Report No. 12238-UA Ukraine Suggested Priorities for Environmeital Protection and Natural Resour-ce Management (In Two Volurmes) \Volume 11 Annexes June 15, 1994 \atural Resouirce Manasgement D\ so( Countrv Departnment I' Europe and Central Asia Region FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization CURRENCY EOUIVAEENTS AND ACRONYMS Currency unit = Karbovanets, abbrev. krb US$1 = 47,000 krb (as of June 15, 1994) Rbl = 7 krb (as of June 6. 1994) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES b Billion person- I person receiving I rem, or 10 people bcm billion m3 rem receiving 0.1 re. , or 1,000 people Bq becquerel: decay of one nucleus per second receiving 0.001 rein cm centimeter PMIO Particulate matter below 10 microns Ci curie (3.7 x 10'° Bq) ppm Part per million GJ Gigajoule (0.948 x 106 Btu rem Roentgen equivalent man: the amount of or 238.8 x 103 kcal) ionizing radiation equivalent to biological effect GW Gigawatt of one roentgen of x or gamma rays ha Hectare(s) I rem = 1 mSv kcal Kilocalorie (3.968 Btu) Sv Sievert (mSv = millisivert) : international kg Kilogram (2.2046 Ibs) measure of the biological equivalent of an km2 Square kilometer absorbed dose of radiation. m Meter I Sv = 100 rem m 3 Cubic metter (35.3147 cubic feet) t Ton (metric) mg Milligram tpa Tons per annum MW Megawatt toe Ton of oil equivalent MWh Megawatt hour (860 x 103 kcal) (= 10 million kcal = 39.68 million Btu) ng Nanogram Ag Microgram CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND TECHNICAL TERMS AIF3 Aluminum fluoride NO, Nitrogen oxide BAP Benzo-a-pyrene 03 Ozone BOD Biochemical oxygen demand ODS Ozone Depleting Substances (BODs = over a 5 day period) PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Cd Cadmium Pb Lead Ce137 Cesium 137 pH Logarithmic indicator of acidity or alkalinity CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons Pu'39 Plutonium 239 CO Carbon monoxide so2 Sulfur dioxide CO2 Carbon aioxide Sr91 Strontium 90 Cu Copper TSP Total Suspended Particles Hg Mercury VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds N Nitrogen Zn Zinc ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CAC Command and Control MAC Maximum Acceptable Concentration CEE Central and Eastern Europe MAD Maximum Acceptable Discharge DPRA Department of Protected and MAE Maximum Acceptable Emissions Recreational Areas (MEP) MB Market Based EC European Community MEP Ministry for Environmental Protection EIA Environmental Impact Assessments MFO Ministry of Forestry ESP Electrostatic Precipitators MOA Ministry of Agriculture FGD Flue Gas Desulphurization MOH Ministry of Health FSU Former Soviet Union MOI Ministry of Industry GDP Gross Domestic Product NGO Non-Governmental Organization GEP Global Envirotanental Facility SPZ Sanitary Protection Zone Hydr6met Hydrometeorological Service UNCED UN Conference on Environment and IUCN International Union for Conservation Development of Nature and Natural Resources WHO World Health Organization FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY UKRAIN SUGGESTED PRIORITIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS ANNEXES 1 Recommendations for Technical Assistance 2 General Information: Population Density, Sources of Law, Energy Intensity and Data on Hazardous and General Air Pollutants 3 Overview of Pollution Problems in Selected Oblasts, Cities and Plants 4 Data on the Steel and Chemical Industries 5 Data on the Electric Power Industry and Results of Plant Visits 6 Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Information 7 Overview of Water Quality Monitoring 8 Management of Complex Air Quality Problems 9 Selected Information on US and EC Standards This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. ANNEX 1: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE Recommendations for Technical Assistance, Modest Investments In Associated Equipment and Training The World Bank has identified the following technical assistance needs for environmental management in Ukraine. This is not an exhaustive list, but it offers some priorities. I. Pilot Programs to Introduce Improved Regulatory Approaches and Pollution Abatement Strategies in Priority Cities, with Emphasis on Air Pollutitm Abatement H. Lead Testing Program at Kostiantynivka m. Suggested Water Management Programs IV. Management of Hazardous Waste and Review of Ammonia Pipeline V. Needed Improvements in the Regulatory Infrastructure VI. Institutional Development Within the Ministry for Environmental Protection VII. Industrial and Environmental Issues VIII. Energy and Environmental Issues IX. Environmental Issues Related to Agriculture and Forestry X. Protected Areas and Coastal Zone Management Xl. Inprovements in Epidemiology XII. Activities Concerning Chernobyl 2 Annex 1 I. Piot Programs in Priority Cities: Short Term Action Plans and Programs to Improve Rulatory Management and Pollution Abatement Strategies in Priority Cities An importm.nt and highly visible activity would be to select a city which has serious pollution problems and assist it in identifying and implementing short term action plans in key plants. Resources permitting, this would also be an opportunity to help develop a better regulatory capability at the local level to evaluate and prioritize pollution problems and solutions, strengthen plant permitting, develop reasonable compliance schedules, and improve enforcement capabilities. Such TA might ilso lead to identification of Municipal Environmental Management Projects, which could be considered for funding by the multilateral banks. Priority cities are: Donetsk & surrounding communities (including Kostiantynivka); Marilupil; Zaporizhzhia; Dnipropetrovsk & nearby Dniprodzerzhinsk; Kryvyi Rih; Odessa. All of the cities mentioned have serious pollution problems. These are cities where TA programs could be structured in conijunction with other related activities of the World Bank, EBRD and the GEF Black Sea program. In addition, a special program is recommended for Kostiantynivka (formerly Kostantinovka), a small community in Donetsk Oblast where lead emissions avpear serious (see activity 1l below). A. Short Term Action Plans Strongly recommended are programs which concentrate on a municipal area, working with municipal and environmental authorities to identify and implement short term, low cost action plans in major plants and municipal operations to improve operating efficiency and reduce pollution, particularly hazardous air pollution. This would involve undertaking environmental audits at major industrial plants to identify low cost safety, operational and environmental improvements and to reduce energy, water or material use.' The results could be used in drafting a short term action plan for the plant. City and environmental authorities could work with plants to implement these measures. Donor agencies could support implementation by offering some incentives, e.g. small equipment or investments, to help realize the needed changes. The action plans would include the following: fl) Identification of and Support for Short Term Action Plans at Industrial Plants - Improved safety procedures - Aggressive sweeping and cleaning programs - Repair of operating and control equipment to reduce emissions and leakages - Development of operating plans to reduce energy and water use - Improvements in boiler and utility operations - improvements in instrumentation and controls - Installation of meters and control equipment, where cost effective - Attention to waste minimization opportunities - Improvements in waste management measures and containment of any hazardous wastes I/ Such audits could also support privatization or restructuring by providing improved baseline information about pollution problems. Recommendations for Technical Assistance 3 The operational/environmental audits associated with identifying short term action plans would be an important training exercise for both plant personnel and environmental inspection team.2 (ii) Identificatior of and Support for Short to Medium Term Measures at Water/Wastewater Utilities. Water Treatment - improvements in instrumentation and controls - improvements in the efficiency of filtration (including cieaning of backwash filters) - introduction of mechanical dewatering of sludge Wastewater Treatment - improvements in design and operation of anaerobic sludge digestion - improvements in aeration efficiency - utilization of methane gas from anaerobic digestion of sludge - introduc.ion of mechanical dewatering of sludge - identification of plants which are priorities for industrial pre-treatment in the municipal area The intent would be to focus on how to improve existing operations (in some cases thereby e&nlancing capacity) before making investments to expand treatment capacity. Sonme of the operating measures mentioned above would still be relatively expensive and might form the basis for a modest investment project which might, in part, be financed by a multilateral bank. Attachment 4 lists some specific ideas for technical assistance at four individual plants visited during the study. Identification and support for the action plans could be combined with assisting municipal Vodoc%nals, in charge of water and wastewater treatment, in putting themselves on a more commercial basis, in particular undertaking a study: (a) to calculate the tariffs necessary to achieve cost recovery and allow some self-financing of investments, and (b) to develop a phase-in program. (iii) Identification of and Support for Short Term Action Plans at Coal Mines and Thermal Power Plants Another priority is to identify and implement improved safety procedures in coal mines. A start could be made through municipal programs covering coal mines in or near municipal areas. The identification of short term action plans could also be extended to thermal power plants and combined heat/power plants in or near the municipal area. Support for improve.nents in operating performance and in ESP/venturi scrubber performance is badly needed (an example of useful equipment which could be supplied would be portable combustion analyzers). Introduction of comminon regulatory techniques, such as visual "stack opacity" checks, would also be useful. See also the suggestions under regulatory programs and air quality management for better monitoring and site characterization at thermal 2/ Ideally, these audits should be part of broader exercises to help firms develop practical business plans (or in some industries restructure). Environmnental officers in donor agencies will want to liaise closely with colleagues working on privatization and industrial restructuring to coordinate opportunities. 4 Annex I plants to establish whether emissions from these plants have a strong impact on local ambient air pollution. B. Support for Regulatory Improvements Through Pilot Programs in Cities Beyond sponsoring short term action plans in a municipal area, if resources are available for further support, the pilot program could be extended to include direct support for regulatory improvements and development of strategies for pollution abatement within a municipal area; these two activities go hand in hand. The steps involved are outlined below: - Evaluation and Characterization: review of existing regulatory practices and their effectiveness (including the application of existing standards and enforcement mechanisms); introduction of modern evaluatory techniques; selective introduction of improved monitoring and testing equipment; assistance in improved information management; and, very importantly, associated training in all these activities; - Analytical and Costing Phase. This would include: (a) analysis of priorities within one medium and across media; (b) 3nalysis of options for pollution abatement over the medium and longer tern, and costing of those options, and (c) development of a least cost or low cost abatement strategy for a municipal area (using techniques of cost-benefit analysis). - Finalization of a Medium to Long Term Management Plan. Preparatiop of tailored regulatory programs for the pilot area, based on cost effectiveness criteria. - Implementation and Enforcement. Introduction of the plan, with attention to improving permitting and enforcement capabilities. - R?elated special programs: introduction special programs for small-scale or mobile polluters. These pilot programs would also provide feedback on policy issues that will ultimately need to be addressed at the national level--e.g. revising national standards, improving staff professional development and enforcement capabilities, and improving monitoring and information management. Significant external assistance would be needed for the short term action plans and regulatory support. Estimated cost would be: US$ 2-3.5 million per city (to be shared with other donors). Specific actions under different environmental media are discussed below. (i) Air Quality Management Programs Upgrading of Evaluatory Techniques. This exercise would start with the following: (a) an evaluation of ambient air quality, the practicality of existing standards, emissions data, and methods of measurement and evaluation (e.g. ambient monitoring, source testing, emission factors used in estimation, and dispersion modeling) with the intent to help modernize the techniques currently used; (b) evaluation of priorities in improving monitoring equipment, giving special consideration to Recommendations for Technical Assistance 5 improving particulate monitors, along with network design, siting and quality assurance procedures in testing samples; and (c) review of data management needs and system based on improved monitoring and evaluatory capabilities. The evaluatory phase would be followed by introduction of new or improved evaluatory and regulatory techniques, selective upgrading of monitoring and testing equipment and lab equipment (the latter perhaps at a regional center) to improve the ability of regulators to understand the pollution problems they have, and associated training. Development of a Plan. Preparation of an individual air quality management plan for the city or airshed, considering both stationary (industrial and non-industrial) and mobile sources, to reach over a specified period of time designated ambient targets for selected "criteria" pollutants. In devising this plan, receptor-source screening and more complex dispersion models could be employed to evaluate both the collective impact as well as individual contributions to pollution in the airshed. This exercise would be followed by costing and prioritization of options, leading to an abatement strategy for the area. It should also include revision and strengthening of emergency action plans for periods when pollution becomes extreme (e.g. weather inversions). Also, included in the evaluation should be use of improved monitoring and dispersion analysis to identify the contributions to ambient pollution from: nearby thermal powe'- plants, more dispersed sources (household and small industrial boilers), and atuto and truck traffic. Implementation. Once the air quality management plan is agreed, revised targets and compliance schedules would be developed and negotiated with individual plants. New permits would be issued for individual sources, outlining longer term actions and a clear timetable for reductions of emissions. Those compliance plans would be made publicly available. rne air qliality management plan should also include special programs for dispersed or mobile sources of pollution, such as a plan for use of cleaner fuels in smaller boilers or inspection programs for vehicles and improved traffic management. Attachment I summarizes the steps in developing an air quality management plan. Attachments 2 and 3 list the type of equipment needed, over time, for improved ambient monitoring, and monitoring for regional deposition of toxic emissions, respectively. (ii) Water Quality Management Programs Municipal water quality management programs would need to consider the overall water quality of the river sub-basin to which municipal sources discharge. In this regard, a complementary program to undertake a baseline survey of parts of the Dnieper River is complementary to water management programs in cities along the Dnieper (see activity III). Strengthening Monitoring & Regulatory Techniques. In regard to surface water, monitoring is focused on traditional physical and chemical analyses. Monitoring should be expanded to cover biological indicators, ecosystem changes and collection of biologic material for analysis of anorganic and organic micropollutants; sediment sampling should also be expanded. The sensitivity and effectiveness of existing monitoring equipment also should be evaluated in greater detail. Better monitoring would help to identify the most seriously polluted sections and sources of pollution. Implementing these measures would also require the strengthening of laboratory capabilities (perhaps at the regional level), both equipment and quality assurance techniques. 6 Annex I Right now, the point of conmplianice for water disclharge permits is set at tfli outermost boundary of a tacility or sotnetimies further downstream beyond the boundaries ot a facility. encouraging both on-site or ol:-site disclharges wlhichl are not cont:orolled. llaving one poiln of compliance at a large facility' is not very effective. Such practices need tv be revised. Finally, review of current water standards and comiiparisoni with practical needs and cuLrrent practices would provide important feedback for national policy' in this area. Prioritizing Investments and Developing an Abatement Plan. Some cities. such Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhzhia, are identified as hot spots along the Dniieper River. Similarly, Odessa and Mariiupil are considered hot spots in terms of pollution problems ot the Black and Azov Seas respectively. Thus, these cities are good candidates for identifyirng the key sources of water pollution, costing solutions and developing a medium t,j long term abatement plan. Onice thlis plan is developed, permitting and compliance schedules for regulatory purposes would be revised. (iii) Solid and Hazardous Waste l\anagement Mwiicipality-wide This media program would address the problems of both solid hazardous waste. A fi,st step would be to distinguish between non-hazardous and hazardous waste, indeed developing a practical methodology to classify wastes and differeatiate treatment. The second step would be to identify any hazardous sites likely to be jeopardizing health and to recommend low cost mitigation or containment measures. The third step would involve several activities: suggesting cost effective approaches to solid and lower level hazardous waste management and identifying opportunities for waste minimization and recycling programs. Again prioritization of recommended activities and development of an implementation program would be expected. Such efforts would provide feedback to the national level on needed legislation for hazardous uwaste management and transportation. 1I. Lead Testing Program at Kostiantynivka At Kostiantynivka, funding is needed to conduct blood lead testing (blood lead and protophyrin tests) in workers and children and soil sampling to determine the health impact from lead and other emissions from longstanding operations of the secondary lead/zinc smelter there (estimated cost: US$ 250,000). International assistance is also needed for a detailed environmental audit and evaluation of the economic viability of smelter with a view to determine whether or not to continue operations (US$ 200,000). Recommendations for Te'chnical Assistanice 7 111. Suggested WN'ater NIanagement Programs Dnieper River Baseline Stim vey. Existing water quality data for the Duieper River appear unreliable and were acquired using equipment available in tlle 1960s, nmuch less accurate than the equipment available today. What is needed is a baseline survey of water qualit) along the river, which would also provide an opportunity to train Ukrainian researchers in use of more modern monitoring and laboratory equipment. The survey would help to identify any especially polluted sections of the .iver and possible health or ecological risks. It would also support international efforts to address the serious pollution problems of the Black Sea (eg. the GEF-supported Black Sea Cooperative Program). It would also provide input to the Dnieper River Commission, established by the Ministry for Environmental Protection to evaluate pollution problems along the river. The Ministry for Envirorunental Protection has responsibility for a water quality institute in Odessa, which owns several research ships. One of these ships might be equipped with a mobile laboratory, staffed by Ukrainian and international experts, to conduct a survey (water and sediment sampling) along the river and its reservoirs. Estimated cost: US$350,000. Action Plans for Two Other Rivers. Two other rivers--the Inhulets and the Siverskodonets-- would benefit from studies to develop action plans for addressing water pollution and water shortage issues. Study of Fishery Revival in Azov Sea. An important economic need is to identify opportunities to reduce the dramatic decline in fishing in the Azov Sea, considering reduced river flows (Don and Kuban rivers), water quality and probably overfishing. This should be a practical study which quickly tries to identify steps which can be taken in the short to medium term. It would be a complementary activity to the Black Sea program. IV. Management of Hazardous Waste and Review of the Ammonia Pipeline Environmental and local authorities would benefit from assistance in surveying, prioritizing and seeking low cost solutions for management of hazardous waste problems, at the same time instituting preventive measures for the future. As a first effort, the authorities need to start identifying those problems which may be immediate hazards to health so that cost effective actions can be taken, versus problems which are less urgent and will have to be addressed over a much longer period of time, as resources permit. Such surveys will also be helpful in establishing baselines and assigning liability in respect of land or plant privatization. The process would start with hazardous waste evaluations either by categories of industry (eg. segments of the chemical industry) or by regions. Two regional candidates are: Donetsk and Kryvyi Rih (Krivoi Rog). Estimated cost: US$400,000. A hazard and risk assessment is needed of the pressurized ammonia pipeline that crosses the country. The study should include an evaluation of the following: design, construction and 8 Annex 1 installation of the pipeline (and provisions for land subsidence along thie route); corrosion prevention and detection of leaks; emergency shutdown systems: and evaluation procedures. V. Needed Improvements in the Regulatory Infrastructure The Ministry should seek opportunities to work with foreign authorities in strengthening the elements of its regulatory policy and making the system less complex and more practical to carry out. Changes could be introduced gradually over the next 5 years, Below are listed some of the areas where changes are needed and wvhere interaction with environmiiental authorities in other countries would be constructive: Revision of Ambient Standards for Air and Water: A review is needed to suggest changes, including reducing the number and, in some cases, making them less strict, so that they are practical and based on modern health risk assessments. Selective Introduction of Technology-based Standards: For water quality management, it is appropriate to develop some minimum technology standards for different types of entities discharging into the river (eg. Industrial waste discharge and sewage discharge). In regard to air quality management, there are situations or industries where setting technology standards may be appropriate (eg. plants releasing known toxins). Improvements in Regulatory Infrastructure: Among the most important activities are: Monitoring. A study is needed to develop an action plan for integrating and strengthening existing monitoring and analytical activities for both air and water quality management, which are now scattered among various institutions, and then to selectively update monitoring, testing, and lab equipment3. The intent would be to develop a monitoring system which better aids regulatory objectives. Regulatory Techniques. Steps at the national level to improve evaluatory, site characterization, permitting, and inspection techniques, as outlined in I (B), should be supported by working with other national enviromnental agencies. Information Systems. As improved data becomes available, MEP would benefit from support for better information systems, so that data on emissions, discharges, and permits can be accessed and exchanged between the oblasts and the center. Improvements in Enforcement Actions and Related Environmental Legislation: MEP is constrained by the small number of enforcement mechanisms available to it, which include assessment of fees and, in a few cases, temporary suspension of plant operations. It needs more flexible enforcement authority and a graduated spectrum of enforcement tools that can be tailored to the 3/ For air quality, upgrading of particulate monitors is the highest priority; for water quality analysis, it is developing the monitoring and analytical capability to measure important micropollutants for which high concentrations could be expected (e.g. expanding monitoring to inciude biological indicators). Recommendations for Teclhnical Assistance 9 circumstances of each case. T'hese include: the authority to place conditions on individual emissions/discharge permits, violation of which can he sanctioned independently frnm violation of the permit limits; authority to negotiate detailed compliance schedules wlich outline a realistic path to compliance, and provide the Ministry with incremental stages at whichi to monitor progress and apply sanctions; and multiple-factor penalty calculations which allows fines and other penalties to be adjusted upward or downward in appropriate cases. E-ach of these tool. avoids saddling MEP with an all-or-nothing decision between ignoring the violation or threatening a lhigh fine (or plant closure) that will be overturned because of economic hardship. Most of these actions will need to be codified in environmental legislation. To aid in drafting legislation, recommended is the formation of a small external committee ot legal advisors to aid the understaffed legal unit in the Ministry by reviewing and comrnenting on environmental legislation, particularly suggtesting ways to strengthen enforcement mechanisms. Another important subject for future environ-mental legis!ation is hazardous waste regulations for management and transport. Privatization and Environmental Liability: MEP would benefit from support in developing a policy and implementation mechanisms to address the issue of assigning enviromunental liability in privatization transactions. Improvements in the Pollution Fee System (Mediun term): Following improvements in standards and basic regulatory infrastructure, it would be useful to make improvements in the structure and administration of the existing pollution fee system. Central Laboratory. There is a good case for establishing one .iational laboratory, equipped with modern instrumentation and staffed by trained technicians, to ensure quality testing for water and air media. Rather than starting up a completely new lab, it would be more cos: effective to strengthen one existing laboratory, perhaps under the joint auspices of MEP and MCH. Any equipment supplied must be accompanied by sufficient training. Institution of this laboratory should follow improvements in monitoring equipment and quality control techniques in transpon. Central Laboratory (including training) US$ Computer Systems 20,000 Gas Chromatograph 50,000 Mass Spectrometer 300,000 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric 100,000 Wet Chemical Lab Equipment 25,000 Heavy Metals Lab Equipment 120,000 Organics Lab Equipment 400,000 Microbial Lab Equipment 10,000 Total 1,025,000 10 Annex I VI. Institutional Development within the Ministry for Environmental Protection 1. Training Needs. Training programs for individual staff of MEP, both at central and local levels should cover the following: comparative approaches to regulatory policy and environmental management; information management; technical training in specific industries and sectors and in types of diagnostic instruments or pollution control equipment (industrial pollution should be emphasized here); methodo!ogies in undertaking environmental imnpact assessments; environmental economics and policymaking; health risk assessments; and comparative approaches to public information and participation. A standard program of technical training should be introduced for inspectors, as they must earn the respect of their industrial counterparts by demonstrating a technical knowledge of processes and options for pollution control. Both individual media and cross media training is recommended, as some experts should become familiar with the range of environmental problems related to particular industries. 2. Carefully-designed study tours to introduce approaches taken in other countries would be an mportant adjunct, as it helps to demonstrate other approaches. It would be important that, not only staff at the ceiter in Kiev participate, but also those at the oblast and municipal level, where most of the enforcement activity takes place. It is also important that the selection process tries to identify highly motivated individuals. 3. Information Management. The entire Ministry possesses only about 40-50 computers, about 8 in headquarters and the rest distributed among the various oblast level offices. Very few people are familiar with using computers. Most administrative, monitoring and other data are still written or typed, which is very time consuming and makes the data less usable. Recommended equipment includes: a. Acquisition of 50 to 100 personal computers, to be distributed throughout the Ministry and oblast offices, would best serve the needs and capabilities of the Ukrainians at this time. Each computer would have access to near-universal spreadsheet and word-processing programs, as well as to some of the more sophisticated PC-based database management system. The system would have the capacity to support a limited database, desktop publishing software, standard spreadsheets and statistical analysis utilities. It would also be able to support basic business management software, for example to track permits and to monitor fees and fines. b. Portable PCs (perhaps 10-20) for distribution to regional offices for on-site data gathering and monitoring purposes. These portables should be equipped with data collection software to support consistent sampling and collection techniques. Such a program might start with a pilot phase, in parallel with a pilot program in one city along with support at the national level, to rationalize environmental information. Training in use of the abovementioned equipment would be essential. The cost of the total package would be US$200- 350,000 depending on how many computers are purchased and the extent of training. Recommendations for Technical Assistance 11 VII. Industrial and Environmental Issues (i) Introduction of short-term action plans in all major plants over time. (ii) Fundamental environmental problems in some heavy industries cannot be divorced from the underlying restructuring needed in those industries. Hence, technical assistance is needed for comprehensive restructuring analyses in the following industries: steel, coal, iron ore, amnmonia/fertilizer production, and refineries. (Draft terms of reference can be supplied by the World Bank, as necessary.) VIII. Energy and Environmental Issues A. Thermal Power Industry (i) Improved air quality characterization around major thermal power plants to understand better the resulting impacts on ambient air concentrations (TSP, SO2 and NOx) and longer distance transport. This would entail introduction of improved monitoring equipment and dispersion modeling. The results would help in assessing investment priorities related to pollution control at major thermal power stations. (ii) Training for power plant operators and environmental regulatory authorities in the following areas: - Operational adjustments using portable combustion analyzers (equipment to be supplied with training) - Fuel blending strategies - ESP troubleshooting - Power plant inspections - Visible emissions training See Annex 5 for specific recommendations for four thermal power plants. B. S02 Control Strategy Review of options across sectors for reductions in SO2 emissions, including reduction of sulfur in oil products (as part of refinery modernization), improved coal quality, energy conservation, and sulfur control in the power industry C. Coal Industry (items I) and ii) preferably in conjunction with a restructuring study) (i) Development and implementation of improved safety procedures in coal mines (ii) Review of opportunities to improve coal quality by (a) better blending practices and (b) coal washing. Constraints due to lack of a coal market would also need to be examined. 12 Annex I (iii) Review of opportunities and cost effcctiveness of greater coalbed methane recovery and use. IX. Environmental Issues Related to Agriculture and Forestry The following areas would provide assistance in reducing environmental pressures in the agricultural sector: - Legal assistance with land privatization to assure sound land management practices and removal of marginal lands to forest or grassland. Cost: $150,000 - Evaluation of problems of agricultural runoff along southern reaches of the Dnieper River. Cost: $150,000 - A later program might include support for demonstration projects to reduce erosion and runoff (the principal non-point source of water pollution)--eg. reduced tillage systems and land contouring--and to introduce methods for low-input agriculture. - A review of forestry operations to suggest more environmentally benign practices and to introJuce modern concepts of planning and economic analysis. X. Protected Areas and Coastal Zone Management Review of emergency needs in the protected areas and RAMSAR-designated wetlands to avoid irrecoverable damage or neglect. After the review, support would be needed for the implementation of the program. Estimated cost of technical assistance: US$200,000. Technical assistance is also needed to devise longer term financing mechanisms to support the protected area network, eg. ecotourism, carrying capacity studies, visitor fees, concessions and leasing. Estimated cost: US$50,000. Review of coastal areas, particularly near Odessa, Yalta and Mariiupil to assess conservation needs and opportunities for promotion of ecologically sustainable tourism. XI. Improvements in Epidemiology Design and implementation of collaborative studies, involving Ukrainian experts responsible for occupational and environmnental health and external experts, to apply the concepts of modem epidemiology (standardization and controls) and exposure assessment to specific cases in Ukraine, e.g. case studies reviewing data and cross-checking/testing results of health studies in Mariiupil, Zaporizhzhia and Kryvyi Rih. (US$200,000-400,000) Development of programs for in-country training in the application of modem epidemiology, exposure assessment, and public policy for the recognition, evaluation, and control of occupational and environmental health problems in Ukraine. Training of Ukrainian trainers to implement this Recommendations for Technical Assistance 13 program. (Combined est. cost $300,000). Note: Also see programs suggested under Kostiantynivka and Chernobyl. XII. Activities Concerning Chernobyl The outstanding problems related to Chernobyl, for which technical assistance is needed, are the following: (i) addressing problems at the plant itself; (ii) improving containment of hazardous waste in the 30 km zone; (iii) establishing more definitively the health impact and health risks with conct rrent public education; (iv) finding ways to Aeduce the heavy fiscal burden caused by the ambitiousness of Chemobyl mitigation programs; and (v) prioritizing planned further mitigation and remediation measures. A. Feasibility Study for Managing Problems at Unit 4 Technical assistance is needed for a feasibility study to identify a low cost solution to existing problems at unit 4. This requires the input of both engineers and water quality experts familiar with radiation contamination, and radiation epidemiologists. Note: EBRD is currently working with the Ukrainian government in planning such a study. Further technical assistance is needed for the other activities; suggested actions are outlined below. B. Suggested Actions Within the 30 Km Zone Ukrainian authorities need assistance in evaluating potential surface or ground water contamination from hazardous sites in the 30 km zone (using modem monitoring equipment); it sbrould include an analysis of potential health impacts at the level of radionuclide seepage which might be found. This requires the input of both engineers and water quality experts familiar with radiation contamination and radiation epidemiologists. In parallel with the evaluation, assistance is needed in identifying low cost mitigation or containment measures inside the 30 km zone to rectify any problems creating serious health risks. C. Suggested Follow Up Actions Outside the 30 Km Zone The following (in some cases sequential) actions are recommended as part of a re-examination of ongoing compensation and mitigation programs in Ukraine, in order to assure their cost effectiveness. A similar program would be appropriate for Belarus. O Reassessment of the Statutory Dose Limit - Reconsideration of this limit is recommended in order to design a cost effective and affordable mitigation program for the future. The epidemiological and contamination studies mentioned below should help provide the basis for this recommended reassessment. o Introduction of Modern Epidemiological Studies and Techniques - Collaboration is strongly recommended between the Ukrainian and foreign health experts in conducting controlled health studies using modem epidemiological methods (e.g. careful standardization 14 Annex 1 and use of morbidity and mortality data) and the risk assessment techniiques to evaluate data from Ukrainian studies in order to determine more clearly what the health impacts from Chernobyl are and what are the ongoing healtli risks. O Quality Assurance of Ongoing Contamination Measurements and Human Dose Assessments -- In selected communities, it would be usefll to seek donor assistance for short, selective studies to confirm current levels of surface contamination, improve estimates of internal doses, and thus assess better the overall expected humaii dosage of people living in areas categorized as contaminated. These studies shiould he conducted using modern monitoring equipment, cross checked by selectively employing whole body monitoring, and body dosimeters (TLDs); measurements of radionuclide levels in food should also be reconfirmed through these studies. An experienced radiation epidemiologist should review the results of these studies to establish the likely health risks. O Improved Information Management -- In parallel with reconfirmation of data. as suggested above, should be an effort to consolidate existing monitoring and health data into a consistent and comprehensive database, so that all information concerning Chernobyl effects is readily accessible. o Reexamination of the Health Risk Basis for Compensation -- With information from the epidemiological and contaminatiorJdose studies. it should be possible to re-examine the existing compensation program to make it more cost effective and affordable. e] Quality Assurance in Food Control Procedures - It is important to have good quality control assurances--on state farms and in monitoring food products generally from the contaminated areas. Existing measures have been effective but could be supplemented by regular checks of control procedures (including recalibration of instruments). In addition, they might be supplemented further by external reviews periodically. o Improved Public Awareness Campaigns -- The public needs greater information about background radiation, radon levels in the country (a major contributor to natural background radiation), and health risks from radiation exposure. e Development of a Cost Effective Waste Management Strategy -- Greater attention to prioritization of the current decontamination program is recommended, considering cost effectiveness of dose reduction. Such an effort will be improved by securing better data on current external and internal contamination and expected human doses. Recommended first is a policy of improving existing low cost measures to reduce crop uptake and internal exposures. Low cost containment measures to restrict and contain particularly hazardous areas should also be examined. Also needed is a program to classify hazardous nuclear wastes using international standards is recommended as a first step in distinguishing how to contain or dispose of wastes of varying danger. Caution is recommended in seeking high technology solutions to waste management, as these may not be the most cost effective way to reduce exposures; any such investments should be subject to careful cost-benefit analyses. Recommendations for Technical Assistance 15 Attachment I Suggested Air Quality Mianagement Programs in Priority areas First Phase: Short Term, Low Cost Action Plans in Major Plants. These short term measures would be actions which are not capital intensive and could be implemented relatively easily to decrease pollution at the source. They could be as basic as an aggressive sweeping program of particulate matter at the plant site. Other measures might include repair of existing equipment in a timely manner (e.g.. repair of leaking coke oven doors), while still others could be minor changes to existing processes or control equipment which would improve their efficicncy as well as reduce unorganized emissions The first phase should also include revision and strengthening of emergency action plans for periods when pollution becomes extreme (e.g. weather inversions). The major industries are supposed to have plans to undertake temporary measures to reduce pollution during extreme episodes. With installation of continuous air quality monitors (second phase), giving "real time" as- quality information to regulatory authorities, enforcement of these emergency action plans could be more aggressively pursued. Second Phase: Development of Air Quality Management Plans (beginning with pilot programs). Steps would include the following: (i) An increase in the staff and equipment available to the local branch of the Ministry for Environmental Protection. A priority would be introduction of improved monitoring equipment, for example installation of new high volume particulate sampling monitors for particulate matter and related toxir compounds, such as lead and other heavy metals. As funding permits, installation of continuous air quality monitoring systems should be introduced to supplement the current system of wet chemistty methods for gaseous pollutants. The increase in equipment might also include a modern emission monitoring van to be used in verifying the self-reporting of major sources and sampling smaller sources. (ii) Preparation of an individual air quality management plan for the city or airshed, considering both stationary (industrial and non-industrial) and mobile sources, to reach over a specified period of time (e.g. the year 2000) designated ambient targets for selected "criteria" pollutants. In devising this plan, receptor-source screening and more complex dispersion models could be employed to evaluate both the collective impact as well as individual contributions to pollution in the airshed. This exercise would be followed by costing and prioritization of options, leading to an abatement strategy for the area. It would also take into account opportunities for creation of new economic activities and diversification of industry in the region. (iii) Using the air quality management plan, revised targets and compliance schedules would be developed and negotiated with individual plants. New permits would be issued for individual sources, outlining longer term actions (7 years) and a clear timetable for reductions of emissions. Those compliance plans would be made publicly available. (iv) The air quality management plan should also identify efforts to reduce more dispersed or mobile sources of pollution, such as a plan for use of cleaner fuels in smaller boilers or inspection programs for vehicles. (v) Finally, the plan should allow opportunities to introduce market based regulatory approaches (emissions offsets or 'bubbling" of one or more plants) as the regulatory infrastructure (and baseline information) becomes more robust and property rights are better defined. 16 Annex I Attachment 2 PRIORITY AIR POLLUTION AREAS ESTIMATED TOTAL MONITORING EQUIPMIENT COSTS The equipment listed in the following tables is recommended as a minimally acceptable system for the seven priority areas. These areas are: a. Donetsk and surrounding area b. Mariiupil c. Zaporizhzhia d. Dnipropetrovsk e. Kryvyi Rih f. Dniprodzerzhinsk g. Odessa Table 1: Stationary Monitors Item Number Unit Cost Total Shelter 16 $12,190 $195,040 Total Suspended Particulate4 32 $6,095 $195,040 SO2/H2S 16 $11,960 $191,360 NOx 16 $14,375 $230,000 CO 7 $13,800 $96,600 Ozone 7 $13,800 $96,600 NH3 16 $14,375 $230,000 PMIO' $17,875 $17,875 Met 16 $16,733 $267,728 Calibrator 16 $16,100 $257,600 Zero Air 16 $4,370 $69,920 Data System 16 $7,522 $120,352 Manifold 16 $1,438 $23,008 Modem 16 $661 $10,576 Lab Support Equipment 7 $13,000 $91,000 Recorders 16 $7,820 $125,120 | Total 0 $2,217,819 4/ The PM10 monitor should be moved from priority area to priority area and co-located for a period of time with the particulate monitor to determine the proportion of the particulates being measured which are less than 10 microns in size. Recommendations for Technical Assistance 17 'Table 2: Mobile Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Laboratory5 Item Number Unit Cost Total Cost Shelter 7 $12,190 $85,330 SO, 7 $11,960 $83,720 NO, 7 $14,375 $100,625 CO 7 $13,800 $96,600 NH3 7 $14,375 $100,625 Ozone 7 $13,800 $96,600 PM10 7 $17,875 $125,125 Total Hydrocarbons (THC) 7 $16,100 $112,700 Meteorological Equipment 7 $14,432 $101,024 Calibrator 7 $16,100 $112,700 Zero Air 7 $5,520 $38,640 Data System 7 $6,762 $47,334 Manifold 7 $1,438 $10,066 Modem 7 $661 $4,627 Spare parts & misc. 7 $10,000 $70,000 Recorder 7 $7,820 $54,740 Transporter 7 $6,670 $46,690 Total $1,287,146 5/ Each priority area should receive one mobile ambient air quality monitoring laboratory. 18 Annex 1 Table 3: Emissions Monitoring Van and Associated Equipment6 Item Number Unit Cost Cost Shelter 7 $30,590 $214,130 Van (Truck) 7 $31,625 $221,375 S02 7 $16,560 $115,920 NO, 7 $16,675 $113,925 CO 7 $16,100 $112,700 02 7 $19,033 $133,231 Particulate Matter 7 $25,875 $181,125 Total Hydrocarbons (THC) 7 $22,534 $157,738 Sample Conditioner 7 $13,800 $96,600 Probes 7 $22,511 $157,577 Zero Air w/dryer 7 $8,395 $58,765 OVM Monitor (portable organic vapor monitors) 7 $6,670 $46,690 Cables, Wires, etc. 7 $17,825 $124,775 Cal. gases w/regulators 7 $9,775 $68,425 Recorders 7 $7,820 $54,740 Total Cost $1,857,716 6/ Each priority area should have one emissions monitoring van and associated equipment. Recommendations for Technical Assistance 19 Table 4: Other related costs7 Item Cost Gas Chromatograph w/samplers - 7 $ 75,000 Central Computer - 7 $ 25,300 Shipping & Installation (from Western Europe) _ _ _ _ _ _ _$120,000 Training - 21 staff @ $4,000 each $ 84,000 Total $252,000 Table 5: Summary of Total Ambient and Emission Monitoring Costs Stationary Monitoring Stations $2,217,819 Mobile Ambient Monitoring $1,287,146 Emissions Monitoring Van $1,857,716 Miscellaneous Costs $ 220,000 Total Cost $5,582,681 Note: These are the initial costs to set-up a comprehensive monitoring program for this area. These costs do not include the annual costs of operating and maintaining this system. It also does not include costs for doing sophisticated laboratory analysis for certain toxic pollutants such as heavy metals and persistence organic compounds (dioxin, PCB's, etc.). It is assumed that the capability for such analysis will be provided in Kiev or some other national central laboratory. 7/ Each priority area should receive one gas chromatograph and central computer. The cost of training assumes that the one individual primarily responsible for each of the stationary monitoring systems, the one individual primarily responsible for the mobile monitoring system, and the one individual responsible for the emissions monitoring system in each of the priority areas would receive the training needed. 20 Annex 1 Attachment 3 REGIONAL AIR TOXICS DEPOSITION MfONITORING SITE The following estimates report the capital and analytical costs for a dry and wet toxics deposition monitoring station. The estimiates are based oni Costs developed by thle monitorinig section for monitoring stations in a North American Great l akes deposition monitoring network. The sampling schedule for monitored parameters could vary from weekly, bi-weekly, monthly and/or quarterly and would be dependent oin both the monitoring objectives and the amount of available funds. Target Compounds The target compounds for a deposition monitoring study include, but are not limited to, the compounds listed below. These compounds are of e oncern to aquatic ecosystems such as those found in Ukraine. PCBs Chlorinated pesticides -DDT and metabolites -Dieldrin -Chlordane -Hexachlorobenzene -Toxaphene Dioxins/Furans PAHs -Benzo(a)pyrene Non-volatile Metals -Cadmium -Chromium -Lead -Zinc Mercury Recommendations for Technical Assistance 21 Regional Toxic Deposition Site Analytical Methodology Table 6: Dfry Deposition Parameter Sampling Method Analvtical Method References PCB/pesticide PS-1 samupler GC/ECD T04, I Dioxin/Furans PS-I sampler HRCG/HRMS T09, 1 PAHs PS-I sampler HPLC/fluorescence T013, 1 Non-volatile Metals High volume sampler AAS 2, 3 Mercury Solid absorbent AF 6, 7 Analytical Methodology Table 7: Wet Deposition Parameter Sampling Method Analytical Method References PSC/pesticides MIC sampler GC/ECD EPA Method 608 Dioxin/Furans MIC sampler HRCG/HRMS SW Method 8290 PAHs MIC sampler HPLC/fluorescence Non-volatile metals MIC sampler ICP-MS 2, 3 Mercury MIC sampler AF 5, 6 22 AntneA I Table 8: Capital Cost Estimates for a Model Atmospheric_Deposition Station - 'rotal Sampling Equipment Item Parameter Vendor Quantity IUnit Price Price Ambient Hg sampler Hg-gas/pan. Customi I _ S5,000 S5,000 IVL (Swedish pass. sampler lHg - depos. Custom n3 S300 $900 TSP HV air sampler metals (0MW 1 $3,000 $3,000 Dichotomus sampler metals Anderson I $8,100 $8,100 PS-1 (PUF) sampler PCBs/pest./PAHs GMW 1 $2,750 $2,750 MIC deposition sampler PCBs/pest./PAHs M.1.C. 2 $4,500 $9,000 Recording Rain Gauge deps Belford _ $1,800 $1,800 Subtotal' $30,550 Site total (Tables 8&9) =$55,270 Monitoring Site Set-up: [ Table 9: Monitoring Site Set-up Item Quantity Unit Price Total Price Meteorological Tower 1 $500 $500 Meteorological sensors (WS/WD/TMdelta-T/Rel. Hum./Sol. Rad.) 1 $8,000 $8,000 Data logger and modem 1 $2,800 $2,800 Telephone installation 1 $120 $120 Electrical power installation I $600 $600 Trailer I $8,000 $8,000 Enclosure Fence 1 $1,200 $1,200 Sampler Platforms 1 $1,000 $1,000 Subtotal' $22,220 Site total (Tables 8&9) = $55,270 Recomnmendations for Technical Assistance 23 Table 10: Regional Toxic Deposition Site Analytical Costs l Parameter | Cost/sample PCBs/Chitorinated pesticides $200 to $500 PAHs $300 Dioxins/Furans $1,500 Non-volatilc Metals $150 to $250 Mercury 5300 Table 11: Capital Equipment Costs for the Laboratory Analysis of Samples Analytical Balance $3,500 Gas Chromatograph with Electron Capture Detector (ECD) $35,000 Two dimensional Gas Chromatograph with ECD $60,000 High Performance Liquid Chromatograph with Fluorescence Detection (HPLC/FD) $50,000 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) $65,000 Atomic Floruence Spectrophotometer (AFS) $15,000 Ion Coupled Plasma Spectrometer/Mass Spectrometer Detection (ICP/MS) $225,000 High Resolution Gas Chromatograph/High Resolution Mass Spectrometer (HRGC/HRMS) $500,000 24 Antnex I Attachment 4 Estimated Cost of Technical Assistance for Needed Studies for Wastewater Treatment (US$) Dniprodzerzhinsk, Azot chemical plant - wastewater treatment 80,000 Donetsk oblast - toxic, hazardous and municipal solid waste disposal 560,000 Water treatment works - Kiev, Kry*yi Rih, Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhzhia: 560,000 provision of instrumentation Dnipropetrovsk - industrial wastewater discharge control scheme 100,000 Lysychansk, soda factory - feasibility study on water recycling and lagoon treatment 60,000 Luhansk, coal mine water disposal - hydrological feasibility study 320,000 Zaporizhzhia - leakage control in the water supply distribution system 540,000 Kryvyi Rih - mine water from iron ore plant 260,000 Rubezhnoye, Krasital dye factory - study for demineralization and recycling effluent 60,000 Odessa - oil interceptors 40,000 Siverskodonetsk, Azot chemical plant - sludge digestion at wastewater treatment plant 120,000 ANNEX 2: GENERAL 'NFORMATION: POPULATION DENSITY, SOURCES OF LAW, ENERGY INTENSITY AND DATA ON HAZARDOUS AND GENERAL AIR POLLUTANTS Table 1: Data on Selected Oblasts Area and Population (on January 1, 1991) l Territory Population Percent of Population Density (thousand krn2) (thousands) *Jrban Population (people/krn') Ukraine Total 603.7 51,944.4 68 86 Dnipropetrovsk 31.9 3,908.7 84 122.5 Donetsk 26.9 5,346.7 90 201.8 Zaporizhzhia 27.2 2,099.6 78 77.2 Luhansk 26.7 2,871.1 87 107.5 Kharkiv 31.4 3,194.8 79 101.7 Odessa 33.3 2,635.3 88 79.1 Box 1- Sources of Law In Ukraine Ukraine declared the "Act of State Independence of Ukraine" on August 24, 1991, followed by a national referendum in December 1991. From the point of view of legal power and continuity of law, Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian Socialist Republic (UkrSSR). A Utkrainian parliamentary resolution of 1991 states that laws of the USSR will continue to operate for those areas not covered by new Ukraian laws, as long as the laws of the former USSR do not contradict the Constitution and laws of Ukraine. The existing constitution of Ukraine is an amended version of the 1978 Constitution for the Soviet Republic of Ukraine. A new Constitution of Ukraine, stiU in draft form, will eventually be an important source of law for the country. Beyond the Constitutien, the next level of law are the legislative acts (zakon) adopted by the Supreme Soviet of Ukraine (the Parliament). Prepared by working groups under the sponsorship of parliamentary committees or the Cabinet of Ministers, draft zakons go through first and second readings in Parliament before enactment. The President may veto the act, but can be overridden by a majority vote. Parliament also passes resolutions (postanova) which do not usually create rules of law. Another important source of law are the decrees of the President of Ukraine. While difficult to categorize, these decrees are not simply executive orders; they create new rules of law, which sometimes contradict the acts of the legislative body, thus raising uncertainty about the law. finally, there are decrees, rules and standards issued by the Cabinet of Ministers and government agencies (Ministries and State Committees). 2 Annex 2 Table 2: Energy Intensity, Selected Countries of the FSU GDP GDP POP Total Energy Energy (bill Rb) (bill US$) (mill) Consumption Intensity (ktoe) (koe/$ of GDP) Estonia 17.3 5.8 1.6 3,997 0.69 Latvia 22.3 7.4 2.7 6,650 0.89 Lithuania 39.4 13.1 3.7 13,493 1.03 Georgia 23.5 7.8 5.4 8,659 1.11 Tadjikistan 13 4.3 5.3 5,316 1.23 Kyrghyzstan 15.3 5.1 4.4 7,073 1.39 Moldova 20.7 6.9 4.4 9,925 1.44 Belarus 71.8 23.9 10.3 39,960 1.67 Azerbaijan 22.4 7.5 7.1 14,237 1.91 Armenia 15.7 5.2 3.3 10,026 1.92 Russia 1,130 376.7 148.5 838,160 2.23 Kazakhstan 92 30.7 16.9 70,160 2.29 Turkmenistan 18.6 6.2 3.8 15,209 2.45 Uzbekistan 56.3 18.8 21.3 47,919 2.53 UKRAINE 262 87.3 51.7 230,025 2.63 TOTAL 1,820.3 606.8 290.4 1,320,809 2.18 OECD 0.27 China 1.69 Upper middle-income countries 0.60 Sources: GDP (Rbs): IMF, 1991 GDP (US$): 3 Rbl/US$ Material developed by Bjorn Larsen and Sunita Gandhi (1992) General Information 3 Box 2: Envirownental Legislation During the years 1992 - 1993 the following legal provision were adop.d by the Supreme Council of Ukraine: o Law of Ukraine "On Protection of Atmosphere" valid since October 16, 1992. o Law of Ukraine "On Wildlife" valid since March 3, 1994. o Law of Ukraine "On Changes and Amendments to the Code of Ukraine with concern to Administrative Infringements" valid since May 4, 1993, which empowers the bodies of the Ministry for Environmental Protection of Ukraine to take legal steps in the case of administrative infringements in the field of environmental safety. o Resolution of tne Supreme Council of Ukraine "On the Red Book of Ukraine" valid since October 29, 1992. o Resolution of the Supreme Council of Ulraine "On Adopted Terms and Conditions of Restriction, Temporary Suspension (Stoppage), or Cessation of Activities of Enterprises, Institutions, Organizations and Projects in the Case of their Infringement of the Law on Environmental Protection Provisions" valid since October 29, 1992. e Resolution of the Supreme Council of Ukraine "On Conditions of Import 'ar Transit) of Waste Products and Utility Waste on the territory of Ukraine" valid since November 17, 1993. X Law of Ukraine "On Changes and Amendments to the Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine" valid since February 25, 1994, which specify criminal and fiduciary responsibilities for infringement of conditions of import (or transit) of waste products and utility waste on the territory of Ukraine. Besides, some Decrees of the President of Ukraine were enforced, namely: "On Protection and Development of Natural Reserves of Ukraine" which came into effect on September 8, 1993. o "On Wildlife Reserves in Ukraine" which came into effect on November 26, 1993. Some draft laws are currently pending agreement and adoption, namely: o 'On Ecological Examination" (currently is under consideration of the Commission for Ecological Matters and Rational Use of Natural Resources" of the Supreme Council of Ukraine). * "On Areas of Ecological Emergency, their Classification and Status" (currently is agreed with the relevant ministries and administrative bodies). 4 Annex 2 Box 3: Descrtion of Hazardous and General Air Pollutants Hazrdous Pollutants High lead exposures among children can affect their mental development and create neuro-behavioral deficiencies. Exposures occur through air emissions and ingestion as a result of, for example, playing in contaminated soil. Mercury is a particularly harmful pollutant due to its effects on the central nervous system, especially in unborn fetuses and children. It is a persistent polutant which bioaccumulates in the food chain and can reach dangerous concentrations in predator fish and animals which feed on such fish. Bemo-a-pyrene is a chemical most often associat_d with products of incomplete combustion from the burning of plant matter, biomass and petroleum products. It is associated with fine particulate matter that has a particle size of about 2.5 microns, which means that the particles can reach the lower portions of the lungs. Two commonly used names for the mixtures of hundreds of comnpounds that contain products of incomplete combustion are: polycyclic organic rnatter (POM) and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). They have both carcigenic and non-cainogenic effects. Hydrogen fluoride, an inorganic acid, is corrosive to living tissues, causing severe burns that are not immediately painful. High concentations can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs and death. At lower levels, it is an irritant, and long-term exposure can lead to lung damage or curonic bronchitis. Some evidence from epidemiological studies indicate it may cause reproductive effects. Other toxic substances are suspected of causing cancer, reproductive problems and birth defects. Other heavy metals (e.g. cadmim) are hazandous. Benzene and asbestos are known carcinogens; aldehydes and ketones irritate the eyes. cause short-term respiratoty ad skin rritadon and may be carcinogenic. Geral Air P41utants Partctes irriate mucous membranes and can cause a variety of respiratory problemas. Fine and ultra-fne paricles ( S 10 microns and S2 microns respectively) can penetrate the lining of the lungs. They also combine with sulfur ions, trace hydrocarbons and nomIc for example, they have the ability to adhere to carcinogens emitted by motor vehicles. Chronic exposures to fine particulates may lead to cancer or can cause more serious morbidity or even mortality from respiratory dysfunctions. Carbon monoxide interferes with absorption of oxygen by hemoglobin (red blood cells). It impairs perception and thnking, slows reflexes. causes drowsiness, brings on angina and can cause unconsciousness and death. It affects fetal growth m pregnant womezn and bssue detvopment of young children. It has a synergistic action with other pollutants to promote morbidity in people with respiratory or chvulatory problems; it is assoiated with lower workeT productivity and general discomfort. S&lfur dixide is a harsh irritant, which exacerbates asthma, bronchitis and emphysema and causes coughing and impaired lung nctdon. Cotnbined with particulates, the synergistic effect on health is particularly serious, during both extreme and chronic exposures. Nogen oxides can increase susceptbility to viral infections such as influenza; irritate the lungs and cause oedema, brochitis and pnemonia; and result in increased sensitvity to dust and pollen in asthmatics. Most serious health effects are In combination with other air pollutants. Hydrocarbors (RC) and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The low-molecular weight compounds cause unpleasant efts such as eye irtitation, coughing and sneezing, drowsiness and symptoms akin to drnkenness. Heavy-molecular weight compounds hmy ave camrogenic or mutageric effects. Some hydrocarbons associate with diesel pasticulates and contribute to lung disease. Ozone (precursors: RC and NOx) irritates mucous membranes of respiratory system, causing coughing, choking and impaired lUg function. It causes headaches and physical discomfort and reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia. It can aggravate chronic heaot diea, asthma, bmnchitis and emphysema. General Information S Table 3: Carbon Emissions, FSU Energy intensity Total carbon C/GDP C/capita (koe/Rb) emissions (kg/$) (kg/cap) (000 tons) Estonia 0.23 3,175 0.55 1,984 Latvia 0.30 4.999 0.67 1,851 Lithuania 0.34 9,473 0.72 2,560 Georgia 0.37 5,738 0.73 1,063 Tadjikistan 0.41 3,273 0.76 618 Kyrghyzstan 0 46 5,384 1.06 1,224 Moldova 0.48 8,302 1.20 1,887 Belarus 0.56 31,638 1.32 3,072 Azerbaijan 0.64 9,673 1.30 1,362 Armenia 0.64 6,982 1.33 2,116 Russia 0.74 655,232 1.74 4,412 Kazakhstan 0.76 66,347 2.16 3,926 Turkmenistan 0.82 10,321 1.66 2,716 Uzbekistan 0.85 34,735 1.85 1,631 Ukraine 0.88 188,129 2.15 3,639 West Europe 956,200 0.14 U.S.A. 1,330,300 0.25 5,375 World 5,973,500 1,150 Sources: GDP (Rbs): IMF, 1991 GDP (US$): 3 Rbl/US$ G. Gandhi and B. Larsen, "Greenhouse Gas Strategy for States of the Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe," January 1993, World Bank. Table 4: Emissions of Major Pollutants by Stationary Sources in Major Sectors (000 tons per year) 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Otawi s ADlJ llutants 11860 11520 10950 10440 9440 9439 8775 Fuel-Energy Complex 4530 4520 4280 4110 3660 2710 2551 Metallurgy 4483 4060 3900 3650 3260 3260 2861 Chemical-Forestry Complex 1000 1015 910 840 740 767 Machine Building 340 330 310 310 290 324 80a t For all sectors 3849 3390 3260 3210 3070 2780 2782 2538 Fuel-Energy Complex 2480 2330 2290 2180 19(0 1690 1547 Metallurgy 400 360 370 340 335 335 279 Chemical-Forestry Complex 150 120 150 130 120 132 Machine Building 33 34 33 36 35 56 NO(90006s,ios For all sectors 841 754 802 795 788 767 761 709 Fuel-Energy Complex 460 480 470 460 440 414 377 Metallurgy 160 140 140 130 140 145 132 Chemical-Forestry Complex 46 44 42 38 37 -- 36 Machine Building 14 15 14 13 14 - I VO 'nsons For all sectors 550 538 606 527 469 462 509 Fuel-Energy Complex 108 08 170 110 80 -- Metallurgy 22 22 20 20 18 18 16 Chemical-Forestry Complex 330 390 260 260 260 232 22 22 Machine Building _ _26 26 29 30 35S Source: Ministry of Enviromnental Protection and State Hydrometeorological Committee, Ukraine (1992). General Information 7 Table 5: Estimated Enussions of NOx and SOx From Ukraine, 1990 SOx NOx Emissions To (009 tons) (000 tons) Austria 0.832 0.216 Belarus 27.450 7.508 Bosnia 0.855 0.333 Bulgaria 10,013 3.278 Croatia 0.608 0.252 Czech State 0.900 0.272 Estonia 0.923 0.504 Finland 2.453 1.354 Germany 1.486 0.680 Hungary 2.970 2.599 Latvia 2.093 0.853 Lithuania 2.948 0.889 Moldova 19.530 2.977 Netherlands 0.000 0.018 Norway 0.540 0.387 Poland 10.058 2.939 Romania 28.384 10.078 Russia inc Kalingrad 219.958 70.234 Sweden 3.195 1.467 Slovak State 2.138 0.650 Turkey 31.748 12.366 Former Yugoslavia 3.578 1.303 Ukraine 577.969 72.380 Total To These Countries 950.623 193.536 Total Emissions From Ukraine in 1990 2782.000 1097.000 Source: EMEP 8 Annex 2 Table 6: Emissions Data-Ukrainian Cities and Towns Emissions Source Number of Population TotalSurce Enterprises Tranzport Stationary Horlivka 337 17.4 28 79.4 70 Dnipropetrovsk 1,189 336.2 254.1 82.1 Dniprodzerzhinsk 284 284.7 16.5 268.2 Donetsk 1,121 271.9 100.9 171 171 Genakievo 120 136.6 11.2 125.4 36 Zaporizhzhia 897 354.3 108 264.4 Kramatorsk 201 32.2 8.2 24 26 Kryvyi Rih 724 1,100.8 59.1 1,041.7 Lysychansk 126 142.7 13.6 129.1 Makiivka 424 338.9 33.7 305.2 92 Mariiupil 522 645.1 35 810.1 53 Odessa 1,101 187.6 107 80.6 Rubeshoye 75 19.8 7 12.8 Severskodonetsk 133 28.1 11.2 16.9 Sloviansk 137 97.5 13.5 84 36 Kharliv 1,623 173.3 120.6 52.7 Kostiaotynivka 108 36.2 8.4 27.8 29 Debalsevo 231.7 5 General Information 9 Table 7: Air Quality Measurements in Residential Areas 1990. HydroMet (selected components) Annual Mean Values in fglm3_ City Dust SO2 co NO, NH3 H2S .. _._.___. _,.,__ -(Mg/M3) Armiiansk 200 50 2 90 60 Bila Tserkva 100 5 1 60 -- Vinnytsia 600 10 4 50 90 -- Horlivka 200 70 4 120 -- 14 Grigorievka 300 30 2 10 5 -- Dniprodzerzhinsk 300 10 1 50 80 20 Dnipropetrovsk 200 10 2 40 30 4 Donetsk 500 40 2 90 110 3 Zaporizhzhia 300 20 1 90 -- 3 Kerch 300 30 2 70 -- -- Kiev 100 20 1 70 13 Kirovohrad 300 10 1 20 -- -- Alchevsk 300 60 4 10 80 6 Kramatorsk 300 20 2 40 -- 6 Kostiantynivka 400 20 2 50 0 -- Krasnoperekopsk 200 30 2 70 70 -- Kremenchuk 200 20 2 40 20 2 Kryvyi Rih 400 30 2 80 12 5 Lysychanska 100 20 1 30 10 1 Luhansk 200 10 1 30 -- -- Lutsk 100 5 1 40 - -- Lviv 200 50 3 70 -- Makiivka 300 30 2 110 3 Marirupil 200 20 2 50 70 13 10 Annex 2 Table 7: Air Quality Measurements in Residential Areas 1990, HydroMet (selected components) Annual Mean Values inU g/m3 city Dust SO2 CO NO2 NH3 H2S (mg/M3) Melitopol 300 S0 1 70 Mykolaiv 100 10 3 60 Nykopil 300 120 2 30 -- Odessa 300 50 2 10 3 - Poltava 200 10 3 40 -- Rivne 100 5 3 40 40 - Rubizhne 100 20 2 30 70 Svetlovdsk 1000 50 -- -- -- Siverskodonetsk 100 20 2 40 7 Sevastopil 200 70 3 30 -- Symferopil 400 80 3 30 Sloviansk 100 40 3 50 -- 4 Sumy 300 10 1 50 30 -- Kharkiv 200 10 2 40 10 2 Kherson 300 20 2 50 -- 2 Cherkasy 200 40 1 60 4 Chemivtsi 100 0 0.4 40 -- Shostka 100 20 1 50 Yalta 100 30 2 80 ANNEX 3: OVERVIEW OF POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN SELECTED OBLASTS, CITIES AND PLANTS CONTENTS Donetsk Oblast ............... 2 Zaporizhzhia Oblast ............... 20 Dnipropetrovsk Oblast ............... 30 Luhansk Oblast ............... 41 Odessa Oblast ............... 53 Kherson Oblast ............... 58 The Crimea ............... 60 Lvivska Oblast ............... 63 Ivano-Frankivska Oblast ............... 65 Chemivtska Oblast ............... 66 City of Kiev ............... 68 2 Annex 3 DONETSK OBLAST 1. Donetsk Oblast (with neighboring Luhansk Oblast) is the center of coal mining activities in the country, and the site of numerous metallurgical and chemical plants. The oblast has a population of 5.35 million, and it is the most densely populated in the country; 90 percent of the population is urban. Table I provides a snapshot of the largest air polluters in the eblast. Many of these same industries are also sources of water pollutioi.. Table 1: List of Enterprises Leading in Air Pollution in the Donetsk Oblast, 1990 Gross Emissions (thousands of tons) Enterprise 1986 1990 POWER STATIONS Uglegorsk 248.4 158.5 Starobenivsk 239.1 206.8 Kurahovsk 212.8 198.1 Sloviansk 118.3 56.9 Mironovsk 96.8 71.9 Zuevsk 35.1 65.7 Kramatorsk 4.8 2.4 METALLURGY PLANTS "Illych" M -riiupil (metallurgical) 526.8 396.0 "Azovstal" Mariiupil (metallurgical) 231.7 183.7 Makiivka (metallurgical) 191.3 168.8 Yenakiieve (metallurgical) 91.3 98.1 Donetsk (metallurgical) 16.5 11.6 Makiivka (tube-casting) 63.6 58.8 Avdiivka (coke-chemical) 84.3 56.5 Horlivka (coke-chemical) 17.1 12.4 Kostiantynivka (zinc) 6.9 10.3 Mikitivskiy (mercury) 2.9 2.6 CHEMICAL INDUSTRY PLANTS "Himprom" Sloviansk 21.3 19.8 "Stirol" Horlivka 9.8 6.8 COAL INDUSTRY "DONETSKUGOL" 125.7 107.9 2. A more specific breakdown of air pollutants from several metallurgical plants in Donetsk Oblast is shown in Table 2. Data on Polilition Problems 3 TABLE 2: INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS FROM THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIES IN DONETSK AREA (1991 DATA) GENTERAL POLLUTANTS tons/year DUST SO, NOx CO Other TOTAL Pollutants DONETSK 3,200 898 1,200 6,300 n.a. 11,598 YENAKIIEVE 12,200 2,600 2,800 75,100 n.a. 92,700 MAKIIVKA 27,600 5,400 4,500 109,500 500 147,500 UKRZINC 502 6,595 78 1,951 374 9,500 (KOSTIANTYNIVKA) l TOTAL 43,502 15,493 192,851 192,851 874 261,298 BENZO-A-PYRENE' (Kg\yr) SUKRZINC !!|108 3. Air pollution is also generated by the coal industry itself and the still-significant use of coal by households. About 60 percent of the population now use natural gas; the remainder use coal. The oblast is dotted with unsightly terracones of coal waste, some of which are slowly burning; others have been terraced and planted to reduce slides and improve their appearance. The oblast has other serious waste management problems (with solid and hazardous waste apparently undifferentiated) and is looking for solutions (see section beginning at para. 59). Coal NMining in Donetsk Oblast 4. In Donetsk Oblast alone, there are about 300,000 underground coal miners. Coal miners represent a significant occupational risk group. Fatal injuries among coal miners in this oblast are common. Between 1986 and 1990, there were a total of 985 fatal injuries at work, an average of 197 per year-or about 2 deaths for every 3 million tons of coal mined (see Table 3). Stated in other terms, 1 of each 1,500 coal miners dies each year as a result of an occupational injury. Serious and other non-fatal injuries accounted for at least another 15,000 injuries a year from 1986 through 1989. In 1990, the reported data for non-fatal injuries among coal miners in Donetsk Oblast almost doubled, probably reflecting a more accurate accounting of the actual number of non-fatal injuries. I/ BENZO-A-PYRENE (tracer of toxic and hazardous components) 4 Annex 3 5. Dust diseases of tie lung are frequent in coal miners. There are an estimated 35,000 current cases of coal worker's pneumoconiosis and/or chronic dust bronchitis in the oblast. Between 1987 and 1991, there was an annual average of 22 new cases of pneumoconiosis per 1 0.000 worker-years, together with 14 cases of vibration-associated disorders, and 4 cases of chronic dust bronchitis. The average annual rates for this period obscure, however, sharp increases in the uccurrencc of all these disorders, starting in 1989. 6. Underground coal miners wvho work strenuously in a hot environment have increased rates of heart attack, which has been attributed by researchers to hot microclinmates in the mines (often with temperatures at 35 degrees C) and arduous physical work. The rate of sudden death among coal miners in Donetsk Oblast is 170 per 100.000 per year (a total of 510 sudden deaths a year arnong the 300,000 coal miners in the oblast), as compared with a rate of 120 per 100,000 per year among the rest of the population. 7. In Ukraine, many coal mines have vertical shafts. Rates of occupational disease and injury are higher in mines with vertical shafts than those with horizontal shafts, Coal dust levels are said to average 90-150 mg/m3 in the horizontal shafts and about 400-500 mg/m3 in the vertical shafts. In addition, there have been documented instances of chemicals, such as chlorobenzene, fonnaldehyde, and cyanides, directly leaking into mines with vertical shafts from factories that sit atop or near the top of the mine shafts. In one incident, three mine workers died in Horlivka when chlorobenzene from a factory above the mine leaked into a vertical mine shaft over a period of several weeks. Table 3: Fatal Injuries Among Coal Miners, by Cause, Donetsk Oblast, 1986-1990 Number Percent All Fatal Injuries 985 100% Underground, total 961 98% Roof cave-ins 325 33% Transport inside mine 241 24% Dust and gas explosions 98 10% Falls 38 4% Mine collapses 38 4% Lack of air/poisoning 20 2% Explosions with raw materials 18 2% Other 183 19% At Surface 24 2% Source: Center for Labor and Trauma Prophylaxis, Ministry of Health, Donetsk Data on Pollution Problemtls S Table 4: Non-Fatal Injuries Among Coal Miners, Donetsk Oblast, 1986-1990 Year All non-fatal Serious non-fatal inJuries injuries 1986 16,269 58( 1987 16,216 224 1988 15,969 506 1989 19,627 440 199( 29,889 NA Source: Center for Labor Hygiene and Trauma Prophylaxis, Ministry of Health, Donetsk Table 5: Reported Incidence of Occupational Diseases, Donetsk Oblast, 1987-1991 Number of Cases (by year) Mean Annual Category of Occupational Rate per 10,000 Disease 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Total worker-years Pneumoconiosis 152 233 541 859 962 2,747 22 Chronic dust bronchitis 28 48 97 143 140 456 4 Vibration-associated 83 78 123 91 145 520 14 disorders Other 80 39 100 386 188 793 5 Total 343 398 861 1,479 1,435 4,516 45 Source: Ministry of Health, Donetsk Table 6: Incidence Rates of Occupational Diseases (per 10,000) in Coal Miners Working in Horizontal and Vertical Mines, 1986-1988 Category of occupational disease Horizontal Vertical Partly horizontal/ mines mines partly vertical mines Total 7.4 26.0 20.6 Pneumoconiosis 4.1 7.3 17.6 Chronic dust bronchitis 1.6 1.9 1.7 Vibration-associated disorders 1.3 20.2 0.3 Hearing impairment 0.6 1.6 0.1 Bursitis 0.2 3.7 NA Source: Center for Labor Hygiene and Trauma Prophylaxis, Ministry of Health, Donetsk 6 Annex 3 Donetsk City and Surrounding Communnities 8. Donetsk City has a population of 1.12 million, but there are several othier industrial communities nearby: Horlivka, Makiivka and Yenakiieve; they are all parl of one airshed The largest industrial sources are the iron and steel plants in Donetsk, Makiivka and Yenakiieve. With emissions over 100,000 tons annually, they are major contributors to dust and SO, concentrations measured in the area, with the Makiivka and Yenakiieve plants being much larger polluters than the Donetsk plant (see Table 2). The Donetsk steel plant is located within the city of Donetsk, which means its impact could be significant; however, the plant is small and cleaner than most surveyed in Ukraine, and it no longer has a sinter plant. Similarly, the coking plant in Donetsk is relatively well controlled by Ukrainian standards. In the visit, no leaking doors were observed, and hoods captured much of the charged emissions. The area's air pollution does not appear to be as heavily influenced by this coking plant as those in the other urban areas surveyed. Table 7 gives the results of ambient monitoring in the airshed. As can be seen, the particulate levels are extremely high. Table 7: Donetsk Area, 1991 Average Ambient Measurements (mg/m3) ] Ukrainian Allowable Pollutant Concentration Donetsk Makiivka Horlivka Total Particu- .15 (24 hour) .5 .3 .4 late SO2 .05 (24 hour) .029 .05 .057 CO 3 (24 hour) 2 2 4 NO2 .04 (24 hour) .08 .11 .15 NO .06 (24 hour) .06 l H2S .008 (20 minutes) .028 .003 .025 Phenol .003 (24 hour) .005 l NH3 .04 (24 hour) .08 CS2 .005 (24 hour) .004 __ . _ As noted in the body of the report the accuracy of these figures is questionable due to the ambient monitoring techniques used. However, they may give a crude indication of relative pollution problems. 9. Donetsk Steel Plant. This small plant is located in the city of Donetsk. It produces 1.3 million tons of iron and 1.4 million tons of steel annually. The plant has rather unique features. It is partly integrated- with 2 blast furnaces, 6 open hearth furnaces, 2 continuous casting shops and an electric arc furnace (EAF) workshop with 2 furnaces. Half of the steel is produced from scrap in the EAF shop; the OHF use a mixture of pig iron (70 percent) produced at the plant and scrap iron (30 percent). The sinter plant has been shut down. Half of production of pig iron is sold outside the works. The rolling mills are common to both open hearth and EAF parts of the plant. Data on Pollution Problems 7 10. The two continuous casters process about 40 percent of the steel produced and rolled into sheets. The remaining 60 percent of OH steel is produced in the form of blooms, which are reheated in walking beam furnaces prior to rolling. The EAF do not have continuous casters. Reheat furnaces are fired with natural gas with no heat recovery. Blast turnace gas is cleaned, collected and used as a fuel in the p!ant; other fuels used are: coke oven gas (from a nearby coke plant), natural gas and fuel oil. Coal is added to the tuyeres of the blast furnace to reduce coke consumption. 11. The plant is kept quite clean, and emissions appear lower than in other steel plants visited. Pressure from the city appears to have influenced the shutdown of the sinter plant and the attention to housekeeping. 12. Plant staff are currently looking at EOF technology (energy optimizing furnace) to replace the six 142-ton OH furnaces by a single 70-ton EOF. The economics would have to be reviewed carefully for such a major investment (roughly US$80 million per unit), taking into consideration the longer term viability of this plant. Plant managers are interested in receiving assistance in financial planning to evaluate possible future investments. 13. Mikitivskiy Plant (Horlivka). A facility of special concern is the Mikitivskiy mining and mercury manufacturing complex. This plant was rebuilt in 1968 and produces 400 tons of mercury per year. The plant is situated on a hill within the Donetsk airshed. Total mercury emissions from the complex are high--8,000 pounds per year. The current pollution control system (sulfi sorbent injection system) needs to be replaced with a more efficient mercury removal system. J-stallation of this technology may be difficult, though, because of the massive air flows used in the manufacturing process. The financial condition and competitiveness of the plant are unknown. 14. The current USEPA emission standard for a mercury ore processing facility similar to the Mikitivskiy complex would be a maximum of 50.7 lbs/day (2,300 grams/day) for a theoretical maximum emission level of 1,850 lbs/year. In practice, emissions would be well below 1,850 lbs/year because of the impossibility of actually emitting at the legal limit 365 days per year. This USEPA standard is also very old (1974) and may, in fact, not reflect currently available control technology. 15. Maldivka Steel Plant. This is a very old plant, sitting adjacent to a community of about 500,000 people. The plant produces only long products with OH furnaces; the most modern part is its rolling mills (for long products). It is one of the most "fearsome" looking in terms of air pollution. The plant also appears to have serious waste management problems. Managers are currently testing a new 250 ton OHF in place of two 500 ton furnaces. Four of its sinter plants (out of six) are being shut down due to pressure from MEP and local authorities. MEP has requested a rapid abatement of air pollutants--from 147,500 tpa in 1991 to 50,000 tpa in 1995. Existing pollution control equipment includes: sinter plants (some cyclones); blast furnaces (equipment for top gas; no equipment for casting bay fumes treatment); and no equipment for mixers, cast iron machines and OHF. Materials handling and waste management at the plant appear poor. The plant's future is uncertain, though, on economic grounds, not just environmental. Also, near the plant and the community of Makiivka are a series of underground coal mines. 16. Yenaldieve Steel Plant. The town of Yenakiieve has a population of about 210,000, of which 110,000 are reportedly workers; there are also neighboring villages. The town is dominated by 8 Annex 3 the steel plant. There is concern about unemployment over the next five years as coal mines in the area close. Other employment includes a cement plant and food processing industries. The town leaders are looking for other activities to create employment. 17. The steel plant was originally established in 1898 but rebuilt in the period 1949-51. It employs 12,000 people. It includes: a sinter shop ( 4 machines); a blast furnace shop (4 furnaces of 1,033-1,386 m3 of capacity); a converter shop (with 3 BOF of 130 tons each); rolling mills. and shops for lime production and refractory products. Plant production is primarily long products for shipbuilding and billets (intermediate products) for other rolling mills. Production in 1991 was. 2'4 million tons of sinter; 2.5 million tons of pig iron; 2.5 million tons of raw steel; and 1.5 million tons of finished products. Today production is down by about 20 percent. Exports are only 200,000 tpa. Plant management wants to invest in upgrading rolled stock to meet world market needs. They also want to invest in 4 continuous casting machines and 2 plate beds (1 for cold rolled plate for the auto industry, which is not produced in Ukraine now). 18. The biggest air polluters in the plant compound are the sinter plant, lime plant (where bag filters do not appear to be working well), the blast furnace (where ESPs are in bad condition), and the converters. Housekeeping is generally poor, especially in the sinter plant. Hydromet only has one stationary monitoring post to cover plant operations. 19. Water pollution is also serious. About 11 million m3 p.a. of partially treated water goes into the river nearby (Bolavin River); the water contains oil and suspended metals. There is some primary treatment via a settlement pond. About 450,000 tpa of sludge from the iron production and blast furnace, plus 80,000 tpa from the roller shops, are disposed of outside the plant. The reservoir holding the sludge is critically filled. Management speculated that the plant may be shut down because of the waste problem. 20. Avdiivka Coke and Chemical Plant. This plant appears to be the largest in Europe, capable of producing 7-10 million tpa of coke. Currently, it produces over 5 million tons of coke, 400,000 tons of tars, 50,000 tons of ammonium sulfate, 400 tons of phenols and 80,000 tons of assorted organic specialty chemicals. It treats about 250,000 tons of tar residues p.a. The plant appears to be one of the cleaner and more modern facilities in the domestic industry. Managers hope to reconstruct some units in order to produce higher value-added products, which would have better export potential. They need outside investment to modernize and replace older equipment. 21. The plant badly needs to reduce its gas flaring, currently at 250 million m3 p. a. It also should reduce the hazardous waste it generates (60,000 tpa). All water effluents are biologically treated by mixing with domestic sewage. The effluent BOD is down to 6 mg/I after treatment, due to very long retention times in sewage treatment. Kostiantynivka (formerly Konstantinovka) and Ukrzinc, its Zinc/Secondary Lead Smelter 22. Kostiantynivka is a town with 108,000 inhabitants, located approximately 50 km north of the city of Donetsk. In the center of the town, in a valley that is approximately 70-80 meters deep and 6- 7 km wide, are located a lead and zinc smelter (with a 180-meter smokestack), a chemical plant, and a metallurgical plant. The smelter accounts for 33 percent of estimated gross air pollutants in the Data on Pollution Problems 9 town; the chemical/fertilizer plant, 15 percent; and the metallurgical plant, 15 percent. The smelter is considered the most serious because of heavy metal emissions. 23. The zinc/secondary lead smelter, built in 1930, is very large and based on the old sinter route with furnaces to refine the lead. In the past, it received vehicle batteries from various parts of the FSU, reclaimed the lead, and sent it to Russia for production of new batteries. Production capacities are 32,000 tpa of zinc and 19,000 tpa of lead. The plant is now operating at about one-third of capacity because of shortages of raw materials. Zinc ore is not produced in Ukraine, and its sources from the FSU have dropped dramatically. Despite its heavy production in the past, no investment for modernization or repair has been made at the smelter for the past 20 years. This plant is outdated compared to plants in Russia (reportedly 7 plants) which generally have much better technologies. 24. Sixteen hundred workers (600 of whom are women) work at the smelter. (Some women are restricted from certain jobs because of health risks.). The management of the smelter claims that there have been few cases of lead poisoning among workers in recent years--only 15 cases in the 1985-1990 period. Although annual physical examinations are performed on all workers at the smelter, modern blood lead testing is not undertaken. Despite the small number of reports of lead poisoning among workers, data from the Kostiantynivka San Epi station of the Ministry of Health document high levels of inorganic lead in the breathing zone of workers in several different parts of the smelter's operation. 25. The plant has dust/heavy metal control (via bag filters) but the level of performance is not satisfactory. Just to provide some comparison in regard to pollution control, estimated emissions of zinc and lead at the plant are 29 kg/ton and 1.7 kg/ton respectively; typical emissions of lead in western Europe would be 0.3-0.5 kg/ton; "best available technology" in the world offers emissions of 0.1 kg/ton. SO2 recovery at the plant is about 80 percent; in western Europe, it is 95 percent. In regard to water pollution, zinc and lead in effluents are estimated at 322 mg/liter and 18 mg/liter respectively. The normal standard in western Europe would be 2 mg/liter and 0.5 mg/liter respectively. Staff at the San Epi station estimate that about 15,000 people live within 1 km of the smelter, chemical plant, or metallurgical plant. The San Epi station has found high levels of lead in ambient air and soil near the smelter.2 Many of the town's residents (23 percent of whom are children 14 years old or younger) could be seriously exposed to lead and experiencing significant adverse health effects. Of most concern is irreversible brain damage to young children. 26. This is a case of a plant uilikely to survive over the longer term as market forces come into play. It also appears to be a major health hazard. These two considerations combined make this a plant which should be an early candidate for evaluation for possible shutdown. Mariiupil 27. Mariiupil (which traces its origins to a small Greek settlement centuries ago) is a community of about 530,000 people on the Azov Sea; its population increases substantially with the influx of tourists in summer. Summer tourists formerly averaged about 300,000 but frequent beach closures and danger of disease reduced this number to about 50,000 last year. 2/ The soil lead concentrations are difficult to interpret because it is not known at what layer they were taken. 10 Annex 3 28. Mariiupil's landscape is dominated by the two major steel plants (Illycha and Azovstal) and the associated coking facility. These enterprises are major employers in the city, which as a whole boasts about 50 other, generally smaller enterprises in its jurisdiction. One of the steel plants, Azovstal, and an adjacent merchant coke oven are located in the center of the city. The city of Mariiupil is reminiscent of former steeltowns such as Pittsburgh in the US. City officials are concerned about a recent health study which suggests a relationship between health problems in Mariiupil (increased miscarriages and birtlh defects) and local pollution.3 29. The city is anxious to develop alternative industries and wants to consider ways to rationalize the two steel plants and the coke oven to minimize the impact on the city's population. To this end, they have developed a city plan which develops several scenarios for future economic development, restructuring of the metallurgical plants, and pollution abatement. The city could use technical assistance in further planning economic diversification. 30. Production from the two iron and steel plants for 1991 in millions of tons of products was as follows: Iron Steel Rolled Products Illycha 6.8 6.8 6.0 Azovstal 5.8 6.0 4.5 See Annex 4 for more information on steel plants. 31. The two iron and steel plants and the coking plant dominate the air pollution situation in the city, generating 97 percent of all the air pollution from stationary sources. Table 8 shows a breakdown of principal air pollutants from these plants. The city's other smaller industrial concerns contribute only about 18 thousand tons in total. 32. The impact of these emissions may be seen by examining the Table 9 on ambient concentrations of air pollution in the city. 3/ The study by Dr. Antipinko of the Institute of Hygiene, Ministry of Health, needs further review and corroboration. The study may not have been properly controlled. However, its results are interesting and worthy of follow up. Data on Poliution Problems 11 Table 8: INDUSTRIAL AIR EMISSIONS IN THE CITY OF MARIIUPIL (1991 DATA) GENERAL POLLUTANTS tons/year DUST SO2 NOx Co Other TOTAL Pollutants ILLYCHA 51,800 34,600 27,200 260,810 400 374,800 AZOVSTAL 22,600 12,300 13,800 103,900 300 152,900 COKE OVEN PLANT 1,900 2,440 610 8,120 2,250a i-,320 TOTAL 76,300 49,340 41,610 372,820 2,950 543,020 BENZO-A-PYRENE (Kg/yr) 1990 1991 COKE OVEN PLANT 59 47 Table 9: Mariiupil-Average Concentrations of Selected Pollutants (mg/rn) Ukrainian Allow- 1 Pollutant able Concentration 198F [ 1989 1990 1991 l Particulate .15 (24 hour) .2 .2 .3 S02 .05 (24 hour) .02 .02 .02 .02 NO2 .04 (24 hour) .04 .04 .05 .04 NO .06 (24 hour) .03 .03 .03 .02 H2S .008 (20 minutes) .002 .004 .005 .007 Phenol .003 (24 hour) .004 .004 .005 .005 NH3 .04 (24 hour) .07 .09 .07 .08 Hyd. Fluoride .005 (24 hour) .012 .013 .018 | .017 33. As noted in the body of the report, the accuracy of these figures is questionable due to the ambient air monitoring techniques used. However, they give some indication of relative air pollution problems. The particulate, NO2, phenol, and animonia concentrations stand out as pollutants of particular concern. In addition, emissions of hydrogen fluoride, benzo-a-pyrene, formaldehyde, and heavy metals (such as lead, cadmium, nickel, and chromium), associated with steel mill dust, are suspected to be quite high and should be closely monitored in the future. Any plan to deal with air 12 Annex 3 pollution in this city must concentrate on the three major polluters: the two steel mills and the coke plant. Ironically, the local MEP branch has only five inspectors for the entire municipality. 34. Illycha Plant. Built in 1936. Illycha is the largest producer of flat products (plate, hot and odd rolled sheets and strips) and is considered the most modern plant in Ukraine with 40 percent of its crude steel production coming from oxygen converters (BOF). some continuous casting, and a new rolling mill for flat products. It produces steel piipe for the oil andi gas industries. Illycha employs 31,000 people and stretclhes for about 15 km along the edge of the citV. 35. The plant includes: a sinter plant (twelve 85 mn strands); a blast furnace sh1op (5 blast furnaces of 8087 m' capacity): an open hearth shop (3 open hearth furnaces with a capacity of 900 tons each and 3 with capacities of 650 tons): an oxygen converter shop (3 converters of 160 tons each); 1 continuous casting shop, another under construction; a 1150 slab rolling mill; "1700", "3000" and "4500" thick sheet rolling mill: a cold rolling mill; and power supply shop (27 boilers of different capacity). Two stage venturi scrubbers are installed on the BOF; the OHF have no controls. 36. The plant accounts for 2/3 of pollutant emissions in the area; however, it is not in the center of town, as is Azovstal, and therefore may contribute less to ambient concentrations of pollutants affecting the population directly. Reportedly, 32,800 people reside in the so-called sanitary zone surrounding the plant, however. 37. More than 30 years of waste disposal at the plant have concentrated solid and liquid hazardous wastes in impoundments that were not designed or engineered to store hazardous material. Examples of hazardous materials stored on site include 3 million tons of solid waste from steel production, containing 65 percent Fe2O3, 10.7 percent FeO, 1 percent MnO and 1.2 percent Zn. Some steelmaking sludge is recycled in the sinter plant despite its high zinc content (5 percent). Liquid wastes are impounded in two holding ponds (400 m x 400 m each) that have been seeping sulfuric acid and organic chemicals for years. 38. Cooling water abstractions are made from the Kalmius River at the rate of 100 million m3 per annum. Rinse waters from the rolling mills are discharged at the rate of 150 m3 per hour into 2 lagoons of 600,000 and 300,000 m3 capacity respectively. These lagoons are now overloaded and it is estimated that there is only sufficient capacity for 2 further years of operation at present rates of steel production. Effluents from the sinter plant are treated in a wastewater treatment plant providing sedimentation with oil skimming. Effluent from this passes to a lagoon of 800,000 m3 capacity before overflow to the Kalmius River. The oil removed by flotation is recycled in the heating processes in the steelworks. 39 Azovstal Plant. Located on the Azov Sea, Azovstal is the second largest employer in Mariiupil with 25,000 employees and is located in the center of town. It manufactures long and flat products. About 10-12 percent of production is exported, but plant management hopes to increase this level. The plant includes: a sinter shop (2 lines, the rest previously closed); a blast furnace shop (6 blast furnaces with total volume of 9217 m3); an open hearth shop (with 12 tilting furnaces, each 450 tons of capacity); an oxygen converter shop (2 converters of 350 ton capacity); 5 continuous casting machines (3 in operation during visit); a cogging "1170" mill; a rail and structural steel mill; a heavy merchant rolling mill; "3600" thick sheet rolling mill; a shop manufacturing rail fastenings; and a ball rolling section. Ancillary shops include: a lime production shop; a slag utilization shop; Data on Pollution Problems 13 and two boiler plants (10 boilers altogether). Most of the equipment is old, received from the US under "lend-lease" during World War 11. It needs hard currency to modernize. 40. Environmental probleiiis are directly related to the plant's operating with old equipment. It is the second largest air polluter in the city in terms of gross emissions, but its impact is probably more significant because of its location. Pollution control equipment at the plant includes: sinter plant (venturi scrubber); blast furnace (dust catclher and venturi scrubber): open hearth furnaces (no equipment). Conditions withlinl the workshops of the plant are poor--with heavy fugitive dust. About 700 people reside in its sanitary zone. The plant has stockpiled 2 million tons of flue dust containing about 5 percent zinc at the sea's edge. Unless the flue dust is utilized someway and reprocessed, the waste may have to be disposed of into the sea. 41. Water for cooling purposes is abstracted from the sea by four pumping stations at the rate of 80,000 m3 per hour. There are 11 separate wastewater discharges into the sea. These include cooling water, effluent from gas scrubbers, and slag production. Some other discharges flow to a lagoon of 300,000 m3 capacity. constructed on the shoreline. A pumping station is under construction as part of the lagoon installation, and when this is complete it will enable water to be recycled back to the steel production processes. Wastewater from the gas scrubbers, which are produced at the rate of 22,000 m3 per hour contains up to 3.000 mg/I of suspended solids, are discharged to a lagoon of 1,600,000 m3 capacity. 42. Mariiupil Coke & Chemical Plant. The plant produced 2.7 million tons of coke in 1991 (down from 3.56 million tons in 1990). It supplies Azovstal with coke and also some coke oven gas (about 1 million M3).4 Its batteries are generally old (40 years old) with serious door leakages; six of the seven batteries need to be replaced urgently. The one new battery (built two years ago) looks much older than it is because of poor maintenance. A visit to the coke plant revealed poor environmental controls in place and a high level of air pollution obviously present. There were over 20 percent leaking doors, even on the newest coke oven battery. Only the newest battery at the Mariiupil facility has a hood to capture coke charge or discharge emissions and it is undersized. In contrast, all batteries in the United States must have hoods which capture emissions from charging operations. Immediate action is needed to reduce door leakages, improve charging and pushing, and raise the level of housekeeping generally. This study recommends investigating whether or not the hood over the new battery could be extended to improve emission reduction. Indeed, the municipal council has indicated interest in shutting down this plant because of its pollution and location in the city. 43. The general maintenance and control of fugitive dust was very poor. As with most coking plants, the level of the sulfur in the coke used as an input was very high (1.7 - 1.8 percent). The coke oven gas is not sufficiently desulfurized (its H2S content is 3.2 g/m3). However, the pollutant of primary concern at the coking plant is benzo(a)pyrene. Nearly 1400 people still live in the sanitary zone of the coke plant. 44. Concentrated phenolic wastes from the coke plant have been deposited in a lagoon some 20 km from the plant. Leachate from this lagoon has contaminated borehoie water supplies which served 4/ Most of the coke for the Illycha plant is transported from 100 km away. Illycha cannot receive any of the coke oven gas because of the lack of a pipeline (10 km). 14 Annex 3 a nearby small town, and these water supplies are no longer usable. The company has had to make available alternative supplies of water from the Mariiupil system. However, these alternative supplies are insufficient particularly durinig sulmmer monitlis, and the towzXn has re-comnmenced abstractions from the boreholes, albeit on a limited scale. Clearly, tlhere is a X ery scrious public hiealth risk associated with the use of this borelhole water, and urgent steps are needed to provide an alternative supply to the town while steps are taken to remove tlie contaminationi from thle lagoon. An appraisal is needed to evaluate and cost options for preventiag leacliate contaminiating the borehole water supplies of the adjacent town. The appraisal should also make recommendations l'br providing alternative water supplies to the town to make up the deficienc) of sup)pl) lrom Mariiupil. 45. City Water Supply. Raw water for drinking water supplies in Mariiupil is taken from several sources. primarily from the Siverskodonets River (permitted for withdrawals up to 300,000 m3/day). Another surface water source, during wetter years, is a nearby surface reservoir. Groundwater was described as too highly mineralized for ultimate use as drinking water. A shortfall of 100,000 m3/day of water was reported. The city's water supply treatment facility was designed to treat 300,000 m3/day; supplies were described as often running less than this capacity (230 - 240,000 m3/day). Changes in the channel of the Siverskodonets River have been planned which could increase safe withdrawals. however. expansion of treatment capacity would then be necessary. 46. The quality of drinking water in Mariiupil may create health risks. The raw water is of extremely bad quality (from the Siverskodonets River) and the treatment plant is operating inadequately. The operators are forced to add more chlorine than the regulations require, and still 6 percent of samples of processed water contains coliform bacteria with the frequency of coliform increasing to 15 percent for the samples taken from household taps. Drinking water in Mariiupil is chlorinated prior to distribution; however, distribution system problems, including supply interruptions and wastewater infiltration, reportedly lead to contamination of the water delivered at the tap. Residual chlorine levels are seldom measured at the tap; residual chlorine levels leaving the treatrnent plant were reported in the range of 1.2 to 1.5 mg/I. Coliform testing is performed once daily at the tap and once hourly as water leaves the treatment plant. 47. Drinking water was identified by local officials as a possible source of waterborne diseases observed in Mariiupil, together with surface overflows of raw sewage affecting beaches during the bathing season. The rate of enteric and other waterborne diseases reportedly rises two and a half times during summer months. The central city has 2-3 km of sand beaches all heavily polluted from outlets of sewage mixed with storm water and accidental - but frequent - sewage overflows. The bacterial contamination of the beaches are monitored by the sanitary control twice a week by sampling at 4 sites. This has resulted beach closures practically every year. Salmonella contamination is found on the beaches near direct sewage outfalls. Cholera embryos are regularly found in the Kalchic River, running through the city. One incident of cholera was reported in 1991. Reportedly, the whole stretch of the beach between Mariiupil and the Don mouth is polluted. To the west, the water quality improves; 100 km to the west of Mariiupil the water can be classified as good. 48. Many interruptions of reliable drinking water supply occur daily, either involving sharp reductions in pressure or total interruption of flow; officials estimate that between 100 and 150 breaks in supply occur each day, due to failures in the distribution system. Problems with maintaining the system are due to a highly corrosive water supply as well as the quality of materials and construction. Little or no metering is done, either at the supply side or the consumer side. Frequent interruptions Data on Pollution Problemts 15 also reportedly result in excessive demands on the system, due to the common practice of filling bathtubs, pots and otlher containers in homes whenever water begins flowing properly. 49. Municipal Wastewater Treatment. While much of Mariiupil is sewered, a number of serious problems exist with the integrity and coverage of the collection system. Unsewered areas, pumping and collection system failures, and frequent surcharging all contribute to chronic water quality problems. Corrosive soil conditions and problems with materials and construction lead to frequent failures of collector sewers, especially the many force mains made necessary by the topography of the city. Mariiupil is located on the edge of the Black Sea at a place where numerous valleys are cut into the level farmland which lies several hundred feet above the sea. This configuration has led to the need for numerous force mains and pumping stations. In addition, the steeper slopes of the valleys were developed in an unplanned manner, with many of the illegal homes built there relying on failing septic tanks and drain fields, privies or direct discharge of wastewater. These valleys eventually receive garbage, urban stormwater, overflowing sewage from the failing collection system, raw wastewater discharges and septic field leakage from both the unplanned areas lining the valleys and several other spontaneous housing concentrations on the margin of the city. Officials described eleven stormwater outfalls, some with water quality poorer than raw municipal wastewater. 50. The Mariiupil wastewater treatment plant utilizes primary sedimentation and activated sludge; plans for tertiary treatment were reported. Chlorination is not operated at times; problems with supplies were reported. Sludge is currently stockpiled, although officials hoped to begin using this on agricultural fields if pathogens and metals are found to be low enough. Capacity at the plant was described as adequate, however capacity was reported to be insufficient to treat projected flows from the city's proposed deep tunnel interceptor. Influent concentrations of BOD5 were reported to be 180 mg/l with an effluent BOD5 of 8.2 mg/l. Influent concentrations of COD5 were reported to be 239 mg/l with an effluent COD5 of 13.7 mg/l. Influent concentrations of SS were reported to be 245 mg/l with an effluent SS of 12.4 mg/l. 51. At the time of the visit, rotary skimming was not operating on the sedimentation tanks being used; gassing was observed in both the sedimentation tanks and clarifiers, indicating insufficiently frequent de-sludging of these tanks. Aeration in the activated sludge chambers appeared to be spotty, with large areas not being thoroughly aerated; failure of tiles used in the aeration system was reported to be the reason for this condition. 52. The Local Vodokanal. The Mariiupil office of Vodokanal and the city's Department of Community Services are responsible for water and sewerage services. Cities in Ukraine bear responsibility for repair and maintenance of most infrastructure including the portion of inter-oblast highways passing through the city and water and sewer facilities. Until recently, financing was provided from the national (Soviet) budget for most new infrastructure. 53. Most industria. enterprises are metered for water use and most residences are not. The ongoing privatization of houses and apartments is generating a demand for residential meters, since actual water use is usually less than the norms used to compute charges in the absence of meters. Demand for meters is reportedly high, but the supply is poor. The water also reportedly has a corrosive pH and high levels of calcium and magnesium, limiting the useful life of meters. 16 Annex 3 Table 10: Charges for Water in Mariiupil (Ukrairnian krb)/m3) | Drinking Water Charges | Wastewater Treatment General Population 2 2 Industries 75 20 54. In contrast with these rates, local costs for providing drinking water were estimated at 75 krb per cubic meter. No estimate was provided for the local costs of wastewater collection and treatrnent. The city must gain oblast approval for changing the fees charged for drinking water and wastewater collection and treatment. 55. A study is needed to revamp water and wastewater charges and to review management of water and sewerage systems. suggesting ways to streamline and identifying staffing and training needs. The Mariiupil wastewater treatment plant employs 140 people, with an anticipated expansion to 250 employees when planned tertiary treatment is installed. Proposed Studies Under the Black Sea Program Water and wastewater treatment problems, as well as waste management, will be considered as part of the "urge-it investment portfolio" of the Black Sea Program. A feasibility study will consider ways to lower water demand through leakage reduction, public education and pricing (including a possible tourist tax) and will evaluate alternative sources of water supply. The study will also address the overall alternatives available for managing the serious problems with wastewater collection and stormwater management, including the city's proposals for either a deep tunnel or a separate stormwater system and other options such as rehabilitation, improved operational efficiency and upgraded maintenance and materials. Finally, the study will evaluate the overall scheme for collection of wastewater, including sunk costs, and determine for various projected time horizons, the most cost-effective combination of programs to resolve the most serious contamination and public health issues. The intent is to identify immediate versus longer-term investment needs in the water supply and wastewater systems of Mariiupil. In the area of municipal and industrial solid waste, the study will review the characteristics of the solid waste stream (makeup, mass and volume, temporal variability, etc), review current disposal options and proposals and reconmnend a scheme or schemes to address this problem. Options will include sanitary landfills, rubble fills, incineration, source reduction, toxic waste pollution prevention, and other techniques. 56. Municipal Finance. When asked about funding for municipal water problems, Mariiupil officials explained that the city has very limited financial resources, and that funding from the Ukrainian national government for infrastructure investments is not sufficient. The city Data on Polluitiont Probtems 17 representatives suggested the city's steel industry and the Ukrainian government together should provide the needed funds. The stcel mills could contribute more, since the mills have the ability to pay. In fact, a muinicipal tax has beeni levied recently on emnployees ol one of the Mariiupil steel mills, although the legality of this tax is now under challenge. 'rhe city also suggested that, as a major industrial center, Mariiupil genierates significant tax revenue for the Ukrainian government. The city maintains that too little of the taxes from Mariiupil are returned to the local government, given the serious problems with public lhealth and thc Azov Sea's environment. In 1992, spending and aid by the national government in Kiev reportedly returned just 17 percent of total taxes collected from enterprises and the public in Mariiupil. 57. Other Concerns. The dredging and dumping of dredged material along the coastal area of Mariiupil have negative impacts on the costal zone and the marine ecosystems. The main dumping site is at 5 ni depth, not far from recreation and fish reproduction areas. Oil pollution from the city is not reckoned to be a major problem. Only small volumes of oil are discharged in the sea. The total load of oil products to the Sea of Azov is estimated to be 3000 tons per year, of which the Don carries 1200 tons. The concentration in the Mariiupil coast area is about 0.4 mg/l at a distance of 250-500 m from the main discharge points. 58. Solid Waste. Several existing open dumps or landfills serving Mariiupil are nearing capacity. Availablt land for municipal solid waste disposal sites is in very short supply within the boundaries of the city, and acquiring some part of the surrounding farmland would be difficult. The solution suggested by local officials is incineration using either Western European or CIS technologies. They believe that building and operating a sanitary landfill is not realistically within the city's means. Hazardous and Solid Waste Disposal in Donetsk Oblast 59. The state engineering consultancy, Kievprojekt of Kiev, has prepared a scheme for incineration of hazardous and solid wastes throughout Donetsk Oblast. The proposed incinerator is a very advanced high temperature plant which includes technology for pelletizing furnace ash and coating the pelletized ash with molten glass produced in a parallel furnace. The glass coating apparently facilitates the disposal of the otherwise toxic ash in landfills or on construction sites. The incinerators in this instance are to be operated using natural gas as fuel in a temperature range of 1600°C to 2760°C. The scheme for toxic, hazardous and solid waste disposal has been drawn up by dividing Donetsk Oblast into five sub-regions. Sites for incinerators have been identified in four of the five sub-regions at Slaviansk, Horlivka, Donetsk and Mariiupil. The sub-region of Torozsky is to utilize the incinerator planned for Donetsk. The four incinerator installations will be provided as a phased construction program commencing initially with the scheme for Mariiupil on the south coast of the Azov Sea. 60. The estimated annual production of wastes in the sub-regions is as follows: Sloviansk 256,000 tons Horlivka 350,000 tons Donetsk (incl. Torozsky) 180,000 tons Mariiupil 112,000 tons 18 Annex 3 In the inland areas of the Mariiupil sub-region, municipal (domestic) solid waste is generally disposed of in landfills. Along the coastal strip, however, landfill sites are no longer available and, due to the increased production of municipal solid waste fromn tourists, there is an increasingly urgent need to provide alternative facilities for disposal. The city of Mariiupil has therefore been given priority in the phased program for the incinerator installatioii. 61. There are no overall estimates available for thic total construction costs of each installation, or fox the operating costs. The incinerators are designed as modular units each unit having an operating capacity of 50,000 tons per annum. At 1991 prices each modular incinerator unit has a cost of SlOm. The estimated costs for provision and installation of the proposed number of units at each location are: Slaviansk S50m (5 units) Horlivka S70m (7 units) Donetsk S40m (4 units) Mariiupil $20m (2 units) These sums do not represent total scheme costs since civil works, site infrastructure costs, etc. are not included. 62. From the appraisal of the proposals undertaken in Donetsk and Mariiupil, it is apparent that insufficient consideration has been given to the following aspects: O It is unlikely that four toxic waste incinerators could be justified for one oblast; there has been no financial analysis of this investment. eg In the case of the scheme for Mariiupil it is proposed to use the incinerator plant partly for the disposal of municipal refuse. There appears to have been insufficient thought given to the need to differentiate between the different classes of waste (toxic, hazardous, municipal) and the use of the most appropriate and economic means for disposal. O The proposed incinerators will incorporate very advanced technology which is not appropriate to the present standards of operation and maintenance available in the Ukraine. a The financing of the proposals does not appear to have been considered in sufficient detail, bearing in mind that total capital costs will probably be in excess of $200 million. There is no financing plan available to show the overall capital and operating cost of the individual schemes or the corresponding requirements for revenue raising to finance capital and operational charges. O Independently prepared environmental impact assessments are essential before any decisions can be taken on the proposals for the individual incinerator installations. 63. It is recommended that an external consultant undertake a detailed review and financial analysis of the proposals, using the data available, working in collaboration with Kievprojekt or another locally appointed consultant. The assignment should include developing a strategy and a Data on Polluitioni Problemiis 19 master plan for the future disposal of all toxic, lhazardous and municipal solid waste in the oblast to include recommendations on the following: (i) a control policy for tlhe disposal ot* wastes, site licentsilig. clnviroumcntal protection, etc.: (ii) identification of optimal approachies for waste disposal througlhoLu tlec oblast, i.e. landfill sites, incinerationi, etc. and a financing plani, which e.stir-nates capital and operating costs as wvell as revenues from the investments: (iii) recommunenidationis for an operational managemcnt structure for administration ot the waste disposal strategy, (iv) finally, and very importantly. a review of opportunities for waste mmiimization in key industries. 20 Annex 3 ZAPORIZHIZHIA OBLAST 64. Zaporizhzhia Oblast has a population of '. I million, 78 percent of lwhich is urban. lndustrial output in this oblast is reportedly tllird after Kiev and Kharkiv. TIhe oblast lhas a lot of agricultural activities as well. City of Zaporizhzhia 65. The population of the city is 875,000 and it is home to 130t major industries (altogether, some 1,100 industrial plants) many of which are located in a 60 km2 industrial zone (district no. 2), and are sources of both air and water quality problems. A nuclear power plant operates some 40 miles away. The MEP branch was set up in January 1989; its inspection team comprises about 70 people. 66. Air Quality. Total annual emissions loading is estimated at 231,000 tons from industry, another 110,000 tons from transport. Ambient air concentrations and toxic pollutants are considered the priority, followed by water quality problems. The maximum reading for particulates recently was 0.65 mg/mi3. About 15 plants are responsible for 95 percent of air pollution. Those mentioned were: various emissions from the sintering plant at the steel mill; fluorides from the aluminum smelter; chlorides from titanium and manganese enterprises; and BAP (benzo-a-pyrene) from coking and electrode plants. Most obvious air polluters are two major metallurgical plants: Zaporozhstahl and Zaporizhzhia Integrated Aluminum Smelter. These two plants contribute about 60 percent of the total air pollution in the area. But there are many other plants of concern, because of the nature of their emissions, notably the merchant coke oven in the middle of the city and an electrode plant. 67. The sanitary zones around the plants have over 20,000 people residing in them. Some 75,000 people reside in areas outside the sanitary zone but within an adjacent part of the city. Health studies have shown a large number of people in close proximity of the plants have been experiencing health problems associated with air pollution (respiratory illness, skin rashes, and eye irritation), perhaps 50 percent higher than other districts of the city. 68. The following tables provide data on air quality in Zaporizhzhia. Data on Pollution Problems 21 I=- Table 11: Zaporizhzhia--Average Concentration of Selected Pollutants (mg/m3) Ukrainianl AllowableI Pollutant Concentration 1988 1989 1990 1991 Particulate (24 hour) .15 .20 .20 .30 .30 SO2 (24 hour) .05 .04 .04 .02 .026 N02(24-hour) 04 .10 .10 .09 .09 NO (24 hour) .06 .05 .04 .04 .05 H2S (20 minute) .008 .027 .023 .027 .020 Phenol (24 hour) .003 .005 .007 .007 .006 HF (24 hour) .005 .003 .005 .003 .003 HcL (24 hour) .20 | .17 .15 .12 Table 12: Seven Leading Industrial Sources of Ambient Air Pollution, by Annual Amount of Emissions, City of Zaporizhzhia (1990) Annual Emissions Industrial Source (in metric tons) Zaporizh.zhia steel 150,998 Aluminum Plant 27,478 Abrasives plant 13,892 Carbon electrode plant 13,230 Electrometallurgy 11,385 Iron alloy plant 11,017 Coke plant 6,219 Source: San Epi Station, Zaporizhzhia, Ministry of Health 22 Annex 3 Table 13: Leading Ambient Air PoHlutants from Industrial Sources, by Annual Amount Emitted, City of Zaporizhzhia Annual Amount Emitted Air Po' lidnt (in metric tons) Carbon monoxide 153.894 Dust 59.329 Sultur dioxide 23,759 Nitrogen dioxide 14 r) 14 Silica dust 3,893 Hydrogen chloridc 1,408 Hydrocarbons 1,153 Toluene 1,141 Manganese 976 Fluoride compounds 778 Xylene 739 Hydrogen sulfide 478 Source: San Epi Station, Zaporizhzhia, Ministry of Health Table 14: Breakdown of Air Poilution from Selected Plants in Zaporizhzhia (1991 Data) I______ _ X CLASSICAL POLLUTANTS tons/year DUST SO2 j NOx CO Other TOTAL ZAPOROZHSTAL 17,500 12,800 8,200 88,200 100 126,800 DNEPROSPETSSTAL 5,788 335 471 3,534 63 10,191 COKE OVEN 400 2,700 360 1,300 220 4,980 ELECTRODE PLANT 1,865 185 - 4,221 1,651 7,922 DNIEPEvR ALUMINUM 9,242 1,083 706 5,320 325 16,676 TOTAL 34,795 17,103 9,737 102,575 2,359 166,569 FLUOR (HF and FLUORIDES) tons/year HF FLUORIDES (DUST) 218 415 DNIEPR ALUMINUM 2.4 kg/t Al 4.6 kg/t Al BENZO-A-PYRENNE (kg/yr) COKE OVENS 54 ELECTRODE PLANT 356 TOTAL 410 Data on Pollution Problems 23 69. Zaporozhstal. This iron and steel works was built in 1933 and rebuilt after the war. According to a briefing by the interim director, `60 percent of the plant is depreciated, and a lot of reconstruction is needed." The plant operates open nearth furnaces only; managers want to install BOF, but lack the funding to do so. Capacity is 5 million tons raw steel; in 1991, 3.6 million tons were produced (down from 3.8-3.9 million in 1990). Total employment in actual steel production is 17,000, but the plant claims it actually needs 2,000 more. There is a shortage of workers because wages are low at the plant, and there are other industries apparently paying more and better located near residential areas (eg. motor and machinery plants). Pig iron capacity is 4.5 million, but output is only 3 million; some scrap is used. The plant sells some pig iron to Japan, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Production in 1992 was said to be down because of lack of coal (due to the miners' strike in Donbass). 70. The biggest culprit in regard to air pollution is the sintering plant which spews brown smoke. Dust control (a wet venturi scrubber system) is not very effective (a wide range of 80-98 percent was cited); it looked as if dust controls were not operating during the study visit. The blast furnace and OH furnaces also have venturi scrubbers; the mixers have bag filters. An estimated 103 million m3 of industrial wastewater are partially treated at a sludge pond managed by the steel plant (including 70 million mn3 from the steel plant). 71. Zaporizhzhia Aluminum Smelter. The aluminum smelter was built in the 1930's (reportedly the largest in Europe at the time) and rebuilt following the war; the plant uses the Soderberg technology dating back to the 1950s, producing alumina, primary aluminum, and commercial silumin (silicone alum). It currently produces only 98,000 tpa with practically no pure aluminum production; the bulk of production is of aluminum silica alloys. Managers cited two processes used: traditional electrolysis and in-plant recovery of oxides "cum" addition of different alloys. Management has ambitious ideas for rehabilitation of the plant, but no funds to do it. 72. From estimates made available during the study, its energy efficiency and pollution control performance are much lower than the most advanced technology (eg. "pre-baked" technology, which is actually older but has been refined and improved over the years), but more importantly they are lower than what is achieved at other plants in Europe based on the Soderberg technology.' Aluminum production is energy intensive; hence, an important aspect of competitiveness is how energy efficient a plant is. No information was available to the study team with regard to overall energy efficiency of the plant. The Soderberg technology generally requires 17.5 kWh/kg alumina; the pre-baked technology is less than 14 kWh/kg alumina. 73. Of most concern are two pollutants emitted at the plant: fluorines and tars. The emissions of fluorides, in the form of hydrogen fluoride, are estimated at 2.2-3.2 kg/ton alumina. Emissions in Europe and the US are 0.5-1.5 kg/ton. "Best available technology" can bring emissions down to 0.3 kg/ton. There are also tar emissions from the electrolysis process in the plant which are a serious problem because they are carcinogenic (emissions in a plant like this can be higher than those in coke ovens). 5/ Three western European countries still use the Soderberg technology: Norway, Sweden and Spain. Norway in particular intends to continue using its plants, but in so doing is trying to improve associated pollution control systems. 24 Annex 3 74. Pollution control equipment in-ludes: alumina production (ESPs); aluminum electrolysis (venturi scrubbers); and silumin production (sleeve filter and wet scrubber). The degree of containment of all pollutants in the Zaporizhzhia plant is probably about 50 percent, compared to Soderberg based plants in western Europe which achieve 70-80 percent. Also, fugitive emissions in the plant are high, they could be reduced by better control of furnaces, maintenance and housekeeping. 75. Complete revamping of this planti would cost in tlhe order of USS I billion, an expensive proposition. Installing good pollution control equipment in this plant would cost in the order of US$20-25 million. Pollution control, though, would also bring some commercial benefits--recovery of aluminum fluorides, the raw material--which could bring returns to part of the investment (in Sweden, the payback period was 3.5 years for an improved pollution control system which recovered the raw material). Whether such an investment would be sensible or not depends on a more careful analysis of equipment and options in this plant, as well as its underlying competitiveness, in view of the poor world market for aluminum at the moment. The plant has ovcr 4,000 employees. Zaporizhzhia Coke Oven Plant 76. This plant is located in the city of Zaporizhzhia (in the city's industrial district, which is close to areas where people live and work). It produced 2.74 million tons and 2.12 million tons of coke in 1990 and 1991. It has four coke oven batteries, a special battery for heating tar and producing a special molten tar-coke for the Zaporizhzhia electrode plant; and a byproduct plant. The plant employs 2,500 workers. 77. Officially, the four batteries are equipped with charging and pushing fume collectors, but these were not seen. Door leakages were high (about 40% on the pushing side; emissions ot dust also occur during charging and pushing), There are seven small hoods for collecting door leakages on the first seven furnaces which produce coke tar. Dry and wet cyclones are used for coke oven gas purification. Coke oven gas is partly desulfurized. but the gas still has too high a sulfur content. Total emissions were 5,500 tpa in 1990 and close to 5,000 tpa in 1991; BAP emissions were 74 and 54 kg/year respectively. 78. Phenols in the wastewater reportedly are substantially reduced before discharge. The plant's general water circuit is common with other plants in the industrial district. 79. The situation at this plant is somewhat paradoxical. General housekeeping is very good (cleaning of roads, tanks and buildings and efforts to landscape the premises). But the coke oven batteries themselves and tar production in the plant present serious environmental hazards in a plant located in the middle of the city. 80. Zaporizhzhia Electrode Plant. This plant produces about 15,000 tpa of electrodes. The plant is the only producer of electrodes in Ukraine; it has some 3,500 employees. The plant uses bag filters and ESP for particulate control. What is shocking, though, is the high level of benzo-a-pyrene emissions (356 kg/yr). 81. Alchevsk car assembly plant. This factory manufactures light passenger vehicles. The wastewater streams are derived from metal working and finishing and include a galvanizing plant, Data on Pollution Probletms 25 metal plating shops and paint shops. The wastewater stream from the galvanizing plant is treated within the car assembly works. The treatment process is based upon precipitation of the metallic salts with lime. Settle sludge is dewatered by hydraulic presses and the sludge is then sent to a treatment plant in Kiev for the extraction of zinc and nickel. 82. The other industrial waste streams and the domestic wastewater from the factory are gravitated to a comprehensive wastewater treatment plant located near the factory. Treated effluent from the wastewater treatment plant is all recycled back to the factory. The sludges from the wastewater treatment process are mechanically dewatered by vacuum filtration and are tipped in the factory's own landfill site about 20 km from Zaporizhzhia. This plant is doing a good job in wastewater recycling and treatment. 83. One problem may be the wastes containing hexavelant chromium; they are treated by addition of domestic wastewater in hermetically sealed tanks to reduce the chromium to trivalent state before being discharged to the sewerage system for further treatment at the municipal authority's wastewater treatment plant. Although it is claimed that the method adopted for chromium reduction is effective, it is extremely doubtful that the bacteria in domestic wastewater, in anaerobic conditions, are able to produce the required treatment, and it is quite possible that highly toxic hexavelant chromium is being discharged to the municipal wastewater treatment plant. 84. Water Quality Management. In regard to water resources, water consdmption by both industry and public utilities is 546 million tpa, most of which is recycled through closed water circuitry. The city has some 30 treatment stations, but they are inadequate. About 57 million m3 of untreated water (municipal waste) goes into the river. The river is reportedly polluted with increasing ammonium salts, cyanides, suspended particles, phenols and heavy metals.6 In 1989, the city stopped giving licenses to industries without treatment facilities. In 1991, there were 5,000 violations; 200 heads of enterprises were fined. Investment priorities to address water pollution were cited: (i) expansion of sludge pond and further treatment; (ii) expansion of sewerage network and biological treatment (38 sewerage pumping stations exist but facilities are inadequate); and (iii) installation of proper instruments to measure pollutants. Also mentioned were problems with irrigation, causing increased salinization of rivers feeding into the Dnieper. 85. Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Zaporizhzhia is served by a wastewater treatment plant on each bank of the Dnieper River. The plant on the left bank has a treatment capacity for 175,000 m3/day, but receives an inflow of 350,000 m3/day. Only 200,000 m3/day is passed through the treatment plant, the remaining 150,000 m3/day discharges direct to the river without treatment. When the ongoing extensions to this plant are completed, it will have a treatment capacity of 430,000 m3/day. Completion of the extensions was intended in 1994, but lack of financing is causing delays. The right bank treatment plant has a capacity for 110,000 m3/day, and present inflow is 100,000 m3/day. However, plans for the city envisage most development on the right bank; it is forecast that, by the year 1995, a treatment capacity of 200,000 m3/day will be required. Design work for the required extensions to the plant have just started. 6/ Mentioned briefly were a couple of measurements: soluble oxygen = 6 mg/liter; and BOD = 1.42 mg/liter. 26 Annex 3 86. Both treatment plants incorporate preliminary screening and grit removal followed by primary sedimentation and biological treatment utilizing the diffused air activated sludge process. To meet the requirements of the sanitary service of the municipality the effluents from both plants are chlorinated with 3 mg/l chlorine before being discharged to the Dnieper River. 87. In March 1991, MEP and MOH set new standards for the quality of effluents discharged from the two treatment plants. The new standards included an unreasonably strict BOD limit of 3 mg/l compared to a previous limit of 15 mg/l and a suspended solids limit of 5.25 mg/I compared to a previous limit of 15 mg/I, forcing the plants to consider the construction of expensive tertiary treatment systems. At the plant on the left bank, drum filters and rapid gravity sand filters, together with a new chlorination station, are now under construction as part of the plant extensions, but at the right bank plant planning work for the tertiary treatment system has not yet commenced. This is an example of overly strict standards pushing individual plants into planning investments which may not make sense at this time because of severe resource constraints and other priorities. 88. Both treatment plants have serious operational problems in the treatment and disposal of sludge. Previous attempts at mechanical de-watering of sludge using Soviet-built centrifuges have not met with success as the mechanical equipment has lasted only two years. At present sludge is pumped from the plant to lagoons where it de-waters by a combination of surface evaporation and gravity. The drainage water is returned to the plant for treatment. Some of the air-dried sludge is used for agricultural purposes, but over the years considerable quantities have accumulated. For example, at the left bank plant there is an accumulation of 150,000 tons of air dried sludge and, similarly at the right bank plant, there is 30,000 tons. There is a need at both plants to develop an integrated policy for the treatment and disposal of sludge. Although anaerobic digestion is used for treatmnent and stabilization of the sludge at the left bank plant, it was noted that natural gas was being used for heating; methane from the digestion process, which could be utilized, was being vented to the atmosphere. Clearly the inefficiencies in the design and operation of the digestion plants needs to be remedied. 89. The following capital investments are needed to meet the future operational needs of both the right bank and left bank plants: i) completion of the extensions to the left bank plant to increase treatment capacity from 175,000 m3/day to 350,000 m3/day; ii) extensions to the right bank works to increase treatment capacity from 110,000 m3/day to 200,000 m3/day; iii) construction of an integrated scheme for both plants for the treatment and disposal of sludge. Such a scheme should include consideration of anaerobic digestion plants built to the latest standards of technology; mechanical sludge de-watering using either centrifuges or filter belt presses and disposal of the dried sludge either by tipping in a landfill, agricultural use (if the sludge is not contaminated with toxic metal), or incineration, probably with one incinerator to serve both treatment plants. 90. Mumcipal Drinking Water Treatment. The city is served by two water treatment plants, one on each bank of the Dnieper River. Raw water is abstracted from the river. The total average Data on Pollution Problems 27 daily volume of water going into the supply is 550,000 m3, of which 450,000 m3/day is supplied to the urban areas on the left bank and 100,000 m3/dav is supplied to the right bank. The right bank treatment plant has sufficieiit capacit) to imeet demand, but there is a shortfall of 80,000 ml/day in meeting the demand on the left bank, altlhough some of the deficit is met occasionally by transferring some water from the right bank treatment plant. Generally, however, il is necessary to interrupt supplies to distribution zones on a scheduled basis to overcome the shortage of supply on the left bank. 91. Raw water is treated by prechloriniationi; coagulation and settlernent followed by filtration by rapid gravity sand filters. The backwash cycle of the filters does not include an air scour so that the efficiency of cleaning is reduced. Consequently, the quantities of water used for backwashing are high and the water is discharged to the river without an) treatment. It is estimated that 19 million m3 of water per year are discharged in this way, and since it causes pollution in the river, fines are applied by the authorities. Managers of the Vodokanal responsible for the Zaporizhzhia water supply believe that some of the shortfall of 80,000 ni/day could be made up by the introduction of a leakage control scheme. At present, little effort is made to either quantify or to bring under control leakage from the distribution system. Estimates of leakage of the order of 25 percent are reported, but Vodokanal managers believe the figure could be as high as 35 percent. Due to the absence of sufficient distribution zone meters of the automatic logging type, there is virtually no data available to make a reasonable estimate of losses b) leakage. 92. To secure the future efficient operation of water treatment and supply the following schemes requiring capital investment and technical assistance are recommended: i) extensions to the left bank treatment plant to provide an additional 80,000 m3/day; ii) improvements at both treatment plants to the filtration installations including treatment of backwash water to reduce pollution into the river; iii) technical assistance in establishing and operating a comprehensive leakage control scheme including installation of distribution zone metering. 93. Water and Sewerage Tariffs. Rates for water and sewerage are shown below for different categories of users: Rates for Water and Sewerage by User Water Sewerage General population 10.0 6.0 Local government agencies 33.9 32.9 Other communal services 271.2 164.5 Industry 627.0 575.9 Agriculture 322.0 164.5 28 Annex 3 Precautions in Zaporizhzlhia after Chernobyl Following the Chernobyl nuclear power station accident in April 1986, additional treatment facilities were installed at both the left bank and right bank treatment plants. The installations comprise additional settlement tanks followed by filtration plant utilizing clay, chalk or fine granulated carbon as a filter medium. So far it has not been found necessary to operate the additional treatment facilities for the purposes of removing radioactive contamination. Daily checks are now made on the levels of radioactivity, and it is reported that total beta activity is in the range 12-16 picocuries per liter, compared to the WHO recommended maximum for drinking water of 30 picocuries per liter. Prior to the Chernobyl accident the level of total beta activity was checked on water samples at 10 day intervals and was recorded in the range 1.2 to 1.6 picocuries per liter. While there has been a 10 fold increase in the level of total beta activity following Chernobyl, this is still well within the proposed maximum for drinking water recommended by WHO. Berdyansk 94. Industrial use of water accounts for 36,000 m3/day out of a total consumption of 60,000 m3/day. The industries supplied include grease manufacture, cable manufacture, machine building and electronics. 95. Municipal Water Supply. Due to a shortage of water resources there are supply interruptions in the city. The supply interruptions are also sometimes attributable to a lack of filtration capacity at the water treatment plant. A scheme is in progress for increasing supplies to the city from the Dnieper River. The civil works for this scheme are 40-50 percent completed, but progress is at present suspended due to lack of financial resources for the purchase of pumping plant. 96. It is reported that leakage levels in the distribution system are in the range 5-20 percent but there is no data available to confirm this estimate. It is quite possible that leakage levels could be appreciably greater than the estimates suggest. 97. Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Reportedly, only 60 percent of the city's properties is served by the sewage network. There are also drainage problems in the city due to the lack of a surface water sewage system. The wastewater treatment plant has a capacity of 120,000 m3/day, but the plant is in need of reconstruction. A project is in the design stage which would increase treatment capacity to 200,000 m3/day, but an agreement has not yet been reached on the type of treatment to be adopted. The reconstruction and extension is to be financed by the electronics industry in the city, but funds are not presently available. 98. A preparation study is reqiired to examine the following investment requirements. i) The water supply scheme, which has been partly constructed. (The study should include a review of the scheme and make an appraisal of the existing water treatment plant, paying particular attention to the filtration installations. In addition, the study should look closely at industrial water consumption; in view of the high level of industrial usage an assessment should be made of the potential for economy by recycling.) Data on Pollution Problems 29 ii) The scheme for reconstruction and extension of the wastewater treatment plant. iii) Lxtension of the sewage network to increase the availability of main sewers substantially above the present level of 60 percent. iv) Solution of the problems of surface water sewage including the need for a separate network. 30 Annex 3 DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST 99. Dnipropetrovsk Oblast has a population of 3.9 million, 84 percent of which is urban. It is second to Donetsk oblast in terms of population density. Industrial activities include metallurgical industries, defense industries, and iron, coal and uranium production. The oblast has three "lhot spots" in terms of industrial pollution: the city of Dnipropetrovsk, Dniprodzerzhinsk about 30 km away, and Kryvyi Rih, the center of the iron ore producing district and home to the largest steel plant in the country. 100. There are 568 major enterprises in the oblast, whichf, according to the MEP branch, equates to 61,000 stacks of which about 25,000 have controls. Ambient concentrations in 1991 were cited as 4-14 times standards for pollutants such as BAP (benzo-a-pyrene), particulates and ammonia.7 The "quiet industries"--military plants (which until recently were difficult to inspect)--are most worrisome, along with galvanic/electroplating plants. Other industries of concern are the chemical and metallurgical industries. City of Dnipropetrovsk 101. Dnipropetrovsk is the third largest city in Ukraine (1.19 million) and the center of a major industrial region. The city is home to a major missile manufacturing plant, the Dneprovsky steel plant, various electroplating and galvanic plants, food processing plants, and an aged heat and power plant. 102. Municipal Wastewater Treatment. There are three wastewater treatment plants serving the city. On the left bank of the Dnieper River there are two plants, one which has a treatment capacity of 60,000 m3/day and is receiving 130,000 m3/day and the other having a treatment capacity of 45,000 m3/day and receiving 60,000 m3/day. The plant on the right bank has a treatment capacity for 330,000 m3/day but extensions are needed to provide for a capacity of 720,000 m3/day by the year 2015. 103. The sewerage networks serving the treatment plants are separate but the municipal authority are concerned at the levels of pollution of surface water run-off in the urban areas and are now proposing a new, combined, network of sewers to take both foul and surface water flows. If these proposals are to proceed it will be necessary to make arrangements at the treatment plants for significant increases in hydraulic load. The treatment plant on the right bank provides for inlet screens and grit channels followed by primary sedimentation and biological treatment using a diffused air activated sludge process. In the past the plant has been able to meet the river water quality standards that have been set. However, these standards have recently been reviewed by the Ministry of Environment and the level of treatment does not meet the stricter standard now applied. 7/ Please note the authorities were not distinguishing clearly between annual average and maximum, short duration concentrations. 'Photocalorimetric" measurements are taken by rather old equipment by Hydromet. Stations near principal population centers were cited as follows: 8 in Dnipropetrovsk, 4 in Dniprodzerzhinsk, and S in Kryvyi Rih. Data on Polliution Problems 31 104. There are operational problems at all three plants with the treatment and disposal of sludge. At the plant on the riglht bank, liquid sludge is pumped for settlement to an area of lagoons extending to 140 ha; of this area only I I ha remains for future use. Problems are also experienced with industrial wastewater discharges to the sewerage network. The monitoring and control of industrial discharges is dependant on spot sampling undertaken manually during normal working hours. It is known however, that many polluting discharges of ipdustrial wastewater are being made to the sewerage network at night-time and the introduction of 24-hour samplers is essential if these discharges are to be brought under control. 105. If the effluent discharges from the wastewater treatment plants serving the city of Dnipropetrovsk are to meet the river water quality standards required in the Dnieper River, then the following capital investment schemes will need to be undertaken: i) a scheme of extensions to the right bank plant to increase treatment capacity from 330,000 m3/day to 720,000 m3/day; ii) schemes of extensions to the two plants on the left bank to provide respective increases from 60,000 to 130,000 m3/day and 45,000-60,000 m3/day; and iii) an integrated scheme for all three treatment plants to provide for the treatment and disposal of sludge. (Such an integrated scheme should be investigated on the lines of providing for sludge digestion followed by mechanical sludge de-watering at each plant with the disposal of de-watered sludge either in a landfill or, alternatively, by the provision of a centralized sludge incinerator to serve all three treatment plants.) 106. Municipal Drinking Water Treatment. Dnipropetrovsk is supplied with water from the following sources: i) Lomovskaya water treatment plant on the left bank of the Dnieper River; ii) Kaydak water treatment plant on the right bank of the river; iii) borehole sources on the left bank of the river; and iv) limited raw water supplies from the Dniprodzerzhinsk reservoir. 107. The treatment plants at Lomovskaya and Kaydak both abstract raw water from the Dnieper River. The total supply to the city is on the order of 720,000 m3/day. The largest source is the Kaydak treatment plant which supplies about 580,000 m3/day. The Lomovskaya plant treats 110,000 m3/day and supplies 20,000 m3/day to the town of Novo Moskovsk, 25 km away. The balance of the supplies of 30,000 m3/day are obtained from the borehole sources. Water supplies from the plant at Kaydak to that part of the town on the right bank of the Dnieper River are adequate, but future planned residential development on the left bank will require extensions to the Lomovskaya plant. Proposals for these extensions are only at outline stage but are planned for construction as two phases each of 100,000 m3/day capacity. 32 Annex 3 108. The water treatment process comprises prechlorination, with a dose rate of 6-9 mg/I; coagulation with aluminum sulphate; filtration with rapid gravity sand filters followed by secondary chlorination to maintain a chlorine residual in the water distribution system. As with the treatment plants at Kryvyi Rih, there is no provision for clarification of the raw water following the aluminum sulphate coagulation. The efficiency of the filters could be significantly increased with the introduction of clarifiers into the treatment process. In order to meet planned residential growth on the left bank of the city, capital investment is required for the two phases of extensions planned for Lomovskaya treatment plant. In addition, capital investments to improve the efficiency of filtration at both Lomovskaya and Kaydak are highly desirable. Dniprodzerzhinsk 109. This city of 300,000 has 30 large enterprises dedicated primarily to metallurgical (steel plant and 2 coke plants) and chemical production (fertilizers, polystyrene, ammonia and different acids). 110. Coke ovens. The older coke plant visited was founded in 1932; the plant has 3 batteries, 45 furnaces and employs 4,500 people. Capacity is 1.5-1.6 million tons, but it is only currently producing 300,000 tons of coke because two of the batteries are under reconstruction. One battery is completely rebuilt ("steamless charging"). The biggest pollution problem remains the emissions from operating the batteries. Gas cleaning equipment for hydrogen sulfide is used. The coke oven gas is used in industry. Chemicals produced at the plant are ammonium sulfide, benzoil and resins. Water pollution from such processing can be a serious problem, but the plant engineer indicated that they now reuse much of the water, though some pollutant indicators are not up to standards. The plaint has been fined in the past, but fines were "not large." The other coking plant in Dniprodzerzhinsk is slightly younger, but has some of the same problems; its capacity is 2.5 million tons of coke. 111. Dzerzhinsky Steel Works. The massive steel plant dominates this city. It produces cast iron and rolling steel. The capacity is 4 million tons; there are 8 open hearth furnaces (240-450 tons per charge)-and 2 basic oxygen furnaces (BOF; 250 tons per charge). Plant data provided was as follows: coke consumption--6,0000 tpd; sinter--12,000 tpd; cast iron--9,000 tpd; open hearth production-4,000 tpd; BOF production--7,000 tpd. The intent of managers and civic leaders is to renovate the steel plant, but funds are unavailable; they are looking for foreign partners. Over the next 5 years they want to expand BOF production and incorporate continuous casting. Eventually, they hope to shut down the open hearth furnaces and modernize the sintering plant. An estimated US$500 million is needed. 112. The steel plant causes an estimated 80 percent of ambient pollution in the city (total emission loading cited as close to 220,000 tons p.a.). The worst emissions come from the sintering plant, part of which was shut down recently because of the severe pollution. A visit inside the plant was eye- opening; floors caked with soot and mud from the sintering process; workers' faces covered with soot (some were wearing masks, others not); and debris everywhere. 113. Azot Chemical Plant. The factory produces ammonia and nitrate fertilizers; caustic soda, detergents and plastics including polystyrene and pvc resin. The wastewaters from the treatment processes at the factory, which amount to some 30,000,000 m3 per annum, are generally discharged, without treatment, direct into the Dnieper River. Only the effluent from the urea production plant receives any treatment. This is discharged to the municipal wastewater treatment plant at the rate of Data on Polliution Problems 33 18,000 m3iday, with 50,000 m3/day of treated water being recycled from the municipal wastewater treatment plant to the factory (see below). Proposals have been drawn up to construct a wastewater treatment plant to treat the industrial flows from the industrial complex. At present there are seven untreated effluent discharge points from the factory; these will be combined to provide three discharges of treated effluent. A proportion of the flow will be recycled; part will be used for irrigation of agricultural land and the remainder will be discharged to the Dnieper River. The necessar) finiance for construction of the plant is reportedly available, but the management at the Azot plant wish to have an independent technical appraisal before proceeding. It seeks technical assistance to make an appraisal of the existing proposal and to introduce some Western technology into the proposal. 114. Mtunicipal Wastewater Treatment. The city is served by two wastewater treatment plants, one on each bank of the Dnieper River. The plant on the right bank treats flows from 250,000 people and has a designed treatment capacity of 90,000 m3/day but presently receives flows in the order of 150,000 - 160,000 m3/day. The sewage system is separate i.e. there is a separate system for draining surface water flows, highway drainage, etc. The treatment system comprises screening and grit removal followed by primary settlement for sludge removal. Biological treatment is by an activated sludge plant. Effluent from this plant is further treated in rapid gravity sand filters and is then chlorinated. following which up to 100,000 m3/day is used to irrigate grassland areas located 12 km from the plant. 115. A number of indust,ial wastewater flows are treated at the plant, the most significant being a flow of 18,009 m3/day from the AZOT plant. A flow of 50,000 m3/day of effluent from the treatment plant is recycled for use in the AZOT complex. Sludge from the plant is pumped a distance of 4 km for settlement in a complex of 38 lagoons. Since the plant was brought into operation in 1978, nine of these lagoons have been filled. Sludge digestion tanks were constructed with the plant, but these have never been brought into use. 116, To provide for future efficient operation of the plant, capital schemes should be considered for the following aspects: plant extensions to increase treatment capacity from the present 90,000 m3/day to 160,000 m3/dav; and ii) treatment and disposal of the sludge to include thickening, stabilization by anaerobic digestion, mechanical de-watering by either centrifuging or by filter belt presses, an appraisal of disposal options including landfill sites and incineration, appraisal of possible utilization of methane from the digestion process for power generation on the treatment plant. Although it appears that there is still adequate lagoon capacity available for the sludge from the plant, this method of disposal cannot be considered to be an acceptable long-term solution. Kryvyi Rih 117. While the Kryvyi Rih iron ore basin (Krivbass) encompasses only a small land area (1500 km2), it has a large concentration of industrial enterprises. Located among residential developments are 17 iron ore mines, 5 ore-enriching mills, metallurgical plants, cement mills, and a lead factory. 34 Annex 3 Estimated air pollutant emissions over Kryvyi Rih are close to 900,000 tons. Each year there is an effluent of 60 million cubic meters of highly mineralized water. Over 5 billion cubic meters of waste from ore-enriching combines have accumulated in waste dumps and tailing storage sites. 118. Kryvyi Rih is dominated by one of the largest, if not the largest, iron and steel plant in the world; it is the largest plant in the former Soviet Union. in addition to the plant itself, a coking plant and a number of agglomeration plants nearby are major sources of air pollution. The next largest source is the city cement plant. There are a total of 103 air pollution sources in the city but the remaining sources contribute only a small proportion. Table 11 gives an estimate of the emissions from the major sources. [ Table 15: 1991 Emissions from the City of Kryvyi Rih* (tons/year) Total Facility Total Particulates Gaseous SO2 NO. l ______________________________ including CO Norokrivoy Rih Agglomeration Plant 269,540 20,854 248,686 9,303 3,507 Souther Agglomeration Plant 266,903 21,979 244,924 7,237 2,915 Lnguletsk Agglomeration Plant 4,791 2,687 2,104 554 352 Central Agglomeration Plant 18,854 11,233 7,621 978 -515 Northem Agglomeration Plant 35,957 22,002 13,954 7,653 2,260 Krivorozstal Iron and Steel Works 238,842 53,416 185,426 21,817 11,095 Coke and Chemical Plant 24,448 4,135 20,313 10,413 1,002 Total for City of Kiyvyi Rih 887,806 154,098 733,707 * These totals do not include mobile source emissions. 119. In the city of Kryvyi Rih more than half of the adult population is employed in industry, with over 25 percent in mining and metallurgical enterprises. Workers are continuously exposed to occupational hazards such as inorganic dusts and chemical substances. The latter include carbon oxides, sulfur and nitrogen compounds, hydrogen sulfide, phenols, benzols, naphthalene, pyridine ammonia, and others. Many of these are emitted by a coke chemical plant and metallurgical plant. Table 16 provides information on ambient concentrations. Data on Pollution Problems 35 Table 16: Kryvyi Rih--Average Concentration of Selected Pollutants (mg/m3) Ukrainian Allowable Pollutant Concentration 1988 1989 1990 1991 Particulate .15 (24 hour) .4 .4 .4 .4 SO2 .05 (24 hour) .03 .04 .03 .062 NO2 .04 (24 hour) .08 .08 ,08 .12 NO .06 (24 hour) .04 .04 .05 .05 H2S .008 (20 minute) .038 .042 .058 .055 Phenol .003 (24 hour) .004 .004 .004 .006 NIH3 .04 (24 hour) .09 .14 .12 .14 Note: As noted in the body of the report, the accuracy of these figures is questionable due to the ambient air monitoring techniques used. However, they may give some indication of relative air pollution problems. 120. The particulate concentrations stand out as being very high, especially as they are average readings, not maximum levels. These levels do not account for the higher concentrations which are undoubtedly found in the sanitary zone in the vicinity of the iron and steel plant. There are 1,000 people living in this sanitary zone. 121. Kryvyi Rih is a very good candidate for establishing an emergency action programn to reduce emissions during high episode periods. Such a program iould be a part of a broader air quality management program recommended in the body of the report. San-Epi conducts a form of an emergency action plan now using mobile monitoring units. This program could be considerable strengthened by the adoption of recommendations in Annex 8. 122. Krivorozhstal Plant. Krivorozhstal is one of the world's largest plants and a major producer of non-flat products (rebar, bar, wire rod, heavy and light sections), primarily used in construction. It has 33,000 employees and covers an area of 2,200 ha. In 1991, it produced 9.2 million tons of iron, 10 million tons of steel, and 7 million tons of rolled products. It is a major producer of rebars, bars, wire rod, heavy and light rolled sections Production data is provided below. 36 Annex 3 Table 17: Krivorozhstal--Production (million tons) Sinter Pig Iron Raw Sleel Rolled Products 1989 4.1 11.8 129 8.7 1990 3.7 11.8 12 8.5 1991 2.5 9.2 10 0 705 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ 1992 (estimalcd) 3. 5 9.1 5 6.6 Products: Long and tlat products EXDorts: 2.5 millioni tons (billets) in 1991. 123. In every worklshop of this massive plant there are opportunities to reduce both individual sources of emissions and fugitive emissions. The plant has 8 relatively small blast firnaces (working volumes of 1,i16 and 2000 m3) and one large, more modern blast furnace (uworking volume of 5000 im3). A program of cleaning all the small blast furnaces is in progress. Pollution control equipment includes: blast furnaces (ESP and venturi scrubbers); BOF (venturi scrubbers): OHF (cyclones and venturi scrubbers); sinter plant (cyclone), lime and refractory plants (ESP and bag filters). This equipment, however, is not performing adequately. Heavy stack emissions are seen throughout the plant. 124. The plant's sinter workshop, commissioned in 1951, is in terrible condition, and its emissions are very high (representing one-third of total emissions from the plant). The six sinter strands (62.5 ln2) use high iron content waste and sludge from steel production as inputs, which creates high fugitive emissions and affects the efficiency of the process. Management wants to invest in a new sinter charge preparation plant, but would give no specifics about the proposed process during the visit. Clearly some immediate action needs to be taken to improve the worker environment. 125. The steel plant discharges 13 separate wastewater streams to a 14 km long canal running through the complex. The canal also receives wastewater streams from the coke plant and the iron ore mine. Overflow water from the canal passes through two settlement/sterage lagoons before discharge to the Ingulecs River. These lagoons, which are operated in series, have capacities of 960,000 m3 (primary lagoon) and 800,000 m3 (secondary lagoon). The average daily flow of wastewater entering the lagoons is in the region of 340,000 m3/day, of which 110,000 m3/day is recycled through the steel plant for use as cooling water and rinse water. The discharge of polluted wastewater to the Ingulecs River is therefore of the order of 230,000 m3/day. 126. At the site of the storage/settlement lagoons is a pressure filtration plant comprising 18 steel pressure filters with polystyrene bead media. It is understood that this was provided for the removal of oil contaminants from the water being recycled so that the water could be used as boiler feed water and for cooling and rinming. However, the recycled water has been found to be highly mineralized with total dissolved solids on the order of 1200 mg/l and is not suitable for boiler use without demnineralization. The pressure filtration plant is therefore only occasionally brought into use when oil contamination of the recycled water exceeds 5 mg/l and suspended solids are in excess of 30 mg/l. This usually occurs after periods of heavy rainfall. Data otn Polluitioni Problemtis 37 127. Proposals have been draNNn up for biological treatment of part of the effluent from the lagoons to reduce pollutioin in the Inulgiecs River. The scheme envisages adapting the existing primary and secondary lagoons lor usc as acration and secondary settlement tanks in an activated sludge plant. A third lagoon wvill be constructed to provide tertiary treatment for the effluent from the activated sludge treatment sta-e. It ik ,s;iimated ihat treatment can be provided for 110.000 m/day, i.e. approximately 50 percent of' the effuciut pre, -nt discharged to the Ingulecs River with an eflluent standard of 4 ing/l BOD and 15 nig;l of suspended solids. The estimated cost of the biological treatmenit plant at 1991 prices was 5.ti00t,000 rubles. 128. Krv,vi Riil Coke/Cliemical Plant. This is a large plant producing over 4 million tons. It has highly visible dioor leakages. and six of the twelve batteries at the plant require leplacement. Housekeeping genierally is very poor. The plant represents a serious hazard to workers. 129. There are two wastewater discharges associated with the coke production process: effluents from the primary gas plant and phenol discharges. The wastewater stream from the primary gas plant contains amnmoniia in conicenitration up to 500 mg/l. Most of the effluent is pre-treated in a wastewater treatment plant and is recycled as quenching water for the coke production plant, but a proportion of the effluent, up to 2,000 n)(m/day, is discharged to the municipal authority's sewerage network. The treatment process includes primary settlement, phosphoric acid addition and biological treatment using a bubble type aeration system for activated sludge treatment. 130. The wastewater stream from the phenol discharge is not pre-treated and is used as quenching water in the coke productioni plant. Use of the untreated phenol waste stream creates high levels of anmuonia; investment in biological treatment of this waste is considered a priority. 131. Norokrivoy Rih Agglomeration Plant. One of the major problems at the Norokrivoy Rih Agglomeration Plant is all solid dust waste from the iron and steel plant is recycled back into this agglomeration plant. Tlis can result in a build-up of very fine particulate matter which clogs the cyclone treatment systems. Three million tons of waste is recycled back to this plant. The emissions during periods of malfunction have been over 900 mg/rn3 of emissions. Frequent maintenance is needed to ensure proper operation. 132. Kryvyi Rili Iron Ore Mine. The mine produces iron ore for the nearby steel plant. Water from the mining operations which is produced at the rate of 83,000,000 m3 per annum contains chloride in concentrationis up to 250 mg/l. Total dissolved solids in the mine water vary within the range 10 to 100 graims per liter. Abstraction of the mine water is handled by a series of five pumping stations which pump to an elevated complex of 6 settlement lagoons having a total storage capacity of 260.000,000 in3. Water is recirculated from the lagoons for ore washing at the rate of 24,000,000 m3 per annum. Occasionally, the pumping stations are not able to pump all the water from the mine and polluted water then finds its way to the Ingulecs River through the 14 km long canal serving the steelworks. Leakage from the storage lagoons is also believed to be the cause of pollution in subterranean water. The mine only has consent to discharge up to 5,000,000 m3 per annum of filtered water to the canal, but exceptions are made should an emergency arise in the ore washing plant or if a breakdown occurs at the pumping plant. 133. Taking account of the very large volume of mine water the costs of introducing a scheme for removing chlorides and total dissolved solids would be prohibitive. However, management at the 38 Annex 3 mine is preparing a scheeme to treat the water at the rate of 600 m3 per hour based upon a treatment process to be used in the mining areas of Katowice in Poland. 134. Hazardous Waste and Radon. Mining products in the Krivbass include considerable quantities of radionuclides whiclh can be found in waste dumps, building materials, ash from electric power plants, ore tailings, and other materials. Many waste products, in the form of specially prepared building materials, are used in residential buildings, although all are not checked for radioactivity. In some buildings the concentration of radon exceeds the acceptable amount for residential rooms by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude. This is due to both contamination of building materials and ground radon discharge. Radon and radon daughters are found in the iron ore mines, which is not surprisinig considering the proximity to tLe uranium mines in Zhovti Vody. 135. Kryvyi Rih Cement Factory. The cement factory in Kryvyi Rih is, very much like those in other countries, a very dusty place. The Kryvyi Rih plant uses ESPs on the rotary kilns, small fabric filters on the cement silos, and some enclosures on materials handling processes. The ESPs have varying levels of effectiveness. The newer installations were functioning well enough, resulting in stack opacity levels (visible emissions) in the range of 5-10 percent (which is up to US standards). The older ESPs were clearly having problems, since stack opacities exceeded 30-40 percent It was unclear whether the ESPs were overloaded or simply malfunctioning. The plant engineer blamed the trouble on the fact that one of the older rotary kilns was down for repairs. 136. The baghouse system controlling the venting of the main cement silo was not working very well. There was considerable evidence of cerrent dust deposition all over the plant property, giving the impression that this baghouse problem is ongoing. (Frankly, the expert visiting the plant for this study had never seen a poorer result from a baghouse.) The plant engineer estimated that the filters themselves are replaced every two to three weeks, which seems excessive. Either they are using an unsuitable fabric, or the system may be grossly undersized. 137. Many of the materials conveying systems were fully enclosed to prevent fugitive dust, and the plant systems so endowed were performing well. On the other hand, some of the transfer systems were open on top, and it was easy to observe dust emissions due to the mildly strong wind that day. Such problems were more typical of the "waste" handling systems--the cooled clinker and furnace fines transfer systems. At the "back end" of the plant there was a large, partially enclosed space for handling the cooled clinkers, furnace fines, and one or two other "waste products" of the cement making process. Some of these materials are reused in the process, which is fine, but there is a fugitive dust problem at that location. 138. The plant would benefit from technical assistance in the operation of its baghouses, particularly at the cement silo vent. The plant may also benefit from technical assistance in the operation of its older ESPs, since there may be a design flaw or technique to improve performance. Immediate efforts can be made by the plant itself in terms of managing most of the remaining fugitive dust problem. These efforts should be concentrated at the "back end" of the process, at the point where certain "waste" by-products are temporarily stored prior to reuse. These wastes, which include cooled clinkers and furnace fines, are stockpiled in a large building which is completely open to the wind at one end and perhaps at the other as well; even erecting a simple screen would be effective in sheltering the stockpiles from the wind. The conveying systems for the cooled clinkers and especially the furnace fines must be completely enclosed. Data on Pollution Problems 39 139. A relatively simple change to operating practices would be of great benefit in the transfer of furnace fines within the stockpile enclosure. Thie tecinique used was identical to that used for cooled clinkers, which is to say that a large clamshell scoops up a full load of solid material, is raised about 7 meters above the floor, and then moved to the proper location within the stockpile enclosure and dumped onto the proper pile. This works well enough for cooled clinkers because they are 2-3 cm in diameter and not very friable, but to dump several hundred kilograms of fine dust from a height of 7 meters is a disaster in terms of dust generation. If instead the scoop of fine dust would be lowered to a height just above its destination pile and then dumped, fugitive dust would be reduced. 140. Municipal Drinking Water. Kryvyi Rih is supplied with drinking water from two treatment plants. The Karachung treatment plant has a capacity of 250,000 m3/day and abstracts its raw water from the Karachung reservoir. The reservoir, which is fed by the Inhulets River, has a total volume of 308,000,000 m3. At Radushansko, there is a second treatment plant with a capacity of 700,000 m3/day to supply 800,000 people. Treatment at both plants comprises pre-chlorination, coagulation using aluminum sulphate, followed by rapid gravity sand filtration and secondary chlorination to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system. There are no sedimentation tanks prior to the filters, and it is apparent that the efficiency of the filters could be increased if sedimentation tanks or clarifiers were introduced. In addition, there are no provisions for treatment of the filter backwash water. Consequently, the river is polluted when discharges of filter backwash water are made. 141. To meet the anticipated increase in demand due to the growth of population of the city there are proposals for the construction of a third water treatment plant at Iskrovskoe. This plant will have a treatment capacity of 400,000 m3/day and will be designed to supply a population of 200,000. Design work for this scheme has not yet commenced. 142. Health Issues. The level of occupational illness in Kryvyi Rih is 20 times greater than the mean in Ukraine. A further increase in occupational illness is expected in the next 8 to 10 years due, in part, to an increase in understudied conditions such as silicotuberculosis. Working conditions are especially poor and difficult among "hot shop" laborers (blast furnace, open hearth furnace, converter). Occupational morbidity is 12 percent higher in hot shops than in shops with normal microclimates. 143. The incidence of cancer (unadjusted incidence per 100,000/year) has been steadily increasing in Kryvyi Rih. This temporal increase in the incidence of cancer in Kryvyi Rih compared to Ukraine is presented in Table 18. 144. Kryvyi Rih has also experienced an increase in morbidity from disease other than cancer. In the last 10 years, there has been a 60 percent increase in hypertension, 75 percent increase in diabetes, and a 60 percent increase in stomach and other gastrointestinal ulcers. For every 1,000 children of primary and pre-school age, there are 1,600 to 1,700 registered illnesses, 70 percent of which are related to broncho-pulmonary pathology. Although birth rates in the city of Kryvyi Rih have dropped by 22.4 percent within the last 20 years (1970-1989), infant mortality has increased by 11.6 percent in the last 10 years. For every 10,000 newborns, 30 have serious genetic damage. 145. Note: These disturbing data about the environmental and occupational health hazards and rates of morbidity and mortality in Kryvyi Rih come from a report by a Ukrainian health authority, 40 Aninex 3 Dr. Mykola Slinchenko of the Kryvyi Rih Institute of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases' (reviewed and summarized in this study by Dr. Hryhorczuk of the University of Illinois). Dr. Slinchenko unfortunately does not reference these data, and we cannot be assured oi their accuracy. The increases in morbidity and mortality rates which he presents are not age adjusted. If the data are correct, then Kryvyi Rih is clearly a "hot spot" of environmental and occupational illness in Ukraine. Table 18: Cancer Morbidity Rates per 100,000 Residents, Kryvyi Rih Year | Morbidity Rate | % Increase Ukraine ;__=-----_ per 100,000 from 1975 1970 166.0 -- 1975 190.0 -- 220.2 1980 250.0 31.5 233.7 1981 248.0 30.5 244.1 1982 269.2 41.6 252.0 1983 269.5 41.8 259.2 1984 287.0 51.0 267.1 1985 294.2 54.8 275.2 1986 301.7 58.7 282.6 1987 314.7 65.6 292.6 1988 320.0 68.4 297.8 1989 328.6 72.9 298.0 1990 334.6 76.1 301.2 8/ Dr. Slinchenko's paper, entitled "The Silent Chernobyl of Kryvyi Rih" was presented at a meeting of the World Ukrainian Medical Association in Kharkiv, August 1992. Data on Pollution Problems 41 LUHANSK OBLAST 146. Luhansk Oblast has a population of 2.87 million, 87 percent of which is urban. Industrial activities are dominated by coal mining and various chemical industries. Coal mining is centered in the southern part of the oblast. while the chemical industries are centered in the western part of the oblast, north of Luhansk, in what is called the Lysychansk-Rubizhne area. 'able 19 shows the major sources of water pollution in that region. Table 19: Major Sources of Water Pollution in the Lysychansk-Rubizhne Area of Luhansk Oblast (1991) Enterprise City Effluent quantity l__________________________ ('000 mr3 per year) Paint/Dye factory "Krasitel" Rubizhne 40,800.0 Chemical factory "Lissoda" Lysychansk 24,700.0 Oil processing factory Lysychansk 135.0 Radio technology factory Siverskodonetsk 926.0 Factory "Impuls" Siverskodonetsk 48.0 Resistor factory Siverskodonetsk 21.0 Chemical factory "Zarya" Rubizhne 14,300.0 Pulp/Paper Combine Rubizhne 68.0 Glass factory Lysychansk 1.1 Fertilizer factory "Azot" Siverskodonetsk 111,700.0 Source: Ministry of Environmental Protection, Ukraine (1992). Coal Mining Activities 147. There are over 120 coal mines in the oblast, mining primarily anthracite. Nine of these are in and around the city of Luhansk. A visit to one of these mines during the study showed conditions to be very poor for workers. A major part of this problem was lack of attention to removal of old equipment and debris, and to safety procedures in the mines. 148. The city of Luhansk itself has a population of 520,000 and obtains its water supplies mainly from borehole sources into a chalk aquifer. Mine waters which have total dissolved solids in the region of 3,000 mg per liter are pumped into the Siverskodonets River at the rate of 300,000,000 in3 per annum, causing significant pollution of the river. The bathing beaches on the Azov sea were closed for the first time in 1992, due to pollution, and bathing in the Siverskodonets River has been banned since 1988. The river is also used to supply irrigation water for agriculture in the surrounding region. 42 Annex 3 149. Treatment of the mine waters to remove dissolved solids would be prohibitively expensive on the scale that is required. As an alternative, further consideration should be given to disposing of the mine water by groundwater recharge. A detailed hydrological study should be undertaken to determine the feasibility of such a proposal that will not cause pollution of the aquifer used for drinking water supplies and will not exacerbate the flow of water into the mines. Technical assistance for a hydrological feasibility study in the sub-region is needed. Svetlovdsk 150. This town is surrounded by 18 operating underground mines which drain the water table, resulting in a severe shortage of drinking water. Fresh water is supplied to the town for only 3 hours a day. Mine waters have become contaminated with chloride and sulfate salts. This is a classical mine dewatering/water desalinization problem. The town also has very high ambient air pollution-- no doubt from coal burning for mining activities as well as household use. Siverskodonetsk 151. "AZOT" Fertilizer & Chemicals Combine. The AZOT combine saw its first production in 1951. The plant occupies a 1400 acre site at the edge of the city Siverskodonetsk. The city has approximately 150,000 inhabitants and is heavily dependent for its economic well-being on AZOT. The combine employs nearly 17,000 people. The city is literally a "company town" since AZOT supports directly much of its social infrastructure. 152. AZOT produces over 100 chemicals, including ammonia, fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulfate, anmmonium nitrate, aqueous ammonia), methanol, formaldehyde, organic acids (acetic, sebacic and adipic), caprolactam, acetylene, vinylacetylene and its derivatives, polyethylene, and some catalysts. Annual tonnages of the principal chemicals are shown in Table 20. Table 20: Annual Production of Principal Chemicals at the AZOT Combine. Chemical Metric Tons/Year Ammonia 900,000 Fertilizers* 300,000 Methanol 600,000 Polyethylene 200,000 Acetic acid 100,000 *As 100% nitrogen 153. The Azot plant represents about 16 percent of ammnonia production capacity in Ukraine. It apparently accounts for the major portion of polyethylene production (representing over 34 percent of total 1990 production of the former USSR). Methanol production is also at world scale (over 20 percent of total 1990 production of the former USSR). About 10 percent of total nitrogen fertilizer production in Ukraine occurs at AZOT. In addition to these bulk chemicals, the plant produces Data on Polluitiont Problemiis 43 consumer-oriented products: various cleansers, paints, gardening fertilizers and pesticides, as well as plastic molded products of several types. 154. The estimated value of all products produced at AZOT was about Rb. 550 million in 1989. At current world chemical prices, the value probably approaches US $1 billion (approximately 7 percent of the total value of the annual chemical pioduction of Ukraine). Consumer-oriented products represent about 10 percent of the total value. Total investment in facilities at AZOT is estimated to be over Rb. I billion, of which about 11 percent is invested in various environmental cleanup processes. Both the production statistics and economic figures show how important this enterprise is to the economy of Ukraine. 155. State of the Enterprise and its Prospects. The economic disruptions in the country have affected plant operations in significant ways. The supply of major raw materials has been disrupted, as have been markets for plant output. It also appears that some of the process trains either were not running or were running at significantly reduced capacities, perhaps because of inadequate natural gas supplies or other raw materials. The plant expects that it will need to find new markets for some chemical products normally destined for other ex-Soviet republics. 156. Azot's technologies are a combination of Soviet and Western processes, some licensed from the West and built by Japanese or European contractors. Some facilities, such as the ammonia complex, represent the best the West was offering 10-15 years ago. There have been some marginal improvements in energy efficiency of the process since then, particularly in the reformer energy designs. This is probably true also for some of the other process trains. The primary energy efficiency gains, however, will likely come from tightening and improving overall utility system operations, where most of the energy waste occurs. 157. The overall facilities showed signs of poor maintenance and little new investment during the past decade. Many older process units need updating and replacing. The plant is large and complex and includes many different processes, reflecting diverse and complex product slates. Modernization investments need to wait until a new business plan is developed which takes into consideration changing market conditions. There is an obvious need for a detailed strategic business study by knowledgeable Western experts in combination with AZOT's management, addressing new market realities and assisting in finding foreign partners willing to invest in modernization. Given the economic importance of this enterprise to Ukraine and the value of some of its bulk chemicals for both domestic and foreign markets, the prospects for Azot's survival are good, albeit in a much changed form. 158. Human resources. The technical staff at the enterprise seems to be highly qualified and dedicated. However, the total number of employees is much higher than in comparable Western enterprises. Part of this may be related to the large social infrastructure that the enterprise is responsible for both at the plant and in the city. There is danger of losing highly qualified people because of the disrupted economic situation. In some cases, technical employees are finding it more lucrative to move to a plot of land and grow vegetables than to remain working for inadequate wages. Wages have not kept up with inflation. Market prices for consumer goods in the region seem to be set by the high wages paid coal miners (about 10 timnes that of an average chemical industry worker). Management is doing its best to survive under terribly disrupted economic conditions and is partially successful in establishing ties with new partners and obtaining needed raw materials through a barter 44 Annex 3 system. In the longer run, management will need to be introduced to modern strategies and financial planning practices. 159. Energy use. Natural gas is the primary raw material and energy source at the plant. Reportedly, nearly 3 million me!ric tpa of natural gas are required at the plant. An estimated 30 percent is needed as feedstock for ammonia and methanol production. Additional natural gas is also used for other cAemical processes, but in smaller quantities. These requirements still leave a large amount of the annual gas requirement unaccounted for. Some of it is undoubtedly used for energy production (mainly steam). However, given the fact that electricity to the plant is supplied by the city power station, the quoted figure for natural gas use seems high. 160. No statistics were made available for energy efficiency at the plant. However, during a plant tour it was clear that energy efficiency must be very low--utility and process line insulation was missing in many places, steam lines showed many leaks, water cooling towers were in a poor state of maintenance and seemed to work very inefficiently. An energy efficiency audit is an important priority for the plant, along with development of a realistic business plan. 161. Environmental aspects. The enterprise estimates air emissions at approximately 8000 metric tons per year. The breakdown of these emissions is shown in Table 21. F Table 21: Principal Air Emissions at AZOT Emission 000 tons/year Carbon monoxide 2700 Nitrogen oxides 1500 Particulates 1000 Ammonia 1000 Sulfuric acid 30 Sulfur dioxide 23 Source: AZOT These estimates appear low. They are probably estimates based on assumed values for losses from various process units rather than monitored, measured values. 162. The enterprise estimates nearly 19,000 metric tons per year of solid wastes go to storage ponds. A little over 13,000 metric tons of these solids are various process and water treatment sludges (6,000 tons of which is waste biological sludge), slags and other solids. The rest comes from washing railroad cars before loading with products. The enterprise has established a railroad car washing business which receives cars from other enterprises. Because of tightening emissions standards, this business seems to be unwanted now. 163. Fees for emissions are established by the local and national authorities. These fees are based on agreed annual emission estimates of various pollutants. Additionally, fines are levied for emissions that exceed allowed quantities. AZOT paid Rb 2 million in emissions fees in 1991 and Data on Pollution Problems 45 expected to pay Rb 5 million in 1992. It did not pay any fines in 1991, and does not expect to pay fines in 1992. 164. Wastewater Trcatment. Nearly 300,000 m3/day of wastewater is sent to the Siverskodonets River. It is claimed that of this water, 84 percent water that was used for cooling purposes and which has undergone biological treatment. The quality of wastewater is claimed to meet most of the established regulations, except for total dissolved solids. Total dissolved salt content in the water is about 1460 mg/I, of wvhich 375 mg/l are chlorides and 330 mg/l are sulfides. COD and BOD of the wastewater average 5.2 and 37 mg/l of oxygen. The total dissolved solids are about 19 mg/l. Wastewater from the city of Siverskodonetsk and the Azot chemical manufacturing plant is treated in one plant which is owned and operated by the Azot enterprise. 165. Problems are encountered at the treating facility from various heavy metals that come with the city wastewater, apparently from the defense-related electronics assembly facilities that are in the city. All the effluent from the treatment plant is recycled for use in the factory. 166. The wastewater treatment plant has three waste treatment streams totalling 140,000 m3/day: i) domestic wastewater from the factory complex which is mixed with effluent from cleaning of tanks on rail cars. Total volume: 40,000 m3/day, ii) industrial wastewater from the manufacturing processes at the factory. This waste stream includes flows from acetate and ammonium sulphate production, methanol production, acids and complex salts. Total volume: 40,000 m3/day. iii) municipal wastewater from the city of Siverskodonetsk totalling 60,000 m3/day. 167. The treatment plant has a capacity of 200,000 m3/day, but during periods of heavy rainfall there is hydraulic overloading as a result of surface water entering the sewage system. The elimination of this overloading will require the installation of storm tanks so that high rates of inflow can be adjusted to the available hydraulic capacity of the plant. 168. The treatment processes comprise grit removal, primary sedimentation, and biological treatment using the activated sludge process. All the effluent is passed through rapid gravity sand filters before being recycled through the industrial complex. Problems are being experienced with the backwashing of the sand filters, and it is apparent that improved technology, including the introduction of air scour, is required to improve the performance of this part of the treatment plant. 169. The sludges derived from the treatment of the wastewater streams from the factory domestic inflow and the municipal inflow (i.e., streams (i) and (iii) above) are de-watered by vacuum filters. The de-watered sludge is tipped on the treatment plant site, but the availability of tipping space for the future is becoming an operational problem. Flocculents are not used in the vacuum filtration plant; although the plant was designed to treat 40 tons/day, it can treat only 16 tons/day. Present production of sludge from the two waste streams amount to 24 tons/day; it is therefore necessary to purnp 8 tons/day of liquid sludge to two settlement lagoons adjacent to the treatment plant. The lagoons, which have a total volume of 1,050,000 in3, also take sludge pumped from the industrial treatment plant. The supernatant water from the lagoons is recycled to the industrial plant after 46 Annex 3 treatment, but it is estimated that there is only 2 to 3 years' capacity available in the lagoons at the present rate of sludge pumping. 170. The following schemes of capital investment are required if the operational problems of sludge treatment and disposal and hydraulic overloading of the wastewater treatment plant are to be overcome: i) construction of storm water balancing tanks; ii) improvements to the existing vacuum filtration sludge de-watering plant by the installation of sludge thickening tanks before the filters and by the introduction of flocculation clhemicals to improve the performance of the vacuum filters; iii) provision of additional mechanical sludge de-watering equipment to treat the sludge from the industrial wastewater stream; iv) provision of an incineration plant to dispose of all de-watered sludges; and v) a scheme of improvements to the mechanical plant of the rapid gravity sand filters to increase their effectiveness. 171. In addition, it would also be appropriate to investigate the feasibility of treating the sludge in a heated digestion plant, including utilization of the methane gas for power generation at the plant. Rubizhne 172. "Krasitel" Dyes and Chemicals Combine. Krasitel was founded in 1915 as a joint German/Russian company for the manufacture of dyes. The enterprise has since grown into a world class organic synthesis complex with a very wide product slate. It produces wet dyes for cotton, dyes for synthetics, pigments for polymer materials, and dyestuffs for pharmaceutical products. There are nearly 500 different production facilities at the site. The plant is located on a 640-ha site contiguous to the city of Rubizhne anid employs approximately 10,000 people. The plant is nearly self-sufficient and has a large infrastructure. It has extensive maintenance and equipment fabrication facilities, allowing it to construct less complex equipment on site. It also self-generates all of its power and steam needs. 173. The surrounding community infrastructure is supported by the plant. For example, municipal city water from Rubizhne, as well as from the adjacent town of Kremennoye, is treated at the plant's biological facility. Much of the communal infrastructure of the surrounding area is directly supported by the enterprise. 174. Chemical output. The plant produces a wide assortment of chemicals from small quantities of reagent grade chemicals to bulk quantities of raw and intermediate chemicals. In addition, there is extensive produccion of dyes of various types and smaller quantities of pigments. No production data was obtained as it was considered confidential. Nevertheless, output varies from hundreds of kilograms per month for some chemicals, to thousands of tons per month for others. Data on Pollutiotn Problemtis 47 175. Among the dyes that are produced are cotton dyes (wet solutions) and dispersed dyes for synthetic fibers. Carbazole chemistry was mentioned as a basis for producing some of the dyes. This may imply that anthracene oils from coal tars are still used as feedstock for dye manufacture, posing a potential health hazard for the workers at the site. The quantities of dyes that are produced must be very large. A production figure of 20,000 tons per year was given for Beta-naphthol. Beta-naphthol, occurring in coal tars, is an intermediate used in the manufacture of dyes. 176. Additionally, various plasticizers and saturated and unsaturated resins are made. There is also significant productiotn of phthalic and maleic anhydrides, probably used for resin and plasticizer manufacture at the plant and for sale outside. The plant also manufactures a series of organic acids, including formic, benzoic and salicylic acids. The first is used as a textile conditioner and as an intermediate chemical, while the latter two, among other applications (including aspirin from salicylic acid), are used in dye manufact re. 177. State of the Enterprise and its Pro'- )ects. The plant is going through very uncertain economic times. Output is falling, raw material supply sources and market outlets are disrupted, lack of capital and rising prices are all causing great difficulties. The plant badly needs renovation and maintenance and some of the production units appear to be shut down.9 However, in spite of this there appears to be a sense of normalcy. 178. The prospects for survival of Krasitel are high, even though undoubtedly much needs to be done to readjust product output to meet new market conditions. This will require strategic planning, management retraining, and large capital outlays. Some pragmatic steps are already being taken a: the plant. Plant management has shifted some production to consumer goods, necessitated by a nearly 30 percent drop in market demand for their bulk and intermediate chemicals. In addition, joint ventures and sales agreements are being pursued in the West. There is also significant domestic and foreign trade still taking place and new foreign ties and contracts are being pursued, giving the plant badly needed income. 179. EnerMy Use. Because of the small amount of time spent at the plant, only some general observations can be made. The plant occupies a large area and facilities are dispersed over large distances, requiring long utility system pipe runs. Steam and heat losses must be very high considering the apparent poor state of maintenance and aging equipment. All of the electricity needs at the plant (60 to 70 MW) are met by a power station that also produces steam. Undoubtedly there are significant gains that could be made in energy use at the plant. Merely to install good insulation, and to improve operating and maintenance practices could reduce enrergy losses by at least 10 percent. 180. Environmental Aspects. There are two potential sources of air pollution at the plant. The first is the utility boilers; the second is the solid waste combustion furnace. The first is probably insignificant, since only natural gas is combusted in utility boilers. But the second, the solid waste combustion furnace, could be a significant source of pollution because nearly 5,000 tons/day of solids are reportedly handled by the furnace. The question regarding what solids were burned in the furnace was unanswered. It is unclear where such large amounts of solids could come from, unless they are various tars and pitches left from coke tar processing. In that case, the furnace could be a significant 2/ The latest plant was installed in 1980 (phthalic and maleic anhydride units), and no new construction has taken place during the last 5 years. 48 Annex 3 source of polycyclic aromatics and other hazardous materials if combustion is not efficient. This potential source of air emissions needs further investigation. 181. Various chemical leaks may also be a significant source of air pollution. Carbon monoxide, for example, is manufactured on site. Other hazardous chemicals may leak and be airborne as dust or aerosols. However, no emission estimates were made available to the tean, and these levels are difficult to estimate. 182. Wastewater from the industrial processes, together with municipal wastewater from the city of Rubizhne and from the nearby town of Kremenhoye, is treated in two biological treatment plants. The first is designed to handle 6 to 7 tons/day of organics, while the second is designed to handle 24-26 tons/day of organics. Treatment Plant No. I treats 60,000 m3/day, most of which is municipal wastewater. The treatment process comprises primary sedimentation, biological treatment by activated sludge, followed by rapid gravity sand filtration and disinfection of the effluent by ozonation. Treatment Plant No. 2 treats 10,000 m3/day of industrial process water. The treatment process includes preliminary treatment, primary sedimentation, biological treatment in a 2-stage activated sludge plant, followed by rapid gravity sand filtration and disinfection by ozonation. The effluents from both plants are discharged to the Siverskodonets River. Effluent standards are re- negotiated annually between factory management and MEP and MOH. The standard of effluent produced by both treatment plants is within the required standards set for maintenance of river water quality. 183. Sludge from both the plants is dried in open lagoons and then deposited on grass areas around the treatment plants. If demineralization of the effluents from both treatment plants is introduced, it will be possible to introduce recycling and substantially reduce the demand for potable water to the factory. At the same time, it will be possible to eliminate the discharge of effluent to the river. The feasibility of introducing a scheme of demineralization of the effluents should therefore be investigated. Lysychansk 184. Lysychansk Soda Works. This plant was founded over 100 years ago. Parts of the plant still retain the old 500 volt utility system. It was destroyed during WWII, and parts of it carted away to Germany. After the war, the Soviets brought some of the equipment back from Germany and reconstructed the plant on the old model. Some of the equipment dates back to the beginning of the enterprise and is being constantly patched up. The soda factory is uidergoing long-term reconstruction in phases; over half of the factory has been rebuilt over the last 10 years. Reconstruction has now halted because of lack of funds. Apparently, much of the specialized replacement equipment used to come East Germany; this equipment has now become unaffordable. 185. The plant produces sodium carbonate (soda ash) and its related products (sodium bicarbonate, anumonium chloride, calcium chloride, and others). The old Solvay process is used, which reacts calcium carbonate (limestone) with sodium chloride (common salt). C.'cium carbonate is mined at open pits 18 kilometers away and is brought in by an elevated cable cai system. Sodium chloride in solution is mined 40 kilometers away and the saturated brine is pipelined to the plant. Data on Pollutiotn Problemtis 49 186. In contrast, in the US and several other countries, soda ash is produced by mining and processing naturally occurring minerals (principally trona), which is easier and more energy efficient to process and thus clheaper to produce. 187. The principal products produced by the plant and their quantities are shown below. Table 22: Annual Production of Principal Chemicals at the Lysychansk Soda Works Chemical 1,000 metric tonE/year Sodium carbonate 400 Calcium chloride 250 Sodiunm bicarbonate 53 Ammonium chloride 48 Reagent grade chemicals 4 188. This plant is reportedly the only plant in the FSU that is producing laboratory (reagent) grades of the chemicals mentioned above, although how important this is in monetary terms is questionable. In addition, finished products, mainly soda ash-based cleansers, are produced and packaged for sale to consumers and the military. 189. The products are reported to be generally of acceptable grade, except that of the calcium chloride.'0 he principal products exported are soda ash and calcium chloride. Calcium chloride is sold as a 37 percent aqueous solution for shipping (vs. hydrates, a higher concentration product shipped in dry form, which command a higher price). An additional problem is lack of proper packaging, making the product appear shabby when compared to its competition when exported. Most of the exports are to the former USSR republics and to Hungary, Bulgaria, and Sweden. Plant staff feel that if the packaging problems could be solved, more product could be exported. 190. State of the enterprise and its prospects. Although the plant operation seems inefficient and would have long since been shiut down in the West, current operating costs must be low enough to be able to attract foreign customers for its products. Of course, low operating costs are attributed to inadequate cost accounting at the plant or to government subsidy of the operation. Because the plant is energy intensive, and its main raw material, ammnonia, is also energy intensive, the cost of production is likely to rise with the increased cost of natural gas. In addition, the large capital investments that are needed for reconstruction of the facility and to bring it into compliance with modern environmental, health and safety standards could make the enterprise uneconomic. 191. The plant output of chemicals does not appear to be significant in the context of world trade but is significant in the Ukrainian market. Although it would be an obvious candidate for closure from the economic point of view, its products may be critical for other local enterprises, such as glass manufacturers, soap and detergent makers and as raw materials for other chemical manufacturers. It is clear, however, that the enterprise is a very unlikely candidate for joint ventures with Westem 10/ Calcium chloride is a byproduct of the Solvay process and is recovered from the so-called "distiller" waste. so Annex 3 companies. A rough estimate of the value of plant annual output, at current world market prices, approaches US$ 200 million. 192. Energy use. The overall energy usage at the enterprise must be high because of the cable car system that brings the limestonie to the plant and the pumping costs for the brine. Also, heat must be supplied to the process in at least three steps: the lime kilns, the rotary calciners, and the ammonia still. 193. Environmental aspects. An unusually high level of annual carbon monioxide emissions (27,000 tpa) was quoted for the plant. T he quantit) is over ten times that which could be related to the process itself and/or attributed to the poor combustion of fuels. If this figure is not an error, then it warrants further investigation. Other air pollutant quantities where not given. However, amnmonia could be smelled at the plant and at the wastewater storage ponds. Ammonia losses, from the process and also from wastewater to the air, must be high. In addition, heavy chemical dust is evident all over the plant site, sometimes completely covering large areas of the ground. Chemical dust losses are evident at all dry steps of the process and at the waste water storage sites. This dust is also airborne during product loading of railroad cars via open loading chutes. 194. The hot lime, from the lime kiln. is transported in an underground open tunnel to slakers. Workers in this pit are exposed to high levels of airborne lime. The only breathing protection evident around the kiln is an occasional person wearing what appears to be a rag or a handkerchief tied around the nose and the moutlh. Such protection is totally inadequate and must cause high levels of respiratory problems. The plant environmental engineer admitted that this is unacceptable and that the work is also particularly unbearable in the summer when high ambient temperatures, combined with the process heat, raise the temperatures to limits of endurance. It is obvious that dust control and appropriate breathling protection should be giveni highest priori4y at the plant. 195. Another potential airburne hazard at the plant is mercury. Apparently, there was an old chlor-alkali electrolytic process at the plant in the past that used mercury cells. This was abandoned some years back and dismantled. When construction of new process equipment began at the site of the old mercury cells, large pools of mercury, sometimes permeating the ground were discovered. To eliminate the potential mercury hazard, the old site was covered with concrete, apparently without great effort to clean up all of the mercury except that which was obvious. The only ambient air monitoring equipment that was installed is not sensitive enough to measure ambient air mercury concentrations. There is an obvious need for such analytical instruments to protect worker health. In addition, a medical test program should be begun for workers near this site to check for potential mercury poisoning. Since there are no records available about how mercury was handled at the plant, the whole plant site should be checked carefully for presence of mercury spills. 196. The factory operates a wastewater treatment plant for itself and for another factory nearby. As the treatment plant has a capacity of 10,000 m3/day but only receives a flow of 7,000 m3/day, there are no difficulties in meeting the effluent standards. Municipal wastewater from the city of Lysychansk is treated in a separate wastewater treatment plant operated by the Vodokanal authority. 197. The industrial wastewater stream from the factory is of the order of 4,O,000 m3 per annum. It contains high concentrations of calcium chloride (90 grams per liter) and sodium chloride (50 grams per liter). The waste is strongly alkaline (pH over 10). In addition, there are occasional discharges Data on Pollutioni Problc'ni.t 51 of wash water from the purification of the lime kiln. This water contains carbon fioxidtd, alkali carbons, flue dust, etc. ITle wastewaters are pumped to an elevated area of lineitii . tu' dIlle factory where tlhere is a comiiplex of 4 large open lagoons. Lagoons, 3 and 4 .t ( 1C,. although lagoon 3 is nearly full. hlie flow is initially puLnped to lagoon N,i I 1 capacity of 6,000,000 mi. Ihis laloon is lined with polNef lene and LlaS ThVIe v,L. ,V11ci ; . 1l in is then pumped to lagoon No 3 (capacity 3.51)0,00(0 m ) which is also linedt ajnol \" 1ii i,t,' ti storage/clarifier basin. Clarified eflluent passes from this lagoon throLgh tlhin.v.- uic li.- OT:S 1to 1l Siverskodonets River. lhe discharge is regulated b) IEIP and is only pc1rmiav(.r! I ilh lre;.lilnent and disposal of sludge are experienced at the northern works. A previously construct. d (lgestion plant was abandoned some years ago due to problems in its operation. A neu dJesultion plant i now being constructed, hut during the site visit there was no constructioni actIVITx at the site. and it was apparent that completion of these works would be drawn out due to lack ol adequate funds. Sludge is currently di- sed of in lagoons, and there is an urgent need for a mechanical dewatering plant. Proposals for the; ase of centrifuges have been drawn up, but further progress cal1not he made until funding is avaJlable. 211. The sexeeraLe networks for each plant have separate systems for foul and surface water flows. However. the (nrnk sewers leading to the plants are combined and receive the connections from the surface water sewerage networks. Consequently, during periods of heavy rainfall, the volume of flow to the treatment plants is exceptional, and overflows of sewage-polluted storm water are discharged directly to the sea. This occurs on an average of about 6 to 10 times each year, and clearly there is a serious health hazard to the bathing beaches in the vicinity. 212. At the southern plant, effluent from the plant is discharged through a sea outfall 2.5 km long into a water depth of 19 m. A chlorination installation is available to treat the effluent but this is only introduced during summner months when pollution of bathing beaches is detected by MOH. Sludge at the southern plant is treated by heated digestion and is then mechanically de-watered in centrifuges. Sludges from botlh planlts are tested for toxic metal concentrations by the University in Odessa and by sanitary service of The Municipal authority. Some of the sludge from the southern plant is used in agriculture fir application to grassland. 213. Within the Poselok Kotovsky district of the city, there are serious problems of surging of the sewerage system. with resultant overflows of untreated wastewater directly into the sea. The sewerage flooding occurs on an average of 2 to 3 times each year and affects 400,000 people residing in this sector of the city. It has been necessary to interrupt water supplies into the area for periods of up to 3 days in order to attempt to combat the wastewater flooding. 214. At the soutlhen side of the city, problems are experienced with a pumping station at the resort area of Arcadia. When power cuts occur, there is an overflow at the pumping station which results in untreated wastewater being discharged directly to the sea via the stormwater sewerage network. Proposals have been drawn up for a 10 km long gravity sewer to be constructed in a tunnel which will eliminate four intenliediate pumping stations. The estimated cost of these proposals is Rb 3.7 billion at 1993 prices. 215. To provide an adequate level of protection to the bathing beaches in the vicinity of the sea outfalls from the two plants, consideration needs to be given to the following capital schemes: Data on Pollution Problems 55 i) The early construction of a 200,000 m3/day extension to the northern plant. ii) The provision of tanks at both plants to minimize the overflow of storm sewerage during heavy rainfall. iii) Treatment for the disinfection of the effluent from both plants. 216. Municipal Water Supply. The Dniestcr water treatment plant serving Odessa lies adjacent to the Dniester River approximately 40 km to the northwest of the city. The plant has a treatment capacity of I million m3/day and supplies water to a total population of 2 million. The installation comprises pre-chlorination and flocculation/sedimeintation tollowed by rapid gravity filtration and chiorine adjustment before the water enters the supply system. Treated water is stored in service reservoirs which have a total capacity of 55,000 m3. There are 7 pumping mains from the plant to Odessa with an intermediate booster pumping station 14 km from the city. In addition to supplying the city the plant provides supplies to various towns and villages including: Ilichevsk; Yuzhniy with the port of Ovidiopol; Belgorod - Dnestrovsk; Belyaevka; Teplodar; and Kardina-Bugaz. 217. It is reported that the capacity of the treatment plant needs to be increased to provide 1.6 million m3 of water/day to meet both present and future anticipated levels of demand. The standards of treatment also need to be improved to overcome problemns of pollution in the raw water taken from the Dnieste-. Leakage levels in the distribution system are not known but from information available oa the bulk metered volumes put into supply and the total of metered quantities recorded as supplied to consumers, there is an 18 percent discrepancy. However, it is unlikely that this data represents the true level of leakage in the system. 218. Water and Sewerage Tariffs. The most recent water and sewerage rates are shown below: Rates for Water and Sewerage by Sector Water Sewerage General population 10.0 6.0 Other communal services 39.0 Local government agencies 336.0 185.5 Industry 1480.0 899.2 Cooperative enterprise 373.7 222.2 They indicate the heavy cross subsidization of other sectors, particularly households by industry. 219. Oil Contamination Problems at the Port of Odessa. At Odessa's harbor, the oil jetties do not have modem facilities for cleaning accidental oil spills. There are very small tanks for recei--ing oil contaminated ballast water and no facilities for cleaning ballast water. As a result, tanker calling at Odessa often discharge their ballast waters into the open sea (without declaring this to authorities). There have also been accidental oil spills from ships from time to time. 56 Annex 3 Proposal for a Water Management Plan Under the Black Sea Program A comprehensive study is required for the greater region of Odessa to appraise the existing installations of municipal water supplies, wastewater treatment and sewerage so that a master plan can be drawn up. The preparation study will need to address the following issues: i) Extensions and improvements at the Dniester water treatment plant. ii) Appraisal of the water distribution network with an emphasis on leakage losses. iii) Review of the two wastewater treatment plants serving the city with recommnendations on the level of treatment, safe disposal of the effluents, and an efficient means for the treatment and disposal of sludge. iv) A complete appraisal of the foul and surface water sewerage systems in the city, probably including analysis by mathematical modelling to identify causes of such problems and to make recommendations for the most effective means for eliminating them. 220. The port has a wastewater treatment plant to provide treatment for the effluents arising from cleaning of ships' ballast tanks. The plant comprises sedimentation tanks followed by a dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit for removing oil contaminants. The DAF unit does not have the benefit of flocculent addition, and its operating efficiency is therefore impaired. Sludge from the sedimentation tanks, in liquid form, is deposited in lagoons, buz it is reported that these are now 80 percent full and investigations into a solution to the future problem of sludge disposal are now required. In addition. a surface water sewer outfall into the port, from the city center of Odessa, is contaminated with oil from urban run-off. Technical assistance is needed to experiment with, and to provide, polyelectrolyte flocculents to improve the operational efficiency of the DAF unit used in the treatment of the effluent from the ballast tanks of vessels. A capital investment scheme is also required to provide mechanical dewatering equipment for the sludges from the ballast water treatment installation. Technical assistance could be provided in the preparation of a feasibility study to install an oil interceptor on surface water sewer outfalls discharging into the port. 221. The Government of Ukraine has decided to invest in oil storage capacity of about 8 million tons at a location near the Odessa port (Yuzhny) with the purpose of expanding Odessa's role as an import terminal, thus assuring an alternate source of petroleum imports vis a vis traditional suppliers in the FSU. Various ancillary investments will also be needed (eg. modernization of existing oil jetties to receive larger tankers and a product pipeline network connecting Odessa and the center of the country). MEP is planning to undertake an environmental impact assessment of the oil storage investment, although this evaluation may need to be broadened to cover other related investments. 222. In parallel, with the planned investments mentioned above, the municipal authorities of Odessa requested and received support from the national government and Parliament for a broader evaluation ef oil pollution problems in Odessa's harbor area (related to both commercial and military Data on Pollution Problems 57 harbor operations) and development of a management plan. This is an important step, as oil pollution prevention has been inadequate in the harbor, and the local community, through local tTGOs, has expressed concern about the existing and possibly future problems if Odessa's role as an oil terminal expands. 58 Annex 3 KHERSON OBLAST City of Kherson 223. Water Supply. Kherson, which has a resident population of 420,000, is supplied with 1,450,000 m3 of water/day from a series of 143 shallow boreholes. The quality of water abstracted is gradually declining and traces of oil which are believed to have seeped from ground contamination at the oil refinery, have been detected in increasing concentrations. Construction has commenced on a scheme to abstract and treat water from the Dnieper River but it is believed that this scheme is not very far advanced. A hydrogeological survey has indicated that there is a significant source of good quality borehole water on the left bank of the Dnieper, but so far proposals have not been drawn up for developing this source. Leakage levels in the distribution system are estimated by the Vodokanal authority to be of the order of 15 percent, but there is no reliable data available, and the municipality believes that leakage losses are considerably greater than this. 224. Wastewater Treatment. The city has a wastewater treatment plant (construrted in 1964) which provides full treatment for a flow of 100,000 m3/day. From Kherson and the surrounding area, the sewerage system discharges an average daily flow of 180,000 m3/day. Reconstruction of the wastewater treatment plant is now being completed, and it is claimed that treatment capacity of 250,000 m3/day will then be available. The next stage of development of the wastewater treatment plant involves the construction of a tertiary treatment plant. Initially this was intended to be based upon sand filtration but the proposals are now founded upon the use of a fixed film system incorporating plastic hair mat modules which have been observed in use at other wastewater treatment plants in the former Soviet Union. At present the effluents from the biological treatment stage of the wastewater plant receive tertiary treatment through 3 oxidation ponds. Effluent BOD concentrations in the range of 15-25 mg/l are reported but there are siltation proolems with these lagoons and it is claimed that effluent quality is deteriorating progressively. Introducing a new tertiary stage of treatment at the plant does not seem justified when the effluent BOD concentrations from the biological stage of treatment are reported to be as low as 9-12 mg/I. 225. Sludge from the plant is dewatered by gravity settlement in lagoons and is then disposed of into the farmlands. A project for mechanical dewatering of sludge using vacuum filters has been drawn up but no progress has been made with construction of this plant. The treatment plant includes a chlorination unit but this has not been in operation since 1982 due to the difficulty in obtaining chlorine supplies owing to lack of funds. 226. The city's sewerage network serves only 60 percent of the city. The system includes 13 pumping stations; at two of these stations (No. 6 and No. 12), the rising mains are the cause of pollution problems. When blockages or bursts occuir, it is not possible to effect repairs without discharging untreated wastewater into the Dnieper River. Proposals have already been made for duplication of the rising mains from these two stations. 227. At the oil terminal, which is a part of the Kherson port complex, there is a wastewater treatment plant for treatment of ballast waters and other polluting run-off in the terminal area. The plant has flotation tanks for the separation of oil, but these are apparently in need of reconstruction and the plant is reported to be a source of pollution to the Dnieper. Data on Pollution Problems 59 228. The city of Kherson would benefit from a careful study of the following: i) The extent of pollution of existing ground water supplies and the options for providing alternative sources of water if this proves to be necessary. ii) The condition of all existing sewage pumping mains where recommendations for the rehabilitation is necessary. iii) The wastewater treatment plant at the oil terminal with recommendations for the refurbishment or reconstruction of this plant. Tsiurupinsk 229. The paper and pulp mill at Tsiurupinsk was originally established in the area to process high quality reeds from beds in the Dnieper River. However, due to river regulation on the Dnieper, the quality of reeds deteriorated, and the pulp mill has now switched to production from timber obtained from Russia. Plantations of poplar are now being developed in the area to enable future pulp production to be obtained from local timber supplies. 230. The plant produces 34,000 tons of pulp per annum, of which 18,000 tons is sold overseas. It also produces 10,000 tpa of filter paper. The plant currently relies on a chlorine bleaching process, but as part of a joint venture investment, it is planning to invest in a more modern non-chlorine process. It has also arranged foreign commercial financing for the investment, in part secured by a government guarantee. The loan is expected to be repaid from the future cash flow of the enterprise. The foreign investor also commissioned an environmental audit of the enterprise as part of its business evaluation. 231. The factory has its own wastewater treatment plant that has a treatment capacity of 100,000 m3/day. At present it receives only 50,000 m3/day, of which 15,000 m3/day is municipal wastewater from the adjacent town. The treatment plant comprises of mechanical treatment and an activated sludge biological treatment stage, followed by oxidation ponds before effluent discharges into the river. From an influent wastewater strength of 120-140 mg/l of BOD and suspended solids, the final effluent produced is in the order of 3.0 mg/l BOD and suspended solid. Despite its good operation, it paid pollution fees of Rb 3 million last year for discharging suspended solids and organic chlorine components. The planned new process will completely eliminate discharges of chlor-organic compounds. 232. The wastewater treatment plant is maintained in good structural and mechanical condition, and the site visit indicates that it is obviously operated in a professional manner. The installation could be considered as a useful model for a demonstration activity in industrial wastewater treatment for other industrial enterprises in Ukraine. 60 Annex 3 THE CRINIEA Sevastopil (including Balaclava) 233. Municipal Water Supply. Water supplies for both Sevastopil and Balaclava are obtained from surface sources (Dnieper channel) and shallo'w artesian wells. The total quantity of water supply averages 210,000 m3/day. Both surface waters and borehole waters are reportedly polluted, though recently eight new boreholes have been drilled, four of these when tested were found to be affected by organic pollution. The municipality believes that the water supply problem of Sevastopil and Balaclava still require a long-term solution. An appraisal of the existing water supply installations in Sevastopil and Balaclava with the object of rationalizing existing supply sources and identifying new sources is necessary. The appraisal should closely look at leakage levels in the distribution system, which the municipality believes are high. 234. Municipal Wastewater Treatment. At Sevastopil there are two wastewater treatrnpnt works. The northern works provides only mechanical treatment, i.e. preliminary treatment and primary sedimentation with a small amount of biological treatment. The southern works, which presently receives a flow of 120,000 m3/day is designed to treat only 49,000 m3/day. This works provides only preliminary treatment (grit removal and screening) followed by primary settlement. The outfall is through a pipeline extending 1 km offshore into 100 m depth of water. However, the diffuser at the end of the outfall is blocked. Consequently, there is inadequate dispersion of the settled sewage discharged from the pipe. A new biological treatment stage has been under construction for the last 15 years, but it is still less than 50 percent complete. 235. Sludge is treated by digestion, but operational problems are being experienced with the installation, and only one of the two digestion tanks is now in use. Following digestion, the sludge is pumped to lagoons, and after dewatering by settlement it is disposed of on farmland. 236. The sewerage system in Sevastopil is overloaded during times of heavy rainfall and there are reported to be 12 locations where overflows of untreated wastewater are directed into the sea. At one such overflow point (Pumping Station No. 1), it is reported that a continuous discharge amounting to 8,000 m3/day occurs. 237. At Balaclava, which has a population of 40,000, there is no wastewater treatment plant to serve the existing sewerage network. Untreated sewage is discharged at the rate of 20,000 m3/day through a 40 m long outfall, into a 40 m depth of water. Due to tidal conditions and the position of the outfall, the harbor at Balaclava is affected by pollution from this discharge. A scheme for a tunnel sewer to convey wastewater from Balaclava to Sevastopil has been investigated, but it is evident that the per capita cost of such a proposal will be expensive. 238. Solid Waste. From 1985, the city of Sevastopil has operated a solid waste incinerator. However the capacity of this installation is hindered by the lack of equipment to control flue stack emissions. Data on Pollution Problemns 61 Yalta 239. Mtunicipal Wastewater Treatment. Thle Yakos wastewater treatnment plant serving the city of Yalta provides for a total population of 100,000. The plant gives full treatment to an average daily flow of 60,000 ni' and provides screeninig, grit removal, primary sedimentation and biological treatment using an activated sludge system with diffused air aeration. Sludge is mechanically dewatered by an installation of centrifuges, and semi-dried sludge is disposed of into the farmland. Sludge vacuum filters that were installed some years ago have never been brought into use due to operational and mechanical problems. 240. Thc wastewater treatment plant is sited on a narrow strip (if land between cliffs and the edge of the sea. The biological treatnment plant is currentlv being extended to increase treatment capacity to 80,000 m3/day to accommodate flow increases during the tourist season. Financing has not been made available to complete the installation of the aeration equipment for this extension. Problems are experienced with the existing aeration plant in the removal and treatment of surplus activated sludge, and it is understood that 20.000 m3 of surplus activated sludge are discharged per week directly into the sea. 241. The sea outfall is a 6.2 km long pipe terminating in 90 m depth of water. The pipe is a steel main constructed 12 year; ago and is suffering from corrosion. There are a number of leaks, the nearest being only 1 km away from the shoreline. A contract for the inspection and repair of the outfall has been placed, but it is believed that the first 1 km needs complete replacement. An allocation of Rb 200 million has been made by the central government for refurbishment of the outfall. 242. Sewage is pumped into the wastewater treatment plant through a number of pumping stations on the sewerage network. Problems are experienced from time to time due to power failures at the pumping stations and also during periods of high rainfall, when surcharging of the sewerage system occurs. It is understood that under exceptional rainfall conditions, the inlet works of the wastewater treatment plant become inundated and sewage flooding occurs on the site. 243. Subject to a technical review of proposals in a preparation study, the following investment requirements have been identified as a result of the site visit: i) Provision of diesel powered stand-by generation plant at the key sewage pumping stations on the sewerage network. ii) Appraisal of machinery requirements for completion of the activated sludge plant extensions for which the civil works have already been completed. This appraisal should include a detailed review of the means of removal and treatment of surplus activated sludge from the final settling tanks. iii) An appraisal of the condition of the existing sea outfall with an assessment of its future life span. This appraisal should include a review of requirements for replacement of the outfall at a future date. 62 Annex 3 Armyansk 244. The "Titan" plant at Armyansk is now trying to address its environmental problems. The plant operates on the sulphate route for the dissolution of its titanium ore, an older process. It generates large amounts of contaminated acid. A very large, shallow salt lagoon-43 km2-is used as a dump for the waste (which is mixed with dilute process streams and heavy metals); about 52 miullion m2 of waste have accumulated. The plant is now seeking international assistance to deal with the waste; the solution will include separating the waste streams and neutralizing the waste acid. Data on Pollution Problems 63 LVIVSKA OBLAST City of Lviv 245. The city of Lviv, with a population of about 800,000,12 is located on the watershed between the Dniester and Vistula river basins. The main industries in the city are: mechanical, electronic and food industries (dairy, abattoir and meat processing, yeast factory, brewery and noultry processing). The total quantity of wastewater is about 45 million m3/year. Poor water management and an antiquated delivery system limits the availability of water for domestic use to several hours in the morning and in the evening. The Poltava River, which flows through the middle of the city (beneath the city's Opera House), directly receives residential sewage and industrial waste in the old part of the town, without any kind of pretreatment; mean BOD5 of the raw wastewater is unexpectedly high because of the huge discharge from industries. The newer parts of the city are served by a separate sewer system and a wastewater treatment plant with a capacity of 500,000 m3/day. The technology applied is activated sludge with fine bubble aeration. The plant is fed by a pumping station, with by- pass overflow to the river. There is very simple sludge treatment generally; excess sludge is dried in sludge lagoons, but it reportedly contains too much heavy metal residue for agricultural use. Other Areas 246. The principal sources of ea.vironmental problems are: the industrial complex "Sirka" (sulfur), petroleum refining/petrochemical plants, and the local coal mining area. Lviv Oblast is the home of the Drohobych petroleum refinery, which has the capacity to process 3.3 million tons of crude oil p.a., altogether producing 3.23 million tons of products, the largest being fuel and heating oil. Drohobych, along with the refinery at Odessa, needs a complete replacement of main processing facilities, and because of needed downsizing in the industry as a whole, it is likely to face stiff competition from other, larger and more modern refineries in the country. Typical environmental problems include: insufficient facilities and lack of modern technology for removing oil and other pollutants, particularly phenolic compounds, from the plant's wastewater; excess fuel use; leakages of oil and gas during processing, generating high fugitive air emissions, particularly in the worker environment; and disposal of oil-contaminated solid wastes and sludge in open areas. Hydrocarbons have seeped into the soil, and there is evidence of groundwater contamination. The refinery is located along the Tishmenitia River, a tributary of the Dniester River, which serves as a drinking water source for various communities. 247. Elemental sulfur is mined from open pits or recovered in-situ from near-surface deposits in Yavoriv and Novij Rozdil districts. These plants supply sulfuric acid plants throughout Ukraine. Several large open pits remain unreclaimed and contribute to air and water pollution in the Yavoriv area. In-situ sulfur recovery operations are impinging upon residential areas and are affecting surface water quality. Local authorities are considering evacuation of several population centers in the vicinity of the sulfur operations. 248. There are 12 coal mines in the oblast, part of the Lviv-Volga coal basin. They are located near the towns of Czerwonograd and Nowowolynsk, which are the si-s of various other small 12 About 120,000 people come each day to work in Lviv from satellite towns. 64 Annex 3 industries as well. The drainage water from the mines is reportedly collected in ponds and reused without discharge to the river. The main problem in the area seems to be insufficient wastewater treatment at various towns. Data on Pollution Problems 65 IVANO-FRANKIVSKA OBLAST 249. This oblast is half covered in forests and unique to the area are problems associated with an active lumber industry. Poor land management and outdated lumber harvesting techniques have led to serious sedimentation problems in the otherwise pristine mountain streams. The area has enormous tourist potential (it is the site of the 53,000 hectare Carpathian National Nature Park) but lacks the infrastricture to deal with a tourist industry. The oblast is also has several chemical manufacturing sites, -n oil refinery complex and several large military bases. The Ministry for Environmental Protection estimates industrial discharges of wastewater to be about 180 million cubic meters per year, of which 46 million m3 is polluted. Discharges include 3.3 million tons of suspended material, 96,000 tons of salt, 1,600 tons of nitrogen, 79 tons of oil hydrocarbons, and lesser amounts of phenols and inorganic chemicals. About 50,000 tons of toxic waste are impounded in the territory of the oblast. 250. There are two coal-fired power generating stations, in the towns of Burschyn and Kalush. The stations utilize high sulfur coal. Together, they emit 230,000 tons of SO2 each year. 251. Health officials claim the primary sources of pollution in the oblast are; i) The chlorvinyl plant in Kalush, which produces polyvinyl chloride; ii) The "Barva" plant in the city of Ivano-Frankivska, which is engaged in light organic synthesis; iii) The power plant at Burshtyn (classified as one of the top 30 air polluters in the country, based on gross emissions). 252. The chlorvinyl plant in Kalush has a mixture of modem (Western European) and old technology. The modem part of the plant is in excellent condition. Plant managers are reluctant to show outsiders the older parts of the plant. A local NGO is concerned about the plant. 253. Barva employs 3,000 workers and manufactures over 100 chemical products, including specialty dyes, polymer additives and intermediates. The facilities are modem, clean and impressive, according to an expert who visited the plant during the study. About 70 percent of production goes to Russia, 20 percent stays in Ivano-Frankivsk and Ukraine, and 10 percent is exported to Western Europe for US dollars. The same leather dye chemical product that brings 700 rubles/kg fi ,m Russia can be sold to Germany for 7 US$/kg, and so there are hopes to increase exports to Western Europe. Western currency is reportedly being utilized to purchase pollution control equipment. 66 Annex 3 CHERNIVTSKA OBLAST City of Chemnivtsi 254. The primary environmental health problem in the Chernivtska Oblast has been the mysterious outbreak of thalliumrnlike illness in Chernivtsi in 1988. This outbreak was investigated by the Soviet Ministry of Health, Ukrainian Ministry of Health, World Health Organization and, most recently, the University of Illinois. In the summer and fall of 1988, 165 children in Chernivtsi were affected with an unusual illness characterized by upper respiratory symptoms, central nervous system symptoms, and alopecia (hair loss). One hundred and ten of these children had total diffuse rather than patchy alopecia. Among these 1 i0 children, 89 percent had upper respiratory symptoms, 60 percent had sleep disturbances, 58 percent had behavioral abnormalities, and 19 percent had hallucinations. There were no deaths, and all of the children with total alopecia had eventual regrowth of their hair. The cases ranged in age from less than 1 to 14 years with 30 percent age 1-2 years, 21 percent age 2-3 years, and 17 percent age 34 years. The cases clustered geographically in the older part of the city. Nail thallium levels were elevated in 8 affected children compared to controls, but bioassays were negative in most of the other cases. Epidemiologic investigations did not find any associations between the illness and diet, source of water, meuications, or radiation. 255. A commission appointed by the Soviet Ministry of Health conciuded that the illness was most likely caused by micro-doses of thallium in combination with the effects of other metals such as aluminum and boron. The source of thallium was speculated to be the illicit use of organic thallium anti-knock compounds in gasoline. In its efforts to halt the outbreak, the city of Chernivtsi banned automobile traffic in the old city, temporarily closed several factories, and prohibited leaf burning. In late fall of 1988, the military initiated a massive campaign to hose down the streets and roofs of the city to wash away potential contaminants. These clean-up efforts, however, failed to placate the public, and by November most parents had taken their children and fled the city. 256. In the spring of 1989, WHO sent a team to Chernivtsi to assist in the invest;gation of the outbreak. Over the course of one week, they examined every fifth affected child and reviewed the results of clinical and environmental studies conducted by the Soviets to date. They concluded that the illness was not caused by thallium for two reasons: i) bioassays did not detect thallium in the majority of the affected children; and ii) peripheral neuropathy, which is one of the cardinal features of thallium poisoning, was present in less than 5 percent of the children. While they could not identify a specific causative agent, they agreed that this was most likely a chemical illness. 257. On June 13 and 14, 1990, the USSR. Ministry of Health, USSR Academy of Science, UkrSSR Ministry of Public Health, Chernivtsi Department of Public Health, and the Chernivtsi Scientific Research Institute of Toxicometry hosted the All-Union Scientific and Practical Conference for Medico-Ecologic Problems of Health Protection of Maternity and Childhood. The conference attempted to convene all of the researchers who had participated in the investigation of this outbreak and achieve a consensus as to the etiology. While the cause was again not determined, most participants agreed that this was a chemical illness caused by air pollutants. Data on Pollution Problems 67 258. Several additional theories have been advanced as to the cause of this outbreak. A mycologist in Tashkent believed that the illness was caused by a new fungus which she christenea "zalmonella." The U.S. Center for Disease Control reviewed slides and cultures of the suspi-ct fungus and identified it at Paecomycetes Variotti, a common soil saprophyte which they felt was unlikely to be the cause of the outbreak. Another theory, which is believed by many residents of Chernivtsi, is that a military convoy passing through the c.ty in July 1988 was involved in a transportation accident with a resultant spill of SS-20 rocket fuel. Another theory holds that military plants in the city, which produce semiconductors, burned their industrial wastes in the cities brick kilns, releasing thallium and other metals into the environment. Yet another theory holds that an industrial accident at a chemical plant in Romania (approximately 50 km from Chernivtsi) released a cloud of identified pollutants which landed on the city. 259. There have been no new cases of this "toxic alopecia syndrome" since November 1988. The incidence of patchy alopecia, however, has climbed approximately 5 fold. Many residents believe that this patchy alopecia is the result of continued exposure to toxins, though at lower concentrations than in 1988. These new cases have not been reviewed by outside alopecia experts. Moreover, scalp biopsies, which would aid in the diagnosis of this patchy alopecia, have not been performed. Another explanation for this rise in incidence of patchy alopecia is increased case-finding. 260. In November 1990, several doctors from the University of Illinois visited Chernivtsi to conduct an assessment of air quality over the city. The study revealed that levels of pollutants in Chernivtsi were much higher than in large urban cities in the US. The Uni'.'ersity of Illinois team was accompanied by scientists from Finland, who conducted a soil survey for thallium and lead using a portable X-ray diffraction unit. Soil sampling did not identify localized hot spots of lead or Uiallium. 261. While the outbreak of toxic alopecia syndrome appears to be over, residents of Chernivtsi continue to be concerned about the high rates of patchy alopecia and the possibility of continued exposure to pollutants. The University of Illinois, together with the University of Toronto, is proposing that samples of affected children and controls be examined by U.S. alopecia experts in preparation for a case-control study of this outbreak. Dr. Prodanchuk at the Institute of Medical and Ecologic Problems in Chernivtsi has obtained support from the Ukrainian government to conduct a long-term prospective study of ecologic determinants of health of the entire pediatric population of Chernivtsi. 68 Annex 3 CITY OF KIEV 262. Minicipal Drinking Water Treatment. The city of Kie v is supplied with drinking water from two water treatmrecnt plants (Dnieper and Dyesna), and a network of S()Ioic :50 borenoles. The boreholes are between 160 m and 350 m deep into the chalk aquifer and arc optorated conjunctively with the two water treatment plants. The Dnieper treatment plant, uhich abstracts watler from the right hank of thie Dnieper River below the Kiev Reservoir, has a capacitv ol '600f,0tl m'/dav and treats at present 400,000 m-/day. The Dyesna plant abstracts wvater fromli the left banik ol the Dyesna River just above its confluence witlh the Dnieper River. The plantl has a capacity of 1,]00,000 m3/day and treats at present 850.000 m3/dav. 263. Total water supply into Kiev averages 1.500,000 m7/day of which 250,000 m'/day is derived from borehole sources. The water treatment process at both plants comprises screening at the intake; pre-chlorination; coagulation using aluminum sulphate followed by rapid gravity sand filtration and secondary chlorination to provide a chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l in the distribution system. The quality of raw water abstracted, particularly from the Dyesna River, is poor due to pollution from untreated sewage and poor quality sewage effluents upstream and it is necessary to prechlorinate at dosage rates of 6 to 7 mg/I. Measures in Response to Chemobyl Following the Chernobyl nuclear power station accident in April 1986, emergency measures were taken to maintain water supplies to Kiev in the event of radioactive contamination of the Dnieper river water. A floating intake pumping station was constructed on the Dyesna River and twin pumping mains laid to the Dnieper water treatment plant so that raw water supplies from the Dyesna River could be made available if required. This pumping station has been maintained in operational readiness, although to date it has not been found necessary to bring it into use. Daily checks are made on the level of radioactivity in the raw water supplies from the Dnieper and the Dyesna River. The gross beta activity in the raw water is of the order of 16 picocuries per liter and beta radiation from strontium 90 is less than 0.1 picocuries per liter. By comparison with WHO maximum level for gross beta activity in drinking water of 30 picocuries per liter, the presently recorded levels in the Dnieper raw water are satisfactory. However, the supply authority is concerned in the event of a flood occurring in the region of Chernobyl which could lead to significant and very rapid increases in the level of radioactivity. The floating pumping station on the Dyesna is therefore maintained in a state of readiness but for the longer term the supply authority have proposals for the construction of a raw water intake on the right bank of the Dyesna to supply the Dnieper treatment plant. 264. At both treatment plants, improvements are required to the air scour equipment of the filter installations to improve the efficiency of backwashing. There are also operational problems due to the lack of treatment capacity for the backwash water. The backwash effluent from the filters at present discharges directly back into the river and is a significant source of pollution of the river Data on Pollution Probleems 69 water. The two treatinent plants operating conjunctively with the borehole abstractions provide ani adequate level of supply t'or the city, and measures have been taken to provide security of supplies in the event of contatniration ol thie Dnieper water from a flood in the Chernohyl relion. Ilowcver, capital investment schemes are required at both plants, to provide for the treatment of the f'ilter backwash water, T'lhese schlemes will alleviate pollution of the river water and reduce ahsirniction since the treated backwash water can be recycled through the plant. 265. Municipal Wastewater Treatment, 'I'he city of Kiev is served by olne wasleuatci treatment plant located on the left hank of the Dnieper River. The plant treats a presenlt low of 1,700,000 m3/day from a contributing popuiation of 3,200,000 people. Extensions are presently under construction, and at the end of 1992 the treatment capacity will be increased to 1,800,000 m3/day. The sewage system is separate. The sewerage network on the left banlk of the river drains by gravity to the plant through a 3.0 m diameter trunk sewer, and the flows from the urban areas on the right bank are pumped across to the inlet. The treatment system comprises inlet grit channels and primary sedimentation followed by activated sludge biological treatment using a diffiused air system. Screening of the wastewater is undertaken at pumping stations on the sewerage network. Following secondary settlement, effluent is discharged to the Dnieper River by a 10 km long channel. The final effluent is not chlorinated. The plant achieves a standard of effluent within that set by MOH, MEP and the Kiev municipal sat.itary service. 266. P-imary sludge and surplus activated sludge are treated by an anaerobic digestion system operated at a temperature of 540C with a retention time of 4 to 5 days. Up to 1988 the sludge was used in agriculture and the plant effluent was used for irrigating 26,000 ha of agricultural land. Since January 1989 however, MOH and the Kiev municipal sanitary service have decided that toxic metal levels exceed State Standards, and agricultural use of the sludge and the effluent is no longer permitted. The disposal of liquid digested sludge, which amounts to 11,000 m3/day, is now a major problem in the operation of the plant. At present the sludge is pumped 10 km to lagoons but the storage capacity is becoming limited. It is evident that a scheme is required for the tr_atment and disposal of sludge from the plant. In preparation of a scheme, the following aspects of treatment should be giver consideration: i) Thickening of liquid sludges both before and after the digestion process so that the efficiency of the existing digestion plant can be increased. ii) Mechanical de-watering of digested sludge using either belt type presses or centrifuges to produce a semi-solid sludge cake. iii) Disposal of the sludge by either depositing in an engineered landfill or by incineration. The possibility of combining incinerator plant with the city's refuse incinerator on the adjacent site, should be appraised. iv) The economics of introducing a power generating installation on the plant to utilize methane gas from the sludge digestion installation. 70 Annex 3 267. Kiev: Dnieper-Darnitsa Chenical Plant.'" The facilities at the chemical pla:it ic.clude an old chloroalkali plant that relies on very outdated technology. The chloroalkali plant utilizes elemental mercury in its galvanic cells. Mercury can escape into the environment from several operations in the plant. Both the galvanic cells in the plant, as well as the deirercurization building where equipment is decontai:Lnated, are potential sources for mercury emissions into the air and into the subsurface. The chloroalkali plant had a water treatment plant recently installed to remove mercury from the plant effluent. Prior to water treatment, mercury contaminated effluent was probably discharged directly into the stream flowing past the industrial facility. 268. Although no satisfactory material balance has been performed on the mercury that is utilized in plant operations, discussion with plant personnel suggested several toIIs of mercury is lost yearly during plant operations. Most of this unaccounted mercury may be lost as ermiissions to the atmosphere. In the past, some of the unaccounted mercury probably was discharged as effluent to the stream. 269. Most of the mercury discharged in the Dnieper-Darnitsa industrial area, may have entered the hydrological regime in previous years, perhaps when effluent discharges were not treated. The mercury in the hydrological drainage was probably deposited as elemental mercury or as mercury salts which are reacting in the bottom sediments of the stream and the man-made lakes and fonning toxic methyl-mercury compounds. 270. Preliminary geochemical surveys of the area surrounding the complex that were conducted by the State Committee on Geology, revealed anomalous concentrations of mercury in near-surface soils adjacent to the complex, and in bottom sediments from a stream flowing past the facility. The stream eventually enters the Dnieper River through a series of man-made lakes several miles from the complex. Reported concentrations of 15 milligrams of mercury per kilogram of soil exceeded by at least one order of magnitude the concentration of mercury that would be reasonably expected in natural, uncontaminated soil mnaterial. The elevated concentrations from the preliminary survey implicated a man-made source. 271. To obtain a more accurate analysis of the level of contamination, selected samples from the survey were requested for duplicate analyses. These samnples were delivered to Core Laboratories in Denver, Colorado, and were reanalyzed using EPA approved procedures. The results of these duplicate analyses are presented in Table 23, where mercury results from Core Laboratories are compared with the original results of the survey. The duplicate analysis reported much high mercury concentrations than previously reported in soil and sediment samples downgradient of the industrial complex. The discrepancy is most likely related to the presence of methyl-mercury compounds in the soil and sediment that were not accurately measured with 1960s analytical instrumentation. 13 This plant is situated on the east bank of the Dnieper River i~ the Dnipro-Damnitsa industrial complex, situated in the center of a residential area within the city limits of Kiev. Data on Pollution Problems 71 Table 23: Analysis of Mercury Concentrations in Soil ji Mercury Concentration, in mg/kg Sample No. Location "Servukgeologia" Core Lab Results' Results' 202 Background soil east of 0. 19 0.21 industrial complex 309 Soil north of industrial 0.84 0.93 complex, adjacent to recreational area Stream sediment adjacent to 105 industrial complex, upgradient 0.5 15.0 to discharge point 120 Stream sediment, about one 15.0 400.0 mile downgradient of discharge point 128 Stream sediment, about two 2.0 16.2 miles downgradient of discharge point 155 Bank sample from man-made 3.0 135.0 lake near outlet to Dnipro River 1/ Using gold-foil mercury analyzer 2/ Using EPA Method 245 (Cold Vapor) 272. Mercury levels in samples of the stream's bottom sediments reached concentration of 400 milligrams per kilogram. This level of mercury is at least 400 times higher than what would be reasonable in natural, non-contaminated soil or sediment material. Moreover, the analyses suggest that the bulk of mercury is in the most toxic, methyl-mercury form. The environmental situation is aggravated by the location of the industrial complex, in the heart of a residential/recreational area, and that surface water downgradient to the site is used for fishing and recreation. No water analyses were available from the stream, or from the man-made lakes built to receive stream flow and regulate the flow into the Dnieper River. 273. In 1992, bioassay of the fish population downgradient of the site were performed by the Ukraine Ministry of Health. Results of the preliminary bioassays indicated that the mercury concentration in fish caught several miles below the industrial complex were 30 times greater than in fish caught above the industrial complex. The results of the bioassay triggered a prohibition, issued by local authorities, on downstream fishing in the man-made lakes. 72 Annex 3 274. The short-term solution to the problem is to limit the exposure of people to heavy metals and organic contaminants that are accumulating in the bottom-sediments of the lakc near the industrial complex, Lake Nizhniy Telbyn. Exposure can be controlled best by managing access into the area and restricting all recreational use of the lake. Monitoring of mercury levels in fish from the lake should also be undertaken. Water samples should be analyzeu for a complete suite of inorganic and organic parameters in order to establish present water quality in the lake. 275. Most of the heavy metals (excluding mercury) reported in the bottom-sediments of the lake are probably fixed geochemically by the silts and fines of the lake. They are unlikely to pose an immediate threat to human health and safety, unless the bottom sediments are disturbed and put in suspension. Ukstement 276. This plant produces 500,000 tpa (1991) of corrugated roofing insulation board. It has 820 employees. 277. Housekeeping in the general plant area appears satisfactory except for the unsecured presence of exposed asbestos. Workers wear no breathing protection. Steam from the paper machines should be collected by side vents, which pull the steam into ducts where it can be condensed and Lhen recycled or sewered. In general, the use of this composite material should be discontinued because of the health hazard associated with asbestos. This is true not onlv for plant workers and people living in the area but there is concern for the deterioration of these irsulation boards instalied >i buildings around the country. The boards are not very sturdy and their decomposition over time will, in aggregate, release considerablc asbestos particles in the air. ANNEX 4: DATA ON TIE STEEL AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES TABLE 1: STEEL PLANT CAPACITY (MILLION TONS) PRODUCT PLANT PIG IRON RAW STEEL [ ROLLED IPROD)UC KRYVYI RIH 14.6 13.9 8.41 (LONG& FLAT) AZOVSTAHL 5.9 7.0 4.65 (FLAT) ILLYCHA 5.6 7.3 6.7 (FLAT, TUBES) ALCHEVSK 5.7 4.5 3.2 DNIPRODZERZINSK 5.4 6.0 4.0 ZAPORIZHZHIA 4.1 4.8 2.4 (FLAT PROD) MAKUVRA 3.3 4.05 3.4 (LONG) YENAKIEVE 3.1 3.1 1.5 (RAILS, TUBES) DNIPROPETROVSK 2.4 1.9 2.55 DONETSK 1.27 1.8 1.9 KRAMATORSK 0.93 6.4 0.69 DNIPROSPETSSTAL 1.4 0.6 (electric arc only; in Zaporizbzhia) TABLE 2: MAJOR PLANTS AND PRODUCTION, 1991 (MILION TONS PER YEAW) PLANTS LOCATION IRON RAW STL it KRIVOROZHSTAL Kryvyi Rih 9.2 10.0 7.0 AZOVSTAL Mariiupil 6.0 6.0 4.5 ILLYCHA Mariiupil 4.2 5.5 4.7 DZERZHINSKY Dnip;odzerzhinsk 4.6 5.3 3.6 ZAPOROZHSTAL Zaporizhzhia 4.5 4.5 3.5 MAKEYEVKA near Donetsk 2.8 3.5 2.7 YENAKIIEVE near Donetsk 2.8 3.0 2.3 DONETSK Donetsk 1.3 0.7 0.5 2 Annex 4 l______________- TABLE 3: NTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS: 1991 PRODUCTION DATA l SINTER PLANTS BLAST FURNACES OPEN HEARTH FURNACES BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES INTEGRATED PLANTS Number of Total area m2 Sinter Number of Pig iron Number of Raw steel Number of Raw steel (VISITED) strands production furnaces production O.H.F. production B.O.F. production million ttyr million ttyr million t/yr million tlyr (1991) _ (1991) _ (1991) _ (1991) DONETSK - - - 2 1.3 8' 0.7 - _ YENAKIEVE 4 250 2.4 4 2.8 - - 3 30 MAKIIVKA 62 375 5.0 4 2.8 11 3.5 - AZOVSTAL 2 125 1.7 6 6.0 11 2.9 2 3.1 ILLYCHA 12 1,020 9.9 5 4.2 6 3.1 3 2.4 ZAPOROZHSTAL 6 375 5.6 5 4.5 10 4.5 - KRIVOROZHSTAL 6 375 2.5 94 9.2 6 4.3 10 5? TOTAL 36 2,520 27.1 | 35 30.8 | 52 | 19.0 f 18 1 14.2 1/ DONETSK: in 1992, only six open hearth furnaces are in operation. aI MAK.UVKA: in 1992, only two sinter strands are in operation. #I M.AKIVKA: in 1992, two 500 tons open hearth furnaces have been replaced by a new 250 tons furnace. 4/ KRIVOROZHSTAL: in 1992, due to lack of raw materials, three blast furnaces are stopped. Data on the Steel and Chemical Industries 3 TABLE 4: PRODUCTION HISTORY l A/ STEEL INDUSTRY STEEL PRODUCTION (plants visited) million tons / year _ 1989 ]_ 1991 DONETSK 1.6 1.4 YENAKIIEVE 2.9 3.0 MAKIIVKA 3.7 3.5 AZOVSTAL 7.0 6.0 ILLYCHA 6.3 5.5 ZAPORIZHZHIA 4.2 4.5 KRYVYI RIH 12.9 10.0 DNIPROSPETSSTAL 1.2 1.0 TOTAL 38.6 33.9 B/ ALUMINUM PLANT PRODUCTION (ZAPORIZHZHIA) tons / year 1990 1991 ALUMINA 207.639 200.000 ALUMINUM 94.619 90.850 SILUMIN 21.620 21.845 C/ COKE OVEN PLANTS PRODUCTION million tons / year 1990 1991 COKE 33.7 28.2 4 Annex 4 TAHI.E 5: BASIC DATA ON STEEL PLANI S VISITED PLANT SIl()P TH('IINOLOGY PRODUCTION (1) IMISSIONS (TONS) __ ___ _ _ _ _OT S0. NOx_CO DONETSK IRON-MAKIN 2 'J1l.ASfi l'RNACt.S 1.3 iin ion' STEEI. MAKING 6 0il[-,\ 1-12. wnl 0.7 nin ton 2 LAIP x loo lon 0,7 rnl tns CASTING 2 CC (0111 0.7 in ltons ROLLING MILL I l;,r MledI,tin Plate Fla" 2' olomu i ro ducts TOTAl._ 3972 885 3669 2850| YENAKIIEVE SINTER PLANI 5 x 62.5 N 3 inn tonis sinter IRON MAKING 4 BLASrT llRNACES 2,8 mn tons STEEL MAKING 3 BOI x 1301 tons 3 mn tons CASTING No Coiu. Casoting 3 mn tons ROLLING IILLS 5, foir Long l'roducts 2 mn tons TOTAL 16000 6750 2900 71650 MAKIVKA SINTER PLANT 2 x 435 M- 5 mn tons sinter 5000 3000 1300 70000 IRON MAKING 4 BLAST FURNACES 2.8 mn tons 11800 400 100 31600 STEEL MAKING 3 OIIF x 250 tons 3.5 mn tons total 11200 2800 14400 6 OHF x 500 tons CASTING No Cont. Casting ROLLING MILLS 7. for Lonm Products 2.8 mn. tons 1100 600 400 5900 laminate TOTAL 29100 4000 4600 121,900 AZOVSTAL SINTER PLANT 2 x 62 M' 1.7 mn tons 1855 903 607 47733 IRON MAKING 6 6 BLAST FUTRNACES 6.0 mn tons 6046 761 806 30578 STEEL MAKING I I OHF x 400 tons 2.9 mn tons 7313 856 8413 1588 2 BOF x 350 tons 3.1 mn tons 2354 11 124 17274 CASTING S Coot. Casting 583 8 ROLLING MILLS 6, for Long Products 891 2549 1413 | 125 POWER PLANT 858 7158 2013 427 LIME PLANT 1711 26 373 2171 ANCILLARY 585 75 9 1897 TOTAL 22196 12337 13758 103793 ILLYCHA SINTER PLANT 12 x 85 M: 9.9 mn tons 37296 28689 7176 213730 IRON MAKING 5 BLAST FURNACES 4.2 mn tons ? ? ? ? STEEL MAKING I OHF x 650 tons 3.1 mn tons in total 5321 2116 14747 14971 3 OFH x 900 tons 3 BOF x 175 tons 2.4 mn tons 2114 ? ? CASTING No Cont. Casting ROLLING MILLS 7, for Flat Products 5.7 mn tons 6056 ? ? 24317 POWER PLANT 1 7785 | 3820 ? ? TOTAL 58572 34625 27185 260773 Data on the Steel anid Clhemical Induistries 5 TABLE 6: BASIC DATA ON STEEL PLANTS VISrTED PLANT } SHiP | TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION (1) EMISSIONS (TON{S) j ___________ DUST I SO2 NOx I co j ZAPOROZHSTAL SINTER 6 x 62.5 M2 5.6 mn tons 5540 7790 1530 72430 IRON-MAKING 5 BLAST FURNACES 4.5 mn tons 12410 4060 430 14910 STEEL-MAKING 2 Tandem x 142 tons I x 250 tons OHF 4.5 mn tons in total 1910 310 3880 7590 6 x 500 tons OHF CASTING No. Cont. Casting ROLLING MIILLS 8, for Flat Products 3.3 ? ? POW'ER PLANT ? 2510 1260 ? TOTAL 20890 15050 8310 95080 KRYVYI RJH SINTER PLANT 6 x 62.5 M2 3.7 mn tons sinter 9439 ? ? ? IRON-MAKING 9 BLAST FURNACES 11.8 mn tons 16792 ? ? ? (1 x 9000 ton/day) STEEL MAKING 4 OHF x 650 tons 2 Tandem (I x 270 tons) (I x 306 tons) 9453 ? ? ? 4 BOF x 50 tons 12.3 inn tons in total 8329 ? ? ? 6 BOF x 160 tons 3330 ? ? CASTING No. Cont. Casting ROLLING MILLS 1, for Flat Products 8.5 mn tons 14942 ? ? ? 12, for Long Products 6035 ? ? ? POWER PLANT 19102 ? V ? LIME PLANT 1318 ? ? ? ANCILLARY TOTAL 61592 32688 14548 18853 0 Notes: 1. Production data are for 1990 and emissions data are for the same year. 2. OHF = OPEN HEARTH FURNACE; EAF = ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE; CC CONTINUOUS CASTING. 3. BOF = BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE. 4. Where data are not available, a ? has been inserted. 6 Annex 4 TABLE 7: UKRAINIAN INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS INTEGRATED PLANTS SINTER PLANTS BLAST FURNACE OPEN HEARTH BASIC OXYGEN Annual capacity Annual Capacity FURNACE PURNACES mill.t (sinter)/yr mill.t (pig iron)/yr Annual capacity Annual capacity mill.t (raw steel)/yr mill.t (raw steel)lyr DONETSK 1.1 1.0 YENAKIIEVE 3.0 3.1 3.3 MAKIIVKA 1.2 3.7 4.4 AZOVSTAL 1.6 5.7 3.4 3.5 ILLYCHA 12.0 5.7 3.9 2.8 ZAPOROZHSTAL 5.2 4.6 5.0 KRIVOROZHSTAL 4.2 13.6 5.0 6.5 DZERZHINSKY 4.1 5.6 3.6 2.2 ALCHEVSK 5.4 6.3 4.1 KRAMATORSK 1.0Q DNIPROPETROVSK 2.2 0.6 1.2 KOSTIANTYNIVKA 0.4 L TOTAL 36.7 53.0 31.0 19.5 Data on the Steel and Chemical Industries 7 TABLE 8: INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS: AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS (1991 DATA) INTEGRATED PLANTS Raw steel AIR POLLUTANTS EMISSION (thousands tons / year) production . million DUST SO NOx co TOTAL tons/year t4 polfulatM) DONETSK 0.7 3.2 0.9 1.2 6.3 11.6 YENAKIIEVE 3.0 12.2 2.6 2.8 75.1 92.7 MAKIIVKA 3.5 27.5 5.4 4.5 109.5 147.0 AZOVSTAL 6.0 22.6 12.3 13.8 103.9 152.6 ILLYCHA 5.5 51.8 34.6 27.2 260.8 374.4 ZAPOROZHSTAL 4.5 17.5 12.8 8.2 88.2 126.7 KRIVOROZHSTAL 10.0 53.4 21.8 11.1 150.5 236.8 DZERZHINSKY n.a. 34.4 27.1 12.9 144.7 219.1 ALCHEVSK n.a. 28.7 11.9 9.4 86.3 136.3 KRAMATORSK n.a. 0.6 0.1 0.7 3.2 4.6 DNIPROPETROVSK n.a. 14.8 3.0 2.7 13.8 34.3 KOSTIANTYNIVKA n.a. 1.1 0.1 0.2 1.3 2.7 TOTA . _ =____ ,3. TOTAL | - 1 267.9 | 136.2 94.7 1 1,043.6 1,538.8 * DONETSK also has an electric arc furnace steelmaking shop. 8 Annex 4 TABLE 9: INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS: SPECIFIC AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS COMPARISON BETWEEN UKRAINIAN AVERAGE AND WESTERN REFERENCE UKRAINIAN AVERAGE WESTERN REFERENCE lINTER PLANT DUST f SO2 NOx DUST S Jo NOx |SINTER PLANT kg/t sinter 1.7 1.3 0.5 0.6 1.3 0.9 BLAST FURNACES kg/t pig iron 2.7 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.09 0.04 OPEN HEARTH FURNACES NO kg/raw steel 2.0 0.3 2.3 REFERENCE BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES kg/t raw steel 0.85 - - 0.3 0.01 0.03 ROLLING MILLS kg/t rolled steel 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.07 0.2 0.16 |OTHER PLANTS (power plant, lime plant and ancillaries) kg/t raw steel 1.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 TA4BLE 10: INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS: WATER CONSUMPTION AND WATER POLLUTANTS EMISSION (1991 DATA) lNT1GRATED Raw steel Water WATER POLLUTANTS EMISSIONS (tons / year) PLANTS (VISITED) production milliion consumption ton / year thousands m3 BOD SS Dissolved Oil Cil So4- N(NH4 Fe Components YENAKIIEVE 3.0 1.164 12.2 22.3 1.405 0.2 262 530 0.21 0.27 AZOVSTAL 6.0 219.917 266.0 2.599.0 6.196 - 4.398 1.199 239.9 - ILLYCHA 5.5 50.264 156.3 431.3 93.320 29.6 19.160 28.569 191.6 16.7 ZAPOROZI1STAI. 4.5 96.032 2.307., 80.772 49.9 S. los 41 3(,,7 4 (I ,5.3 KRIVOROZHSTAL 10.0 83.003 166.0 962.80 147.330 448.7 487.2 54.0 TOTAL 29.0 450.380 600.5 6.323 329.023 528.4 31.928 71.665 1.401.8 146.3 (5 integrated plants) (4 plants) (4 plants) (4 plants) (4 planes) 10 Annex 4 TABLE 11: UKRAINIAN COKE OVEN PLANTS l PLANTS COKE OVEN BATTERIES 1 1991 coke production millions tons coke I year MARIUPIL 2,734 ZAPORIZHZHIA 2.117 KRYVYI RIH 4.339 AVDIIVKA 5.187 HORLIVKA 0.986 YENAKIIEVE 0.768 DONETSK 1.776 IASINOVSKA 2.422 MAKIIVKA 0.594 BAZNEVSKA 1.901 DNIPRODZERZHINSK 0.968 DNEPROPETROVSK 0.936 ALCHEVSK 3.220 KADIIVKA 0.229 TOTAL l 28.177 Data on the Steel and Chemical Industries I TABLE 12: COKE OVEN PLANTS: ORGANIC COMPOUND EMISSIONS COKE OVEN PLANTS TOTAL HYDROCARBONS BENZO-A-PYRENE tons / year kg / t coke kg / year mg / t coke MARIIUPIL 1.000 0.4 47 17 ZAPORIZHZHIA 20 0.01 54 26. KRYVYI RIH (1990) 3.300 0.6 8 2 AVDI1VKA 2.470 0.5 226 44 HORLIVKA 240 0.2 81 82 YENAKIIEVE 500 0.7 24 31 DONETSK 500 0.3 1.6 1 IASINOVSKA 1.000 0.4 9 4 MAKIIVKA 17 0.03 2 3 BAZNEVSKA 800 0.4 2 I DNIPRODZERZHINSK 700 0.7 6 6 DNIPROPETROVSK 810 0.9 1 1 ALCHEVSK 700 0.2 54 17 KADIIVKA 90 | 0.4 9 39 [TOTAL 12.147 - 524.6 - [ AVERAGE -0.4 19.6 12 Annex 4 TABLE 13: CAPITAL INVESTMENT PLANS FOR SURVEYED PLANTS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY (i) DONETSK IRON AND STEEL WORKS o OPEN HEARTH FURNACES REPLACEMENT (US $125 millions) - an EOF (Energy Optimizing Furnace): 80 t capacity, 0.7 million t/yr - ladle metallurgy - continuous casting machine o ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES MODERNIZATION OR RECONSTRUCTION o BLAST FURNACES SHUT DOWN (ii) YENAKIIEVE IRON AND STEEL %._;ORKS o 250 MM CONTINUOUS WIRE ROD MILL MODERNIZATION ($130 million) o FOUR CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINES (US $400 millions) - two machines for casting square billets - two machines for casting slats (for a future production of flat products) (iii) MAKIIVKA IRON AND STEEL WORKS ' 150 MM CONTINUOUS WIRE ROD MILL MODERNIZATION: (US $80 millions) o 350 MM ASSORTMENT MILL MODERNIZATION: (US $60 millions) o CLOSING OF LAST SINTER STRANDS o MODIFICATION OF THE RUNNERS OF PIG IRON IN BLAST FURNACES CAST HOUSE * EVENTUAL GENERALIZATION OF A NEW STEELMAKING PROCESS (WHICH IS STUDIED IN MAKIIVKA FOR A FEW MONTHS) o INSTALLATION OF A LADLE METALLURGY UNIT o NEW ELECTRIC ARC FURNACES STEELMAKING SHOP: (US $300 millions) - electric arc furnaces - continuous casting - hot slab rolling nmill - cold coil rolling mill o BLAST FURNACE COMPUTERIZATION Data on the Steel and Chiemical Indutstries 13 New slag treatment ullit (US $ 12 - 32 millions) (iv) AZOVSTAL IRON STEEL WORKS o HEAVY PLATE MILL IIEATING FUJRNACE MODERNIZATION OR REPLACEMENT o RAIL MILI MODERNIZA rION o HEAVY PLATE MILL MODERNIZATION o ELENVEN OPEN HEARTH FURNACES SHUT DOWN AND REPLACEMENT BY THREE BASIC OXYGEN CONVERTERS (16,000 - 18,000 roubles / annual tons) o PROGRESSIVE REPLACEMENT OF TEN BOILERS (500 millions rubles, 1991) (v) ILLYCHA IRON AND STEEL WORKS o TWO-LINES CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINES - a first machine is being erected - a second machine is possible in a few years o SIX LAST OPEN HEARTH FURNACES SHUT DOWN (vi) ZAPOROSZHSTAL IRON AND STEEL WORKS o OPEN HEARTH FURNACES SHUT DOWN (INCLUDING TANDEM FURNACES) AND REPLACEMENT BY BASIC OXYGEN CONVERTERS o SIX LAST OPEN HEARTH FURNACES SHUT DOWN (vii) DNEPROSPETSSTAL ELECTRIC STEEL WORKS o STEELMAKING SHOP #2 MODERNIZATION - replacement of the last 30 tons electric arc furnaces by a new 50 tons electric arc furnace - secondary fumes collection and cleaning equipments o STEELMAKING SHOP # 3 TRANSFORMATION (US $140 millions) - replacement of the existing electric arc furnaces by two Danielli 70 tons electric arc furnaces (1 million) - ladle metallurgy - continuous casting - primary and secondary fumes collection and cleaning equipments 14 Annex 4 (viii) KRIVOROZHSTAL INTEGRATELD IRON ANI) STEEL WORVS o ;SINTER PLANT SHUtl LDOWVN AND) CREATION OF1 A NEW CHARGE PREPARATION COM%1' P.1 X (260 mililholl loui uleS 1989) - Present sinmer plah recvcies solid ol the plant o OPEN IIEARTHI FURNACES SHI{'T DOWN o 3BASIC OXYGEN CONERTERS # I SHIOP SHUT I)OWN o NEW BASIC OXN-Y EN CONVERTERS TO BE INSTALLED NEAR # 9 BLAST FURNACE (at 2.5 kmin of tilc citv. (40 millions roubles 1989) o THREE BLOOMING MILLS SHlUT DOWN o NEW CONTINUOUS CASTING MACIIINES o LONG PRODUCTS ROLLING MILLS REVAMPING (US $100 millions) o NEW HOT STRIP MIILL (US $600 millions) Reorientation of steel production from loug products to flat products 3 millions tons / year o SEVEN YEARS ECOLOGICAL PROGRAM (2,000 millions roubles, 1992) Data on the Steel and Chemical Iniduistries 15 TABLE 14: ESTIMATED COST OF VARIOUS PROCESS CHANGES OR POLLUTION CONTROL INVESTMENTS INVESTMENT ABATEMENT OF: PLANT INVESTMENT ESTIMATE COST DUST Total Benzo-a- $ nWiIlion Pollutaxs pytene tons tons / kg I year year year 1. DONETSK OPEN HEARTH FURNACES S1HUT DOWN . REPLACEMENT BY AN EOF STEELNIAKING SHOP 50 1,500 10,000 - (0.7 million t raw steel'yr) 2. UKRZINC PLANT SHUT DOWN (Kosdiantynivka) (very obsolete plant without any - 500 9,500 108 possible future) 3. YENAKIIEVE NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF SINTER PLANT 20 3,000 3,000 - BETTER COLLECTION AND DEDUSTING OF BLAST FURNACE 12 8,000 42,000 TOP GAS (as MAXIIVKA) 4. MAKIIVKA SINTER PLANT SHUT DOWN (There were 6 strands of which 4 have 5,000 79,000 been closed in February 1992) or NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF 2 REMAINING SINTER STRANDS 10 1,500 1,500 BETTER COLLECTION AND DEDUSTING OF BLAST FURNACE TOP GAS 12 8,000 42,000 NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF OPEN HEARTH FURNACES (Primary gas cleaning) 10 7,000 7,000 5. AZOVSTAL SINTER PLANT SHUT DOWN - 1,600 50,900 (Mariiupil) or NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF 10 1,500 1,500 2 SINTER STRANDS BETTER COLLECTION AND 18 4,600 34,000 DEDUSTING OF BLAST FURNACE TOP GAS NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF 9 2,400 3,500 OPEN HEARTH FURNACES _ l 16 Annex 4 TABLE 14: EST. COST OF VARIOUS PROCESS CHANGES OR POLLUTION CONTROL 'NVFSTMENTS 6. ILLYCHA SINTER PLANT SIIUT DOWN 30,5() 280,0(X) (Matiiupil' or NEW DEDUSTING 60 27.0() 27,0(NU EQUIPMENT OF 12 SINTER l ~~~~~STRANDS STRANDS 50 4,000 4.0(K NEW DEDUSTING EQUIPMENT OF OPEN HEARTH FURNACES (Pnmarv gas cleaning, 7. MARiUUPIL COKE SIX OLD BATTERIES SHUT - 1,400 11 .(X) 35 OVEN PLANT DOWN MODERNIZATION OF THE 15 200 2(01 NEW BATTERY NEW SECOND BATTERY 50 (for - (after six old batteries shut infornation) down) 40 l _ _9S.-2 G.-,, 24W 1 COKE OVEN GAS 502A.. DESULFURIZATION 8. ZAPORZHSTAL SINTER PLANT SHUT DOWN - 5,500 87,000 or NEW DEDUSTING 30 4,500 4,500 EQUIPMENT OF 6 SINTER STRANDS BETTER COLLECTION AND 15 11,000 25,000 DEDUSTING OF BLAST FURNACE TOP GAS NEW DEDUSTING 10 1,500 1,500 EQUIPMENT OF OPEN HEARTH FURNACES (secondary fumes cleaning) 9. ZAPORIZHZHIA PLANT SHUT DOWN 1,900 7,900 356 ELECTRODE PLANT or PLANT RECONSTRUCTION n.a. - - AND MOVE 10. DNEPROSPETSSAL NEW EAF STEELMAKING S0 4,500 4,500 (Zaporizhzhia) SHOP (#3) (,w ladk& (Order under signature) __ __ 11. DNIEPR- MODERNIZATION OF 150-200 5,500 5,600 ALUMINUM ELECTROLYSIS SHOP fHF -on .ou4 be WORKS (Replacement of Sodeberg d f '',. w (Zaporizhzhia) electrodes) _ _ _ _ _ __ _ Data on the Steel and Chemical lIndustries 17 TABLE 14: EST. COST OF VARIOUS PROCESS OR POLLUTION CONTROL INVESTMENTS 12. ZAPORIZHZHIA COKE DOOR CLEANING EQUIPMENT 4 40 OVEN PLANT (mechanical scraper or water electrodes) NEW CHARGING AND PUSHING DEDUSTING 30 300 300 EQUIPMIENT COKE OVEN GAS DESULPIIURIZATION 0 . 2,500 SO, d-Wly .2VO502 13. KRYVYI RIH COKE DOOR CLEANING EQUIPMENT 10 . 8 OVEN PLANT (mechaniical scraper or water injection) NENW CIIARGING AND PUSHING EQUIPMENT 70 3,000 3,000 COKE OVEN GAS DESULFURIZATION 100 - 14,000 SO, 4&*WGy a.I4,O0 SW in R i 14. KRIVOROZHSTAL SINTER PLANT SHUT DOWN 150 9,000 50,000 (it is very obsolete) and (cO tMb wo a t REPLACEMENT BY A NEW , t g o CHARGE PREPARATION COMPLEX 13,000 BETTER COLLECTION AND DEDUSTING OF BLAST 20 13,000 FURNACE TOP GAS OPEN HEARTH FURNACES 49,700 SHUT DOWN l 9,400 NEW DEDUSTING 11,000 EQUIPIMENT OF LIME PLANT ______________________________________ ___________________________________________ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ I __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _________________ 18 Annex 4 TABLE 15: COMPARATIVE STATISTICS FOR THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES OF THE REPUBLICS OF FORMER USSR OUTPUT COUNTRY $ BILLION # OF PLANTS EMPLOYMENT Russia 55 600 980.000 Ukraine 15 208 300,000 Belarus 5 47 100,000 Transcaucasus 3 93 66,000 Kazakhstan 2.6 39 83,000 Baltics 2 46 52,000 Central Asia' 2 57 60,000 Moldova u 2 17 4.000 .-- ... -- - - - Totals 85 107 1,645,000 a/ Excluding Kazakhstan TABLE 16: PRODUCTION BY THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN UKRAINE, USSR AND THE UNIED STATES IN 1985. 100 METRIC TONS/YEAR CHE1vALCL UKRAINE USSR US Sulfwric acid 4,125 29,372 36,188 Caustic soda 500 3,323 9,808 Soda ash 1,161 5,098 7,721 Fertilizers Nitrogen 3,197 15,815 11,000 Phosphorous' 1,573 10,013 35,048 Potassium2 304 11,300 1,963 Plasics Polyethylene & Polypropylene 172 1,190 9.387 Styrene polymers & copolymers 128 465 2,801 Vinyl resins & copolymers 117 455 3,157 Other plast 302 2,890 6,856 Synthetic fibers Cellulosic 60 605 253 Synthetic 105 789 3,430 As P20, 2 As K2O Including fiber feedstocks (Data in this table to be updated) Data on the Steel and Chemical Industries 19 TABLE 17: AMMONIA PRODUCTION FACILITIES IN UKRAINE (METRIC TONS) LOCATION_ . UNITS UNIT CAPACITY TOTAL ANNUAL . . PRODUCTION Cherkassy 3 220,000 660,000 1 400,000 400,000 1 450,000 450.000 Rivne 1 220,000 220,000 1 475,000 475,000 Siverskodonetsk (AZOT) 2 450,000 900,000 Dniprodzerzhinsk 1 450.000 450,000 (Dnipropetrovsk oblast) 1 500,000 500,000 Horlivka (Donetsk oblast) 2 450,000 900,000 Yuzhniy (Odessa) 2 450,000 900,000 Total Production 5,855,000 ANNEX 5: DATA ON THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY AND RESULTS OF PLANT VISI'rS Table 1: Estimates of Emissions From Thermal Power Sector Estimated Emissions' l;corntrolled ... Pollutant Fuel Enmissiont Factor 1990 1991 (Ih,'to)n fuel) US tons Metric tons US tons Metric tons Dust Coal 380" 838,000 760,000 735,000 665,000 Mazut 3.45 62,000 56,000 42,000 38,095 Natural 0.005 lb'MBTU -- -- -- -- Gas TOTAL 900,000 816,000 775,000 703,000 SO2 Coal (2.5 7( 87.5' 1,930,000 1,750,000 1,785,000 1,619,000 S) Mazut 95.6 859,000 779,000 580,000 526,000 (2.4% S) Natural 0.0006 Ib.'MBTU -- -- -- -- Gas TOTAL 2,789,000 2,529,000 2,365,000 2,145,000 NOx Coal 1.25 Ih'MBTU 496,000 450,000 458,G00 416,145 Mazut 0.58 lb/MBTU 182,000 165,000 122,815 111,000 Natural 0.65 Ib.'MBTU 378,592 343,395 344,175 312,177 Gas TOTAL 2.48 lb/MBTU 1,056,592 958,395 J 924,990 839,322 W Based on updated energy data for 1990 and 1991. Efficiency of particulate controls on coal- fired plants is assumed to be 90%. 10 x Ash content 35 x S contenm 2 Annex 5 Survey of Plants 1. Four major thermal power plants were surveyed during this study as representative of enviromnental problems in coal-fired thermal plants. The) are described in T able 1. Individual recommendation for each plant follow. _ . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- =--=. = I- Table 2: Thernal Power Plants Surveyed in This Study l Plant Capacity Capacity Capacity Coal use Remaeks on coal on oil on gas 1990 (miHion .______________ tons) Kurakhovskayaa 1460 MW (same) (same) 3.5 3 fuel capability Starobeshevskayaa 2(00 MW (same) 7.0 2 fuel capability Zaporozhskayab 1200 MW 2400 MW (same as 3.0 2400 MW capacity on (gas/oil) oil) Krivorozhskayae 3000 MW (sanme) (same) 9.0 3 fuel capability ^' Donestk Oblast s Zaporizhzhia Oblast £/ Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Kurakhovskaya Power Plant 2. The Kurakhovskaya Power Plant is located in the Donbass region of southeastern Ukraine, about 40 km due west of the city of Donetsk. The station's installed capacity is nominally 1460 MWe, which is achieved with seven identical 210 MW pulverized coal-fired units. The boilers are balanced draft, dry bottom units with opposed wall firing. There are two rows with four burners each on the front and rear walls, and the furnace is partitioned down the middle for its full height. According to official documents, the plant burns local coal washery wastes and slurry (from the Donetsk coal mines). The plant director stated that Kurakhovskaya Power Plant burns all coal types other than anthracite. 3. Kurakhovskaya Power Plant's chief engineer stated that the maximum steam production of each 210 MW boiler is 670 (metric) tons per hour. This converts to 7019 pounds steam per hour per megawatt, which is less than the average value of 8000 lbs/hr/MW in the U.S., meaning that the Kurakhovskaya power-producing units are at least as efficient as typical U.S. pulverized coal systems. The chief engineer also indicated that the heat rate of each of these boilers is 2038 kcal/kW-hr, which converts to 8087 BTU/kW-hr. When one considers that heat rates of 9500 - 10,000 BTU/kW-hr are common in the U.S. for existing pulverized coal-fired units of this vintage (1970's), it appears that more heat is necessary to produce a unit of electricity here in the U.S. than in Ukraine. One cannot comment any further without Data on the Electric Power Induistry 3 knowing how accurate the Ukrainiian measurement methods are relative to the American measurement methods. 4. While the Kurakhovskaya Power Plant may be doing very well with energy efficiency, there are certainly improvements to be made in the environmental performance of the power station. It should be stated first, however, that the two stacks in use at this power station are 250 meters tall, while the boiler building height is about 65 meters. Thus, the dispersion of pollutants emitted from these stacks is very wide (because the stack heights far exceed "good engineering practice') and should not produce a local air quality problem. On the other hand, this plant emits about 100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide annually and could contribute significantly to downwind sulfuric acid precipitation. 5. From the point of view of air pollution control, much could be done at the Kurakhovskaya Power Plant. The station has functioning electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), but all of them could work better. TIhe two techniques to consider in the short terrn are flue gas conditioning and comprehensive fuel acquisition, both forms of fly ash management. Otherwise, more up-to-date ESPs (or ESP rebuilds to modem standards) are required to bring the level of partic slate control up to world standards. 6. By coincidence, Kurakhovskaya Power Plant is now ready to replace its first set of ESPs (each of the plant's seven identical boilers has an ESP). Between 1970 and 1975, one or two power production units were built per year, with the first operation in 1972. Therefore, it is not surprising that these 20-year old ESPs are ready for retirement. What is somewhat surprising is that these ESPs, which are apparently 6-field units, are not collecting more than 90-95 percent of the inlet particulate loading. Perhaps the ESPs are undersized, or perhaps the years of burning marginally suitable coals have affected the control system. In contrast, modern ESPs easily collect more than 99 percent of the inlet particulate loading. The extra 4-9 percent may not sound like much, but at this plant it would make the difference between 50-60 percent opacity (visible emissions) and 15-20 percent opacity. Another way to state this difference is that the second scenario would satisfy new source standards in the U.S., whereas the first situation would represent non-compliance. even with regulations for existing sources in the U.S. 7. Flue gas conditioning involves changing the chemistry of the flue gases prior to entering the ESP so that the fly ash particles may be more effectively electrostatically charged. The better the charge, the greater the rate of particle collection. Ammonia and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are cowrman flue gas conditioning agents. In the US, S03 injection has been successfully used by the electric power industry for some time as a relatively low-cost technique to enhance the perfornance of an existing ESP. 8. The physical and chemical properties of coal ash play a significant role in the ultimate performance of both the boiler and the electrostatic precipitator. Fly ash resistivity, for example, has a direct bearing on the ability of the fly ash to accept an electrostatic charge. Therefore, this fuel property directly relates to the ability of the ESP to collect fly ash particles from the flue gases. As such, it is essential for Kurakhovskaya Power Plant to decide for itself just what coals to accept at the plant for burning, as a technique for complying with particulate emissions control regulations if for no other reason. 9. The Director of Kurakhovskaya described the present system of coal selection and acquisition as a mixture of old (i.e., Soviet) and new ideas. Under the Soviet scheme, a central coal board selected the fuels for all of the power plants, trying to match coal type and furnace type appropriately. That Kurakhovskaya still rarely burns design (or even suitable) coal is a testament to the failure of the old ways as applied to power production. The mix of fuels coming to Kurakhovskaya includes coal wastes as well as coals ranging from bituminous to lignite. The ash content of these fuels has ranged from 30 4 Annex S to 60 percent; the lignite was the low sulfur fuel. The Kurakhovskaya Power Plant is now developing a market-based approach to acquiring fuels for the plant, considering such factors as coal properties as well as transportation and purchase costs. 10. Kurakhovskaya Power i'lant burns 3.5 million (metric) tons of Donets Basin coal per year. In addition, this facility burns 7.5 m:llioni (metric) tons of heavy oil and 8.7 million (metric) tons of natural gas annually. The plant reports its emissions as follows: Table _ __ Pollutant Facility Limit Actual Emissions (tons per year) (tons, Jan-Jun) Particulates 63,842.8 25,880.1 Sulfur Dioxide 157,386.1 54,284.1 Nitrogen Dioxide 19,686.3 6245.3 Carbon Monoxide 133.8 6(.9 Hydrocarbons 39.2 19.6 Carbon in Flyash 19.9 9.9 H2SO4 Mist 2.8x10-5 1.3x10-5 Vanadium Pentoxide 4.1 2.1 Mn + MnO 8.6x10-3 4.3x10-3 Hydrogen Fluoride 3.4x10-3 1.7x10-3 Chromium Dioxide 2.0x10-3 9.9xlo1J Recommendations for Kurakhovskaya Power Plant (i) Portable Combustion Analyzers Portable combustion analyzers are very useful devices to have available to power engineers. Not only do these analyzers facilitate boiler operational adjustments to improve combustion efficiency, but the analyzers also enable boilers to be fine-tuned from an emissions point of view. For estimation purposes, a suitable analyzer has a capital cost of $6000 (1992 USD). To give meaningful results, these devices must be periodically calibrated and otherwise maintained in good working order. Assuming that the equipment vendor was located somewhere in Eastern Europe, an annual budget of $600 should be sufficient for operation and maintenance. (ii) Evaluation of Fuel Purchasing Strategies Kurakhovskaya Power Plant needs to assume control over its fuel acquisition as quickly as possible. It would not be surprising if part of the plant ESPs' poor performance can be directly attributed to fly ash resistivity. If Kurakhovskaya management were to decide for themselves which fuels were to be Data on the Electric Power Industry 5 burned Pi the plant, they would be able to specify coals which would satisfy various plant operational needs ircluding top-notch ESP performance. The boilers themselves also have operational needs related to coal properties, so again it is wise for the plant to take control of this very important element of plant management. Kurakhovskaya Power Plant should investigate fuel blending strategies to find a mix of Ukrainian coals and coal wastes which would be suitable from an operational point of view yet cost competitive with the existing fuel supply. Kurakhovskaya Power Plant would benefit from technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable about fuel purchasing strategies to wvork directly with Kurakhovskaya Power Plant personnel, who would then be responsible for implementing such strategies over the medium term. (iii) ESP Performance Audit With the imminent retirement of the one or two oldest ESPs at Kurakhovskaya Power Plant, there is an excellent opportunity to upgrade the dust control systems on these 20-year old boilers. In addition, the somewhat newer ESPs are all candidates for upgrading to world performance standards. None of the ESPs at Kurakhovskaya Power Plant appeared to be working as well as they should in terms of resultant stack opacity. Kurakhovskaya Power Plant would benefit from receiving technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable about ESP troubleshooting strategies to work directly with Kurakhovskaya Power Plant personnel who would then be responsible for maintaining and operating the upgraded ESPs over the long term. (iv) Fuel Sulfur Removal Techniques Ukrainian technology exists which removes, by magnetic separation, pyritic sulfur from coals. This sulfur removal technology is of great interest to Kurakhovskaya Power Plant, according to the Director, and the plant would very much like to participate in demonstrating the technology. It was not possible to see the technology, so it is impossible to evaluate its viability. But it could well be worth pursuing. The plant should be encouraged to do so. The Kurakhovskaya Power Plant may want to seek funding for research and development of techniques to remove sulfur from Ukrainian coals. (v) Development (by Plant) of Boiler Start-up and Shutdown Plans If Kurakhovskaya Power Plant writes and implements detailed plans for boiler start-up and shutdown with the intent of minimizing emissions during those periods of operation, the plant should realize an immediate improvement in the day to day visible emissions from the stacks. The details of minimizing emissions are best developed by the plant itself. (vi) Development (by Plant) of Malfunction Prevention and Abatement Plan If Kurakhovskaya Power Plant writes and implements detailed plans for preventing boiler and air pollution control system malfunctions, the plant should realize an immediate improvement in the likelihood of day to day compliance with visible emissions standards at the stacks. The details of system operation and maintenance resulting in stable long-term performance are best developed by the plant itself. A good example of a system to evaluate is a pollution control system, such as the ESP on each unit at Kurakhovskaya Power Plant. If something were to go wrong with the ESP, the immnediate 6 Annex 5 environmental impacts would be increased particulate and visible emissions frorm the stack associated with that ESP. (vii) Two Continuous Opacity Monitors (one per stack) Over the longer term, installation of opacity monitors would be useful. Stack monitoring is an expensive but reliable method of demonstrating compliance with pollutant emission restrictions. Opacity (visible emissions) is monitored essentially as a surrogate parameter for dust emissions. Stacks equipped with continuous opacity monitors therefcre enable plant and regulatory personnel to judge dust control effectiveness over the long term. For estimation purposes, each continuous opacity monitor has a capital cost of $250.000 (1992 USD). To properly operate, maintain and calibrate these units, one should budget $25,000 annually. This is a longer term recommendation, because of the cost. Dispersion Modeling of a Tvpical Ukrainian Power Plant 11. The Kurakhovskaya Power Plant was used as an example to demonstrate the use of a screening model for air dispersion analysis. The two stacks in use at this power station are 250 meters tall, while the boiler building height is about 65 meters. The stack exit diameter is approximately 6.25 meters, and the stack gas exit temperature is estimated to be 350 OF. For three boilers operating, the stack flow rate is estimated to be 2100 cubic meters per second. 12. Using the USEPA emission factor for particulate emissions from a dry bottom pulverized coal boiler firing bituminous or subbituminous coal (IOA, where A is the percent ash in the coal), the maximnum particulate emissions from one of the two stacks at Kurakhovskaya Power Plant (assumning three 210 MW boilers are operating simultaneously) are approximately 1345.0 grams per second assuming 95 percent control by the ESPs. 13. However, the plant typically operates at about 50 percent of capacity due to the reserve system capacity. For example, Kurakhovskaya reports that its particulate emissions during January through June, 1992 were 25,880.1 metric tons. Annualized, this emission rate is 51,760.2 metric tons per year, or 5.9087 metric tons per hour, which is equivalent to 1641.3 grams per second. 14. Since the second stack has identical parameters, we may simply use the facility-wide particulate emission rate and model the emissions as though they were all emitted from one stack. 15. The results from the SCREEN2 dispersion model are presented on the next pages. We predict that the maximum ground-level particulate concentration resulting from the maximum operation of Kurakhovskaya is 338.6 micrograms per cubic meter (1-hour maximum). On a 24-hour average basis, this is 135.4 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3'. 16. Background particulate concentrations in rural Wisconsin (and, presumably, in rural Ukraine, where the power plant is located) are on the order of 70 micrograms per cubic meter (24-hour average). The total predicted ground-level concentration resulting from the typical operation of Kurakhovskaya is 205.4 ug/m3. This value exceeds the American nationtal ambient air quality standard of 150 ug/m3 (24- hour basis), which is equivalent to the Ukrainian standard. The results also tell us that this maximum concentration occurs 1531 meters downwind of the stack. Data on the Electric Power Industry 7 17. We may use the particulate modeling results to estimate concentrations of SO, and NO, resulting from the normal operation of Kurakhovskaya Power Plant. Since the dispersion model is linear in emission rate, we may simply ratio emission rates and solve for the unknown concentration. For SO2, we use the USEPA emission factor (35 S pounds per ton of (subbituminous) coal fired, where S is the weight percent of sulfur in the coal). For Kurakhovskaya, we assume a typical sulfur content of 2.7 percent, so that the plant SO, emissions are 11,823.4 grams per second. In this case, the emissions are uncontrolled. The maximum ground-level concentration of SO2 (I-hour average) during normal operation is thus 11,823.4 g SO, /s x 338.6 ug/m3 = 2439.2 ug/m3 1,641.3 g PM /s 18. For NO,, we estimate the emissions at 1.25 pounds per million BTU from Electric Power Res-drch Institute data for wall-fired utility boilers. For the six operating (at any one time) 210 MW boilers at Kurakhovskaya Power Plant, the typical heat input rate in English units is 8,072 million BTU per hour (MMBTU/hr). Thus, the maximum NOx emission rate is 10,090.3 pounds per hour, or 1271.4 grams per second. Applying the above principles, the maximum ground-level concentration of NO, (1- hour average) during normal operation is thus 1,271.4 g NO,, /s x 338.6 ug/m3 = 262.3 uglm3 1,641.3 g PM Is 19. The 24-hour average SO2 concentration impact is 975.7 ug/m3, and the annual average NO,, concentration impact is 104.9 ug/m3. Background concentrations for S0; and NO,, in rural Wisconsin are approximately 222 ug/m3 and 7 ug/m3, respectively. The total predicted concentrations are therefore 1198 ug S02 /in3 and 112 ug NO,, /m3. These values are higher than the corresponding national ambient air quality standards in America of 365 ug S02 /m3 (24-hour) and 100 ug NO, /m3 (annual), and higher than the corresponding Ukrainian standards (50 ug/m3 and 40 ug/m3, which is actually on a 24-hour average basis). 20. In conclusion, this screening analysis (a more sophisticated analysis requires more detailed local meteorological information) shows that the very large (by American standards) emissions of particulates, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides from Kurakhovskaya Power Plant result in ground-level pollutant concentrations which would not meet ambient air quality standards either in America or in Ukraine. However, these ground-level impacts are based on very general assumptions about the local meteorological conditions. What these results suggest is that proper location of ambient air quality monitors near Ukrainian thermal power plants may occasionally record exceedances of ambient air quality standards. Moreover, the large SO2 and NO,, loadings to the atmosphere may be significant in terms of long-range transport and acid rain formation. 8 Annex 5 Starobeshevskava Power Plant 21. The Starobeslhevskaya Power Plant is located in the Donbass region of southca"tern UJkraine, about 35 km southeast of the city of Donetsk. The station's installed capacity is noominally 2000 MWe, which is achieved with ten virtually identical 200 MW pulverized coal-fired utnity The boilers are balanced draft, wet bottom units with wall firing. There are four cells (groups) with three burners each, and the furnace is equipped with over-burner injection of coal mill surplus Amonip wall-lired units, the cell burners have the highest nitrogen oxides (NOJ emissions. 22. According to the Director, the plant principally burns local coal (anthracite) w, -es, but other Ukrainian coals can be burned. 'I'he design fuel was 16-18 percent ash, 601() kcal!kg (10,815 BTU/lb) heating value anthracite. However, after 1970, the quality of the fuel burned at Starobeshevskaya gradually declined. From 1982, the plant has burned a 40 percent ash, 3500 kcal/kg (6298 BTU/lb) anthracite waste. The fuel sulfur content varies from about 0.8 percent to 2.5 percent, with the sulfur normally being below I percent. 23. The plant's director stated that maximum steam production of each 200 MW boiler is 640 (metric) tons per hour. This converts to 7056 pounds steam per hour per megawatt, which is less than the average value of 8000 lbs/hr/MW in the U.S., meaning that Starobeshevskaya's power-producing units are at least as efficient as typical U.S. pulverized coal systems. The director also stated that the heat rate of each of these boilers is 2800 kcal/kW-hr, which converts to 11,110 BTU/kW-hr. When one considers that heat rates of 9500 - 10,000 BTU/kW-hr are common in the U.S. for existing pulverized coal-fired units of this vintage (1970's), one concludes that the Starobeshevskaya boilers are below average in thermal efficiency. 24. There are certainly improvements to be made in the environmental performance of the power station. Two of the four stacks in use at this power station have good engineering practice (GEP) stack height, while the remaining two stacks just barelv reach, if at all, GEP stack height. In addition, the plant is located in the Kalmius River valley, surrounded by significantly rolling terrain. Thus, the dispersion of pollutants emitted from these stacks, especially the shorter ones, may not be particularly effective due to the effects of the terrain elevations relative to the stack release heights. Moreover, this plant emits about 125,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide annually and could contribute significantly to downwind sulfuric acid precipitation. 25. From the point of view of air pollution control, much could be done at the Starobeshevskaya Power Plant. The station has functioning venturi scrubbers, but all of them could be made to work considerably better. Also, at present, only plain water is used as the scrubbing medium, so that only dust is controlled. The most obvious technique to consider in the short term is adding a sorbent, such as limestone, to the scrubbing medium to control sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in addition to dust. Limestone is widely used in wet scrubbers in the West because it is highly reactive with SO2 and it is reasonably inexpensive. The costs of limestone scrubbing are generally in the range of $200-300 per ton of SO2 controlled. More to the point, Ukraine has vast reserves of limestone located at or near the coal fields, making limestone a very attractive alternative indeed. Otherwise, more up-to-date scrubbers (or scrubber rebuilds to modern standards) are required to bring even the level of particulate control up to world standards. And of course new scrubbers can be designed to control both SO2 and NO, in addition to dust. Data on tile Electric Power Indus.try 9 26. Starobeslievskava Power Plant is ready to replace its first set of scrubbers (eachi of the plant's ten identical boilers has a scrubber). Between 1961 and 1967, one or two power production units were built per year, with tlhe first operation in 1968, The scrubbers were upgraded in the earl) 1970's to include a venturi section. T hereforc, it is not surprising that thcse 20-year old scrubbers (already once reconstructed) are now ready for retirement. These wet scrubbers shiould be replace(d as soonI as budget allows; none of them seems to be ver) effective at controlling air pollution. There are a number of v'ery effective units now available in the West wvhich would significantly upgride ithe lcvl of air pollution control at the plant. 27. Under the former Soviet scheme, a central coal board selected the fuels for all power plants, trying to match coal type and furnace type appropriately. Starobeslievskaya still rarely burns design (or even suitable) coal. The mix of fuels coming to the plant includes local anthracite coal wastes as well as anthracite coals from around Ukraine. The ash content of these fuels is generally about 40 percent; the volatile matter content, of course, is very small, as it is with all anthracite. 28. This dependence on anthracite (without higher volatile matter coals blended into a fuel mixture) means that the Starobeshevskaya boilers are extremely difficult to ignite and have problems with sustaining combustion. To be able to operate their boilers (in order to generate steam), Starobeshevskaya must soak the anthracite with heavy oil in order to provide enough volatile matter in the furnace to initiate and sustain combustion. The plant director stated that as much as 40 percent of the boilers heat input must be derived from heavy oil. So this dependence on anthracite effectively translates into a dependence on heavy oil. 29. The Starobeshevskaya Power Plant is now developing a market-based approach to acquiring fuels for the plant, considering such factors as coal properties as well as transportation and purchase costs. To date, they have found that coal purchase prices are dominating the decision. Through 1990, they could buy coal for 18 rubles per ton. Now, coal they receive is priced at 2500 rubles per ton. 30. Starobeshevskaya Power Plant reports its emissions as follows: Pollutant Facility Limit Actual Emissions (tons per year) (tons, Jan-June) Particulates 89,379.7 38,856.5 Sulfur Dioxide 131,825.9 69,099.6 Nitrogen Dioxide 23,108.4 11,145.7 Recommendations for Starobeshevskava Power Plant (i) Portable Combustion Analyzer Portable comnbustion analyzers are useful devices to have available to power engineers. Not only do they facilitate boiler operational adjustments to improve combustion efficiency, but they also enable boilers to be fine-tuned from an emissions point of view. For estimation purposes, a suitable analyzer has a capital cost of $6000 (1992 USD). To give meaningful results, these devices must be periodically 10 Annex S calibrated and otherwise maintained in good working order. Assuming that the equipment vendor were to set up shop somewhere in Eastern Europe, an annual budget of $600 should be sufficient for operation and maintenance. (ii) Evaluation of Fuel Purchasing Strategies This facility, more than any otlher visited in Ukraine, needs to assume control over its fuel acquisition process as quickly as possible. The Starobeshevskaya boilers have critical operational needs related to coal volatile matter content because of the preponderance of anthracite burned at the plant. The large amount of residual (heavy) oil burned at this plant to make up for the lack of volatile matter in anthracite probably leads to excessive particulate emissions during startup conditions (which occurs every day for every boiler). Also, the plant director stated that in 1992 the average sulfur content of coal was 1.4 percent, whereas the average oil sulfur content was 2.4 percent. Starobeshevskaya Power Plant should investigate fuel blending strategies to find a mix of Ukrainian coals and coal wastes which would be suitable from an operational point of view, yet cost competitive with the existing fuel supply. This plant may even be able to eliminate its use of heavy oil by burning a suitable coal blend instead. Starobeshevskaya Power Plant would benefit from technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable about fuel purchasing strategies to work directly with plant personnel responsible for implementing such strategies over the long term. (iii) Scrubber Performance Audit With the imminent retirement of the one or two oldest scrubbers at Starobeshevskaya Power Plant, there is an excellent opportunity to upgrade the dust control systems on these 20-year old boilers. In addition, the somewhat newer scrubbers are all candidates for upgrading to world performance standards. None of the scrubbers are working as well as they should be in terms of resultant stack opacity. The plant would benefit from technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable about wet scrubber troubleshooting strategies to work directly with Starobeshevskaya Power Plant personnel who would then be responsible for maintaining and operating the upgraded scrubbers over the long term. (iv) Development (by Plant) of Boiler Startup and Shutdown Plans If the plant writes and implements detailed plans for boiler startup and shutdown with the intent of minimizing emissions during those periods of operation, the plant should realize an immediate improvement in the day to day visible emissions from the stacks. No one understainds a plant's operation better than its operators, so the details of minimizing emissions are best developed by the plant itself. (v) Development (by Plant) of Malfunction Prevention and Abatement Plan Similarly, the plant should write and implement detailed plans for preventing boiler and air pollution control system malfunctions. The details of system operation and maintenance resultiiig in stable long- term performance are best developed by the plant itself. All power plants involve mechanical processes which can affect air pollution emissions. Anything which affects the delivery of fuel to the boiler, for example, must be working properly to avoid boiler upset conditions. In Wisconsin, all power plants must develop and then implement a comprehensive plan to Data on the Electric Power Industr) 11 address potentially excessive air pollution emissions resulting from the failure of some portion of the power generation system. A good example of a system to evaluate is a pollution control system, such as the venturi scrubber on each unit at Starobeshevskaya Power Plant. If something were to go wrong with the scrubber, the immediate environmental impacts would be increased particulate and visible emissions from the stack associated with that scrubber. (vi) Over Long Term (when budget allows): Four Continuous Opacitv Monitors (one per stack) Stack monitoring is an expensive but reliable method of demonstrating compliance with pollutant emission restrictions. Opacity (visible emissions) is monitored essentially as a surrogate parameter for dust emissions. Stacks equipped with continuous opacity monitors therefore enable plant and regulatory personnel to judge dust control effectiveness over the long term. For estimation purposes, each continuous opacity monitor has a capital cost of $250,000 (1992 USD). To properly operate, maintain and calibrate these units, one should budget $25,000 annually. (vii) Demonstration of Fluidized Bed Combustion Technologv The Director of Starobeshevskaya Power Plant stated that the plant's boilers should have been replaced some time ago, that the age of the boilers is about double the original projected life. While the plant recognizes the need for a complete reconstruction of all of the boilers' heating surfaces, they may be better off simply retiring the units one by one and replacing as many as possible, perhaps with fluidized bed combustion (FBC) technology. Starobeshevskaya Power Plant is located in a region with vast coal and limestone reserves. FBC can handle a wide variety of coal types and grades, and substantial S02 reduction may be easily achieved at the bed. However, there are problems in regard to waste generated by FBC. Therefore, a careful comparison of technology options would be required. Zaorizhskava Power Plant 31. The Zaporizhskaya Power Plant is located on the shore of the Kakhovka Water Reservoir in southern Ukraine, about 70 km southwest of the city of Zaporizhzhia in a small town called Blahovishchenka. The station's installed capacity is nominally 3600 MWe, which is achieved with four identical 300 MW pulverized coal-fired units and three identical natural gas/residual (heavy) fuel oil-fired 800 MW units. The four coal-fired boilers are vented through one stack, and the three gas/oil-fired units are vented through the plant's other stack. 32. The coal-fired boilers are balanced draft, dry bottom units with opposed wall firing. There is a single row with four burners each on the front and rear walls. According to official docu. ients, the plant burns local "gas coal", with a design heating value of 5000 kcal/kg (8998 BTU/lb). The plant director stated that the plant typically burns coal with a heating value of 4000 kcal/kg (7198 BTU/lb) and a sulfur content varying between 2.0 - 3.5 percent. The ash content of the coals burned at Zaporozhskaya varies from 30-50 percent, with perhaps 36 percent being the average. The saving grace of this coal is that it is a high (37 percent) volatile matter bituminous coal, so that it burns well in the furnace. Unfortunately, the plant experiences some slagging problems related to burner location. 12 AlnncA *s 33. The gas/oil-fired boilers are also opposed wall-firing units. In these units, there are ttiree tiers (rows) with six burners each on the front and rear walls, for a total of 36 burners in the furnace. Si ice one of these units was down for a regular maintenance outage when I visited the plant, I sWized thc opportunity to climb inside the furnace to have a look around. This 800 MW unit with 36 burners is really steam production on a grand scale. Incidentally, it seemed to me that thie restorative wXork oni the heating surfaces was very well done. According to official documents, the plant burns "high sulfur" fuel oil, with a heating value of 9330 kcal/kg (16,790 BTU/lb). The document does not state what "I' hilh sulfur" means for the oil. 34. All of the boilers at Zaporozhskaya Power Plant are dispatched in a cycling mode. Thai is, thle boilers run at peak operation during high-demand times of day, like in the evening, but ate backed off considerably over night. So the coal-fired boilers cycle between 70 MW at night and 300 MW during the day. The gas/oil-fired boilers cycle between 300 MW at night and 800 MW during the day. 35. Official documents describe the maximum steam production of each 300 MW coal-fired boiler as 950 (metric) tons per hour. This converts to 6983 pounds steam per hour per megawatt, which is less than the average value of 8000 lbs/hr/MW in the U.S., meaning that the Zaporozhskaya power-producing units are at least as efficient as typical U.S. pulverized coal systems. These documents also state that the naximnum steam production of each 800 MW gas/oil-fired boiler is 2650 (metric) tons per hour. This converts to 7304 pounds steam per hour per megawatt, which is less than the average value of 8000 lbs/hr/MW in the U.S., meaning that these Zaporozhskaya power-producing units are at least as efficient as typical U.S. systems. 36. While the Zaporozhskaya Power Plant may be doing very well with energy efficiency, there are improvements to be made in environmental performance. It should first be noted, however, that the two stacks in use at this station are each 320 meters tall, while the associated boiler building height is about 70-80 meters. Thus, the dispersion of pollutants emitted from these stacks is very wide because the stack heights far exceed 'good engineering practice" and should not produce a local air quality problem. On the other hand, this plant emits about 206,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide annually and could contribute significantly to downwind sulfuric acid precipitation. As a matter of fact, the director stated that Zaporozhskaya Power Plant participated in an experiment involving cosmonauts - the plant turned off its ESPs for a while and the cosmonauts observed (from above) the fate of the plume. The result was that the plume was still discernable at a distance of 120 kilometers downwind of the power plant! 37. The electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) have regular maintenance outages generally coinciding with boiler outages. A technician makes daily observations of ESP performance, with the shift head reporting to the chief engineer about ESP performance. Records of ESP performance are kept with the T-R (transformer-rectifier) sets which always seem to be typically located underneath the precipitators themselves. 38. Once every ten days a monitoring van comes out to Zaporozhskaya and drives around to all of the ambient monitoring sites around the plant. Stack measurements are generally not made, but the control system inlet and outlet are tested. With this latter information, Zaporozhskaya Power Plant is able to calibrate emission factors for their boilers. Data on the Electric Power Industry 13 39. From the point of view of air pollution control, much could be done at the plant. The station has functioning electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), but all of them could work better. The two techniques to consider in the short term are flue gas conditioning and comprehensive fuel acquisition, both forms of fly ash management. Otherwise, more up-to-date ESPs (or ESP rebuilds to modern standards) would be necessary to bring the level of particulate control up to world standards. 40. Zaporozhskaya Power Plant has already replaced one of its original ESPs (each of the plant's four identical coal-fired boilers has an ESP). In 1972 the coal-fired boilers were put in service; between 1975 and 1977 the three gas/oil boilers came on line. Therefore, it is not surprising that these 20-year old ESPs are ready for retirement. What is somewhat surprising is that these ESPs, which are apparently 3-field units, have been tested and show 98.4 - 98.5 percent control of the inlet particulate loading. Independent observation of stack plume opacity suggested that the coal-buming boiler stack, which serves all 1200 MW of the plant's capacity on coal, was not meeting a visible emissions standard of 40 percent. In contrast, modem ESPs easily collect more than 99 percent of the inlet particulate loading and don't let the stack opacity exceed 20 percent. 41. The present system of coal selection and acquisition is a mixture of partly old and mostly new ideas. Zaporizhskaya now writes contract specifications for coal purchases, complete with monetary penalty clauses for off-specification fuels delivered to the plant. And yet, the mix of fuels coming to Zaporizhskaya includes coals with ash content ranging from 30 to 50 percent and sulfur content ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 percent. To check on coal quality, Zaporizhskaya tests, essentially according to ASTM standards, the as-received coal for ash, heating value, sulfur, moisture, and volatile matter, as they should. On the other hand, trace elements such as sodium are not evaluated. The problem appears to be that no mine is producing the coal that Zaporizhskaya would like to be burning. 42. On a quarterly basis, the plant has been renting a portable combustion analyzer of German make for stack measurements. There appear to be no Ukrainian manufacturers of portable combustion analyzers. The power plant's emissions are reported as follows: Pollutant Actual Emissions Actual Emissions (tons per year) (mg/Nm3.measured) Particulates 18.000 Sulfur Dioxide 206,000 3000-5000 Nitrogen Dioxide 48,800 700-800 Carbon Monoxide -- 10-15 43. On its own, Zaporizhskaya Power Plant has been working since the early 1970's to reduce NO, emissions from their gas/oil boilers. Zaporizhskaya has used three techniques: low excess air operation, bumers out of service, and low NO, burners. Zaporizhskaya has been able to reduce the stoichiometric 14 Annex 5 (fuel:air) ratio to 1.025 - 1.03; 1.02 reduced NO,, but high temperature corrosion of the lower furnace resulted which meant that 1.02 was too low for the furnace. The lowest of the three rows of burners was made to operate with a stoichiometric ratio of 0.8 - 0.9 (by cutting back on the fuel feed while the windbox provided a fixed amount of combustion air). At lower loads, such as 450-500 MW, the highest row of burners was completely turned off (i.e., out of service). And the burners themselves were modified by the power engineers at Zaporizhskaya Power Plant io be lower NO,, emitters. The best reduction was 18-20 percent; 15 percent was a more typical result. These results are quite impressive when one considers how little help the power engineers at Zaporizhskaya Power Plant apparently have had from other researchers. Recommendations for ZaporizhskaYa Power Plant (i) Portable Combustion Analyzers Portable combustion analyzers are very useful devices to have available to power engineers. Not only do these analyzers facilitate boiler operational adjustments to improve combustion efficiency, but the analyzers also enable boilers to be fine-tuned from an emissions point of view. For estimation purposes, a suitable analyzer has a capital cost of $6000 (1992 USD). To give meaningful results, these devices must be periodically calibrated and otherwise maintained in good working order. Assuming that the equipment vendor were to set up shop somewhere in Eastern Europe, an annual bud_tt of $600 should be sufficien, for operation and maintenance. (ii) ESP Performance Audit With the retirement of the oldest ESPs at Zaporizhskaya Power Plant, there is anexcellent opportunity to upgrade the dust control systems on these 20-year old boilers. In addition, the somewhat newer ESPs are all candidates for upgrading to world performance standards. None of the ESPs at Zaporizhskaya Power Plant appeared to be working as well as ESPs on coal-fired boilers should be working (in terms of resultant stack opacity). The plant would benefit from technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable of ESP troubleshooting strategies to work directly with personnel who would be responsible for maintaining and operating the upgraded ESPs over the long term. The assistance would probably comprise a 1 person-week. (iii) Development of a Suitable Coal Blend Zaporizhskaya Power Plant personnel should experiment with a blend of various available coals into a fuel which will burn effectively in the boilers in terms of thermal efficiency and reduced emissions. Rather than being tied to the properties of a single fuel, a suitable coal blend would allow continued use of local poor quality coals while potentially reducing emissions and improving plant efficiency. (iv) Optimization of Burner Tilt and Yaw Angles Clearly the next step for Zaporizhskaya Power Plant to take in the development of its NO, reduction program is to provide the opportunity for its low NO, burners to tilt side to side and up and down. When burners can be individually "aimed" in this way, additional NO, reductions can be achieved from Data on the Electric Power Industry 15 additional combustion staging within the furnace. The Zaporozhskaya Power Plant personnel are so knowledgeable already about the NO,, emissions from their furnaces that they seem to be excellent candidates for further research. Such support would benefit both the plant in terms of lower NO,, emissions as well as observers from the outside who want to learn more about reducing NO, emissions from utility boilers. (v) Burners Out of Service (BOOS) for Coal-Fired Furnace The same teclnique that Zaporizhskaya Power Plant has applied to its gas/oil boilers can be applied to coal-fired boilers. While the coal-fired boilers at this plant have only a single row of burners, if the burners were capable of tilting up and down and side to side, ;this technique may be successfil at Zaporozhskaya. If successful, it would be an important technology demonstration for Ukraine. (vi) Development (by Plant) of Boiler Startut and Shutdown Plans If Zaporizhskaya Power Plant writes and implements detailed plans for boiler startup and shutdown with the intent of minimizing emissions during those periods of operation, the plant should realize an inmmediate improvement in the day to day visible emissions from the stacks. The details of minimizing emissions are best developed by the plant itself. (vii) Development (by Plant) of Malfunction Prevention and Abatement Plan The plant should write and implement detailed plans for preventing boiler and air pollution control system malfunctions. This could improve day to day compliance with visible emissions standards at the stacks. The details of system operation and maintenance resulting in stable long-term performance are best developed by the plant itself. A good example of a system to evaluate is a pollution control system, such as the ESP on each unit at Zaporizhskaya Power Plant. If something were to go wrong with the ESP, the immediate environmental impacts would be increased particulate and visible emissions from the stack associated with that ESP. (viii) Two Continuous Opacity Monitors (one per stack) Over the longer term, acquisition of opacity monitors would be useful. Stack monitoring is an expensive but reliable method of demonstrating compliance with pollutant emission restrictions. Opacity (visible emissions) is monitored essentially as a surrogate parameter for dust emissions. Stacks equipped with continuous opacity monitors therefore enable plant and regulatory personnel to judge dust control effectiveness over the long term. For estimation purposes, each continuous opacity monitor has a capital cost of $250,000 (1992 USD). To properly operate, maintain and calibrate these units, one should budget $25,000 annually. Krivorozhskaya Power Plant 44. The Krivorozhskaya Power Plant is located in southern Ukraine, about 50 km due south of the city of Kryvyi Rih. The station's installed capacity is nominally 3000 MW,, which is achieved with ten identical 300 MW pulverized coal-fired units. Two boilers, each equipped with two electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), are vented through each of the five stacks. The height of one stack is 180 meters, while the four other stacks are each 250 meters high. 16 Annex S 45. The coal-fired boilers are balanced draft, wet bottom units with opposed wall firing. For the four oldest boilers, of the "Podolsk" design, there are two rows with six burners each on the front and rear walls; the furnace is partitioned down the middle for its full height. The six youngest boilers, of the "Taganrog" design, have six burners altogether: a row of tlhree on front and rear walls: again the furnace is partitioned. According to the plant director, the plant burns local (from the Donetsk coal mines) "poor" coal, with design heating values of 4800 kcal/kg (8998 BTU/lb) for the older boilers and 6000 kcai/kg (10,797 BTU/lb) for the newer boilers. The director stated that the plant generally burns one type of coal throughout the plant, typically with a heating value of 5200 kcal/kg (9358 BTU/lb), an as- received moisture content of 9-12 percent, and a sulfur content varying between 2.0 -2.7 percent. The ash content of the coals burned at Krivorozhskaya varies from 17 (i.e., design) to 40 percent, with perhaps 32 percent being the average. 46. All of the boilers at the plant are dispatched in a cycling mode. That is, the boilers run at peak operation during the high-demand times of day, which are 7-11 in the morning and 7-10 in the evening, but are backed off to warm standby over night. Krivorozhskaya likes to operate during the peak hours so that one boiler is kept at half capacity while the others operate at capacity. The dispatch hierarchy is for the shift chief to dispatch each boiler at the plant, the Dneproenergo Production Power Engineering Association to control the dispatch of the various power stations in the region, and a national office to control the dispatching of all Ukrainian power plants. 47. Official documents describe the maximum steam production of each 300 MW coal-fired boiler as 950 (metric) tons per hour. This converts to 6983 pounds steam per hour per megawatt, which is less than the average value of 8000 lbs/hr/MW in the U.S., meaning that the Krivorozhskaya power-producing units are at least as efficient as typical U.S. pulverized coal systems. All ten of the boilers at Krivorozhskaya are apparently identical to the four coal-fired boilers at Zaporozhskaya. This is indicative of the high level of standardization in Soviet-style power production. 48. While the Krivorozhskaya Power Plant may be doing very well with energy efficiency, there are improvements to be made in the environmental performance. Four of the stacks in use at this station are each 250 meters tall, and the fifth is 180 meters high. Since the boiler building height is about 60 meters, the dispersion of pollutants emitted from these stacks is very wide (the stack heights far exceed "good engineering practice") and should not produce a local air quality problem. On the other hand, this plant emits about 277,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide annually and could contribute significantly to downwind sulfuric acid precipitation. 49. The electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) have regular maintenance outages generally coinciding with boiler outages. A technician makes daily observations of ESP performance, with the shift head reporting to the chief engineer about ESP performance. Records of ESP performance are kept with the T-R (transformer-rectifier) sets which are typically located underneath the precipitators themselves. Major ESP maintenance activities are performed by an outside contractor. 50. Over the years, especially the last ten, Krivorozhskaya Power Plant has made some modifications to the ESPs resulting in improved performance. The initial (i.e., design) dust collection efficiency was 94.5 percent; following modification, the efficiency became 96.5 percent. Still, this level of performance is not up to world standards, as the stack's visible emissions (40 to 50 percent) demonstrate. Apparently, six years ago the plant and the State Committee for Ecology (the forerunner to MEP) had agreed that the Krivorozhskaya ESPs must be replaced. The only thing that has been done to implement that plan is a pending order for the latest ESP design from the Ukrainian Institute of Energy Projects in Donetsk. Data on the Electric Power Industry 17 51. Ironically, the existing Krivorozhskaya ESPs represent the Institute's first design. The precipitator plates are "S" shaped with a spacing of 180 millimeters (7.1 inches). The approach velocity is 2.3 meters per second and the electrode height is 7.5 meters. There are four fields altogether in the device, but the particulate control simply isn't good enough for environmental compliance. Krivorozhskaya Power Plant's Environmental Department has measured pollutant concentrations with ambient monitors, across the control devices, and at the stack, and they know that the ESPs are not adequate. 52. For better dust control, the two techniques to consider in the short term are flue gas cc nditioning and comprehensive fuel acquisition, both forms of fly ash management. Otherwise, more up-to-date ESPs (or ESP rebuilds to modem standards) are required to bring the level of particulate control up to world standards. 53. Krivorozhskaya now writes contract specifications for coal purchases, complete with monetary penalty clauses for off-specification fuels delivered to the plant. And yet, the mix of fuels coming to Krivorozhskaya includes coals with volatile matter content up to 20 percent, even though the coal burned in these boilers must have no more than 12 percent volatile matter. To check on coal quality, Krivorozhskaya tests, essentially according to ASTM standards, the as-received coal for ash, heating value, sulfur, moisture, and volatile matter, as they should. On the other hand, trace elements such as sodium are not evaluated. 54. Krivorozhskaya Power Plant bums 7.3 - 9.9 million (metric) tons of Donets Basin coal per year. In addition, this facility bums, on a heat basis, 12 percent heavy oil and 12 percent natural gas annually. The plant reports its emissions as follows (NA means "not available"): Pollutant Facility Limit Actual Emissions (tons per year) (tons per year) Particulates NA 96,000 Sulfur Dioxide NA 277,000 Nitrogen Dioxide NA 50,000 Recommendations for Krivorozhskava Power Plant (i) Portable Combustion Analyzers Portable combustion analyzers are very useful devices to have available to power engineers. Not only do these analyzers facilitate boiler operational adjustments to improve combustion efficiency, but the analyzers also enable boilers to be fine-tuned from an emissions point of view. For estimation purposes, a suitable analyzer has a capital cost of $6000 (1992 USD). To give meaningful results, these devices must be periodically calibrated and otherwise maintained in good working order. Assuming that the equipment vendor were to set up shop somewhere in Eastern Europe, an annual budget of $600 should be sufficient for operation and maintenance. 18 Annex 5 (ii) ESP Performance Audit With the imminent retirement of several of the oldest ESPs at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant, there is an excellent opportunity to upgrade the dust control systems on these 25-year old boilers. Ir addition, the somewhat newer ESPs are all candidates for upgrading to world performance standards. None of the ESPs at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant appeared to be working as well as they should in terms of resultant stack opacity. The Krivorozhskaya Power Plant would benefit from technical assistance in the form of a person or persons knowledgeable of ESP troubleshooting strategies to work directly with Krivorozhskaya Power Plant personnel who would then be responsible for maintaining and operating the upgraded ESPs over the long term. (Iii) Develop a Suitable Coal Blend The plant personnel should experiment with a blend of various available coals into a fuel which will bum effectively in the boilers in terms of thermal efficiency and reduced emissions. Rather than being tied to the properties of a single fuel, a suitable coal blend would allow continued use of local poor quality coals while potentialiy reducing emissions and improving plant efficiency. (iv) Development (bv Plant) of Boiler Startup and Shutdown Plans Krivorozhskaya Power Plant should write and implement detailed plans for boiler startup and shutdown with the intent of minimizing emissions during those periods of operation. Details of minimizing emissions are best developed by the plant its 1. (v) Development (by Plant) of Malfu ion Prevention and Abatement Plan The Krivorozhskaya Power Plant should write and implement detailed plans for preventing boiler and air pollution control system malfunctions, to improve compliance with visible emissions standards at the stacks. Details of system operation and maintenance resulting in stable long-term performance are best developed by the plant itself. All power plants involve mechanical processes which can affect air pollution emissions. Anything which affects the delivery of fuel to the boiler, for example, must be working properly to avoid boiler upset conditions. A good example of a system to evaluate is a pollution control system, such as the ESP on each unit at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant. If something were to go wrong with the ESP, the immediate environmental impacts would be increased particulate and visible emissions from the stack associated with that ESP. (vi) Five Continuous Opacity Monitors (one per stack) Over the longer term, opacity monitors would be useful. Stack monitoring is an expensive but reliable method of demonstrating compliance with pollutant emission restrictions. Opacity (visible emissions) is monitored essentially as a surrogate parameter for dust emissions. Stacks equipped with continuous opacity monitors therefore enable plant and regulatory personnel to judge dust control effectiveness over the long term. For estimation purposes, each continuous opacity monitor has a capital cost of $250,000 (1992 USD). To properly operate, maintain and calibrate these units, one should budget $25,000 annually. This is a longer term investment, when the budget allows it Data on the Electric Powver Industry 19 (vii) Opportunities for Demonstration Projects in SO_ INO. Control The plant's Environmental Department has been busy developing and evaluating strategies to address SO,, and NO,, emissions. With respect to SO2 reductions, Krivorozhskaya plans to inject a lime slurry into the flue gas duct to achieve perhaps 85 percent removal of sulfur dioxide and make gypsum from the recovered wastes. For NO,, the plant wants to phase in SNCR in the form of ammonia injection, since low-NO, burners for coal-fired furnaces are not available in Ukraine or the former Soviet Union. To implement these strategies, Krivorozhskaya Power Plant has considered three alternatives: complete and immediate replacement of all of the air pollution control equipment at the plant, including the installation of the new technologies; construction of a brand new 300 MW boiler with all new pollution control equipment for dust, SQ2, and NO,; reconstruction of four boilers to be equipped with new pollution control systems, in combination with the sequential replacement of the remaining six boilers with new boilers equipped with new pollution control systems. Krivorozhskaya prefers the third option and plans to send a formal proposal to the MEP by year's end to seek approval to begin reconstruction; the plant believes that all of the boilers are nearing the end of their useful life. Before a final decision on such investments is taken, it will be important to consider whether indeed expensive sulfur or NO, control on power plants is a priority for pollution control in the country. That determination must consider whether emissions from power plants are significant contributors to local ambient pollution or not. If not, then the priority should be to send scarce resources first on those sources contributing to ambient pollution with its local health impact. Nevertheless, it would be useful to go ahead with some demonstration projects to acquaint Ukrainian engineers with these technologies. (a) Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (Urea Injection) The power engineers at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant have expressed an interest in applying a selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) technology to one or more of their existing coal-fired boilers. They have investigated the ammonia-based process. Instead, they should seriously consider the urea-based system. Urea has several advantages over ammonia from a handling point of view, and the urea-based system has been shown to be significantly more flexible than the ammonia-based system in terms of the range of flue gas temperatures for effective operation. The urea technology can reduce up to 60 percent of flue gas NO,, resulting from coal combustion. A wall-fired pulverized coal boiler at Wisconsin Electric's Valley Power Plant in Milwaukee recently completed a successful demonstration of this SNCR technology, and several coal-fired boilers in Germany have successfully applied urea injectiP a as well. The capital costs of SNCR are estimated to be $10-12 (1992 USD) per kilowatt of generating capacity. The annualized operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are estimated to be $400 (1992 USD) per ton of NO,, removed. For one 300 MW boiler at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant, this would mean $3 - 3.6 million in capital cost plus $1.2 million annually for O&M. A 60 percent reduction from one existing boiler would amount to about 3000 tons of nitrogen oxides. 20 Annex 5 (b) Duct Sorbent Iniection for Sulfur Dioxide Emissions Control The power engineers at Krivorozhskaya Power Plant have also expressed an interest in applying a scrubbing teclnology to one or more of thieir existing coal-fired boilers to achieve 85 percent S02 removal. They have investigated using a lime slurry for this purpose. Dry limestone duct injection has been successfully applied in the U.S. when more modest reductions (e.g., 50 percent) are appropriate. Some technical assistance from abroad would probably be useful, especially for the dry sorbent injection strategy. This plant is a good candidate for this teclnology since its Environmental Department has demonstrated an ability to be both innovative and aggressive in terms of reducing emissions from their boilers. The successful application of dry sorbent injection for S02 control would be very important for Ukraine because it is very cost-effective and since so many of the fuels burned at the thermal power plants are relatively high in sulfur. Perhaps two person-weeks of technical assistance would be sufficient to enable Krivorozhskaya Power Plant to apply limestone injection to reduce S02 emissionis. The costs of this technology would be very similar to those of SNCR, both in terms of capital cost and O&M. (c) Demonstration of Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology Several times during the visit to Krivorozhskaya Power Plant the Director stated that it is time to begin plant reconstruction, that the boilers are "nearing the end of their useful life". After all, the first units were designed in 1960 and commissioned in 1965. This plant, is an excellent candidate for new boiler technology to replace at least one of the out-of-date boilers now ready for retirement. Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) might be an option to replace one or more of the existing Krivorozhskaya boilers because this technology can handle a wide variety of coal types and grades, and because substantial SO2 reduction may be easily achieved at the bed. In this way, Krivorozhskaya could continue to burn the local coals in an environmentally acceptable manner. Krivorozhskaya's use of FBC would also represent a demonstration of a new technology for Ukraine, a country with vast reserves of coal and limestone and a tendency to assign low-grade fuels to the power plants. A major concern with FBC, though, is the waste it generates. This would have to be considered in comparing options for the future. ANNEX 6: PROTECTED AREAS: DESCRIPTIONS AND RELATED INFORMATION A. Danube Delta-Ukrainian Pati B. Description of Selected Other Ukrainian Reserves C. Wetlands Formerly Registered Under RAMSAR D. Selected Summar)y Data on Reserves and Species E. Geographic Inlormation Systems (GIS) F. Requirements Under the Convention on Biological Diversity A. Danube Delta--Ukrainian Part 1. The Ukrainian part of the Danube Delta (some 225,000 ha) is located in the southwest part of the Odessa oblast. The major part of the delta area is in Kiliya raion. The largest of the three branches of the Danube flowing through the delta is the Kiliya, with 70 per^~ent of the total flow; it serves as the border between Ukraine and Romania. The delta region encompasses a large number of large and small islands, marshes, a maze of tributaries and canals. lakes rich with aquatic plants, and a mosaic of forests, grasslands and dunes in the wetland area. Islands in the Danube Delta are very low, with marshes and reed beds. Within the last 10-20 years, a new generation of islands has been formned (Kuban islands), and in the Black Sea, some new islands called Kuril islands are still emerging. 2. Annual precipitation is 370-380 mm; humidity is 75-80 percent. Evaporation is about 900 mmn per year. The cold period lasts 120 days and the warm period (average daily temperature above 5 c) 245 days. The average temperature in July is 23 C, the maximum 39 C; in January, it is -5 to -1 C, the minimum -15 C. Snow may fall at the end of December and stay on the ground for 20-30 days. There are two major flood periods -- one in spring-summer and another in autumn. When the water level is high, up to 95 percent of the delta may be covered by water. The interior part of the delta accumulates annually up to 2.23 million m3 of water. Most of the lakes in the delta have fresh water and low salinity. Some of them are used as a part of the Danube-Dniester irrigation system. Lake Sasyk has been transformed into a reservoir for fresh water for irrigation, although it is not operating as effectively as planned. 3. Four major types of soils are common in the Danube delta area: arshy soils (the major type); peat bogs; peat-marshy soils; and soda saline peat bogs. Vegetation in the Danube Delta area is very diverse. In a relatively small territory there are six major types of vegetation complexes. Grassy cattail- reeds constitute the majority of the Danube Delta vegetation types. The Reserved Area and its MIanagement 4. The Ukrainian natural reserve "Dunayskie Plavni" (Danube's wetlands) is located in the Danube "avandelta", near Vilkovo. The area is the youngest part of the Delta, formed perhaps 150-200 years ago, and is changing rapidly as new islands and land formations develop from accumulations of silt. It is an area considered one of the richest in wildlife in Europe. The total area of the Dunayskie Plavni reserve is only 14,851 ha along the Black Sea coast, including 9,251 ha of land and 5,600 of water.' The reserve 1/ In contrast, the Romanian biosphere reserve in the Danube Delta is over 591,000ha. 2 Annex 6 was formed by a decree of the Ukrainian Counicil of Mlinistries on April 23. 1981. It lhad previously been a branch of the Black Sea reserve. 5. Flora and Fauna. Flora of the Dunayskie Plavni (DP) reserve consists of 563 plants, or about 11.4 perce.nt of Ukrainian flora. Thlere are somc unique tlora complexes in this area, formed by Hippophae rhamnoides L., whicih on the territor) ot thie DP reserve constitute probably the biggest area of the whole Danube Delta. There are some other rare species on the territory of the reserve such as Trapa natans L., Nymplhaes alva, salvinia natans L.. Orchis palvtris, Leucojunt aestivuns. 6. Fauna of the DP consists of more than 5,000 species. Birds nesting on the territory of the DP consist of 67 species, wvhile about 225 species are observed on this territorv during the year. This factor was one of the major reasons for the creation of the Dunayskie Plavni reserve. At present, some of the rare species are the pygmy cormorant and the red-breasted goose. The Danube Delta contains most of the world population of these two endangered species. It also has more than 50 percent of the palearctic breeding population of the common pelican and about 5 percent of the world's dwindling number of Dalmatian pelicans. 7. Mammals of the Danube Delta are represented by 25 species, including otter, mink, little ermine, wild cat, fox and hare. Ichtyofauna is represented by 92 species, belonging to 32 families. There is strong evidence that some of the species are in significant decline due to pollution and overfishing. For example, beluga (white sturgeon) in the past typically weighed about 500 kg, while today they average no more than 200 kg. 8. Management. The Reserve Authority, operating out of the town of Vilkovo, has a total of 15 people working in the reserve including 6 scientific researchers, 4 guards and 5 administrative employees. Its budget in 1989 was 88,700 rubles. The Reserve Authority has control only over the land, not over the water because of historical water rights of Vilkova fisherman (see para. 12). The currently protected area is presently unpopulated except for some summer cottages, although some of the inhabitants of Vilkovo have established small orchards and vegetable gardens in the area, and there is some cattle grazing. The Reserve Authority is currently operating as a small research body, with little in the way of a management function. 9. The intention of MEP is to transfer the reserve authority to the direct jurisdiction of the Ministry and eventually to declare a much larger area of the delta a National Park (140,000 ha), divided into a highly protected area, a buffer zone, and a larger protected area for which a management plan would be prepared. The proposed national park would be a part of a biosphere reserve which would include wetlands of Danube and Prut and such lakes as Katlabuh, Kagul, Kartal, Kugurluy, Yalpug and Kitay, with the total territory of about 250,000 ha. But this project is unlikely to be realized in the near future because of scarce resources. There are some moderate proposals to enlarge the present territory of the reserve to 30,' 30 ha and make it one territory with different zones. Protected Areas. DeAcriptions atnd Relalte(d h"r,nation 3 Population, Industr} and Agriculture in the Kiliva Raion 10. The area otf tle Kiliva raion is 1,40(0 kin. with a population of 68.50() people, including rural population of 32,000. IPopulation density is 48.9 persons per kin'. In Vilkovo, agriculture is the principal economic activity. T'herc ate I I collcctivc farmis. 3 fisherman collective farms, anid 5 state farms which have titles lor 69,6(0(0 la (it arahic lanid, including 60,000 ha ol irrigated land. Rice plantations cover 5,5(0 lha. Ihlere arc 20 eiiterprises in the Kiliva region which provide einplovtl1eiit for about 14,400 people. 11. Kiliya is an administrative ccnter ol' th. raion, located on the left bank of the Danube withl a population of 25.500 people. There are 14 industrial enterprises in Kiliya, 8 construction companies and 5 transportation facilities. The biggest and most important of these enterprises is the Kiliya port and ship repair factory. The Kiliya port is able to work with all major types of ships, cargo and passenger, sea - and river-going. It is the location also of one of the biggest collective fish farms in the area, involved in fishing in the Danube river, the Delta anid Kita) lake. This enterprise combines fish breeding and fish ponds with some food processing. It is considered to be the major opponent of enforcement of a totally protected regime in the Danube Delta area, especially in the Dunayskie Plavni reserve. 12. Vilkovo is the second town in population (10,500). It is situated in the delta on hundreds of small island. After the Russian-Turkish war of 1878. the people of Vilkovo were granted rights to all waters in the Kiliya branch and small farms between islands in the delta for fishing free of charge and in perpetuity. There are now about 450 fisherman in the Vilkovo collective fish farm. These fishermen claim that enforcement of a strict regime of nature reserve will significantly decrease their catches and their losses will exceed krb 60 million. They have steadily increased their fishing in the Delta area which, in the judgement of some experts, has created overfishing problems. This collective farm provided information to the authorities in Kiev which shows that in 1986 they caught 400 tons of herring, 6 tons of sturgeon and 500 tons of other species, indicating a nearly twofold drop in catch in ten years. Fishermen are still conducting intensive fishinig on the territory of the DP reserve. The reserve authority estimates that intensive fishing (year round with 177 boats and 4 permanent warehouses on the islands of the delta) creates the biggest threat to birds and fishes of the reserve territory. 13. Another major threat to the delta ecosystem is intensive irrigation. Based in Vilkovo, enterprises belonging to the Danube-Dniester irrigation trust are responsible for digging a 14 km long canal from the Danube to Lake Sasysk through the very rich Zebryanskie Plavni, cutting it into two parts. There is also a fish producing plant, a ship repair factory, and a special enterprise responsible for producing nets for fishermen. The local population in Vilkovo uses islands in the delta for small scale orchards, vegetables, vineyards and cattle breeding. Some of the cattle are brought to the islands and left there during spring and summer and slaughtered on the islands in the fall. These animals are brought to the islands without authorization from the DP reserve authority and can move from unprotected territories to protected ones because there are no fences between them. Organizations involved in Monitoring the Ukraine Danube Delta Area 14. State Inspection on the Black Sea Protection enforces the Law on Enviromunental Protection of Ukraine and has the authority to stop all activities which are illegal. However with very scare resources and lack of equipment, it is very difficult to do so in practice. 4 Annex 6 15. The Danube l)elta and the Danube itself have been investigated by the following institutions: (i) Institute of Hydrobiologv conducts research on hydrology, biology and pollution. especially dealing with irrigation. It previously had a stationary base in Vilkovo which was transferred to the DP reserve. (ii) Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas has been responsible for the reserve. Its scientists have conducted various studies and collected materials on flora and fauna. The Institute was one of the initiators of the "national park' concept. (iii) Hydromet monitors water quality at some points on a daily basis, others weekly, and still others seasonally. (iv) The Institute of Botany and Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Kiev) is responsible for flora and fauna surveys of the DD. (v) The Southern Center of the Academy of Science in Odessa, through its local institutes and some branches of Kiev institutes, provides assistance in expeditions and local facilities. (vi) Odessa University, Kiev University and University of Chernovtsy are also working in this zone, undertaking soil and landscape research, geology, climate and hydrology research. (vii) Some NGOs, like the Institute of Geoinformatics, also participate in related research, sometimes in cooperation with the Ukrainian center of the Ecology of the Sea, which previously was responsible for research in the Black Sea. (viii) Ukrainian Center of the Ecology of the Sea, now under the umbrella of the Ministry for Environmental Protection, together with the Kharkov Water Research Institute, was involved in US-USSR activity on environment and was one of the leaders in setting water pollution standards for the former Soviet Union. B. Description of Selected Other Ukrainian Reserves 16. Information for the short reserve descriptions that follow has come from translation of short descriptions published for each reserve. A more detailed description can be found in a volume of the six volume Zapovedniki SSSR series (Zapovedniki Ukrainy i Moldavii 1987 edited by Sokolov V.E. and Syroeckovskii E.E. "Mysl" publishers Moskva). This publication details for each reserve: o the history of survey and establishment o the physical geography o ecosystem characteristics Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Information 5 o flora and fauna with special attention to rare species o monitoring and research activities. Askanya-Nova 17. The Askanya-Nova reserve, located in the Chaplinsky region of the Kherson area, is the oldest reserve in Ukraine. It was set up at the end of the 19th century by the former owner of the F.E.Falts- Fein estate. He managed the establishment of a botanical garden and zoo, and the steppe area aimed for econo.nic activities. In 1919 Askanya-Nova was proclaimed a people's reserve park; in 1921 it was designated as the first state reserve in Ukraine; and in December 1984, according to the resolution of the UNESCO Coordination Council, it was assigned the status of biosphere reserve. The total area of the reserve is 33,307 ha, which includes a strictly protected reserve nucleus (virgin steppe) of 11,954 ha. 18. The reserve is the natural standard of dry steppe. It ensures the conservation and studies of the unique virgin feather-grass steppe area with dominating turf cereals, various sedges, and wornwoods. The reserve protects more than 450 species of upper plants, including 50 endemics, and more that 8,000 species of fauna, specific for genuine feather-grass steppes. The territory of the Great Chapel Hearth of the reserve houses 50 species of animals from all over the world. Rastochya 19. The Rastochya reserve of 2,085 hectare is located in the forest-steppe biogeographic region. It is part of the watershed of the Black and Baltic Sea basins and is situated on the spurs of the podol'skaya upland. Characteristically flat-topped hills in the reserve, from 380-390 m, are cut by river valleys with a system of post-glacial lakes. This small reserve contains a sample of all basic forest types of Ukraine. It is at the northeast boundary of the European beech and silver fir forests as well as the southeast boundary of the pine forests. Soil type varies greatly, from very poor to transitional and limnited areas of fertile loams. 20. A research center is active there. Part of the research activity involves researchers invited from educational and research institute, in Lviv and Kiev as well as research undertaken by contract. Many research activities are designed to provide practical training of senior students of biological, geographical and forestry institutes, The inventory of flora and fauna is the first phase of research and, as in all the reserves, yearly annals of nature are prepared. Studies are underway for the 26 Red Book species held in the reserve, such as: the forest lily, butterfly orchid, spotted orchid, snowdrop, stiff club moss and common lambseccory. Of note is the white tailed eagle and a breeding site is located on the reserve. Black storks are also found in the reserve. 21. The protected zone adjacent to the reserve holds the Ivano-Frankivsk training forestry farm, the Shkio forestry area, and artificial ponds of the Lviv regional fish factory operate. The forests are designated as type 1 forests with strict limitations on economic activities. The reserve also functions as an ecological education center and a museum has been created. It presents the specific features of the reserve and region and to some extent the whole protected area system. Unlike a national park, access to the reserve is for staff only and outside research activity is strictly controlled. 6 Annzex 6 Ulkraine Steppe Reserve 22. The Ukrainian Steppe reserve of 2.755 hectarcs is composed ol tfour discrete areas. One of these, the Khomutovsky steppe, is the largest integral site ot fescue-stipa steppe in Europe. Taken together with the Lugansky and Askaanya Nova reserves, thlese areas are significanit in preserving a representative sample of plants and animals of the steppe. There are more than 900 species of the higher vascular plants in the Ukraine Steppe reserves, 40 of *which are seldom found outside the reserves and 20 are recorded in the Red Data Book. Examples include centaiurea taliev. wlhite pseudolamellar centaurea, alpian woodsia, spear leaf witchl grass, bare yarrow, Schrenik tulip, granite tulip, narrow-leaved peony and 6 species of spear grass. The reserves contain the habitat of dozens of rare species of mamrnal, fish and waterfowl. Five of these species are included in the Red book including the steppe viper, eared hedgehog and marbled polecat. During transmigration the steppe eagle and the war eagle can be observed in the reserves. 23. Two of the four areas, the Khomtnutsky steppe and Kamenny mogillv, occupying only 1500 hectares, include 60 percent of the plants recorded for the northern Azov area. These areas also contain many species endemic to the Azov zone including feather grass, rough spear grass, "deceitful" spear grass, Azov spear grass, Azov kleistogena, Azov bluesem, Azov star of Bethlehem and eight species of fern, two of which are relics and are most often found in forest zones. 24. Research is the principal activity at the reserve. Researchers located at the reserve, and in cooperation with several institutes of the Academy of Sciences, have published extensively. One significant program (on the comparative ecology of the structure and functional relations of the abiotic and biotic components of the steppe ecosystem) resulted in many publications including "Soil and Biogeocoenotic Studies in the Azov Region" (1975, 1976,1978). Yalta Mountain Reserve 25. The Yalta reserve comprises 14,584 hectares. A large part is covered by Crimean pine forests which are only found in the southern mountain lands of Crimea. The flora of the reserve include 65 percent of all species growing in mountain Crimea: species from a number of rare forest ecosystems, such as high juniper and Sudak, and 1,363 species of vascular plants. 256 species of medicinal plants are found here, as well as Red Book species such as European yew, narrow leaved peony, Crimean peony, red cephalanther, small spotted orchid and narrow-leaved saffron. The reserve forests are part of the watershed which supplies the numerous resorts and populated areas of the resort region of Bolshaya Yalta. 26. The fauna of the reserve is diverse. The 274 species include 30 species of manumal, 113 birds, 11 species of reptiles, 4 amphibians and 19 species of Lepidoptera. The Red Book lists 7 species of mammal which are present in the reserve. These include water shrew, greater horse shoe bat, Geoffrey's notch eared bat, Natterer's red grey bat, common barbastelle, lesser noctule and Kuhl's pipistrelle. Five bird species are also present and are Red Book-listed. Protected Areas. Descriptions and Related Information 7 Lugansky 27. The Lugansky reserve (1,575 ha) comprises three different landscapes. The Stanichno- Luganskoye area (494 ha) is located in the alluvial plain of the Severskodonets River and contains seven flood plain lakes. The forest is typical steppe-oak with broadleaves, and terraces above the bottom land contain pine species. Mixed oak groves alternate with alder scrubs, poplar groves and osier beds and flood plain meadows. Altogether, 631 higher plant species from 81 farnilies are found in this part of the reserve. 28. The Streltsovskaya steppe landscape (494 ha) is located ill the Melovsky region. No natural forests are to be found here, and the vegetation cover is represented mainly by cereals such as feather grasses, sheeps fescue etc. There are 556 species belonging to 59 families; this part of the steppe is habitat to grey hare, urchin, fox weasel and wild boar. The Provalsjaya steppe (587 ha) is located in the Sverdlovsky district. Besides steppe it contains ravine forests. There area 729 higher plant species with several relic and endemic species. 29. Taken as a whole the reserve areas contain 15 Red Book species and 83 of 232 species recommended for sanctuary preservation of the southeastern flora of Ukraine. The current decrease in the water available for the Donets floodplain has caused a dramatic modification of habitat for many species. Otters, European mink and raccoon dogs are therefore limited to the reserve. One important endemic species is the European baboc. The main activity undertaken at the reserve is research by both reserve personnel and from the institutes of the Academy of Science. Kardazsky 30. The reserve is located in the southeastern end of the Crimean peninsular in the Sudak district and has an area of 2877 hectare, 72 percent of which is dry land. The Jurassic geology of the area results in a unique combination of fauna and flora. Over 1,040 plant species grow in this area and many of these are relict, endemic or rare. These include the Greek juniper, wig-tree, Shrenk tulip and turkterebinth pistache. The reserves fauna include 12 species of amphibians and reptiles, 157 species of birds and 29 species of mammals. Some 10 species of fauna present in this reserve are listed in the Red Book. 31. The waters included in the Karadag reserve contain 160 marine plant species or about 60 percent of the number of species found in the Black Sea. 70 species of fish, 9 species of coral snake, 140 species of Crustacea, 92 annelids and 81 species of mollusks make this part of the reserve biologically significant. Polessky 32. The reserve is located close to large scale land reclamation carried out in the decade form 1960. It is a representative sample of the forest-bog complexes which were previously much more extensive in the region. The 20,100 hectare reserve is characterized by lichen pine forests on poorer soils, birch forests and by mixed forests and flood plain oak groves. 86 percent of the area is forest but this interspersed with bog communities (oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic). 33. Polessky reserve plays an important role in the preservation of the regions gene pool. There are 603 species of vascular plants 11 of which are listed in the Red Book. The fauna is diverse with rare species such as the black stork, 140 species of birds, 30 species of mammals, 8 species of amphibian and , Annex 6 species it' relptiles. Research in the reserve is mainly aimed at studying the effects on the ecosystems by land use changes outside the reserve whicih markedly affects the water regime. Cape Martvan 34. This smiiall reserve of 240 hectares includes the rocky calpe and an equal area of sea. The vegetation can be described as a Mediterranean relict and is tvpical of the coastal zone of the dry subtropical region. The nature protection department of the nearby Nikitsky Botanical Garden manages the reserve. The reserve contains 500 species of higher vascular plants (about 20 percent of Crimean flora) and 200 species of fish. 4(0 species of flora and fauna are included in the Red Data Book. Personnel of the reserve are active in developing a nietwA ork of reserves adjacent to Cape Martyan and to date 1,550 hectares has been reserved as natural monument, botanical reserve or landscape reserve. Black Sea Biosphere Reserve 35. The Black Sea Biosphere Reserve located in southern Ukraine has a core protected area of 57,000 hectare. The reserve plays an important part in the conservation of ornithological fauna, and part of the reserve kas been nominated by the government as an internationally significant wetland site according to the requirements of the Ramsar Agreement. The reserve covers dry land forest steppe and coastal areas, the islands of Tendra, Orlov, Smaleniy, Babin, Dolgiy, Krugliy, and Konsky and part of the Djarylagatchsky and Yagorlitsky bays of the Black Sea (see description under RAMSAR sites). 36. Dramatic changes have taken place over the sixty years of the existence of the reserve. For example the population of black headed gulls was only 18,916 in 1935 and in 1983 this rose to 360,000 pairs. The conmmon eider, ringdove, blackbird are now found in the reserve. The plant and animal life of the reserve is very rich. There are more than 700 species of higher plants, some 70 species of fish and 44 species of mammal. The reserve has a museum which is visited by 3,000 people every year. Carpathians Biosphere Reserve 37. The Ukrainian Carpathians preserve some unique Central European areas of beech and spruce forests which are of great significance for studying the development history of the East Carpathians vegetation. The first reserve of beech and fir-beech forests was created in 1932 on the Stuciza mountain slopes. Since that time the reserve has been enlarged to 2,952 ha and included in the Ukrainian Carpathians Biosphere Reserve (CBR). The CBR was created in 1991 with a total area of 38,930 ha which is subdivided into a reserve zone (21,879 ha), a buffer zone (8,949 ha), and a nature management zone (8,071 ha). The reserve zone includes the Stuzica scenic reserve, and four separately located forest areas. These areas are the Khust forest, the Uglya-Shyroky Lug forest, the Chernogirs'ky forest and the Maramorosky forest. 38. The Stuzica Reserve is located on the border with Slovakia and Poland at a range of between 770 to 1269 m (ASL). Flora of the reserve forest includes over 500 species of vascular plants many of which are rare, such as: Atropa belladonna, Arnica montana, Astrantia major, Helleborus purpurascens, Streptopus amplexifolius, ar.d Telekia speciosa. In this region the beech is characterized by high vitality and has a wide altitudinal range ( 500-1260m). The sub-alpine meadows occupy small areas with the most Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Information 9 typical species being Nardetum strictae and Vaccinetum myrtillae. The most typical representatives of the fauna are Felis sylvestris, Coronella austrialis, Elaphe longissima, Apatura iris and Rosalia alpina. 39. The Khust Reserve Massif is a small area of forest (256 ha) is the largest European locality for the narrow leaved narcissus. The forest is at 180-200m ASL. In addition to the narcissus there are many other rare plants in particular: Dactylorhiza majalis, Erythronium dens-canis, Gladiolus imbricatus, Iris sibirica, Orchis laxiflora, Potentilla alba and Leucojum vernum. The typical fauna representatives include: Iphiclites podalirius, Eudia pavonia, Papilio machaon, and Proserpinus proserpina. 40. The Uglya-Shyroky Luf Massif (10,350 ha) is located at elevations ranging from 400 to 1280m on the Polonya ridge. The beech forest extends to 1280 m. Although the majority of the ridge is flysch, a limestone ridge is contiguous with the flysch on the south side. This limestone ridge results in specific flora and fauna associated with caves in the karst system. The forest contains about 550 species of vascular plants. The notable species associated with the limestone include Taxus baccata, Juniperus sabina (unique in Ukraine) and Quercus petrea. Herbaceous plants also represented here include Erythronium dens-canis, Cortusa mattioli, Iris graminea, Sedum hispanicum, Coronilla varia, Jovibarba pressiana, Corallorhiza trifida and Orchis morio. Significant fauna species include Thymallus thymallus, Salamandra salamandra, Ciconia nigra, Faleo preregrinus, Bubo bubo, Srix uralensis, Dendrocopos leucotos, Rhinolophus hipposideros, Myotis emarginatus, Barbastella, Meles meles, AglFa tau and Endronius versicolor. 41. The Chornogirskv Reserve Forest lies on the Chornogorsky ridge at elevations from 800m to 2061m. It has seven identifiable plant profiles associated with elevation. These are (from the bottom) Fagetum sylvaticum, Acereto pseudoplatani-Fagetum (fragmentary association), Piceeto-Abieto-Fagetum, Fageto-Abieto-Piceetum, Piceeto-Abietis and elfin woodland with pinus mugo, Duscheka viridis and Juniperus sibirica. The forest flora numbers more than 700 species of particular note are Saussurea alpina, Polygonum viviparum, Senecio carpaticus, Gentiana punctata, G. acaulis, Aconitum nanum, Pulmonaria filarszhyana, Leontodon croceus and Rhodendron kotschyi. Spruce is the dominant forest type (Piceetum oxalidosum, P. myrtillosium, P. polytrichosium). The sub alpine level of plants widely represents climatic communities such as Mugeta, Duschekieta viridae, Junipereta sibirica. As far as rare communities are concerned it is worth mentioning Rhodoretum kotschyi, Salicetum herbacea, Doronicetum capatici, Juncetum trifidi and Caricetum sempervirentis. 42. Fauna comprise many rare and commercially valuable species such as Triturus montandoni, T. alpestris, Circus cianeus, Aquila chrysaetos, Tetraeo urogallus, Glaucidium passerinum, Prunella collaris, Sorex alpinus, Chionomys nivalis and Callimorpha dominulla. 43. The Maramorosky Reserve Massif has a total area of 3,970 ha with well defined glacier cirques at the higher elevations. The slopes of the cirques are covered with thickets of Pinus mugo and Duschekia viridus. The geology includes schists, gneiss and marble-like limestone of the Jurassic period which determines the vegetation and to some extent the fauna. The flora is noted for such species as Campanula carniolica, Cardaminopsis neglecta and Anemone narcissiflora. The herbaceous sub alpine level can display a number of rare species such as Gentiana lutea, G.punctata, Sempervivum montanum, Anthemis carpatica and Poa deyli. The forest fauna shows a number of peculiar features as well. Present are Tetrao urogallus, Bubo bubo, Neomys anomalus, Mustela lutreola, Lutra lutra, Felis sylvestris, Lynx lynx and Lucanus cervus. 10 Annex 6 44. Surrounding each of the reserves are buffer zones which decrease the impact of human induced activity on the protected areas by restricting the extent and nature of some uses. As a result of a recent agreement between Ministers of Environrnent for Ukraine, Poland and Slovakia, plans are underway to develop a tri-national biosphere reserve. This international reserve would include expansion of the Stuciza reserve and the creation of a national park. The table below indicates the preliminary areas in Ukraine identified for the international reserve. Considerable investigation and preparation is required to make the proposal a reality. Proposed Eastern Carpathians Tni-National Biosphere Reserve Country I Reserve | Area (ha) Ukraine Stuzice National Park 14,300 (presently 2,000 ha) Slovakia Vychodne Karpaty - protected 40,601 landscape park (future national park) Poland Sau River Valley Landscape Park 35,635 Cisna-wetlina Landscape Park 46,025 Bieszcardy Natioral Park 27,065 TOTAL: 163,626 C. Wetlands Formerly Registered Under RAMSAR 45. Internationally important wetlands in Ukraine were identified and accepted with the USSR becoming a Contracting Party to the RAMSAR convention in 1976. Ukraine has yet to become a signatory to the convention. Set out below are descriptions of the areas previously accepted as RAMSAR wetlands. It is understood that even though the Ukraine Government has not entered into the convention, that for al intents and purposes the management of the areas is still consistent with their international significance. Sivash Bay 46. The Sivash bay Ramsar site is situated between Genichesk and the north-east coats of the Crimea peninsula on the sea of Azov, Kherson district. An area of 45,700 ha is included, 22,400 ha of which is water. It was designated as a Ramsar site in 1976. The bay is largely isolated from the sea of Azov by the Astrabatskaya Strelka. The shallow saltwater bay (up to 3m in depth) has an indented shoreline and contains several spits and islands, some originally part of the mainland. The water level fluctuates according to the prevailing wind which exposes the shallows. These shallows become subject to intense evaporation in summer, followed by wind erosion. The generally salt and windswept coastal area is covered with a holophytic sword. The site includes two alluvial islands on which desert/holophytic steppe scrub and halophilous meadow vegetation predominate. High salinity confines the aquatic flora and fauna Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Information 11 to salt tolerant species. Their high productivity under the eutrophic conditions forms a valuable food source for birds. 47. This wetland is of international importance for nesting, molting and migrating birds. Numerous ducks (Anatidae) and waders (Charadriifornes) migrate through the area including shelduck Tadorana tadorna (2-10,000) and ruff Pliilomachus pugnax. There are 17,000 nesting birds of 20 species including shelduck, great black-headed gull Larus ichthyaetus. Mediterranean gull L. melanocephalus, herring gull L. argentatus, sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis, little tern S. albifrons and caspian tern S. caspia. It is one of the principal molting sites in the former USSR for mute swan C0gnus olor (3-4,000) and shelduck (2-3,000). Karkinitski Bay 48. Karkinitski bay is situated in the northwest of the Crimea peninsula opposite Sivash Bay, in the Crimean District. It has an area of 37,000 ha and was designated a Ramsar site in 1976. Most of the site comprises water less than 8 m deep to the north of the islands, and there is an extensive shallow coastal area (0.8-1.0 m). The coastline is indented with a number of small bays and several spits and islands within the main saltwater Karkinitski Bay including the Lebiaj i Islands 100 ha (of great ecological interest). Several small islands are formed by shellfish colonies and the hinterland is mountainous. The vegetation is typical of the steppe bordering the Black Sea. Coastal vegetation in the bay is predominantly reedbeds of Phragmites communis with halophytes and grasses on sandy salty soil. These are vast water-meadows of aquatic plants such as stonewarts Charophyta spp. and eelgrass Zostera mnarina, with a rich zoobenthos. The vegetation of the islands consists of halophytes, steppe vegetation and reeds. 49. The bay is important for waterfowl in all seasons including up to 100,000 ducks (Anatidae) and waders (Charadriiformes) which pass through the area on their spring and autumn migrations. Spring flocks are dominated by whooper swan Cygnus cygnus, mute swan C.olor, greylag goose Anser anser and white fronted goose A. albifrons. Autumn flocks are dominated by ruff Philomachuis pugnax and sandpipers Calidris spp. The islands are the site of a large seabird breeding colonies including herring gull Larus argentatus (65-68,000 pairs), Mediterranean gull L. melanocephalus (4-5,00 pairs) gull-billed tem Sterna nilotica (8-9,000 pairs), Caspian tern S. caspia (2-400 pairs), common tern S. hirundo (2-300 pairs), shelduck Tadorna tadorna (50 pairs) and red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator (50 pairs). There are specially protected colonies along the shore of little egret Egretta garzetta (50 pairs), great white egret E. alba (50 pairs), gray heron Ardea cinerea (100-150 pairs), squacco heron Ardeola ralloides (60 pairs) and glossy ibis Plegadisfalcinellus. The bay is one of the most important summer molting grounds for non-breeding mute swan Cygnus olor (3-5,000). Over 50,000 birds winter in the area including whooper swan, sea ducks, freshwater ducks, coot Fulica atra and gulls. 50. The importance of the wetlands around the Dnieper delta are shown in the harvest of about a quarter million waterfowl. The viability of this resource is threatened because of pollution, irrigation withdrawals, and the five large dams on the Dnieper. Changes in the estuarine water and salinity balance, eutrophication from the rice irrigation and fertilization, have resulted in alteration of the benthic communities in the bays with losses in such critical macrophytes as the seagrasses of the genus Zostera which are critical, and in the case of some geese, biologically essential food sources. 12 Annex 6 Intertidal Areas of the Douniai, Yagorliski and Tendrovski Bays 51. The designated wetlands comprise several separate areas: the intertidal areas of the Dounai, detailed previously in the description of the Danube Delta; and the Yagorlitski and Tendrovski Bays (113,000 ha) 50-60 kmi southi-west of Kherson in Nikolayev aind Kherson districts. In the two bays, two extensive shallow water lagoons (up to 6ni deep) are separated from the Black Sea by narrow sandy spits and small islands. The vegetation of the low coasts and islands is characterized by brackish and salt water associations with a predominance of saltwort Salsola socda and marshgrass Puccinella spp. On the steep sloping island shores, kelp lies among sparse reedbeds of Phlraginites communis. Behind the shore, there is usually a strip of brackish marsh. Shallow water vegetation is characterized by large nteadows of eelgrass Zostera sp. with tassel pondweed Ruppia spiralis and stoneworts Charophyta. The waters also support abundant benthos and fish including the small genus Cottus. Protected Areas: Descriptiotns anid Related Inforiation 13 D). Selected Summarv D)ata on Reserves and Species Table 1: Reserves and Park.s of Ukraine, Januarv 1991 Area | Agcnc3 Respon,O'1e Annujl Expcnditurc souarcc Employees (tha) ( .oo kih,f Res/ Guards Total I __________________________________ lTot-l State Othcr Tech RESERVES 1. Askanya Nv%a 11,112 lnltitute of Mriculturfal 1108Q 98X l09 21 162 Researclh 2. Dinsakiye plavni 14,851 Academy ot Screce 74 5 37 o 5 6 5 15 (Danube Delta) 3. Kanovsky 2,027 Mm. Highi Education 270 220 50 14 14 76 4. Kardazsky 2,874 Academy Sciente 230 180 5 24 13 5. Carpahiians 19.899 Miinistry ol Forestr) 458 - 458 17 51 133 6. Luganasky 1,608 Academy of Scicnce 43 - I 12 18 7. Cape Martyan 240 Academy of Agricolture 14.1 8 5 5.6 6 3 9 8. Polessky 20.104 Ministry of Forestry 199 157 42 3 22 67 9. Medobari 10,455 Ministry of Forcstry 112 83 29 2 38 116 10. Rastochya 2,085 Min. High Education 219 206 13 12 16 56 11. Ukraine Steppe 2,755 Academy of Science 87 69 18 4 8 32 12. Chernomorsky 57,048 Academy of Science 239 229 10 9 17 68 (Black Sea) 13. Yaltinsky 14,523 Ministry of Forestry 442 350 92 1 56 142 14. Dneprovsko- 3,766 Ministry of Forestry 155 - 12 17 40 Dtilsky ..isk _.._._ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _ 15. Crimea 44,175 Mfinistry of Forestry 540 420 120 5 85 153 NATIONAL PARKS 1. Carpathians 50,303 MIinistry of Forestry 1,167 - 1.167 4 134 436 2. Sinevir 40.400 Nfinistry of Forcstry 455 - 455 82 364 3. Shatsky 32,430 !linistry of Forestry 428 405 23 2 45 106 BIOSPHERE RESERVES 1. Askanya-Nova 33,307 Itistitute of Agricultural Information not available Research 2. Carpathians 38,930 Awvaiting detail (nominated) _ 3. Chernomorsky 87,348 Academy of Sciceice of (Black Sea) Ukraine .__ 14 Annex 6 Table 2: Species Nutmibers in Protected Areasa SPECIES PROTECTED AREA MaNlnnalsrd Birds Plants RESERVES 1. Askanya Nova 57 213 1.729 2. Dinsakiye plavni 22 212 563 ~Danube Delta) 3. Kanovsk)X 49 240 832 4. Kardazsky 42 200 1,100 5. Carpathians 50 141 898 6. Lugansky 43 151 1,037 7. Cape Martyan 288 146 500 8. Polessky 39 174 604 9. Medobari 10. Poztochya 33 117 793 11. Ukraine Steppe 30 129 926 12. Chernomorsky (Black 44 300 624 Sea) 13. Yaltinsky 33 91 1,363 14. Dneprovsko-Drilsky 16 15 11 15. Crimea 37 250 1,180 NATIONAL PARKS 1. Carpathians 50 110 1,100 2. Sinevir __ 3. Shatsky 30 219 825 a/ Adapted from Environmental Status Report Vol 3: USSR, IUCN East European Program, 1990. Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Information 15 Table 3: Lowland Grassland Types in Protected Areas' NAME Indicator Species Grassland Type 1. Shatsky Grus grus 2. Lugansky Anthus camnestris Salt steppe Otis tarda G. grus Falco ves2ertinus Asio fiammeus 3. Ukrainian Steppe Anthronoides virgo Virgin steppe/Hay meadow Melanochorvoha calandra Circus macrourus F. vespertinus Sturnus roseus 4. Sivash Saliv & Azovskoye A. virgo Virgin steppe/Hay meadow/grazed More 0. tarda land (Rainsar site) 5. Askanya-Nova A. virpo Virgin steppe (1500 ha) Tetrax Oenanthe Burhinus oecidemus 6. Yagorlytski & Tendrovski A. virgo Secondary steppe/Salt steppe Zalivy 0. tada (Ramsar site) T. tetrax Glareola nratincola Glareola nordmanni 7. Kradag, Sudag Falco sherrug Meadow a/ Adapted from: Table 11, Lowland Grasslands of Central and Eastern Europe, IUCN 1991. Note: Not all of the above areas are included in nature reserves, for example the significant areas associated with the RAMSAR sites of Sivash Bay. Such areas carry a less strictly protected reserve classification. Information on the distribution of most animal species or plant associations of Eastern Europe is extremely limited; it is only on avifaunal distributions that widespread information is available. Bird species have therefore been used as indicators of the presence and type of grassland, and breeding species are shown. The information should be treated with caution as it is biased towards rarer or more noteworthy species. 16 Annex 6 Table 4: 1991 Game Population and Ilarvest Figures, SPECIES National Lviv Kherson Pop IKill Pop TK^ll Pop |Kill Moose 14.796 1,380 5 Red/spotted deer 24,925 1,083 2,240 86 2.731 Boar 59,800 7,354 3,050 555 1,593 Roe deer 172,300 7,390 9,300 404 2,488 Squirrel 60,000 0 600 Hare 1,960,000 351,000 161.000 Marten 33.000 28 _ __ Fox 83,000 _ _ 2,806 Muskrat 52,000 1 1,139 Mink/Ermine 1,310 _ Beaver 7,600 Wolf 1,450 563 57 37 Bear 590 1 rogue Partridge _ 9.129 Ducks 4,100,000 1,552,000 236,000 Geese 239,000 21,000 20,~w, a/ An account of aggregated numbers of game animals for the country, and the number harvested is given for 1991. These data are contrasted with figures from two oblasts in different parts of the country to convey some notion of the regional differences and variation to be found. The official error is +or- 10 percent, although an official in the Ministry for Environmental Protection noted that error is probably 20-30 percent. Note that the absence of a number does not imply that the animal was not taken, but rather that the data were not collected. Some interesting questions emerge, such as the absence of partridge from the national accounts, the heavy wolf take in Lviv Oblast, the presence of moose in the southem areas of Kherson, etc. Protected Areas: Descriptions and Related Infortmation 17 E. Geographic Infornation Systems (GIS) 52. GIS use spatial data which are displayed as "themes" (forest cover, pollution damage, threatened habitat, etc.) to analyze and display the solution to a spatial land management problem. GIS analysis can include, for example, the least cost siting of a logging road, areas of highest return on habitat development activities, dispersion of pollutants, etc. Such data are usually acquired through remote sensing of the environment from a platform such as a satellite, or aircraft. The aerial photographs or images of digital information transmitted from a satellite are then "processed" manually or statistically to make them meaningful for aiding the achievement of the goals of the project. Perhaps the greatest failures of GIS technology lie not in the technology but in the failure of the resource scientists familiar with the area of interest to review the image (ground truthing), and work with the computer scientist who provides the image and does the initial processing. Lack of precise communication at this point can lead to an expensive but useless product, whose categories are meaningless in terms of real habitat or forest types. 53. Forestry applications of GIS are increasingly common. Forest inventory, infrastructure, wildlife habitat, geotechnically suitable sites for extraction activities, and other themes can be overlaid. Likewise, the least expensive environmentally acceptable travelsheds can be spread over a compartment, silvicu!tural treatments allocated, and other analyses performed of use to foresters. Graphic output can include hard copy maps or digital files. 54. Other environmental applications of GIS, of particular use in the conservation of biological diversity, are emerging. One common problem is in inventorying valuable resources such as endangered species. Often they are fugitive, furtive, and their ranges are not fully known. One application of GIS involved assessing the impact (of roads) on a poorly located species (very similar to the black grouse). Field studies were conducted on twenty habitat variables, such as vegetation type, and distance from water, at the few known population sites. Statistical analyses revealed that only four of the environmental features contributed to the presence of the bird on its mating display grounds - the critical environmental requirement in its annual cycle. These four map variables were overlaid and the priority areas for habitat preservation were predicted over the whole forest. Furthermore, forest succession and encroachmernt due to effective fire control efforts were predicted, and the habitat losses due to the loss of mating grounds were also predicted for twenty years. 55. GIS was used to predict the impacts of poaching in a rich wildlife area, due to the siting of a mine nearby. Surveys revealed that people would travel up to two hours to recreate. A "travelshed" of two hours on three different grades of roads and trails was created by the GIS. The travelshed was overlain on key habitat and revealed that only 3 percent of the area described by drawing a circle of two hours travel at 80 kph (the traditional method) needed to be patrolled. The GIS analysis produced an efficient focus of effort and savings of project money. System Selection 56. The acquisition of GIS will, to a degree, lock the user into the hardware and software system selected. It must be able to satisfy the requirements of the user while being adaptable to future needs and compatible with the systems of related users (and sources of data), such as national mapping agencies, and other resource agencies. Two key steps in determining needs are: inventorying the activities and 18 Annex 6 systems of other parts of government: and conducting a workload analysis. They lay the groundwork for making appropriate choices which will have a long-lasting effect. Specifically, the analyses should cover the following: current uses of spatial information; project future uses; and assessment of those uses which can be replaced by GIS. Specific questions include: how many maps are used for how long? how many users? are uses centralized or distributed? how many maps are created by the different uses? how many overlays? The answers will reveal systern requirements, the supporting infrastructural requirements, and staff needs. The product will be a 5-year implementation plan with annual costs and proposed phasing. 57. The final contract for the system should include the training necessary be,ore operations can be productive. Potential vendors will provide considerable ad hoc plarning advice. It should be stressed that although the process will take several months and an initial expenditure, the savings from upfront planning should be considerable. Moreover, the entire process must be closely supervised by knowledgeable resource scientists and users (biologists and foresters), not only the providers (vendors and programmers). However, a well-planned GIS is a proven and essential tool in the kit of today's resource planners and managers. Use of GIS-aided impact assessment in analysis by the of the U.S. Forest Service has resulted in an estimated 75 percent saving of time and money over traditional manual methods. Training 58. The system will not work without trained user/operators. There is no magic to acquiring the necessary skills, however, it is particularly useful if the users become operators; for example, the scientist will not always want to rely on a computer operator, who may be uninformed about the technical demands and logic of the biologist or environmental engineer, meteorologist, etc. There are several excellent centers which have the range of new equipment and the relevant resource scientists, who have taught novices how to use GIS. A working knowledge will take about 2 to 3 months of training. A complete facility will take about a year of working on actual projects. At least one of the trainees (there should always be more than one trained) should be good at dealing with the hardware and software maintenance and updating for the lab at the institution. Protected Areas: Descriptions and Relatedl Iniformnationl 19 F. Requirements Under the Convention on Biological Diversity 59. The main provisions of the Convention call for the following actions: o development of measures for conservation and sustainable use, including national strategies, plans and programs, and integration into relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans, programs or policies: o idetitification and monitorinig of processes and activities with adverse impacts; o in-situ conservation through a variety of activities: establishment of protected areas; protection of ecosystems and habitats: appropriate management practices, legislation and financial support: ex-situ conservation through a variety of means to complement in-situ conservation; o adoption of economically and socially sound incentives; * establishment and maintenance of programs for research and training in conservation and sustainable use, as well as promotion of public education and awareness; o introduction of appropriate procedures for environmental impact assessment and m=asures for minimizing adverse impacts; e stipulation of conditions regulating a variety of aspects, including: access to genetic resources; access to and transfer of technology; exchange of information; technical and scientific cooperation; the handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits; financial resources and mechanisms; relationship to other Conventions. ANNEX 7: OVERVIEW OF WATER QUALITY MONITORNG Surface Water Quality Monitoring I. Ambient water quality monitoring. Monitoring of ambient water quality data is insufficiently target-oriented and inefficient. It consists of various systems originally designed for purposes other than developing baseline information for pollution control, planning and policy development. The number of different monitoring systems in operation and the lack of coordination among the agencies and institutions involved, has created a situation where some water bodies and sites are doubly monitored while others are not covered at all. There is not a good system of reporting to the environmental or health authorities when alarming water quality situations are observed. Better cnordination and cooperation would make it easier to respond both to control requirements and strategic planning needs. 2. Hydromet works through a network of 244 hydrochemical "posts" of observation, covering 144 rivers, 7 lakes and 15 water reservoirs. The network was originally designed to study the natural water quality situation in the country. Consequently, the best coverage of sampling stations is in the Carpathian and Crimean mountains; the analyses focus on general chemical parameters like inorganic salts and minerals. 3. There are 4 categories of observation posts on the rivers: (i) One station in the Donbass region with daily sampling of temperature, oxygen and conductivity. (ii) Four stations in Kiev, Zhytomyr, Kirovohrad, and Donetsk, which are sarnpled every 10 days. In addition to the above mentioned parameters, Ph, suspended solids and organic material (BOD5) are measured. Some other parameters such as chloride, ammonium, formaldehyde and phenol are measured dependent on the specific problem situation at the site. (iii) 34 stations, most of them in oblast centers, are sampled every month. Detergents, chromium (Cr6), asphalt, and mercury are measured in addition to the parameters mentioned above. (iv) The rest, about 200 stations, are sampled 7 times per year according to phases in the hydrological regime of the river (peak flow, low flow, before flooding, before freezing etc.). About 50 parameters, mostly natural components like calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, kalium, sulphate and hydrocarbonate, are determnined. In particular cases, some of the pollutant indicators mentioned above, together with some micropollutants such as pesticides and heavy metals are also monitored. The monitoring in the reservoirs and lakes is similar to the river stations of category (iv), but the samples are taken only 4 times a year, on a seasonal basis. 4. The monitoring serves general information fimctions, but some linkage to environmental control and warning has been made. If the analysis shows figures more than 10 times the environmental standard, or the level of oxygen is below 3 mg/l in summer and 2 mg/l in winter, Hydromet will 2 Annex 7 immediately inform the MEP and the local municipal authorities. The same holds for samples with an unpleasant smell or oil film. 5. The San-Epi stations under the Ministry of Health carry out rather extensive water quality monitoring for purposes of assessing ambient water quality and control and providing guidance for water usage. This is reflected in the importance of microbiological parameters in the list of standards and in the monitoring program. Monitoring of ambient water quality is done infrequently. The oblast station in Dnipropetrovsk, for example,samples 58 stations 4 times per year. The number of parameters covered by the monitoring program vary with the administrative level: (i) The local (city and district) stations have an analytic program for raw water and drinking water control, including assessment of general water quality conditions in the drinking water reservoirs. They also check the microbiological conditions at bathing beaches. The sampling and analytic program is designed to reflect local problems and conditions; (ii) The oblast stations carry out more comprehensive studies of the quality of drinking water sources and water bodies used for recreational purposes. They are generally better equipped than the local stations and analyze for a greater number of parameters which partially overlap the local monitoring programs; and (iii) The central San-Epi bureau conducts special studies, further strategic monitoring and general quality control of the regional and local monitoring activities. 6. The local offices of the Ministry for Environmental Protection do not conduct regular ambient water quality monitoring in rivers and lakes. The only information on general water quality collected regularly by the MEP is from samples taken 500 m upstream from registered discharge points. This is used to help determine the "allowable dilution" of discharges (e.g. MAD). Ambient quality figures used for assessing background water quality (for purposes of running the dispersion model) are normally provided by Hydromet. As mentioned above, though, the Hydromet monitoring network is not particularly well designed for evaluating pollution problems. For example, the Inhulets river, which receives considerable discharges of wastewaters from Kryvyi Rih, is insufficiently monitored. 7. Many institutes and organizations have been involved in monitoring activities and studies in the Black Sea. The Ministry for Environmental Protection has set up a unit for State Inspection on Black Sea Protection, with duties similar to the local and regional MEP offices. This unit, in cooperation with the Ukrainian Center of the Ecology of the Black Sea, carries out water quality monitoring and pollution control in the Ukrainian sector of the Black Sea. Also, the regional network of the Ministry of Health monitors some of the coastal areas, in particular aimed at water quality of the beaches. 8. Some of the institutes under the auspices of the Academy of Science have programs for water quality assessment and registration. The Institute of Hydrobiology, for instance, does regular studies of the algae composition and eutrophication development in the Dnieper reservoirs. However, the purpose of these studies is primarily research and ad hoc needs; access to this data for management purposes has proven limited. The scientific institutes have also shown interest in the design and development of monitoring systems; an automatic water quality monitoring system has been proposed by the Academy. There are also some regional and local initiatives from the scientific community for introducing some Overview of Water Quality Monitoring 3 rather ambitious automatic monitoring systems, for instance in Kryvyi Rih, but none has moved beyond the planning stage as yet. 9. Reconmmendations for Changes. Almost all monitoring is at present focused on raditional physical and chemical analysis of the water itself. This method makes it difficuit to detect the level of exposure to micropollutants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, and chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are dangerous even in very low concentrations. Such pollutants, which it is suspected are commonly present in Ukrainian water bodies, should be monitored by analyzing biological indicators and sediment samples. Many of the micropollutants concentrate in the tissue of water organisms such as stationary fish, mussels, water mosses etc. and can be analyzed from such samples. Similarly, such persistent toxic elements settle in the bottom sediment of lakes, reservoirs and slow flowing river stretches. The following steps are recommended: (i) The structure of the water quality monitoring system should be reshaped in order to focus more on pollution control and environmental planning. A revised system--defining the network of sampling stations, sampling frequency, parameters monitored at each particular point, level of automatization, etc.--needs to be designed with a view to cost- effectiveness. The new system should try to coordinate the needs and purposes of all the existing water monitoring systems, at least with regard to ambient water quality monitoring. It might be possible to organize the new system using Hydromet's existing network. (ii) The monitoring system should be expanded to include biological indicators. Simple ecological surveys should be carried out in the receiving waters in order to monitor general trends in the ecosystem and water quality development. Biological material and sediment samples should be collected on a regular basis for analysis of inorganic and organic micropollutants. Testing for specific synthetic organic chemicals, especially solvents, pesticides, etc., should be expanded. (iii) The control monitoring and inspection should include other locations along with the 'official discharge point". This can help in tracking deliberate permit violations and to discover unknown discharges and non point pollution leakage. Control monitoring should also be done closer to the processes themselves and to the source of water pollution. (iv) Some non-fixed station monitoring activities should be included. Detailed synoptic studies of water bodies of particular interest should be prepared and repeated after some years in order to make a more detailed assessment of ecological development. Such studies would be characterized by short term surveys of high sampling density and analytic detail. 10. Discharge monitoring and control. Monitoring of discharges from pollutant point sources and at wastewater and drinking water treatment plants serves specific control purposes and seems in general to be set up in a rational manner. These monitoring activities could be made more effective, however, in particular by addressing the lack of equipment, transport facilities, etc. 4 Annex 7 11. Most of the data on effluent water volume and quality are collected by enterprises that are defined as "end" wastewater dischargers. These are the industrial enterprises, municipal sewage treatment plants, etc. that have a permit with MEP for the discharge of wastewater. These enterprises take samples at the outlet--in some cases every day--and analyze for all the parameters mentioned in the permits. The data are primarily kept in hard copy logs on site and reported as annual loading figures to the MEP. Detailed data may be available on request to the inspectors representing the MEP. These "end" dischargers may also collect and treat water from other enterprises. Most conmmon is the delivery of industrial wastewater to the municipal sewage treatment plant, but some industrial units also receive wastewater from neighboring enterprises. 'n such cases, the delivering unit monitors the volume and quality of the delivered water, and the receiving unit controls measurements for the purpose of cost sharing for treatment, fees and fines. 12. The control monitoring of the registered "end" dischargers is done by the MEP at local and oblast level. This control serves as a check oia the data produced by the enterprises. Such control monitoring is done at the same sites as monitored by the enterprise, i.e., the outlet point(s) defined in the permit. In addition, background data are some times collected by sampling 500 m upstream and 500 m downstream ot the discharge point. The number of controls per year is in general low, 4-6 times per year seems to be the average, mainly due to capacity problems. Control monitoring is done both with and without informing the enterprise beforehand. However, surprise controls may be difficult to arrange since the controllers are often dependent on the enterprise for transport to the monitoring site. 13. The local and regional San-Epi Stations control the water supply treatment plants and their dis:ribution systems, based on the same principles used by MEP in its control of municipal and industrial wastewater dischargers. Routine monitoring of the characteristics of the intake water at the water supply treatment plants and quality control of the treated water delivered to consumers are thU responsibility of the municipal water supply organizations. However, their compliance with the standards is controlled by the local and oblast San-Epi Stations by reviewing their books and by taking water samples for control analysis. Based on the findings of the analyses, the San-Epi stations can instruct the municipal authorities to take protective action, such as advertising warnings, closure of beaches, etc. as necessary. In severe cases, such as the recent cholera episodes, the police and army have been employed to enforce bathing prohibitions. Groundwater Monitoring 14. The assessment of groundwater resources is mainly the responsibility of the State Committee on Geology. The committee has 7200 stations for groundwater monitoring, primarily for assessments of groundwater levels (availability) and some assessment of natural geochemistry. The central Donbass, Kryvyi Rih, Dnieper and Odessa areas are priority areas for monitoring. Within these areas, 120 testing plots are established and operated together with the MEP, Ministry of Chernobyl and the Academy of Science. Data from the Ministry of Municipalities provide additional input for analysis. Subsets of the monitoring network have been used, for example, to assess the extent of agricultural chemical contamination. The Committee has its own laboratory, as well as use of facilities at the Institute of Toxicology for some analyses. There are major gaps in data on local groundwater quality, reflecting the widespread lack of requirements for monitoring landfills, waste impoundments, and industrial sites. In addition, the absence of advanced analytical laboratory equipment has prevented obtaining even rough information on site-specific or area-wide contamination from specific toxic organic constituents within such contaminate categories as pesticides and chlorinated solvents. Overview of Water Quality Monitoritng s 15. Groundwater resources mav provide a useful cotiiplement to surface waters tor drinking water supply. Expansion of aquifer-specific and problem-specific moniioring is, therefore, needed. The following steps are recommenided: (i) Special Pttention should hc given to moniitoring the microbiological quality of rural wells. (ii) Monitoring of groundwvatcr quality in the most promising aquifers should bc carried out to assess the capability of the resource to augment or substitute for surface water supplies in some areas. (iii) Requirements for monitoring of landfills. impoundments. and other local contamination sources should be put in place. (iv) Requirements for proper well construction and abandonment should be examined for completeness. Water Quality Analyses and Laboratory Organization 16. There are a series of laboratories involved in the analysis of water quality parameters. Each enterprise and unit registered as wastewater dischargers or water suppliers has its own lab. The same is true for the control inspectorates and agencies at all administrative levels. General monitoring and research institutions also often have networks of regional and local laboratories in addition to a central one. Most of these laboratories are equipped with outdated hardware lacking the ability to detect low concentrations. The range of parameters they can analyze is limited to traditional inorganic elements and gross organic indicators. 17. Most of the samples collected at the Hvdromet stations are analyzed in one of their ten regional laboratories. Some of these are part of the regional Hydromet organization and others belong to the oblast administration. It was claimed that these laboratories carry out complete chemical analyses of the relevant water quality parameters. However, from their reports it is clear that only a fraction of the parameters mentioned in the list of Water Quality Standards are analyzed. A review of one of their publications also indicated that the detection limits for some parameters, i.e., heavy metals, are rather low and that the figures presented for other parameters, i.e., nitrogen, have been systematically underestimated. The central Hydromet laboratory in Kiev has the responsibility for quality control of their laboratory network. In addition, this laboratory carries out some more advanced analysis and special studies. However, the general capacity of the central Hydromet laboratory makes it unable to exercise its quality control functions in a satisfactory manner. 18. Due to the special focus of the San-Epi Stations on human health, microbiological parameters have been given priority. Station representatives stated that their laboratory network had the ability to measure almost all parameters of interest, with the exception of dioxin. Compared with the overwhelming list of parameters inzluded in the Drinking Water Quality Standards, however, it is obvious that only a fraction of these are monitored and analyzed on a regular basis. 19. The Ministry for Enviromnental Protsction has its own system of laboratories. Again, it is a network with local laboratories in some cities and districts, laboratories linked to the oblast Environmental 6 Annex 7 Protection Agencies and central laboratories in Kiev. In addition, there are specialized laboratories in some of the research institutes affiliated with the Ministry. The quality of the results produced at present are difficult to assess. However, some of the analytic figures of Dnieper River water, provided to the team from different sources, showed striking discrepancies. This may be the result of equipment error or improper laboratory management and procedures, either of which indicate lack of quality control. The following steps are recommended: (i) At least one center should be developed to conduct high quality specialized micropollutant analysis, including dioxin, or a regular high capacity basis. (ii) The upgrading of at least one water laboratory per oblast should have priority over investing in stations for automatic monitoring or mobile labs. (iii) Technical assistance, training and equipment should be provided. A possible joint Ukraine and foreign sampling and analysis mission on the Dnieper should be investigated. This could serve as an input in the establishment of a baseline for the Dnieper Comrnmission work, as a quality test of the local laboratories, and as training in modern equipment use and sampling techniques. In addition it could serve as a neutral assessment of the health risk connected with using the Dnieper as a drinking water source. ANNEX 8: MANAGEMENT OF COMPLEX AIR QUALITY PROBLEMS Introduction 1. The development of procedures for dealing with complex air quality problems involves a number of participants including different levels of government, industrial polluters, mobile sources of pollution, small nonindustrial pollution sources such as home heating and consumer product users, and the general public who is affected by the pollution. Complex air quality problems are those which result from a combination of emissions, not just one or two distinct sources. The procedures for dealing with these problems have become somewhat standardized in many areas of the world such as the United States and Western Europe. This paper will describe this basic approach. Ambient Air Quality Standards 2. The first step in the process of air quality control is to define conditions under which unacceptable air quality conditions exist. This is done for a localized area by defining ambient air quality standards. These standards should be designed based on observed adverse health or other environmental effects. The standards are normally expressed as a concentration of the contaminant over a set period of time. For example, the United States and the World Health Organization (WHO) have defined SO, standards for two time periods, 24-hours and annually. For the 24-hour period. the acceptable concentrations are very dissimilar between the two agencies. The acceptable concentration for the WHO is .125 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) while the USA uses .365 mg/rr3. The annual concentrations are not as dissimilar with the WHO using .050 mg/m3 and the USA .080 mg/in3. There is no single right number, and standards should be selected based on the best information available and upon the particular needs of the nation making this determination. 3. The ambient standards are normally established at the national or federal level and provide a minimum acceptable level of air quality which should be attained throughout the nation. Individual republics or states may elect to establish air quality standards more stringent than the minimum set at the federal level. For example, the state of California has an S02 standard which is nearly three times more restrictive than the 24-hour standard applicable at the Federal Level. This state standard is very close to the standard recommended by WHO. Ambient Air Ouality Monitoring 4. The next step in the program is to establish a comprehensive monitoring system to measure the concentrations of the air pollutants for which ambient air quality standards have been established. There are generally two strategies for locating the monitors which are employed by the agencies responsible for the monitoring. They are: (i) General exposure monitors which are located based on general guidelines, which are designed to ensure that the monitors are located in typical areas where large numbers of people are concentrated. These areas are normally in urban centers and would reflect the possible exposure from a large number of sources, including mobile sources as well as stationary sources. 2 Annex 8 (ii) High incidence monitors which are located by modeling the areas near large sources of the pollution of interest. The monitor is located at or near the spot at whichi the model predicts the higlhest concentration of that particular pollutant. 5. The typical monitoring system normally has a mix of these two types of monitors. If the area in which the monitoring is being conducted is not expected to exceed the standard for a particular pollutant, the number of monitors may be reduced, and only a limited number of each type of monitors may be maintained. Air Quality Management Plans 6. The development of a plan is undertaken via a number of steps. They include: (i) An analysis of the possible contributing sources to the violation of the ambient air quality standards. This analysis includes; (a) Development of a comprehensive emission inventor' of all possible sources which could be contributing to the violation of the standard. (b) Modeling of the sources based on the inventory to determine the relative contribution of the sources based on actual and potential emission levels for each of the sources. (ii) An analysis of the potential pollution reduction actions which may be feasibie for the sources which are determined to be significant contributors to the violation of the standards. Included in this analysis would be the cost of the pollution reduction actions in order to identify the most cost effective approaches, (iii) Public involvement in the planning process, which should include all of the affected sources of pollution and other affected interested groups. This public involvement is essential to determine the adequacy of the analysis conducted to this point and the political acceptability of a particular control strategy, and as a mechanism to bring about an understanding of the actions which will be required as a part of implementing the plan. (iv) Allocation of control requirements among the significant sources of pollution identified in the analysis. These clean up requirements may differ significantly between different types of sources. Some sources may be regulated as a category and may not have site specific requirements. For example, residential home heating may be regulated as a category where the use of coal may be prohibited throughout the region regardless of a particular home's contribution to the measured violations of the standard. Some of the sources may have a site specific emission limit which is needed to correct a predicted violation of the ambient standard at a particular critical location. Site specific limits are especially common to correct S02 violations in a localized area. Categorical limits are more common for regional pollutants such as Ozone (03). However, both types are normally used to correct complex air quality problems. (v) Establishment of the time frames for attaining the ambient air quality standards. This is an essential step in the development of the plan. Depending upon the severity of the violations and the actions needed to correct the problem, the time frames may vary widely. For Management of Complex Air Quality Problems 3 example, the ozone standard in the United States has extremely variable requirements in air quality management plans. In areas where the violations of the standard are not severe, the plan must be implemented and the standard achieved within 3 years. On the other hand the Los Angeles area has been given 20 years to develop and implement its plan because the ozone problem is extremely bad. For Los Angeles the types of pollution control measures which will be required are very expensive and technology forcing. It may include changes in life style which will take long periods of time to implement. Development of Regulations to Implement the Air Ouaiity Management Plan 7. The clean up requirements which are contained in the Air Quality Management Plan must be established in specific rules and regulations. These rules and regulations may be general such as those pertaining to home heating or they may be specific to particular industrial categories or even specific industries. 8. A primary tool for establishing the specific emission control requirements is a permitting program for the significant stationary sources of air pollution. The permit is in effect a license to emit certain amounts of pollution. It also contains important compliance demonstration requirements. For example, it indicates the type of compliance testing which must be undertaken and the frequency of that testing. It also contains the reporting requirements which the source is subject to. It is a clear statement of what is expected of that source of air pollution. If any changes are made at that source of air pollution, it must be reflected in the permit so that the emission control requirements are up to date. 9. For other sources of air pollution such as automobiles or consumer products or very small sources there would not be a comprehensive permit program, but compliance requirements may be included in general regulations. It is then the responsibility of the air quality management agency to inform the regulated community of the requirements which are imposed on their actions. Compliance/Enforcement Actions 10. The air quality management agency will be responsible for determining compliance with the requirements which are contained in the permits and the general regulations which are developed in response to the air quality management plan. These activities include inspecting the regulated sources, conducting stack tests, or witnessing stack tests, examining records of production and operation. Large sources of pollution are inspected more frequently than smaller sources. Response to complaints is also often an effective method of identifying sources which are operating out of control. 11. For mobile sources of pollution, the agency or a cooperating agency may operate an inspection program which tests the emissions from the vehicles which are regulated. If a vehicle fails the test, it would be required to go to a service station to have the pollution control equipment repaired or for the vehicle to improve its combustion characteristics. 12. When violations of the emission standards are determined, there should be a process of enforcement is aimed at accomplishing two primary objectives. The first is to ensure that prompt corrective action is taken to bring the offending source back into compliance with the emission standards. The second is to provide for a penalty which is commensurate with the severity of the violation and 4 Annex 8 ensures that the offending source has not profited from the act of violating the standard. In the most extreme cases, criminal penalties may be assessed against individuals who knowingly and willfully violate the regulations in a serious manner. If the enforcement actions are swift and effective the maintenance of a healthful environment may be accomplished. 13. In summary, the process of dealing with complex air quality problems is time consuming and resource intensive. The program cannot be fully implemented in a very short period of time. It takes adequate legislative authority, ample staff and technical resources and the support of the general public which the program is designed to protect. The Emergency Action Plan 14. The purpose of the emergency action plan is twofold. One, to inform the public when unhealthy air conditions exist so citizens can take actions which will limit their exposure to the air pollutants. Two, to establish a procedure to reduce the level of the air pollutants of concern in the affected areas. Administration of this program should be a joint, coordinated effort by the staff of the Ministry for Environmental Protection, the Ministry of Health, and the Hydromet. Episode Stage Criteria 15. The program should contain three episode states: " I-Alert", "2-Warning", and "3-Emergency". The stages represent the increasing severity of health effects on the population with the alert level having the least severe effects, followed by the warning, then the emergency level. A declaration of an episode occurs when the monitored concentration exceeds the level for that stage and meteorological conditions are expected to remain favorable for elevated levels of that air contaminant for the next 24-hours. Five air contaminants are included in this program; particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and nitrogt_~ dioxide, with a special category for the product of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide. The Pollutant Standards Index 16. The Pollutant Standards Index is used to convey to the public the current air quality conditions in their area (see Table 2). This index has been found to be useful to the public and something they can more readily understand than a concentration value for an air contaminant. The index reflects the ambient air quality standard and three episode levels. It provides a general description of air quality (e.g., good, unhealthful, hazardous) based on the ambient concentration, in addition to providing general health effects information and precautionary advice about limiting outdoor activities. 17. The program should be aimed at significant sources, those capable of emitting 500 pounds (227 kilograms) per day of any of the air contaminants in the episode program. Owners and operators of these sources are required to prepare Emergency Action Control Plans designed to reduce or eliminate emissions. These plans must be implemented when an episode is declared and must remain in effect until the episode is cancelled. The plans are progressive in nature in that they become more restrictive of facility operation as air quality worsens. - Alert Level / First stage where control actions must begin - Warning Level - Conditions continue to worsen and additional measures are required. Management of Complex Air Quality Problems s - Emergency Level / Most stringent measures needed including curtailing operation of all manufacturing and commercial facilities. 18. lThe owner or operator of a facility must submit an Emergency Action Control Plan to the protection authority for review and approval. The plan must specify for each emission point and each episode stage: - Amount of reduction of contaminants possible; - Time required to achieve the reductions; - The manner in which the reductions will be achieved. 19. The plan must be kept at the facility for the protection authority to review and brief summaries of the actions needed must be posted at locations in the facility where those actions will be implemented. 20. It is expected that, at the Alert Level, a 10 percent to 40 percent reduction in emissions should be achieved. At Warning and Emergency Levels a 40 percent to 100 percent reduction would be expected. 21. As an example, at a coal or oil-fired electric power generating facility it would be expected that the following actions would be taken to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions under episode conditions in the area of the plant. Alert Achieve substantial reduction by using fuels with lowest available sulfur content and diverting electrical generation to facilities outside the alert area. Warning Maximum reduction by switching to fuel with lowest available sulfur content and diverting electrical generation to facilities outside the warning area. At the Emergency Level the requirement would be the same. 22. The plan itself would provide the specifics, including the opportunities for fuel switching and ability to divert power generation te other stations. Critical Elements of an Episode Program 23. For an episode program to function well, communication and a clear understanding of authority is essential. The roles of all government agencies must be clear. It is critical to identify who has the authority to declare an episode, who is responsible for notification of the public and affected air pollution sources and who has the inspection powers to insure reductions are being achieved. The specific roles of the Ministry for Environmental Protection, the Ministry of Health, and Hydromet should be carefully spelled out. Also, the role of municipal officials should also be identified. 6 Annex 8 Table I Recommended Episode Stage Criteria for Air Contaminants* Episode Stage Air Sampling Averagiing Contaminants Period Period Alert Warning Emergency Particulate 24-hours block average 375 ug/nm 625 ug/rn3 875 ug/m3 Matter l Sulfur Dioxide 1-hour Any hour 1,870 ug/m3 3,730 ug/m3 4,990 ug/m3 (0.70 ppm) (1.40 ppm) (1.90 ppm 24-hours Continuous 800 ug/m3 1,600 ug/m3 2,100 ug/m3 running (0.30 ppm) (0.60 ppm) (0.80 ppm) average Product of 24-hours block average 65,000 ug/m3 261,000 ug/m3 393,000 Particulate ug/m3 Matter and Sulfur Dioxide Carbon 8-hours Continuous 17 mg/m3 34 mg/rn3 46 mg/m3 Monoxide running (15 ppm) (30 ppm) (40 ppm) average Ozone (for 1-hour Any hiour 0.20 ppm 0.40 ppm 0.50 ppm volatile organic (400 ug/m3) (800 ug/m3) (1,000 compounds ug/m3) Nitrogen 1-hour Any hour 1,130 ug/m3 2,260 ug/m3 3,000 ug/m3l Dioxide (0.60 ppm) (1.20 ppm) (1.60 ppm) *These criteria were developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Management of Comtplex Air Quality Problems 7 Table 2 The Pollutant Standards Index* Pollutant l Standards Index Description Episode General Health Effects and Cautionary Value Level Statement 0-50 Good 51-100 Moderate 101-300 Unhealthful to Alert Mild aggravation of symptoms in susceptible very persons, with irritation symptoms in the health unhealthful population. Persons with existing heart or respiratory ailments should reduce physical exertion and outdoor activity at higher levels in this episode level. Significant aggravation of symptoms and decreased exercise tolerance in persons with heart or lung disease with widespread symptoms in the healthy population. Elderly people and those with existing heart or lung disease should stay indoors and reduce physical activity. 301-400 Hazardous Warning Premature onset of certain diseases in addition to significant aggravation of symptoms and decreased exercise tolerance in health persons. Elderly people and those with existing heart or lung diseases should stay indoors and avoid physical exertion. The general population should avoid outdoor activity. 401-Above Hazardous Emergency Premature death of ill and elderly. Healthy people will experience adverse symptoms that affect their normal active. All persons should remain indoors, keeping windows and doors closed. All persons should minimize physical exertion and avoid traffic. *This index was developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ANNEX 9: SELECTED INFORMATION ON US AND EC STANDARS US AMBIENT A[R QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS) IN EFFECT IN 1990. Primar% (health related) Secondary (welfare related) Pollutant Standard Level Standard Level Averaging Time Concentration' Averaging Time Concentration' Annual Arithmetic 50 pg/m3 Same as Primary PM-10 Meanb 24-hourh 150 pglm' Same as Primary Annual Arithmetic (0.03 ppm) 3-hour' 1300 ,g/mr SO2 Mean 80 ptg/m' (0.50 ppm) 24-hour' (0.14 ppm) 365 pglm/ 8-hour' 9 ppm No Secondary CO (10 mg/m3) Standard 1-hour' 35 ppm No Secondary (40 mg/m3) _ Standard NO, Annual Arithmetic 0.053 ppm Same as Primary Mean (100 g/rm3) Maximum Daily 0.12 ppm Same as Primary 03 1-hour (235 pg/m') Averaged Pb Maximum Quarterly 1.5 pg/m3 Same as Primary Average I a/ Parenthetical value in an approximately equivalent concentration. b/ New PM standards were promulgated in 1987, using PM-10 (particles less than lOp in diameter) as the new indicator pollutant. The annual standard is attained when the expected annual arithmetic mean concentration is less than or equal to 50 pg/m3; the 24-hour standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year above 150 ,ug/mr is equal to or less than 1; as determined according to Appendix K of the PM NAAQS. c/ Not to be exceeded more than once per year. d/ The standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm is equal to or less than 1, as determined according to Appendix H of the Ozone NAAQS. 2 Annex 9 Site Characterization Programs for Air Quality Regulation in the US A site characterization program would include one of two approaches: Approach #1 Emissions profiles, using updated factors, would be developed for key pollutants from each enterprise in the region. An emissions profile, as defined here, is not simply the rate of pollution per hour from an operation, but rather typical emissions patterns from each point and fugitive source over the normal yearly operation of the enterprise. A basin-wide urban airshed modeling effort would then bc conducted to determine potential region-wide ambient loading. This involves using Gaussian dispersion model. and combining results to determine potential concentrations throughout the region. Dispersion modeling should also b.. utilized to determine localized health impacts (near the plant) for those pollutants where deposition is likely to occur within a relatively short distance from the plant. Approach #2 An alternative and possibly less costly approach would be to employ receptor modeling based on the "chemical mass balance" model. - receptor modeling approach is a recent advance in air quality evaluation. It is based on the comp ,idon of ambient and source influenced air samples to provide a quantitative evaluation of source emissions measured at a receptor location. Whichever approach is used, model results should be verified through updated monitoring. The specific degree to which each industry contributes to the total loading of the region and to any localized impact should be tabulated and incorporated into the plan for the region. Finally, there should be a concentrated effort to enhance the ability to forecast local meteorological conditions in order to predict peak pollutant concentrations. It is possible that much of the threat is due to exposure to short term peak concentrations which may be significantly mitigated through an effective forecasting and episode management program. The source emission profiles and tabulation of relative contributions describe the extent to which each source (including transportation and residential sectors) contributes to the overall pollutant loading in the region. For each emission point within the enterprise, the costs of control would be calculated and tabulated; a cross reference table would be created that links these two tabulations. A least cost path could then be calculated. For general pollutants, one will need to determine the overall reduction in pollutant loading needed in the basin. Each enterprise could then be required to achieve an overall annual reduction in the plant's emrissions which would be defi:.ed in the facility permit. The enterprises would have the ability to locate and secure the most cost effective reduction available to them. Selected Information on US and EC Standards 3 E.C. NORMS FOR METALLURGICAL PLANTS (mg / m3) FROM TA LUFT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED PLANTS | DUST | NOx (as NO2) SO (as S)1 CO | Others (as specified) COKING PLANTS Coal crushing station 10* when flow > 0.9 kg/h Coal drying, preheating 100 Coke screening station 50 Coal charging 25 P.A.H. 0.1 when >0.5 kg/h Pushing 5 g/t coke Coke dry quenching 20 H2O quenching 50 Battery chimney 10 500 800 200 SINTER PLANTS 400 BLAST FURNACES 20 OXYGEN CONVERTERS 1000 ELECTRIC ARC 20 Fluorine (as FURNACES HF) I mg/r3l MILL 0.5 if 2000C (based on 5% excess 02) 0.7 if 4500C ALUMINUM 20 800 if Chlorine 3 >5 kg/h Organic Compounds (as C) 50 LEAD IG 800 if Organic >5 kg/h compounds 50 ZINC 20 80° if Organic >5 g/h compounds 50 'Netherlands