E1661 v 5 UNHCR ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDELINES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Our genuine appreciation toTheWorld Conservation Union (IUCN) in Gland,Geneva for their technical expertise and invaluable revision of the Environmental Guidelines. We extend our thanks to the UNHCR Field Environmental Coordinators and Focal Points and other colleagues for their very useful comments and additional inputs. Illustrations prepared by Dorothy Migadee,Nairobi,Kenya Background image:ŠL'IV Com Sārl Cover images:UNHCR1000 Design and layout by L'IV Com Sārl,Morges,Switzerland Printed by:SroKundig,Geneva,Switzerland Produced by the Environment,Technical Support Section,UNHCR Geneva and IUCN,August 2005 2 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS 4 1 INTRODUCTION 5 1.1 Environmental Considerations in UNHCR's Operations 5 1.2 The Environment in Context 5 1.3 Purpose of these Guidelines 5 2 SOME ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATEDWITHTHE PRESENCE OF REFUGEES AND RETURNEES,INCLUDING RELIEF ASSISTANCE 7 2.1 Overview 7 2.2 Specific Concerns 7 3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF UNHCR'S ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES 9 3.1 Overview 9 3.2 Integrated Approach 9 3.3 Prevention Before Cure 9 3.4 Cost-Effectiveness and Net Benefit Maximisation 10 3.5 Local Participation 10 4 OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES 12 4.1 Financial Integration of Environmental Matters 12 4.2 Effective Co-ordination of Agencies and Actors 12 4.3 Institutional Measures to beTaken 14 5 CONDUCT OF ENVIRONMENTAL OPERATIONS DURING DIFFERENT PHASES OF OPERATIONS 16 5.1 Overview 16 5.2 Emergency Phase 16 5.3 Care-and-Maintenance Phase 17 5.4 Durable-Solutions Phase 19 6 TECHNICAL ISSUES RELATINGTO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND OTHER PROGRAMME SECTORS 21 6.1 Introduction 21 6.2 Emergency and Care and Maintenance Phases 21 6.3 SpecificTechnical Considerations ­ Durable Solutions Phase 35 Annex 1 Core list of UNHCR Environmental Projects and Components 38 Annex 2 DraftTerms of Reference for an Environmental Specialist 40 Annex 3 DraftTerms of Reference For An Environmental Co-ordinator 41 Annex 4 Environmental Planning 43 Annex 5 GenericTerms of Reference for a Local EnvironmentalTask Force 46 Annex 6 Developing a Rehabilitation Scheme 48 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 3 ACRONYMS COP Country Operational Plan EAP Environmental Action Plan EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EXCOM Executive Committee (of UNHCR) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations) GIS Geographical Information Systems GPS Global Positioning System LOI Letter of Instruction NGO Non-Governmental Organization QIP Quick Impact Project SITREP Situation Report TOR Terms of Reference TSS Technical Support Section (of UNHCR) UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNESCO PEER UNESCO Regional Programme for Education for Emergencies,Reconstruction and the Culture of Peace WFP World Food Programme 4 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 better understanding and appreciating the need for E N V I R ON M E N TA L careful and consistent approaches to environmental CON S I D E R AT I ON S I N U N H C R ' S management. O P E R AT I ON S Environmental considerations need to be taken into account in almost all aspects of UNHCR's work with 1.2 refugees and returnees. Basic considerations such as T H E E N V I R ON M E N T I N CON T E X T the provision of safe, clean drinking water, the physical While traditional UNHCR activities have succeeded in location of refugee camps or settlements,or the provi- their general objective of sustaining refugee popula- sion of food assistance by UNHCR's partners, all have tions, there has been an increasing realisation that the a direct bearing on the environment.The state of the negative environmental impacts associated with environment, in turn, will have a direct bearing on the refugee situations must be better understood and welfare and well-being of people living in that vicinity, dealt with.A number of points justify this,for example: whether refugees,returnees or local communities. it has become clear that refugee-related environ- Since UNHCR's Environmental Guidelines were first mental impacts can have serious negative implica- elaborated in 1996, much has happened in terms of tions for the health and well-being of the local translating this essential policy into practice. UNHCR, population,as well as that of the refugees; as well as its many partners who engage in environ- mental management worldwide,have learned valuable refugee activities such as uncontrolled fuelwood col- lessons which are increasingly being shared with other lection,poaching,and over-use of limited water sup- agencies and communities.Appreciation of the physical plies, add pressure to ecosystems in many regions, environment has also grown, such that today the ben- including some unique areas set aside by local gov- efits of considering possible environmental impacts are ernments as parks,reserves or evenWorld Heritage increasingly being recognised and addressed from the Sites. In the worst case, these activities, if allow to earliest stages of operations. continue, could result in irreversible losses of pro- ductivity, the extinction of plant or animal species, It is clear,however,that while considerable progress has the destruction of unique ecosystems,the depletion been made in integrating environmental concerns into or long-term pollution of ground water supplies, or its programmes since UNHCR's Environmental Guide- a variety of other destructive outcomes:and lines were first issued, much remains to be done. It is still apparent that natural resource management is not host countries have become more sensitive to the a straightforward process in many situations. As a potential economic loss they may suffer,due to envi- result,the full range of environmental concerns or pos- ronmental damage caused by large concentrations sibilities is not always addressed, while environmental of refugees,as well as the lack of a consistent policy concerns are still not always dealt with in a consistent covering the rehabilitation of damaged areas once manner in refugee and returnee situations. refugees are repatriated. Reflecting on its experience over the past years and taking into account new thinking on many aspects of 1.3 environmental management ­ especially with regards P U R P O S E O F T H E S E G U I D E L I N E S promoting responsibility for community management There are three main objectives to these guidelines, of natural resources ­ UNHCR decided it was time to specifically to: revise its basic environmental guidance.This updated version of the Guidelines has therefore been compiled describe the basis for incorporating environmental to further assist governments,partners and field staff in factors into specific UNHCR guidance/guidelines UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 5 and programmes. Environmental issues are cross- identify and evaluate the range of some of the most sectoral by nature, and environmental considera- common environmental impacts associated with a tions have to be introduced in a consistent and co- specific refugee or returnee situation; ordinated manner into all relevant sectoral activities, as stipulated by the reformulated environmental identify and evaluate opportunities to undertake policy approved by the 46th session of the Executive positive environmental interventions and determine Committee of UNHCR (EXCOM 1995). the balance of advantages and disadvantages of provide more detailed information and the rationale these interventions;and behind the EXCOM policy statement. select interventions that best combine the interests serve as an awareness raising tool for UNHCR and of the refugees, those of the receiving country, other agencies involved with refugee and returnee donors and UNHCR. operations. The guidelines also seek to provide a framework with- in which UNHCR and implementing partner staff, in particular,will be able to: Figure 1. Evolution of UNHCR's Environmental Guidelines (1996) and other key Environment-related UNHCR Documents POLICY PAPER ON THE ENVIRONMENT: (PROGRESS REPORT ON THE GUIDELINES ON REFUGEES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ­ APPROVED AT THE 46TH EXCOM) INCORPORATION INTO UNHCR MANUAL: (SECTION 2.8 OF CHAPTER 4, DEALING WITH THE ENVIRONMENT) ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDELINES (1996) (INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS) EMERGENCY RELATED PRACTICAL GUIDELINES HANDBOOK SECTORAL FIELD-RELATED CONCERNING GUIDELINES ACTIVITIES DURABLE SOLUTIONS 6 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R 2 SOME ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRESENCE OF REFUGEES AND RETURNEES, INCLUDING RELIEF OPERATIONS 2.1 while inadequate sanitation facilities can result in pollu- OV E RV I E W tion of ground water reserves. Dust aroused by the Environmental issues associated with refugees and movement of ­ often significant ­ herds of livestock as returnees are normally the consequence of high con- well as vehicles,and smoke created from burning low- centrations of people which often build up at a distinct quality fuelwood heighten the incidence of respiratory location over a short period of time.In the absence of diseases. Most of these problems tend to affect appropriate mitigating measures,the surrounding envi- disproportionately the most vulnerable groups, i.e. the ronment can quickly become degraded, which can elderly or the younger members of a community. leave a lasting impact.This,in turn,has the potential for other impacts on refugees as well as local populations. 2.2.4 Impacts on Social Conditions Some of the main impacts experienced in recent years The effects of environmental degradation, particularly are described below. those related to fuelwood gathering, are particularly felt by women and children.Women must spend long hours seeking and carrying wood, activities which put 2.2 them at increased risk of fatigue and exposure them to S P E C I F I C CON C E R N S assault.Time spent on such activities also detracts from child-care and family and social functions,while children 2.2.1 Natural Resources Deterioration engaged in similar activities may have less time available Degradation of renewable natural resources such as for attending school. forests, soils and water resources dominates the envi- ronmental problems associated with refugees and,to a 2.2.5 Social Impacts on Local lesser degree, returnees. Depletion of these resources Populations is often accompanied by their biological impoverish- Host communities may suffer similar social impacts as ment.Contamination of surface and ground water can those felt by refugees.Competition between locals and occur when sanitary measures are inadequate, or refugees for scarce resources (fuelwood,animal fodder, through improper application of agro-chemicals, leak- water) can easily result in conflict and resentment. In age of vehicle fuel, and the like. In the case of settle- some cases,a refugee influx has even led to the break- ment schemes, poor land-use practices may further down of traditional and sustainable local systems of exacerbate land degradation. natural resource management ­ structures that are often difficult to repair. 2.2.2 Irreversible Impacts on Natural Resources 2.2.6 Economic Impacts Particularly serious are impacts on areas of high envi- An influx of refugees is often felt in the local markets. ronmental value that may be related to the area's bio- While some sections of local population may benefit, logical diversity, its function as a haven for endangered the local poor are usually affected adversely as the species or for the ecosystem services these provide. demand for certain products and services drive prices Some of these areas may be of national or even glob- higher and higher. Deforestation, land degradation and al importance. Damage to these natural assets ­ such water resource depletion all carry with them an eco- as watersheds ­ can be irreversible, and thus deserve nomic cost for the local population. So does the special efforts to ensure their integrity is maintained. reduced availability of fuel,housing materials,medicines, and wild game derived from nearby forests.The conse- 2.2.3 Impacts on Health quences of environmental degradation in the vicinity of Impoverishment of natural resources can directly refugee camps may be felt at considerable distances undermine the health of an already weakened group of from the camps:soil erosion,for example,can result in people.Shortage of fuelwood,for example,may result local gulleys, a radical decline in soil fertility and in food not being properly cooked. In overcrowded sedimentation of local and distant rivers, ponds and refugee camps,disease transmission is also accelerated, reservoirs. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 7 Relief assistance programmes, while well-intentioned, established. The influx of additional funds to, and can also have a negative impact on the environment, presence of international donor and development through issues such as poor planning and location of agencies in,refugee-hosting regions can encourage and infrastructure, or inappropriate design of roads which enable additional development.Local host populations can result in erosion. The use of large quantities of commonly benefit from enhanced assess routes,which packaging materials,for example,can be reduced signif- in turn can boost market trading, as well as improve- icantly, relieving the need for costly collection and safe ments to schooling and medical services. disposal.Timely, appropriate and sensitive planning are key to improving situations such as these. Mention should also be made of some positive impacts which can and do result from the presence of refugees. Increased development and well-being are two relatively common features noted in many situations, once the care and maintenance phase has been 8 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R 3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF UNHCR'S ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES 3.1 activities taken to meet the refugees' or returnees' OV E RV I E W immediate needs.One way to address these problems UNHCR's environmental policy deals with refugee- is to initiate new environmental projects if funds are and returnee-related environmental problems during available. This add-on approach, however, has some all phases of refugee assistance,i.e.during the: serious drawbacks.It is,for example,often costly when compared with possible alternatives, besides being emergency phase; difficult to implement. care-and-maintenance phase;and It is now recognised that it is often more effective to incorporate environmental elements into interven- durable solutions phase, which can include such tions being planned from the beginning of an opera- activities as environmental rehabilitation of the asy- tion, i.e. to modify refugee assistance operations from lum country's territory after repatriation and/or the outset to make them environmentally more address,environmental concerns related to the inte- benign.Such modifications,however,need to be imple- gration of refugees in the host country, or the re- mented in a co-ordinated fashion: without systematic integration of returnees in their home country. and consistent integration, one action in a particular sector could be nullified by other actions in different, Environmental problems confronting UNHCR, or even the same,sectors. refugees/ returnees and local populations can vary from one place to another according to the area's Proper and timely planning are basic tools to assist with climate,its physical setting and the prevailing socio-eco- such integration.This, however, needs to be accompa- nomic conditions. Environmental issues cross many nied by institutional actions that help translate environ- sectors and should therefore be addressed wherever mental plans into action. While much progress has possible in the entire planning and management been achieved in this respect, UNHCR's programming process. To assist with this,a small number of key prin- processes must continue to progressively integrate ciples have been identified which,as experience shows environmental factors into the organisation's routine if applied, will help reduce the impact of refugees and operations,while consistent consideration needs to be returnees on the environment overall.These principles given to environmental issues in budget requests,budg- are: et allocation, Letters of Instruction (LOIs) and Sub-agreements. an integrated approach; prevention before cure; 3.3 P R E V E N T I ON B E F O R E C U R E cost-effectiveness and net benefit maximisation;and Preventive and mitigation measures should be the norm rather than the exception.This widely accepted local participation. rule of prudent conduct applies particularly to decisions relating to the environment, including refugee- and returnee-related environmental interven- 3.2 tions. In some cases, environmental impacts (such as I N T E G R AT E D A P R OAC H certain types of health impacts or the destruction of Refugee- and returnee-related environmental prob- biological diversity) are irreversible, and preventive lems have their origin in the sudden imbalance of measures therefore represent the only real solution to requirements by the displaced population and the these problems. In addition, prevention and mitigation area's environmental carrying capacity. Sometimes, measures are usually less expensive than curative ones. the problems are a by-product of different assistance UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 9 While it is reasonable to acknowledge the high ele- Selection of appropriate environmental interventions ment of unpredictability characterising the emergency and environmental planning therefore requires that phase of refugee movements,a prevention- and mitiga- values (monetary or otherwise) be placed on environ- tion-oriented approach requires that effective planning mental assets and services at risk during refugee and be carried out as early as practicable in a crisis situa- returnee assistance operations. In this way, environ- tion.The timing and quality of early measures taken mental factors are brought within the sphere of during refugee assistance operations will largely deter- economic decision making. Without such internalisa- mine the overall cost of refugee assistance ­ as well as tion of environmental costs and benefits, environmen- the operation's impact ­ over its entire duration. tal concerns are either neglected or, at best, based on Environmentally sound site selection and an appropri- subjective or arbitrary decisions regarding their relative ately planned layout of refugee camps/settlements and importance. returnee housing arrangements is an example of this approach. Valuing environmental impacts is relatively easy in some cases and difficult in others.While UNHCR itself may If sites are selected so that the impacts of refugees and not have the necessary expertise in this field,develop- returnees remain outside areas of high environmental ment and other agencies should have this capacity:links value, and that environmental impacts are mitigated in should therefore be made with relevant agencies the final location, costly and often irreversible conse- during the early planning process if possible. quences are likely to be eliminated, and other adverse environmental impacts significantly reduced.Although it may not be feasible in some cases to adopt certain 3.5 preventive or mitigation measures ­ due to prevailing LO C A L PA RT I C I PAT I ON political and social conditions,for example ­ it is impor- Refugee assistance is accompanied by conflicting tant that all parties involved are aware of the econom- demands on local resources by refugees and the local ic and environmental implications of a stance that population.Solutions to problems must be tackled with precludes environmentally sound preventive options. the full participation of all parties concerned,as well as an understanding of the interdependence of refugee assistance operations and local resource management 3.4 practices. CO S T- E F F E C T I V E N E S S A N D N E T B E N E F I T M A X I M I S AT I ON The local population, as a group, may possess valuable Resources available for UNHCR environmental inter- experience in how to manage natural resources. In ventions are scarce, and will likely continue to be so. It addition, some local residents and refugees may also is therefore a matter of some importance that chosen have specialised knowledge of natural resource man- interventions be selected according to whether they agement. This knowledge and experience has to be make the best use of such resources.The approach to tapped, in support of sound environmental manage- be used will favour those interventions that yield the ment.At a minimum, this may provide those involved greatest surplus of benefits over their cost, i.e. net with certain pride and a sense of using their dormant benefit maximisation. professional skills for a common cause. The benefits of environmental interventions are the Refugee community leaders must be encouraged to cost of environmental damage these interventions help create awareness and a sense of responsibility for pro- avoid. Cost-effectiveness in the selection of interven- tecting the surrounding environment, supported by tions ­ cutting down on unnecessary activities ­ is a UNHCR through, for example, environmental educa- necessary but not sufficient condition of overall effi- tion or awareness raising projects. Refugees must be ciency. Where environmental damage is not severe, encouraged to participate in environment-related pro- even a low-cost mitigation measure may be wasteful of grammes such as a systematic introduction of fuel effi- resources. On the other hand, high-cost interventions cient stoves, and reforestation or agroforestry prac- may represent an efficient use of resources where the tices, especially in cases where a new technology or environmental benefits are significant. Decisions about environmentally friendly practice is being introduced. which environmental measures to take will ultimately depend on the configuration of benefits and costs, It is important to try and create a sense of useful which tend to be specific to each site or situation. endeavour among refugees and, if possible, to extend 10 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines this also to the host population. Representation of UNHCR activities should comply with local laws and these communities in environmental decision-making regulations concerning the environment. If local laws can help smooth the friction that sometimes develops are weak,or non-existent,e.g.in relation to the use of between the two groups.The involvement and partici- toxic pesticides, UNHCR activities should, in principle, pation of local people can create a sense of responsi- comply with the relevant internationally recognised bility, which is essential for sustaining environmental standards.Activities should also respect,as far as possi- activities after refugee repatriation. ble, the customary rights of local people over the use of,or access to,land and natural resources. Particular attention in the process of local consultation has to be given to poor and vulnerable groups, both among the refugee and host populations.These groups suffer disproportionately from refugee-related environ- mental problems yet their voices are often not heard or taken into account. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 11 U N H C R 4 OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES In order to translate the above-mentioned environ- are grouped by sector.In cases where activities cannot mental principles into practical actions at the field level, be easily assigned to a specific sector, they have been certain administrative considerations are required.The labelled as"common environmental activities". following are identified. 4.2 4.1 E F F E C T I V E CO - O R D I NAT I ON O F F I NA N C I A L I N T E G R AT I ON O F T H E R O L E S O F AG E N C I E S A N D E N V I R ON M E N TA L M ATT E R S AC TO R S All environment-related action required during the The effectiveness of UNHCR's environmental meas- emergency and care and maintenance phases should ures will depend,among other things,on the degree to be an integral part of UNHCR's response,and budget- which all participants in assistance operations are ed under Special or General Programmes as applica- assigned suitable roles and understand their purpose. ble. Other environmental requirements, such as reha- The assignment of roles is normally based on the finan- bilitation and returnee operations,would receive limit- cial and technical resources available and the opportu- ed UNHCR funding,under Special Programmes and be nities open to each actor during different stages of the covered by the relevant UNHCR appeal, a United programme. Nations Consolidated Appeal, or by other bilateral or multilateral funding sources.UNHCR should play a cat- A variable number of parties are always involved ­ alytic role in the mobilisation of these funds.Through either directly or indirectly ­ in refugee-related environ- such an approach,UNHCR can ensure a more consis- mental management. Local actors include the host tent approach in its efforts to prevent or mitigate envi- national and local governments,refugees,local commu- ronmental impacts in the field, and address any result- nities and local NGOs.International bodies,apart from ing environmental damage left for asylum countries to UNHCR, include donor agencies, international NGOs, deal with in the aftermath of refugee situations. other UN agencies and multilateral and bilateral devel- opment agencies. It is vital to sensitise donors to the existence of refugee-related environmental problems early in each Environmental management in refugee and returnee refugee situation. Bilateral development assistance operations relies on a large number of organisations, funds for environmental purposes should be identified sometimes more than might be required for other sec- and their possible use in UNHCR or national pro- tors. With many actors involved, close co-ordination grammes examined.The possibility of obtaining funds and collaboration become essential. Clear and timely through the bilateral channels of various governments leadership of the host government and UNHCR in should be pursued by Branch Offices in co-ordination these circumstances is critical.The establishment of a with UNHCR's Fund Raising Section, taking into local environmental task force is considered instrumen- account the preferences of each donor. Proposals tal in promoting and monitoring local co-ordination. should be presented in a convincing manner in relevant Generic terms of reference for such a group are Special Appeals (i.e. objectives and implementation provided in Annex 5. periods should be well defined). The roles played by the refugees and the local commu- In order to appreciate the range of environmental nities have already been highlighted in Section 3.5. interventions which might be undertaken,a core list of Below,the roles of other participants are summarised. environment-related activities is outlined in Annex 1. For budgeting and statistical purposes, these activities1 1 Note that the term "activity" used here does not have the same meaning as an "FMIS activity". 12 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 4.2.1 Host and Local Government 4.2.3 International NGOs The host government should take a lead role in efforts NGOs involved in refugee-related operations should to minimise adverse environmental impacts arising integrate environmental concerns and management from refugee situations.c For example, the technical issues into their policies,programmes and projects,and evaluation of options which underlies the host govern- ensure that these are compatible with UNHCR's ment's decisions on the location and scale of refugee policies in this domain. camps, during the emergency phase, is crucial. Government's openness to enter into a technical dia- NGOs should provide technical expertise and share it logue with the donors on this, and related issues, is with the other parties involved in assistance opera- thus important. tions.NGOs should facilitate links with specialists,make available insights gained from case studies, and share Governments must take steps to realistically estimate, relevant technical materials. (with the assistance of donors and technical special- ists/agencies,where necessary) the quantity and acces- A small percentage of NGOs has the ability of self- sibility of natural resources to be made available for funding emergency-type projects,while others may be refugee assistance operations, and their environmental able to raise funds for long-term development and consequences. The host government should clearly relief efforts. A particular strength of international specify the structure of local decision-making systems environmental agencies could be in policy develop- in refugee-related matters involving technical bodies ment and joint fund-raising. (e.g.Ministry of Environment or Ministry of Health,for example) and different levels of government ­ central International NGOs are sometimes also implementing or local. agencies for rehabilitation projects, in co-ordination with donors and interested development agencies. Use should be made of whatever technical and exten- This occasion offers much scope and potential for joint sion services, as well as related infrastructure facilities fund raising for longer term needs. and equipment, which can be mobilised in support of refugee-related environmental activities. This may 4.2.4 Other UN Agencies include technical staff to supervise or provide advice Other UN agencies should integrate refugee-related on the implementation of environment-related meas- environmental concerns into their policies, pro- ures. Such contributions should also be extended to grammes and projects. rehabilitation efforts following repatriation. Technical agencies such as UNICEF, FAO and UNDP 4.2.2 UNHCR should be encouraged to become involved in refugee UNHCR has a primary responsibility for integrating assistance operations by providing expertise in their environmental considerations into all of its decisions respective fields such as reforestation, land-use plan- and activities affecting the protection and well-being of ning, range management, soil conservation, and water refugees. UNHCR, together with government, must resource management. jointly promote environmental protection and rehabil- itation in the field, by setting objectives, priorities and Existing support and development plans and policies, by overseeing the design and implementation programmes developed by other UN agencies should of environmental projects, through monitoring, and by be extended to refugee-hosting areas, where practical co-ordinating the efforts of all the parties concerned. and appropriate. National environmental action plans, UNHCR should also promote links with other UN for example, should address refugee-related environ- agencies and strive to achieve a consistent approach in mental issues. the responses taken. 4.2.5 Donors UNHCR should also mobilise donors to contribute to International donors and development agencies must activities which eliminate or mitigate adverse environ- be encouraged to adopt an integrated approach to mental impacts of ongoing operations,as well as activ- refugee affected area rehabilitation and development. ities that help offset the legacy of past refugee-related damage. Funds could be reallocated within the framework of bilateral development funding, and could, with the agreement of the donor and beneficiary governments, UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 13 cover the rehabilitation costs of refugee affected areas. Environmental Co-ordinators or Environmental Focal Better still, donors could acknowledge environmental Points have a key role to play in this co-ordination role problems related to refugee situations as an issue that ­ their timely interventions and continued presence transcends existing development commitments, and can help prevent and mitigate deleterious impacts from make available additional funds. taking place. Some refugee-related environmental problems ­ e.g. 4.3.4 Promotion of Environmentally threats to biodiversity and endangered species, or Friendly Technologies emissions of global-warming gasses linked to refugees' UNHCR's basic approach is not to develop new tech- fuelwood use ­ have global implications. Support for nologies,but to apply ­ and modify where necessary ­ refugee-related environmental operations should existing technologies to actual refugee situations. It is therefore be sought from specialised funding agencies important for UNHCR to have a facility to consistent- or facilities set up to address global environmental ly encourage introduction and testing of new technolo- problems,e.g.the Global Environment Facility,although gies in the field.Any such technology should, however, this is often a time consuming process. have been well tested and proven in similar situations to those to which it is being introduced. Neither refugee nor returnee situations should be used to 4.3 experiment with new technologies. I N S T I T U T I ONA L M E A S U R E S TO B E TA K E N 4.3.5 Maintaining a Valid Environmental Data Base 4.3.1 Modifications of Sectoral The availability of accurate and up-to-date information Guidelines is essential if environmentally sound decisions are to be Environmental concerns should be incorporated into made during UNHCR's field operations. UNHCR's all sectoral guidelines/manuals, in line with established environmental information system should be geared to UNHCR environmental policies.Environmental consid- all phases of refugee assistance operations. For emer- erations in each sector must be well co-ordinated and gency phase operations, for example, such a facility adequately link the different phases of refugee should be able to provide detailed information on the assistance operations. following: 4.3.2 Promotion of Environmentally topography; Friendly Procurement Procurement is a vital component of refugee assistance geology; operations and its rules and practices must be in line with environmental provisions incorporated into other hydrology; UNHCR activities. Environmental-ly responsible procurement practices will include, for instance, avoid- vegetation/forest cover; ing the use of internationally prohibited chemicals or ensuring that safe disposal, recycling, or re-use of soils; packaging materials takes place. Support should be provided for similar programmes at the national level. local climatic conditions; 4.3.3 Policy Level Co-ordination proximity of protected or fragile areas to selected Co-ordination with other actors on UNHCR's environ- sites/areas;and mental policy and initiatives is essential to achieve effective and consistent environmental actions in the socio-economic conditions and infrastructure. field. Initiated often by UNHCR, such co-ordination should involve host governments, other UN agencies, Such information could be used as a basis for contin- donor institutions and implementing partners. Close gency planning,site location,site planning,infrastructure co-ordination within UNHCR (between field opera- placement such as road,airstrips and waste dumps,and tions and its Headquarters) must be ensured as many in developing forest management plans. sections of the organisation may be involved in different aspects of camp/settlement management. 14 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 4.3.6 Environmental Training A broader training programme for field and headquar- Training of UNHCR staff in planning, programming, ters staff would help increase awareness of how supervising and monitoring environment-related activ- environmental concerns could be incorporated into ities must complement other activities. Training of their respective work programmes. Such training emergency team staff should include coverage of basic courses should also be extended to UNHCR's imple- environmental principles and issues arising during the menting partners, including government agencies as emergency phase, such as refugee camp site selection well as donors,where possible. and design. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 15 U N H C R 5 CONDUCT OF ENVIRONMENTAL OPERATIONS DURING DIFFERENT PHASES OF REFUGEE SITUATIONS 5.1 unnecessary damage to the environment is most OV E RV I E W effectively prevented,or mitigated during this phase; Certain environment-related measures need to be applied to all phases of refugee and returnee assistance activities undertaken at an earlier stage of an oper- programmes.These measures are of a general nature ­ ation are far more cost-effective than those taken their function is to provide a common technical and later; institutional basis for more detailed environmental interventions, as well as to achieve consistency among the potential for promoting environmental aware- sectoral activities.These general measures include local ness among the refugee population is greater if capacity building institutional strengthening and further activities begin at an early stage;and development of environmental expertise. minimisation of refugee-related environmental Strengthening institutional capability to deal with envi- impacts will reduce the burden placed on the local ronmental matters in the field is essential.The provision population and may have the added benefit of of clear guidance, to UNHCR and implementing part- decreasing friction between the local population and ner field staff,on how environmental matters should be refugees. treated within UNHCR's operational framework is particularly important. This document, supplemented 5.2.2 Basic Principles by a number of thematic sectoral guidelines,serve that Some environmental damage is unavoidable during the purpose,the objective being to facilitate UNHCR Field emergency phase, particularly when refugee numbers Offices' task of dealing with environmental problems are large. The basic principle during the emergency effectively and in a consistent manner,thus saving time phase should therefore be to concentrate on essential and money. concerns. It is particularly important to consider the risk of irreversible impacts. For example, uninformed Other issues, however, may be of a more specific decisions concerning the siting of a refugee camp in,or nature, appearing or becoming relevant only at a spe- near, a fragile or internationally protected area could cific time during an operation.Some of these issues are result in irreversible ­ local and distant ­ impacts on examined in more detail below. the environment. Likewise, it is not advisable to estab- lish a camp or settlement close to a village forest reserve or similarly important natural resources. 5.2 E M E R G E N C Y P H A S E Decisions taken during the emergency phase must also take into account the potential for adverse conse- 5.2.1 Significance quences in subsequent phases. For example, if refugee With respect to the environment, the emergency camps are located in areas where deforestation is phase is the most critical period for UNHCR opera- already a problem, the rate of wood extraction and tions. Decisions made at this time will have a major related environmental damage will almost certainly be bearing on both the type and scale of refugee-related higher than would otherwise have been the case.The environmental impacts in subsequent operational result of such action will require immediate protection phases. through patrols, or the like, as well as a substantial increase in the cost of remedial measures required in There are a number of strong for arguments making subsequent phases. environmental interventions as soon as possible during the emergency phase of a response,some of which are The level of participation of refugees and local commu- outlined below: nities in environmental activities is often limited during the emergency phase. Nevertheless, efforts should be 16 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines made to encourage their participation to the extent explain UNHCR's proposed environmental initia- possible, e.g. through the provision of environmental tives;and information to help ensure that environmental measures taken during this phase can be better struc- lay the foundation for subsequent environmental tured and socially more acceptable. actions by UNHCR,implementing agencies,and the host government. While the primary purpose of this guideline is to min- imise environmental impacts caused by refugees, it is Post-emergency assessment:A comprehensive assess- relevant to note that,in certain locations,the presence ment of environmental impacts should be undertaken of environmental hazards may also occasionally pose a at the end of the emergency phase, so that problems risk to the health of refugees. This may arise from can be identified and the necessary remedial activities features such as the presence of endemic diseases,high can be planned and implemented during the following levels of air or water pollution,and toxic or radioactive phases.Findings from such an assessment can also help chemicals in the soil. with future planning. 5.2.3 General Measures to be Taken Consideration of the environment in contingency 5.3 plans: It is useful to identify, in advance, local environ- C A R E A N D M A I N T E NA N C E P H A S E mental issues or concerns which might be relevant to 5.3.1 Significance the planned or ongoing operation,so that these can be The transition from an emergency to the care and incorporated into a contingency plan.Developing such maintenance phase,and the speed of this transition,will a site-specific plan can help prevent, or at least vary from one situation to another. Some refugee- minimise,irreversible environmental impacts as well as related activities may pass quickly into the care and to identify environmental hazards which might have an maintenance mode while others might remain fixed in impact on refugee health.A process for incorporating the emergency phase for quite some time. environmental issues in contingency planning is provid- ed in Annex 4. In general,UNHCR activities begin to shift to the care and maintenance phase once the refugee population in Environmental Specialist/Focal Point: In all cases a given camp becomes relatively stable,i.e.when there where preliminary information indicates the potential is an end to refugees arriving or a clear reduction in the for serious environmental impacts, an environmental number of new arrivals. specialist should be included in the emergency team.In such cases, the specialist will conduct a rapid environ- The care and maintenance phase is the stage during mental assessment (see the Toolkit produced by which the cumulative effects of various environmental UNHCR in 2005 on environmental assessment, moni- impacts will begin to be seriously felt by refugees and toring and evaluation for further guidance),the findings the local population. Environmental activities devel- of which should then be reflected in the basic set-up of oped during this phase should be proactive compared the refugee camp.SampleTOR for such a specialist are with the more reactive measures one is obliged to provided in Annex 2. have to deal with during the emergency phase. Activities will now tend to have a longer term outlook, In cases where a specialist has not been assigned to the and will be formulated in a systematic manner that team,one of the team members should be designated takes into account the costs and expected benefits of as the"Environmental Focal Point".S/he would then be alternative technical approaches. responsible for ensuring that environmental issues are considered during the development of activities. To be successful, formulation and implementation of environmental measures must include inputs from Co-ordination: Even in the emergency phase, it is refugees, local sources (i.e. communities, government, important to develop a working relationship with the NGOs, and other stakeholders), as well as co-ordina- environmental authorities in the host government to tion with other UN agencies,international NGOs,and facilitate consultation and joint action.This would: local authorities. help develop a common and informed understand- ing of the likely environmental consequences of the refugee situation; UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 17 5.3.2 Basic Principles Force should include representatives from UNHCR The general principles upon which activities were field staff,implementing partners,host government offi- based during the emergency phase will continue to cials ­ including those from environment related min- apply during the care and maintenance phase.There istries ­ and local community and refugee leaders. In will, however, be certain differences in emphasis. For certain circumstances, the co-ordination role may be example,during the care and maintenance phase,most entrusted to an environmentally active implementing environmental interventions will be comprehensive, partner. Suggested TORs for an Environmental Task long-term activities that involve a high degree of Force are provided in Annex 5. refugee and local community participation. Environmental programming:The importance of envi- 5.3.3 General Measures to be Taken ronmental measures needs to be stressed in the Environmental Co-ordinator/ Focal Point: As in the UNHCR budget approval process.This can be achieved emergency phase, an Environmental Co-ordinator as follows: should be assigned in cases where field assessments have indicated the presence of existing or potential A section on environment should be included in the serious impacts on the environment. Funds for such budget submission, to ensure that the country's co-ordinators need to be included in each country's environmental strategy and action plans are incor- annual programme budget. porated into the programming cycle. This will require input into the budget development process The responsibilities of Environ-mental Co-ordinators, at the Sub-office and Branch Office levels by envi- and their relationship with UNHCR and implementing ronmental specialists, Environmental Co-ordinators partner staff,must be clearly specified.SampleTORs for or Environmental Focal Points,as appropriate. such a co-ordinator are provided in Annex 3. A paragraph on the environment should be includ- In cases where a co-ordinator has not been assigned, ed in Section 1 ­ Project Objective/ Overview of one of UNHCR's own staff should be designated as the the Project Description (Annex A) in all Letters of "Environmental Focal Point".This person would have Instruction, except in cases where no obvious the responsibility to be thoroughly briefed and familiar environmental impacts are likely to result from the with UNHCR's past experiences in dealing with envi- planned activities. This paragraph would include a ronmental management,and would be responsible for brief description of the environmental implications ensuring that environmental issues were considered (positive or negative) of the activities covered by the and budgeted for during the development of activities. LOI and would highlight those expenditures specifi- cally targeted for environmental measures (based Environmental planning: The care and maintenance on the list of activities in Annex 1). In cases where phase will normally call for the preparation of an negative environmental impacts were foreseen, a EnvironmentalAction Plan.This planning activity should description of proposed mitigation measures would be initiated by Field Offices and undertaken with the also be included. help ofTSS, in consultation with the host government, implementing partners, other UN agencies and donor An environmental clause should be included in proj- organisations. ect agreements with host governments and imple- menting partners.The clause would reflect the type The Environmental Action Plan should be reflected in and complexity of the project being undertaken and the regular annual budget and incorporated into the would require implementing partners to prevent or Country Operations Plan. Basic guidance on how to minimise environmental impacts associated with the develop an Environmental Action Plan is given in activities they will provide. Annex 4. Donor organisations should be kept informed of Establishment of an Environmen-tal Task Force: A events during the early stages of refugee operations local EnvironmentalTask Force should be established to since they may be requested to fund some of the co-ordinate implementation of environmental meas- proposed environmental activities at a later date. ures and to monitor environmental impacts.The Task 18 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 5.4 undertaken have to meet their long-term needs.This is D U R A B L E S O LU T I ON S P H A S E especially important at this juncture as once operations 5.4.1 Significance are scaled back or removed, attention may also be Three different environmental issues are addressed diverted to other needs and regions.Thus, it is impor- during this phase: tant that communities are enabled to the maximum extent possible to be self-reliant ­ often through environmental rehabilitation of refugee-affected indirect assistance provided by other agencies more areas,after repatriation; experienced with development-oriented projects. environmental aspects of integration of refugees in For rehabilitation projects to be effective, their plan- the host country;and ning must involve all major actors concerned,including the host government,UNHCR,development agencies, environmental aspects of re-integration of returnees donors,implementing partners and ­ most important in their home country. ­ the communities concerned. A mechanism should be set up to sustain these rehabilitation activities until It is not normally possible to eliminate all refugee-relat- completion. ed environmental impacts before the refugees' depar- ture from the refugee-hosting areas. Given that a host Since UNHCR may not be the only agency active in country has been generous enough to allow portions the area in question, it should be noted that all of its territory to be used by refugees, basic courtesy UNHCR-sponsored projects considered during the from the international community demands that these durable solutions phase (i.e., rehabilitation in refugee areas be rehabilitated to the greatest extent possible. hosting areas, local integration of refugees or re-inte- gration of returnees) should be in keeping with and Lack of appropriate action by UNHCR at this stage support development projects being planned or would seriously devalue proactive remedial measures carried out by other groups or agencies in the taken during earlier phases of operations. Equally, it geographical area concerned. This harmonisation would send a negative message to potential host would involve an integration of environment and countries, thus potentially undermining refugee assis- development concepts into overall planning and imple- tance operations in the long-term. mentation procedures and practices. Rehabilitation of refugee sites, after repatriation, must 5.4.3 General Measures to be Taken therefore be seen as an integral part of environmental A brief outline of the manner in which environmental activities initiated during the care and maintenance activities might be systematically integrated into the phase. durable solutions phase is provided in Annex 4. Environmental concerns associated with local integra- 5.4.3.1 Rehabilitation tion and re-integration of returnees are a complex set Rehabilitation of environmental damage following of issues relating to sustainable development of the repatriation can be undertaken on a large or limited areas involved. Such issues, however, are regularly scale. Limited-scale rehabilitation measures refer to addressed by many development assistance agencies localised activities such as solid waste clean-up and UNHCR can and should draw on this experience. and disposal, and site rehabilitation, while large-scale rehabilitation measures target a wider range of 5.4.2 Basic Principles environmental assets and services which may be at risk. Environmental damage caused by refugees, despite preventive and mitigation measures taken, must be Certain factors are relevant mostly to limited scale addressed to the greatest extent possible.According to rehabilitation schemes.These include the following: the circumstances of each case,this can be achieved by physical restoration of resources such as forests and/or contributions are expected from UNHCR and the the provision of alternative development benefits to host government.Where possible, voluntary contri- the area affected. Cost-effectiveness is an important butions by refugees to the rehabilitation works factor in the implementation of rehabilitation projects. should also be considered; Participation of the local population in rehabilitation activities is essential since the actual activities being UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 19 assistance would be made to support local commu- Factors to be considered in a project proposal for a nities' environmental rehabilitation efforts. Since rehabilitation scheme are listed in Annex 6. Note UNHCR may no longer be present in the field,reha- should also be taken of the following: bilitation works would be implemented by national NGOs, with support from international NGOs large-scale environmental rehabilitation schemes and/or technical UN agencies;and should, in principle, go beyond meeting immediate needs and address the real development needs of the host government and UNHCR should provide the areas concerned; technical advice to assist the rehabilitation of refugee sites after repatriation. where extensive rehabilitation is needed, an envi- ronmental rehabilitation scheme may need to be Large-scale rehabilitation measures are required if: developed in collaboration with the host govern- ment,other UN agencies and donors;and environmental damage threatens the economic base of the areas concerned.Widespread destruc- while UNHCR should take the lead in preparing tion of forests,for instance,may affect not only those environmental rehabilitation schemes, its financial who are directly dependent on forests for resources contribution to these activities and projects should such as fuel,food or herbal medicines,but also those remain modest,involving funds raised through repa- who benefit indirectly (e.g.farmers downstream will triation/re-integration programme funding appeals. be affected if the removal of ground cover in the forest leads to flooding and damage to agricultural 5.4.3.2 Local settlement land and infrastructure); Environmental guidelines developed by international development assistance institutions for rural develop- the scale of these impacts undermines efforts made ment should be used in identifying environmental con- by the local government and development agencies siderations in local settlement. Refugees' participation to promote the sustainable development of the in the planning,project implementation and monitoring areas concerned;and/or phases is essential. environmental damage threatens future develop- 5.4.3.3 Environment concerns in relation to ment efforts in the areas concerned.While an area repatriation and effective re-integration might have relatively little current economic activity, UNHCR assistance projects implemented through it might have a good potential for the future,provid- reintegration projects, including Quick Impact Projects ed that the refugee-related environmental damage (QIPS), should also be environmentally sound and can be repaired.The value of this economic poten- sustainable. Environmental considerations should, tial may far exceed the cost of rehabilitating the area therefore,be included in the project design. to its (approximate) original state or providing com- pensating investment. In environmentally sensitive areas,such as arid or semi- arid regions, UNHCR should consider including, in its Potential large-scale rehabilitation activities should be programmes, specific community based environmental assessed using a cost/benefit analysis.This approach can projects to enhance the local capacity for sustainable also be applied to large-scale rehabilitation works natural resource management. which begin during the care-and-maintenance phase. 20 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R 6 TECHNICAL ISSUES RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND OTHER PROGRAMME SECTORS 6.1 considered),by burning or by burying them in waste I N T R O D U C T I ON dumps. Due to many inherent links with other sectors, envi- ronmental issues cannot be dealt with on their own. 6.2.1.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate Environmental guidelines dealing with specific sectors environmental impacts must be used in conjunction with those developed for The following should be considered: other sectors. adequate supplies of appropriate materials must be As a general rule, clear lines of communication should in place as soon as possible after the arrival of be maintained between all programme sectors so that refugees to minimise environmental destruction:the indications of problems can be noted, examined and supply of other,more environmentally friendly,items addressed as quickly as possible, and co-ordinated (e.g. foods requiring little cooking and fuel), should actions can be taken. be promoted where appropriate; reduce excess transport and maximise use of empty 6.2 vehicles: shipments of supplies and use of transport E M E R G E N C Y A N D C A R E A N D facilities should be co-ordinated with other imple- M A I N T E NA N C E P H A S E S menting agencies to minimise overall transport requirements; 6.2.1 Supplies and Logistics 6.2.1.1 Issues reduce the load on the environment:reduce unnec- During the emergency phase, refugees need immedi- essary packaging materials at source and/or use ate access to basic goods and services such as drinking empty trucks to remove waste to a location where water, food and shelter. If these essential elements are it can be recycled and/or disposed of in a more not provided in time,refugees,in order to survive,must permanent dump or landfill site; and look to the surrounding environment for their needs. This can quickly result in environmental deterioration. promote environmentally friendlier ("green") pro- curement.The aim of environmentally friendly pro- 6.2.1.2 Environmental impacts related to supplies curement is to promote purchase of environmental- and logistics ly sound products and to avoid purchasing products The following points can be noted: that may damage the environment, by adding envi- ronmental aspects to the general criteria considered inadequate supply of basic supplies, e.g. shelter during procurement. Priority items to which this materials,may force refugees to find what they need policy applies will be identified by taking into consid- (wooden poles, branches and grasses for example) eration environmental impacts that such items could at the expense of the local environment; cause in refugee situations, and internationally accepted treaties and practices that promote envi- the volume of transport traffic to a refugee camp ronmentally sound production and consumption. could damage local infrastructure such as roads and bridges; and 6.2.2 Physical Planning if excess shipping materials, such as wood or 6.2.2.1 Issues cardboard,cannot be used by refugees in some way, The location and layout of refugee camps and settle- they must be disposed of by removing them from ments and the design of refugee shelter determine to the site (which has cost implications and is rarely a large extent the effect which environmental condi- tions may have on refugees'' well being.These aspects UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 21 are also influential in determining the type and degree Inappropriate camp layout, shelter design and poor of impacts on the environment in and around refugee maintenance of camp infrastructures may lead to an sites, caused both by the presence of refugees as well increased risk of soil erosion,poor sanitary conditions, as the delivery of humanitarian aid services. water pollution, fire hazards, and exposure to wind, dust and extreme temperatures. Environmental considerations must be integrated as main planning parameters in the following sequence of In urban areas, refugees are often accommodated in physical planning activities: communal buildings or abandoned residential buildings. Excessive damage may be caused because of over- site selection ­ review of recommended sites by the crowding and lack of care. host government; If insufficient shelter material is supplied, refugees will site surveys ­ detail review of the selected site extract needed materials from areas surrounding the before a final selection is made; camps. Poles cut from young trees are often the pre- ferred choice of support ­ which can quickly degrade site planning ­ proper site planning with protection forests and woodlands ­ while branches, grasses and and environmental considerations taken into leaves are often gathered as roofing materials. account; 6.2.2.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate site preparation ­ preventing the removal of ground environmental impacts vegetation cover to the extent possible, and con- When selecting a site for a camp or settlement,factors scious landscaping, including the design of internal which need to be considered include the physical roads and location of services;and carrying capacity of the site/region; the availability of natural resources and space;proximity to environmen- shelter construction ­ the type(s) of material used tally sensitive areas; topographical, drainage and soil in the design of shelter. conditions; vegetation cover; weather conditions; the existence of endemic diseases;the risk of man made or 6.2.2.2 Environmental impacts related to site natural hazards; and the potential risk of conflict with establishment and shelter construction the local population. Utmost care should be taken to Refugee's health and protection concerns will be avoid the establishment of refugee sites in or near affected by such environmental factors as a prevalence forest reserves, other protected or locally important of endemic diseases,weather conditions,dust,drainage areas, and national historic monuments. All of these and soil conditions, water quantity and quality, and factors should be determined through systematic site exposure to man made or natural hazards such as pol- surveys. luted soils, hurricanes, radiation sources, earthquakes and volcanic activities. The size of a camp/settlement should in principle be determined by the carrying capacity of a proposed site. The possible proximity of refugee sites to national In exceptional cases, as an environmental mitigating parks,forest reserves,wildlife reserves,areas of cultur- strategy, the number of refugees may exceed the al importance, open water courses and fragile ecolog- carrying capacity as far as available forest products are ical areas increases the risk of potential damage by concerned, in order to confine environmental damage overuse or unmanaged exploitation of natural to areas of lower environmental value. In these cases resources.This damage includes deforestation, loss of special measures will have to be taken to provide biodiversity, rangeland degradation, erosion, siltation sufficient wood resources or alternative materials. and the pollution of water resources. Overuse of, and/or damage to,natural resources may cause conflict The site plan should determine where and how to with the local population. build or site different camp elements and where to take special environmental measures such as establish- The location of refugee sites on steep slopes can ment of greenbelts,construction of drainage canals and increase the risk of erosion,as will inappropriate design terracing.A plan of action for community-based main- of camps or settlements. Likewise, inappropriate loca- tenance of camp infrastructure should be included in tion of a camp site may increase the risk of floods,the this plan. need to construct new access roads, or may result in increase distances to be covered by transportation. 22 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines Site preparation implies the careful implementation of Environmental conditions may be positively or nega- the site plan.If heavy equipment is used,indiscriminate tively affected by water supply systems and activities bulldozing or radical clearing of ground cover has to be linked to it, depending on the appropriateness of the avoided at all costs.While constructing infrastructure system and its operation management. and roads,existing trees and bush cover has to be pro- tected to the extent possible. Topographical factors 6.2.3.2 Environmental impacts related to water have to be taken into account,following contour lines. extraction The siting of shelter areas should be done in such a The following points should be noted: way,that existing vegetation is respected to the extent possible. depletion of the source as a result of unsustainable extraction or collection of water; For shelter construction, it is important to ensure the complete availability of appropriate materials, which contamination of the local water (surface and are either environmentally benign or which have been sub-surface) regime due to improper disposal of gathered in a sustainable manner.If this is not possible, waste water and human-waste; faulty design and alternative building methods have to be explored and operation/maintenance of piped water network; promoted or shelter materials have to be brought in excessive extraction of groundwater (leading to salt from outside the region or country. Construction water intrusion in case of coastal zones and other waste should be recycled or properly disposed of. harmful constituents in the local geological forma- tion);and other related activities in the camp; In urban and/or cold climates, priority should be given to distribute materials which will compensate for dam- impacts to local environment due to construction age to dwellings, provide additional protection against and operation of water supply system (physical cold weather conditions and/or establish proactive structures and chemicals, if used) the intensity and community-based maintenance systems. magnitude of which would largely depend on the nature and size of the project and the sensitivity of the local ecosystem; 6.2.3 Water 6.2.3.1 Issues impact on social environment caused by potential The supply of adequate amounts of safe drinking water conflicts with the host communities when sharing is an essential component in any refugee operation. the same water sources; Water is needed for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene,livestock,agriculture,institutional uses and cul- camps and settlements may be subject to flooding if tural/religious activities. wrongly located (e.g.in river beds,in wadis,low-lying floodplains); There is a strong inter-relationship between the envi- ronment,water and other programme sectors such as inappropriate drainage, soil and water conservation health,sanitation,physical planning,agriculture and live- measures as well as poor water management in irri- stock-keeping.Availability of water, for example, is one gation systems may lead to erosion, floods, ground- of the basic criteria for the selection of a camp or water contamination and soil salinisation;and settlement site. Designing health services, sanitation facilities or shelter structures are all largely guided by camps or settlements close to open streams or over the availability of water.With regards agriculture,atten- unconfined aquifers may cause downstream con- tion has to be given to soil and water conservation tamination. measures for rain-fed agriculture and the design and construction of appropriate irrigation systems in the 6.2.3.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate case of irrigated crop production.Indiscriminate use of environmental impacts agrochemicals as well as waste disposal may also lead Attention should be given to the following: to contamination of surface or groundwater sources. designate competent technical experts for assess- Refugee-related activities can therefore have serious ment and development planning of water supply impacts on aquatic ecosystems (rivers, ponds, ground- systems,and give special attention to assessment of water reservoirs), both locally and further afield. safe yield and quality of available water (throughout UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 23 the year),and likely environmental impacts resulting 6.2.4.2 Environmental Impacts Related to Sanitation from construction and implementation of water Note should be taken of the following: supply structures; poor control of excreta can lead to pollution of maintain water sources and storage facilities and surface water as well as groundwater.This can result protect them against pollution (e.g. from human in the spread of disease to a much larger proportion waste,garbage,livestock and siltation); of the population than that which caused the pollution,with resultant human and financial costs; ensure proper control of any chemicals, such as chlorine,being used to disinfect water; poor management of water distribution points and waste water (i.e.if it is allowed to collect and stand ensure proper management of waste water to avoid in puddles) can provide breeding grounds for development of wet areas which can develop as disease carrying vectors; breeding grounds for mosquitoes and aid the spread of disease; inadequate provision of solid waste storage near point of use, collection, disposal and stabilisation, or develop environmentally friendly plans and opera- reuse and recycling, could lead to contamination of tions for water supply and disposal systems; the environment and the potential spread of disease by humans,animals,insects or vermin; employ locally appropriate soil and water conserva- tion practices such as bio-engineering, especially in dust carried in the air can be irritating or harmful to when camps are located in vulnerable areas; the eyes,respiratory system or skin,can contaminate food and damage sensitive camp equipment.Under ensure consultations with stakeholders (including some conditions, dust can be heavily contaminated authorities/ line agencies and representatives from with faecal matter and may be a direct cause of host communities) throughout all the stages of disease; developing water supply systems;and smoke generated as a result of poor cooking sensitise and educate the beneficiaries/refugees on practices and the wrong design of shelter can be a the need to conserve water and promote best concern,as it is hazardous to human health; practices in the use of water. insects and rodents are primary vectors for the spread of disease within a refugee camp and 6.2.4 Sanitation between refugee and local populations.These pests 6.2.4.1 Issues can also contaminate food supplies,either before or Failure to maintain adequate standards of sanitation after distribution to refugees;and can result in health risks caused by pests and vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches or rodents, as some measures used to control pests (i.e. chemical well as environmental contamination. Any such con- applications) can be toxic to humans (both benefici- tamination will almost certainly lead to disease among aries and workers), to non-target organisms and to the refugee/returnee population and possibly among the environment. the local population as well. 6.2.4.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate Sanitation includes activities in the following areas: environmental impacts The following measures should be considered: disposal of human excreta; design and put into operation a basic system for dis- waste water and drainage; posing of human excreta as soon as possible, taking into account expected needs as well as local condi- solid waste; tions and customs.This system should be monitored and upgraded as necessary.Alternative technologies dust and smoke;and for excreta treatment should be used, to the extent insect and rodent control. 24 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines possible, e.g. using excreta in biogas generation, as inadequate sanitation; fertilizer,or other possibilities; presence of vector-borne diseases such as schisto- control waste water at source and/or put into place somiasis,malaria,or river-blindness;and drainage facilities or other remedial measures to prevent accumulation of standing water around extremes of climate and weather. water distribution points and refugee shelter areas. Drainage systems for waste water can be used to 6.2.5.2 Environmental impacts related to refugee capture and recycle this resource,which can then be health applied for watering vegetable gardens or trees; Impacts to avoid include: the introduction of new disease vectors into the a waste management system, appropriate to the local environment by refugees (or an erroneous demands and local site conditions, should be put perception that refugees might bring in new dis- into place, monitored, and improved as necessary. eases,which can lead to stigmatisation of refugees); Special precautions need to be taken with all hazardous waste such as medical waste, empty improper storage or disposal of hazardous medical pesticide containers,and used or expired chemicals. waste such as used dressings, syringes, or expired Implementation of a programme involving the medicines; "3-Rs" (reduce, reuse, and recycle) should be a major part of a waste management plan; increased vector population due to poor sanitation and hygiene,e.g.mosquitoes or rats;and camp design (including shelter for refugees) and operation should aim to minimise the production infection of existing vectors with new species, e.g. of dust and smoke. Ground cover should be mosquitoes with falciparum malaria. maintained or replaced,to the extent possible; 6.2.5.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate insect and rodent control measures should be environmental impacts implemented, taking into account the toxicity of Identify potential environmental impacts on refugee many pesticides and insecticides. Over the longer health and well-being and take appropriate preventive term,non-chemical pest-control methods should be measures,e.g.: instituted,to the extent possible. identify the most appropriate camp location, taking into account issues such as: climate, local disease 6.2.5 Health patterns,drainage,and/or the availability of water; 6.2.5.1 Issues The sudden arrival of large numbers of refugees in an supply adequate safe drinking water; area creates a source of potential environmental health problems, for refugees as well as members of design and install appropriate sanitation facilities, the local population.The rigours of flight, overcrowd- including waste management; ing, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and disruption of health services may, for example, lead to the onset of provide appropriate,location-specific shelter materi- outbreaks such as cholera, dysentery, hepatitis or als for protection against heat,cold,rain,or snow; typhoid among the refugee population. introduce effective vector control measures as early Conditions which may have an impact on refugees' as possible in refugee settings ­ including insecticide health and well-being include: treated shelter and latrine materials as appropriate; overcrowding; minimise dust production in and around the camp/settlement; poor quality shelter; put into place appropriate controls over the use of poor drainage in the camp/settlement area; medical supplies and for the safe disposal of medical waste;and polluted water; UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 25 institute appropriate training programmes for staff 6.2.6.2 Environmental impacts related to the supply and the refugee community. and preparation of food in refugee situations possible impacts include: In returnee situations,the possible introduction of vec- tor borne diseases by large population movements damage to infrastructure such as roads and bridges should be taken into account. For example, in an out- by the transportation of large volumes of food; break situation, consider active case finding, effective treatment and possible quarantining of infected people degradation of forests and other wooded areas by before relocation to an area where the vector is pres- refugees gathering cooking fuel,leading to direct and ent but where there is no actual outbreak. Expert indirect impacts such as loss of fauna,degradation of advice should be sought and the national authorities vegetation, loss of topsoil, soil erosion, and siltation should be involved. of surface water sources; Advantage should be taken of a return situation to air pollution, both inside refugee shelters and engage in community education about vector borne around camp sites, due to the burning of fuel for diseases in countries of return. Suitable materials such cooking, leading to an increase in health problems as insecticide treated mosquito nets and education such as asthma,bronchitis,and eye problems; materials for malaria control will need to be provided. Measures to prevent disease vectors being transport- pollution due to discarded food packaging waste ed with returning refugees ­ such as preventing such as paper,wood,plastic,and various laminates. livestock transfer or disinfecting transportation vehicles or luggage are not recommended as they are of limit- 6.2.6.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate ed efficacy. environmental impacts Possible measures to take into account ­ bearing the In vacated camps and settlements,it is important to: substance of the MOU mentioned above, as well as political and economic constraints are: ensure that no infectious waste or dangerous mate- rials remain unsupervised on the site;and cultural acceptability of the food provided,which will be a major consideration in the success of any pro- ensure that hazards such as empty shelters, pit gramme to promote more efficient preparation latrines, waste disposal areas and the like are either techniques,etc.; removed (and disposed of in a safe manner) or dealt with appropriately to accepted standards. in conjunction with specialists from other sectors (community services, domestic energy, forestry, site planning),review technical and social activities relat- 6.2.6 Food ed to food transport, storage, preparation, etc., to 6.2.6.1 Issues reduce energy needs and minimise pollution and The supply and preparation of food are two of the waste production. The following measures and most important areas of concern in refugee situations. aspects should be considered. A sufficient quantity of palatable food is necessary for physical health but it also plays an important role in when on site feeding for selective feeding pro- emotional well-being. gramme is decided,it is important that appropri- ate cooking energy is provided.Fortified,blended Supply of food requires close co-operation with other food such as corn soya blend and fresh vegeta- organisations, such as the World Food Programme bles are not supposed to be cooked for a long (WFP),host government and other agencies,as well as time to preserve their nutrition status (refer to the involvement of the logistics, transport, domestic joint UNHCR/WFP guidelines on selective feed- energy, and forestry sectors. A new memorandum of ing programme). Raising awareness on healthy understanding was established in 2002 between and environmental friendly cooking techniques UNHCR and WFP which covers the respective could be provided; responsibilities of these two agencies for refugee situations. food preparation related support ­ such as the provision of cooking sets and suitable stoves 26 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines (including traditional models) ­ should be provid- Possible social considerations to examine could be to: ed to mothers with young children who require frequent feeding and bearing in mind the lack of Facilitate multi-household or multi-family cooking,or refrigeration facilities in camps (refer to WHO's some variation of this concept,e.g.cooking by small nutritional management guidelines in major groups of families several days a week.Adoption of emergencies) this measure could yield the largest reduction of fuel use of any of the measures noted above. Note:High energy biscuits and cooked meals for the entire population should only be provided There is an increase in the potential for disease for a short period of time,such as during repatri- transmission associated with the adoption of a ation or early influx of emergency where securi- multi-family cooking approach due to the generally ty is bad. Otherwise this should be avoided due unhygienic conditions prevailing in refugee situa- to associated health risks. tions. Any such approach should therefore not be extended beyond a manageable number of families Technical measures to adopt could be to: from a public health point of view, and should include a public education component stressing the promote the use of energy saving (and low smoke) dangers and means to avoid them. stoves; Institutional cooking, in which UNHCR or other promote community-based grinding of grains,or the agencies control the supply of food and manage use of grinding mills in camps and settlements; food preparation,should not be promoted and only be considered as a last resort under exceptional promote energy-saving cooking methods, e.g. pre- conditions such as an extreme shortage of food,fuel soaking beans or whole grain maize; or water. promote the use of energy-saving utensils (e.g.pots When large numbers of refugees are involved, this with tight fitting lids which are the appropriate size option presents potential problems in the areas of for the stoves being used); management, hygiene, water supply, etc. In general, therefore,this approach should be reserved for con- supply food items in the general food ration in a trolled settings,such as transit centres,hospitals,and form which requires the least amount of energy for feeding centres for malnourished refugees. cooking,e.g.flour instead of grain; 6.2.7 Domestic Energy select those foods/sources whose transport, han- dling and packaging needs are the lowest and pro- 6.2.7.1 Issues mote the re-use,recycling or proper disposal of the Energy is required to meet the cooking, heating and packaging used; lighting needs of refugee and returnee households.It is also frequently a requirement of small businesses (such promote recycling of food waste as livestock feed, as charcoal making, lime burning, beer brewing, compost,or as feedstock in a biogas plant; brick burning and small-scale restaurants),and is neces- sary for the operation of most if not all relief and minimise the use of any pesticides used in food development agencies. storage areas,while ensuring adequate food quality; While agency requirements may be relatively large, promote best use of empty food bags and tins, e.g. they have the financial ability to purchase fuel (in the for income-generating activities in support of peo- case of wood) in a manner which may be less harmful ple/groups with special needs;and to the environment. In the case of refugees, however, the extraction of wood is often a major cause of promote ways of healthy food preparation, com- environmental impacts. bined with health and nutrition education. Many energy sources also pose considerable health risks to the user, especially when used in cooking, and recognition needs to be given to this potential. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 27 6.2.7.2 Environmental impacts related to energy biogas plants and solar cookers/water heaters, for consumption camp institutions and agency housing;and The primary energy source in the majority of refugee situations is wood, or wood-derived products such as photovoltaic power, wind generators or micro- charcoal. hydropower for small businesses. The collection of wood ­ dead or live ­ is often a A second option is to ensure that fuelwood is harvest- major cause of environmental impacts in refugee oper- ed in a more sustainable manner.This may be done by ations. Extensive extraction of wood and wood-based introducing controls over the way in which refugees products has the potential to result in deforestation, harvest fuel (e.g. areas, times, species) or through an soil erosion,localised flash-flooding,pollution of surface organised fuelwood supply programme based on water and loss of natural habitat, all of which have wood whose origin is properly checked. potentially negative implications for biological diversity and the sustainable use of natural resources. Another option is to consider the supply of alternative fuels.For this,the types of fuels that refugees are accus- Other energy sources, such as coal, kerosene, liquid tomed to need to be compared with what is available propane gas and electricity are used less frequently,and locally. Fuels whose supply is the most sustainable and usually in urban areas, where the type and scale of economically viable may then be provided, taking into impacts are generally less severe nature. account the local natural resource situation and the funding available. As well as having a visible and often lasting impact on the physical environment, the use of some energy 6.2.8 Forestry sources can pose health risks to users, especially in cooking,for example: 6.2.8.1 Issues The physical impacts of refugees or returnees on the the burning of all fuels, in enclosed areas without environment can be immediate,visible and long lasting. proper ventilation, can lead to carbon monoxide Nowhere is this more critical than in relation to forest- poisoning and death; ed or heavily vegetated lands. During a humanitarian operation,land can be partly or fully cleared of vegeta- biomass,which if not properly dried,has been impli- tion to make way for the physical infrastructure of a cated in causing acute respiratory infections, lung new camp or settlement. Urgently required building disease,heart disease,destruction of red blood cells, materials may be sourced from local forests or planta- eye disorders and a variety of infant ailments; tions, while wood is commonly cut or gathered for coal produces smoke and a variety of pollutants, cooking, heating and ­ often later in the operation ­ including sulphur dioxide and heavy metals;and conversion to charcoal.Livestock herders may have no option but to graze their animals in open forests or kerosene presents the risk of fire as it is usually gather necessary forage from these regions.All of these stored in containers inside shelters. It is also a activities,and more,have the potential of causing signif- poisonous substance,with special risks for children. icant and lasting environmental, social and economic impacts on a community and/or region. 6.2.7.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate environmental impacts Forest degradation and deforestation can,in turn,result The first priority should be to lower fuel consumption in additional, related environmental damages such as through promoting energy efficiency by all users accelerated erosion, landslides, siltation of surface (domestic, institutional, business, agency) by, among water courses,siltation of agricultural fields,the loss of other things,introducing disincentives to high fuelwood biodiversity, dust storms and eventual desertification. consumption and identifying energy-saving techniques The availability of forest products for the local popula- tailored to users'specific needs.Such techniques might tions may decrease, which can lead to frictions include: between refugees and the local population in refugee hosting areas. fuel-efficient stoves, along with environmental The limitation of damage to the local ecosystems will education or training programmes; depend,to a very large extent,on the ability to ration- ally and systematically manage the natural resource 28 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines base, in particular forests and rangeland in refugee 6.2.8.3 Measures to reduce and mitigate hosting areas. This implies the need for timely and deforestation systematic planning, good co-ordination with all part- Key,basic elements to successful forest management in ners involved,community participation by refugees and refugee and related operations are: the local communities,and sufficient financial resources for specific,timely actions to be undertaken. knowing the needs and demands from refugees as well as local communities,if common resources are 6.2.8.2 Environmental impacts on forests to be exploited; Site preparation:many refugee camps are located in forest areas.Land clearing for camp establishment ­ assessing what can be supplied,and from where; if not well planned ­ may lead to severe deforesta- tion,although this may be concentrated over a rela- carefully controlling the level of resources extracted, tively small area.If refugee camps are located in the while at the same time renewing or replanting oth- vicinity of national parks and forest reserves,the risk ers;and,in particular; of damage by encroachment may be considerable. ensuring that forest-related activities are not carried Harvesting of construction materials: poles, posts, out in isolation from activities which are planned or sawn timber, grasses and branches are essential already underway in other related sectors. components of basic shelter, buildings, fences and other structures. In particular, straight and well Mitigative actions have to be taken from the very developed trees are cut for construction purposes. beginning of an emergency, throughout the whole period of a refugee situation. The following actions Collection of wood for fuel:in many refugee camps could be taken: and settlements, wood is the only readily available energy source for cooking. Initially refugees will assessment and planning:this includes organising and collect dead wood.If this is no longer available with- undertaking a rapid assessment of forest resources, in walking distance, they may start cutting live trees an assessment of the demands for forest products, indiscriminately.This may lead to substantial forest integrating environmental issues into the complete degradation and deforestation. site planning and development cycle, and prepara- tion of a long-term forest management programme Construction of access roads can, if poorly aligned (se below); with regards the physical landscape, increases the risk of erosion. preventive and mitigative actions, possibly in the fields of site selection,site planning and implementa- Farming: if no clear guidance or instructions are tion, resource conservation (forest protection) and forthcoming,refugees may quickly start to clear for- forest management (controlled wood extraction). est land for small-scale agriculture. Others might include the establishment of fuelwood plantations.Additional mitigative actions are related Charcoal manufacturing and cutting wood for sale: to sound planning of agricultural activities and live- this is often one of the most profitable income stock keeping, enforcing rules and regulations generating activities in refugee camps.Large areas of regarding illegal charcoal making, wood trading and forest may be quickly affected if adequate control illegal hunting. systems are not established from the outset, and people informed accordingly. rehabilitation activities such as reafforestation of affected areas.This may be done by facilitating natu- Grazing and browsing by refugee-owned livestock ral regrowth of trees through protection, by forest may cause severe damage to forest and rangeland, enrichment through direct seeding or tree planting and lead to conflict over access to possibly pasture. and by reafforestation of deforested areas. Other measures include agroforestry, permaculture, com- Hunting and poaching may seriously affect local munity forestry in camps and local villages,road side wildlife populations and biodiversity. plantations, and plantations along irrigation canals. Often these activities are undertaken in combina- tion with soil and water conservation measures such UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 29 as the installation of water catchments,check dams, returnee situations, where agriculture may even terracing,or bunding. form, or be expected to form, the basis for future subsistence of returnees. monitoring change in the extent and composition of vegetation cover.Satellite images and aerial photog- UNHCR's assistance measures to promote crop pro- raphy interpretation in combination with ground duction by refugees and returnees may include the fol- checks,using GPS,are useful techniques in preparing lowing: forest and vegetation maps. assistance in making land tenure arrangements; To assist with this co-ordination, it is strongly recom- mended that a Forest Management Plan is drawn up planning of land-use and agricultural practices; for each situation, addressing these and other needs. Such a plan, which would include a broad range of provision of agricultural inputs (tools,improved seed stakeholders, would also include a strong element of varieties, agrochemicals ­ although use of the latter monitoring to ensure that the activities being under- should be discouraged wherever possible); taken respond in an appropriate manner to the per- ceived needs of the affected people. enrichment of soil land promotion of water harvest- ing and conservation practices; 6.2.9 Agriculture avoidance of harmful practices;and 6.2.9.1 Issues Some form of agriculture is possible and practised in provision of extension services and support to many refugee and returnee situations, but is often agricultural co-operatives and farmers associations. dictated by local rules governing access to land, avail- ability of water and traditional practices by the people. 6.2.9.2 Environmental impacts Where it does occur, refugee agriculture is usually Although refugee farming is usually of low input ­ but small-scale, of low input and traditional by nature.The some can be carried out on the same plot over many conditions under which many such activities are carried years thus weakening the soils unless appropriate out often means that agriculture as practised is often recovery actions are taken ­ there are still a number of environmentally damaging and not sustainable. Many issues which need to be considered.Among these are opportunities, however, exist for introducing simple the: new practices and techniques which can boost yields and benefit the environment as well as the community. clear guidance to refugees on what they can and should not do with regards agriculture: some Agriculture is most often practised in the following refugees make arrangements with local community situations: members allowing them access to land in return for some form of repayment. Such practices are, how- refugees in camps, where small-scale vegetable and ever,illegally in some countries; food crop production is practised in and around camps, if land can be made available.The objective lack of suitable land which may lead to overexploita- here is to supplement the food basket and,if possi- tion or inappropriate use of land, resulting in land ble,to generate some level of income; degradation,erosion and infestation of weeds; spontaneously settled refugees in villages and towns, unclear land tenure arrangements and limited time where refugees will mostly make their own arrange- perspectives of refugees; this may result in a lack of ments with local people to obtain the use of agricul- care and concern for the sustainable use of land; tural land. Improving food security and generating income are two of the reasons why this form of unfamiliarity with land and ecological conditions, agriculture are practised; which can lead to inappropriate farming techniques, resulting in land degradation;and refugees in organised rural settlements, where agricultural land is provided by the government or unfamiliarity with newly introduced farming tech- local authorities.The objective here is to promote niques such as irrigation or the use of agrochemicals; food self sufficiency and generate income;and 30 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines this may also lead to land degradation, pollution of If animals move together with their owners to other land and water resources and health hazards. countries or regions,various problems may arise.These problems are related to natural resources manage- 6.2.9.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate ment, human health conditions, animal health environmental impacts conditions and social conflicts between refugees and Possible measures include: the local population. Ensure security of access to suitable agricultural At a different scale, small animal production can land; provide food and income opportunities for refugees during the care and maintenance and local settlement Carry out land-use planning based on soil and land phase. Livestock rearing is also an important first surveys and systematic land evaluation; activity for many returnee communities. Introduce and support sustainable farming methods 6.2.10.2 Environmental impacts and technologies, (e.g. legume-based rotations, use Some of the most commonly encountered negative of organic inputs such as compost and manure, soil impacts caused by refugee livestock are the following: and water conservation methods, integrated pest management,agroforestry,and/or permaculture; in the absence of adequate pasture, livestock can strip existing vegetation (grass, shrubs, trees and Provide appropriate farming inputs, including crops) in the areas where they are kept, thus improved seed varieties and low toxicity pesticides; contributing to the destruction of flora and causing increased pressure with grazing wild animals, but Provide agricultural extension services, disseminat- also causing soil compaction and erosion, as well as ing sustainable farming methods and technologies; siltation of surface water sources; Work side by side with local communities to livestock may cause damage to, or simply occupy, promote sustainable agricultural practices, even if land owned or claimed by the local population,lead- only initially through small-scale demonstration proj- ing to loss of income for them and increased friction ects;and with refugees; Assist with improving crop storage facilities for movement of livestock may lead to increased dust communities. levels in and around refugee camps; water resources may be depleted by increased 6.2.10 Livestock demands; 6.2.10.1 Issues Although there are a number of obvious constraints water sources may be contaminated, leading to against keeping livestock ­ space, potential for disease health risks for refugees and local populations; outbreaks, sanitation and demands for forage and water ­ livestock are commonly kept in many refugee when animals from different areas are brought into situations.They are also a fundamental requirement in contact, they may be exposed to endemic or many returnee situations ­ given the broad range of epidemic diseases to which they have little products which they can provide ­ where they again resistance.This may lead to high mortality rates;and form an important part of community activities. the conditions in refugee camps often result in Many refugees in dryland areas belong to pastoral or animals and humans living in very close proximity. semi pastoral groups,whose livelihood is largely based This may result in transmission of animal borne on livestock production. If these people are forced to diseases such as tuberculosis,brucellosis,anthrax,or leave their home region and become refugees, their rabies to humans. livestock herds may also be heavily affected. Animals might be left behind or may be moved to other areas, These, however, should be countered by the following if time permits to organise such movement. beneficial environmental impacts which are in addition UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 31 to a range of social and economic benefits that accrue 6.2.11 Community Services for keeping livestock: 6.2.11.1 Issues provision of animal dung, in particular from cattle, The inevitable impact of large refugee influxes on the which can be used for cooking and heating; environment, and the resulting competition for limited natural resources, may cause friction and conflict with use of animal dung as a fertilizer for vegetable gar- the local population. dens and fields;and The arrival of refugees in areas where environmental use of cattle, buffaloes, camels and donkeys as conditions may differ substantially from their home draught animals in agriculture, for transport and for areas pose special problems. On the one hand, other work purposes, thus saving non-renewable refugees may face difficulties in adapting to different energy resources. environmental conditions (climate, health conditions, water, vegetation), while others may have difficulty, or 6.2.10.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate may not be motivated,to manage natural resources in Environmental Impacts a sustainable way. Individual responsibility, as well as The number of animals allowed in camps or settle- heightened awareness of the situation, are crucial ments has to be restricted according to feed and factors in helping refugees adapt to their new environ- space availability. Resource assessments should be ment and the social setting in which they find them- carried out at the start of an operation and period- selves. It is important to acknowledge that men and ically thereafter to determine the local carrying women are affected differently by environmental con- capacity. cerns ­ their different needs and roles should be recognised and addressed. If the number of animals exceeds the carrying capacity, the following measures can be considered: Improving knowledge and understanding of environ- sale of livestock;slaughtering;negotiations with local mental issues, will help raise awareness amongst population and authorities to obtain adequate graz- refugees and the local population, and may encourage ing land;relocation of livestock to alternative grazing their commitment to take better care of specific lands; or supplementary feeding and pasture natural resources as well as the broader environment. improvement. 6.2.11.2 Measures to reduce or eliminate Improved animal health,including disease prevention environmental impacts and the provision of animal health care; controlled Many of the environmental-mitigating measures movement of animals; zero grazing and improved described in these guidelines are of a technical nature. guardianship of free ranging animals; monitoring of Most of these measures require the active participation diseases;and vaccination and prophylactic treatment of refugees or should be undertaken on a self help and vector control. A community-based animal basis. The main objective of Community Services, in health care approach involving refugees and the relation to the environment,is to promote the partici- local population should to be promoted. pation of refugee men, women, boys and girls in envi- ronment-related activities and to promote self-help The negative impacts on public health caused by activities.To this end, close consultation and co-opera- refugee livestock can be minimised or avoided by tion with all other concerned sector activities is crucial. the following measures: careful use of veterinary drugs; prevention of zoonotic diseases; slaughtering Specific measures to take include the following. only in confined slaughtering places (abattoirs) and careful disposal of slaughterhouse wastes;separation Support formal participatory mechanisms: environ- of water points for human and livestock use. mental issues must be placed high on the agendas of whatever participatory mechanisms begin to Livestock keeping programmes should be devel- emerge during the first days of the influx. If a com- oped hand-in-hand with sound environmental man- mittee structure develops, it may be possible to agement and environmental awareness raising pro- encourage the establishment of a local grammes, for refugee/returnee communities as well Environmental Task Force, including representatives as local people (if the latter are also engaged in live- from the refugee and local host communities, local stock keeping. government officials, and representatives from local 32 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines and international NGOs and UNHCR. The task 6.2.12 Education force must be gender balanced and representative of as a full range of refugee and local community 6.2.12.1 Issues interests as possible in order to ensure that it A condition for the success of any technical solution to addresses issues affecting those with specific needs environmental problems is raising awareness of key ­ single female headed households, children, the issues and concerns among stakeholders. aged and the handicapped. A specific focus on enabling equal and active participation of women Without the acceptance,co-operation and support of and men is necessary; the refugee and local population ­ men, women, boys and girls ­ it is practically impossible to modify behav- Identify refugee men and women with skills and iour which impacts negatively on the environment, for experience in environment-related activities and example, high levels of fuelwood consumption. facilitate their participation in planning and imple- Environmental education is also crucial for refugees menting related projects. Specific efforts must be and other displaced persons. made to include women, especially in cultures where it may not be the custom for women to take Considering the benefits which it produces, environ- public responsibility. mental education is relatively inexpensive and, if com- bined with other activities and measures, environmen- Provide systematic information to refugees on: tal awareness raising can prevent a great deal of envi- ronmental damage. (i) prevailing environmental conditions in and around their living areas; 6.2.12.2 Measures to promote environmental (ii) the implications these conditions may have on education their well being; Among the measures which might be considered are (iii) measures refugees can take to adapt to their the following: new environment;and (iv) measures they can take to maintain and sustain Develop environmental teaching materials. their environment. Environmental teaching and learning materials for school children and adult learners (in literacy or Information should be disseminated through refugee farming classes, for example), should be developed leaders,youth and women's groups,schools,civic clubs, and made available. UNHCR, in collaboration with refugee committees and associations and group UNESCO PEER has developed a range of model meetings. teaching materials, which can be adapted to differ- ent geographical,national and cultural contexts; Facilitate training activities in specific environmental related activities and encourage refugee men, boys, Training of both male and female teachers in envi- girls and women to participate in these activities and ronmental principles and techniques should accom- projects, such as clean-up campaigns, household pany the introduction of any package of teaching hygiene, forest protection, tree planting, production materials.The eight broad topics outlined below are and use of fuel saving stoves, protection of water the subject matter of most refugee environmental points and the like.This can best be done by setting education programmes: up special committees and ensuring that women and men have equally opportunity to participate in energy conservation; decision making. conservation of trees and other vegetation; soil conservation; Facilitate interaction between refugees and the local water conservation; population to help prevent and solve any conflicts environmental health; relating to the use of natural resources. sustainable shelter; waste disposal;and Help mobilise refugee labour in environmental proj- local laws and traditions on natural resource use. ects where both male and female refugees can be employed (see also Income Generation). In implementing environmental education pro- grammes with refugees,internally displaced persons or returnees,the following principles should be followed: UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 33 integration of environmental education within to unsafe levels of these chemicals,or contaminating existing refugee, UNHCR and implementing the environment by leakage during use, or after partner initiatives; improper disposal of waste. cultural sensitivity; refugee motivation; Income-generating activities may be a source of refugee community initiative, participation and excessive smoke,soot,or noise,reducing the"quali- empowerment; ty of life"for those living nearby. respect for traditional knowledge as well as for modern science; 6.2.13.3 Measures to reduce or eliminate active involvement in all activities by women and environmental impacts girls including in decision making; Promote activities which,in the best case scenario,con- active involvement in all activities by men and tribute directly to sound environmental management. boys even in their none traditional roles; This might include increasing the opportunities for local populations as well as refugees / internally refugees'involvement in the formal and informal labour displaced / returnees should benefit;and force,and through environmentally sound income gen- involvement of host country government author- erating activities,should be a high priority. ities. Such initiatives should include the promotion of devel- opment-related projects in refugee-affected areas (in co-ordination with implementing partners,internation- 6.2.13 Income Generation al development agencies,etc.),e.g. 6.2.13.1 Issues The support of micro- and small-scale enterprises,and production of fuel-efficient stoves; other employment opportunities, by UNHCR, is an important tool in assisting refugees, in rural or urban manufacturing concrete latrine slabs, water cisterns, settings,to become more self-sufficient during the care cement blocks or sun dried/compacted earth blocks and maintenance and durable solutions phases. To for shelter construction; obtain maximum benefits, these activities should be actively promoted from the earliest stage. nurseries and reforestation; While some income generation activities,such as refor- collecting and recycling of waste; estation, could directly contribute to sound environ- mental management, it is more important to realise terracing eroded hillsides; that increased opportunities for income generation, in general, have the potential to reduce refugee-related composting programmes; environmental impacts. This is the case since, in the absence of alternatives, refugees' primary sources of fish farming;and income tend to be based on wood-based activities (the sale of wood or charcoal, or burning bricks, for setting up biogas facilities. example). As more income generation options become available,these wood-based activities become In order to successfully promote activities with a posi- less attractive,from a financial point of view. tive impact on the environment, these activities need to be seen by the refugees as being more profitable 6.2.13.2 Environmental impacts related to income and/or less physically demanding than the alternatives generation activities in refugee situations (i.e."environmentally harmful" activities). Failing this, it Wood or wood-fuel intensive activities,e.g.brewing, will be very difficult to prevent more harmful,informal businesses that produce charcoal, burnt bricks or activities from taking place. lime (for whitewash) can lead to extensive defor- estation, with the potential for causing soil erosion, Environmentally harmful income generating activities flooding,pollution of surface water. should be identified and discouraged.UNHCR should not support income generation activities which pose Enterprises may use toxic chemicals as part of their serious environmental risks to the refugee and local operations (e.g. paint thinners, solvents, pesticides, communities. Each type of small enterprise proposal herbicides, etc.) and risk exposing their employees should be evaluated to assess its potential for serious 34 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines environmental impacts. The priority should be to 6.3.1 Rehabilitation of Refugee- promote activities which (at least) do not: Affected Areas Three issues of particular concern should be highlighted: use or produce harmful materials (e.g. toxic chemi- cals); a) waste clean-up and disposal; involve unsafe production processes; b) site rehabilitation;and produce large quantities of dust or smoke; c) ecosystem rehabilitation. create excessive noise; Waste clean-up and disposal: Refugee camps generate a lot of solid waste,in particular.In protracted refugee require extensive quantities of wood (unless the situations this can be a problem, but also in cases wood can be obtained in a sustainable manner); where repatriation may occur immediately after the and/or emergency phase, little or no consideration might be given to collecting and properly disposing of waste. place excessive demands on available resources or utilities (e.g. water supply, sewage system, electrical Even in the best case scenario, closing down a camp supply). will produce an enormous amount of waste associated with shelter materials, discarded belongings, damaged Sound training programmes should be designed and and unusable supplies of all kinds, and similar items. implemented.The design of vocational training curricu- Waste may also include materials of a hazardous la should include both an overview of the kinds of envi- nature such as expired drugs, partially full pesticide ronmental impacts likely to occur as a result of the containers,or used motor oil. operation of small-scale enterprises,as well as describ- ing the kinds of measures which could be taken to Apart from being a blight on the landscape, many of either prevent or mitigate these impacts. these materials will be hazardous,in the short-term,or have the potential to be sources of pollution over the long-term as they deteriorate. 6.3 S P E C I F I C T E C H N I C A L Waste clean up must therefore be carried out so that CON S I D E R AT I ON S ­ D U R A B L E all hazardous waste is identified and either completely S O LU T I ON S P H A S E removed, or safely disposed of on-site by incineration or secure burial (taking into account the possibility of While the specific environmental and technical consid- contamination of water sources).The disposal of non- eration will, of course, vary from situation to situation, hazardous waste should consider the possibility that it a number of issues commonly associated with the could be used or recycled by the local community.This durable solutions phase can be identified. Two such should always be the first choice for environmental issues are addressed below: reasons. Materials which can not be re-used in some manner should be collected and either incinerated or the rehabilitation of refugee-affected areas and envi- buried. The ultimate objective of the clean up is to ronmental concerns in relation to repatriation;and leave the site in good enough condition that all subsequent activities (such as tree planting) can be re-integration of refugees in the host country (local undertaken immediately. integration). Site rehabilitation: Many of the activities carried out It should be noted that specific sector-related environ- during the running of a refugee camp will result in mental measures elaborated in the previous section changes to the topography and ecosystems of the site. can also be generally applied to any form of durable The digging of latrines and drainage trenches, opening solutions.The major difference is that the durable solu- of a dumping ground, or the construction of various tions phase requires more consideration to achieve camp facilities,will transform the site from what it was long-term sustainability of the area concerned. before the arrival of the refugees. Depending on its previous state,and on the uses to which it might be put UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 35 after the departure of the refugees,these changes may impacts associated with refugee activities over a much either be beneficial or detrimental (from an environ- wider area. mental point of view) to the camp site. The cutting of trees for fuel and construction materials, For example,a site located next to an existing commu- the movement of livestock searching for pasturage,the nity might prove to have benefited from the provision construction of temporary access roads,etc.may have of services to refugees, and might, in fact, be a more caused environmental impacts over an area of desirable place to live for the local population than hundreds of square kilometres around the camp. their own community. As discussed elsewhere in these Guidelines,these envi- On the other hand, a refugee camp site located in an ronmental impacts can take many forms,affecting flora, unpopulated area, on the border of a nature reserve fauna and humans,and assigning an economic value to for example, may have had only negative impacts on these impacts is a complex problem. In order to be what had been a relatively pristine environment. able to make a decision about the kinds of rehabilita- Possible impacts include pollution of ground water tion measures which will be undertaken, and their reserves, siltation, deforestation and loss of biological scope,there has to be some value put on the environ- diversity. mental impacts which are to be addressed. Site rehabilitation therefore involves the following Once the impacts themselves have been identified and activities: assessed, an approximate economic value can be assigned to them by using an approach similar to that identification of the actual changes to landscape and discussed in Annex 4. ecosystems, made as a result of the setting up, and operation of the refugee camp, and an assessment 6.3.2 Environmental Concerns in as to whether these changes have been of a positive Relation to Repatriation and or negative nature, bearing in mind the potential Effective Re-integration uses to which the site will be put after the refugees The return of refugees to their countries of origin leave; involves many of the same environmental considera- tions described immediately above. The objective of assessment of the seriousness of the negative any development-oriented activity involving,UNHCR's impacts in terms of their long-term effects on the support for a life-sustaining reintegration of displaced environment (and local population) and the approx- persons,should conform to,and to the extent possible, imate economic value associated with these promote basic criteria for sustainable use and manage- impacts; ment of natural resources. Project documents should reflect these considerations. identification of measures which could be taken to rehabilitate the camp site so as to ensure that those In the case of returnees, however, the causes of the changes which produced negative impacts are environmental impacts they may encounter, and some reversed,or minimised; of the impacts themselves, are likely to be different from those dealt with in the preceding sections. calculation of approximate costs for the rehabilita- Refugees, for example, are often returning to areas tion measures identified and the selection of those which have been affected by combat, in which infra- measures whose implementation costs are less than structure has been damaged and destroyed,and where the environmental costs identified earlier (i.e., if the unexploded bombs and shells may be found in homes cost to reverse an impact is far greater than the cost and businesses,as well as land mines in farmers'fields. associated with the impact itself,it may not be justi- fiable to implement the"cure"). These impacts would impose significant constraints on the ability of returnees'to regain self-sufficiency and the Ecosystem rehabilitation: Ecosys-tem rehabilitation criteria for determining the economic costs associated involves the same kinds of activities identified above,in with these impacts would have to incorporate this site rehabilitation,with the difference being that ecosys- reality. tem rehabilitation encompasses the environmental 36 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines Integration of refugees in the host country (local integration) involves many of the same issues, with respect to impacts and sustainable activities ­ see sec- toral guidance above. Further information on all of these sectors can be found in the Bibliography. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 37 U N H C R ANNEX 1 CORE LIST OF UNHCR ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS AND COMPONENTS The purpose of this Annex is to identify UNHCR projects and project components, specifically related to sound environmental management of refugee assistance operations, so that UNHCR expenditures on the environment can be effectively monitored. These environmental projects and components are grouped into two broad groups: those having environmental objectives common to all sectors and those which can be associated with particular sectors. Financial data on a number of the activities listed below may be available through FMIS and such activities can therefore be excluded from this monitoring exercise. In order to provide as complete a picture as possible of environmental activities and their costs, projects and activities undertaken by partner agencies, to address refugee-related environmental problems, should also be monitored. CO M M ON E N V I R ON M E N TA L AC T I V I T I E S Inclusion of an environmental specialist in the emergency team Fielding and staffing of environmental coordinators during the care-and-maintenance phase. Preparation of environmental master plans/action plans and implementation of other field-oriented environmental studies and analysis Establishment and maintenance of an environmental data base including geographical information systems Environmental monitoring, including development of appropriate indicators, gathering relevant statistics and collection of related environmental documents Training in sound environmental management practices Research on environmental policies,programmes and technologies Promotion of environmentally friendly technologies including field testing and demonstration Meetings/symposia/workshops on environment-related subjects Public information activities on the environment S E C TO R A L AC T I V I T I E S A Supplies and logistics Environmentally friendly ("Green") procurement B Physical planning Promotion of shelter materials which are either environmentally benign or which have been gathered in a sustainable manner C Water Protection of water supply areas 38 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines D Sanitation Disposal of human excreta Waste water and drainage Proper management of garbage Dust control Insect and rodent control E Food Provision of appropriate foods which require less fuel for their preparation Promotion of energy efficient food preparation methods F Domestic energy Promotion of efficient energy use Supply of alternative fuels Sustainable provision of fuelwood G Forestry Establishment of protection zones and other means of the forest access control around refugee sites Controlled harvesting Natural forest management to promote regeneration Reforestation and afforestation projects H Agriculture Minimisation of the use of agricultural chemicals and promotion of organic production methods I Livestock Provision of food and income support J Community services/Education Promotion of environmental education,awareness and participation K Income generation Promotion of environment-related income generation activities UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 39 U N H C R ANNEX 2 DRAFT TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIALIST The main task of the environmental specialist is to assist the UNHCR emergency team and the host government in integrating environmental factors into the refugee-hosting arrangements to be made during the emergency phase.The specialist is responsible to the UNHCR emergency team leader,but will be expected to collaborate with relevant government departments and NGOs. T H E S P E C I F I C T E R M S O F R E F E R E N C E O F T H E E N V I R ON M E N TA L S P E C I A L I S T I N C LU D E S A D U T Y TO : 1. Collect and analyse existing data and information concerning the status of the environment in the refugee hosting areas; 2. Visit the refugee hosting areas, establish the environmental situation prevailing in the areas concerned, and identify major possible constraints to action; 3. Contact relevant government agencies, both central and local, NGOs, and local scientific institutions, to obtain refugee-related information and these institutions'recommendations for preventive and mitigation measures; 4. Interview representatives of refugee and local populations, from all segments of these populations, to examine their relationship with the surrounding natural environment; 5. Propose fuel supply strategies,both short- and long-term,taking into account long-term environmental impacts, costs and logistical constraints; 6. Consult with the sectoral specialists concerned on basic needs such as shelter, sanitation, water, with a view to minimizing environmental impacts associated with projects and activities in the emergency phase. Where necessary,propose environmental projects to rehabilitate initial environmental damage and generate a sense of responsibility among refugee populations; 7. Have joint consultations with the host government as a member of the UNHCR emergency team, and assist the team leader in establishing environmentally-sound refugee assistance arrangements; 8. Prepare a report dealing with the above-mentioned issues, and make recommendations which need to be followed up in the care-and-maintenance phase. G E N E R A L Q UA L I F I C AT I ON S F O R A N E N V I R ON M E N TA L S P E C I A L I S T: Depending on the situation,relevant qualifications could include: Post graduate degrees (or equivalent work-related experience) in forestry, agroforestry, rural energy supply, environmental science,or natural resource management. 40 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R ANNEX 3 DRAFT TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL CO-ORDINATOR The main duty of the environmental coordinator is to identify and formulate projects for environmental protection and rehabilitation in refugee-hosting areas.Under the overall supervision of the UNHCR Country Representative, with technical support from UNHCR'sTechnical Support Section (TSS), and in close collaboration with relevant government departments, and relevant NGOs, the Environmental Co-ordinator will perform the following duties and functions: 1. Coordinate and consolidate UNHCR environment-related activities in accordance with UNHCR policies and priorities; 2. Act as focal point and liaison officer for all matters related to environmental activities amongst different sectors within UNHCR, and between UNHCR, the government, implementing partners, bilateral and multilateral agencies and NGOs. Harmonise and coordinate the work of those agencies dealing with environmental projects; 3. Assess environmental conditions in refugee-hosting areas,and assess how and to what extent those conditions are affected by the presence of refugees. Define main areas of environmental concern (e.g. deforestation, rangeland degradation,soil erosion,water conservation,etc.); 4. Identify ways and means of reducing or arresting the impact of refugees on the environment; 5. Identify and formulate specific projects in the fields of reforestation, forest management, erosion control, soil and water conservation; 6. Devise a strategy for ongoing monitoring of the environmental impact of refugees and refugee operations; 7. Supervise and monitor the implementation of environmental projects administered by UNHCR; 8. Study environmental, as well as socio-economic, impacts upon local communities, and assess the possibility of conflicts between refugees and local communities over natural resources; 9. Propose measures to alleviate any tensions which may occur between refugees and local communities; 10. Identify appropriate local institutions and agencies which have the capacity to implement proposed projects, and advise on implementing arrangements; 11. Assess the need for strengthening government departments related to the proposed projects; 12. Establish a local EnvironmentalTask Force consisting of UNHCR,the central and local governments,NGOs,and local community and refugee representatives,and prepareTORs for theTask Force; 13. Prepare a draft environmental action plan covering the above-mentioned issues and ensure implementation of the plan. Consult UNHCR programme officers concerned to ensure the recommendations are duly incorporated into the programming exercise; 14. Prepare consolidated reports on environmental related activities of the sites,to be submitted to the UNHCR Representative and UNHCR Headquarters. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 41 G E N E R A L Q UA L I F I C AT I ON S F O R A N E N V I R ON M E N TA L CO - O R D I NATO R : Depending on the situation,relevant qualifications could include: Post graduate degrees (or equivalent work-related experience) in forestry, agroforestry, rural energy supply, environmental science,or natural resource management. 42 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines U N H C R ANNEX 4 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING 1 . I N T R O D U C T I ON This guideline emphasises the consistent need to integrate environmental concerns into UNHCR operations,at all phases of work, from emergency planning to camp closure and environmental rehabilitation. Recognition is, however,always given to the fact that environmental concerns do not exist independently of the principal objectives of sheltering and sustaining refugees,and to seeking lasting solutions to their plight. Environmental planning is described here not in order to suggest that UNHCR's environmental interventions should have a life and structure separate from broader operational or strategic plans,but to make it easier to consider and prioritise the many diverse environmental considerations arising in a refugee and,commonly,returnee situations.It is clear that environmental interventions at all levels have to fit in with UNHCR's overall plan of operations for the country or refugee location concerned,and must therefore be integrated into Country Operational Plans (COPs). To be effective,measures taken by UNHCR and its partners to mitigate or eliminate adverse environmental impacts ­ whether at the level of an individual refugee camp or often larger settlements ­ must take account of three key factors: 1. The existence of a number of options normally available to address the environmental problems in question, and the need to make an informed choice among them.Some options may be technological (e.g.introduction of improved cooking stoves),others organisational or institutional (e.g.communal cooking as a way of reducing fuelwood consumption, or the use of a price mechanism as a disincentive to resource degradation). In many cases,the responses will be a combination of different measures. 2. The existence of a number of groups actually or potentially affected by the environmental interventions under consideration, and the need to co-ordinate their roles and consider the impact of these measures on each group: UNHCR's environmental interventions have to strike a balance between competing requirements of different refugee camps and between refugees' and local communities' demands for environmental resources. Interventions have to take account of the distribution of existing human and institutional resources. 3. A limit on financial and other resources available for environmental interventions, and the resulting need to agree on what constitutes the best use of these resources. Allocation of available resources has to bear a systematic relationship to the differences in the seriousness of environmental impacts,as well as to the cost of implementing remedial measures in different locations (noting that secondary impacts may occur in areas away from the refugee camps).Budget constraints can affect the scale of environmental interventions as well as their timing. Planning decisions relating to the structure and nature of UNHCR's environmental interventions are best incorporated into strategic plans, of which two types are promoted by UNHCR: Contingency Plans for use in emergency-like situations, and broader and more long-term Environmental Action Plans.That said, however, it is important to ensure that UNHCR environmental planning is conducted in a flexible manner,sufficiently sensitive to local conditions. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 43 2 . E N V I R ON M E N TA L CON S I D E R AT I ON S I N CON T I N G E N C Y P LA N S Environmental considerations in contingency plans should examine the main types of risks to potential host countries' environments in the event of a refugee emergency. Based on environmental data available ­ initially at UNHCR field offices and headquarters ­ environmental concerns are incorporated into contingency planning for the selected countries.The plans,accompanied by maps and additional data,will: identify key resources and locations (from ecosystems to specific types of resources,as appropriate) potentially at risk; identify any local resource management systems that could be disrupted by a refugee influx; identify the most important measures needed to avoid irreversible environmental impacts; suggest the most appropriate pattern of refugee distribution and settlement in the event of an influx;and identify key,local institutional and NGO environmental contacts,and assess their readiness to provide liaison and practical assistance in the event of an emergency. Contingency plans should originate in the field,but their preparation could be supported by UNHCR's Emergency Section and the relevant bureaux.Environmental expertise could be supplemented byTSS,as necessary. 3 . E N V I R ON M E N TA L AC T I ON P LA N The main objective of an environmental action plan (EAP) is to identify and appraise ­ technically,institutionally and economically ­ a set of refugee-related environmental interventions in a given country,and to formulate a cohesive and well-co-ordinated response to the identified needs.The EAP is therefore an essential planning and management tool,for use by UNHCR and its implementing partners,primarily. While UNHCR operates on a 12-month financial programme cycle, the life cycle of an EAP, i.e. the period of expected implementation, should in most cases be for at least three years.The EAP will comprise of any number of components or set of activities or programmes,not all of which will have the same implementation periods.EAPs may need to be"rolled over"and modified according to changes in the refugee or returnee situation. Preparation of an EAP ­ which should be initiated and managed by an Environmental Co-ordinator and Field/Branch Office in consultation with TSS, but involving all implicated implementing partners as well as representatives from both the local and refugee communities,as well as local and central government ­ should be carried out to a standard that allows for subsequent submission to potential donors, in those cases where the activities in question are not funded by the UNHCR itself. An estimate of the funding requirements will be an important component of the preparation of an EAP.An EAP will also specify the implementation arrangements envisaged,i.e.the role and responsibilities of the various parties to the plan. 4 . E N V I R ON M E N TA L P LA N N I N G F O R D U R A B L E S O LU T I ON S In the case of refugee repatriation,identification of the most desirable type of response to residual environmental damage and a decision whether to physically rehabilitate or undertake compensatory projects in related sectors are important.This will normally require: clarification of the links that the proposed activities would have with existing or planned development activities in the area,undertaken by the local government,either with its own funding or with outside assistance; description of the type of rehabilitation projects to be undertaken,arrangements for their implementation,and the role to be played by different actors in the process; identification of possible compensatory project(s), based on the degree of willingness and interest of local community;and estimation of budgetary requirements and likely funding sources of the rehabilitation programme. 44 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines Where durable solutions deal with either integration of refugees into the local economy or re-integration of returnees into the area of origin, environmental plans will normally not be a separate UNHCR document but a component of a land settlement or area-development plan of the kind routinely prepared by development agencies. In such instances,however,an environmental impact assessment (EIA) or rapid environmental assessment (REA) ­ tools for which are available fromTSS ­ should always be undertaken at an early stage of the planning process. 5 . A P P R O P R I AT E R E S O U R C E A L LO C AT I ON Decisions about which environment-related measures or activities to undertake lie at the core of any environmental plan.These decisions are often of a financial nature, i.e. deciding how to allocate scarce economic resources to competing environmental (and other) needs. Despite differences of context and emphasis, the approach adopted by UNHCR to making these decisions is the same as that used by most development agencies governments, and involves three inter-related steps: identification and quantification of environmental impacts that the proposed measures should eliminate or help mitigate; conversion of these impacts into money terms ­ valuation or"monetisation";and a combining of these value estimates with those of the interventions' costs to derive the expected costs and benefits of the intervention in question. The first step mentioned is normally the subject of an EIA (see above),while the second and third steps,combined, are addressed through cost/benefit analysis.The cost/benefit approach requires that options giving the greatest benefit in excess of costs ­ over a specific period,suitably measured ­ be selected ahead of other options.For the investment decisions and resulting structure of environmental plans to be sound,it is necessary to pay attention to each of the two principal components of the analysis, i.e. the quality of the assessment of existing and likely environmental impacts on the one hand, and subsequent valuation of these impacts and cost/benefit calculations, on the other.Poor assessment of environment impacts cannot be compensated for by highly competent valuation, and vice versa. The application of the cost/benefit method in the refugee context requires that UNHCR obtains estimates of the cost of each intervention that mitigates or eliminates damage, and matches these costs against the pattern of environmental benefits that would result. Where environmental damage is limited, even a low-cost mitigation measure may be wasteful of resources. In a similar manner, high cost interventions may represent an efficient use of resources where the environmental benefits (and damage) are large.This analysis can be used to determine both the desirable scale of the intervention ­ i.e.how far to go before intervention becomes"poor value for money" ­ and the composition of the best package of intervention measures.It is essential in these analyses to measure both costs and benefits in the same numeraire:money happens to be a convenient yardstick for this purpose. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 45 U N H C R ANNEX 5 GENERIC TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR A LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL TASK FORCE 1 . J U S T I F I C AT I ON Environmental problems associated with refugee situations call for concerted efforts by all parties concerned.It is essential to create a framework within which all actors concerned can collaborate, and coordinate environment related activities at the field level.Without it,interventions will be disjointed and possibly ineffective Sound management of natural resources also requires regular contacts among groups involved in its use and protection.The resources are under changing degrees and types of pressure from the humans and physiological factors. Natural resource management has to be flexible enough to accommodate these changes and the requirements of flexibility are typically accompanied by a greater need for consultation. Regular contacts involving groups that have potentially conflicting interests in, and claims to, surrounding natural resources could alleviate possible conflicts. Regular consultation could create a sense of partnership vital for effective interventions. Use of local knowledge about surrounding environment is an important ingredient of sound natural resource management of the area in question.A consultative forum makes it more likely that this type of know-how will become available to the broader group. 2 . F U N C T I ON S The functions of theTask Force are,among other things,to: a) discuss and contribute to the formulation of an environmental action plan, which sets out environmental programmes and projects to be undertaken in the area and the role to be played by various groups in their implementations. b) monitor the state of the surrounding environment on a regular basis,identify potentially serious environmental problems,and where necessary,discuss possible measures to deal with such problems. c) monitor the implementation of various environment related activities by the actors concerned and provide advice on the ways and means of realigning or improving such environmental activities. d) monitor potential sources of conflict in particular between refugees and local communities, and discuss, wherever necessary,measures to lessen the tensions among the parties concerned. e) exchange information on work plans and budget requests for the subsequent years and coordinate as much as possible these future activities related to the environment. 3 . O R GA N I S AT I ON a) Participants UNHCR field staff in charge of environmental matters Central as well as local government officials including those from technical departments Refugee representatives Representatives of local communities Field staff of the related international/local NGOs Local staff of related international organizations 46 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines b) Leadership UNHCR staff should take the leadership role of theTask Force, wherever possible.The credibility of the Task Force could suffer if a party considered by others to represent a narrow interest or to have only a limited contact with the problems encountered were to lead theTask Force. c) Factors to be considered Since environmental problems in question have differentiated effects on the poor and vulnerable segments of the local and refugee population,theTask Force should be run in such a way as to reflect the views and opinions of these groups. UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines 47 U N H C R ANNEX 6 DEVELOPING A REHABILITATION SCHEME No matter what kind of rehabilitation scheme is intended (i.e. large or limited scale), the following factors should be considered in the project proposal. 1. Objectives Lists the overall goals and specific objectives of the rehabilitation scheme. 2. Background to the scheme Describes how the situation came about,i.e.provide a historical overview. 3. Detailed analysis Describes and analyses those refugee-related environmental impacts,which are to be dealt with by the pro- posed scheme,and quantifies the cost of these impacts on the local economy. 4. Proposed activities Examines proposed project activities in detail,from the perspective of costs and benefits. 5. Implementation plan Describes proposed implementation plan,providing time frames and identifying roles of the partners from central government,local government,local communities,national and international NGOs and UNHCR. 6. Monitoring and evaluation Describes who will be responsible for monitoring and evaluation, how these activities will be integrated into the implementation plan and when they will be carried out. 7. Budget Presents detailed inputs and costs for the project,matching costs,activities and timeframe. 8. Funding plan Identifies potential sources of funding to support the proposed activities and identifies, if possible, donors who would be interested in specific project components. 48 UNHCR ˇ Environmental Guidelines