77942 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Working Paper 2  |  Logging Nina Doetinchem Carole Megevand with Loic Braune Hari Dulal April 2013 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Working Paper 2  |  Logging Nina Doetinchem Carole Megevand with Loic Braune Hari Dulal April 2013 Working Paper 2: Logging iii Contents Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii INTRODUCTION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 chapter 1. Logging Activities in the Congo Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Export-oriented Industrial Logging Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Contribution to economic growth and employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Significant progress on sustainable forest management.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Industrial timber production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The booming informal sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 A long overlooked sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 An unregulated sector that does not capture its full socioeconomic potential. . . . . . . 13 …and generates great pressures on natural forests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Unmet domestic demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Illegal logging and forest governance.....................................................................................................16 chapter 2. Impacts on Forests.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 “Limited� Impacts from Industrial Logging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Major threat likely to come from informal sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 chapter 3. Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Pursue Progress on Sustainable Forest Management in Industrial Logging Concessions. . . . 23 Formalize the Informal Timber Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Modernize the Processing Capacities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Foster Involvement of Communities in Forest Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Diversify Sources of Timber (Through Plantation, Agroforestry).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Strengthen Administrations, Particularly at the Decentralized Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Conclusion and Outlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Figures Figure 1.1: Forest Ecosystems in the Congo Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 1.2: Total Land Area, Total Dense Forest Area, and Area under Industrial Logging Concessions in the Congo Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 iv Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Figure 1.3: Total Industrial Logging from Congo Basin Countries, 1990–2009 (in m3).. . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 1.4: Industrial Timber Production per Congo Basin Country, 1990–2009 (in m3). . . . . . . . 9 Figure 2.1: Deforestation Dynamics along Roads .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Tables Table 1.1: Area Estimates (ha) of Land-cover Types for the Six Congo Basin Countries. . . . . . . . . . 3 Table 1.2: Contribution of the Forestry Sector to GDP and Tax Earnings, 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Table 1.3: Direct Employment in the Commercial Forest Production and Processing, 2006. . . . . 6 Table 1.4: Direct and Indirect Employment in the Forestry Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Table 1.5: Forest Management and Certification in the Congo Basin Countries, 2005–2010. . . . 8 Table 1.6: Harvested Timber Volume and Primary Species Logged by Country in 2007. . . . . . . . . 8 Table 1.7: Timber-processing Units in Central Africa, 1975 and 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Table 1.8: Main Constraints to Further Processing in Central Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Table 1.9: Estimated Production Volume of the Informal Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Table 2.1: Average Annual Degradation and Recovery Rates in Dense Forest Zones in the Congo Basin between 1990 and 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Boxes Box 1.1: Principles of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) and Challenges in the Congo Basin Forests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Box 1.2: Processing Requirements in the Different Congo Basin Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Box 1.3: On Timber Trade with China and Other Emerging Asian Markets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Box 1.4: European Union’s Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Program. . . . . . . . . . 15 Box 2.1: Typical Impact of Commercial Logging Operations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Box 2.2: Reduced-impact Logging (RIL). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Box 2.3: Variations in Forest Carbon Stocks: Key Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Working Paper 2: Logging v Acknowledgments This paper is one of the outputs of the global study Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection that was conducted by a multidisciplinary team under the leadership of the World Bank at the request of the COMIFAC (Regional Commis- sion in charge of Forestry in Central Africa) to strengthen the understanding of the deforestation dynamics in the Congo Basin. This paper was prepared by Nina Doetinchem and Carole Megevand, with contributions from Loic Braune and Hari Dulal. The team is grateful for useful guidance provided by Simon Rietber- gen. The report was ably edited by Sheila Gagen. Maps and illustrative graphs were prepared by Hrishikesh Prakash Patel. The study benefited from financial support from various donors, including: Norway through the Norwegian Trust Fund for Private Sector and Infrastructure (NTF-PSI); the Program on Forests (PROFOR); and the Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (TFESSD). Working Paper 2: Logging vii Acronyms ARM Alliance for Responsible Mining ASM artisanal and small-scale mining BBOP Business and Biodiversity Offsets Programme CEMAC Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa CMEC China National Machinery and Equipment Import and Export Corporation CSM chainsaw milling ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States EIA environmental impact assessment EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative FCFA Central African CFA fran FIFO fly-in/fly-out FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade FSC Forest Stewardship Council GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gas ICGLR International Conference of the Great Lakes Region IFC International Finance Corporation MEG Metals Economics Group MP management plan NGO nongovernmental organization PDAC Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada PGE platinum group element REDD(+) Reducing greenhouse gases Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation RIL reduced-impact logging RWE round wood equivalent SEC U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission SESA strategic environmental and social assessment SEZ Special Economic Zone SFM sustainable forest management SIA social impact assessment VPA Voluntary Partnership Agreement Working Paper 2: Logging 1 Introduction The Congo Basin has the largest forest cover on the overlooked by both the national entities as well as African continent. Of the 400 million hectares that the international community, which, over the past the Basin comprises, about 200 million of them are decades, mostly focused attention on the industrial covered by forest, with 90 percent being tropical dense and export-oriented sectors. The informal sector is forests. The vast majority of these forests are primary powered by booming domestic and regional mar- forests or naturally regenerated forests. Home to more kets. Demand for timber has been soaring on local than 30 million people, Congo Basin forests support markets to meet the growing needs of urban pop- the livelihoods of more than 75 million people, from ulations. Such demand comes from urban centers more than 150 ethnic groups, who rely on the local in the Basin but also extends way beyond the area. natural resources for food, medicine, and other needs. It was recently documented that well-established Congo Basin forests also perform valuable ecological transnational timber supply networks from central services at local and regional levels. Such services Africa reach as far as North Africa—that is, Egypt, include maintaining the hydrological cycle (water quan- Libya, and Algeria. tity and quality) and controlling floods in high-rainfall regions. When Congo Basin countries engaged in international discussions on REDD+, they mostly focused on forest The Congo Basin’s logging sector has a dualistic con- degradation (second “D� of REDD+), highlighting the figuration. It boasts a highly visible formal sector that progress made over the past decade on the adoption is export oriented and dominated by large industrial of sustainable forest management practices to reduce groups with foreign capital and an informal sector that adverse impacts of logging activities on natural forests. has long been underestimated and overlooked. Over the past few years, stakeholders realized that within the Congo Basin, major pressures on forests Industrial logging is one of the most extensive ƒƒ may predominantly come from outside the logging uses of land in Central Africa, with almost 450,000 activities (agriculture, energy, mining, and so forth). km2 of forest currently under concession (about a quarter of the total lowland tropical forests). The This report is one of a series of reports prepared during formal logging sector in Central Africa produces an a two-year attempt to analyze and better understand average of 8 million m3 of timber each year, mostly deforestation dynamics in the Basin. It presents for exports to Europe and Asia. The industrial log- findings related to the logging sector and its potential ging sector is one of the major contributors to the impact on forest cover, and it is based on an in-depth GDP and a vital employer for most Congo Basin analysis of the sector. The paper’s structure is as countries. follows: The informal timber sector is as just as import- ƒƒ ant as the formalized sector. In some countries, Chapter 1 gives an overview of the logging sec- ƒƒ the economic importance of the informal sector tor—both formal and informal—in the six countries is assumed to exceed that of the formal sector. and its importance in terms of employment and However, the informal timber sector has long been revenues. 2 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Chapter 2 analyzes the impacts of logging activi- ƒƒ Chapter 3 presents recommendations to foster ƒƒ ties on forest cover. 1 sustainable logging activities—with a particular focus on the informal sector—and reduce potential adverse impact on natural forests. 1  The chapter mainly focuses on impacts in terms of carbon content (as per the REDD+ mechanism). However, it is important to note that while industrial logging may have limited impacts on carbon stock in the long run, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem equilibrium may be critically affected by industrial logging. Working Paper 2: Logging 3 Chapter 1 Logging Activities in the Congo Basin The Congo Basin forest is the world’s second largest Figure 1.1: Forest Ecosystems in the Congo Basin tropical forest, covering almost 170 million hectares of dense forest in six countries—dense forests represent the largest portion of land cover. About half (46 per- cent) of the region’s forest is dense humid forest, while woodlands represent about one-fifth of the land cover (see figure 1.1 and table 1.1). Industrial logging has become the most extensive use of land in Central Africa, with almost 450,000 km2 of forest currently under concession (about a quar- ter of the total lowland tropical forests), whereas, by Table 1.1: Area Estimates (ha) of Land-cover Types for the Six Congo Basin Countries Equatorial % of total Cameroon Congo CAR DRC Gabon Guinea land Lowland dense moist forest 18,640,192 17,116,583 6,915,231 101,822,027 22,324,871 2,063,850 41.83 Submontane forest 194,638 — 8,364 3,273,671 — 24,262 0.87 Montane forest 28,396 10 — 930,863 19 6,703 0.24 Edaphic forest — 4,150,397 95 8,499,308 16,881 — 3.14 Mangrove forest 227,818 11,190 — 181 163,626 25,245 0.11 Total Dense Forest 19,091,044 21,278,180 6,923,690 114,526,050 22,505,397 2,120,060 46.18 Forest-savanna mosaic 2,537,713 517,068 11,180,042 6,960,040 51,092 — 5.26 Rural complex and young secondary 3,934,142 3,664,609 713,892 21,425,449 1,405,318 507,281 7.84 forest Tropical dry forest – miombo 1,292,106 297,824 3,430,842 23,749,066 31,337 172 7.13 Woodland 11,901,697 2,659,375 34,381,438 36,994,935 787,231 4,669 21.48 Shrubland 2,561,163 2,101,556 4,002,258 6,705,478 619,347 1,308 3.96 Grassland 177,385 1,191,956 62,015 4,372,677 341,688 86 1.52 Others 4,668,275 2,482,305 1,152,349 17,714,723 685,838 30,592 6.62 Total 46,163,525 34,192,873 61,846,526 232,448,418 26,427,248 2,664,168 100.00 4 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Box  2:  Total  land  area,  total  dense  forest  area  and  area  under  industrial  logging  concession  sin  the  Congo  Basin   Figure 1.2: Total Land Area, Total Dense Forest Area, and Area under Industrial Logging Concessions in the Congo Basin Congo,   Democra-c     Central   Republic  of   African   Republic   Republic  of     Congo   Cameroon   Gabon   Equatorial   Guinea   232,822,500   2,673,000   26,253,800   34,276,600   46,544,500   62,015,200   101,822,027   2,063,850   22,324,871   17,116,583   18,640,192   6,915,231   12,184,130   -­�*   9,893,234   12,669,626      6,381,684   3,022,789     Total  land  area  (ha)   Total  lowland  dense  forest    area  (ha)   Commercial  logging  concessions  (ha)   Source: Prepared from data in de Wasseige et al. (2012); in Equatorial Guinea, all logging concessions were canceled in 2008. comparison, 12 percent of the land area is protected. community, which, over the past decades, mostly Industrial logging concessions will likely expand further. focused attention on the industrial and export-ori- The portion of forest area designated for logging is ented sectors. In 1994, the devaluation of the regional particularly high in the Republic of Congo (74 percent) currency (FCFA) boosted timber exportation at the and the Central African Republic (44 percent). expense of domestic markets, which, consequently, hugely contracted. With most of the formal production The industrial logging sector in Central Africa produces being exported, in Congo Basin countries, local timber an average of 8 million m3 of timber every year. After a demand is being met by the rapidly flourishing informal period of slow growth over the past 15 years, the tim- industry. The recovery and boom of the domestic ber production from Central Africa contracted by about market in recent years is a sharp turnaround, and the 2.5 million m3 in 2008 as a result of the international domestic and regional timber economy is now recog- financial crisis that affected the market for tropical nized as just as important as the formalized sector. timber. This contraction was particularly significant in countries with large export volumes, such as Cameroon and Gabon (see figure 1.3). Production has recovered Export-oriented industrial logging sector since then, in part due to the steep increase in round- wood production in Gabon toward the end of 2009. Contribution to economic growth and employment The informal timber sector has long been overlooked The industrial logging sector is an important contribu- by both the national entities as well as the international tor to the gross domestic product (GDP) in almost all Working Paper 2: Logging 5 Figure 1.3: Total Industrial Logging from Congo Basin Countries, 1990–2009 (in m3) 10,000,000 9,000,000 8,000,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Source: OFAC Monitoring Data as of 2011. Congo Basin countries. Historically, the forest sector another 5,000 jobs and the public forest service itself played an even more important role in the Congo employs about 600 officers and support staff. In Cam- Basin (see table 1.2). However, with the booming eroon, the formal sector is estimated to provide some development of the oil sector in several Congo Basin 20,000 full-time jobs (that is, 0.3 percent of the total countries over the past decade, the forest sector’s labor force), but indirect employment from the sector relative contribution to overall GDP has decreased.2 has been estimated to be much higher, at more than There is evidence, though, that projected declines in oil 150,000 jobs or more than 2 percent of the popula- production in Gabon over the next decade may lead to tion (MINEF, 2006; see table 1.4). renewed growth in logging for export. Tax revenue from the forest sector in absolute terms is currently highest in Cameroon and Gabon, which are both countries with Significant progress on sustainable forest well-developed commercial forestry sectors. management The industrial logging sector is also an important Sustainable forest management (SFM) in logging conces- employer, particularly in rural forested areas (de sions has progressed over its ten years of implementa- Wasseige et al. 2009). The formal sector accounts tion in Central Africa (Nasi, Cassagne, and Billand 2006). for around 50,000 full-time jobs in the six countries. While there was an overall increase in the adoption Employment created in the formal forestry sector of management plans in all three main tropical forest by private sector operators is particularly important regions (that is, Latin America, Asia and Pacific, and in Gabon, where timber is the largest employment Africa), the relative increase was particularly significant in sector after the government (see table 1.3). In Gabon, Africa, predominantly in the Congo Basin. After the Earth the sector further provides indirect employment for Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, all of the Congo Basin countries began a revision of their forest laws in order to make them compliant with SFM practices. 2  The contribution of the forestry sector to GDP has decreased gradually and consistent- ly, particularly for countries with a growing oil sector, notably Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. For Equatorial Guinea in particular, the forest sector’s contribution The past two decades saw revisions to most forestry to GDP dropped from 17.9 percent in 1990 to 0.9 percent in 2006 (FAO, 2010). laws and the emergence of forest management 6 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Table 1.2: Contribution of the Forestry Sector to GDP and Tax Earnings, 2008 Contribution to GDP Gross value added (US$ million) Roundwood Wood Pulp and Total for the % year production processing paper forestry sector Cameroon 6 2004 236 74 13 324 Central African Republic 6.3 2009 133 10 1 144 Republic of Congo 5.6 2006 45 27 — 75 Congo, Dem. Rep. 1 2003 185 2 — 185 Equatorial Guinea 0.2 2007 86 2 — 86 Gabon 4.3 2009 171 118 — 290 Total 856 233 14 1,103 Source: Atyi et al. 2009. Table 1.3: Direct Employment in the Commercial Forest Production and Processing, 2006 Employment (1,000 FTE*) Total Forestry Roundwood Wood Pulp and Total for the Sector (% to total production processing paper forestry sector labor force) Cameroon 12 8 1 20 0.3 Central African Republic 2 2 — 4 0.2 Republic of Congo 4 3 — 7 0.5 Congo, Dem. Rep. 6 — — 6 — Equatorial Guinea 1 — — 1 0.5 Gabon 8 4 — 12 1.9 Total 33 17 1 50 *FTE (Full-time equivalent) Source: FAO 2011. Table 1.4: Direct and Indirect Employment in the Forestry Sector Employment Direct Indirect Year Source Audit Economique et financier du secteur Cameroon 13,000 150,000 2006 forestier au Cameroun Central African Republic 4,000 no data 2009 Republic of Congo 7,424 14,848 2007 DAF/MEF (Informal sector not included) Congo, Dem. Rep. 15,000 no data 2006 Federation de Industriels du Bois en RDC Equatorial Guinea 490 no data 2009 Data from Forest Industries Gabon 14,121 5,000 2009 Cellule Economique Total 41,035 Source: OFAC 2011 (last accessed November 2011, data as reported by countries during 2006–2009). Working Paper 2: Logging 7 frameworks that promote SFM principles. The first country to define a new legal framework promoting Box 1.1: Principles of Sustainable Forest Management such principles was Cameroon, which substantially (SFM) and Challenges in the Congo Basin Forests revised forest laws in 1994 and 1996. Forest laws The objective of SFM is to manage the forest were revised in 2001 in Gabon, in 2002 in the resources to meet the social, economic, ecological, Democratic Republic of Congo, and in 2008 in the cultural, and spiritual needs of present and future Central African Republic. Cameroon is currently revising generations. The principle is that the SFM plan its forest laws again. Nevertheless, promoting SFM in should provide presceptions that, if appropriately Central Africa remains a challenge due to overlapping followed, forests can maintain their productive value over several rotations (Drouineau and Nasi and contradictory policies and regulations, inadequate 1999). The challenge with SFM in Central Africa law enforcement, and governance constraints. is the nature of the biologically diverse old-growth forests. Unlogged forests in Central Africa contain The area of natural forest under management plans valuable timber trees that are often more than increased dramatically—in particular, during the time 400 years old. Obviously, not even SFM principles period of 2005–2010. As of 2008, about 36.4 million can recommend 400-year harvesting cycles, and hectares (ha) have been allocated in the form of 256 logging in the region follows a two-step process: forest concessions in the subregion, 31 percent of (1) highly selective low-impact harvesting of old-growth trees; and (2) sustainable production which are already operating under approved manage- of wood products within logged-over forests. ment plans (de Wasseige 2008). The trend for the development of management plans has been momen- tous, from zero hectares managed in 2000; the subre- gion had more than 7.1 million ha of forest concessions are certified against a set of strict environmental and managed in accordance with state-approved plans in social standards, and timber from certified forests 2005, 11.3 million ha in 2008, and 25.6 million ha in is tracked all the way to the consumer through the 2010 (see table 1.5). The most considerable progress chain of custody certification system (Butler and has occurred in Cameroon, with 5.34 million ha of Laurance 2008). Although there are several compet- natural forest now covered by management plans (as ing processes, the system of principles, criteria, and of 2011) compared with 1.76 million ha in 2005. Man- indicators from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) agement plans are now also in place for about 3.45 is considered the most demanding at the international million ha of natural forest in Gabon. level.3 The FSC certification is the most commonly applied system, but other SFM certification certificates The number of logging concessions with an approved (for example, the Dutch Keurhout system or the ISO management plan is expected to increase further in the 14001 system) have been applied for several con- next five years, as many of the remaining concessions cessions in Gabon (de Wasseige et al. 2009; WIJMA are currently in the process of preparing their manage- 2010). It should be noted that several civil society ment plans. Similarly, the area of certified natural forest organizations, such as FSC-Watch, have questioned production in the permanent forest estate in Central the rigor by which these certification schemes are Africa has increased from just 1.5 million ha certified in being monitored (FSC-Watch 2010). 2005 (in Gabon) to 4.5 million ha certified in 2010 (in Gabon, Cameroon, and the Republic of Congo). 3  International institutions, most notably the FSC, established forest management A significant number of private logging companies principles, criteria, and a process for concession certification that are designed to ensure operating in Central Africa have now engaged in forest sustainable wood production and logging practices: (i) comply with national and interna- tional laws; (ii) do not infringe on indigenous people’s rights; (iii) respect local community certification (Nasi, Cassagne, and Billand 2006). concerns and workers’ rights; (iv) help maintain the forest’s multiple values; (v) minimize Under such voluntary market-based schemes, forests environmental impacts; and (vi) set aside forest patches of high conservation value. 8 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Table 1.5: Forest Management and Certification in the Congo Basin Countries, 2005–2010 With Available for management Sustainably Total harvesting plans Cetified managed (’000 ha) (’000 ha) (’000 ha) (’000 ha) (’000 ha) 2005 2010 2005 2010 2005 2010 2005 2010 2005 2010 Cameroon 8,840 7,600 4,950 6,100 1,760 5,000 — 705 500 1,255 Central African Republic 3,500 5,200 2,920 3,100 650 2,320 — — 186 — Republic of Congo 18,400 15,200 8,440 11,980 1,300 8,270 — 1,908 1,300 2,494 Democratic Republic of 20,500 22,500 15,500 9,100 1,080 6,590 — — 284 — Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon 10,600 10,600 6,923 10,300 2,310 3,450 1,480 1,870 1,480 2,420 Total 61,840 61,100 38,733 40,580 7,100 25,630 1,480 4,483 3,750 6,169 Source: ITTO, State of Tropical Forest Management, 2011. In early 2005, there were no certified forests in had been certified as well managed in the Central Cameroon (ITTO 2006). The first concession to African Republic (FCS 2010). Similarly, no forests be certified in the subregion was a concession of have yet been certified in the Democratic Republic of 42,000 ha in Cameroon held by Wijma in 2005. Congo, but some foreign companies are undertaking Since then, forest area certified for sustainable man- baseline studies for future certification. agement increased to a total of nearly 6.4 million ha in 2010 in Cameroon, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo (see table 1.5). In July 2010, five conces- Industrial timber production sions (with a total area of 763,146 ha) held valid FSC forest management certificates (FSC 2010). An The industrial logging activities are highly selective additional 1.2 million ha of FMUs are in the process in the Congo Basin. Unlike in other tropical regions, of certification. In contrast, as of mid-2010, no forest where logging activities are usually a way to transition Table 1.6: Harvested Timber Volume and Primary Species Logged by Country in 2007 Production (m3) Main species logged Cameroon* 2,296,254 Ayous, sapelli, tali, azobé, iroko Central African Republic 537,998 Ayous, sapelli, aniegré, iroko, sipo Republic of Congo 310,000 Sapelli, wengué, sipo, afromosia, iroko Congo, Dem. Rep. 1,330,980 Sapelli, sipo, bossé, iroko, wengué Equatorial Guinea 524,799 Okoumé, tali, azobé, ilomba Gabon 3,350,670 Okoumé, azobé, okan, movingui, ozigo Total 8,350,701 * 2006 data. Source: de Wasseige et al. 2009. Working Paper 2: Logging 9 Figure 1.4: Industrial Timber Production per Congo Basin Country, 1990–2009 (in m3) 4,500,000 4,000,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 500,000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Cameroon Central African Republic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Gabon Equatorial Guinea Source: OFAC Monitoring Data as of 2011. to another land use, logging in the Congo Basin is Congo Basin countries remain a relatively small player highly selective and extensive. Of the more than 100 in terms of timber production at the international level. species generally available in the tropical humid forest With an average production of 8 million m3 per year in Central Africa, fewer than 13 are usually harvested over the last few years, Central Africa countries produce (see table 1.6). Further, the three most harvested about 80 percent of the total volume of African timber. species (okoumé, sapelli, and ayous) combined rep- However, its contribution to international timber pro- resent about 59 percent of log production in Central duction remains low: Central Africa trails far behind the Africa (de Wasseige et al. 2009). Though the countries other two major tropical forest regions in terms of trop- would like to see more secondary species logged in ical timber production, with only 3 percent of global the Basin forests, the export markets have so far shown production of tropical roundwood and just 0.4 percent themselves to be conservative and slow in accepting global production of roundwood (OFAC 2011). unfamiliar secondary species, regardless of their other- wise perfectly suitable technological characteristics. In After a period of slow growth over the last 15 years, general, selectivity in logging is increased when harvest- production drastically contracted by about 2.5 million ing costs are high because timber companies tend to m3 in 2008 due to the international financial crisis concentrate only on the most economically rewarding that also affected the market for tropical timber. This species. For example, while Cameroon has more than trend particularly affected countries with large export 600 tree species, fewer than 30 of them are currently volumes, such as Cameroon and Gabon. Since then, used in significant quantities for timber, and fewer production has recovered, in part, due to the steep than a dozen species make up the bulk (80 percent) increase in roundwood production in Gabon toward of utilization and trade (ITTO 2006). The number of the end of 2009. species logged is gradually diversifying—yet, thus far, only in forests near the ports of export and other areas The contribution of Congo Basin countries to with lower production costs (for example, Cameroon, processed timber production is very low. A global coastal areas of Gabon, southern Congo, and the analysis of trade in further-processed timber shows that province of Bas-Congo in the Democratic Republic of the value of exports for all ITTO producers countries Congo; de Wasseige et al. 2009). combined was about US$5 billion in 2000, 83 percent 10 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Table 1.7: Timber-processing Units in Central Africa, 1975 and 1995 Central Republic of Congo, Dem. Year Cameroon African Rep. Congo Rep. Gabon 1975 58 10 15 50 23 1985 96 12 22 46 20 Sawmills 1995 60 6 26 68 11 2002 64 50 34 1975 4 2 4 7 4 1985 5 1 4 7 4 Peeling and slicing 1995 5 1 4 6 3 2002 1 no data no data 6 8 1975 3 1 no data 4 1 1985 4 1 no data 4 1 Plywood and boards 1995 4 2 2 4 3 2002 5 no data no data no data 3 Source: ITTO 2006. Table 1.8: Main Constraints to Further Processing in Central Africa Countries Central Congo, Dem. Cameroon African Rep. Congo Rep. Gabon Equipment in disrepair X X X X Inadequate transport infrastructure and poor X X X X services Lack of concerted and coherent national strategy for forest industry development or non- X X X X implementation of existing strategies Absence of adequate financing mechanisms for X X X the further-processing industry Lack of qualified and experienced personnel in the future-processing planning, management, and X X X X X products marketing Limited domestic further-processed product X X market and foreign imports Non-compliance with legal processing rates by X X operation Source: ITTO 2006. Source: ITTO 2004. of which originated in countries in the Asia-Pacific, 80 percent of the contribution of African countries to 16 percent in Latin America, and only 1 percent in the further-processed timber trade, meaning that the Africa. Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire alone make almost contribution from Central Africa is very small. Working Paper 2: Logging 11 Box 1.2: Processing Requirements in the Different Congo Basin Countries The following list gives the current minimum conversion rates that states impose on each operator—that is, the volume of logs to be processed in the country: • Republic of Congo: normally 85 percent, but exceptionally lowered to 70 percent during international economic crisis (a measure that was extended to 2011), with the possibility for operators to exchange quotas • Gabon: 100 percent since the end of 2009. It is possible that export quotas could be granted for 2011 • Cameroon: the sale of some species in the form of unwrought logs is forbidden. The list of the concerned species appears under MINEF Decree No. 0872 of 16 October 2001 • Central African Republic: 70 percent since 2008 • Democratic Republic of Congo: at least 70 percent (quotas are fixed for each operator) for 10 years for processing unit holders and national users • Equatorial Guinea: 100 percent since 2008 Source: FAO 2010 (The Forests of Basin - State of Forests). Processing capacities in the Basin, when they exist, are Log export restrictions are currently being applied in essentially limited to primary processing: sawnwood, the form of (partial) export bans or the setting of local peeling and slicing for the production of plywood and log-processing quota (minimum processing quota) in veneer (that is, primary processing). Accordingly, more order to ensure the further development of and the sup- than 80 percent of timber processing units in Central ply for the in-country processing industry. Governments Africa are sawmills4 (see table 1.7). Together, Cameroon are becoming more demanding vis-à-vis the operators to and Gabon represent 60 percent of the subregional pro- maximize the processing level and to increase in-country cessing capacity. In most Central African countries, sec- value added and employment (see box 1.2). ondary or tertiary timber processing—that is, the stages that generate the most added value and employment Asian markets absorb more and more timber exports (such as the manufacture of molding, flooring, furniture, from Congo Basin. Europe used to be the traditional and joinery)—is in an embryonic stage, but the industry market for timber-producing Basin countries. Although is more developed in West Africa (Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, still important, it tends to contract, and Asian markets and Nigeria). Overall, Basin countries lag behind—except have become increasingly significant. In the late 2000s, in the production of moldings, floorings, and other dry while timber demand from the EU almost collapsed and profiled timber, which has expanded in Cameroon with the economic crisis, China’s demand proved to during the last decade. One of the paradoxes of Central be more resilient and helped to sustain Central African Africa is that net trade in furniture is negative, with timber exports during recent years. Asia is now the imports totaling US$16.5 million against US$9.5 million main exportation hub, receiving about 60 percent of in exports. The development of further processing in total exports during the 2005–2008 period. It strength- Central Africa is currently constrained due to a number ened its position in 2009, at the height of the crisis, by of factors, as shown by table 1.8. exceeding 70 percent of total exports (see box 1.3). Asian markets also present different profiles and pref- erences for timber products, which could eventually 4  Note that data on sawmills vary widely across the literature and not all sawmills listed change the way timber is produced in Central Africa. are actually operational and active. In particular, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, sawmills are abandoned and not operational after many years of neglect during the years Asia, and particularly China, imports a broader selection of civil conflict. and higher volume of lesser-known secondary species, 12 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Box 1.3: On Timber Trade with China and Other Emerging Asian Markets To better understand the influence of China and other emerging Asian markets on timber management and exports in the Congo Basin, it is important to understand the market dynamics specific to the timber trade between the Central African countries and China. Following the 1997 Asian crisis, the timber demand of Asian countries, most notably China, grew rapidly. Between 1997 and 2006, China’s total timber-product imports almost quadrupled in volume (roundwood equivalent) from approximately 12.5 million m3 to more than 45 million m3. China is now the number-one importer of timber products in the world. With China’s manufacturing sectors rapidly expanding, the demand for unprocessed timber is skyrocketing. This is also reflected in the changing composition of timber imports by China. Through the 1990s, China mainly imported large quantities of plywood, but the significant increase of timber imports over the last decade is almost exclusively based on increased log imports, while sawnwood imports stagnated and plywood imports actually decreased. Accordingly, China as has been the top destination of logs exported from the Basin for several years now, surpassing historical destinations such as Italy, Spain, or France. For more than 10 years, Gabon has been the largest Central African supplier of logs to China (for example, with exports worth US$400 million in 2008), followed by the Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Cameroon.a In comparison to exports from other Congo Basin countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo’s official timber exports to China remain at less than $20 million. However, the Democratic Republic of Congo’s timber sales to China have been trending sharply upward and the volumes of timber illegally shipped through bordering countries have not been quantified, making the Democratic Republic of Congo’s timber export sector worth closer investigation. In line with the above export trends, several Western logging companies that have been operating in Africa for decades have recently been taken over by investors from China and other emerging Asian countries. For example, the formerly French, then Portuguese, firm Leroy-Gabon, was taken over by Chinese interests. The originally French, then German (from 1968), then Danish (from 2006), company CIB—which operates in the Republic of Congo– was sold to the Singapore-based firm Olam International (controlled by Indian investors) by the end of 2010. a The effect of Gabon’s 2010 log export ban on China’s imports of Gabonese timber has yet to be fully examined. which may become more important as the stock of pri- that are working on smaller forest areas. The profes- mary export species degrades or becomes more costly sionalization of this growing number of small opera- to access in remote forest areas. tors—including improved forest management and more effective industrial processing of their products—will be The logging operators are largely concentrated. The top one of the main challenges in the coming years. 10 operators in Central Africa operate between 40 to 50 percent of the concessions in the subregion. The industry leader in recent years has been the French The booming informal sector Groupe Rougier, which manages a concession area of nearly 2 million ha. In line with the increasing impor- A long overlooked sector tance of Asian markets for Congo Basin timber exports, The informal timber sector has long been overlooked several Western logging companies that have been by both the national entities and the international com- operating in Africa for decades have recently been munity which, over the past decades, mostly focused taken over by investors from China and other emerging attention on the industrial and export-oriented sectors. Asian countries. Apart from this mainly foreign-owned, In 1994, the devaluation of the regional currency highly commercial sector, there is a set of small (FCFA) boosted the timber exportation at the expense industrial operators with limited capacity and resources of the domestic markets, which, consequently, hugely Working Paper 2: Logging 13 contracted. The recovery and boom of the domestic sector provides for much higher direct and indirect market in recent years is a sharp turnaround; domestic local employment than does the formal sector, with and regional timber economy is now recognized as just benefits more equally redistributed at the local level as important as the formalized sector. than has been achieved through formal sector activi- ties. Lescuyer et al. (2010) estimate the financial gain Informal sector is mostly geared by domestic mar- generated by the informal sector (that is, based on kets. Demand for timber has been soaring on local aggregated local wages, fees, and profits) at around markets to meet the growing needs of urban popu- US$60 million per year for Cameroon, $12.8 million lations. However, while most focus has been put so for Congo, $5.4 million for Gabon (Libreville area far on export trends (to European markets as well as only), and $1.3 million for the Central African Republic to Asian markets), very little information exists on the (Bangui area only). Generally, the socioeconomic ben- rapidly growing domestic markets in the subregion efits created by chainsaw milling are distributed more (both national and regional). Research shows that widely in communities than are benefits provided by demand for construction timber rapidly increases from conventional logging. Lescuyer et al. (2010) could urbanizing cities. This growth generates intense timber demonstrate that the revenue from chainsaw milling flows (mainly informal) that expand at the regional that remains in rural economies in Cameroon is four level. It was only recently documented that well-es- times as high as the area fee, the latter being the tax tablished transnational timber supply networks from paid by industrial logging companies and redistributed Central Africa to as far as Niger, Chad, Sudan, Egypt, to local councils and communities. Further, the income Libya, and Algeria have driven the growing urban generated by chainsaw milling activities also stimulates demand for construction material (Langbour, Roda, a secondary economy, thus providing further benefits and Koff 2010). as secondary service and trade activities develop. Domestic demand for construction timber is booming. Despite these important local socioeconomic benefits, In some countries, the potential economic importance current regulatory frameworks fail to properly oversee of the domestic forest economy appears to exceed the domestic timber production. Because of the quasi-ex- formal economy. For example, in Cameroon, domestic clusive focus on the industrial timber sector, forest-re- timber production already well surpasses formal timber lated laws and regulations prepared since the 1990s production; in the Democratic Republic of Congo have been designed with a clear bias on industrial and the Republic of Congo, domestic timber produc- operations and with little attention to smaller opera- tion represents more than 30 percent of total timber tions. Consequently, legal/regulatory frameworks are production (see table 1.9). Only recently, research on not adapted to small forest enterprises which are thus the informal sector substantiated its importance both constrained to illegality, with a greater adverse impact in terms of estimated timber volumes as well as in on natural forest resources (due overexploitation of the number of jobs associated with informal activities timber resources by informal operators). As long as (from production to marketing). Domestic operators national and international policy makers continue to are now recognized as engines that drive small and largely disregard local timber production and con- medium enterprise development. sumption—and as long as there is no clear framework that regulates domestic timber production and trade— there is little prospect that illegal timber trade can be An unregulated sector that does not capture its full reduced. There is an urgent need to focus the efforts socioeconomic potential on the formalization of the informal sector and to The informal sector provides financial contributions define new rules and regulations that can support the to rural economies that are largely ignored in official sustainable development of this vibrant sector while statistics; recent research show that the informal preserving the capital of natural forests. 14 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Table 1.9: Estimated Production Volume of the Informal Sector Estimated lumber Domestic timber Estimated forest production for production estate (ha and local market* compared to percent of total land Country (m3/year) industrial production Policy area) Population Chain-saw milling 662,000 m3; Almost twice the (CSM) is mentioned Cameroon more than 2 industrial exports of in the forestry law, 19.4 million (42%) 19.1 million million m3 RWE sawn timber but permits are difficult to acquire. The law allows for CSM operators to 23% of the industrial apply for legal logging Gabon 70,000 m3 22 million (85%) 1.5 million export of sawnwood authorization, but granting has been very slow. CSM is mentioned in 35% of industrial the forestry law, but Republic of Congo 78,000 m3 sawnwood 22.4 million (66%) 3.6 million permits are difficult to production acquire. CSM activities are not adequately covered in legislation; the law 35% of industrial 1,500,000– allows for a special Congo, Dem. Rep. sawnwood 154.1 million (68%) 64.3 million 2,400,000 m3 permit for small-scale production loggers, but in practice it is difficult to acquire this permit. 150% of the officially exported industrial Central African Rep. 67,000 m3 production (*Semi- commercial export to Chad not included) Source: Authors, from multiple sources. Note: RWE = round wood equivalent Left unregulated, the informal sector has been “cap- production and thus calculated revenue losses from the tured� by vested interests, and its socioeconomic ben- informal sector to amount to US$8.6 million in Camer- efits have been compromised by corrupt practices. The oon, $2.2 million in Congo, $0.6 million in the Central informal sector involves a large number of operators, African Republic, and $0.1 million in Gabon. including sawyers, porters, retailers, firewood traders, mill owners, log transporters, etc. Despite operating outside of governance and legal schemes, they interact …and generates great pressures on natural forests with national entities (forestry administration, customs, Informality of the sector also generates inefficiencies finance and so forth). A large share of the benefits is and huge pressures on natural forests. The current sit- captured by community elites, individuals in the lower uation already generates major inefficiency in the pro- level of the supply chain (that is, traders), or corrupt vision of timber to domestic markets as well as huge government officials seeking informal fees. These “unof- pressures on natural forests. The techniques used by ficial� payments to government officials and local elites the informal operators are also largely inefficient (hand- could also be considered lost revenue to the State. free chainsaw milling), but the low-priced domestic Lescuyer et al. (2010) extrapolated estimates of these market conditions tend to counter any attempt to payments to the overall volume of estimated informal improve processing methods. A study from Samuel, Working Paper 2: Logging 15 Box 1.4: European Union’s Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Program The European Union (EU)’s Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Action Plan represents an attempt to use the power of timber-consuming countries to reduce the extent of illegal logging. The role of consumer countries in driving the demand for timber and wood products—and thereby contributing to illegal logging—has been a particular focus of debate in recent years. This has been especially true of the EU, which is a major global importer of timber and wood products; several countries from which EU member states import such products suffer from extensive illegal activities. Spurred by discussions at the East Asia FLEG conference in September 2001, the European Commission published its Action Plan on Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) in May 2003. Approved by the Council of the EU in October 2003, it included the following proposals: • Support to timber-exporting countries, including action to promote equitable solutions to the illegal logging problem. • Activities to promote trade in legal timber, including action to develop and implement VPAs between the EU and timber-exporting countries. • Promoting public procurement policies, including action to guide contracting authorities on how to deal with legality when specifying timber in procurement procedures. • Support for private-sector initiatives, including action to encourage private-sector initiatives for good practice in the forest sector, including the use of voluntary codes of conduct for private companies to source legal timber. • Safeguards for financing and investment, including action to encourage banks and financial institutions investing in the forest sector to develop due-care procedures when granting credits. • Use of existing legislative instruments or adaption of new legislation to support the Plan—for example, the EU Illegal Timber Regulation. • Addressing the problem of conflict timber. For more information, visit www.euflegt.efi.int/portal/home/flegt_intro/flegt_action_plan/ Pasiecznik, and Fehr (2007) compared the economic Unmet domestic demand viability of producing timber with freehand chainsaw One of the paradoxes of Central Africa is that net trade milling or with a frame mill in the Democratic Republic in timber furniture is negative, with imports totaling of Congo. They found that freehand was more viable US$16.5 million against US$9.5 million in exports. At for local chainsaw operators. While the timber from a first glance, the fact that countries like Cameroon are frame mill was of higher quality, the study found that net importers of furniture may seem paradoxical. How- there was no local market for such timber and that the ever, since the import volume and demand for high- price premium that could be obtained in the non-local end furniture is mainly driven by urban elites, hotels, market was largely offset by the additional transport restaurants, and administration, local producers find it cost. Even though the frame mills have a higher rate difficult to tap into this sizable market due to quality of recovery, logs were abundant; thus, there was little and design constraints as well as lack of appropriate motivation for using milling attachments in the Dem- equipment and skills. As such, the lower quality of ocratic Republic of Congo. Various other studies also locally manufactured furniture prevents local manufac- show that small-scale forest operations tend to gain in turers to compete with global furniture manufacturing profitability with a certain scale rather than with value to meet the domestic demand for high-end furniture. addition. Unless the domestic timber supply becomes properly regulated, this situation will exacerbate and Further developing the processing subsector for cause major adverse environmental impacts. domestic market could expand marketing options to 16 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection lesser-known secondary species. While the value of regulation of timber production, and figures do not sawnwood, veneer, plywood, and flooring products include estimates for “informal� logging carried out depends on the species used, manufactured timber by small-scale operators, who mainly operate illegally. products are not necessarily species-specific; instead, Reliable figures on the volume of illegal logging are their sales value depends more on their appearance rarely available and differ largely. The actual forest and quality. Secondary species represent an increas- area affected is further difficult to detect and delineate ing percentage of authorized logging due to the with current remote-sensing techniques, as illegal great diversity of species in the Congo Basin forests logging in the Congo Basin is usually associated with and the degradation of residual primary forests. forest degradation rather than deforestation (Euro- Developing the industry for manufactured wood pean Commission 2010). products could thus add value to secondary species and further support larger-scale acceptance of these Congo Basin countries have adhered to the European lesser-known species in future timber supplies. Many Union’s FLEGT process. FLEGT stands for “Forest Law secondary species in Central Africa lend themselves Enforcement, Governance and Trade� and has been set well for further processing and are of interest due to up to strengthen forest governance and combat illegal the their excellent technical qualities as well as their logging. Cameroon (2010), the Republic of Congo broad availability. (2010), and the Central African Republic (2011) have signed Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs) negotiated under the European Union’s FLEGT pro- Illegal logging and forest governance cess. FLEGT seeks to ban illegal timber trading on the European market. One of the fundamental elements of Illegal logging is suspected to be widespread in the FLEGT is to provide support to timber-producing coun- region, but little data exists to adequately quantify the tries in order to improve their forest governance and scope. Annual losses in revenues and assets due to establish effective methods to counter illegal logging illegal logging on public lands are estimated at about (see box 1.4). In April 2012, six countries are devel- US$10–18 billion worldwide, with losses mainly oping the systems agreed under a VPA—among them, occurring in developing countries. In Cameroon, Cameroon, the Republic of Congo, and the Central Afri- losses are estimated at $5.3 million; in Congo Brazza- can Republic—and four countries that are negotiating ville at $4.2 million; and in Gabon at $10.1 million per with the European Union, among them the Democratic year. This revenue is being lost every year due to poor Republic of Congo and Gabon. Working Paper 2: Logging 17 Chapter 2 Impacts on Forests Unlike in other tropical regions, logging activities in not apply minimum standards to manage the resources the Congo Basin usually do not entail a transition to and thus tend to be more damaging to the forests. another land use. They generally lead to forest deg- radation rather than deforestation. This feature was Forest degradation, though harder to quantify, also the main reason for the Congo Basin countries to join drives major change in Basin forests. An estimated forces during the Conference of Parties in Bali in 2007 3.8 million ha of forest are degraded each year. This and expand the concept of RED to forest degradation quantified measure of degradation is based solely on (thus adding the second “D� to the acronym REDD). significant detected change in forest cover and not in qualitative terms (that is, change in species composi- Limited cumulative figures are available on the spe- tion). Degradation is largely offset by recovery (tran- cific degradation impacts of logging activities. Annual sition from degraded forest to dense primary forest), degradation rates for dense forest in the Congo Basin when considered nationally (see table 2.1). have been estimated at 0.09 percent based on gross degradation of 0.15 percent combined, with recovery of 0.06 percent. These rates are low, and although there “Limited� impacts from industrial logging is insufficient data available on the quantitative impact of logging operations on biomass and carbon stocks, Logging activities lead to forest degradation rather the GHG emissions from industrial logging activities are than deforestation. Logging in the Congo Basin is considered to be low. The impact may, however, be highly selective and extensive, and production forests more significant for informal logging activities that do remain permanently forested. In industrial concession, Table 2.1: Average Annual Degradation and Recovery Rates in Dense Forest Zones in the Congo Basin between 1990 and 2000 Gross degradation Gross recovery Net degradation Country (%) (%) (%) Cameroon* 0.07 0.06 0.01 Central African Republic 0.06 0.04 0.02 Republic of Congo 0.04 0.04 0 Congo, Dem. Rep. 0.19 0.07 0.12 Equatorial Guinea* 0 0.32 Gabon* 0.09 0.01 0.08 Congo Basin 0.15 0.06 0.09 Source: Adapted from Duveiller et al. 2008; Eba’a Atyi et al. 2008. * These figures should be interpreted cautiously, given the low to very low sampling rate. 18 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Box 2.1: Typical Impact of Commercial Logging Operations • Logging base camp: 0.03 to 0.1 percent of forest cover of the concession area is cleared for the purpose of the base camp(s), according to companies (Lumet et al. 1993). However, subsequent to the establishment of a base camp, the pressure on the surrounding forest increases rapidly due to agricultural activities, hunting pressure, etc. Little quantitative data is available on the extent of indirect impact from logging base camps. • Logging access roads: Development of logging roads involves the clearing of a strip of forest and the compacting of the soil. Access roads are typically between 4m and 25m wide. Primary and secondary roads generally account for 1–2 percent of surface disturbance (including the road edges that are also cleared). • Incidental damage: The felling of trees also contributes to damage and uprooting of adjacent trees and vegetation in the logging plot. This includes total damage of trees as well as broken-off branches of nearby trees during the fall of the logged timber tree. As part of an operation with an extraction intensity of 0.5 trees per hectare, one generally estimates that per 1 m2 of extracted timber, damage is caused to 4.3 m2 of surrounding forest area. Vine cutting prior to felling significantly reduces the impact. • Skidding trails: Skidding trails create the least impact of the different factors, in particular in Africa, where extraction is highly selective. The track that is opened is usually rapidly overgrown; large trees are avoided during development of the track and skid trails are often not detectable from aerial photographs shortly after operation. As part of an operation with an extraction intensity of 0.5–1 tree per hectare (5–15m3/ha), one generally estimates that about 3 percent of the forest floor is covered by skid trails, half of the area caused by the actual extraction. • Log dock: The log dock is an opening in the forest to accommodate temporary storage of extracted logs prior to further road transport. This usually accounts for 0.3 percent of the total surface used. wood extraction is very low, with an average rate of considered to be relatively low. Box 2.1 describes the less than 0.5 m3 per hectare. As a matter of fact, the impacts of the different logging operations. industrial logging sector in the Basin has two specific features that tend to drastically limit its impact on forest Recent field studies on the carbon impact of selec- carbon:5 adoption of sustainable forest managements tive logging in the Republic of Congo quantifying the (and, in some cases, subscription to forest certifica- impact of selective logging on forest carbon stock tion schemes) as well as the high selectivity in valued (Brown et al. 2005) estimate that the carbon impact species. In a conventional industrial concession, it is from the test logging site totals 10.2 t C per ha of con- estimated that for the first round of logging in old- cession area, or a total carbon impact of 12,174 t C for growth forests, the total disturbed area accounts for a total of 3,542 t C of extracted biomass carbon (that approximately 5.5 percent of total forest area (Garden is, the commercial log). This represents a comparatively 1995). Second- or third-rotation logging in logged-over low total carbon impact, which breaks down roughly forests increases the damage to more than 6.5 percent as follows: 29 percent extracted biomass carbon, 45 of the total surface. Although there is insufficient percent damaged biomass carbon in logging gap, 1 data available on the quantitative impact of logging percent damaged biomass carbon in skid trails, 25 operations on biomass and carbon stocks, the direct percent biomass carbon impact of logging roads. GHG emissions from industrial logging activities are The study also suggests that such selective logging activities have comparatively less impact on carbon 5  In this section, we consider the impacts in terms of carbon content (as per the REDD+ stock than do reduced-impact logging (RIL) activities mechanism). However, it is important to note that while logging may have limited impacts on carbon stock in the long run, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem equilibrium may in the Amazon Basin. There are several explanations be much more affected by logging. for the low impact of the case study of highly selective Working Paper 2: Logging 19 Box 2.2: Reduced-impact Logging (RIL) RIL comprises the entire spectrum of forest-harvesting operations—from pre-harvest inventory and planning, selection of merchantable trees, and design of infrastructure to felling, extraction and hauling of logs, and finally post-harvest operations and assessments. Careful selection of trees is a first step toward ensuring that conserva- tion principles and future harvesting cycles are appropriately considered. Proper RIL is usually practiced every 25 to 50 years, depending on forest type, resulting in minimal disturbance. Timber harvest (sometimes combined with carbon credit sales or other ecosystem service credit sales) provides an economic benefit from the forest while retaining a large part of the values associated with an unharvested forest. The challenge is to produce enough economic benefit from the forest to also support the local people sustainably. RIL must therefore be seen as only a component, albeit an important one, toward responsible or sustainable forest management. For example, the application of RIL does not comprehensively consider social issues, such as land and customary rights, although these issues are important in many situations. In other words, RIL defines how logging operations will be carried out, while bigger-picture aspects are covered under sustainable-yield planning; social and environmental considerations are considered as part of broader forest management planning and within the applicable policy and legislative frameworks. Generally, the advantages of RIL include: (1) Soil disturbed in roads, landings, and skid trails reduced by almost 50 percent; (2) significantly less canopy opening; (3) better survival of residual trees and faster recovery; (4) wood waste reduced by more than 60 percent; (5) reduced machine hours; (6) reduced injury rate among workers; and (7) increased carbon retention. In contrast, conventional logging tends to lead to: (1) many unnecessary roads and skid trails; (2) many unnec- essary landings that are too large; (3) substantial canopy opening; (4) subsequent invasion by vines and pioneer plant species; (5) significant damage to residual vegetation, including future crop trees; (6) large number of lost logs; (7) higher machinery use and increased injury rates among workers; and (8) decreased carbon retention. logging in the Congo Basin. In the test sites in the be logged again before a 20-to-30-year period, which Amazon, the ubiquitous presence of lianas resulted in leaves enough time for biomass to regenerate. As a more damage in the areas surrounding the extracted result, it is expected that under proper implementation trees, while there was no presence of lianas at the of SFM principles, a concession should globally main- test site in Congo. Further, the overall biomass and tain a carbon stock over the long run (see box 2.3). thus carbon impact of highly selective logging in the Congo Basin is low due to the relative proportions of Indirect impacts can also result from logging activi- the extracted timber trees. For example, commercial ties, such as infrastructure (mainly road) expansion. log length at the test site in the Republic of Congo was According to estimates from Laporte et al. (2007), 22 meters, while log length recorded in studies from logging roads account for 38 percent of the length the Amazon often range much below (for example, a of all roads in Central Africa, ranging from 13 percent comparable study from Bolivia reports mean log length in the Democratic Republic of Congo to greater than just over 10 meters; see box 2.2) 60 percent in Gabon and the Republic of Congo. Logging roads open access to forest frontiers, which In addition to the limited impact during logging activ- are often colonized by the most vulnerable people in ities, industrial concessions are generally managed search for subsistence land. The frequency of defor- under rotation cycles, meaning that the plots will not estation rapidly decreases with the distance from 20 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Box 2.3: Variations in Forest Carbon Stocks: Key Concepts tCO2e ha–1 Deforestation is defined as the long-term or permanent conversion of forest land to other nonforest uses. The UNFCCC defines deforestation as “the direct, human-induced conversion of forested land to non-forested land�.a It can be the result of an abrupt event (deforestation = forest  Time nonforest), in which case the change in land cover and land Undisturbed Forest Initial degradation Irtermediate degradation Advanced degradation use occurs immediately and simultaneously, or of a process Carbon Density of progressive degradation (deforestation = forest  degrad- Classes ed forest  nonforest). Deforestation occurs when at least Forest Degradation one of the parameter values used to define “forest land� is Forest Non-Forest reduced from above the threshold for defining “forest� to below this threshold for a period of time that is longer than the period of time used to define “temporarily un-stocked.� tCO2e ha–1 Forest degradation is “forest land remaining forest land and continuing to meet the basic national criteria related of minimum forest area, forest height and tree crown cover remain� but gradually losing carbon stocks as a consequence of direct human intervention (for example, logging, fuel-wood Time Undisturbed Sustainable Forest Management collection, fire, grazing). “Degradation� is, thus, the conversion Forest of a forest class with higher average carbon stock density to Forest another one with lower average carbon stock density. Consistently with the above definition, areas subject to tCO2e ha–1 sustainable forest management (with logging activities) represent a particular class of “degraded forest.� An undis- turbed natural forest that will be subject to sustainable forest management will lose part of its carbon, but the loss will partially recover over time. In the long-term, a sustainable harvesting and re-growth cycle could maintain a constant Time average carbon stock density in the forest. Since this average Initial degradation Irtermediate degradation Advanced degradation Recovered Forest Carbon carbon stock density is lower than in the original forest, Density sustainably managed forests are considered a special case Classes of “degraded forest.� Forest Degradation/ Succession Forest regeneration. A transition from a disturbed forest Non- Forest Forest class to a forest class with higher carbon stock density is also possible. Degraded forests or young forests (planted or secondary) can increase their carbon stocks if properly managed, or when logging and other activities are permanently suspended or reduced.b The process can be seen as the reversal of forest degradation. Reforestation/Afforestation is a specific case of forest regeneration when the initial status of the land is non- forest land. Depending whether the land was a forest before or after 1990, the mechanisms of forest regeneration is called respectively afforestation or reforestation. a Forest area and carbon stock losses due to natural disturbances (landslides, consequences of volcanic eruptions, and see level rise, among others) are not considered “defor- estation.� b Units of forest land subject to this “regeneration� process are successively allocated to forest classes with a higher average carbon stock density. As in the degradation case, the difference in average carbon stock density between two contiguous classes should be at least 10 percent. Working Paper 2: Logging 21 roads. In Brazilian Amazon, a 30 percent of forest loss the informal chainsaw milling industry tends to lead to was found within 10 km of roads, a 20 percent loss depletion of forest resources, due to the combination between 11 and 25 km, and a 15 percent loss from of several factors: 26 to 50 km (Mertens et al. 1997). Less research has been done on this issue in the Congo Basin, but The informal sector supply markets are less ƒƒ work conducted in southern Cameroon (Mertens and selective than the export markets; as such, the Lambin 1997) shows that 80 percent of total defor- extraction rate from logging activities is considered estation occurs within a distance of less than 2 km to be higher. Reducing selectivity and increasing the of roads; beyond a distance of 7.5 km, deforestation number of secondary species in the market gener- ceases (see figure 2.1). As shown in the below map ally increase the ecological impact per logged area. of the transition zone around Kananga city in southern The processing rate of the chainsaw industry is very ƒƒ Democratic Republic of Congo, the deforestation pat- low, requiring many more resources for the same terns are different in areas where higher population volume of processed products. density puts more pressure on natural forests. The informal activities are not governed by log- ƒƒ ging cycles and tend to over-log the most acces- sible areas (closed to markets or transportation Major threat likely to come from informal access). This leads to a progressive erosion of the sector resources, as the regeneration rate cannot cope with extraction rates. The major threat from logging activities is expected to come from the informal sector that supplies the boiling As long the informal sector is left unregulated, its domestic market. Although the ecological impacts and impacts on natural forests are expected to increase sustainability of the informal timber sector has not and progressively degrade forests in most highly pop- been scientifically established, experts suggest that ulated areas. Figure 2.1: Deforestation Dynamics along Roads Forest loss near highways outside of Mbuji-Mayi/ Spatial modeling of deforestation in southern Cameroon. Kanaga area between 2000 and 2010. 4 Frequency of deforestation (log of number of pixels) 3 2 1 0 0 0 10 15 Distance to nearest road (km) Source: Mertens et al. 1997. Source: Authors. Working Paper 2: Logging 23 Chapter 3 Recommendations Logging activities are usually not direct causes of defor- Pursue progress on sustainable forest estation in the Congo Basin. They rather lead to forest management in industrial logging degradation. This is why the Basin countries strongly concessions argued in Bali that the RED mechanism should also include the forest degradation and should, therefore, Congo Basin countries have made major progress become REDD so that progress made on sustainable on sustainable forest management (SFM) in logging logging activities in the Congo Basin could receive concessions in Central Africa over the last decades. The some financial compensation under the climate financ- region is one of the most advanced in terms of areas ing mechanism. with an approved (or under preparation) management plan (MP). However, studies indicate that despite this The major threat comes for the boiling domestic progress, SFM principles still need to fully materialize market. While progress has been made in the industrial at the level of the industrial logging concessions. The logging concessions, there is still room for improve- below elements give some guidance on key aspects ment, and efforts should be pursued. But it is clear that should be reinforced: that the major threat from logging activities now comes from the informal sector that is not ruled by any gov- Ensure adequate implementation of manage- ƒƒ ernance framework and that tends to adversely impact ment plans at the concession level. While a lot of the forest resources. Although the ecological impact technical expertise is usually put in the preparation/ and sustainability of the informal timber sector has not approval process of the MP for a logging conces- been scientifically established, experts suggest that sion, it seems that in many countries much less the informal chainsaw milling industry tends to lead to attention is given to implementation of the plan. depletion of forest resources. The decentralized level of the forestry adminis- tration are usually not adequately equipped (in This section provides some recommendations and terms of human resources as well as vehicles guidance on how the future REDD+ mechanism could and other equipment) to perform monitoring and be used to support a more sustainable logging sector control activities in the concessions (see below on (both industrial and artisanal) that would reconcile the “Strengthen Forestry Administration�). growing demand for timber products (mainly domesti- Revise technical SFM standards. Standards on ƒƒ cally) with forest preservation. The below section pro- SFM defined in national regulations were based vides a list of policy recommendations that could help on the knowledge on forest dynamics at the time Congo Basin countries design a strategy to dismantle of the elaboration of the regulations. Based on the dualistic profile (formal/informal) of the logging the practical knowledge accumulated at the level sector and help define a performing and differentiated of the concessions over the past decade, there is logging sector that ensures the sustainability of the an opportunity to adjust the SFM parameters and forest resources. 24 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection criteria that would take into account new elements. timber-producing countries as they improve One such element should definitely be climate governance in their forestry sector and promote change, as it is already affecting forest dynamics in production and trade of legal timber products. The the Congo Basin (growth/mortality/regeneration process is already quite advanced in all Congo rates). In addition, improved logging techniques, Basin countries (except Equatorial Guinea), and it is such as RIL, could be given a more prominent expected that wood products exported from these place in SFM practices, given their proven and countries to the European Union will be FLEGT-li- demonstrated benefits related to reduced carbon censed starting in 2013, ensuring that they do impact, positive effects on ecosystem functions, not contain any illegally harvested timber and are and increased profitability. derived from SFM. The FLEGT process is critical to Move away from single-use, timber-oriented ƒƒ support better governance in the forest sector, and management models. In line with the need for all governance-related activities in a specific country technical adjustments of SFM standards, one could should strengthen and be aligned with the FLEGT also consider non-timber products, biodiversity VPA signed by that country. conservation, and environmental services as part of forest MPs. Such multi-use forest management would better respond to the needs of the multiple Formalize the informal timber sector stakeholders dependent on the forest resources and also add more value to the forest. SFM could The informal timber sector has long been overlooked serve as a tool toward a multi-use management by both the national entities and the international com- approach, while planning for multiple uses would munity which, over the past decades, mostly focused be elevated to the landscape level. attention on the industrial and export-oriented sectors. Encourage forest certification schemes. Many ƒƒ As long as national and international policy makers studies have shown that other forest management continue to largely disregard local timber production requirements—for example, mandatory MPs—are and consumption—and as long as there is no clear not sufficient to motivate logging companies to framework that regulates domestic timber production adopt socially and environmentally sustainable and trade—there is little prospect that illegal timber practices. In many places, communities perceive trade can be reduced. There is an urgent need to focus improved social benefits from certified concessions the efforts on the formalization of the informal sector compared to non-certified ones. A recent (Nasi and to define new rules and regulations that can sup- et al. 2011) study indicates that only certification port the sustainable development of this vibrant sector seems to provide incentive and sense of need for while preserving the capital of natural forests. companies to invest significantly in operational procedures for biodiversity conservation (includ- Understand the “political economy� of the informal ƒƒ ing improved planning of forest camps and road timber value chain. A political economy analysis of networks, protection of ecologically sensitive sites, the informal timber sector should be a prerequisite pro-active control of hunting activities, and so on). to the revision/adjustment of the legal and regu- While adoption of certification schemes is a volun- latory framework, as proposed below. In fact, the tary and decided upon by an operator based on informal sector involves a large number of operators, its business plan and the responses to its market’s including sawyers, porters, retailers, firewood traders, signals, incentives could be set up in the Congo mill owners, log transporters, and so forth. Despite Basin to encourage private operators to make the operating outside of governance and legal schemes, choice of certifying their concessions. they significantly interact with national entities Support the FLEGT process. FLEGT is the most ƒƒ (forestry administration, customs, finance, and so comprehensive initiative to support tropical forth). Robust understanding of interactions among Working Paper 2: Logging 25 the various stakeholders as well as their roles in Research shows that demand for construction the informal timber value chain will help inform the timber rapidly increases from urbanizing cities. This preparation of a legal/regulatory framework. growth generates intense timber flows (mainly Adapt the legal and regulatory framework to move ƒƒ informal) that expand at the regional level (some the informal sector into formality. There is a need studies highlight timber flows from Cameroon to to adapt the framework of legality standards to the Libya and Egypt). However, very little is known about reality of low-income and small-scale domestic pro- these new markets (type of products, volumes, ducers so that they can move out of illegality and prices, flows, and so forth). As they are becoming maximize their contribution to economic growth a more and more prominent consumer of Congo and job creation while sustainably managing forest Basin timber, there is a need for a more robust resources. More concretely, governments of Congo understanding of these markets and their dynamics Basin countries would need to put in place simple so that the decision makers (public and private) can regulations and procedures to obtain small-scale make more informed decisions on how to sustain logging permits, which would move into the formal this value chain without jeopardizing the natural economy. forest capital. This analysis should be conducted at As the governments prepare a new framework the regional level, as there are clear signals that the on domestic timber production and trade, it is timber flows tend to be transnational. essential for them to engage an open and transpar- ent dialogue with all key stakeholders and particu- larly the local people benefitting from the informal Modernize the processing capacities activities. Lessons further emphasize the impor- tance of building broad consensus among the Having a better-performing and modern timber-pro- different stakeholders to address informal sectors. A cessing industry has always been a high priority for multi-stakeholder dialogue will be a critical process the Congo Basin governments. Progress on that front for identifying solutions to overcome the difficult has been minimal so far, but there are signals that tradeoffs between sustaining rural livelihoods this is likely to change in the coming years. Ambitious dependent on the informal domestic markets and steps are being taken by the government of Gabon, for enforcing production standards and trade restric- example, to develop a free-zone area “Special Eco- tions as required by the principles of timber legality. nomic Zone—SEZ� in Nkok, about 30 km from Libre- A multi-stakeholder dialogue can further be seen ville, on a 1,125-hectare area in partnership with the as a first step for understanding and addressing the private operator Olam.6 underlying problems that lead to the informality/ illegality and inefficiencies of the domestic sector While the modernization of the processing sector is and for capacity building toward improving local critical to set up an efficient timber value chain in the governance, aside from strict enforcement. Failure Congo Basin, the following dimensions should be to understand and take into account the underlying taken into account: factors could run the risk that small-scale operators would only be driven even deeper into illegality. Adjust the processing capacities to the forest ƒƒ resources. The timber-processing capacity is glob- Better understand the market trends and related ƒƒ ally oversized and creates a huge pressure on the opportunities. So far, most focus has been put on the analysis of the export trends (to European mar- kets as well as Asian market), but very little informa- 6 This SEZ will be dedicated to the advanced processing of tropical timber, with a global capacity of 1 million m3 per year and direct employment estimated between 6,000 and tion exists on the rapidly growing domestic markets 7,000. As of November 2011, US$200 million has already been invested in this joint-ven- in the subregion (both national and regional). ture SEZ. The SEZ is expected to be operational in mid-2012. 26 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection resource. While progress has been made in the production to processing) could also be of great industrial subsector, there is a lot to be done in the impact. informal subsector. This is even more pressing as the domestic demand is massively growing. The Congo Basin governments have to make sure, as Foster involvement of communities in they formalize the informal sector, that the process- forest management ing capacities will equate the capacity of the forest. Promote more efficient processing techniques. ƒƒ The concept of “community forestry� has been Industrial processing capacity is widely limited embraced by most of the Congo Basin countries and to primary processing (sawnwood, peeling and is now reflected in their legal framework. However, slicing) with low valorization rates (between 30 and challenges remain in terms of operationalization of this 45 percent). The exported products are then repro- concept. Community-forest status usually does not cessed in the consuming countries. Governments carry permanent property rights and is de facto similar of Congo Basin countries should have a com- to a concession—simply smaller and under a different prehensive assessment of the barriers that need regulatory framework. These time-bound management to be lifted to promote more efficient in-country contracts leave communities exposed to tenure rights processing. issues over the long term, and the various other short- On the artisanal sector, and as the modalities falls of the law significantly constrain the opportunities of the formalization of this sector are defined, a for effective and sustainable community forest man- specific attention should also be on the enhance- agement of the state-owned forest resources. More ment of the processing, as the situation now leads recently, the emerging REDD+ agenda has placed to a wide waste of resources (“tragedy of com- more emphasis on participatory forestry management mons�). Artisanal operators should be empowered and the importance to clarify the rights of the commu- to innovate and improve technologies, and to more nity over the forests (access/property rights). efficiently respond to domestic markets. Diversify valorized species. The timber sector in ƒƒ the Congo Basin is highly selective, valorizing only Diversify sources of timber (through a very limited number of species. This trend has plantation, agroforestry) been mainly driven by the requirements from the consuming markets (Europe and Asia). There The timber demand increases at the international are, however, many opportunities to add value to level as well as at the local level in the Congo Basin, secondary species, which could, for example, be so it seems unlikely that the pressure on natural incorporated into plywood production and other forest resources will decrease in the coming years secondary processing. Further development of the and decades. The only way to alleviate this pressure secondary and tertiary processing industry would is to create some other sources of timber. This can be also allow increased value addition to secondary done by the expansion of plantations (small-scale and species.7 Opportunities are also very important industrial8) as well as the inclusion of valuable trees in the artisanal sector and the domestic markets, in farming land. This would diversify the timber supply where secondary species could get more traction. and could create an alternative to natural forests as the In addition, valorization of the timber wastes (from unique timber provider in the region. 7 While the export of unprocessed wood and sawnwood is highly species-dependent, 8 This should be done with respect to social and environmental best practices. timber species have much less importance in secondary and (more so) tertiary wood products, in particular furniture, where price and marketability is dependent on design and aesthetic values rather than particular species specifications. Working Paper 2: Logging 27 Rejuvenate forestry staff. Staffing strategies ƒƒ Strengthen administrations, particularly (recruitment and capacity building) for the forestry at the decentralized level administration should be redefined, based on the new needs, in terms of knowledge and skills. Forestry administrations are weak in all Congo Basin Foster technology transfer. Administration usually ƒƒ countries: there are often under-staffed, with older relies on inadequate equipment and buildings. employees. Staff is generally highly concentrated in New technologies (log tracking system, GIS, etc.) headquarters and central entities, with very people at should be transferred to forestry administrations so the decentralized level. The staff has usually not been that they can perform more efficiently their core trained on new techniques, technologies, and dimen- tasks in terms of planning, monitoring, and control. sions of forest management. Beyond human resources, forestry administrations are also poorly equipped, particularly in decentralized offices. Working Paper 2: Logging 29 Conclusion and Outlook With an average production of 8 million m3 per year, While logging activities may no longer rank highest on Central African countries produce about 80 percent the list of drivers of deforestation and forest deg- of the total volume of African timber. However, Congo radation in the Congo Basin, one should, however, Basin countries are a relatively small player in terms of acknowledge that they are part of a broader dynamic timber production at the global level, with a relatively and that logging activities (particularly informal ones) low contribution to international timber production. can sometimes be the premise of other economic Asian markets absorb more and more timber exports activities in remote areas. from the Congo Basin. Asia is now the main exporta- tion hub, receiving about 60 percent of total exports While progress has been made in terms of SFM during the period 2005 to 2008. It strengthened in industrial concessions, it has to be pursued and its position in 2009, at the height of the crisis, by strengthened with a sustained attention from all stake- exceeding 70 percent of total exports. Asian markets holders. In addition, the main challenge is certainly to also present different profiles and preferences, which make sure that these advancements are also applied to could eventually change the way timber is industrially the informal sector, which has been historically off the produced in Central Africa. radar and which proves to have substantial long-term impacts on forest cover. Besides industrial, export-oriented logging operations, Congo Basin countries witness the proliferation of The REDD+ mechanism could certainly provide an artisanal loggers, who operate informally to supply a opportunity for Basin countries to support their logging growing local and regional timber demand. This trend sector and to help reconcile the current dualistic config- is unlikely to fade as most Congo Basin countries uration that tends to erode the overall progress made urbanize. In addition, demand for informal timber in the industrial sector. The REDD+ resources could be comes from other African countries (such as Niger, used for “no-regrets� measures. Such measures, while Chad, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, and Algeria), where demo- differing from country to country, should seek to create graphic growth and urbanization are considerable. the enabling conditions for the implementation of an inclusive, green growth. Working Paper 2: Logging 31 References Abdala, B., and Adebu, C. 2010. Exploitation Artisanale Cameroonian logging sector. International Forestry de Bois d’Ouvre dans le Territoire de Mombassa et Review. Irumu. Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo: de Wasseige, C., D. Devers, P. De Marcken, R. Eba’a Rainforest Foundation. Atyi, R. Nasi and Ph. Mayaux. 2009. 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