THE s URBAN A RGE 17qq3 VI'inid 1994 P O L I T I C S A N D T H E C I T Y Urban Politics in Kenya and Tanzania IN THIS ISSUE Cities and Political Change I Cities and Political Change by 17! Richa7t d St7-eii, Mol ll aitl tet1 Htl Itall nimi.attdJo} sceXhlottinrt Ibe7 Richard Siren, Mohamned by Richad Seen Mo/tame Ha/f2WI, aH aveM/atberjunui, andi Joyvce Malomnbe NAIROBI and DAR ES SALAAM. Urban areas in Africa are often Both Keny a and Tanzania I Hawker Politics in Nairobi by arenas for major political change. As centers of national power and pursuedhigh-profile. contrasting Otula Owvuor autbority. urban areas ha%e been focal points for political agitatton and urban policies in thc 1 960s and 6 Marketplace Politics in authority, urban areas have been focal points ~~~~~~~~~Kampala and Quito by Christie transformation. At the same time. concentration ofthe most strategic sectors 1970s. Local govemnient, as the Gombay ofthc national conony in cities endows urban areas with apolitical vitality focus ofpolitical activity, 8 The Municipality: Colombia', much greater than their physical boundaries. Thus in the 190Os, as Africa declined sharply during the same New Scene of Political Activ' eniters a new era ofpolitical pluralism, aisd with the resurgence of civil period in both countries. Sirice by FabioE. Velasquez C. associations, urban areas have become centers for the refonn process. This the 1 980s stagnant, and eveti 10 Is Urban Politics Unique? by has happened ini countries that hacepLirsuedcompletctl opposite develop- falte-ing economies have sexerely K.C. Sivaramnakrishnan ment strategies. such as Kenya atid Tanzatsia. ollitiiim a 011 paae' 4 * 13 Redefining Politics in St. Petersburg by Mikhail Berezin and Olga Kaganiova Hawker Pol i ti cs in Nairobi I sThe Mayor's Hour in Latin Hawker Politics in Nairobi ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~America by Fernsando Carririu by Otula Owuor 17 Womilen's Political Activism iti NAIROBI. Residents ofNairobi stations for booking, the officers This ongoing controversy Nigeria: A Stepping St'.ne to NAIROBI. Residents of Nairobi stations for hooking, the ~~Gosemment Participation by are still recovering from the shock declined to charge him on the grounds underscores the fact that Nairobi Bolanle Awe ofthe January 1994 beating death of that he was already "a dying man." is cunrently being run-for the a 27-year-old street hawker, James Given this chain of events, many first time in its history-by an 19 City Challenge: Regenerating __.a -- a f elected council comprised mainly oocth parties. When Mayor Mwangi of Cajaina2ca by Luis Guerrero -Ford Asili (an opposition parry) Figiweroa took office in early 1993, he quickly learned that he had to collaborate with the ruting party, EOT NS - KANU, and its Ministry for Local Government. if hr wanted 2 Letter-s to the Editotr to accomplish anything during his 3 World View Politics and the tem. While this conciliatory City by Paul Singer 2 *- - = approach has cost him the support 9 Newsline Tackling Urban Aff < ofsomeofhisownparty Violence: An Update " councillors, the head ofthe city 12 Mayor's Column More f5 1 iti5 tisi ( ril,F askarisahas now been transferred Power to the Cities by N A'i s,i/Fztm1,' I s4 and the mayor has regained much Pasqual Maragall neededcredibility.14Q&APltcinCtuay Irungu, allegedly at the hands of were surpnsed when the popular Nairobi These tragic events in 14 &A Poitics inCulturally city askaris (security police). In the mayor, Steve Mwangi, said he had nio Nairobi are a strong reminder of Michael Woo wake of this incident, the city prior knowledge of any of these actions. the importance of achieving a askaris destroyed a used clothing He made the point that the senior working compromisebetween 1 T6Conununilies Speak Tegucigalpa: The Rejection market containing hundreds of officers of the city council are seconded local and central govemnients Vote of the Urban Settlers by kiosks and other structures, which to the city by the Ministry of Local over city council policies which Celina Kawas anid Mario E. they claimed were built by the Govenmment, and as such are not affect the survival of the urban Martin hawkers without properauthority. directly under his control. But in poor. I gRoundtable The China Open These actions were followed by the response to criticism from newspaper Cities Project beating of the chairman of the editorials, Mwangi told his senior Omb Owuor isa Kenyan 21Fron the City Manager's Hawkers' Joint Commission, officers, "I swear to God that you have oturnalist n7ho wriies regularlyJfr Desk Wilson Muchiri, causing him declared war on me and the city council theo Naton newspaper in Nairobi, serious injuries. Although Muchiri but t also swear to God that you will not and -who has contributed to past 22 Books in Brief was taken to one of the city police make it." issues of The Urban Age. 23 The Urban Calendar Dakij4a,y We wse/cornu vour (ormmnents, thoughts, anid suggestions oni 'T'he Urban Age. Jew snrNa Nonoageienl L : fJ NS R -hPogom The/h/ol sing letter was arronig those received Thefiollowving letter~ we)re amionigthoiscreet:ived, This issue of The U-Trban Age is funded bv in response to the Slutnmer 1993 issue on in responise to the Fa/ll 1993 isSue on Ur/son the Danish Agency for Liaterisatiossal rhibat 7iolernce Transportation Development, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, the Dutch Ministry of Editor: Editor: Worid Batik. Developmentai fuandin tor I was imipressed by Usha Rai's articlc, We read your Fall 1993 issue with ititerest. Most the newsletter has been provided by the 'Escalating Violcnee Against Adolescent Girls aliicls advocate policy changes or recommetid UNDP-UNCHS(Habitat)-World Bank in India." and hope it reaches policy tnakers in reforms, but the actual development appears to Urbani Management Programme and my cottntrv. be the same in most places: faster urban sprawl theWorldBank. Rape, which was hitherto virtualvly and fragmentation, more traffic chaos and less _U111M Ii unknown in the Ghanaian media, is hitting the safety, more environmental devastation, higher headlines.Oflate. calls have been made for direct cost and longer travel times. And a Jeb Brugmann measures to help cLirb the incidence of rape. growing imbalance between those who cani ICfEL, Toronto. Canada These have. however, not gone far enough. afford to pay the cost of good transport atid James H. Canr OamticscfHouasingReserc-h The threat of violence against adolescent attractive locations to live in and work and those Fannie Mate tfashington, D.C., USA girls is indeed a very real one, and should be of who cannot. G P. Shabbir Nwecna major concer n to anvone who has the welfare of We presently work in Tanzania and Kenva on Charles Corrca society athcait. Your topic fortihe Sunmmer 1993 a study of non-motorized urbani transport (thc Botnbuy, India issue was very appr opriate and UshaRai' s article niajority of all trips) and mobility, as part of the ZsuzsaDaniel was very down to arti aid thought provokinig. UNECA/World Bank Sub-Saharan Africa Reseawrcth Institute 7t thie Hunl garian1 telsemistr ofnFinaneof Trattsport Programme. The first target is to Buidapest, Hitngair Eric Tuod fotrmulate non-motorized transport action plans Damadou uiopsiepaCouci l)epotrie of Lanoud Lcnoui ( rind for liar es Salaam and Nairobi. The next step Dakarl C atmsnunitv Csounclel Da kar, Senegal fstate Ma natgemttent wi l l be pi lot pro jects to test the efficiency and Nigee Haris Uunireri i7n of Scien e rslbl I Žchnologv effectiveness offdi fferent plan elements. Deve/opment fP/annlisg Ufnil Kutanosi, Gthanta cotshntinued on1 page 24 F London, England T'h. H. Kolstee Ditch Ministry ofForeign if/dirs The Hague, Netherlands Aprodicio Laquian UBC Ceitt he for Human Settlesmenits dir' Nate V'ancouver, Cantada Editof Note JaimeLermer Curitibta, Brazil AkintMabogulie This issue of The Urban Age charts new territory women are becotiiiig activists, as discussed in the Ibadan- Nigeria by attempting to explore city politics. As the article from Nigenia. Ilowever, elected politicians Pablo Trivelli world becomes more urban, discussions of city and high-level political and economic decision- Urban Mainagement Programnine politics will become increasingly important. makers are predominantly men. Articles from Qnfiio. Ecuador Clearly, there is a strong political dimension to Nigeria and the United Kingdom offer interesting Jainte Valcnzuela what happens in cities worldwide. insights into gender and urban politics. 1ULA/UELCA DEL, Q)uito, Ecuador The broad raisge of topics and insights found The Honduran authors ask why disorderly sin these articles represent pieces of a much larger urban growth, land tenure, and provision of basic puzzle. This issue is best viewed as a collection of urban services should be so difficult to resolve. ideas, stories, and viewpoints, and a contribution They conclude the problems are not technical, but Arifl lasan to the further exploration of urban politics. essentially political. Along with other Karachi, Pakistan Many common threads weave this issue contributors, tiey advocate greaterparticipation. Hilda I lerzer together, even though articles were written by a Articles from the United Kingdom and Peru show Centro Estudios Sociales Y diverse group including practitioners, academics, how participatory approaches can enable A inbientales Buenos A ires, Ar gei tiiitt joumalists, observers, social and political communities to empower themselves. Peter Swan scientists. One common theme is that cities and A final word ofthanks to the authors of articles tjA CI1S .'s'airobi, Kcenva municipalities are the powerclosest to the people, included in this issue. A number ofthem took on _ I ! I w " and therefore the place where human problems the difficult task of writing about politically often have the potential to be resolved. seissitive topics in countries where freedom of Articles from Kenya, Tanzania, Ecuador, speech and political expression are still tenuous. ActingEditor Bonnie Bradford Uganda, and Honduras describe growing tensions We thank each contributor for their own personal Editor (on leave) Mary McNeil between local govemments and the urban poor. efforts in putting this issue together. Production Michelle L.ynch 7ook As urban poverty increases and more people rely With this issue we hope to start a dialogue on Distribution ConsueloPowvell on the informal sector for basic survival, local the topic of urban politics, and we encourage you T he Ur-ban Age is published four titiies a politics and attempts by local or national to participate in this interchange and debate. We year atid is available to developing authorities to regulate or influence the infomial also hope to hear from you with your comments, country subscr ibers free of charge. scctor bccome highly charged. suggestions, and feedback on The Urban Age. Developed country subscribers are The faces ofthe urban poor include men, c harged IloS40.0e annualt y. ditorial women (often single-heads ofhousehold), and fhe World Bank, IS IS H Street NW, children. As a basic survival strategy, more BonnieBradford Washingtoni D.C. 20433. U.S.A. Fax: 202-522-3224. Our Interet address is: bhradford@worldbank.org i -~~----------------------------- Politics and the City by Paul Singer Paul Singer, a Brazilian economist, is a professor at the University of Sao Paulo, and a researcher at CEBRAP (B-azilian CenterforAnalysis and Plannintg). He writes onz utrban issues in developing economies and served as Planning Secretary oJ tlhe city government of Sao Paulo from 1989 to 1992. . t is not by chance ihat "politics" truly became urban when it began However, in recent decades income and living standards, and "city" have the same Greek to offer inhabitants and visitors a the urban-democratic symbiosis creating in the urban landscape root, polis. Politics is the lifestyle that was inconceivable in has begun to fall apart. Private small suburban oases of peace and organized effort to obtain and any other environment. capital has become increasingly prosperity amid a desert of decay exercise power-the power to It was in these cities that the internatioinal anid can thus avoid the characterized by idle resources and maniage what is "public" and to democratic revolution that was fiscal claims of federal and local individuals, criminal and psycho- govern society. Politics presup- occurring concurrently had its governments. As a result, the pathic violence, misery, and poses social interdepcndence, greatest inmpact, since it was here economic surplus has in many despair. which in turn requires a govern- that the discrepancy between the countries grown more slowly and This picture is not universal. but ment to coordinate a whole range economic importance of the its partial expropriation by the state applies to an astonishing extent to of services and infrastructure growing mass of wage laborers and has been reversed. Lhe large cities in the industrialized available to everyone,. their exclusion from the liberal Municipalities are being nations. the ex-communist This interdependence is a political system was most obvious. overtaken by a crisis, which is then countries, and the developing typically urban phen.omenon; it is Cities world-wide were the resolved at the expense of their world, in which traditional in cities that the social division of scenes of major demonstrations and populations. who cannot afford to backwardness is interlinked with labor makes the well being and struggles, culminating, in the buy in the market the services that the decline of an urban environ- even the survival of each indi- twentietlh century, in the attainment the public sector can no longer mefit that never matured. vidual dependent upon the work of of the right to vote by marginalized provide, at least not in line with the The current urban crisis is the others. The country, on the other groups, including non-property needs. Those who can afford these result of the weakening of nation hand, is characterized by the self- owninlg workers, women, and services are leaving the city to fonr states; its solution will require the sufficiency of small groups- minorities. In Oceania, Western their own communities, and the creation of multinational public family, tribe, and village that are Europe, and North America, where city now has to deal with a ncw agencies that must reclaim control, capable of providing for thcm- democracy triumphed during the proletariat made up of the chroni- on behalf of democratic majorities, selves and of living in relative first half of this century, the cally unemployed, clandestine of the destination of the economic isolation. democratization of politi cal life immigrants in precarious occupa- surplus. The experience of the Like so many other features of proceeded apace; in Asia, Africa, tions, delinquents of various kinds, European Community also our social life, politics and cities Eastern Europe, and Latin along with the remainder of its suggests probable directions for have undergone a revolution in this America, the democratic revolution "normal" citizens. While this new other regions whose intcgration is century. Since the nineteenth is still going on. proletariat has political rights, it less advanced. century, industralization has led to The institutionalization of has no use for tlheim because it has IL will in addition be necessary, the rapid growth of cities; but democracy occasioned deep been deprived of its link to social in the urban context, to adjust the another revolution lbegan at the end changes in capitalist societies, production and the greater part of limits and relations between the of that century that has reached its resulting in what may be called collective consumption. public and private sectors and to peak in our own, namely the true urban lifestyle". This depends on The crisis does not stem from ensure that public services are urbanization of our cities. the provision ofthe infrastnrctLre any decline in production; indeed. operated considerably more Initially, industrial cities were and public services detnanded by labor productivity continues to efficiently, transparently, and actually rural communities-huge the vast mass of non-property grow and new consumer products honestly. This is a difficult villages in which the packed. owners, whose political power, are being introduced constantly. challenge, but one that must be immigrant masses engaged in new embodied in the right to vote, The crisis lies not in the origin but met. There is nothing else that can forms of social production while ensures that they are heard. Part of in the destination of social produc- possibly perform the economic. entirely lacking any kind of the ovcrall economic surpluls is tion: the dccline in some urban political, and cultural role of large collective consumption. The latter systematically appropriated by the services and the privatization of democratic cities in contemnporary got underway with the introduction state to finance the construction others, making them more expen- civilization. of potable water and sanitation and operation of an expanding sive, has increased disparitics in networks, public transportation, range of urban services. mass transit systems, schools. In a nutshell, the growth of The Urban Age aimns to stimunlate lively debate and inter-action on creches, public clinics, police cities makes democracy probable various topics in developed and developing countries. The ideas forces, trash collecti on, lighting, and the existence of democracy expressed in ar-ticles appearing in The Urban Age reflect the personal and other infrastnicrure culminat- ',urbanizes" the cities. Public comments of each author, and are not representative of any one agency ing in our modern cDmsi1unications serv-ices become the main source oft or organization. andentertainment systems-the metropolitan well-being where they reprintediprovided the authoris) and The Urban Age are cited and a telephone, radio. television, and all are plentiful, anld of urban chaos courtesy copy is sent to The Urban Age. their infinite variations. The city where they are not. THE URBRN AGE Winter 1994 KENYA AND TANZANIA conztinsuedfrompage 1 reduced resources forurban public infrastructure and services. care, nutritional counselling, family planning, basic health services, and Urban economic decline contributed to the development ofpolitical education. opposition, which in turn fueled more political diversity and turbulence than either country had known for decades. This pattem of secular Reasserting central control urban decline, leadingto increasinglyvocal oppositional politics and demands for reform of the local government system, is also common In their attempts to deliver urban services, local governments have in many other countries in Ariica. been hampered by increasing central control exercised through the DDCs. Although Kenya and Tanzania approachedtheirurban areas very For example, late in 1989 some ofthe DDCs mandated a new service differently during the 1 960s and 1 970s (Kenya took a "capitalist" charge to make up for local revenue deficiencies. While this new source approach, while Tanzania took a "socialist" approach), public investments of revenue has been considerable, services have not improved substan- in urban services and infrastructure fell markedly in both countries during tially. Many local authorities struggle to make ends meet; deficits and the 1 980s. This resulted in two parallel tendencies: small-scale enterprises heavy debt burdens are common. Access to capital is insufficient, have taken up some of the slack by catering to popular needs; while investmentin infrastructure is generally inadequate, andmaintenance is squatter areas have burgeoned, public health conditions have deteriorated, poor. and city-wide services have faltered. The most heralded failure in local govemment in Kenya is Nairobi. In response to the changing "informalization" oftheir cities, the Early in March, 1983, the central govemrnment suspended meetings ofthe Kenyan governmenthas intermittently attemptedto "cleanup" Nairobi Nairobi City Council and excluded all elected officers (the mayor, the with massive slum-clearance operations, while the Tanzanians have deputy mayor, and all councillors) from council activities, placing the attacked their urban informal sector with the "Human Resources council under the control ofnominated officials. Several weeks later, the Deployment Act," a euphemism for forced resettlement. By the early Minister for Local Govemment went cven further, placing all municipal 1 99(0s, it was generally recognized that neither approach had been employees and all buildings and services under the direct control of a effective. Indeed, for a time the political unpopularity of these measures Commission that hc had appointed to supplant the Council. Contradicting seriously reducedthe legitimacy ofthe national govemments in both its original intention to clean up the Council and re-establish elected local countries. govemment, the government passed motions through parliament extend- In contrast, when either government supported rather than confronted ing the life of the City Commission until elections in December, 1992. the informal sector-as with the legalization of private passenger trucks or Over this ten-yearperiod, a string ofpolitical appointees chaired minibuses (matatus in Kenya and daladalas in Tanzania), or the govem- the Nairobi City Commission, and the Commission's finances went ment-sponsoredJua Kali program in support ofthe infomnal sector in from bad to worse, with the central government running up big debts with Kenya thepolitical climate improved. Butas the stateprogressively the city agency. Thequality of services alsodeclined steadily. disengaged from providing services in the urban areas ofboth countries, Part ofthe motivation for dismantling the Nairobi City Council may local collective efforts took on more importance, for example, the work of have been to take the control of a substanti al political base away from non-govenmmental organizations INGOs). central province leaders, who tended to oppose President Daniel arap Moi's governing coalition. Indeed, none ofthe Ministers of Local Kenya Govemment during the 1980s and 1 990s was from the central province of Kenya. During the 1 980s and early 1 990s the Kenyan government has The 1992 multi-party elections ushered in a new chapter in Nairobi appeared to be more concemed with controlling local governments than politics and in Kenyan politics in general. One ofthe major parties, Ford- with providing services. A prime example is the 1983 District Focus for Kenya, called forthe granting ofincreased autonomy to local government, Rural Development initiative, which aimed to decentralize the decision- charging that the incumbent KANU regime had undermined the local making process and strengthen local institutions. This initiativc-which council by giving powerto corrupt, incompetent, unpopular leaders, while in the end amounted to deconcentration rather than effective decentraliza- persecuting strong and popular councillors. But, whereas KANU had tion-was extended to the cities, where District Development Committees always captured both levels of seats in the urban wards and constituencies (DDCs) were established. The DDCs were actively functioning commit- in the past, the opposition parties won most ofthe parliamentary seats in tees within the local authority structure made up ofcentral govemment the major urban areas, and took control of23 out ofthe 26 municipal officials, members ofparliament, andothernominated individuals. Atthe councils, including Nairobi. In Nairobi, KANU won only one of eight same time, a "rural-urban balance" strategy was put into place, in which parliamentary seats, and seven of the 55 elected seats on the City Council. urban infrastructure was to stimulate the economic development of both SoonafterNairobi's newmayor Stephen Mwangi ofthe Ford Asili urban centers and agricultural hinterlands. However, the success of these party was elected a power struggle between the local councils and strategies was hampered by recession and the introduction of structural Daniel arap Moi's central govemment began to take shape. Aside from adjustmentpolicies. using his statutory power to nominate only KANU councilors to fill a The limited effectiveness ofthe government's management ofurban certain number of seats in every council, the KAN U-appointed Minister of services has increased the momentum ofcommunity based initiatives and Local Government issued a series of directives that curtailed the powers of strengthenedand solidified the informal sector. Overtime natural associa- Kenyan mayors. Tensions between the City Council and central govem- tions of people, such as migrants from the same home district, have ment (such as those described in Oxvuor's article on page 1) continue. attempted to respondto the specific needs oflow-income communities. They have often received help from religious and charity organizations, Tanzania and a variety ofNGOs. As the central govemment supported fewer activities at the local level (either directly or through the local govem- Thirteen years after its socialist proclamation in 1967, it was clear that ment) the role of NGOs became more important. A study of S0 NGOs in Tanzania's development strategy had hindered urban areas. The goals of Nairobi shows they provide a wide range ofbasic services, including child continuedon page5 F THE URDHB RGE Winter 1994 KENYA AND TANZANIA cotntinued firomI page 4 imparting education for selfreliance, promoting collectivist rural produc- cheaper and did not involve paying income tax. This licensing component tion, and making the transformation into a modem agricultural economy has continued, despite confrontations between informal sector operators did not occur as plarned. Rural conditions were niot attractive enough to and urban authorities. There has been considerable political pressure, stop the rapid migration to the cities. Between 1967 and 1978 alone, the from as high as the President's office, to protect the vendors. Some population in urban areas doubled in size. licenses have been abused, but since the mid-I 980s, informal sector As part of the so-called "decentralization" policy of 1972-1978, urban activities have been operatingwith fewer harassments compared with r councils were dismantled, Although the bureaucracy was extended to the 1970s. lower administrative levels, power and authority remained at the central level. The District Development Committees that were established in cities Market reforms and bifor;nal networks and towns focused on rural agricultural production, largely ignoring the maintenance of urban infi-astructure. Revenue mobilization continued to The socialist policies of the mid- 1960s and 1970s failed to meet be centralized-all taxes and fees were collected by the central govern- people's basic needs, especially in cities. In the mid- 1980s socialist ment treasurv and then remitted to the districts once suggested plans were policies gave way to market-oriented reforms. The disturbing side of the approved. Urban development activitieswere considered consumption- shift to capitalism was that inequalities became more glaring-most of the oriented and unnecessary. improvements in cities resulting from these reforms benefitted the middle The strategy of deconcentrating economic activities away from Dar es or upper classes, not the poor. Salaam backfired. N ine towns were identtfied to act as "growth poles" for In 1986 the governmient agreed to meet several international Monetary future development and all planned industries were to be distributed to Fund loan conditionalities, including adopting a liberal, market-oriented these nine towns. Yet, by 1985, more than 60% of all industrial establish- development strategy. This unleashed private capital into the real estate ments were still in Elar es Salaam. At the same time the basic industrial sector, and brought some investment back into the larger cities in the form strategy was complicated by difficulties caused by the 1978/79 war with of luxury housing and commercial space. Import liberalization permitted Uganda, the oil crisis, the break-up of the East African Community, and a the acquisition of conspicuous consumption goods. Today Dares Salaam severe drought. is a city of contrasts, with shacks and slumls built close to beach front bungalows, and street hawkers selling cheap goods outside elegant The re-establishmnent of urban authorities houtiques in the downtown area. Left to fend for themselves during the years of failed socialist reform In 1976 a special committee of high-level national officials recom- and subsequent structural adjustment, informal sector workers created mended several maj or policy changes. Among the major changes networks to cope with the scarcity of credit. services, and protection from suggested were: complementary development of rural and urban areas; corruption. In addition to the formation of associations of butchery allocation of an adequate number of competent personnel to high growth owners, taxi driv ers, dlaladala operators. market vendors, and cart pullers rate cities; and allocation of funds to the councils for basic services. (mikatooten i ), collective organizations were also formed among squatter Urban councils were re-established in 1978 with passage of the Urban communities. Lack of access to bank credit led to the creation of rotating Council (Interim Provisions) Act. In 1980, the government issued a credit networks. coherent urban development policy dealing with the operation, mainte- nance and developntent of uirban centcrs. Forming the basis for the Local Govermnent (Urban Authorities) Act of 1982, the policy gave citizens a Comparisons between large urban celnters in Kenya and Tanzania say in urban development planning and execution. illustrate tvo important, but contradictory tendencies that can be applied Rc-establishingurban authoriti es provided an institutional framework to many other African countrics. The first is that as national governments to manage Tanzania's urban centers, and elevated several medium-size lose their resource base, they nmtst depend much more on urban residents towns to municipal status. However, the urban councils lacked sufficient to organize on their own. The less governments attempt to control this manpower, equipment, and finance. The central government retained all process, the more successful theywill be. Second, govemments can the important sources of revenue and the final say in approving all ignore their urban populations and reduce expenditures on needed developmentplans. Urban councils basically functioned as subsidiary services and infrastructure only up to a point, and only at their peril. As departments ofthe central government. Africancountriesmove-albeitunevenly towardmorepolitical pluralism. the voices ofurban residents will play an increasingly citical Responses to the in/vr7nal sector role in the political life of African cities. Oparesheni Nguvu Kazi, or Operation l.abor-force, was an il l-fated and ill-advised state response to the urban crisis. "Unemployable" urban Richard Stren, apolitical economist, is the director of the Centre fbr Urban residents were rounded up and repatriated to their home villages. This and Cotwmonm ity Stud7ies at the University of Toronto. .M47oha;nedHalfani. also a included most peop le working in the informal sector. They were given political economist, is senior lectur er and associate director oftheInstitute jr Development Studies at the University ofDl)r es Saloanm Jovce ,t'alomhe, a travel allowances, and upon reporting to the partyand governmnent sociologistg/planner, is a senior researchJellow at the Housing Research and representatives at the destination, were in principle to be resettled on Development C7nit at the Universityof Nairobi. A4l three are actively involi-ed in assigned pieces of land for farming. The arrests and repatriation of the the.4frican Research NVetworkfbr Urban Management, whose secretariat is "u nemployed" created chaos in many urban areas, and was abandoned located in the Mazingira histitutte in Vairobi. Kenya. whenthe authorities realized that many ofthe "repatriated" immediately returned to the city. Major portions of/itis article were adaptedJiro; 'Coping With Decline: A second componentwas the easing of licensing conditions for small- Urbanization and Urbtoi Policyin Kenya and Tanaia b Richard S/r MohamedHalfani, and Joyce Malombe in Beyond Capitalism and Socialism in scale enterprises in urbal centers, so infomsal sector operators could Kenya and Taizaniia. edited hbvJoelD. Barkan. Boulder, Colorado:Lynne engage in legal, proiluctive activities. The nguvu t-azi licenses were RiennerPublisbers, Inc. (Forthcoming] 994). THE URORN ROE Winiter 1994 - T _ I -------------------------------- Marketplace Politics in Kampala and Quito by Christie Gombay Christie Gombay is an urban managem'nent consultant with exyperience in Africa and Latin America. He is currently a Ph.D student at the University of Toronto affiliated with the Centre for Urban and Communitv Studies. KAMPALA and the huge illegal evening market vendors today in Kampala and Owino that the politics of survival QUITO. Abraham Musisi curses that opens at 5:OOPN every day just Quito. And their musings on life in converge. It is here that the as he walks toward Owino Market. outside the main gate. the markets are oddly similar, even survival of vendors, resistance It's only 3:00PM, but already the Half a world away in Quito, though they are half a world apart. councils, KCC officers, and hawkers have begun to congregate Ecuador, it is early dawn, and Both are squeezed by the prospects Ministry officials intersect and around the market gates. How Senora Esperanza de Armas is busy of increasing rents and competition conflict. The dispute is not over things have changed. When Owino negotiating with avocado wholesal- from street vendors and informal how much the vendors pay, but Market was opened in t972, ers outside San Roque Market. She msarkets. The vendors in both over who gets the proceeds and cverything looked so neat and watches nervously over her markets are in trouble; everyday how they are divided. clean. It was planned to hold four shoulder as she brings out her survival has become an issue. With over 5,000 stalls selling hundred vendors.Who would have money to pay the transporter. Last The markets are also in trouble. everything from clothing to thought the market would tum into week, a vendor in the fruit section Each has a growing number of hardware to traditional herbal what it has become today-over was robbed at knifepoint by vacant stalls and the number of remedies, the Owino Market is the five thousand stalls spreading out delinquents. It has become customers who come into the single largest source of employ- in all directions. Some say it is the dangerous since the market market is on the decline, For the ment in the city-employing over city councils of Kampala and 25,000 people. It provides KCC Quito, this means reduced rev- with approximately half of its enues, public recrinination for entire market revenues for the city, failing to stem the tide of street and 16% of the city council's hawkers, and increasing demands recurrent revenues. Of00:0,. q Ei0 -gr ......... ,,iii t,p.,S, ,N, X ....by the vendors for upgrading the Inthelate 1980s,the KCC - - .. ~~~~~~~~~~~~markets to bring customers back. announced that they would As cities in developing coun- rehabilitate Owino Market. tries continue to grow and urban However, the market project has poverty increases, more people rely not gotten off the ground. In the on the urban market as a means of meantime, conditions in Owino - _ _ _ survival. At the same time, local have continued to deteriorate. govemments are weakening in the During 1990, the Market face of apparently insurmountable Vendor's Association (MVA) demands for urban services. pressed the KCC and the Ministry Deteriorating salaries within many of Local Govemment to deal with local governments and the drive to the issue of the evening markets, restructure and modemize their but their efforts met with little functions has led to a growing success. In fact, in September tension between the objectives of 1990, the Minister of Local local government, the objectives ol Government allowed vendors to largest market in East Africa. administration decided not to their bureaucracies. and the 'temporarily' trade from two of the As he gingerly makes his way intervene in pre-market activities. conditions of the urban poor. streets adjacent to the market and alt6g the muddy channels leading The market administrator had been in the parking lot after 5:00PM. This this stall, Musisi looks up stabbed twice trying to break up Kampala's Illegal Evening 'informal' protection acted as a apprehensively at the sky and disputes in the early morning Markets dramatic catalyst for the growth of mentally curses the pack of thieves hours. Senora de Armas wonders the evening market, and thc at the Kampala City Council why she continues to work in San The KCC is trying to improve daytime market continued to (KCC) for their broken and empty Roque. Most of her neighbors have the urban management of the decline. promises. For almost ten years now kept their stalls but spend most of formal Kampala markets. However Far from discouraging the they have been promising to the week working in various "ferias a serious political and economic evening market, the KCC and the "rehabilitate" Owino Market but libres" ('informal' street markets) obstacle has emerged: the evening Minister of Local Govemment what has come of it? Increased which are set up in different zones market undermines the city were, in effect, managing it. Their rents and fewer customers. of the city. council's revenue base, and more responsibilitiesincluded security Abraham has given up trying to importantly, challenges their within the market, allocating stalls, make a living in his stall at Owino. Increasing Rent and Competition authority and control of land-use and collecting revenue for cleaning Now, like many of his neighbors, within the city. the streets at the end of every he shows up in the early afternoon Abraham Musisi and Senora de It is around the "illegal" evening evenings' selling. Each vendor in and prepares to do his business in Armas could be any one of the real market that expands oul from consinuedonpage 7 I THE URBRH HGE Winter 1994 MARKETS contin.zedfrorn page 6 the evening market had to pay a fee vendors tripled between 1976 and the municipality, the Market appeared to be mired within the for a stall, and rent per evening to 1982 from 10,000 to 30,000. Union, had been formed in the bureaucratic channels of the IMQ. sell in the market. The fees were During the 1 980s the bulk of the late 1970s to counter an earlier The veindors launched an paid to collectors appointed by the IMQ 's revenues came from central Municipal effort at privatizing the effective campaign to Markct Management Committee government grants. With the markets. Since then, Quito's forestall the privatization of (MMC), and the daily dues were downturn in oil prices, and conse- vendors felt this organization had the markets. It involved both It_ collectednightly by individuals quently central government weakened and was no longer direct lobbying of municipal who worked for the KCC. revenues, transfers to municipalities capable of effectively countering councill ors, vendor mobilization Althoughno official statistics in Ecuador have been significantly the new threat ofprivatization. rallies, and an attempt to convey are available, the evening market is reduced. Local authorities have been At a general assembly of the their concems through the media. generating a conservatively encouraged to become more self- Market Union in mid-March, a In April 1993, a dam in southern estimated Ug. Shs. I 0 million per sufficient, develop thcir own sources breakaway faction calling itselfel Fcuador broke and displaced month [1,161 Ug. Shs. = I $US]. of revenues, andreduce costs. One FrenteporlaDefensade los thousands of people. The Frente Where this money goes is some- of the first steps the IMQ took in this Mercados (the Front for the mobilized vendors of markets in thing of a mystery. but the view direction was to announce the Defense of the Markets) was Quito to donate goods to the among vendors in both Owino and privatization of markets in March formed and immediately chal- victims in a highly publicized the evening market is that it goes to 1993. lenged both the president of tte campaign. At the same time, there individuals in the KCC and the Markets in Quito had been under Market Union and the IMQ. This was a series of articles in Quito's Ministry of Local Government. pressure for some time. Quito has 29 was to have serious repercussions papers attacking the resurgence of The economic irnperative of recognized municipal markets with both for the speed with which street hawkers in the city and sursival drives vendorsto sell at 6,170 stalls, 558 stores, and204 positions onthe issue were calling on the IMQ to take more the evening market. The protection warehouses. Their direct competition radicalized, and the ability ofthe effective action. The IMQ was provided by the Minister and the has come from two sources: "ferias IMQtonegotiateprivatization also stymied by the internal power neighboringResistance Councils libres" (daily street-markets), and with a credible interlocutorfrom struggle within the vendors's may have originally been due to street hawkers. Ferias libres were the vendors' side. association. Promoting dialogue benevolent conccrn. for the urban small daily markets which operated The position of the Frente to and participation of vendors in poor, but is now a major financial on streets in different neighborhoods the privatization of the markets privatization is not possible concern that helps to ensure both of Quito on different days of the hinged on twoprinciples: market without effective representation their financial andpolitical week. Under the administration of vendors are poor and therefore from the vendors. By the end of survival. PresidentBorja, theywere legalized the municipal government has the 1993, privatization, which was and regulated by the central govern- social obligation of continuing to launched with such fanfare earlier Privatization in Ecuador ment. Street hawking is one of the support the markets: and the in the year as the first major primary survival strategies of the privatization ofthe markets initiative of the new mayor. had Whilcthefinancialpressures urbanpoorinQuito. wouldleadtotrcmendous yet to come to fruition. that drive politicians and bureau- The growth of informal hawking dislocation among the 100,000 crats in Kampala to engage in and free markets has led to the people whose lives are directly The Power of Local Politics market politics may not be as decline ofthe established municipal dependent upon sales from the prevalent in Quito, the economic markets. Nowhere is this more markets. The IMQ's position was Each ofthese stories shows how struggle for survival by market apparent than in the San Roque that local authorities should not struggles against local authorities vendors is strong. Urban growth market, where many of the stalls are be responsible for managing and managed to deflect or challenge without the creation of formal either used as store-houses for administering markets. in part initiatives launched to improve sector jobs has led to an explosion vendors or are entirely vacant. The because the existing administra- urban management. IThere is a of informal markets in Quito, and original market had 676 stalls, but tive apparatus for doing so was tendency to forget that local legal market vendors are caught in street hawkers pressured the corrupt. butmore importantly, authorities are also local govern- the crunch. municipal govemments for more bccause the actual cost of ments and as such are sites of Real incomes of Ecuadorians land. Over the years the market was maintaining the markets far political struggle and contention. In have plummeted by approximately expanded and now there are almost outstrippedthe revenues being matters which so directly affect the 60% in the past decade. Almost 2,000 stalls, making this market the received from vendors for their livelihoods and survival ofpeople three-quarters of Quito's residents largest in Quito. upkeep. The IMQ invested ten incities-wherealtemative sources eam their hving through commer- The reaction of the market times as much per year as it of survival are few-it is not cial activities, many in the infonnal vendors to the proposal of recovered from markets in the surprising that local politics can sector. As the formal economy has privatization was swift. Until the form of rents from vendors. take on a much larger dimension in contracted, markets and marketing announcement oftheprivitization of The municipality's objective the overall ability of local authori- has come to play an increasingly the markets, market vendors had was to move toward the ties to effectively implement pivotal role in the survival strategies been rather loosely organized. Each privatization of the markets as restructuring programs. Not until of the urban poor. Between 1982 individual market had its own quickly as possible. However, two these forces and challenges to and 1988, self-employment in Quito market organization, and some had months after the announcement of urban management are addressed grew by about 1 0%/c annually. more than one. The city-level the transfer, the proposal for will substantial progress be made to According to the municipality of organization responsible for privatization had not yet been improve cities in developing Quito (IMQ). the nmimber of street representing all vendors' views to discussed with the vendors and countries. THE URRHN RGE WVinter 1994 The Municipality: Colombia's New Scene of Political Activit) by Fabio E. Velasquez C. I Fabio E. Velasquez C. is a professor in the School of Social Science at the Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia, and a researcher at the :I Foro Nacional of Colombia. CALI. After a series of reforms mayors became representatives of governors, mayors were political nineteenth century, especially whe to dismantle a rigid, centralized the central government, and local representatives of the regional the young republic was based on system, Colombia'smunicipalities authorities were placed under bosses and intermediaries between federalist ideas. After 1886, are becoming launching points for central supervision. the departmental and national however, the position of mayor political change. While patronage authorities and vested local ceased to exist, although it became and corruption persist, some The Weakening of Municipal political interests. Because of one of the proposals embodied in positive effects are emerging from Power corruption and the absence of the Liberal Party's programs. the recent reinstitution of mayoral genuine, broad-based representa- The election of mayors was elections. Local politics have After 1886 municipalities lost tion or responsiveness to local fon-nalized in 1986 to begin in renewed dynamism and citizens are political influence. Since the 1940s needs, voter lurnouts in local 1988, with single two-year terms. becoming involved in resolving they have been steadily deprived elections fell to all-time lows. Subsequently, the constitutional local problems. of substantive power and re- reform of 1991 extended the perio' Social Confliicts,Muinicipal of office to three years as of Reform, and Mayoral Elections January 1995. The loss of popular confidence Outcomes of the Reforms in local authorities created a gulf EEl3 Xi.between society and the state. The country pinned high hopes Because no channels existed for onfthe election of mayors. Despite participation that would have opposition from conservatives enabled day-to-day interaction, this afraid that the power of the rift steadily widened. In response, executive branch would be eroded from the 1970s through the mid- and from some on the leftwho sam I 980s. regional and local decentralization and local elections grassroots citizen action becane as one more device by the domi- increasingly common. Between nant class to gull the public, most 1971 and 1985, 300 citizen protest Colombians welcomedpolitical actions decried public service change. Between the end of 1987 problems and the lack of effective and the March 1988 elections, Civil wars and ideological sources, with the central authorities government policies. By the mid- about 1,000 leaders and activists o1 disputes waged in Colombia in the chipping away at local functions. 1980s the municipality was the left-wing parties and civic move- 1800s were caused largely by This included removing the power most evident point of social ments were murdered. Although disagreements about how to to manage policy and to oversee conflict and the weakest link in the marred by these acts of violence, organize state institutions. Propo- education, health, urban transpor- chain of state institutions. Calls the mayoral campaign of 1988 nents of a strong federal system tation (routes and tariffs), water grcw for reforms to modernize continued. The two elections that prevailed over those in favor of supply and sewerage, the manage- municipal administration, democra- followed (1990 and 1992) aroused sovereign states. The constitution ment of property records (except tize local power, and provide a appreciable interest. of 1886, based on "political in Bogota, Medellin and Cali), and relief valve fur citizen pressure. The repercussions of the three centralization and administrative the construction of schools, low- A broad reform program was elections and the performance of decentralization", centralized cost housing, and rural roads. The initiated in 1986 that returned the mayors since the 1988 reforn elections, law-making, the army, share of regional and local administrative power to the can be summarized as follows: taxation, and control of currency. revenues in the national tax base municipalities in the areas of * Voter turnout, although The state was given control over has been declining since the 1920s. education, health, housing, public displaying a relative downward the manufacture and possession of By 1978, revenues from the works, and water supply and trend since reforms began (67% in arms and munitions. departments and municipalities environmental sanitation. Addi- 1988: 42% in 1992), has exceeded The president's term of office were only 18% of national tax tional resources were allocated to that of prior elections. The recent was lengthened, while those of revenues. urban areas. Mechanisms were decline in turnout may be due to senators andrepresentatives were By the end of the 1980s, instituted for citizen and political widespread political apathy, shortened. Sovereign states were Colombia's municipalities had participation, including the election disappointment with the perfor- replaced by departments which, become vehicles for the patronage- of mayors by the people. mance of many of the new mayors. together with the municipalities, based perpetuation of the interests The election of mayors was and, in the 1992 election, voter were assigned exclusively adminis- of the local economic and political not new to Colombia. Mayors had trative functions. Governors and elite. Appointed by the regional been elected at various times in the continued on page 9 > THE URRRN AGE Winter 1994 COLOMBIA continuedfrom page 8 fatigue from the frequent elections Urban A U pdat held between 1990 and 1992. T c ln lene .zxn * The Liberal and Conservative parties still dominate-in 1988 and Prepar-ed by the Ur bani Management Programm7ie, Regioinal Officefor Latin Am7lerica 1990 they won 88%? of the vote: and the Caribbean, Quito, Ecuador and in 1992, 87%. - The rise of new local political forces and the creation of many [Editor's Note: Tb is is afollow- public safety has become one of needs to play a more active diverse coalitions. These groups are zip to tdie Slumoer 1993 Urban Age the primary demands of people in role as the state institution that all locally oriented and seek their issute on urban violence. Jt describes cities. comes in closest contact with political identity outside of the activities taking place ill Latiti We m ust not overlook the society and daily life. nationwide political groups. America on this important topic.] effecLs that violence and efforts to There is a need to prepare - Now that political parties and QUITO. Disturbed by the spread combat it have had on the public. action plans and proposals for local leaders play an active role in of urban crime and by the meager preparing municipal proposals for results of efforts to combat it. the i_ theirrespective municipalities, Municipality of Cali, Colombia, and urban areas are becoming catalysts the Latin America and Caribhean for change. Urban Management Programme The performance of elected (UMP) beg-an a process to help mayors has been mixed, but post- tackle the problem. reform trends have emerged: The process began with the Patronage persists. The mayor organization of a National Work- negotiates under the table with shop for Mayors. 'Urban Violence political groups to protect their in Colombia," held in Cali in privileges, private political interests September 1993. About 20 mayors prevail over comnmoni concerns of attended, and over 200 people the majority. and political support- participated. including representa- ers are granted favors. Colombia' s tives from govemment, various culture of patronage is entrenched professions. and academia. This in the political process and such event served as the preparatory patronage goes hanid in hand wvith meeting for the larger "Latin corruption. There are currently 700 American and Caribbean Conlfer- mayors and former- mayors under ence on Urban Violence" held in investigation by the AUtorney Cali in December 1993. The scnse of citizenship is being dialogue with public. private, and General on charges of embezzle- The conference created an eroded and people are beginning community entities. Organized ment, unlawful enrichment or awareness of the need to build a to adopt self-defense measures efforts are needed, for exaniple, to mismanagemenit of public funds. regional networking system for such as changing their daily stop the stimuli for the violence by Citizen participation in local sharing expcrienccs of action and routines, purchasing weapons, the media; modify our alcohol- affairs has gained substantial research on urban violence. A dogs, or alar m systetms. or taking based leisure culture; control ground among local authorities, network of specialists and organiza- lessons in self defense. A new firearms and disarm the public; social leaders, and citizens. The tions is being formed, complete with social behavior results: anxiety, improve lighting and local idea that participation is necessary a research program and plans for feelings of helplessness, isolation, transport services; and organize for resolving local problems is future conferences to continue mistrust, aggressiveness, and citizen safety and civil defense shared by a steadily growing working to find solutions. Dr. individualism. campaigns. number of citizens and political Rodrigo Guerrero, the present mayor The city is losing its public Municipal management and leaders. Additionally, mayors are of Cali, the UMP, the University of spaces and cormmuniity areas; public safety will play important accountable to voters-if elected Valle, and the Municipality of Cali fortress-like private urban roles in this newv institutional officials violate their terms of are coordinating this networking developments are spreading, framework. Changes in lawv and office, they know they can be effort, accentuating the social, spatial. law enforcement will naturally play terminated. Case studies of 15 cities in 12 and temporal segregation that a central role, as will coordination Municipalities and cities have countries in the region were already exists. The end result is a with other levels of government again become seats of reflection, presented by experts invited from loss of community as the city and with the public. debate, and political struggle. the region. [hese documents will gradually relinquishes its People have become involved in constitute the core of a book soOI to socializingcharacteristics. Formnore informHation, contact: local issues. Community politics be published. Violence is a national problem Urban ManagenmentProgranme, Re gionalO 0icefoatAmic are now more dynamic and are While the twin issues of urban that threatens the very fabric of iforkltin America generating proposals for resolving crime and public safety are riot society and its institutions. anidas 1084 Torre B. Ap. 612. local problems. The election ot identical in all the cities of the Citizens are both the source and Casilla 17-i 7-1449, Quito, mayors has been one of region, they call for immediate the target of the problem. A new Ecuiador. Tel: 593-2-462132, Fac: Colombia's most important attention. The statistics reveal a institutional framework needs to 593-2-462 134, Internet: political reforms of this century. growing rate of urban violence, and be created arid the municipality lactipgqu.ec THE UHSHN R6E Winter 1994 S -S-------------------------------- -- Is Urban Politics Unique? by K. C. Sivaramakrishnan K. C. Sivaramakrishnan was formerly Secretary of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, and served for over 30 years in I government service in Calcutta, West Bengal, and Delhi. He is currently Senior Advisor, Urban Management, in the Transportation, Water X and Urban Developmnent Department of the World Bank. "All politics is local" said the country. The advocacy of needs sions to new industries locating in bodies as before. Events turned out late Tip O'Neil, former Speaker of may be more visible in the city. but green fields or less developed parts to be otherwise. In fact, the the United States Congress. What the manner of securing political of a country tend to reduce Calcutta Corporation was one of then is special about urban politics? support for its redress is not investments i n the existing cities; the first city governments to be Is it very different from rural dissimilar between rural and urban centrally administeredraw material superseded in 1949 even before the politics? areas. or transport prices arc critical constitution had come into force. Animus against the city has a Then there is the politics of factors in locational decisions. In In many states, basic functions long tradition. Thomas Jefferson caste and creed, of language and most developing countries the like water supply were taken away viewed all cities as "pestilential to culture, and the rising claims of ability and resources of city from municipalities on grounds administrationis and local develop- such as resource mobilization, the HuIiunaIvs. Mjhopnlitin jibtits ... lment authorities to lessen this need to serve larger jurisdictions, impact and maximize the city and efficiency. Where municipal National sovereignty and local autonomy areoftenpcmewedtohK meon t advantages is rather limited. domain was not shortened or Students of urban govereiancetefeitotheGrhiwrtondonCounci (tlIJ( undermined, the institutions were * aiiearl:imodelotmetmpohtan.yoveroanc Someb4lieve,bowcvet,t1iatrlies RedefiningUrbanPolitics just superseded. In the 45 years GLC Was abolished bythe Tharebergovemme tnot becatis e of its fb.ilure to since independence, in close to halt addresnYeropoitanissue botecaue ~trneredasaighitcanpoliicalThe domain of urban politics is of the 2,500 municipalities, elected thus limited to the mayor or the councils have been suspended and Tetnor onof the Metropojiinn Manila ;Con,mi-ssi;ogfr,Y-- yqma municipal choir, the counciliors the administration taken over by Marcoand ts sbseqentablitinby lieAuinog ettxueniathther and the constituencies, and other the state governments. The rights ostensible institutions of urban of local bodies and a constitution- metropolitan authority performing loter-titunicipattnaks. -KUS administration. As urbanization ally secured mandate for their increases, as growth overtakes functons thus became critical the morals, the health and the ethnicity. In theory, the city is the urban infrastructure and as issues. liberties of man." Mohandas melting pot. Proximity, mobility, pressures for decentralization build, In 1989 the Rajiv Gandhi Ghandi perceived the city as a and economic opportunity are most developing countries are government prepared an amend- villaineous product of colonialism. expected to bring about a reduc- struggling to rearrange these formal ment to the constitution for these "The city sucked the country dry" tion in economic and social institutions of urban governance and other purposes. The draft ran wrote Spengler. Even at the turn of inequality and consequently, render and redefine urban political into political heavy weather. The this century, the New York these factors less divisive. Unfortu- processes. The far-reaching opposition, while recognizing the tenements were labelled as the nately, recent experience has been amendments tD the Indian constitu- need for decentralization and "nurseries of epidemics, hiding otherwise. Religious clashes in tion, legislated by the Parliament in empowering local bodies, ques- places of local banditti." These some Indian cities, ethnic strife in 1992, and ratified by the states in tioned the rights of the central views characterize urban politics Bosnia, and the unending conflicts mid- 1993, represent a comprehen- government enacting such legisla- mainly in terms of discontent and in several parts of Africa under- sive example of such efforts. tion, bypassing the states. The social dissent, exploding from time score the fact that the politics of In British India, local self amendment was passed in the Lok to time. clan and tribe pervade whole govenment was hailed as the Sabha (the House of the People) In reality, urban politics is a countries. Years of city-building cradle of democracy. Many of the but was lost by 3 votes in the Rajya vast and complex arena. First, there and city living are not sufficient to national leaders, such as Jawaharlal Sabha (the upper house). In is the politics of want, of basic temper or deflect those politics. On Nehru and Vailabhai Patel, had subsequent elections Rajiv services, of minimum security of the contrary, communal consider- served as chair-men of municipali- Gandhi's Congress party lost, but life and property. The process by ations color and influence political ties early in their political careers. the successor governments pursued which these needs are perceived, issues in urban areas to a greater City governments like the Calcutta diluted versions of the amendment. combined, advocated, and fulfilled extent than is realized. Corporation had been in the The 1992 version prepared by the are the subject of numerous books In the politics of managing a vanguard of the freedom move- present Norasimha Rao govern- and papers, particularly those on country's economy, the involve- ment. Yet, the constitution of 1950 ment was substantially enlarged by slums and squatter settlements. ment of the urban and rural may did not contain any specific a Parliamentary committee, passed Janice Perlman, in her pioneering vary in content, but both seek to mention of local bodies, rural or by both Houses, ratified by the studies on the favelas of Rio, has influence decisions that national urban, as units of self government. state governments, and became law helped to dispel the myths of and provincial governments make Their creation, powers, and on June 30, 1993. marginality and establish that this on wages, prices, taxes, and tariffs. supervision were dealt with by the Embodied as the 73rd and 74th process is not very different to Of course, these decisions have state governments. It was expected amendments of the constitution, what happens elsewhere in a significant spatial impact. Conces- that the states would nurture local continued on page]] ME IRRH RGE Winter 1994 URBANPOLITICS continued iomm page 10 these reforms: exercise has been deferred, pending provide for mandatory the results of the Census of 2001. Some Consequences of Decentral izaf[ion elections to all local bodies; The defermeit has led to under Decentralization is an additional complication in metropolitan politics. The * limit supercession to a representation of urban voters in the 1974 constitution in Brazil created specialmulti-municipal organizations in maximum of six months, State Lcgislativc Assemblies as well the country's eight mettopolitan areas. Because the initiative Came from a * delineate an illustrative list of as the Parliament. In states like military government, and since the composition of the metropolitan councils functions and powers to be Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu, or Gujerat was dominated by state appointees, the municipalities regardedthese assigned to local bodies;, where urban population is about arrangements to be an imposition and encroachment on their domain. The 1988 constitution completely abrogatcd the metropolitan entities and * create platning committees at 30% to 35%, members of the all functions reverted to the municipalities. As a result, even the ninimum the District (units b-low States) and Assembly from urban areas account levels of inter-municipal collaboration needed for some critical metropolitan levels to address for only 15% to 17%. In the metropolitan-wide tasks such as traffic and transport, drainage, or rural-urbani. intermiunicipal. and Parliament, only 49 of 542 seats environmental planning have suffered considerably. Municipalities in Rio de Janeiro and other metropolitan areas are currently attempting inter- environmentalrelationships; represent urban or metropolitan municipalagreements. -KCS * prescribe mandatory local constitucncies. finance commissionis in each state: Inter-muniicipal relations in Amendmenit now prescribes a structures of the governiment are no * relate the work. of these metropolitan areas is another special metropolitan planning committee doubt influenced by Greco-Roman commissions to the Central Finance aspect of urban politics. Though to be set up in each largc city with practices, or, in India. by the Commission, which reviews many of the world's laigest cities are a populatioii of more than 1 Gandhian ideals of village deiiioc- intergovernment transfers and getting larger, municipal boundaries million. At least two thirds of the racy. Indian villages vary in size devolutions every five years: and in most metropolitan areas have membership of these planning from 5,000 to 50.000. Even * enable states to expand the remained as before. Multi-municipal committees is to be drawn from assuming that social intercourse nuniber of elected iepresentatives situations call for a metropolitan the elected representatives of the and proclivity to politics are intense by creating zonal committees in wide perception of some critical municipalities and rural local in the villages because of their large cities and neighborhoods or tasks that cannot be performed by bodies, in proportion to their small size, the parallel does not ward committees in all cities, in the individual tnunicipalitics. population. This is a major apply to cities. A single platforn addition to the existing constituen- Transport. environmental manage- change from the existing situa- for people's participation is not cies of municipal councils. ment, strategic planning, and tion, since metropolitan-level feasible in societies whose annual The provision relating to wards enhancing financial options for the planninig and development population increase is several rinses and zonal committees is of metro area as a whole are some functions are now being per- the size of ancient Athens. par-ticular significance to the issue examples of such metropolitan-level formcd by state-appointed In Calcutta, Manila, Lagos, or of local representation. The tasks. Identifying such tasks and agencies. Rio, the voice of the people cannot considerable variance in the creating the organizational frame- be heard at all if the channels are population size of a municipal work for their implementation is a Perceptions of Difference limited to the fonnal structures of ward, ranging from 30,000- highly sensitive and arduous political local government. Indeed, in the 100,000 and in somne large cities, to process. Because of the scale and While there may not be Fiuch cities of the world, both developing even 200,000 or 300.000, has been variety of needs and multiple to set urban politics apart from and developed, several kinds of a matter of concern. Rajiv Gandhi's jurisdictions, agencies of the the countryside. it is important to community organizations exist. amendment sought to widen local provincial and national governments deal with some perceptions of They stanid apart or come together, representation by mandating the are also involved. difference. One is whether urban engage or disengage in political introduction of additional tiers in Governments in both developing and rural people respond differ- activity, as the need arises. The local bodies. For instance. in and developed countries have sought ently to "national" issues. In barangays of Manila, the addition to wards in municipalities, solutions through "single-tier" metro tiatters of race. religioni, lan- kaTnpungs of Jakarta, the bustees of there would be elected neighbor- governments (where most of the guage, or culture. the differences Calcutta. and the barriadas of hood committees; large cities metro area is under one municipal- in the reactions between the Lima all have a variety of such would have electecd "zonal" ity) as in Jakarta and Bangkok, and urbanite and the villager may be groups and associationis. It serves committees in addition to the city "two-tier" set ups (where a number more apparent than real. The no lasting purpose to force them council. However, in the final of municipalities exist in addition to nation state is still a potent factor into a formal rclationship to merely version the provision for neighbor- a metro level body) as in Tokyo or in many countries, notwithstand- secure utniformity ii urban hood or ward committees is limited Toronto. ing global trading and governance or political structure. to cities of 300.000 population or The two-tier arrangements communication. Myron Weiner' s Life in the big city may not more, their composition has been requtire careful delineation of study of Indian elections over a of'fer the compactness or cohesion left to the states. metropolitan auid local level respon- period of time coiifinis that of a srnall town. E.B. White wrote The size of an electorate in a sibilities, resources for their voting patterns on national that New York City "bestows the state assembly or parliamentary performance at each level. and qucstions do not vary much gift of loneliness; the gift of constituency has Elso been a arrangements tor coordination and between the town and the village. privacy; . . every event, in a sense, difficult probleiii to resolve in conflict resolution. This federal type Proximity is another factor, is optional and the inhabitant is urban areas. Adjusting boundaries of structure calls for political perceived by many as a major able to choose his spectacle." It is to reduce disparities in the size of pluralism-not easy to sustain at the difference between the rural and this choice which perhaps distin- electoral districts is a well known city level. urban political scenes. Theories of guishes urban politics and urban mechanism, but in India. the The Inidian Constitutional people's participation in formal life itself. THE VHHIN RGE IViniter 1994 r~~------------------------------ I' Iumum More Power to the Cities by Pasqual Maragall J Pasqual Maragall is the Mayor of Barcelona. BARCELONA. "The21st andItalianSenatorRiccardo Century will be the century of the f n i with Pis fil at l Triglia, head of the International cities," Iproclaimedto The j , r j Union ofLocal Authorities. lam Washington Post during a visit to nul{Of i ifUttiHifi proud to be president of a similar the capital of the United States in organ-ization, the European Council December1993. The newspaper ofMunicipalities and Regions, added that my belief "sounds which links some 30,000 commu- almost shocking to American ears."~ ninies in 24 countries. Perhaps it does. But during that P Th1921mtamsgeertygaed heotsucsulOnce more, Boutros-Ghali fully trip I met United Nations Secretary e s eacsy s fenrtodl ericate t agreed with our views, which are General Boutros Boutros-Ghali at blgtta a fetgubo h erpls n sawsas follows: In the face of many of his New York Ieadquarters where the conflicts now afflicting parts of he fully endorsed the idea that sruthegworld,thereisanimmense myself and others have been Biteeaskyosic au blt oraeagnrlCf5f- growth in civic consciousness. harboring for aloingtimne-the su caps&leresnb h~¶nlh ihtePeople are yearning for contacts, a formation ofa globe-girdling ocommunity spirit, and collabora- "United Cities" organization hat tion. Urban centers are vital for wouald operate at the grassroots instlbnjtNeahd.meetings, dialogues, exchanges, level under the aegis of the United contacts-and trade. They are also Nations. essential for building a multi- It was clear to me that Boutros- cultural andumulti-racial society Ghali is urgently seeking effective based on friendship and tolerance. measures to make the organization The "more power to the cities" effective at the urban or local projectis snowballing-at least in comnmunity level. Spain. At a summnit meeting the Citi es are viewed increasingly mayors from seven of the country's as the place where human problems biggestcities-Madrid,Barcelona, can be solved. Cities and munici- Seville, Malaga, Bilbao, Zaragoza palities represent the power closest Z and Valencia-launched an appeal to the people. We are trying to to the central government urging ensure that the voice of the cities is t te b given greater leeway it heard. A-Ioayr i p lyIdaor!ee oes"eretOnof running their own affairs, such as Inside the European Union, for ile et aae o oyuda ihlenssbets fsocial services, cultural matters, example, we are firmly defending g ntransport, and education. the principle of subsidiarity (I I n I can sa is h In January, I visited the prefer the word "proximity" he itd erer. southern French city ofPerpignan, myself). Why attempt to resolve a The i the first official visit of a represen- problem at the national orregional etdurttgt rat T neioiaed. tative of Barcelona to such a near level when it can be done so much n II neighbor for 400 years. We signed better at the local level, where the .an agreement of mutual coopera- people most involved really tion in mailers such as urbanization understand the situation?"T ag vrbw lri nuhbde ome !isna and the environmnent. A main That is why a number ofus are outcome is that Barcelona will play hard at work trying to group the a key role in the design and major city organizations ofthe ioi ssacautio-ate sc vs o oe construction of a new railway world into one movement- y t station there to handle the High "United Cities." That, too, is Why I 4vtrSeveJDceir tadeanAraitoa31blon Speed Train service which will linlk was so encouraged by my second s e yen taeot i g the two nations within a few years. enounerwithMr.vBouros-Ghali 1d I am overoyed that, when it in Geneva on January 14, 1994. 1 ci'cretsvnshv enicesn otateiirs oeae comes to the vital issues regarding was accompanied by the Mayor of zT 3 ,t,| jF -g- cities as the places to solve our Lisbon, Jorge Sampaio,president dit 1993basicproblems, 1994ahaspstarted ofthe United Towns Organisation - sopromisingly THE URBR RGE WVizter 1994 Redefining Politics in St. Petersburg by Mitkhaid Berezin and Olga Kaga77ova Mikitail Berezici anid Olga Kaganiova are Diirectors of tle Agencyjfbr Ur-ban Researchl andC Consutltin g (AUREC) compafzy in St. Pete-rsbufg. - Ruissia. Mikhail Bere7in is an a rchitect specializing in urban developmenit anid housing issues. Olga Kaganova is a specialist on ulrban land use and real estate markets. ST. PETERSBUtRG. A city of su-vival was not as urgent as the be lesser politicians who will be allowed the regions to grow 5 million, St. Petersburg exhibits eagerness to break ground for new content to operate within modest stronger and fare relatively well. many symptoms of urban decline. opportunities. boundaries. It is possible. The disintegration of the power The population size is shrinking, A number of conflicts have however, that the new legislature etite has reduced the possibility of production output has dropped. the emerged, both social and political. will launch a campaign to expand their fusion with big business. municipal budget has shrunk to a The most important among these is their power. In the meantime, the However, it is important that the fifth of its 1991 level. unemploy- the conflict between the central mayor continues to sign decrees administration and business groups ment is on the rise: housing government and local authorities. and contracts that wouild require adopt more civilized practices in construction has been cut dramati- The grassroots idea of democracy is at least preliminary public their competition and settlements, cally, and industrial construction is focused on autonomy, and the new almost nonexistent. federal administration in Russia is Interestingly, there are also not strong enough to counter these several indications of growth and tendencies. This has drawn federal, development. The number of new regional. and local authorities into - A - businesses has incDeased signifi- power struggles, further escalated by cantly: private sectorparticipation the personal ambitions of the is expanding in all areas of players. municipal economy:~ the intensive Another significant conflict is use of existing comr mercial between the Executive Branch and property is unprecedented; property the Legislature, as each tries so is being remodeled and utilized; appropriate the right to shape and the share of private investment economic policy, including to finance new construction has pfivatization issues. The Executive grown substantially. Branch continues to rely on adminis- Such is the paradox of Russia trative methods and networking. The today. While the economny declines, LeGislature balances between opportunities abound. demonstrating commitment to values Residents of St. Petersburg are with which the electorate can occupied with two fundamcntal idcntify, while searching for a scrutiny and accountability in based on law rather than on illegal activities: They are finding a system that would be immune to the most societies. methods or networking within the political direction, identifying vagaries of the elections process. The Government of Russia administration. friends and foes, making and Finally, there is conflict between and the President are too busy- How soon can the new- entre- rearranging alliances in city those who embrace the emerging formning a new government to preneurs gain reasonable influence politics, setting priorities. and market, anid those who are threatened intercede, and the residents of St. in city politics? There are already adopting causes. At the same time, by it. The period from January 1992 Petersburg are too busy trying to signs of their consolidation and they are meeting the daily chal- through September/October of 1993 survive to care. Frustration is improved professionalism in the lenges of economic survival. witnessed an active confrontation high. Numerous decisions by areas of banking. real estate and Recently. the emphasis has been between the administration and the both the mayor and the president management: the creation of new on the latter. Parliament which, as the December lhave been issued and are soon associations: discussions of codes The word "democracy." 1993 elections of the Russian rescinded or forgotten. of ethics: and the emergence of an perceived as the right to fight for legislature have shown. was also There is. however, some information infrastructure. one's interests (which are not passively opposed by the public. bcnefit from the loss of confi- Thcre is no doubt about necessarily identical with those of Currently the executive power dence in the authorities and the people's capacity to adapt. the state) has become a batlle cry in St. Petersburg. headed by Mayor reduced credibility of official Everything requires time, however, shared by the new city administra- Anatoly Sobehak. has absolute decisions and proclamations. and the question of practical tion, new entrepreneurs. and a large control of the city. People become cngaged in rclevance is what will happen first. segment of society, particularly The capacities of the new practical activities and are less This will be an explosion set off by urban youth and educated profes- legislative body. to be elected in susceptible to political rhetoric. economic decline and political sionals. Until prices were March 1994, have been effectively Moscow's lack of ideologi- controversy, as well as an integra- liberalized, the economy had been reduced by a document drafted by cal, political, or economic tion based on new opportunities running out of sheer momentum. the mayor himself. with the arguments needed to wield new and interests. and for most people the problem of President's approval. The result wil I strong central power have THE UDR9R RGE Winter- 1994 S - Politics in Culturally Diverse Los Anigeles An interview with Michael Woo Michael Woo was thefirst Asian American and urban planner to serve on the Los Angeles City Council. In 1993 he was a candidatefor mayor of Los Angeles. He was recently a fellow at the Institute of Politics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard a University. He is currently a candidatefor Secretary of Statefor California and acUiunct lecturer at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) and the California Institute of Technology. UA: Los Angeles has often been UA: How is Los Angeles level. This would also give entities with differentresponsibili- described as a Third World City. governed? neighborhoods the ability to ties. The city government provides W'hat comparisons can you draw MW: In Los Angeles, the form of influence government more, but the basic municipal services such as between Los Angeles and develop- government reflects a widespread city also needs to have the ability to police, libraries, and parks. The ing country cities? distrust with centralized authority. elevate certain decisions to a higher county government has responsibil MW: There are both similarities The mayor is the chief executive authority such as a city council. ity for health care, welfare, and the and differences. Los Angeles but is not given independent Examples of city-wide decisions criminal justice system. The city doesn't exhibit the same kind of authority to hire or fire city could include those regarding water government is much more indepen rapid growth as do developing officials. The City Council is pollution, tra Ffic, or the location of dent from the state than is the world cities like Jakarta and Cairo. defined as the governing body, affordable housing. On the other county government, which is But there are similarities-such as which creates some practical hand, the neighborhood level could defined under the California the gradual erosion of the middle problems. For example, there is no concentrate on the enforcement of constitution as a subdivision of class, although this may not be as mechanism to compel city council neighborhood priorities rather than state government and is legally apparent in Los Angeles as in some members to make tough decisions. the city-wide allocation of re- responsible for the delivery of of the cities in newer developing The vast majority of city employ- sources. For example, police state-mandated services. Seventy countries. Theie is also a growing ees work under a merit-based civil staffing would have to be deter- percent of the county' s budget is contrast between the "haves" and service system, which is intended mined at the council level, because mandated by the state. Yet the state the "have nots". to safeguard people against of differing priorities among is not necessarily responsible for nepotism and corruption. Unfortu- neighborhoods, but neighborhoods giving the county money to fulfill UA: What is the role of coalition nately this also protects against the could make decisions about law its mandates; therefore counties government in Los Angeles? accountability of its government. enforcement within their neighbor- suffer. City governments are not MW: There are not strong There needs to be a balance hoods. subdivisions of state governments; coalitions in Los Angeles, but between the demand for decentral- Decentralization and therefore, a smaller percentage of rather shifting alliances with ized government services and the regionalization raise certain their budgets is dictated by state unsteady relationships among allies realistic need for accountability. paradoxes. We need greater govemment. City governments are that assist in assimilating new accountability at the local level and at a financial advantage, they also immigrants. Many newcomers are UA: How can this be related to at the same time we must compete have a greater ability to generate unfamiliar with the social and the growing decentralization in the economnically by maximizing our revenue through taxation. political processes in the city, and developing world? city-wide and regional advantages. many long-term residents have MW: It must be very difficult for UA: How difficult is itfor a city difficulty relating to newcomers. decentralization to work in UA: Arepeop7le in LosAngeles government official to advance to countries that do not have strong satisfied with city government? the national level? UA: Can the city cope with the traditions of democratic systems. MW: There is a cynicism through- MW: In countries other than the rising numbers of newcomers in Even in Los Angeles it's hard to out the United. States with city United States there is a greater terms of still beingabletoprovide make decentralization work. The government as an institution. But degree of respect for municipal residents with basic services ? challenge is how to reconcile the citizens, because they are more governments. For example, the MW: In providing services the city competing demand for accountabil- aware of the t-ack record of their mayor of Taipei is a major figure it doesn't distinguish between ity with the demand for decentrali- own representative and because it Taiwan's political life; the mayor legitimatc and undocumented zation, and the fact that many is easier to coneeptualizc govern- of Paris is a major political player residents. It would create fear if problems are large-scale in nature. ment in the fo ml of a person than in French politics. But in the city government officials providing Leaders must be flexible in in the form of an institution, are United States, mayors are seen as services were seen as trying to find adapting to a new way of gover- less cynical about their clected being stuck in a dead-end position. out whether citizens had legal nance, particularly in areas of representative. This may have something to do status or not. For example, this accountability and in defining the with the strain of anti-urbanism in would inhibit immigrants from appropriate local arena for action. UA: Whatis the relationship the United States; a general testifying when they have been between Los Angeles and the state disparaging attitude that dates back witnesses to a crime because they UA: How does that apply to Los of California? to Thomas Jefferson. would be afraid to talk to police for Angeles? MW: Thecity-staterelationship in fear they would be questioned MW: There needs to be some way California is different than it is in about their immigrant status. This of decentralizing certain kinds of other parts of the country. Los would severely undermine law decisions below the city-wide level, Angeles city and Los Angeles enforcement in the city. for example, to the neighborhood county are separate government THE URERH AGE Winter 1994 N-M -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- The Mayor's Hour in Latin America bv Fernando Carri6n Fernanido Carri6n is an architect and specialist on7 urban issues. He is a staff member of the Latin Amnerican and Caribbean Regional Office of the Urban M11anagement Programme in Quito, Ecuador. QUITO. In the past, being a citizens, have focused on such social was the first form of citizen needs arid problems of urban lawyer with a record as a member issues as those involving young participation. However, exces- dwellers. of parliament was practically a people, women's interests, and sive urban growth whittled away Political parties and government prerequisite for the presidency. environmental issues. the power of citizens as the state policies have not proven capable of Today what counts is experience as The municipalities of major cities became increasingly complex. generating global proposals for a mayor. along with professional perform multiple tasks. In many Eventually the separation cities. The city is turning over its training in a practical and/or instances these tasks, because of their between the state and its citizens best people to the service of technical field such as economics. origin and importance, are of became very marked. Mecha- national politics, but there is not business administration, engineer- national significance. Exercising nisms for participation gradually much sign of movement in the ing, or architecture. local power generates little political turned into delegations, and other direction. In many upcoming elections in wear and tear, as it is focused mainly simple voting arrangements that The city's contribution to Latin America a new and interest- ing political trend has emerged-presidential candidates are often former miiyors. Amon- the most well known names are: *X Andr6s Pastrana of Bogota, Colomibia; Jaiine Lerner of Curitiba, Brazil; Paulo Maluf of San Pablo. Brazil; Tabar6 Vasquze of Montevideo, Uinguay r and Rodrigo Paz, of Quito. Ecuador. One reason for this growing phenomenon is that Latin O a America's urban aeitas carry more c a Sixce Daran Ballen Prsien of weight in present day politics than m Ecuador and of ater Mbyot of ever before. Oer 70%o of the Qiito shak hand w Leon cadiat. ecmemaorofQut pblc isllsinmntwih oer- letin f ayrs smeo mae raito , s akes hand which the region's populationt is now urban, Febres Corderof former President so their relative weight in terms ofbluofrEcudor an crent May numbers of voters is substantial, p duaquel In Ecuador, something unprec- on physical worksn The fundamental did not commit the oters. democracy accordingly needs to be edented happened in August 1992. demiands of society, antd therefore In the context of the re- potentrated anew and will be, to the Sixn Durdn Ball6n. architect and the disenchantment and disappoint- democratization taking place in extent that politics is retuned to its former mayor of Quito, assumed ments caused by crises, are directed Latin America, people are birthplace-themcity. the presidency of the Republct toward the central authorities, looking for greater political This restoration of therpatis in Ledo Febrs Corder,enineer and Central agenicies arelftohne representation through an its original sense must follow fromn former president, became mayor of such politically' unpalatable issues as initerestingrapprochement development of a future built in Guayaquil; and Jarnil Mahuad, managing the currency and national between politicians and the city. social terms in which the duty of all lawyer and former prcsidential debt, and often bear the brnnt of This finds its expression in the to work- toward a democratic city is candidate, became mayor of Quito. public disillusionment with govern- election of mayors. some of made a reality, anid in which the In these elections there was a nhient. whos then set their sights (witb politicl parties will have to assume definite polarization at the local good chances of success) on the role of actively presenting, level-the winners came from The Inseparable Triad national level positions. discussing, and developing a different political partiis. blueprint for an alternative city. TFhe political system appears to In ancient Greece. the city and Returning Politics to the City In this context the municipal- be changing course,% placing greater politics developed simiultaneously. ity-unquestionably one of the value on politicianis and civil The city was not differentiated from While the presence of a new most imiportant democratic servants who are adept at handling the state. The Greek polis, rooted in type of politician has renewed the elements in the consolidation of the complex issues and at au ging democracy, integrated citizens into relationship with the city, the emerging democracies-will be public sentiment. i[n this context, its activity, which citizens considered same cannot be said of the rethought and reinforced. the municipalities are seen as the their business. Thus the inseparable political parties, which pay little state organs most (directly linked triad of the city. the state, and the attention to the people, largely Tlrisarricleorigiz7inltvappearedas "eL horna de los alcaldes? §" in tire Ec-uador- with day-to-day life. The mnunici- citizenry was formed, ignore new urban social issues, anesprPOYoOcbrL, palities, in close contact with urban Urban history tells us that the city and show no) understanding of the 1993. THE URERN EGE Whli'iter 1994 _ ibI0ii|Ed i I ' Tegucigalpa: The Rejection Vote of the Urban Settlers by Celina Kawas and Mario E. Martin Iii Celina Kawas is a Honduran sociologist who is a consultant on informal urban seatlements and ANGOs. Mario E. Martin is a Honduran architect and urban planner who contributed to the revision of the housing and settlement sectorfrom 1990-93. TEGUCIGALPA. In Honduras, where patronage and unhealthy The Urban Context Why, despite recent social social compensation programs and collusion between politicians and compensation programs and efforts to widen social participation residents of settlements of informal Tegucigapla' s population has policies, is this panorama so bleak? have not gone far enough to origin persisted despite reforms and more than doubled to 800,000 in Why has Tegucigalpa grown in alleviate the negative impacts of where the underlying problems of the past 20 years, mainly due to such a disorderly way with major the country's Structural Adjust- poverty and poor city management migration and the resulting problems of land tenure and ment Program (SAP). Voters made have not been resolved. The expansion of informal urban provision of services? It is a small this clear in the recent 1993 victory of the Liberal party in settlements. These settlements are capital and thus should not be so election when the incumbent Tegucigalpa was especially often situated in geologically difficult for urban planners. The National Party lost to the Liberal surprising, since, in the past 20 unsound areas where the installa- problems, however, are not tion of basic urban services is technical but essentially political. extremely costly. Neighborhoods of informal (inplanned, uncon- Adjustment and Social trolled, and sujbstandard) origin Compensation Measures house 60% of the population of Tegucigalpa. - Urban improvement and social T'he government' s priority in compensation measures were the past fourmyears has been the supposed to be tickets to political implementation of the SAP, which success. These programs, a fairly reduced resou rces allocated to the standard part of the SAP recoin- social sector while mobilizing mendations by international funds for remedial short-termn financial organizations, showed compensatory programs. The overall positive results, but resulting price increases have growing conditions of urban shrunken the disposable income of poverty made them insufficient. the urban pour and miiddle These programs have been segments of society. questioned by NGOs as undermnin- Poverty levels have risen at a ing existing commnunity shocking rate: between 1988 and organization and sustainability. Thv 1990 the number of households core issues-employment security below the poverty line nationwide and political participation-have increased from 68% to 71o. In not been adequately addressed. Tegucigalpa in 1988, 52% of all The FHIS (social investment houtseholds were below the poverty fund) in-vested significant funds, line; by 199 1, the numnber rose to mosdly external, in such social 67%. infrastructure projects as schools, Tegucigripa appears to be an parks, street paving, and water and unlikely success stor-y for the newly sewerage systems. These projects Party in contests in Tegucigalpa, years, the city has had only one elected officizls. Poverty is provide part-time emnploymenit to the capital city, and at the national Liberal party mayor. Exercising the increasing, unemployment and many urban settlers in Tegucigalpa, level. The SAP and the compensa- "punishment vote" either by voting underemployment are high, and but not long-term job security. tory social programs fell short in for the Liberal party or by absen- local authorities are unable to PRAF, a pilot food coupon large part because they did not tecism, is the most recent strategy legalize land tenure and provide program, was directed both to the educate policy makers and officials used by urban informal sector basic services to informal urban rural and urban areas. It provided in participatory processes. The settlers to voice their discontent. settlements. According to the new food coupons twice a year to safety net measures, while impor- The punishment vote occurred municipal la , the central govern- children and to households headed tant, were short-term and not despite pre-election improvements ment can transfer up to 5 percent of by women. rooted in the local socio-economic to urban areas and bargains struck the national budget to local Initiated in 1990, the second political process, nor did they between informal sector urban governments, but also passes on pilot food coupon program, Bono provide long-term job security or settlers and National Party politi- responsibilities for services and Matemo Infantil (BMI), targets promote self-sufficiency. cians guaranteeing services and infrastructure, so necessary to poor children under five, pregnant These shortcomings were land in exchanges for votes and absorb the new waves of urban women, and nursing mothers. BMI strikingly apparent in Tegucigalpa work on the mayoral campaign. settlers. continued on page 17 THE URVON RME Winter 1994 TEGUCIGALPA contihuedfrorn page 16 benefits are distributed monthly Women's Political Activism through public health centers. Thepfobuehdcomnhosation In Nigeria: A Stepping Stone to the outset of the new government Government Participation in1990, the National Housing F Institute (INVA), later replaced by by Bolanle Awe a social housing fund (FOSOVI), designed and implemented an Bolanle Awe, a professor of historv at the University of Ibadan in Ibadan1. Nigeria, was formerly the director urban land titling program called of the Iinstitute of African Stzudies, and is cutrrently the c/tairperson of its WVoment's Research and Docutmen- PROLOTE. Between 1990 and mation Centre. She was thefirst chairperson Jof t2e Nigeriani Ncational Comimissionfbr WVomen. 1993, PROLOTE legalized 7.000 urban lots at the national level, IBADAN. There is a near foci of Nigerian politics. Men civil rule, wornen were found at 4,000 of which are in Tegucigalpa. universal appreciation of the need could be found in large numbers the local and state executive Money allocated in the national for women to have input into the in the political parties which they councils of their parties, but not at budget and through workers' decisions that affect their lives organized to build opposition to the national level, where crucial savings and employers' contribu- and to participate in the political colonial rule and were later used decisions, such as the procedure tions are being collected, but are process. However, statistics on to struggle for participation in for nominating candidates and not yet reaching the poor. women in government prepared political decision-making. By deposits to be paid for contesting TheSAPcompensation by the United Nations' Division contrast, women remained in the elections, were made. programs have been emergency for the Advancement of Women rural areas, where they still Nigerian women cannot afford measures, not integrated or (March 1992), showed that constitute the majority of the a tong learning process. As the articulated social strategies to "women still play a minor role in population. Most women had country becomes poorer and the address urban poverty. For high-level political and economic little contact with these new standard of living continues to example, although diesel, cooking decision making." political developments, and could fall, women feel the impact most gas. electricity. and transportation Nigeria is no exception to this not perform effectively within the sharply. In a gesture of protest were subsidized for those house- picture of poor female participa- Western political system. Conse- against the political system that holds with low consumption bills tion in the political process. quently. the emerging female virtually excludes their participa- and for the poor in the case of Nigerian women vote in large politician is inexperienced and tion, Nigerian women have transport, these subsidies will not numbers, but few run for office. most learn the art of modern become political activists. be permanent. Indeed, the effect of and even fewer are elected. In the politics while struggling to voice In 1988, a boycott by the wider coverage of water, sanitation 1992 National Assembly elec- women's concerns and mobilize Obono Clan Women's Associa- and transportation systems, given tions, female voters in some cases the large female electorate. tion of Abia State forced the local the added value and cost recovers made up 75% of the electorate, The National Commission for government to provide a good approach in the municipal decen- yet only twelve women were Women has highlighted several drainage system and water tralization scheme. will mean elected into the House of Repre- socio-cultural factors that also supply. More recently, the higher living costs for households sentatives (which has 584 contribute to the lack of effective Women's Association in Lagos living in the informal settlements members), and only one woman female participation. rose op in protest against the that are targcted for regularization. in the Senate (which has 170 In Nigeria, it is a woman's closure of schools. In response to The resulting pressure may force members). reproductive role-not her the annulment by the military poor families to sell their revalued Female performance in productive role that is regarded regime of the June 1993 election property and take refuge again in Nigeria today is in marked as important. Women have to (which would have given Nigeria the informal sector. contrast to pre-Colonial society. contend with male dominance and a civilian president and civil rule), The incoming govemment, where there was a long tradition patriarchy. Women are regarded women boycotted the markets in with its commitment to "human of female participation in politics as inferior, and female leadership solidarity with the civil rights development" and the balance and government through the is largely unacceptable. movement. It is interesting to note between responsible macro- institutions of female chiefs, first- Even where the government that these were urban-based economic and social policies, faces born daughters, and age-grade appears to have subscribed to the movements. Unfortunately. many a major challenge. The forecast is associations. principles of equal participation, female political activists respond that pressures from the urban During the Colonial period in as in the constitution, the institu- only to crisis situations; organiza- settlers will be renewed and that the Nigeria, urban setLlements grew tional structures set up for tions that can be sustained over a new authorities will have to take rapidly to meet the needs of the political activities often do not long period have yet to evolve. temporary attenuating measures, colonial masters as headquarters encourage female participation. In However, as government However, unless an integral social for their administration. Such the political parties, women were becomes increasingly less policy is adopted that promotes towns, with their commercial, often poorly represented in the responsive to the needs of empowerment through participa- educational, and religious leadership. In the first two civilian women, and the existing political tion, social and political results will institutions, attracted Nigerian republics, women were herded structures continue to stifle their not be sustainable in the long term. men, who took advantage of into women's wings of political participation. women's activism Western education and become parties. where their issues were will gain strength and a firmer familiar wiLh the Western political marginalized. stepping stone for direct political process. The towns became the During this last "transition" to participation will be created. THE UABHN REE Winter 1 994 ';-------------------- The China Open Cities Project In May 1993 the Federation of growth rates as well as rapid These will include the biggest, China's major cities. Through CanadianMunicipalities increases in foreign trade. most advanced cities, and those to FCM's nation-wide network of (FCM) and the Canadian Activities includein-China which the Chinese government Canadian professionalresources, _ IntemationalDevelopment training in globalization and attaches the lighestpriority. Phase 11 will be able to contribute Agency (CIDA) signed an agree- intemational finance,joint venture During its first Phase (1987- to environmentally sound urban ment for Phase II of the China management, and urban environ- 1993), the project increased management and economic Open Cities Project to continue mental management. In Canada, environmental awareness in development in China's open through 1998. "Open cities" in training consists of three-week economic areas, strengthened cities. China are those cities targeted by study tours for Chinese policy- and economic and trade links between In addition to the China Open China's central government for decision-makers, practical training Canada and China, facilitated Cities Project, FCM also manages foreign investment and that have in urban planning and manage- municipal relationships aimed at the Partnership Program. [Editor's preferential tax policies for foreign ment, and long-term training for specific, tangible results, and raised Note: Details on the Partnership investors. faculty from Nankai University. the standards of teaching at two Program can be found on page 21 This project will help China's Information and communication institutions th.at train municipal of this issue.] open cities plan and develop the are important aspects of the China officials. FCM also established For further information, managerial and administrative Open Cities Project, which is a solid working partnerships with the contact: The Federation of Cana- skills needed to lead China's valuable Canadian source of Special Economic Zones Office of dian Municipalities, Intemational econornic development. The open contacts in China's key cities. the State Council and the Canada- Office, 24 Clarence Street, Ottawa, cities are at the forefront of Up to 80 cities will be part of ChinaBusiness Council. Ontario KiN 5P3. Tel: 613-241- economic reform and modemiza- the project's expanding network, Phase II will allow FCM to 8484, Fax: 613-241-7117. tion and have experienced high with priority given to 22 cities. improve its network of contacts in Cd ofEal XXI th SX .fer kceli= '.ii-qu - -l-i THE UHRNO RGE Winter 1994 NIZ~ - -- -- - --- ---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - City Challenge: Regenerating Local Economies & Christine Booth Cizh-istine Bootlh hias over 17 rears of local goveirznentt planning experience, specializing in development planning and public consultation. Shie curr-ently teaches and conducts research oti the School of Urban and Regional Stidies at Sheffield Hallain Univ'ersitv. SHEFFIELD. The communi- The City Challenge initiatives population: women and children: tive. but their relevance is two-fold. ties of the South Yorkshire coal have led to new policy processes, but the elderly; young people; people First, the consultation exercises field in the UInited Kingdom were have also raised questions: who is with disabilities; adult leisurel challenged the traditional local dominated by the coal industry for included in the decisionmaking community groups; and profes- political frameworks. 'They did not over 100 years. However, the process? Has it really led to the sions/key agencies. just involve organized and industry has been in rapid declinc empowerment of local communities Meetings were held at influential groups, but instead in the past decade and the area and previously neglected interests? nurseries, primary and secondary empowered previously excluded suffers acute economic depression. Has the initiative led to a new schools, youth clubs, elderly interests. For example, wojmen and The communities face massive agenda for these areas? person centers, and local church young people were brought into the economic, cultural, physical, and Recently. the Centre for halls. Publicity for the meetings consultation process and given the demographic change. There has Regional, Economic and Social was the responsibility of the local opportunity to articulate their been little inward investment, and Research (CRESR) at Sheffield community liaison officer. local needs. They may not have secured consequently, high levels of Hallam University worked with the school teachers, adult education a permanent seat at the table of unemployment have developed. Dearne Valley and Bamsley workers, local vicars/priests, local politics-dominated by Politically, the area has been a partnerships to collect information to youth workers, and the partner- middle-aged males-but their traditional male working class help develop action programs. ships themselves. A combination inclusion through the consultation stronghold with allegiance to the CRESR undertook data collection of newspapers, posters, letters, process has demonstrated an labor movement. T'oday, there is a and consultation with local coIIIIIIu- leallets, and informial networks alternative means of sharing in growing distrust and cynicism nities to establish attitudes, identify were used to publicize meetings. decision making. toward local political structures. needs, and determine the local Where good community nctworks Additionally, while crime and As part of central community's views conceming existed, publicity was successful employment were the dominant government's response to the need priorities for the area. CRESR's and attendance at meetings was concems of the community, the for economic rcgeneration in South studies would help ensure a broad high. Conversely, where it had inclusion of a wider range of Yorkshire. the local authorities representation of all interests in the always bcen assumed that only intercsts put issues on the agenda have been awarded City Challenge community, particularly those limited community networks that might well have been over- funding for two of their most groups traditionally excluded or existed, attendance was poor. looked, such as community creches deprived areas. City Challenge is a neglected from the decisionmaking This was particularly true in areas and the concerns of young people central govemmer[t funded process. CRESR's work not only suffering the most acute socioeco- and children. Women questioned initiative. Local authorities, in involved traditional quantitative data nomic problems. Here, local public sector control and manage- partnership with local businesses collection techniques (,such as feedback suggested that any ment of local community facilities. and the community, bid for funds surveys of 1,000 households, desk future meetings should advertise and argued for the introduction of to assist in the regeneration of lheir top exercises, social and community "refreshments" and "bingo" as partnerships between the local urban areas through a combination audits), but also included various inducements to attend. authorities and the community. The of economic, environmental, and consultation exercises with key In general the meetings results of the studies are bcing used social programs. C'ity Challenige sectoral interests to provide supple- addressed existing problems and to establish action programiis, to gives local authorities and commu- mentary qualitative data. In short, the issues, future needs and propos- initiate projects, and to target nities a key role to play in urban studies attempted to tap into the als, and future involvement, resources in the areas. policy after a decade of govern- seldom-heard voices of grassroots These informal roundtable This approach to community tneztt initiatives that lhave community groups. discussions provided useful participation requirespolitical centralized planning and by-passed At an organizational level, the information on community support, and the techniques to local democratic processes. first step was to draw up the attitudes. projects. and activities. relate to the aims of the projects. The Dearne Valley Partnership household questionnaire in consulta- The meetings also generated Constultation without the power to was initiated in 1991. It lies at the tion with community forums and set introductions and contacts, influence decisionmaking is at best heart of the coal field, straddles up a curriculum initiative with a information sharing. concerns, tokenism. The hope is that future three local authorities, and encom- local secondary school. Second, all and alliances between groups- project implemcntation truly passes a series of mlining towns known groups in the community. and, most importantly-an retlects local needs and that City with a combined population of key individuals, professionals and energy to get projects off the Challenge can work in partnership 80,000. A second City Challenge voluntary workers were identified. ground and to become involved with communities such as those in was created in the town of Representatives and individuals were in City Challenge. South Yorkshire to respond more Barnsley, xvith a population of invited to one of a series of meetings The CRESR case studies effectively to major changes and 17,000. to be held for a cross-section of the were tieither radical nor innova- forces outside their control. THE UR3RN RGE Winter 1994 Building Consensus in Cajamarca by Luis Guerrero Figueroa ||| Lurs Guerrero Figueroa is the Mayor of Cajamarca, Peru. CAJAMARCA. TheMunici- lack of a planning system at the have been held so far. Each has management in both the urban and pality of Cajamarca developed a regional government level. focused on one of the community's rural environment. For example, a planning system to define the two The Provincial Council of central problems: (I) education, (2) major challenge faced by Cajamarc basic roles to be performed by the Cajamarca decided to optimize the natural resources and agricultural is to improve the living conditions Provincial Council: promoting use of funds by preparing a production, (3) production and of small farmers by combatting soi development and providing Provincial Development Plan. It is employment, (4) cultural heritage erosion on the hillsides where the community services. essential that this plan meet the and tourism, (5) urban environ- farmers live. Another major In Peru, municipalities have needs and expectations of local ment, and (6) women's issues, challenge is to ensure that the always had such responsibilities as communityrepresentatives, population and family. Each forum Yanacocha mine does not pollute street cleaning and park mainte- farmers, and entrepreneurs as well is responsible for formulating a the environment, and to ensure that nance, but have never performed as those of state institutions and strategic plan to be implemented by the state reinvests a proportion of th the key role that a local govern- national governing organizations. all the institutions involved in the revenues generated by the gold ment should play-that of To enlist the participation of all activities of the operating plan, via mines. promoting local development. these forces, and to develop a the signing of inter-institutional Each subject-specific forum Because of funding shortages, democratic dialogue and discus- agreements. discusses the main problems and several different public and private sions between the community and The entire conceptual frame- tries to find solutions. Cajamnarca institutions are operating in urban the state, Cajamarca devised a work of the Provincial believes that this experiment is and rural affairs without proper strategy of consultation in order to Development Plan hinges on the already bearing fruit and can serve coordination. They often duplicate build a minimum consensus (mesa need to tic economic growth to as a bridge for democratic and each other in tenis of work planis de concertaci6n). sustainable development and to participatory dialogue between the and functions performed, all for Six consensus building forums ensure balanced ecosystem state and the community. SUBJECT-SPECIFIC INTER-INSTITUTIONAL CONSENSUSBU1LDING CONSENSUS BUILDING FORUMS CNESSBIDN Composcd of public and pnvate institutions and members of the Provincial Council Education INTER- INSTITUTIONAL EXPECT>ATION |r Natural Resources and L l CONSENSUS IN-TR- EXPFCA'nONNaturl ResBUILDING INSTITUTIONAL OF AgriculturalProductdon FORUMS CONSENSUS PROVINCIAL IMPROIVED l 1l Forum for dialogue _ BlUILDING COUNCIL LIVING -a1 Production and Employment t betweenthecommunity COMMITTEE Bodyrcspo.sible ot CONDITIONS I and local government. .4- approving policy FORDITIONSEl I Levelforproposing Body resposible for the proposals. COMMUNITY I | Cultural FTeitage andTouisn l policies and projects. mnemiers of thn COMMUNITY ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Includes representatives mmeso h fromeach subject-specific Provintcial Council ant § r urban Environment X l consensusbuildingforuns. the technical teani- I l women's Issues, L AGENCIES FOR Family andPopulation I IMPLEMENTING SOLUTIONS + L…J ~~r---__…1 ___ nicipal Otherpublic Other private Adniinitrutio sector institutions | DepatZneits autliorities l L _J THE URRON RGE Winter 1994 ~~~~----------------------------- We activelv seek our developing country readers' input for this section. Oiur intenition is to facilitate networking anmong developing countnr city managers and their conistituents. METROPOLITAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE, ASSOCIATION OF METROPOLITAN BUDAPEST DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITIES, NEW Contact: J. Hegediis and1. Tosics, Metropolitnz Research Institute. DELIFLI Buidapest, H-1093 Buldapest IX Lon vav u. 34. Tel: (36-1)216-0578, 217- Contact: Sh2ri G.R. Sood, Director, Association of Metropolitcan Develop- 9041, Fax: 36-1-21t5-3001. Internet: H209tos @ ell sztaki. hu. m eait Authzorities, 7/6, Sirifort Institittional Area. Kiel Gaon Marg_ News Delhi-/ 17049, lhdia. Tel: 646-3486, Telex: 031-71307 ASTIJND. The Metropolitan Research Institute (MRI), was established in Budapest in September 1989. MRI provides research in the fields of housing and The Association of Metropolitan Development Authorities (AMDA) public finance in Hungary: its staff have backgrounds in economics, represents 44 Urban Development Authorities in India and engages in sociology, and architecture. The two principals, Jozsef Hegediis and Ivan research, training, and policy development on urban issues. Recently, Tosics, have publislhed widely on the politics and economy of housing and AMDA concluded a study on low-income settlements in Delhi and is urban issues. MRI has worked on housing policy. urban development, and currently engaged in reviewing the development and infrastructure plans of the Surat Urban Development Authority and Surat Municipal Corpora- nion. AMDA is also carrying out a study of Bangalore and Madras to help the Plauning Commission of the Government of India to identify infra- - _ li. . . v , structure priorities. AMDA is also preparing an action-oriented plan on ffi ;~ _ J - employment generation for women living in the slums of Calcutta. .J @ ; l <- - ? M' Fi [ g S w AMDA is planning a future study of traffic patterns in Ranchi and Dhatnbad. INTERNATIONAL CITY/COUNTY MANAGEM ENTASSOCIATION, WASIIINGTON,DC £ ~~~~~~Contatct: Iniiternational Citv/(County ManagemientAssociation. 777North - ,, ' Capitol Street, NE, Suite 500, IVashington. DC" 20002-4201. Tel: 202- municipal finance, including the problems of the public rcntal sector, real 962-3574, Fax: 202-962-3500. estate market trends, housing rehabilitation, central budget trends, and the economy of local governments. Founded in 1914, the Intemational City/County Management Association The Institute has worked closely with intemational donor agencies, (ICMA) is the professional and educational association for more than such as the World Bank and USAID. MRI is an institutional member of 8,000 administrators and assistant administrators serving cities, counties, the European Network for Housing Research (ENHR); its experts are and other local govemments and regional entities throughout the world. represented in the Coordination Cormmittee of ENHR, and are organizers ICMA's membership also includes directors of state associations of local of its East European Housing Policy Working Group. governments, other local govemment employees, members of the academic community, and concemed citizens who share the goal of iiproving local governiment. THE FEDERATION OF CANADIAN '--'' > - MUJNICILPAL,ITIES, OTTAWA Conttact: TlheFederation of Canadian Mwuicipalities, Partnerships Program, 24 Clarence Street, Ottawva, Ontario KIN 5P3: Tel: 613-241- 8484, Faxv: 6/3-241f-7117. The Partnerships Program seeks to improve management skills of employees of municipalities in developing countries, and to increase public participation in decision making processes. The program includes technical exchanges and access to funds for in-country training. programs' . - governentprofessionals. and special projects. The Partnerships Program establishes working relaiotiships between - Canadian municipalities and their partners in developing countries. In its The purposes of ICMA are to enhance the quality of local government first five years, the program has had a strong focus on Africa, with some through professional management and to support and assist professional 35 partnerships between Canada and 16 African countries. In addition to local govermment administrators internationally. To that end, the associa- establishing strong community bonds between Caniadian and African tion provides technical assistance, training, management assistance, and counterparts, management skills have bectc reinforced, especially in the publications for local government professionals to help them improve their areas of municipal finance, information systems, public works, and skills and increase their knowledge. ICMA also serves as a clearinghouse environmental issues.The Partnerships Program is now expanding its for the collection, analysis, and dissemrinlation of informatiorn and data activities to Southeast Asia and Latin Amenca. about local govemment. TUE URERN RCE W1zinter 1994 The State in Africa- The politics of the belly, the author to local economic performance and The Power Broker: Politics of the Belly debunks the popular view of the create a demand for public Robert Moses and the Fal continent as exotic and unique; "In entrepreneurs. of New York by Jean-Francois Bayart. Longinan many respects Africa is a mirror. Group UK Limited, Longman However distorting it may be, it by RobertA. Caro, Vintage Books, House, Burnt Mill, Harlow, reflects our own political image "Rethinking Local New York, New York, 1975, ISBN Essex CM20 2JE, U.K., 1993. and has a lot to teach us about the Govemment-Views 0-394-72024-5 ISBN 0-582-06421 -X. First springs of our western modernity." from thehrd ,World" published in French as L'Etat en First pubhshed over twenty years Afrique. La politique du ventre. in Environment and Urbanization, ago. this Pulitzer Prize-winning (1989). The New Localism: Volume 3, Number 1. International biography provides timeless Comparative Urban InstituteforEnvironmentand lessons about urban growth and the Drawing directly from African Politics in a Global Era Developmen f 3 Endsleigh Street, use and misuse of power. sources whereverpossible, Jean- London WCJ'H ODD, U.K, April UnquestionablyAmerica's Francois by Edward G. Goetz and Susan E. 1991. most prolific physical creator, Bayart Clarke, (eds.), Sage Publications, Robert Moses was singularly attempts to Inc. 2455 Teller Road, Newbury Drawing on onginal research and responsible for building New a i I s = uncover the Park, California 91320, 1993, experiences in Kenya, Indonesia, York's greatest dams, highways, reality of ISBN0-8039-4922-7. SouthAfrica monuments, and parks, from African 0 '. . and Colombia, Lincoln Center to the great bridges politics and Predicting a new localism, this this issue that link the city with the mainland dispel the book presents analyses by public focuses on the For 34 years he played a key role ii myth of Africa as a chaotic policy experts, political scientists, need for more setting the priorities for the city's continent devoid of a political and urban specialists who focus orn participatory public works: for seven of those, hi history that predates colonialism. Kenya, Nigeria, Poland, Hungary, ' f local govern- established all its priorities. He covers most of Sub-Saharan the Caribbean, the United King- : :: meat struc- With multiple terms as Parks Africa, but the focus is on Senegal, dom, and the United States. The tures. The aulhors-several of Commissioner, Construction Guinea, C6te d'Ivoire, Ghana, authors explore local political whom contributed to this issue of Coordinator, and Planning Nigeria, Cameroon, the Congo, restructuring in the face of massive The Urban Age-question whether Comnnissioner of New York City, Zaire, Kenya, and Tanzania. global economic change. City- and current goverimnent structures will Moses held power during the Rejecting the cliche of Africa country-specific data are used to permit the participation and administrations of six governors under a yoke of isolationism, of illustrate the vitality of local "bottom up" development that and five mayors. He used fear and colonialism, of hunger, and of war, politics and the importance of local many govemments claim to economic influence to hold sway the author draws a paradigm of variations. embrace. over city officials, governors, and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa Local activism has taken a Writing about Africa, Richard even presidents. He kept the most based on indigenous foundations new form, with local leaders acting Stren and Diana Lee-Smith stress powerful men in the city and state and the reappropriation of colonial as entrepre- that more attention should be paid in line by awarding them huge institutions. According to Bayart, %vl< neurs in to potential local govemment retainers, fees, and commissions. what makes African politics markets partnerships with citizen groups, "He gave everybody involved in difficult to define is its heterogene- dominated by community oirganizations, coopera- the political setup in this city ity-rather than evolving into an pnivate tives, nongovcrnmental organiza- whatever it was they wanted," one integral state, governments in investors who tions, and business groups. official says in-the book. "There- Africa function as a conglomerate , operate at a Hilda Herzer and Pedro Pirez fore they all had their own interest of personal networks. This assures global scale. In describe some encouraging in seeing him succeed." the centralization of power through industrialized countries this leads to instances of new partnerships The author pulls Moses' life the agencies of family, alliances, a shift away from elected bodies between municipal authorities and achievements into a story of epic and friendships. and popular control toward those community-based organizations in proportion. Moses shaped New Bayart repeatedly touches on controlling private resources, albeit Latin America. They see the York like no one who preceded or "the politics of the belly". Taken often through quasi-public presence of a political system with followed him. His story tells how from a Cameroonian phrase, this agencies. a certain degrce of democratic = t, the great refers to basic greed and the lust for Taking a cross-national development as an essential modern wealth and power. It is manifested perspective, this book asserts that, precondition fir such partnerships. BROKE.I American city in nepotism, clientelism, witchcraft, although complicated by political Reviewing the democratiza- emerged and and other forms of corruption. The considerations, the notion of the tion and decentralization of ; how the focus politics of the belly also refers local public entrepreneur may hold Cartagena and Santander de on vast public more generally to real physical promise. If local authorities are Quilichao in Colombia, Fabio works hunger and to the accumulation of given sufficient autonomy and Velasquez points out that sustained backfired by wealth and social mobility. access to resources, the interaction reform will only be achieved if making the car king and by Noting the predominant traits of democratization and restructur- institutional and non-institutional ignoring public participation and in Africa of heterogeneity and ing pressures at the local levels will participatory mechanisms are the needs of the poor. incompleteness juxtaposed with the link the legitimacy of local regimes deepened. THE URBUN ACE Winter 1994 NMII~---------------------------------- Below is a selection of urban ev ents anld trainini;g courses calledfrom The Urban Age's cuirrentfiles. We are not always able to list events miore thaan once, given space iinitations. Plense refer to past issues of The Urban Agebr a7dditioal aevenzts scheduled in 1994. Send yon r ann iiounc emen7ts to The Editor, The frban Age, Room S4-031, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, WVashiizgtoI I)C 20433. Facsimnile: 202-522-3224. Internet: bbradjbrd@whorldbank.org Conferences Bogota, Colombia-April 14-16, 1994. Housing Settlements. Contact: Washington, DC-September l9-21, 1994. The 2nd Annual World Jaime Hernandez Garcia, Director, Research Departmenit, Architecture Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development: The Faculty, Universidad La Gran Columbia. Carrera 5 No. 13 -39, Santafe de Human Face of the Urban Environment. Contact: Aissatou Seck, The Bogota, Colombia. Tel: 286-8200 ext. 214 or211 . Fax: 256-7517. World Bank, Room J3-083, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, D-C. 20433, USA. Tel: 202-473-5546, Fax: 202-473-3 112, Internet: San Francisco, CA, USA -April 16-20. 1994. Region and City: aseck@worldbank.org Merged Destinies, 1994 APA National Planning Conference. Contact: Woodroe Claibome, American Planning Association, Lock Box 94343. San Jose, Costa Rica-October 24-28. 1993. The Third Meeting of the Chicago.IL60678-4343. USA.Tel: 312-955-9100,Fax: 312-955-8312. International Society for Ecological Economics. Contact: ISEE-94 Costa Rica Conference Secretariat, P.O. Box 555-3000. Heredia, Costa Philadelphia, PA, lUSA-ApnL 17-20,1994. Making Urban Economies Rica. Tel: 506-60-1600, Fax: 506-37-6868. Work: Leading the Transformation. Contact: Jenny Murphy, National Council for Urban Economic Development, 1730 K St. N.W. Suite 915. Hong Kong --November 7 12. World Congress on Urban Growth and Washington, DC 20006, USA. Tel: 202-223-4735, Fax_ 202-223-4745. the Environment. Contact: Congress Secretariat. 10 Tonsley Place. Londoni SWI 8 IBP, UK. Tel: 081-871-1209, Fax: 081-875-0686. San Luis, Argentina -April 26-29. 1994. First Annual Conference on Municipalities anc the Environment. Contact: Professor lsabel Cincinnati, Ohio, USA-November 17-20. 1994. Urban Public Gimenez, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Chacabuco y Pedernera, San Housing. Contact: Professor Wolfgang F. E. Preiser, School of Architec- Luis 5700, Argentina. Tel: 54-0652-25107, Fax: 54-0652-20827. ture, University of Cincinnati, Mail Location 0016, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45221-0016, USA. Tel: 513-556-6743. Fax: 513-556-3288. Ibadan, Nigeria-May 16-18,1994. International Conference on Urban Governanc e and Urban Poverty in Anglophone, West Africa. Bali, Indonesia-December 5-9. 1994. Health, Economics and Devel- Contact: The Coordlinator, Urban Governance and Urban Poverty opment: Working Together for Change, The Seventh International Conference, Centre for African Settlement Studies and Development Congress of the World Federation of Public Health Associations. (CASSAD). POBox 20775, U.I. Post Office. Ibadan. Nigeria. Tel: 022- Contact: WFPHA Secretariat, c/o APHA, 1015 15th St. NW, Suite 300, 712727. Fax: 022-414536. Washington, DC 20005. USA. Tel: '02-789-5696. Fax: 202-789-5681. Beijing, China-May 23-25, 1994. International Symposium on Non- Education ProI ams and Colufses Motorized Transportation. Sponsored by the Beijing Polytechnic University. Transportation Researcch Board USA, and Florida International Harvard University-The Harvard International Tax Program and the University. Contact: Setty Pendakur. Professor of Planning. University of Lincoln Institute of Land Policy are offering a Program on Information British Columbia, 'Vancouver. BC, Canada V6T IZ2. Tel: 604-822-3394. Fax: 604-822-378-i. Intemet: pendakur~unixg.ube.ca Technology for Fiscal Systems, April 17-May 13, 1994. Contact: Ms. Marv Helen Black, Program Administrator. Harvard University Interna- tional Tax Program, 113 Brattle St., Cambridge, MA 02138-3400. USA. Washington, DC, USA-June 21-24,1994. Urban Health Challenges Tel: 617-661-3016, Fax: 617-661-7235. for the 21st Century. Contact: International Medical Services For Health, 45449 Severn Way, Suite 161. Sterling, VA 20166, USA. Tel: 703-444- Loughborough University of l'echnology-Offefs a certificate course 4477, Fax: 703-444-4471. May 8-July 2, 1994 in Upgrading and Management of Urban Water Supplies. Contact: Water En-ineeri n- and Development Centre. Arlington, Virginia, USA-June 26-29 1994. Population and the e E Quality of Life: A Dialogue on Values. Contact: DiateRandall.Loughborough University of Technology. Leicestershire LE 1I 3TU, UK. Quality of Life: A Dialogue on Values. Contact: Diane Randall. Tel: 44-509-222885. Fax: 44-509-211079. National Council foDr International Health, 1701 K St. NW. Suite 600, Washington, DC 200108. USA. Tel: 202-833-5903. Fax: 202-833-0075. United States Environmental Training Institute offers courses formid- and senior-level maniagers in developing countries, including Urban Cairo, Egypt-September 5-13,1994. International Conference on Development and Environmental Policies in Asia. May 23-June 2, 1994 Population and Development, 1994 (ICPD). Contact: ICPD Secretariat, in Bangkok, Thailand. Contact: USETI Selection Committee, I 000 220 E.42nd St. 22ndFl., New York, NY 10017, USA. Tel: 212-297- T'homas Jefferson Street, NW, Suite 106, Washington, DC 20007, USA. 5244/5245. Fax: 2 12-297-5250. NCO Forum '94. Contact: Mary Beth Tel: 202-338-3400, Fax: 202-333-4782. Powers, Non-Governmental Organization Planning Committee for ICPD, 777 tJnited Nations Plaza, 8th Floor, New York, NY, 10017, tUSA. Tel: 212-545-7344, Fax: 202-545-7581. Management Sciences for Health offers courses on "Global Challenges of Urban Health" November 14-December 2, 1994 and "Financing Washington. DC--September 11 - 1 4,1994. Building Partnerships: Options and Cost Control." October 3-October 21, 1994 in Kenya. Worldwide and at Home. Contact: Jerry Delli Priscoli, International Additional courses are offered in Boston, MA, USA. Contact: Manage- Association of Public Participation Practitioners. P.O. Box 82317. ment Sciences for Health, 400 Centre St.. Newton, MA 02158. USA. Tel: Portland, Oregon. 97282, USA. Tel. and Fax: 503-236-6630. 617-527-9202, Fax: 617-965-2208. THE U[RRN RGE Wieter 1994 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR conflliteldfiromlpage 2 The program's long term Al. Ont7wenga, S. /Oiero, development, abilitytopay.and complementarymodesoftravel- objectives are to: .J. Malomabe environmental quality. There are walking, private cars, taxis, buses, develop a balanced and Univera/itvofANairobi non-trmnsportationsolitionsto trolleys and ligit rail lines, cost effective urban mobility ADD-MamlakaRoad transportationproblems! The subways, even boats-to create a systerm that supports an efficientr PO Box 30197 persistent questions are: who pays, balanced, interwoven regional and ^ internal urban econom ic market 1-ax: 254-2-7 18549 who benefits, who has the ability to subregional transportation and is affordable to the entire urban pay higher costs oftechnology, and network . Los Angeles maybe population. M. die Langen ( oordinator) do transportation networks drive the world's least multi-modal city, -develop a choice of con- MILP& T Crabethstraat38k, 2801 development or the other way being almost totally dependent on struction and maintenance tech- ANGOUDA, The ANetherlands around? Perhaps you cosild have private passenger automobiles and nologies for transport infrastructire Fo r: 31-1820-1 1296 another issue of The tyl'ba;t Age high-capacity firceways. Low and vehiclcs that rcalistically r eflects soon on analytical methods and dettsities and scattcred patterns of the economic and social conditions policyprocesses. settlemeilt sprawlingoverhundreds ofSub-Saharaan Africancities. V Set/v Pendaktro ofsquare mtiles make Los Angeles * support an urbait developmenit Editor: Pro U/esinr dysluttctional when it loses only a model that allows acceptable Your Fall 1993 issue on Urban The Universit,nf few hundred yards ofits vast environimental conditions to he Transportation was excellent. The British Coli/tinbia freewaysystem." maintained in Sub-Saharan African first spectrum of efforts needs to Sc-/oolo f Commntoinv and A transportation paralysis cities. including reasonable air address how we can attaini RegionalPlanning stirck Los Aigcles after the quality, noise levels, tree cover. ecological sustainability social Vancouver, BC, Canada Januarv 1994earthquake,illustrat- and safety. equity. and econlomicii efficiency. ing the risks ofdepending solely on The contrastbetweenthe 'world I'his will require flexibility (modes the automobile. The benetits of market" urban trends and our that are not fixed), encouraging redundancy and interconnectivity objectives is large. Expectations that non-motorized modes (saving Editor: inherent in inulti-modal systems one can have of the effectiveness of money. increasing airqualityv Your Fall 1993 issue focused very include convenience, safety. isolated efforts to influence certain saving road space). land use appropriately onthe relationship variety, and choice. trettds air very modest. Butvweknow planning supporting walk and between urban transportation Of course, the lessons of the that many efforts it different places bicyclc trips and r educing motor- planning and the uLltimate quality of recent Los Angeles eatthquake may exist. We are very intcrested in ized travel, and requiring road of urban life. Many ofthe observa- or may not be heeded. 'Will Los contacts andcooperation with people users to pay a substantial portion of tiois made by the writers were Angeles do anything about its actively involved in urban transport infrastructure investmentand echoed in my Washingtona Post transportation network other than and development in East and maintenance. "Shaping the City" column (1-29- reinforcing andreconstructing failed Southern Africa in particular to Thisiseasiersaidthandone. 94)headlined"L.A.Earthquake orfailingfreewaybridges?Possible increase the chances of making a Recentstudies show that many UnderscoresNeedforMultiple hut unlikely-at least not until the positive contribution. light rail transit and mass rail Transportation Options." 'big oIIe' knocks down all the T. Rwebangira J. Ngmnnao tranisit systems cost more than In that columni I wrote: "C'on- frcewavs." A. Mfbelle estimated, patronagc is less thai cemned designers aid technologists Roger K. Leu'is Unit ersiri' of Dar esN iSn/cant estimated, and decisions are made have long advocated land use A rchitect ond P/annier Facurot of Engin eering for reasons other than efficient patterns supported by urban Pro{fessorofA rchitecntue, P.O. Box 14550 transport. The question fornma;jor transportation systems that are not Un1iersitl of Moraplaud Dares Saloonm, Ta,tcanio lending agencies ought to be one only safe and well maintained. bttt Colnimnist, Far: 255-5-43380 of choosing the modes appropriate also multi-modal. An effective The Washinigton Post for the countrv, incomes, stage of multi-modal system einplovs P/oto credits: p. I (Nairobi) Rebecca Ndttku. Carttcsy of Natin t Nespapens, Natrabi: pb6 Qttitot Inter-American Developmeni Bank \ Thre Cr/bao Age is printed by Ploto; p.8 (Colombia) iCartos Gonzalez: p.9 (Cali) Courtesy a ibLhe Mayors Offlce. Cati. Colootbia:p. 12.(Maor of nsrcelo.a J REPRODUCTION,S, LC. an Cournesv of the Mayor's Office of tiarealona. Barcelona) Quim I lenas: p 13 st Petersbhurg) Vladimir Antoschenko; p. 15 (Quito) recycled paper using soy-based inks. Press Otffce oftrie President of [cstador. p 16 (Tegucigalpa) Patricia AhSco: p. IS (China Open Cities) Cottoresy of the City of Regina: p 21 (Budapest) Csilla Sarkany; p. 21 (ICMA) Dborah Albers Next Issue To receive The UrbantAge, please fill out the informationbelow andreturn to The Editor, The U'rban Age The Spring 1994 issue of The RmS4-031,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC.C,20433 Urban Age will focus on the phenomenon ofmassive NA.E :movements ofpeople across : - : ____________:___:___:____________________________:___:____ international boundaries into cities ADD)RESS ;) 0 : 0 English in search ofabetterway of life. We ADDRESS ::: look forward to receiving your : __________________________________________________________ French comments, thoughts, and suggestions onthistopic. We also encourage you to send us your Spash feedback on this and past issues of A Afee of840. per year will b charged to developed country subsenbers. :XThe Urban Age. THE NRRRN AGE W/ittes- 1994