World Bank Reprint Series: Number 186 Uma Lele Rural Africa: Modernization, Equity, and Long-Term Development Reprinted with permission from Science, vol. 211, no. 6 (February 1981), pp. 547-53. Copyrighted by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. which has similar per capita incomes. In- dices of ill health and infant mortality are already among the highest in the devel- oping w,vorld and are not expected to de- cline significantly in the next decade. Export crop production has been more Rural Af'rica: M odernization, varied among African countries since in- dependence. Production of cotton. to- Equity, and Long-Term Development bacco, cocoa, and coffee rose signifi- cantly in some countries until the 1960's (3), but during the 1970's, production of Uma Lele major export crops has either been stag- nant or declined in many countries. Ni- geria, for instance, became a substantial net importer of edible oils, of which it Within less than a decade Africa is fac- even to South Asia, which is generally was previously a net exporter. Ground- ing a second severe food crisis. The poor perceived as laggard in development but nuts in Mali, cocoa in Ghana, cotton in crop can yet again be explained as a re- where substantial productivity gains Sudan, cotton, sisal, coffee, and cashews sult of drought. But the continent's were e":pericnced in food crop produc- in Tanzania all provide examples of stag- growing vulnerability to crop ftailures is tion in the 1970's. Per acre yields of nancy or decline in production. Rural-urban income disparities are al- ready high in Africa, the ratios typically Summary. Prospects for rural development in sub-Saharan Africa appear to be ranging between 1:4 and 1:9, compared much poorer than in the rest of the developing world, especially since the oil price with many countries in Asia with ratios increases. If present trends continue, African dependence on food imports will in- of 1:2 and 1:2.5. But because agricultur- crease. Despite the rhetorical acknowledgment of the importance of the agricultural al sectors have been stagnant or slow and rural sector, most African countries are not giving that sector the needed priority growving even relative to the poorly per- in their policies and budgets. Indeed, the rural sector is heavily taxed for the support of forming industry and services sectors, urban modernization. Large investments by foreign donors in the rural sector have these disparities are worsening in many had little overall effect. Donors need to adopt a longer perspective on development cases. Kenya, Malawi, and the Ivory and to make greater efforts to promote indigenous capacities for policy, planning, and Coast are the few exceptions where ulntil administration. T heir investments need to be geared more to broad-based higher edu- recently growvth has been impressive, but cation and trainiing and to transport and communications, there the dit,,ribution of benefits between agriculture and industry, and within agri- culture, have been par-ticularly uneqlual. by no means inlexpected. In most Afri- many subsistence food crops appear to The World Bank's Worldl T)evelopInent can countries it appears to be part of a have stagnated or even declined in many Report of 1979 estimates the annual long-term trend. Data on African coun- African countries, as for instaiince in :rowvth of peir c:apitai incomes in low-in- tries, especially for subsistence produc- (Ghana. Mali, Nigeria. and Sudall. come Afr-ican cotintries=-nmeaning those tion. are too poor to permit precise esti- Because of higher population growvth. wvhere annual pel capita income is less mates, hbu annual rates of increase of annual rates of increase in production re- than $300-to be only 0.2 percent dluring major staple food crops in sub-Saharan luired to meet consumption needs by the 1970's, compared with 2 percent in Africa in 1960 to 1975 seem to have been 1990 are also estimated to be higher for low-income Asia. Even the middle-in- only about 2 percent, compared with al- sub-Saharan Africa, about 4.5 percent, come African countries experienced per most 3 percent in Asia and over 3.5 per- compared with not quite 4 percent for capita income gro-wth rates of only 2.8 cent in L,atin America (1; 2, p. 33, table Asia and less than 3 percent for I,atin percent per annum, compared with 5.6 3), Prodluctivity increases in hybrid America (2, p. 22, table 1). If present percent in the corresponiding couintries in maize in some selected areas, such as the trends continuie, Africa will increase its East Asia and the Pacilic (4). highlands of Kenya, were impressive. dependence on rood imports both over Worse yet. prospects for overall eco- How%ever, on the whole, increase in the time and relative to othe& (developing nomic growth in low-income Africa are production of major cereals and root continents. Undernourishment is cx- seen as much poorer than in the rest of crops-maize. sorphum, millets, and pected to become far more wvidespread, the developiiig wvorld. The Wotrld f)ei'l- cassava-came about through increase even though zalternatives to cereals and opmenit Report pr-ojects the likely growth in the area under cultivation brought staples, suc) as bananas and other fruit, rates of per capita income in low-income about by expanding population, rather fish, and animal producits, have been far Africa duIring the 1980's to be I percent, than through gains in productivity per more important sources of calories in * . The author is with the World Banki, IB18 H Street, unit of input. This is in sharp contrast many parts of Africa than in South Asia, NW, WVa,hington, D.C. 20433. SCIENCE. VOL. 211, 6 FEBRUARY 1981 0036-075'810206.0547501.75-0 Cop-right © 1981 AAAS 547 coMpared with 2.8 percent for low-in- sujrvive on annual per capita incomes of pared to the organizationally far more comiie Asia. Tso reverse these long-term less than U.S.$150, AlthoLugh prodUCtion demanding developmem of peasant agri- trends would require a clear uinderstand- is largely geared to subsistence, the rural culture. In its hroadest sense the objec- ing of the causes of poor past perform- sector is also the major source of food tive of moder nization is of cour se shared ance. for urban consumption and of raw mate- extenisively throughout the developing This article argues that most African rials for exports and for domestic manu- world. It is the short time perspective of countries are not giving priority to the facturing. Except in a few mineral-pro- the African expectations that poses a development of peasant agricultule. ducing countries such as Zaire, Zambia, problem, especially given the much There is not even much understanding of and Nigeria, agriculture constimtes the poorer institutional and trained manpow- what is required to develop it. As a re- largest income-generating sector, con- er base Africa inherited at indepenidence. sult, what domestic resources are spent tributing up to 40 percent of'the gross na- (joren Hyden aptly contrasts the elo- on agriculture go largely to pay for the tional product of many African coun- quent Tanzanian President Nyerere's growing wage bill of an inadequately tries. Between 70 and 80 percent of the slogan "We must run while others walk" equipped and inadequately oper;ating annual export earnings in many coun- with China's strategy of modernization public sector or to ineffective subsidies. tries is derived from three to six aigricul- by the year 2000 (5). The frequently The fragmented donor commuiilty has tural commodities, Direct and indirect noted perception of peasant agriculture largely focused on project financing, taxes on agriculture are the most impor- as a "holding sector" is, however, by no mainly of capital expenditure and techni- tant source of government revenues. The means unique to Africa. At an earlier cal assistance. Project financing has been estate sector is important in marketed stage, India's first 5-year plan (1951 to rapidly increasing over time, directed surpluses to a varying degree among 1956) incorporated community develop- mainly toward the rural poor. But the crops and countries, but a major share of ment and promotion of cottage and current and past investments are having the total production and marketed sur- small-scale industry essentially as stop- little impact, not simply in the short run plus nevertheless comes from the small- gap ariangement' to ensute rural welfare but in laying foundations of long-term holder sector. Not only is broad-based and employment until induStlraliiiation development. Projects are overwhelmed agricultural development thus crucial for could absorb the growing pool of suirilo', by the lack of priority and of the needed increasing incomes, employment, and agricultural labor. The more dynamic de- strategy. The result is poor policies, export earnings, but raising the incomes velopment strategy, oriented toward shortage of maintenance and operating of the rural poor' is essential for raising small-farmer productivity, which is now funds, and shortage of qualified staff, government revenues and creating a do- being implemented successfully in many hence often a major depletion of capital. mestic market for the goods and services parts of India, came into ascendancy only The Asian experience suggests that ag- produced in a growing urban manufac- in the mid-1960's, with technological ricultural development does require turing sector. change made possible by the new high- large amounts of resources. But the do- yield cereals. As is argued below, in Af- nors' special capacities should lead to rica the view of agriculture as a holding substantially broadening education and Policies aid Strategies Sinie sector and the "MOdernization Now" supporting not just primary but middle- Independence strategy have had many of the same and high-level training of nationals in consequences for the development of technical fields to develop a science- Rhetoric and plan documents in al- peasant agriculture in more free-enter- based peasant agriculture. This will not most all African countries make refer- prise, growth-oriented Nigeria and Zam- only help to create national policy, plan- ence to the key role of the agricultural bia as in Ethiopia and Tanzania. which ning. and implementing capacity but will and rural sector in Africa's modern- show greater concern about income dis- support a diverse network of institutions ization. Since the disastrous drought of tribution and class formation. required in addition to those operated by 1973-1974, self-sufficiency in food has Planning the use of government fi- governments, Major investments are al- become a major objective, often support- nainces for agrictiltural development is of so needed in transport and communica- ed by donor-financed projects. The need course not easy for most African coun- tions, many of which will have to be for increasing export earnings is also tries because of the great fluctuations in highly capital-intensive. With such a re- being recognized more urngently, the bal- their export carnings. Their bureaucra- oriented emphasis, and guaranteed long- ance of payment'. difliculties hlving cies are less experieniced than those of term assistance tied to concrete in- grown with the riNing cost of imported their Asian countct parts which experi-i dications of national comiimitment, at enlergy and mantil'actUred goods. Despite ence similar fluctuations in earnings. least long-term prospects could improve the growing awareness and increased Lately their ability to plan has been fuir- significanily. proje-cts. however, unlike in Asia there is ther eroded, as it has in othier developing not yet the basic conviction among many countries, by the declining purchasing African policy-maker'. that the small- power of their export earnings, as import Crucial Role of Peasant Agriculture holder agricultural sector can and will prices of oil and industrial goods have have to be the engine ol hbroad-based ec- soared. The composite index of terms of As in many parts of low-income Asia onomic development and eventual mod- trade between export and import prices, such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, Bangla- ernization. with 1977 as the base, dJeclinedi from desh, and Thailand, conclern for eco- Modernization is taken to mean main- about 170 in 1966 to 94 in 1979 in the 17 nomic development in Africa primarily ly indu LArialIi7; tion and the com- countries that constitute the Eastern Af- means a concern about agriCulturlil and mercialization of a1griCulture largely rica Region in the World Bank (6). rural development. Between 80 and 90 through mechanized, large-scale farm- Even within these all too obvious con- percent of the nearly 400 million people ing. The fluctuating prices of these pri- '.traints. however, far fewer resources in sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas. mary exports explain the desire to indus- are ploughed back into agriculture by Most derive their suh'istence fi-om mea- trialize, as does the relative ease of set- most African countries than wotld seem ger crop and livestock production and ting up factories and state farms com- justified. Intercountry comparisons are 548 SCIENCE, VOL. 211 exceedingly difficult owing to d'finition- scale state farms, hut the record of pub- veloping Asia in the early post-indepen- al, data, and other measurement prob- lic sector farming is very poor through- dence period (7). In Asia thesc attitudes, lems, but orders of niagniutde. indicate out Africa, and large subsidies are re- trends, and perceptions have been that in the 1970's around 10 percent or quired for these operations. muted, however. In fact, an articulate less of the planned development ex- Irrigation will of course have to be im- proagriculture lobby has been creatced penditure was allocated to the agricultur- portant ultimately, as the vast, less cost- within most governments in Asia, What al sectors in Kenya and Mali, compared ly possihilities of increasing prodluction accounts for these differences.' In com- with 31 percent in India during its first 5- under rain-fed conditions begin to be ex- parison with Africa (with a f'ew ex- year plan in 1951 an(d 20 percent of the hausted. For the short run, howkever, in ceptions, such as Kenya), in most ol' much larger abholulc investment in the most of Africa there is not the comnplex Asia thier( has been greatcr overt dis- subsequent three plans. In Zambia the institutional and managerial capacity to cussion of policy issuies, both domes- total agricultural bUdgCt may have de- operate irrigation systenms indigenously. ticallyand between domestic and outside creased in real terms by an annual aver- The freqLuently costly rehabilitation (at scholars. More widespread formal edtL- age of slightly over 9 percent from 1975 $5,000 to $15,000 per hectare) being Lin- cation and training of policy-miakers and to 1979, reflecting general budgetary dertaken in many of the existing schemes administrators in Asia has becn helpful, Cults. Malawi is one of the few exceptions illstvrates the pr oblem. as has their greater, exposure to the farm- in Africa: it appears to have allocated Peasant agricultuire is highly taxed by ing communities through longel practical close to 30 percent of the known planned fixing low prices for its products and work experience (8). New techinological public expenditures to agriculture. How- overvaluing the national cLtrrencies vis- possibilities and increased use of pur- ever, even there, because of more favor- a-vis those of importing countries. Agri- chased inpLtts have also changed the per- able tax, wage, and pricing policies to- cultural taxation helps keep urban food spective on price incentives. Now sever- ward the estate sector, large-scale pro- prices low and finances modernization al rural development projects in Africa duction has grown at an annual iate close through the many capital-intensive in- have gradually begun to prodice a simi- to 17 percent since 1968, with 70 percent vestments such as construction of new lar cadre of knowledgeable Africans in of the share in exports. The correspond- capital cities, stadilms, manufacturing several countries, bLit their numbers are ing production increase in the smrall- and proccsN,ing plants, and airports. Ag. small because or governmc -:t and donor holder sector has been only 3 percent a riculture is, of course, the most impor- policies to be described later, year. even though services to peasant ag- tant sector and hence has to be the major A large part of the a1gricultiral budget riculture generally operate far more ef- source of revenue. However, traditional- in many coititries is spent on stibsidies-- fectively in Malawi than in several neigh- ly it was ta\ed because peasants were over 70 percent in Za.imbiai. But contrary boring African countries. perceived as irrational, lazy, and unre- to the general opinion, many of the sub- Large-scale farming per se is far less sponsive to price incentives. The result- sidies provided in the agricultural sectors important a portion of total production ing tax practices were inherited by inde- in the hope of incrcasing overall peasant or exports in Tanzania. However, gov- pendent governments from colonial ad- produiction do not compensate ef- ernment policies of "villagization" of rninistralions. Evidence of producer re- fectively for high rates of taxation. lor peasant producers, combined with pro- sponse has motinted, however. In turn, instance, fertilizer subsidics frequently nouncements of the need for cooperative relative official producer prices of food only help alleviate the high cost of pro- cultivation or actual haphazard attempts and export crops have been changed in duction of inefficient dome,tic fertilizer to introduce it, have had an adverse ef- many countries in the last decade, first in plants or the high cost of their local dis- fect on smallholder incentives and pro- order to achieve food self-sufficiency and tribution. General subsidies on interest duction. Several other seemingly well- more recently to promote exports. Rela- rates and inputs largely benefit the al- motivated government initiatives to raise tive prices have in fact been easier for ready hetter-ofT commercial farmers (9). peasant productivity have ended up governments to influence than technology A policy followed in many African coun- being poorly inmpleniented, leading, for or quality of services. Thus, while com- tries of uniform pricing of output in- instance, to unrealistically high produc- position of food and export crops has volving complcx cross subsidies of trans- tion and input-use targets, the con- changed, the overall productivity has port and other handling costs across re- sequent indiscriminate promotion of fer- stagnated, as the producer's share in the gions has achieved regional equity, espe- tilizer use, or disCOUrag;riement of inter- total net market value of the output is fre- chilly where few attractive enteriprises planting of crops (which is traditionally quently very low. In the Sudan, rate of exist, buLt has discoiirigcd crop special- done by peasants to reduce risks of crop taxation on cotton farmers during 1974 ization to exploit dliflerent natilrral re- failure) as not being "modern." These to 1978 was 35 percent; in Mali it ranged sources among regions. government initiatives combined with from 36 to 69 percent on cotton, 52 to 65 Input and output marketing and oroc- unreliable provision of agricultural ex- percent on groundnUts, and 23 to 63 per- essing facilities are almost always oper- tension, credit, and output marketing cent on sorghum and millets. Even after ated by semiautonomous government or have resulted in producers' respondiag allowance is made for the subsidies re- p:irastatal agencies, or by largely govern- mainly to changing relative prices of ceived by farmers on fertilizer and credit. ment-initiated cooperat;ies, on a mo- food and export crops rather than in en- the effective rate of taxation amounted nopoly basis. Public marketing agencies abling them to raise overall agricullural to 24 to 61 percent for cotton and 48 to tend to be high-cost operations becae;M productivity. The failed government ini- 65 percent for gtouindnuts in Mali, of oversta1fing, poor financial control tiatives have in turn led to an increased Again, the inadequate recognition of and accountahility, and inexperienc(ed official tendency to look toward large- producer incentives is by no means con- management. If an informal traditional scale mechanized and irrigated produc- fined to Africa. Theodore W. Schultz's market opeiates, it is only tolerated tion to guarantee food and export sur- work Tran.sfirnming Trtdilitiomtail Aelricul- rather than helped to improve (10). Fre- pluses. Like Tanzania, many other coun- ture, which included examination of the quently it is actively discouraged. The tries have already invested or have plans peasant irrationality hypothesis, was eviction of largely Asian-dominated to invest substantial resources in large- prompted by similar observations in de- trade through Operation Maduka in Tan- 6 FEBRUARY 1981 549 zania and the massive expulsion of President Nyerere observed in his fa- financing has undoubtcdly achieved re- Asians in Uganda illustrate the point mous speech, 'The Arusha Declaration: sults in some areas. According to official (10). A strong desire to abolish ex- Ten Years After," the pressure to main- data, the proportion of the eligible popu- ploitation of nationals by other races is tain and even expand public sector em- lation enrolled in primary schools went understandable, even if such exploita- ployment through the available limited Up from 28 percent in 1960 to 93 percent tion is imputed rather than real. But even resources is so high that the wage bill is in 1978. Access to safe water has gone up Nigeria, which has had a bouyant, difficult to control (11. 12). Consequently from 13 to 39 percent since 1970. To a largely indigenous, small-scale tradition- there are not enough public funds for lesser extent, most African countries al trading sector, adopted a policy of travel and transport allowances for field have expanded coverage of social ser- public sector monopoly of the distribu- staff to carry out research trials and ex- vices in a similar way, but the overall re- tion of fertilizer. 'Fanzania has similarly tension demonstrations, and for spare sult is still inadequately financed ser- discouraged its own enterprising tribes parts, maintenance and operation of vices with substantial demands on gov- from trading, among other things by in- stores, processing facilities, research ernment resources. stituting 300 or so parastatals and 8000 stations, vehicles, and roads. The gener- Government objectives of moderni- village cooperatives which are expected al situation is one of ill-trained, unmoti- zation also exacerbate manpower short- to provide most of the public services. vated, unsupervised, and demoralized ages in the traditional sector. The low Some of these same policies are fol- field services in many sectors. Of course status of the traditional rural sector and lowed for almost the same political and there are notable exceptions such as the the unattractive living conditions and fa- bureaucratic reasons in most Asian Kenya Tea Development Authority and cilities in contrast to the urban or the countries, but the consequences there the Agricultural Marketing Coorporation large-scale agricultural sector often deter are far less severe. The degree of govern- in Malawi. Inadequacy and depletion qualified nationals from serving the ment control is more limited, there is over time of capital and government needs of peasant agriculture. On the oth- greater administrative capacity to exer- services are far more severe in areas er hand, demand for education in Afiica cise it, and there has been more develop- where donor projects do not exist, in- is one of the strongest in the developing ment of private institutions and transport asmucih as these areas do not benefit world. The governments have allocated and communication networks. In Africa from priority budgetary allocations. But substantial portions of their own re- inputs are more frequently late, in- the implementation of budgets also sources to education, with different em- adequately labeled and packaged, and in needs to be improved, as requenitly even phases on primary or higher education wrong combinations. Marketed stir- the resources allocated are not spent. depending on their ideology. Because pluses are often not picked up on time, Social services suffer from many of the Tanzania has largely emphasized prima- first payments to farmers are in- same problems. They also etfectively il- ry education, the enrollment ratio in sec- ordinately late, promised second pay- lustrate the wasted potential and the ondary schools in Tanzania went up ments rarely materialize, and damages to failed promise of the early 1970's for re- from 2 percent at independence to only 3 crops in storage and handling are more source mobilization and constructive in- percent by the late 1970's, and from extensive. Discouragement of private re- volvement of rural people in planning nearly zero to 0.3 percent in higher edu- tail trade has affected rural supply of and implementation. Lack or poor quali- cation. The shortage of middle and high- even the most basic day-to-day necessi- ty of water supply in many rural areas of er level technical and administrative ties in some countries, thus further re- Africa leads to ill health. Time spent in manpower is consequently extremely se- ducing incentives for producers to con- fetching water reduces time available for vere. In Kenya budgetary allocations to sume, save, or invest. Institutional plu- agricultural activities. Lack of health fa- secondary and higher education have ralism needs to be given major consid- cilities similarly reduces labor and pro- been expanding more rapidly, and pri- eration as an element of development ductivity in agriculture. Absence of pri- vate sector expansion is permitted more strategy in Africa. mary education results in limited access liberally, with ratios of 16 percent and I Whereas there is indiscriminate gov- to services and employment opportuni- percent of the eligible pOpulat1ionl en- ernment intervention in some areas of ties in towns. Demand for social services rolled in secondary and higher edutiC;lon. policy, unlike in many Asian countries is therefore widespread throughout Af- respectively. Even then, middle and today, there is neglect of others, as for rica. On the other hand. public resources higher level manpower shortages are instance agricultural research, exten- of a recurrent nature needed for the pro- considerable, especially in technical sion, and development of trained man- vision of social services are generally too fieldls such as accountancy, financial and power. Part of the reason for this neglect limited to permit blanket coverage. Ei- physical resources management, agron- is the inadequate recognition of the im- ther a high degree of selectivity or great- omy, plant brceding, and mcchanical and portance of these service- and of the er direct cost recovery is therefore re- civil engineerinig. On a unit basis skilled time required to establish en'ective insti- quired in the provision of such services. labor in African countries typically costs tutions and delivery systems, and simply As many h;irambee" (self-help) between three and ten times as much as preoccupation with the politically more schemes in Kenya illustrate, the rural in many Asian countries. The average expeditious short-run objectives. The people are glad to contribute their own annu.ll salary of a research scientist in role of donors in this regard should not resources provided the services are re- the 1970's was below $10,000 in Asia be lindIcrraited and is discussed later. The sponsive to their precise local demands compared to $34,000 in East Africa (/3). diversion of scarce financial and man- and reliable, low-cost delivery is as- And, of course, not nearly enough scien- power resourceN to purposes that the pri- sired. 'ranzania's example indicates, tists are available even to rellhabilit,ate, let vate sector couild well be allowed to however, that for a cornbin:ntion of wel- alone to expand. the national research serve is also a handicap. Becaulse of the fare and political reasons governmelits systemns in Af'rica. inadequate provision of recurrent re- refrain from cost recovery and genuiiine To summrnmrie, the - ModerniLtion sources, what research, extension, and local involvement in plaitiig aintd imple- Now" objective and the consequent na- training facilities exist are frequently un- mentation. Tanzania's policy of univer- tional policies, investment prioritic. and derfinanced and poorly maintained, As sal provision of services through central attitUdes tox%ard the smallholder agricLul- 550 StHINt-F. VOL. 211 tural sector explain the poor perform- Cattle are an imlportant element of Af- gional levels to develop profitable tech- ance of the agricultural and rtiral sectors rica's agriculture. The tradition of indi- nological packages to suit the highly di- in many African countries. In contrast, vidual ownership of cattle combined verse conditions and to reduce the risks the Asian and to a very limited extent the with communal grazing rights has result- now encountered in their adoption by African experience indicates that greater ed in overgrazing and declining produc- low-income farmers. In some extremely trained manpower, combined with long- tivity. For decades technicians have marginal areas, such as parts of the Sahel er developmental experience by nation- stressed the need for destocking and pas- in the north and Lesotho in the south, it als, leads to a better time perspective on ture improvement, but these have may not be possible to increase produc- modernization and more support of peas- proved elusive because of the complex tivity in present stibsistence crops ant agriculture. soCiocultural and environmental factors enough to make them a primary source that operate in nomadic social systems of livelihood. Alternatives, including mi- and the absence of more profitable and gration to more productive areas or pro- Africa's Special Challenges less risky ways of investing the surplus duction of labor-intensive, high-value resources of cattle owners. horticultural crops, may have to be ex- The frequent comparisons with low-in- Low population density also explains amined as sources of employment. come Asia in the previous discussion the extreme inadequacy of roads, These are costly options dernmanding con- should not lead one to overlook the prob- railways, and waterways, although even siderable organization. lems peculiar to Africa. Low rainfall, in this respect there is considerable di- The situation with respect to trained poor soils, and the highly diverse ecolog- versity. Small countries with greater pop- manpower can be best appreciated by ical conditions within individual coun- ulation density such as Kenya and Ma- some comparisons with Asia at the time tries make raising agricultural productiv- lawi are less hampered by these lacks of independence. In 1960 even the edu- ity much more difficult in many parts of than are large countries such as Sudan, cationally most advanced Afiican coun- sub-Saharan Africa than in Asia, with its Somalia. Ethiopia, and Tanzania. And tries, Ghana and Nigeria, had only 3 per- extensive scope for small- and medium- yet investments in the road system have cent of the population of secondary- scale irrigation and its more fertile >oils. also been greater in Kenya and Malawi school age enrolled in school, compared Several seemingly favorable natural than in many others. Road mileage per with 8 percent in Bangladesh. 10 percent features of Africa, such as the low den- square mile of land area is only 0.02 in in Burma, 20 percent in India, and 26 sity of population, pose difficult rtjral de- Sudan, 0.1 in Zambia, and 0.15 in Zaire. percent in the Philippines. By 1976 the velopment problems in the short run. In compared to 0.23 in Kenya and 0.31 in percentage in Nigeria had gone up to 10. 1977 population densities ranged from 6 Malawi. by then it was 23 for Bangladesh, 22 for persons per square kilometer in Sudan Limited growth of sedentary cultiva- Burma, 28 for India, and 56 for the Phil- and Somalia to a high of 85 in Nigeria. tion has also meant relatively limited ippines. This is in contrast to the density of 148 in evolution of indigenous technology and However, as may be seen in Ghana, the Philippines, 192 in India, and 560 in skills in blacksmithing. carpentry, crafts, Uganda, and Eithiopia, which have been Bangladesh. Farms are considerably manuracturing, and traiding than is typi- better endowed with trained manpower larger and landlessness less prevalent in cal of most Asian countries, though there than other African countries, without a Africa than in most Asian countries. are distinct differences between the more conducive political environment little de- However, extensive land use is itself a developed West African societies and velopment is possible even with trained result of the unreliable and low rainfall East Africa. The range of farm imple- manpower, Many African countries have and poor soil conditions referred to ments, ox ploughs. and animal-driven not yet fully achieved national unity or above, which lead to shifting cultivation modes of trans7port used extensively in gained domestic political stability, the and widespread nomadism in many parts other parts of the developing world are colonial powers having established na- of Africa. Low density also makes for not prevalent even today in much of tra- tional b-orders withouIt regard to tradi- mtich greater per capita costs of provid- ditionaul rural Africa. On the contrary, tional land righits and tribal cohesion. Re- ing roads. schools, and a1griCu1ltLur;l ser- with the advent of colonialism thele was sources and attention sorely needed for xices in Africa than in Asia. a "technological leap" toward tractors, rural development have often been di- There are also apparent contra- combine harvesters, and modern mearns verted to internal conflicts. border wars, dictions. Seasonal labor 1hortages ai'e a of transport. so that at independence Af- and maintenance of domnetic political far more limiting factor in increasing pro- rica was left with greater technological control. ductivity of the African farming system dualism than was prevalent in most of Development of administrative eapa- than in Asia. especially in view of the colonial Asia. bility will also take a long time. At inde- low level of African agricultural tech- I-or these various reas,ons. the chal- pendence. often there was virtual ab- nology. Thus selective use of mechaniza- lenges to a1gricultlural research systems in sence of a strong national, regional, and tion in the private sector may be eco- Africa are by far the greatest in the local government administration of the nomically justifiable. And yet unemploy- world. combining constraints posed by type that existed in South Asia. Colonial ment and underemployment of rural la- ecological, demographic. technical. and aLgriicultura-l development policies were bor are also increasing. particiiladily institutional factors (14). International geared almost exclusively to th': expan- where population pressuire -n land is ris- agricultural research institutes such as sion of C \port crop prdiiction foi' the ing rapidly. And with rising cost of fuel, the International Institute of Tropical metropolitan cotinti'ics. Research was mechanization-now often operated AgriclIture in Nigei'ia and several oth- largely coiccentiated on export crops. through the public sector-is frequently ers, financed by the ConsultlliVe Group Agricltlur-Za1l extension, input supply, highly uneconomical. The more inter- on International Agricultural Reselarch. credit. ,ind marketing zind processing fa- mediate forms of technology that are have already begun to address some of cilifies were also hiighly fra^gnmented. Re- used extensively in Asia, such as the ox these prohlems. However, subsht,antial cent effortts for example in Tanzania and p!ough. koulid be far more efficient, aidditionall investment is required in sci- Kenya. to decentrali/e administrative where tsetse has been controlled. entilic resealr h at the national and re- systems to make them more responsive 6 FEBRUARY 1981 551 to rural people's needs, while justified in Zambia, and Malawi and to as high as What explains the limited impact? The the long run, have only exacerbated ad- $30 to $70 in the smaller cutintries of gulf between the donor's largely equity- ministrative weaknesses in the short run Botswanai. Lesotho, and Swaziland. In oriented objectives and the national gov- because the existing administrative man- many countries it constituiies a quarter or ernments' goail of moderniz-ation has re- power has had to be spread thinly be- more of total ainnuLal investment and over mained wide in Africa, Instead of exam- tween the central ministries of agricul- half the investment in avi"culture and ru- ining the actual policies, strategies, and ture and transport and the provincial ad- ral development. Even Bangladesh. institutional framework of national gov- ministrations. which is one of the largest recipicnts of einients and asess,.ini., the extent to Africa thus starts with considerable aid in Asia, received only $9 of con- which they are conducive to rural devel- odds against development. And yet there cessional aid a year per capita during opment. donors have largely taken gov- is immense potential for produictivity in- 1976 to 1978. emrnient rhetoric and plan doecuments as creases, not simply in the Sudan and the Large numbers of aid agencies are in- indications of national comnitmn.ent and highlakins of eastern and southern Africa, volved in assistance to Africa. with rela- priorities and have concentrated mainly where it is commonly recognized, but in tively little coordination as to ob1jcctix es. on project aid as a %%ay of influeneing much of the rest of Africa. in the humid strategy, degree of continuity, or areas these priorities, friequently only ex- and semihumid tropics and the parts of of assistance. Coping with the complex acerbating the problems of Africa's rural the savanna areas that receive adequate and differing procedures and large flows development in a variety of ways. rainfall, of aid is exceedingly difficult for the in- First, simultaneoLIs shift by much of adequately staffed bureaucracies of most the iniernzationall community to the alle- African countries. viation of rural poverty in the wake of The Donor's Role Apart from targeting more donor-fi- obvious shortages of national manpow- nanced projects toward the rural poor, er. resources, and institutional capacity The experience of Asian countries in- there h,s been much evolution in the has led to underutilization and poor dicates that in addition to providing di- concept of project ass,,istance in recent maintenance ofdonor investnlentl. Even rect financial support. international as- years (12). Projects do not pertain solely in these piojects. for a variety of rea- sistance can play an important role in the to export crops as before hut are sub- sons, donors have generally preferred to long run hy increasing national con- stantially concerniel with de% elopment finance mainly capital expenditures, that scioLIsness about peasant azcgriciltiuratl de- of food crops for domestic consiumption. is. equipment and civil works, rather velopment. by impro%ing the rationale They are more strongly geared to institui- than recurrent expendiiuire' requir-ed to for policies and making the effect of al- tion building such as strengthening the maintain or operate these and other re- ternative policy options on different sec- project planning and implementing ca- lated investments. tors or income groups more explicit. and pacity of the national ministries of agri- Second, despite much evolution in the by gradually strengthening those nation- culture. and of provincial-regional, dis- right direction. not only has the need for al forces that can lobby for policy trict, and local administrations and fi- assistance in increasing national capacity changes in the desirable direction. nancing and marketing entities to pro- for policy development been underrated, Changing the distribution of basic assets vide field services. This i.s in contrast to buit a number of questiOnable showpiece or political power so that, for instance, the earlier approach of "enclave" proj- investments by governments have been cooperatives will effectively include the ects, which were implemented mainly made possible largely by generous finan- poor or subsidies will not go to the rich is throtugh separate autonomous entities cial support from the donor communily. far more difficuilt to achieve from out- created for the purpose. The projects al- There are a number of reasons for such side. National will and capacity are so sho.w greater concern for employ- assistance-a wish to respond to nation- needed to this end. ment, training of local staff, and the use al desires, expectation of quick visible Concern and debate about the equLity of local materials and techniques, and results, promotion of exports from donor issue in the internalionarl donor commu- more explicidly anticipate need for recur- countries, vying among donor agencies nity have been extensive since the rent financing and for financing of sever- to finance a type of project likely to ap- "green revolution" and the pei'ceived al time phases, 'I'hey a'e also more likel) peal to ti.eir own domestic constitu- failure of ti'e trickle-down approach to to include support for policy units and encies, meeting their own quota of assist- reach the poor. Since the world food monitoring and c%aluation to ensurew ance, and some understandable errors crisis of 1973-1974 the objective of na- greater liexibility and learning by doing in Jludgment. flo&cver. ther-e are other tional self-sulliciency in rood. and suib- than before. factors: The first relates to the provision sequiently a broader set of issues such as Despite these major impro% ements of technical assistance in the short rtin, assurance of basic needs, environmental and especially in comparison with the re- the second to the expansion of second- protection, and women's iights, have be- sources expended. donor-financed proj- ary and higher level education to help guII to receive international attention. ects are having a very limited impact. broaden the capacities of naliOnals over The seemingly long time required to This holds irrespective of %khethuer their the long run, achieve the green revolition in Asia has achievements are judged by inputs such According to some estimates, as much created impaticnce in tlhe donor commu- as numbers of local and expatriate stall as 75 percent of the technical assistance nity to achieve results. and with the wid- recrujited. research trials carried out, used in the developing world is used in ening scoLpC of the debate the areas for amounts of fertiliier and other inputs Africa. In the short run, technical assist- achiev%ing results have broadened. distributed, vehicles purchased, build- ance has helped the plainning and imple- Aid in the form of giants or low-inter- ings and roads constructed or main- mentation of development projects on a est loans has increased sulbtantiaillY tained. or amount of data colleeted or scale that would not be possible other- over time in Africa. During 1976 to 1978 analyzed by evalua.ition units, or by the wise. However, expatriates are becom- it ranged between $10 and $20 a year per end results such as increases in yields, ing less acceptable in sensitive nmanage- capita in Sudan, Kenya. Tanzania, Bu- numbers of staf' trained, or administra- rial or policy-making positions in most rundi, Ivory Coast. Mali, Cameroon. tive and financial procedures instituted. African countries. Their numbers have 552 SCI'tN(C, VOL. 211 been growing for more than a decade af- rurial needs of their own couintries has led problems are attitujdes and vested inter- ter independence, mainly in technical in the international community to a gen- ests. The subsistence rural sector must and advisory positions, Their high sala- eral disenchantment with higher educa- be seen as critical for economic develop- ries and benefits create resentment tion, Perhaps implicit in this is the feeling ment and must be given the priority that among nationals. Also, even when highly that, in comparison with the need to tr-ain it urgently requires. At the international qualified in their specialties, they are not lower level staff, expanding the supply level, it is evident that current donor ap- generally effective in working in an alien of high-level eduicated personnel is un- proaches of project aid, althiough per- environment. The supply of qualified necessary or antithetical to the egalitari- hiaps far more essential in Africa than in personnel has, of courise, been a major an objectives of ruiral poverty allevia- many countries in Asia, ar-e by them- problem, as is the lack of continuity. A tion. selves not enough to deal withi its com- temporary sag in policy-making and im- Contrary to these perceptions, in- plex developmental needs. A major re- plementation wouild be inevitable with crease in the supply of educated person- consideration of the balance of assist- nationalization, but frequent chainges of nel wouild not only improv! :~ational sys- ance. including the donors' role in edu- nationals posted in charge and the con- temns but also reduce salaries of the edu- cation, infrastructure, and long-term sequient deterioration in the overall eco- cated, including those of teachers, thuis oolicy planning and implementation, is nomic management have been far from reduicing income inequalities as well as required. Only then can there be a uisefull temporary. Thus in many cases there is the cost of further investment ini educa- dialogue on development priorities with not the stable domestic environment tion and a range of other development nationals. The question of r-eordering needed for a dialogue on the strategy and activities. By far the most unquestion- priorities will require a major review by policy issues, able though unquantifiable benefit of the donor community as a whiole, and Increasing high-level education and education to Africa wouild be that of even if it is resolved adequately its ef- training of nationals is critical for aug- learning by doing, whichi is now lost to fects will take at least a decade to show. menting Africa's capacity, even though the ever growing and changing e \patriate But the prospects for the 1990's will then the results would take a long time to technical community, It is ironic that be considerably better than those for the achieve. Expansion of basic, primary. most African counitries do not have the 1980's. It is also the only way to reduce vocational, and adult education has been capacity to propose alter-native plans to Africa's growing dependence on outside supported strongly by donors as a way of those presented by donors for uising do- aid, increasing the supply of field staiff, meet- nor funds to reflect their own long-term ing the basic-needs objective, and in- needs for higher education. References anid Not"s creasing the receptivity of rural popu- The need for substantial investment in I ,international Food Policy Research tnstitute. A lations to agricultural and other in- physical infrastructure in larger coun- Cotmparaitive Stuids of FAO) and UISDA I)ato oni Produc'tion,' Areu. aind T'rade oj' Mayor I'cod novations. Some high-level technical tries such as Sudan and Tanzania and in Staple.s tResearch Report No. 19. Washington. D.C.. October 1980). training of Africans is also being under- landlocked countries such as Zambia al- 2 -_ . F-ood N'ed.s of1)'Dev'Ioping Countries: taken by several bilateral donors such as so requir-es critical examination by' do- Pr-olectioins of Production antd ( onminpitoi to 19901 Re~,e.irh Report No 1. Washington, the U.S. Agency for International Devel- nors. Maintenance of past infrastrutcture D.C_. December 1977). opment and the British Overseas Devel- has frequently been neglected, and not 3. K. Anthony. B. F. Johnston. W. 0. Jones. V. Uchendu, AAricalturai ('Iiungi'c in Tropical Al- opment Ministry, which have traditional- enough resources, have been devoted to rica (Cornell Univ. Press, Ithatca. N.Y., 1979). ly supported this activity. But on the development of trunk roads, raiilsays,, 4. World Development Rceport. 1979 (Oxford UJniv. Press. New York. 1979. for the World Bank), p. whole, expansion of secondary and high- and waterways by national governments 13. table 13. 5CLG Hyden. in Paper.s ont the Politicicl Ehcnomcv er education has not received the prit)rity and d6nors. Feeder road development o,' Tainzantia. K. S. Kim. R. M. Mabele. M. J. it requires from donors. Frequently the has received considerably more support. Schtultheis. Eds. (I-einemann. Nairobi, Kenya. 1979). pp. 5-14. shortage of people with the necessary but the lack of an effective national 6. These are Botswana, Burundi. Comoros. Fthio- educational tLuiilitiications is so gr-eat that transport network makes investment in pia. Kenya. L.esothio. Madagascar, Malawi. Maurttius. Rwanda, Somaliai. Sudan. Swazi' even those fuinds that are provided by feeder roads ineffective. Again, some of laind. Tan.zania. lgtriad... 7aijc. and Zambia. donors for higher level on-the-job train- the same reasons that apply to eduication culT..rc'huYletzn'.Pe. o,nm: Haven.otti Agrnn. ing remain unused. and training explain this neglect, in par- 1 964v, The gains to be had from basic, adult, tictilar the perception that capital-in- WeJccrals suhe asvie 11cc imcortccand u folitical and primary eduication are undOUbtedly tensive infriastrttctttre is not so necessary igm oius dcmestic discts'sson of plainned pr-ior- tlic, in India. in whiclt innumerable externali an considerable, as evidence from Asia in- for reaching the poor-, especially in the atlysts haive pakrticipated. dicaties. It is also clear, howe-er, that in short run. A more appropriate balance 9. U.. L.eie. World Devel.. in press. tO. "There is no official policy towards thec tinotfi- Afr-ica at present the shortage of edu- between the ohjectives of imimediate ail- cial market." a comment of a senio)r oflicial or cate an tehnicllytranedcadres of levi'ation of poverty and the long-term one of the African ministries of agricuilture. cate an tehnicllytranedstates the problem well. nationals who can devise effective na- development needs of more resource-in- II. G. Hyden. BIt 'ndl t!ianwi, in Tdaninia: (tinder' dev-elopmienit and o'i Iinc ipiicr'd Pcaa,cnlrvy tional strategy and policies is a far great- tensive investments is required. tt.tniv. of C.idifcrnia Press. Berkeley. 19801. p. er constraint to the alleviation of rural 113. 12. Ui. tLele. 'Ilic fl, 'iva of' Rural Development. po%erty than is the illiteracy or lack of les%sons ftomn A.lmi u (Johns Hlopkins Press. ed. receptivity ofterrlpplto.Oc mlctosfor LnTemDvlp nt 2. Baltimore. 11)79)r. of te rual opultion One mlicion Lon-Ter Deelopent 1.3. -P. Oram. lnterncc;ional f'ocd P1olicv Re%eacrchc again, the question is one of balance and hcstitutc lliirli,c Pcapcr No, (0 i%5.cshcrcgioin. pririie a agienstgeof develop- The problem of Africa's rural develop- 1.D.C'.. 1978). p, 6. prioriies ata give stag H. Rtuihcnherg. F'arniing .Ss'semn in t!ic' rcocs( ment. Evidence mainly fr-om Asia and ment is not one of not knowing in broad t(Cl,iendon. Oxford. 1976). IS.~ I thank Ht. S. Bienen. W. V. (anuller. J M. Co- Latin America has also led to anxiety terms what needs to be done to support hen, S. D. -ctcs., A. 0. F,ili... G. Ilyden. I., S. about increasing the ranks of the edu- peaisant agricultUtre. The prospects for Hatrdin. N. Islam, ji. W. Mttlcir. M. Mensa. W. cate unmplyed n dvelpingcoo- trnin th ~c;~'i glomytrens i an A. tLcwi.T1. W. Schucltz. and twi' unknownre cate unmplyed n dvelpin cou- trnig te pr-;c-.~g-lomy rens i an viewers for comments on eatrlier drafts. The tries. The perceived indifference of some opposite dir-ection are considerable. At views expressed in the article are my own and do not necessarily represent those of the World of the educated urbanites to the largely the national level, the most fundamental Bank, 6 FEBRUARY 1981 553 THE WORLD BANK Headquiarters 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. European Office: 66, avenue d'1na 75116 Paris, France Tokyo Office: Kokusai Built' Ilg, 1-1 Marunouchi 3-chome Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan The full range of World Bank publications, both free and for sale, is described in the World Bank Calalog of Puiblications, and of the continuing research program of the World Bank, in World Bank Researchi Program: Ab- Str1Cts of Current StludieS. The most recent edition of each is available with- out charge from: PUBL[.IArATION LINITI THE WORLD BANK 1818 H SrRl:ET, N.W. WASHINCGT)oN, D.C. 20433 U.S.A.