pilot projects (PPs) in enrollment policy were established by DGHE, PP I to PP IV. At present they apply to 16 universities and 8 IKIPs only. PP I is the standard, the centralized examination is designed and standardized nationally. Ten of the older universities participate in PP I, of which seven have agriculture or related faculties. This is the forerunner of the ultimate national examination. PP II is utilized partially by two universities - UGM and ITB, and fully by one, IPB: it is a formalization of the talent scouting introduced earlier by IPB. PP III, is used by six universities. Its common examination includes 20% of national-level subjects and 80% designed by the individual universities, thus allowing for a different level of background and achievement. All six universities have agriculture or related faculties. PP IV relates only to the eight IKIPs (teacher training colleges), and the examination is designed nationally. Universities or IKIPs not participating in any of the above pilot projects still organize entrance examinations according to their own standards and norms. 3.12 As regional universities improve their staff and standards, it is likely that they will attract an increasing number of more talented students. In the past there has been a tendency for the major universities on Java to attract a large proportion of students from the Other Islands. After graduation many were induced to stay on Java, particularly in the Jakartabased bureaucracy. The effect has been to reduce the availability of indigenous trained professional manpower in the Other Islands./1 3.13 This is a dilemma where trained manpower is in short supply. Dispersion to the provinces could accelerate and improve the quality of regional development, but the allocation of resources to regional development is to a large extent dependent on the skilled analysis of professional manpower in the Central Government. In the present circumstances it would probably be counterproductive to administratively control the movement of students, rather it is suggested that incentives should be provided for graduates to work in unattractive remote locations. (b) Quality of Instruction 3.14 The quality of agricultural education should be considered in the context of the historical development of the education system (see para. /1 In general the older staff members return to the Other Islands, whereas the younger staff often prefer to find work on Java. - 22 - 2.01) and the capacity of the graduates. The point has already been made that the Indonesian education system has made outstanding progress from difficult circumstances which followed World War II. In addition it is also recognized that the experience and quality of educational institutions vary considerably. However the quality of instruction received by students at agricultural faculties is generally inadequate in relation to needs. Evidence supporting this includes the fact that major employers such as the MOA are required to mount substantial in-service training programs for new recruits, students rarely complete undergraduate programs in the minimum time, and many Indonesian graduates studying abroad need at least a year to prepare for post-graduate programs, irrespective of their language skills. 3.15 The major reasons for inadequate quality are: (a) low financial rewards or recognition for high quality teaching and the need for staff to seek supplementary income leading to dilution of their intellectual input into teaching and contact with students; (b) low academic qualifications of many staff; a small proportion have higher degrees; (c) low inter-university mobility and hence a lack of invigorating intellectual exchange; and (d) acute shortage of appropriate teaching materials, such as text- books, and inadequate study facilities for students. 3.16 These issues are discussed in Annex 11, but a few comments on the main issues are appropriate here. While most university staff are highly dedicated and productive, they are government employees whose salaries are governed by the official rates. Most government employees supplement their salaries in a number of ways (see Annex 6) and university staff are no exception; their most important supplement being another paid position, either in the public or the private sector. Some of these additional jobs are unrelated to a staff member's qualifications and university responsibil- ities and may include a variety of contracts. These additional activities may of course enhance a staff member's experience and abilities, but often they detract from the time devoted to teaching and student-related activities. Lectures may be cancelled with little or no warning, and staff are not available to advise students on lecture material or thesis work with the result that the number of teacher/student contact hours is extremely limited. Policies and guidelines for extracurrictular activities by staff are in force at a few universities; it is recommended that they should be introduced at all universities. Arrangements which would provide - 23 - substantial rewards for high quality teaching would also be of considerable value in improving standards and it is recommended that the implementation of such incentives be investigated./_ 3.17 Despite the improvements in staff quality, most Indonesian stu- dents are taught by staff with qualifications no higher than those to which the students are aspiring. In general, 80% of teaching staff have only first degrees, the remainder having higher degrees such as MSc and PhD (see Table 3.2)./2 While the qualifications of teachers is not the only criterion of teaching quality, it is significant that the proportion of staff with higher degrees is almost the reverse of that at most western universities. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that typically teachers depend heavily on lecture notes from their own undergraduate years. As a result, a wider and up-to-date perspective on the subject matter being taught is usually missing. Also, because staff typically graduated from the university where they are currently teaching, there is inevitably a high degree of academic inbreeding. It is recommended that the staff development program be expanded, with a large component of overseas education and, to the extent that staff and facilities will allow, a parallel program of expanding and upgrading postgraduate education at IPB, UGM and other more developed universities. 3.18 Two other matters are of particular concern in respect to their influence on the quality of instruction. The first is the apparent absence of any strong demand for excellence on the part of some employers. A major question in relation to higher agricultural education therefore is how to ensure that the quality of graduates produced matches the demand and how to encourage a more acute awareness on the part of employers of the benefits from better quality graduates. A second issue, which in a subtle way is related to the first, is that many government agencies and "outsiders" (including donors)/3 who seek to retain the services of university staff for extracurricular contracts of various kinds (see also discussion below under "Research") seem oblivious to the effect outside contracts have on teaching quality. This matter is particularly serious since it is in many cases apparent that, regardless of the financial inducements, staff are often unable to refuse government contract offers without jeopardizing their professional future. As a result university staff often scatter their energies amongst a number of different, often unrelated, activities. /1 These would be incentives above those which exist already and are described in Annex 6. They would require methods for the measurement of teaching quality as well as efficient administration. /2 The situation at mature universities such as Gadjah Mada and IPB is obviously better. /3 For example the Bank has, directly and indirectly, made major demands on university staff. These demands have frequently been made without recognizing the implications for the quality of university education. Table 3.2: ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHING STAFF IN AGRICIULTURAL SCIENCE FACULTIES BY PROVINCE (1980) Master's degree PhD or Doktor degree Total First Indonesian Overseas Indonesian Overseas Total teaching Region/province degree /a university university Total university university Total degrees staff Java W. Java 749 12 162 174 31 87 118 1,041 727 C. Java 150 3 2 5 - 1 1 156 125 Jogjakarta 381 1 57 58 6 11 17 456 377 E. Java 220 1 9 10 2 2 4 234 222 Subtotal 1,500 17 230 247 39 101 140 1,887 1,451 Sumatera Aceh 73 1 5 6 1 1 2 81 75 N. Sumatera 89 1 5 6 - 2 2 97 89 W. Sumatera 121 - 11 11 - 4 4 136 122 Riau 17 - 3 3 1 - 1 21 19 Jambi 20 - - - - - - 20 20 S. Sumatera 54 - 2 2 - 1 1 57 54 Lampung 30 - - - - - - 30 30 Subtotal 404 2 26 28 2 8 10 442 409 Kalimantan W. Kalimantan 44 - - - - - - 44 44 E. Kalimantan 88 - 17 17 1 2 3 108 89 S. Kalimantan 62 5 7 12 4 2 6 80 62 Subtotal 194 5 24 29 5 4 9 232 195 Sulawesi N. Sulawesi 67 - 5 5 - - - 72 67 C. Sulawesi 6 - - - - - - 6 6 S. Sulawesi 118 6 6 12 1 3 4 134 114 Subtotal 191 6 11 17 1 3 4 212 187 Nusa Tenggara and Maluku W. Nusa Tenggara 52 - I I - 1 1 54 53 E. Nusa Tenggara 27 - I I - - - 28 24 Maluku 34 - 3 3 - - - 37 34 Subtotal 113 - 5 5 - 1 1 119 111 Bali 117 1 5 6 - 1 1 124 117 Irian Jaya 16 - - _ _ _ _ 16 16 Total 2,535 31 301 332 47 118 165 3,032 2,486 /a Includes 12 university staff members without degrees. First degrees are Sarjana equivalent or below. Some staff are recorded as having more than one first degree. While some do not have a formal first Indonesian degree, they may have a Master's degree. Source: Konsorsium Ila r1mu Pertanian (Consortium for Agricultuiral Sciences). - 25 - (c) Curriculum 3.19 Various aspects of the curricula in agricultural faculties are discussed in Annex 11; however, no direct assessment of curriculum quality at universities through attendance at lectures, study of lecture notes or test papers, etc. was feasible in the brief fieldwork period associated with the preparation of this report. HIowever, several mission members had taught or were teaching at Indonesian universities and had first-hand experience of curricula. The evolution of the curriculum for higher agricultural education is currently at a crossroads. With the notable exception of IPB, most students are assigned to individual faculties from the time they enter university. There is wide variation between universities in the amount of instruction they receive from other faculties. For example some faculties have their own basic science departments, which are often only service units teaching junior courses, and students receive little instruction from outside. On the other hand, at UGM the Faculties of Science and Biology (the latter a service faculty to others in the "agro-complex") teach basic science in the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry. At other universities a proportion of basic science teaching in Agriculture faculties is given by other faculties. 3.20 At IPB, where the four-year degree program is well established, the pattern of student affiliation is different. Initially, IPB students are not assigned to a faculty, becoming members of a particular faculty in the fourth semester. However the IPB started a program in 1979/80 under which students will join individual faculties in the third semester. 3.21 The almost universal complaint from western universities which accept Indonesian first-degree students for graduate training is that, irrespective of the students' competence in the applied field or a foreign language, their progress is limited by a poor command of the basic sciences that form an essential foundation for more applied study. In recent years increasing numbers of applicants for overseas postgraduate training are being rejected because of this. It may be argued that only a small proportion of students proceed to higlher degrees and a research or academic career, and that for the majority proceeding to scientifically less demanding positions a firm grasp of basic science is not essential. However, whatever the end point of applied science teaching, the essential starting point is basic science. This leads directly to one of the fundamental problems of Indonesian first-degree curricula, both old and new. The Indonesian high-school student enters university with a poor command of basic science, yet the university aims to produce graduates with a strong practical orientation. In comparison, the student entering a western university begins with a better command of basic science and his university normally does not aim to graduate him with such a narrow focus; at the first degree level it graduates general agricultural scientists, not entomologists or foresters. - 26 - 3.22 Given the constraints on a student with a poor grasp of science, and the clear need to produce graduates of strong practical orientation, there is little room to maneuver within the existing curriculum. IPB has met this problem by creating, within the individual departmental majors, "streams" of differing orientation: Technology, Business and Science. The "technology" stream is the norm; the coursework for the "business" stream has a socioeconomic bias; the science stream is designed for potential graduate students. Very few students enter the "science" stream; they probably doubt their ability to reach graduate school or may regard it as too specialized, and see the other streams as a better preparation for employment after graduation. Irrespective of student preferences, there should be much greater emphasis on basic sciences in agricultural science curricula. 3.23 Another feature of the present arrangements is rigid separation, at the faculty level, of "Agriculture" (meaning crop agriculture) from Animal Husbandry and Animal Science. This separation, deeply rooted in the history of Indonesian faculty development (see Annex 11, para. 2), is rarely mitigated by any cross-faculty teaching of Animal Husbandry to Agriculture students or vice versa. Even where the two fields are represented by departments within the same faculty, as at UNHAS, courses in the one field are not regarded as part of the basic education of students whose options are centered on the other. Among the universities visited, only at IJNAND is Animal Husbandry taught to crop agriculture students. It is recognized that restructuring of departments is not always easy, however it is recommended that the animal husbandry curriculum should be integrated into the agri- cultural curriculum where possible so as to emphasize the interdisciplinary relationships and make the training of agriculturists more in tune with the structure and needs of Indonesian agriculture./l 3.24 One comparison between the old five-year and new four-year curri- culum that merits comment is the thesis project. lJnder the traditional five-year program each final-year student was required to carry out a "research project" under supervision and to write it up as a thesis. The weaknesses of what is, in principle, a sound component of the curriculum are discussed later, but at least the Insinjur (Ir) student had by graduation gained some experience of independent investigating and reporting. UJnder the new four-year curriculum the research project is substantially reduced and involves less demanding data collection and analysis. It has been argued by Indonesian academics that the thesis project is helpful only to those destined for research organizations or universities. Under new curri- culum plans such students are expected to gain research experience later when they go on to master's degrees or doctorates;/2 and that it is of little /1 It is understood that this matter is already under intensive study. /2 It should be remembered that the old Insinjur was considered by Indonesians to be equivalent to MSc at a western university. - 27 - relevance to students who will take up positions that do not involve research. This could be too narrow a view on the basis that the aim of final-year thesis projects is not training for research, but training in technical self-reliance, judgment and independent thought. As such, it is of importance to first-degree graduates in Agriculture irrespective of future employment. The issue is whether a thesis project is the best way to develop these skills. On balance this report concludes that an analytical project of some kind, not necessarily in the form of a thesis, is essential. The time and resources devoted to it, while much less than for the traditional thesis, should be left to individual teachers. 3.25 Finally, the assessment of quality of the curriculum is difficult in the absence of any objective measurement. However, one criterion is the acceptability of graduates by employers. Following discussions with various employers the mission concluded that the university system would produce graduates with far greater "market" appeal if in the first instance the degree programs placed a heavier emphasis on basic sciences. In addition there is usually a high correlation between the extent to which junior staff are given more responsibility for curriculum development and the extent of their contribution to the education process and independent research. (d) Practical Training 3.26 University-level education in agriculture is incomplete without practical training and experience to complement lectures. The extent of this varies between universities and faculties, but in general the time allocated to practical training is adequate. With notable exceptions labo- ratories have at least the essential equipment. Shortcomings are discussed in Annex 11, however, it is the manner in which the time and equipment are used which cause concern. One deficiency is the limited time allocated to closely supervised field exercises and demonstrations. Also practical class teaching requires the support of trained technicians: their small numbers in agricultural faculties, the lack of recognition of their role and the absence of salary incentives are important constraints. Another aspect of practical training comes under the general heading of rural orientation. In the education and training process itself prior familiarity with the prac- tice of farming and rural activities is of considerable benefit. Students then appreciate the relevance of instruction to their own experience, adapting and enriching it. Universities in the islands other than Java inevitably recruit a high proportion of students from rural areas, but few of them appear to have practical experience of farming/livestock, etc./l /1 The mission was not able to obtain specific information on the family background of agricultural students. Ilowever a general impression was that many did not have farm backgrounds. Given the costs of university agricultural education and the relatively low income of farmers compared with urban households, it is not surprising that a small proportion of agricultural science students are farmers' sons and daughters. - 28 - 3.27 Indonesia has evolved a policy of "national study-service" (KKN, signifying Kuliah Kerja Nyata, or "Learning Through Real Work"). This states among other principles that "institutions of higher education must build bridges between the world of science and technology and the needs of the people." Essentially the program calls for a mandatory three- to six- month period of local community service by senior undergraduates in village communities, the project to be planned and supervised by university staff in cooperation with local government administrative services. If competently supervised and executed it should prove to be useful practical training. (e) Housing Facilities 3.28 Hlousing (or housing allowance) is usually provided to senior permanent government employees including university staff. Indeed subsidized housing is regarded as part of the total remuneration package for staff (see Annex 6). While considerable progress has been made there is frequently insufficient staff housing, particularly in the outlying provincial universities. Availability of staff housing is essential if new staff are to be attracted to remote provincial universities, for example from Java to Kalimantan. Unless accommodation can be offered a provincial university is usually much less able to attract new staff, improve its teaching standards, and reduce its inbreeding. 3.29 Student accommodation has already been mentioned in relation to financial assistance to students (paras. 3.06 and 3.07). Students frequently live in badly lit, cramped, noisy quarters without privacy where effective private study is impossible. This situation would not be so serious were it not for the fact that alternative study environments such as libraries, classrooms and study halls either do not exist or are not available for more than a very limited number of hours. It is recommended that, in the longer term, budget allocations for staff and student housing be increased, particularly for universities in the Other Islands. In the short term, however, improvement of study facilities within universities might have the highest payoff. (f) Libraries, Library Services and Teaching Materials 3.30 The quality of libraries and library services is reflected by the number and appropriateness of books and journals; ease of access to them by staff and students; the buildings in which they are housed; the efficiency of purchasing, cataloguing and loan systems; and the adequacy of study areas near the book and journal stack. While it was difficult to reach conclu- sions on all these issues, library facilities and services in higher level agricultural education are generally inadequate (see Annex 11). Collections are frequently outdated and often the result of a gift from donor agencies or philanthropic organizations without regard to needs. For example it is not unusual nor surprising to find a row of dusty, unused, books on a subject which is irrelevant to the requirements of most students or staff. - 29 - 3.31 The language of international science is predominantly English. Most of the useful texts are published in the US and Britain, with Holland as a secondary, but valuable, contributor of English-language books in these fields. It is from Britain, and to a lesser degree, Holland, that the majority of the better texts in tropical agriculture and forestry emanate, a continuation of publishing activity that in the past served the technical branches of colonial administrations. 3.32 Journal collections at universities are also limited and erratic. With limited funds, subscriptions are often not maintained and journal series are intermittent. The journals tend to be largely of American origin and it is rare to see a continuous series of British or Dutch (English- language) journals specializing in tropical agriculture. 3.33 Students and staff naturally have a limited command of English and there is an urgent need for Indonesian-language texts and teaching materi- als. The task of producing such texts was discussed with Indonesian academ- ics: the difficulties appear to be financial inducement as well as competing demands on,staff time (see para. 3.16). Adequate material can only be written or translated by senior staff, but the income foregone by a senior academic while writing or translating a text could range between $1,000 and $2,000 per month. Perhaps an ideal combination would be an Indonesian and expatriate author working together on texts which are both relevant to the Indonesian situation and problems, and also include theory and the results of fundamental research and experience overseas. 3.34 Library buildings and study areas vary in quality and usage. The mission saw many, including one excellent new building which was almost completely unused. Part of the problem stems from a desire on the part of some staff to retain libraries within faculty locations and others, mainly university administrators, who regard it as essential to institute central libraries and eliminate faculty libraries. While centralization has many advantages it is not essential. The important issue is that the system adopted should be convenient to users (books and journals should be the major tools of trade at a university), provide adequate study facilities and be as economical as possible. Above all an effective book loan and recall system is essential to prevent extended retention. 3.35 Poor library administration is one limitation to ready access by students and staff to available books and journals. Librarianship is not a recognized profession in Indonesia and it is uncommon to find staff in charge of libraries with technical training (though some of the libraries are so small and simple that this is of minor importance).!I Indexing and /1 Some libraries, for example the central library at UNHAS, do provide a training program for librarians. Some students attending come from outside the university. - 30 - shelf arrangement may not be in accordance with standard systems, and library staff often seem quite unacquainted with the nature and classification of the contents. Many libraries are not open at night and many are unavailable for students outside normal lecture times. The main reason appears to be limited funds to pay library staff. This report recommends that these issues be considered and that solutions, perhaps in the context of special library projects, be incorporated into library development programs for universities. Improved library and study facilities associated with improved library management should make a major contribution to improved student performance. As explained in para. 3.29, "home" study is usually difficult if not impossible. 3.36 Finally for various reasons there is a marked lack of interest in reading; these reasons include the paternalistic style of teaching, the lack of funds on the part of student and staff to purchase printed materials, the limited opportunities students have to read and lastly a culture in which theatrical and verbal presentations are the predominant form of communica- tion. As a result the habit of regular reading has not developed among staff and students. This in turn undermines the efforts being made to improve educational standards through the use of improved printed material. Reading interests and skills at universities would be improved by the stimu- lation of reading interests and skills could be fostered in children at an early age. (g) Research 3.37 An important factor contributing to the quality of education at universities is the quality of research work done by its staff. A dynamic and productive research environment will usually have repercussions through improved standards of teaching and practical work. Unfortunately most research work in the agricultural sciences at Indonesian universities is narrowly based. Most activities under the heading of research are contracts for surveys or laboratory analyses; in very few instances is the title "research work" appropriate. In addition, research is often short term since government contracts providing the major financial support are usually arranged on an annual basis. 3.38 There are other factors which influence the volume and standard of research work. Funds for university research provided by the DGHE were only about $347,000 for agriculture in 1979/80 (see Annex 1, Table 12)./1 These limited funds are awarded annually for projects. While the sums allocated to each project are relatively small, they can be classified more /1 The overall coordination of research and its funding comes under the Minister for Research and Technology. - 31 - accurately as research than many of the contractual "research" activities./l The DGHE research financing scheme was originally conceived as a stimulus to research activity, particularly among young university staff, and the range of projects funded was unselective. Recently, steps have been taken to award grants in accordance with regional or national requirements for research and, although the DGHE allocation of research funds is still essentially short term because budgets are annual, mechanisms are available whereby longer term research can be assured of funds. It is understood that longer term research projects receive preferential consideration. While government contracts are not always a satisfactory vehicle for the financing of research at universities, there is considerable potential for collaboration between agricultural science faculties and institutions such as the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD). It is understood that arrangements for such collaboration are under study. 3.39 Another major constraint is an individual university staff member's incentive to undertake useful, sustained research. The current salary structure invariably leads to a "piecework" approach to any investigation. Possibly the most telling factor which mitigates against good research is that achievement of good research and teaching are only two of the many criteria for professional advancement. If promotion is a staff member's main objective, then membership of a university committee, public service and participation at seminars are just as likely to be paths to success as research./2 (h) English Language Capabilities of Students /3 3.40 In principle entrants to universities are expected to have a working knowledge of English. In practice, the English language capability of most students is poor, and although additional English training is provided in all universities at the first-year level, few students can comfortably handle English language texts. No quantitative data on reading speeds in English are available, but there is general agreement on the need for improvement. /1 See Annex 1, para. 52 for a more detailed discussion of the types of research considered by DGHE. /2 There exists a formal evaluation procedure for determining promotion for university staff. It depends on a score system which evaluates teaching, research, public service activity and participation in seminars. /3 Emphasis is given here to English because of its importance in scien- tific agriculture. Clearly for other disciplines and the arts other languages may have higher priority. - 32 - 3.41. The implications of this are far-reaching; even those university teachers who are keen to move from traditional rote-learning methods find it difficult to do so because a substantial proportion of students cannot tackle more than relatively short reading assignments in English. Many lecturers try to find suitable teaching material in Indonesian, but in most subjects the amount available is small. Neither lecturers nor students are happy with the reliance on rote-learning, but both groups are trapped within the system. It is recommended that steps be taken to support a major improvement in language training programs both at high school and university levels. At the same time much more emphasis and support needs to be given to the production of Indonesian language texts and teaching materials. - 33 - 4. THE FUTURE SUPPLY AND DEMAND/REQUIREMENTS FOR MANPOWER 4.01 The projections of manpower supply and demand/requirements are influenced not only by the methodology used, but also by the accuracy of the base data. Information on enrollments in secondary and tertiary education and stocks of technical and professional manpower in Indonesian agriculture are not complete; hence, supply and demand projections indicate broad orders of magnitude only. In addition, substitution between different types of education training and experience, trends in the economy, movements between professions and many other factors influence the supply and demand trends. Furthermore totals are likely to be more accurate than disaggregated data relating to fields of specialization or level of qualification. The supply and demand/requirements projections will be taken to the end points of Repelita III and IV, 1983/84 and 1988/89; however the shorter projection period receives the major emphasis because any assessment of manpower supply or demand beyond Repelita III is necessarily speculative. Supply (a) Technical Manpower 4.02 Technical manpower in agriculture includes secondary vocational school graduates with diplomas (certificates) from SPPs and SMTPs, Sarjana Muda graduates from universities and Diploma graduates from universities or academies. SPP graduates are most important numerically; Sarjana Muda programs are being phased out and their replacement, university diploma (SO) programs, have only recently started. The output of diploma graduates in agriculture from private academies is unknown, but it is not likely to be more than 500 p.a. at present. For the purposes of this analysis it is assumed that the future supply of technical manpower will come predominantly from the SPPs. Annex 3 records the development of the SPPs and this analysis assumes that the output of graduates in 1983/84 will be the same as at present. This is based on the assumption that there will be no change in enrollment and productivity /1 over the next five years. Productivity of the SPPs is already high (about 34%). For projection to 1988/89, it is assumed that provincial and private SPPs achieve a productivity equal to that of the national SPPs at present. No increase in enrollment is assumed because it is unlikely that up to 1988/89 capacity can be expanded significantly./2 /1 Defined as the ratio of graduate output in a year to total enrollment (total student body) in that year. For the national SPPs this ratio is inflated by the influx of a signifiant, but unknown, number of students in the final year. /2 Emergency measures to increase SPP capacity, such as reducing the length of programs being considered by the Government as this report went to print, would increase the capacity of some schools. - 34 - 4.03 On this basis, which also implies assumptions about GOI policies on assistance for students, improvements in facilities and teaching (gee Annex 3), the projected output of graduates from SPPs and forestry inservice training centers is shown in Table 4.1./l It is possible that the addition of the other technical manpower categories (see para. 4.02) could increase the supply shown in Table 4.1 by about 20%. On the other hand an unknown proportion of those shown in Table 4.1 may enter a Sarjana program or not seek employment as technicians in the agricultural sector. The net effect could be an addition to the supply of 10%. Table 4.1: PROJECTED ANNUAL SUPPLY OF TECHNICAL MANPOWER (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a Average growth rates 1978/79 1983/84 1978/79 Projected supply to to to Field of 1983/84/b 1988/89 1983/84/b 1988/89 1988/89 specialization --- (no. p.a.) - --------- (% p.a.) --------- Crop husbandry 3,370 3,400 0 0.2 0.1 Animal husbandry 220 520 0 19.1 9.1 Fisheries 170 260 0 8.9 4.3 Forestry 480 610 0 4.9 2.4 Total 4,240 4,790 0 2.5 1.2 /a Based on graduates from national, provincial and private SPPs and six government forestry in-service training centers. /b Output in 1983/84 assumed to be the same as in 1978/79. Source: See Annex 7. (b) Professional Manpower 4.04 Professional manpower in agriculture includes Sarjana, MSc and PhD graduates. The overwhelming majority of these come from government- supported universities. However supply projections are based on Sarjana /1 Confining projections of technical manpower to SPPs only, while under- estimating total supply, will cover most of the agricultural technician- level manpower. However, see also Annex 7, para. 11. - 35 - graduates because they are the most important group; projections of PhD and MSc numbers would be subject to large errors. Long-term projections of Sarjana graduates from university faculties of agriculture are particularly difficult at this time. There are only general data on productivity and pro- gression rates of students. There are also substantial developments taking place in the curriculum and graduation requirements. Past trends in gradua- tion are not a reliable guide to future performance; any projections need to be based on a combination of past performance and expected future changes in the higher agricultural education system and its productivity. Three levels of projected supply were derived, namely, low, expected and high for 1983/84 and 1988/89. Details of the analyses are provided in Annex 10. 4.05 With respect to the 1983/84 projections, the low estimates assume that graduate numbers would increase at 12.5% p.a. This implies that the screening of undergraduates would be more rigorous than at present (given that graduate numbers between 1974 and 1978 increased at 16.3% p.a./1 and admissions by more than 19%). Even so, the number of graduates would be about 2,400 in 1984. The high supply projection was set by postulating that the output of graduates between 1980-84 would grow at the same rate as the admissions four years earlier, i.e., between 1976 and 1980 (about 19% p.a.). This would imply a definite relaxation (in relative terms) of the screening process. This approach assumed that 1978-81 intake growth was the same as for 1974-78. The outcome of this projection was about 3,300 graduates in 1984. The most likely growth path for the output of agricultural graduates was based on available information on admissions, enrollments and graduations of individual universities and faculties. The result was an annual output of about 2,620 in 1983/84, the implied average growth rate was 17% p.a. 4.06 The approximate composition of the graduate output by field of study for these projections would be as follows: veterinary medicine: 7.6%; animal husbandry: 22.9%; agricultural engineering: 13.3%; agriculture: 40%; forestry: 10.5%; and fisheries: 5.7%. The percentage share of Javanese universities is expected to continue its decline, the Sumatran universities would maintain their share and the percentage of graduates from universities in the other three regions (Sulawesi, Kalimantan and the eastern Indonesian islands) would increase sharply (Annex 10, Table 2). 4.07 For the period 1985-89 a different approach has been used, making allowance for the likely effect of the new curriculum and graduation requirements. It was assumed that all graduations would take place in years 4 to 6 after entry. Graduation rates and admission growth rates were /1 Table 3.1 shows that this growth rate of 16.3% is heavily influenced by the sharp increase in graduates during 1977. Without this sharp increase the growth rate would be 14.3% p.a. - 36 - assumed to be linked to 1978 levels. This is in keeping with the policy expressed in the 1978 Coordinative Program Memo which called for a slowdown in admission growth in universities and faculties whose productivity lags behind the national average. In this exercise the six fields of study were split into high and medium productivity groups. Veterinary medicine, animal husbandry, agricultural engineering and forestry were in the high group and agriculture and fisheries in the medium. These groups were then arranged for projection purposes into high and low growth alternatives according to the proportion of the entrance cohort graduating in years 4, 5 and 6 after entry and to assumed annual growth rates of the entrance cohorts. 4.08 This combination of assumptions yielded an expected output of 3,440 Sarjana graduates in 1988/89. The results of these calculations are in Table 4.2. Even under the most conservative assumptions, including a slowdown of enrollment growth in the mid-1980s, the number of new agricul- tural graduates reaching the labor market during the 1980s would exceed 2,400 p.a. The drop in growth rate of Sarjana graduates between 1983/84 and 1988/89 is due to a number of factors. First, graduations during those years will no longer be affected by the considerable growth in enrollments during the late 1970s. Second, specific assumptions about slower enrollment growth in the period 1978-81 have been made (see Annex 10, para. 12). Table 4.2: PROJECTED ANNUAL SUPPLY OF PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER (SARJANA GRADUATES) FROM AGRICULTURAL FACULTIES (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a Average growth rates Sarjana 1978/79 1983/84 1978/79 graduates Projected supply to to to Field of in 1983/84 1988/89 1983/84 1988/89 1988/89 specialization 1978/79/b -- (no. p.a.) -------- (% p.a.) ------- Veterinary medicine 110 190 250 11.6 6.2 8.9 Animal husbandry 250 610 740 19.5 4.1 11.6 Agricultural engineering 190 320 410 11.0 4.8 7.9 Agriculture 440 1,090 1,460 19.8 6.0 12.7 Forestry 160 260 340 10.2 5.9 8.0 Fisheries 50 170 240 25.5 7.8 16.3 Total 1,200 2,620 3,440 17.0 5.6 11.1 /a These are the expected numbers. The lower and upper ranges can be obtained from Annex 10. /b From Table 3.1 in Chapter 3. Does not include Biology. Some totals do not add because of rounding. - 37 - Demand/Requirements (a) Current Stock of Manpower 4.09 A survey done for this study resulted in a comprehensive set of data on the current stock of manpower./l A condensed summary of the distribution of technical and professional agricultural manpower by major employer group and level of major qualification in 1978/79 is shown in Table 4.3. That Table 4.3: CURRENT STOCK OF TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER BY MAJOR EMPLOYER GROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1978/79) MSc & PhD Sarjana /a BSc /b Diploma /c Total Employer group ----------------- (no.) ------------------ Percent Ministry of Agriculture 32 2,420 1,737 4,451 8,640 19.1 Other ministries 132 2,379 211 182 2,904 6.4 Provincial agricul- tural services - 2,395 2,636 20,788 25,819 57.2 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises 6 605 717 3,957 5,285 11.7 Private sector - 294 610 1,615 2,519 5.6 Total 170 8,093 5,911 30,993 45,167 100.0 Percent 0.4 17.9 13.1 68.6 100.0 n.a. - Not available. /a It has been a tradition in Indonesia to equate the old Sarjana or Insinjur (Ir) degree with an MSc; it was not possible to separate staff with modern MSc degrees from those with the old Sarjana or Ir degree; stocks are therefore classified in this way. However, the proportion of staff in this column with modern MSc degrees is very small. For example, it was ascertained that in 1979 only 9% of Ministry of Agriculture staff had modern MSc degrees. /b Equivalent to Sarjana Muda level. This would in future include staff with various diplomas from universities (SO). /c Equivalent to certificate-level qualifications from agricultural vocational schools such as SPPs and SMTPs. Source: See Table 1, Annex 4. /1 See Annex 4 and Supplementary Document No. 2. - 38 - table shows the heavy concentration of employment of agricultural staff in the Government (94%), the high proportion of staff with diploma (certifi- cate) qualifications (70%), the dominance of provincial government staff in terms of numbers (57%), and finally, the importance of university degrees among staff in the central offices of the Government. (b) Future Demand/Requirements for Manpower 4.10 Given that the Government employs about 95% of the total technical and professional manpower in agriculture, the future manpower needs will depend heavily on government employment requirements, policies and staff budgets. The future growth in the value of agricultural production is not regarded as a reliable indicator of demand for agricultural technologists and scientists since that growth is to a large extent dependent on the pri- vate sector (small farmers and private estates) and as agricultural growth proceeds over time technologists and scientists are required in different proportions to the value of production. Projections of future needs have been based on three methods: extrapolation of historical trends in employ- ment (effective demand), a survey of manpower requirements by employers and an analysis of the theoretical requirements for manpower given the Government's agricultural development objectives in Repelita III. Details regarding these three methods are given in Annex 7 and summarized below. (i) Extrapolation of Historical Trends (Effective Demand) 4.11 Data on employment trends are not available for each employer group; however, trend data were available for the Central Office of the MOA staff by salary levels./I The total budget for routine expenditures (predominantly salaries) was also available. Although the tables in Annex 5 show considerable fluctuations in staffing, the average growth rate in stocks during the past ten years (Repelita I and II) has been 6.7% p.a.; this compares with about 8.4% p.a. during Repelita II. Over the same period the routine budget, of which about two thirds is salaries, increased strongly by 13% p.a. in real terms during Repelita I and II, although it was close to 21% p.a. during Repelita II./2 In view of the Government's continuing commitment to agriculture and its intention to strengthen its supporting role it was considered not unreasonable to project future manpower demand on the basis of annual growth rates of 8%, 10% and 12% p.a./3 These growth rates include an allowance for replacement at /1 Salary levels could be used as a rough approximation of qualification levels (see Annex 6). /2 Part of this growth would be due to improvements in real wages paid to government employees during Repelita I and II. /3 A danger with long-term projections at a constant growth rate is the compounding effect. Therefore the 1988/89 projection is likely to be an overestimate. On the other hand, data available at the time this report went to press indicate growth rates in staff numbers about 25% p.a. - 39 - 3% p.a. In the absence of trend data for major employer groups outside the Central Office of the MOA these growth rates have been applied to all of them. The results of the projections, based on a 10% p.a. growth rate, are summarized in Table 4.4. Table 4.4: PROJECTED ANNUAL EFFECTIVE MANPOWER DEMAND, BY MAJOR EMPLOYER GROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a 1983/84 1988/89 MSc & MSc & Sarjana BSc Diploma Sarjana BSc Diploma Employer PhD /b /c /d Total PhD /b /c /d Total group --------------------------- (no. p.a.) ----------------------------- Ministry of Agri- culture - 360 260 650 1,270 - 570 410 1,050 2,030 Other min- istries 20 350 30 20 420 30 560 50 40 680 Provincial agric. services - 350 390 3,040 3,780 - 560 620 4,900 6,080 Other prov. services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a Government enter- prises - 80 100 580 760 10 130 170 930 1,240 Private sector - 40 90 240 370 - 70 140 380 590 Total /e 20 1,180 870 4,530 6,600 40 1,890 1,390 7,300 10,620 n.a. = not available. /a These are the projections of the flows during 1983/84 and 1988/89 assuming an annual growth rate of 10% p.a. /b Most of these are Sarjana graduates because of the definition of the base (see Table 4.3, footnote /a). /c Includes Sarjana Muda and university diploma gradutes. 74 Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools. /e Net of requirements for other provincial services. Source: Table 7 in Annex 5. (Figures in this table are converted to an annual flow using a growth rate of 10% p.a.) - 40 - (ii) Stated Requirements 4.12 A survey of staff managers in the Government and the private sector was used to derive stated manpower requirements for activities under their control. These managers and personnel officers were asked to state their total technical and professional manpower requirements by the final year of Repelita III, 1983/84. It is recognized that a manager's assessment of required staff numbers may not be sufficiently constrained by the available budget and their estimated future requirements are likely to be greater than actual demand. 4.13 The results of the survey of requirements are given in detail in Annex 5, Table 10 and summarized on an annual basis in the Part A of Table 4.5. They reveal annual growth rates in total requirements which vary between 14% and 30% p.a. for the major government groups. These are about double the rate of growth of staffing observed for the MOA. It is possible that managers interviewed will turn out to be correct in their assessment, however it is difficult to conceive of a real annual growth rate in staff budgets which will reach 30%./1 It is the mission's view that the stated requirements are closer to the demand for 1988/89 (end of Repelita IV) than 1983/84 (end of Repelita III). If this were the case the growth of requirements would be between 7% and 15% p.a. Parts B and C of Table 4.5 show the projections for 1983/84 and 1988/89 on the assumption that the stated requirements would not be met until 1988/89./2 (iii) Theoretical Requirements 4.14 The third basis for determining future manpower needs was an estimate by the mission of the implied manpower requirements for agricul- tural development programs in Repelita III; for example, smallholder rubber and coconut development, extension and agricultural research. In the time available it was not possible to verify that all future development activi- ties in all sectors and subsectors were covered. However, most important public sector agricultural development programs were included. The results (see Annex 5, Table 12 and Table 4.6) were close to the manpower require- ments derived from a survey of employers./3 Overall the theoretical man- power requirements showed a growth rate of about 23% p.a. for those /1 Experience in other countries confirms that stated requirements are much higher than the budget constrained demand. /2 Additional replacements have been computed to allow for the longer time period. /3 Differences may be accounted for by the absence of data on some provincial services and the private sector (see Table 4.6). - 41 - Table 4.5: PROJECTED ANNUAL STATED MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS BY MAJOR FMPLOYER GROlJP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89) Annual manpower requirement Annual growth rate MSc & MSc & Sarjana BSc Diploma Sarjana 3Sc Diploma PhD /a /b /c Total PhD /a /b /c Total Employer group ----------- (no. p.a.) ----- …- ----------- (% p.a.) ------------ A. 1983/84 Stated Requirements /d Ministry of Agriculture 1 1,050 1,240 5,550 7,840 3.5 20.7 27.2 36.2 30.6 Other ministries 20 510 350 1,340 2,220 11.0 12.9 41.2 76.0 25.0 Provincial agricultural services - 1,130 1,540 7,230 9,900 - 21.5 24.2 18.1 19.1 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises 1 110 160 930 1,200 10.8 12.1 13.4 13.8 13.6 Private sector - 980 150 1,280 2,410 - 56.0 14.2 28.9 30.8 Total /e 22 3,780 3,440 16,330 23,570 9.7 20.7 24.0 22.3 22.2 B. 1983/84 Adjusted Requirements /f Ministry of Agriculture * 370 380 1,420 2,170 2.7 10.3 13.2 17.0 14.6 Other ministries 10 210 90 180 490 6.1 6.9 19.1 32.0 12.2 Provincial agricultural services - 380 490 2,720 3,590 - 10.7 11.9 9.2 9.7 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises * 50 70 380 500 6.2 6.5 7.1 7.3 7.2 Private sector - 180 70 380 630 - 25.0 7.5 13.9 14.7 Total /e 10 1,190 1,100 5,080 7,380 5.5 10.3 11.8 11.1 11.0 C. 1988/89 Adjusted Requirements /f Ministry of Agriculture * 630 690 3,100 4,420 2.7 10.3 13.2 17.0 14.6 Other ministries 20 310 190 760 1,280 6.1 6.9 19.1 32.8 12.2 Provincial agricultural services - 650 870 4,230 5,750 - 10.7 11.9 9.2 9.7 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises * 70 110 580 750 6.2 6.5 7.1 7.3 7.2 Private sector - 560 90 720 1,370 - 25.0 7.5 13.9 14.7 Total /d 20 2,220 1,940 9,390 13,570 5.5 10.3 11.8 11.1 11.0 * Numbers are less than 1. /a Most of these would be Sarjana graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote (a). /b Includes Sarjana Muda and university diploma graduates. /c Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools. /d Derived directly from Annex 5, Table 10. /e Net of requirements for other provincial services. /f Based on survey of stated requirements, but adjusted by assuming increase in stated requirements would take place over ten years rather than five (i.e., end point is 1988/89 rather than 1983/84). Extending the projection period resulted in a need for additional replacements, but a lower annual growth rate. The projections for 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the flows during that year calculated using the overall growth rates shown in the table. - 42 - qualified to MSc, Sarjana, BSc, or Diploma level. No theoretical estimates were made for PhD level manpower. The results show an annual growth rate much greater than the growth rate of supply. This analysis suggests that if the derived manpower requirements are correct and are a critical constraint to the achievement of the development plans may not be achieved within Repelita III. However, as with the stated requirements discussed earlier, it is unlikely that staff budgets will increase in real terms by an average of 23% p.a. These projections were therefore also extended up to 1988/89 (an extra five years). The results, shown in Parts B and C of Table 4.6, indicate adjusted manpower requirements and annual growth rates. (c) The Quality of Manpower Demand/Requirements 4.15 The preceding paragraphs have concentrated on the numerical assessment of demand and requirements in technical and professional fields. It is difficult to be definitive regarding the quality of manpower needs, but discussions in Indonesia gave rise to the following broad conclusions. First, most employers appear concerned to get graduates with a general basic technical/scientific training rather than graduates who have been exposed to a narrow and specialized education. Second, employers are desirous of obtaining graduates with higher quality education. Many in-service training programs are directed at upgrading the standards of new employees. Finally, because of the style of teaching and educational programs, some graduates lack the ability and confidence to think and act independently. As a result they need considerable supervision and take a long time before they become efficient managers. It is a major conclusion of this report that urgent efforts should be made by the Government and the private sector to emphasize the importance of high quality graduates and that employment policies should reflect this. An emphasis on quality by major employers would have a powerful influence on the quality of the education system. (d) Managerial Manpower 4.16 Managerial talent is probably one of the most important elements in the total manpower demand, but also one of the most difficult to evaluate. Experience in the Bank with respect to Bank-assisted projects underlines the need for improved managerial capacity of staff in government agencies. Implementation schedules fall behind because the management of sequential activities such as preparation of tender documents, evaluation of bids, procurement of materials and management of subordinate staff are frequently inadequate. However, training managers requires a great deal of study and resources. Leadership qualities are difficult to find, but when available the Indonesian cultural environment can make it extremely diffi- cult to use those qualities efficiently. While the MOA for example has management in-service training programs and there are many courses under the jurisdiction of the National Institute of Administration (Lembaga Administrasi Negara or LAN), these are predominantly arranged to meet promotion requirements (usually after the event) and are not necessarily suited to training potential managers. It is recommended that management training at all levels be strengthened. - 43 - Table 4.6: PROJECTED ANNUAL THEORETICAL MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS BY MAJOR EMPLOYER GROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89) Annual manpower requirement Annual growth rate MSc & MSc & Sariana BSc Diploma arjana BSc Diploma PhD /a /b /c Total PhD S /a /b /c Total Employer group ----------- (no. p.a.) ----------- ----------- ( p.a.) ------------ A. 1983/84 - Stated Requirements /d Ministry of Agriculture n.a. 1,330 1,100 9,530 11,960 n.a. 23.6 25.4 46.4 37.6 Other ministries n.a. 650 360 1,350 2,360 n.a. 15.5 41.8 76.4 27.1 Provincial agricul. services n.a. 1,090 1,350 6,660 9,100 n.a. 21.1 22.6 17.1 18.1 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises n.a. 120 160 910 1,190 n.a. 12.2 13.4 14.0 13.6 Private sector n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Total /e n.a. 3,190 2,970 18,450 24,610 n.a. 19.7 23.5 24.1 23.3 B. 1983/84 Adjusted Requirements /f Ministry of Agriculture n.a. 440 350 2,030 2,820 n.a. 11.6 12.4 21.2 17.5 Other ministries n.a. 260 80 180 520 n.a. 8.1 19.3 32.9 12.6 Provincial agricul. services n.a. 380 450 2,560 3,390 n.a. 10.5 11.2 8.8 9.2 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises n.a. 50 70 390 510 n.a. 6.6 7.1 7.4 7.2 Private sector n.a. 180 950 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Total /e n.a. 1,130 1,100 5,160 7,240 n.a. 9.5 10.4 11.2 10.8 C. 1988/89 Adjusted Requirements /f Ministry of Agriculture n.a. 760 630 5,380 6,770 n.a. 11.6 12.4 21.2 17.5 Other ministries n.a. 370 200 780 1,350 n.a. 8.1 19.3 32.9 12.6 Provincial agricul. services n.a. 650 770 3,710 5,130 n.a. 10.5 11.2 8.8 9.2 Other provincial services n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Government enterprises n.a. 70 100 540 710 n.a. 6.6 7.1 7.4 7.2 Private sector n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Total /e n.a. 1,850 1,700 10,410 13,960 n.a. 9.5 10.4 11.2 10.8 /a Most of these would be Sarjana graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote (a)). /b Includes Sariana Muda and university diploma graduates. /c Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools. /d Derived directly from Annex 5, Table 12. /e Net of requirements for other provincial services. /f Based on survey of stated requirements, but adjusted by assuming that increases would take place over ten years rather than five (i.e., end point is 1988/89 rather than 1983/84). Extending the projection period resulted in a need for additional replacements, but a lower annual growth rate. The projections for 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the flows during that year calculated using the overall growth rates shown in the table. - 44 - Utilization of Manpower 4.17 While government offices often seem to have more staff than necessary, there is a hard core of skilled people who work long hours. It is difficult for outsiders to define accurately the precise requirements, however, there is a prima facie case for the proposition that the utilization of trained manpower is below optimum. Often senior management is overworked and lower ranked staff, which include many new graduates, are relegated to relatively low-grade support activities. Delegation of responsibility is very limited with the result that new graduates, almost regardless of their quality, are usually underutilized. Comparison Between Supply and Demand/Requirements (a) Numerical Gap 4.18 A detailed comparison between projected supply and demand require- ments by institution and qualification and hence an implicit conclusion on surpluses or shortfalls by discipline and by qualification is not possible with the data available. Aggregate supply/demand comparisons with a broad breakdown by qualification are derived. Table 4.7 provides a summary for 1983/84 and 1988/89. It should be stressed that these aggregate surpluses or deficits should be interpreted as indicating broad orders of magnitude only. 4.19 The projected annual supply of Sarjana graduates from the agricul- tural faculties is about 2,600 in 1983/84. Effective demand for Sarjana and MSc graduates is projected around 1,200. Requirements in the same year are at most 3,800 in 1983/84 (see Table 4.5) however for reasons already dis- cussed (para. 4.13) requirements are more likely to be between 1,100 and 1,200. In 1988/89 supply is also projected to be in excess of demand and requirements. It is apparent therefore that, without increases in the basic capacity of universities, but with some increase in their productive effi- ciency, the supply of Sarjana graduates in the foreseeable future is numeri- cally in excess of demand. The main unknown factors on the supply side are "leakages" resulting from graduates entering professions other than agricul- ture or embarking on postgraduate degrees. On the demand side uncertainty arises from the extent to which positions currently classified as requiring technical qualifications will in future require Sarjana degrees, thereby increasing the demand for Sarjana graduates. However, even if the annual demand were to double supply would still be adequate to meet demand. 4.20 The supply and demand situation at the PhD and MSc level cannot be defined precisely. The trend analysis is affected by the small growth in the employment of staff with PhD qualifications. At the MSc level the situ- ation is not absolutely clear because those older staff with an Insinjur (Ir) degree (forerunner of the Sarjana degree) have inevitably become mixed with the Sarjana grouping because the Ir degree has traditionally been regarded as equivalent to a Master's degree. However, Table 10 in Annex 5 suggests at least a 60% increase in staff with a PhD degree during Repelita - 45 - Table 4.7: SIMMARY OF PROJECTED MANPOWER SUJPPLY AND DEMAND/REQUIREMENTS (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a Annual Annual Basis for demand/ demand/ surplus (+) requirements projections Annual require- or and level of education supply /b ments deficit (-) (A) 1983/84 (a) Effective Demand /c PhD n.a. 20 n.a. MSc & Sarjana 2,620 1,180 +1,440 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,240 5,400 -1,160 (b) Stated Requirements /d PhD n.a. 10 n.a. MSc & Sarjana 2,620 1,190 +1,430 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,240 6,180 -1,940 (c) Theoretical Requirements /e PhD n.a. n.a. n.a. MSc & Sarjana 2,620 1,130 +1,490 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,240 6,110 -1,870 (B) 1988/89 (a) Effective Demand /c PhD n.a. MSc & Sarjana 3,440 1,890 +1,550 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,790 8,690 -3,900 (b) Stated Requirements /d PhD n.a. 20 n.a. MSc & Sarjana 3,440 2,220 +1,220 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,790 11,330 -6,540 (c) Theoretical Requirements /e PhD n.a. n.a. n.a. MSc & Sarjana 3,440 1,850 +1,590 BSc/Diploma (Sarjana Muda/Certificate) 4,790 12,110 -7,320 /a 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the last years of Repelita III and IV, respectively. /b Based on Tables 4.1 and 4.2. /c Based on projection at 10% p.a. (see Table 4.4). /d The supply includes only Sarjana graduates, however the demand includes some unspecified, but small, number of MSc graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote /a). /e These are estimated requirements based on a survey of managers adjusted for the extended period [see Table 4.5, footnote /b)]. Note that figures shown here are adjusted for the extended projection period (i.e., to 1988/89). /f These are based on requirements for specified development projects in Repelita III. Projections of theoretical requirements do not include pro- vincial services outside the MOA or the private sector. The numbers used here are adjusted for the extended projection period [see Table 4.6, footnote /b)]. - 46 - III (from 170 to 270). This is likely to be a significant underestimate in view of the assessed requirements for PhD-level staff in areas such as agricultural research. For example, the number of additional PhD- and MSc- level scientists required for agricultural research alone over the next eight years, according to a recent Bank appraisal report, is about 125 and 500 respectively./l In addition the estimate of 90 additional PhD-level staff required at universities during Repelita III (Annex 5, Table 10) is unlikely to be adequate. Even without replacements and upgrading this would average only about four additional PhD-level staff per university with an agricultural faculty during Repelita III. Irrespective of the potential availability of Sarjana graduates for training (para. 4.19), the domestic capacity to produce even these numbers is in considerable doubt. It is therefore recommended that urgent attention be given to the expansion of postgraduate programs (Appendix A to Annex 11 makes some suggestions in this respect). 4.21 On the basis of current data, the supply of agricultural techni- cians is projected to be about 4,200 in 1983/84. Against this the effective demand for additional technical staff is anticipated to be about 5,400 in 1983/84 if the trend rate of growth (10% p.a.) is used, but as high as 6,200 if requirements for executing projects and programs are taken into account. In 1988/89 supply is projected at about 4,800 while annual demand and requirements range between 8,700 and 12,100. There is obviously room for error in these estimates. In addition graduates from SMTPs are not included (see paras. 4.02 and 4.03); the supply of technicians may therefore be underestimated. Upgrading the qualification requirements for technical manpower, for example, a change in requirements to Sarjana graduates, would of course reduce future demand for technicians. The extent of any errors or changes, while speculative, are not likely to affect the overall conclusion that in the foreseeable future there will be a substantial shortage of technicians with qualifications in agriculture. (b) Implications for the Type of Manpower Required 4.22 Agricultural technicians are in short supply and both long (expansion of facilities) and short-term (more intensive utilization of existing facilities) strategies by the GOI to increase the capacity of technician-level education and training institutions is recommended. An important question to be addressed is the type of technician education which should receive most support. For example there is a choice between SMTP, SPP and university diploma programs. At the other end of the scale, there is little question of a deficit of graduates at the PhD and MSc-level. There is a rapidly increasing demand for research workers, well-qualified /1 Bank Report No. 2805-IND, "Indonesia - National Agricultural Research Project", Staff Appraisal Report, April 4, 1980; see particularly Annex 1, Table 4). - 47 - teaching staff and top-flight managers who also have a high level of technical competence. At the same time the training of teachers for all levels of education is a high priority. 4.23 A second aspect which deserves urgent attention is the imbalance between the supply and demand in specific disciplines at the technical and higher levels. For example veterinary and animal science enrollments appear to be greater than necessary. Tree crop technicians are in short supply. It is recommended that small, energetic units be established to undertake manpower planning, possibly within AAETE /1 and the CAS to identify the needs more precisely than was possible in the report. Part of this activity should be tracer studies of past graduates. A useful start might be to review the demand/requirement projections in this report for example by checking the number of qualified technicians required per farm family or area of production in different subsectors. Rough calculations along these lines made in connection with this analysis suggest that the manpower demand/requirements are already high in relation to the number of production units. These types of calculations may act as an additional guide to the manpower planning process. (c) Regional Distribution of Additional Manpower Requirements 4.24 Most of the tree crop and forestry activities are located outside Java and hence a large proportion of the technical-level manpower will be required in the Other Islands. On the other hand it is understood that most of the qualified foresters are at present working on Java. For food crops the situation is not as clear because the food crop subsector is still concentrated on Java. Nevertheless, survey results show that at present about 40% of technical-level manpower is located outside Java. However, a gradual trend towards a greater concentration of technical staff in the Other Islands is consistent with GOI regional development policy. It is therefore logical that any expansion of technical training facilities be directed mainly at these regions. /1 The Bank-assisted Second Agricultural Training Project (Bank Report No. 2274d-IND, April 9, 1979) provides for such activities; see para. 3.20 of report. - 48 - 5. IN-SERVICE AND OVERSEAS TRAINING 5.01 The preceding chapters have drawn attention to the long-term need to improve the quality of education and training and to the shortage of manpower. This chapter discusses briefly two strategies designed to resolve these problems; they are in-service training as a means of rapidly improving the quality of existing manpower and overseas postgraduate training as a means of augmenting both the quality and the supply of highly trained manpower in the longer term. In-service Training /1 5.02 The most important function of in-service training in the MOA is to provide remedial training for underqualified staff in relation to their functions and responsibilities. This is mainly due to the shortage of agricultural technicians, particularly at the middle level, and to deficiencies in the preservice training of some high-level staff entrants. The best examples of in-service training are: training in agricultural project management, upgrading courses, methods of agricultural extension, methods of teaching agriculture and practical field work. 5.03 The SPPs and the in-service training centers now being established or improved (e.g. under the Second Agricultural Training Project, Loan 1692-IND) are expected to be in full operation by 1985 (see Annex 3). While the supply is still expected to fall short of demand, the need for remedial in-service training should then be less as fewer underqualified middle-level technicians will be recruited. In-service training centers would, therefore, be able to concentrate more on improvements in manpower quality through ad hoc courses. All upgrading in-service training could be placed under the management of the AAETE. At present, some ad hoc in-service training programs are conducted by individual units of the MOA since existing in-service training centers cannot meet all needs. As a result, some courses have been carried out with limited facilities, and standards throughout the MOA have not been uniform. 5.04 It is recommended that planning the transition from remedial training to "upgrading courses" and career development be initiated quickly. This should include establishing institutional responsibilities for training and the type and content of courses. Such an effort implies substantial immediate activity in the training of future training staff, some of which might profitably be done overseas./2 /1 See Annex 8 for a detailed discussion of in-service training. /2 A National Agricultural Training Institute (NATI) already exists within the MOA for local training. - 49 - 5.05 The leading university faculties of agriculture in Indonesia have facilities and resources for in-service training of high-level agriculture staff. As a part of their community service, these faculties already conduct in-service training for some staff of the MOA. However, these activities have been limited due to lack of funds. Agricultural faculties could play an important role in improving the quality of high-level staff of the MOA. It is recommended that the Government explore such options and possibly encourage the involvement of agricultural faculties in its training activities by providing adequate budget support for these universities to mount relevant short courses. Overseas Education and Training /1 5.06 Although it is imperative that in future Indonesian higher education institutions become the major source of postgraduate manpower, they are at present not able to do so adequately, in part because highly qualified staff are often not available to teach and supervise students. Therefore, unless Indonesia is prepared to delay the improvement of its teaching, research and management capacity for many years, which for agriculture would be a risky option, it must be accepted that for the time be.ing a substantial proportion of the total postgraduate training will need to be overseas. W4hile this is accepted by most Indonesian policy-makers, the number of Indonesian students overseas in relation to population is small compared to other countries./2 Problems include the choice of best candidate, language training and so on. However, the mechanism for the management of overseas training for eligible students is also a major issue. (a) Mechanisms for Arranging Overseas Education and Training 5.07 An important obstacle to the movement of students overseas is the absence of an efficient national mechanism for disseminating and administering information on the type and number of overseas training opportunities available to Indonesian students. Information is circulated largely through existing multi- and bi-lateral support programs which provide a foreign training component loan or grant, and are typically directed at one or a small group of universities. Staff at many of the smaller provincial universities have little or no access to information regarding the nature and extent of assistance available for overseas training. The existing arrangements for the management of foreign education and training are as follows: /1 See Annex 12 for a detailed discussion of the issues. /2 For example at present there are about 16 students per million population from Indonesia, studying in the United States, compared with 54 from the Philippines, 137 from Thailand and 268 from Mlalaysia (see Annex 12, Table 2). - 50 - (i) The Sister University 5.08 One of the best known forms of assistance to higher agricultural eduction was the cooperation between the University of Kentucky and the IPB between 1957 and 1966, under which 204 IPB staff from went to study at American land grant universities, 70% of them at the University of Kentucky. About 50% of the Indonesian participants received Master's degrees and 5% PhDs. At any one time about 12 American scholars were living in Bogor, each staying two years or more. Although none of the team were fluent in Indonesian and although the University of Kentucky made no claims to expertise in tropical agriculture, it is inconceivable that IPB would be in its present pre-eminent position without this project. More recently, IPB is developing a joint program in tropical agriculture with Reading University in the United Kingdom under the British aid program, in addition to its long-standing links with Birmingham University. 5.09 In favor of this approach is the argument that one university is best equipped to assist in the development of another; that the close insti- tutional linkage provides the continuity which a more general or national program may not; that selection of candidates for training takes place fol- lowing extensive working relations and a degree of personal involvement amongst the staff of the recipient university; and, not least, that a suc- cessful program is of mutual benefit and that there are incentives on both sides. 5.10 The main dangers are that the foreign university may be paternal- istic or self-interested; that one foreign university may end up providing most of. the assistance without adequate expertise in one field; that experts may not stay long enough to make an effective contribution or learn to work in Indonesian; and that restricting an assistance agreement to one or several universities may result in narrowness or bias. (ii) The Foundation Approach 5.11 Private nonprofit foundations have been active in Indonesia for more than 25 years including the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Founda- tion, the Agricultural Development Council (ADC) and the Asia Foundation. They provide grants for technical assistance and training, supply day-to-day advice rather than capital grants or loans, and pride themselves on the quality of their assistance and their personal approach to institutional development rather than quantity. The advantages of foundations include: .their long-term perspective; relative freedom from bureaucratic constraints which permits them to respond quickly to perceived needs; their high ratio of professional staff to candidates which means they can take a personal interest in their selection and welfare; the subject matter expertise of their staff which implies more fruitful dialogue with professional Indonesian counterparts and the capacity to assist directly with university placement. - 51 - 5.12 The most obvious shortcoming of the foundations is their limited budgets. The number of multi- and bi-lateral aid agencies operating in Indonesia and the size of their commitments have increased over the past 20 years; as a result the relative importance of foundation financial contributions has declined greatly. To maximize their effectiveness they generally concentrate their resources in one subject area or location. This has already occurred (see Annex 14). A more difficult problem is that due to inflationary pressures resources available to foundations have declined in real terms. (iii) The University Consortium 5.13 MUCIA /1 and AAUCS /2 are both consortia. AAUCS is close to a foundation in scale and style of operation, while MUCIA seems to have been most valued for providing a large number of fellowships and visits by short-term experts over a long period. The consortium has advantages over a single university arrangement because of its wider scope, even if this means an extra layer of bureaucracy. The breadth of activities conducted by university consortia varies considerably and consequently requires considerable full-time control and management. A feature of this type of arrangement is that training opportunities are limited to one country; which may be a disadvantage depending on the discipline involved. One aspect of this type of assistance, namely visits by short-term experts, draws particular criticism. Visits by eminent scholars for periods such as three months are frequently not fully utilized. Usually these visitors are unfamiliar with Indonesian conditions, they inevitably communicate in English to an audience which is diverse in terms of preparation and interests. Despite these problems, some practically oriented sessions led by foreign experts have apparently been successful. Another type of consortium headquartered at a university is the Southeast Asian Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). Its activities are mainly in manpower development although fund availability is an important constraint on its activities (see Annex 12, para. 21). (iv) Subcontracted Technical Assistance Loans 5.14 A fairly recent arrival on the scene is an arrangement whereby the human resource or the institutional development portion of a multi- or bi-lateral loan is contracted out to a development agency. This combines the advantages of the foundation and major loan funding. Depending upon the nature of the agency contracted, there may be national bias in the administration of the project, if only because individuals involved know best the institutions of the country in which they were educated. /1 Midwest Universities Consortium for International Activities. /2 Australian-Asian Universities Cooperation Scheme. - 52 - (v) Clearing 'House and Advisory Service 5.15 Another variation is a clearing house unit attached to a government agency which develops unit selection and placement policies linked to official development priorities. The unit could gather information on training programs on an international basis, on their appropriateness for Indonesian candidates, possible sources of funding, and the application procedures to the universities and agencies concerned. It aims also to assist in the development of a manpower policy, initially through the provision of selection and placement advice and eventually through coordination of manpower studies and assessments. 5.16 The advantages of this approach are that such a unit has specialized experience and can provide placement advice without a foreign bias. Further- more its ability to provide information to provincial and outer island universities and junior staff works in the interests of equity. 5.17 The main problem is that, because of the detailed knowledge of foreign programs necessary, it may be difficult to fully "Indonesianize" such activity. It would also have difficulty in being consistently effective without a substantial and independent budget. (b) The Type of Mechanism Indicated 5.18 Human resource development inevitably requires a labor-intensive, time-consuming and judgemental approach based upon human contact. The problem of improving manpower quality will not be solved by the investment of large amounts of capital. A combination of carefully planned staff and library development, funding for long-term research, provision of language training, journals and workshops is necessary. The formation of a special unit (perhaps the "Overseas Education and Training Advisory Center") to function as a clearing house for identifying and channelling all overseas education and training opportunities is recommended./1 There will need to be first class subject area expertise amongst the staff and sufficient administrative capacity to handle fellowships administration. One particularly important component will be a small organization which provides selection and placement advice to individuals and groups. Expert assistance, at least in the early stages, might be enlisted through one or more of the foundations. The proposed unit should also be in the forefront of the effort to solve a number of constraints facing overseas training for Indonesian students, including fluency in foreign languages, selection procedures and attitudes towards overseas education. /1 A small but dedicated unit already exists in the DGHE which makes some arrangements for overseas training of DGHE staff. The MOE has established a prototype for the type of unit recommended here. - 53 - (c) Foreign Language Fluency 5.19 In practice, language fluency decides on the feasibility of foreign training. However, a widely held opinion amongst people in assistance agencies dealing with Indonesian candidates over many years, is that foreign language fluency is declining. This may be because the thin layer of fluent candidates is almost exhausted and the remainder require a much longer, more effective period of language instruction, which is not presently provided. It may also be due to the fact that many applying for fellowships now were in the educational system during the early and mid-1960s, a period of disruption for national education programs. It is recommended that a national Foreign Language Training Center, with which existing language programs could become associated, be established. (d) Selection Procedures 5.20 Candidates for foreign training outside the big universities and central government departments rarely know in time what overseas study opportunities are available and still less how to apply for them. Selection and placement is at present an arbitrary and highly centralized process, and tends to favor senior people who are fluent in English, live near Jakarta and have good contacts./1 However, if the system should favor anyone, it should be junior staff, irrespective of language fluency. This follows from the fact that a candidate leaving for training in his late twenties can use his education professionally on his return for two or three times as long as a person sent in his early forties. (e) Other Factors Constraining Overseas Education 5.21 Another important factor appears to be an emerging attitude amongst some scholarship managers that if the discipline nominated by an applicant is already served by a graduate program in Indonesia there is no argument for sending that applicant overseas. Although in some circumstances this may be true, there are numerous situations in which the Indonesian facilities are either inadequately staffed and/or where overseas training would be a net benefit from the national point of view./2 /1 See Appendix B to Annex 12 for a discussion of the current selection procedures. /2 These net benefits are of various kinds, but they include more rigorous education than most Indonesian universities, better laboratories and an exposure to a wider range of experience. - 54 - 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.01 This chapter will bring together the policy and operational implications of the report. Policies and projects for agricultural education and training, as well as issues related to the supply and demand for technical and professional manpower in agriculture, should be considered in the context of the needs and policies in other sectors. While some conclusions and recommendations can be drawn and made quite safely for the agricultural sector there are others which require a more coordinated approach than is possible in this report. The following conclusions and recommendations apply only to agricultural education, training and manpower issues. Followup of these recommendations would probably lead to the identification of a number of projects. Management and Administration of the Agricultural Education System (i) The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS) 6.02 Conclusion. The CAS, as an advisory body, has neither the budget nor the manpower to adequately assume its responsibilities, namely to design, guide and monitor university agricultural education. It has no formal governing council and inevitably the Executive Secretary and the program managers are placed under heavy pressure to fulfill the Consortium's role (para. 2.18 and Annex 1). 6.03 Recommendation. The CAS should be strengthened, provided with an increased budget and more full-time and/or part-time staff. A formal governing council should be established with representation from universities in all major regions. The consortium should be involved in all aspects of higher agricultural education standards and curriculum planning, although overcentralization of decisions on these matters should be avoided. It should be given authority and funds to undertake manpower planning in higher agricultural education including tracer studies of past graduates (paras. 2.19 and 4.23). (ii) Identification and Management of Overseas Education and Training Opportunities 6.04 Conclusion. Arrangements for the efficient dissemination and administration of information on programs for the overseas education and training of Indonesian agricultural graduate students are inadequate (para. 6.07 and Annex 12). 6.05 Recommendation. A special unit within the Ministry of Education and Culture, perhaps the "Overseas Education and Training Advisory Center" and associated with similar existing units (for example, the Bureau of - 55 - Overseas Technical Cooperation in the MOE and various Project Implementation Units) elsewhere in the Government should be established. It would function as an advisory center for identifying and disseminating information on overseas education and training opportunities to government and private sector institutions. Another important role would be selection and placement advice. The proposed center should also be in the forefront of the effort to solve the constraints facing overseas education and training for Indonesian students (para. 5.18). (iii) Language Training 6.06 Conclusion. Lack of competence in foreign languages is one of the most serious constraints to using overseas education and training opportuni- ties, also a high proportion of agricultural science books and journals in Indonesian university libraries are in foreign languages, but students' lan- guage abilities are poor (paras. 5.19, 3.31, and 3.40). 6.07 Recommendation. A "National Foreign Language Training Center," with which existing language programs could become associated, should be established. Such a center should have the necessary capacity to finance and, where necessary, provide a range of language training and orientation programs for students planning to study overseas (para. 5.19). (iv) Communication Between Employer Groups and the Agricultural Education System 6.08 Conclusion. Existing mechanisms for communication between employers of agricultural technicians and scientists and those responsible for their education are at best informal and sporadic (para. 2.19). 6.09 Recommendation. Efficient formal or informal mechanisms need to be established to achieve more effective communication between employer groups and representatives of the agricultural education and training community. For the technician level this might be coordinated through AAETE in collaboration with the DTVE and at the higher level through the Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (para. 2.19) (v) Data on Education and Training 6.10 Conclusion. While statistical material on education and training has improved considerably, data on many aspects of the system are often incomplete. The data are particularly fragile when used for analysis of internal efficiency of the system (para. 3.04). 6.11 Recommendation. A mechanism should be established to improve the quality of the data related to internal efficiency of the education and training system (para. 3.04). - 56 - Capacity of the Education and Training System (i) Technician-level Training 6.12 Conclusion: The projected annual supply of technician-level manpower in agriculture, on the basis of known development plans, is substantially below projected annual effective demand or requirements in 1983/84 and 1988/89 (para. 4.21). 6.13 Recommendation. The Government should consider increasing the capacity of agricultural technician-level education and training institu- tions. A careful study is needed to define precisely the type, (e.g., whether for SMTP, SPP or university diploma programs) size and location of institutions required; however a heavy emphasis on forestry, fisheries and tree crops in the Other Islands is indicated. Special attention should also be paid to more intensive use of existing institutions, curricula adjustment and to the needs for teacher training (paras. 4.22 and 4.23). (ii) In-service Training 6.14 Conclusion. The long-term requirements for in-service training of government staff are projected to be in the field of staff development and management ability, rather than remedial or supplementary training in technical or professional skills. The capacity of facilities and experience of staff in this area of training is limited and needs to be developed (para. 6.03). 6.15 Recommendation. In-service training facilities and instructors for staff development and management skills should be strengthened. Planning for an expansion of this type of training should be started at the earliest opportunity, in particular programs for the training of teachers and instructors should be initiated (paras. 4.16 and 5.04). (iii) Higher Agricultural Education 6.16 Conclusion. The projected supply of Sarjana-level agricultural science graduates is expected to be in balance or somewhat below the projected demand in 1983/84 and 1988/89. The opposite is the case for manpower with higher degrees such as MSc and PhD (paras. 4.19 and 4.20). 6.17 Recommendation. Expansion of enrollment capacity for the Sarjana- level programs in agricultural faculties at universities should be monitored closely and planned to cover specific manpower gaps. There should be full support for improving the quality of existing physical facilities for the Sarjana program and for the facilities required to develop and improve MSc and PhD programs. - 57 - The Quality of the Education and Training System (i) Productivity of Education System 6.18 Conclusion. Although inadequate information was available for detailed assessment, the productivity of the higher education system is very low (paras. 3.03 to 3.05). 6.19 Recommendation. The study of internal efficiency in Indonesian universities should be completed at the earliest opportunity./l It should inter alia consider the need for financial support to students through scholarships (para. 3.06). (ii) Composition of Curricula 6.20 Conclusion. First degree curricula in agricultural sciences are characterized by considerable specialization and inadequate basic science content (paras. 3.21 and 3.22). There is also a neglect of practical training, particularly field studies (para. 3.26). 6.21 Recommendation. Curricula should be reviewed and amended to improve the science content of courses and to delay specialization until the third or fourth year (para. 3.22). The role of practical training in laboratories and workshops and at field centers should be reviewed and standards established for quality of training and facilities required (para. 3.26 and Annex 11). (iii) Separation Between Faculties of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 6.22 Conclusion. There is at present considerable separation between the faculties of agriculture and animal husbandry (para. 3.23). 6.23 Recommendation. There would be advantages in reducing this sepa- ration so as to make the training of agriculturists more in tune with the structure and needs of Indonesian agriculture. It is therefore recommended that there should be a greater degree of integration between agricultural and animal husbandry faculties. In the longer run it may be possible to achieve full integration of crop and animal sciences in one faculty (para. 3.23). (iv) Quality of Staff 6.24 Conclusion. Although degrees held by university staff are a superficial measure of academic standard, judged on this criterion, quality is low. Graduate programs are being introduced into agricultural faculties, /1 Study of Internal Efficiency of Indonesian Universities financed under the Bank-assisted Polytechnic Project (Cr. 869-IND). - 58 - but many are deficient in terms of teaching staff. The report did not review teaching staff at vocational schools, but it is likely that average staff quality there is also low (paras. 3.14 to 3.18). 6.25 Recommendation. Substantial staff development programs should be established. Major emphasis in PhD and MSc programs should be placed on improving their quality, particularly course work content and the supervi- sion of research. Postgraduate programs should not be expanded beyond staff resources. Nevertheless, specific arrangements for enlarged domestic postgraduate programs should be an integral part of longer term planning for the sector, possibly with expatriate staff assistance in the early years. Some of the increased immediate demand for higher degrees should be relieved by expansion in overseas higher degree training (paras. 3.17 and 4.20). (v) Libraries and Teaching Materials 6.26 Conclusion. The quality and extent of library facilities in agricultural education and training institutions is generally inadequate. At the same time there is a considerable shortage of Indonesian texts and reference books (paras. 3.30 to 3.36). 6.27 Recommendation. A nationwide program is required to improve library facilities, staffing, management and use. It is also critically important to provide Indonesian texts and references. Improvements in library services staffing and the preparation of Indonesian teaching materials should be funded as a priority (para. 3.34). (vi) Staff and Student Housing 6.28 Conclusion. Although housing is an important element in the staff compensation package, it is frequently not provided, particularly in the outlying provincial universities. Also students are frequently forced to live in inadequate quarters (paras. 3.07, 3.28 and 3.29). 6.29 Recommendation. Budget allocations to staff housing should be increased. Housing for students, while important, should be considered after adequate library and study facilities have been provided (paras. 3.07 and 3.29). (vii) Staff Salaries and Other Rewards 6.30 Conclusion. Staff salaries and other benefits are generally inadequate and teachers devote much time to various outside jobs. This has a detrimental effect on the quality of education (paras. 3.15 and 3.18). 6.31 Recommendation. Salaries and other staff benefits should be reviewed with the aim of establishing specific incentives for teaching, research and community service. Policies and guidelines on the extent of additional paid employment permitted for teachers while holding a permanent position should be established (para. 3.16). - 59 - (viii) Research Activities 6.32 Conclusion. The role of universities in national agricultural research is still to be defined completely. Also regular funding for long- term research still needs to be established (para. 3.38). 6.33 Recommendation. There is a need to define the role of universities in agricultural research and their relationship with the Government's research establishment and programs. It is also suggested that regular and long-term funding arrangements be evolved which will encourage the planning and execution of long-term research programs to replace the short-term exercises that are typically contracted to university staff. While paragraph 6.33 has recommended that extracurricular contracts be controlled, the World Bank and other donors should be more sensitive to the considerable disturbance to regular university activities caused by including research or investigation components in projects without an adequate assessment of the availability of the manpower required to execute the tasks (paras. 3.18 and 3.38). (ix) Overseas Education and Training 6.34 Conclusion. Overseas education and training should be an important strategy for improving the quality of university staff, senior professional, technical and management staff in government departments and the private sector. The report identifies a substantial future shortage of agriculturists trained to the PhD and MSc level. Opportunities for this type of training within Indonesia are limited at present. Funds for overseas study from some previously large donors are declining; it is concluded that a sustantial program financing overseas study should be supported as a priority project (paras. 3.17, 4.20, 5.06 and 6.27). 6.35 Recommendation. The GOI should evolve a mechanism for expanding overseas scholarship programs, possibly supported with funds from the Bank or other donors. The program could be managed by an "Overseas Education and Training Advisory Center" (see para. 6.07) or the Consortium for Agricultural Services, with the possible collaboration of one or more of the major foundations operating in Indonesia. Employment Policies of Government and the Private Sector 6.36 Conclusion. Employers of agriculturists stressed the importance of obtaining higher quality graduates (para. 4.15). This report concludes that the quality of graduates could be improved through a more selective employment policy by the Government and the private sector (para. 4.15). 6.37 Recommendation. The Government and the private sector should place greater emphasis in their public statements and employment policies on a demand for quality graduates (para. 4.15). INDONESIA TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER IN AGRICULTURE EDUCATION STRUCTURE, 1980 University Legend School Leaving Examinations * Sarqana Muda Degree Secondary Teacher Training College (IKIP) (9 Sariana Degree 0 atrsDge Upper SecondarY School (SMA) Academy (O> Master s Degree Ph. D k 4i- Ph. D,~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Primnary Tacher Tra n n Schro (SPG) Other Schools 0 Jr. Secondary School (SMP) S1 (Sarjana) S2 (Pasca Sa,wna) S3 (Ph D ) Other Schools In sBduein So (Diploma) 7 8 9 o Under MD 0124/U/1979 1 1 P,imarV School Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Aqe 7 3 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Lower Secondary Upper Secondary Primary Education Education Education Higher Education W-2 World Bank 21531 V3N nslM3N VAdVd -M°11q1~~~~~~~~~~~A Mt i '1e 0 . feX Q o F a ~,~8. z 0 a° ' tigI o 8 07 g z . , 8 gS=.ia G nZ*o-Y~tzz<°lS . 0i Q k O co~~~ ci~ ~ ~~7 T~~~~~~~' kf OI- RN I4;