,~-----.,...;.,~- .... ,~ -- '\ CONFIDENTIAL - ONLY FOR INTERNAL USE OF THE BANK ~--~--------~--'----- DRAFT . 70905 A REPORT ,nTH RECOMMENDA TrONS ON THE USE OF ANTHROPOLOCY IN PROJECT OPERATIONS OF THE WORLD BANK GROUP (This document is not for publication. The views express€' re solely those of the authors and should not be taken as be necessarily representative of the opLnLons of any Bank Gr. Staff members. The usual caveats with respect to errors responsibility also apply.) Glynn Cochrane Raymond Noronha Central Proiects Staff lBRD D-719 115/73 , TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. THE BANK'S EXPERIENCE WITH ANTHROPOLOGY 3 III. INFORMING STAFF MEMBERS, COLLECTING REACTIONS 7 IV. ANALYSIS OF PROJECTS 9 V. THE WAYS IN WHICH ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA COULD BE MADE AVA ILABLE 57 VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 61 ANNEXES I. Proiect Types and Check-Lists Together with Analysis of Representative Proiects General 1 A. Agriculture Proiects 4 B. Transportation Proiects 37 C. Industrial Projects 39 D. Water and Power Proiects 41 E. Education Proiects 42 F. Population Proiects 54 G. Tourism Proiects 66 _---~>~ H. Urban Projects 74 II. Proiects Identified Prima Facie FYl968-1972 82 1• INTRODUCTION 1.01 We report here on the utility of adding an anthropologiCa1l1 dimension to WOrld Bank Group (WBG) projects and the methods by which such a dimension can be added. 1.02 This study was undertaken on the initiative of the researchers who believed that Project Operations might benefit from a greater degree of in- volvement with anthropology. Although there was an increasing awareness among Bank staff that more attention should be paid to the social aspects of projects, this awareness had not been translated into a uniform policy or a systematic method. Anthropologists had, on occasion, been employed as consul tants but the approach was ad homine1l!._ rle believed that the identifica- tion of the social and cultural variables as significant factors in social development and their systematic inclusion in the identification, preparation, supervision and evaluation of projects would help in the attainment of project goals more easily, and with fewer problems, than at present. 1.03 These are very broad objectives a.l'ld given the size of the institu- tion, the scope of its operations, the time available, and our own resources, the stU(:y had to be reduced to manageable proportions. OUr study seeks to answer the basic questions of utility and method firstly by examining the overall objectives of WBG and secondly by concentrating on a few interrelated aspects of WBG operations. The approach was as follows: 1. an examination of the lmG's experience l.-1ith anthropology to date; 2. informing staff members about the potential of the discipline through talks) lectures, and consultations.; and obtaining the reaction of 1Quite early in this 'Work at the Bank we fourH;--~hat our discipline ~d the nature of the work was understood more easily L" ..nd use survey undertaken by consultants during project preparation; heavy .L'1.flation since appraisal in 1967; seme cost underestimation; and devaluation of the U.S, dollar... Physical changes in the project are also proposed. 6. Pakistan Foodgrain Sto~a~~~ (Credit 8)-PAK): The project facilities were near completion when "civil disorders began in :t'.;arch 1971 fl. This resulted in the destruction of one of the silo facilities and the evacuation of i.,he contrp.ctors I per- sonnel. The foreign exchange overrur:.,s cn this project were estunated to be $800,000. The Quarterly Supervision report of September 30, 197 1 , describes the causes as npolitical. Due to the outbreak of civil disturbances in East Pakistan. II h.12 It is not necessary to multiply examples to show that the Bank recognizes Itmanagementll, "technical ll , tlfinancial It , I1politic al " , "economic ll and Iladnrl.nistrative II problems as causes for delay in project implement.ation. In the Ceylon project and the Colombia project noted above the lIinexperience ll of farmers and IIgeneral rural unrest ll were also identified. In the former case, the Ceylon Ccver~ment was expected to do something about extension 1-lork; in the latter case, little appears to have been done. It cannot, therefore, be said tlk'lt the Bank does not ru(:ognize the existence of a "sociul ll category. What appea.rs to be mOl'0 {:orrect is that the Bank does not appear to have the mechanisms for lookt, , into this aspect relating to its problem projects and th.'lt it does app~: ,}Burma.V *EgypJ±! ~,,'Ethiopia.v *Kenya!Y (Horondava) (river (cotton (church) transport) ginning) *Papua/New GuineaY -:t-Turke:J-!! *Philippines W (livestock) (Antalya: forests) Sierra l.eone la/ (rural develop- ment) */ Projects for \':hich our assistance was sought. T/ Projects which are signed and effective. 1Y Projects Hhich are Signed but \Jhere de.ta.ils of a scheme have to be worked out, or where furt.her research is provided for. 2/ Green cover stage. 3/ Post-appraJ.sal, yellow COYer stage. 4/ Preappraisal stage. >"/ Identification' 4.24 vie now propose to su,"nrnarize the major problems in these projects as we saH' them and the methods we suggested for solving these problems. In the process of doing this one concltwion should be apparent: the necessity of tailoring each project in the light of the cultural patterns of the borroHers. Agri2uJ~~ 4.25 1. Resettlement: T () resettlement projects were studied by us, and the difference in the qU(;~' Ll.ons we asked should be noted. The first schalne was in Colombia (the r;, sota project: Loan 739-00). 'Ihe scheme was mainly directed to 6,300 far' ,::"ilies migrating from different rural areas - 22 - to the largely undeveloped, but accessible, areas in the Amazon. The agency ac1m.nistering this voluntar;y sche:i1e wa.s TIWORA. Our analysis, ~ E;?st .£.~c!£., was directed to enquiring uhether certain key questions had been asked and answ'"9red 'before the Bank approved. of the project. 4.26 The region \-las characterlzed by a recurring pattern of migration where the traditional form of agriculture lfas slash-and-burn coupled with the necessity of moving on in a fe\>1 seasons when fire-resistant grass covered the plots. This suggested to us the possibility that the vacuum might be filled by Healthier rancher::? at little cost to themselves. Another factor in this pattern of migration and 10i'1 incentives to make any permanent ~nprovements is the insecurity of tenure and the complex procedural require- ments to obtain ~1Y security. 4.27 Thirdly, vle noted the Attitudes of the peasants: tm·mrds farming, housing, the goverrM~ent, and the agenC,1_ The basic theme vms one of fatalism; the belief that religion and god are the ;,.)st important determinants of success in the economic sphere. 'r..l'J.e attituCe to~"·.·cls government, the agency, and any persons beyond the family, was one of suspicion and distrust. Fourthly, the spontaneous settlers -- and the lit,erature we have sUJlnnarized in the Annex is mainly about them -- were largely convinced that their new situation lms no better than "mere they l-Tere before resettlement. Fifth, we questioned the group for ilhom the Bank project '-las directed: the Bank appeared to select only those Hho l;ere already successful as participants in the project benefits. 4.28 What would the demonstration effects of such a project be? Since the participants 'vere those who had already succeeded on their Olm, what evidence could be adduced to show that the example of the already successful could be made a precedent for those ~no had bee~ unsuccessful and that the latter would fo 11 0'1,1 this prcc!!dent? Why had the unsuccessful not been chosen'? - 23 - And if these tlmarginal ll people were to succeed would not special provj.sions be required? 4.29 The scheme appeared to have inadequate provision for extension. Further we doubted, on the basis of the literature, whether INCORA had the organisational capacity to deal ,iith the scheme. It might be noted that the Bank is already aHare of the credit and organizational restraints on nmORA "Which has been described as a IIpoor credit agenc.:yll (see Problem Project files, June }O, 1972: Colombia--Agricultural Credit Loan 624). Changing agricultUl'al patterns, communication and acceptance of the necessity of change, security, the choice of the appropriate intermediarJ organization, are vital factors in trl\ success of a resettlement progr&~. They da~and thorough social analysis. 4.30 In Malagasay (t.he MQrondava project: Credit 322) the crux of the problem is not the relationship between ranchers and migrant peasants; or suspicion of governraent, agency, and non-relat:Lves. Malagasy has a plural society where the blurring of ethnic differences by the French has not survived the attaiI1."Uent, of independence. TIle provincial geography of r·1alagasy is matched by resident dominant ethnic groups. A firm of consultants had been appointed to study and advise on the project. The project as approved mirrors the consultant's report. The project is directed to the resettlement of and provision of services for about 2,100 families in the Morondava region. 4.31 The consultant's report is detailed (at times, lie felt, too detailed: an example is the description and number of baby-weighing scales in the planned maternity room) but does not answer a crucial question in the proposed resettle- ment and "h'hy is the method to be adopted. In a resettlement scheme in a plUl'al (or multi-group, as it is sometimes referred to) society this is a vital question. Cooperation is essential to the success of a resettlement scheme - 24 - and if the proposed settlers do not form a homogeneous group, or are in conflict 'With each o t.'1er , the scheme is on the way to failure. 4.32 Traditional village and lineage ties are strong in ¥..alagasy and this means that before a plan can be dralm up for the physical facilities in the area of rese'Ct:0mcnt the planners must be quite clear about the persons "mo are go5ng to be resettled, and vmether this group of selected individuals is capable of acting in conCE~rt. If, after stud;';-:ing this question, the planners still decide to have a non-homogeneous group then the appropriate organisational set-up Hill have to be thought out, to provide among other things, for the areas of co~on decision that arc the normal resuJ.t of co~~on residence. 4.33 The allocation of responsibilities and consequences of resettlement had not been w·orked out in a number of important areas. The project also lacked details about education extension -- particularly education facilities for the children. Again, the lend tenure scheme had not been fully vl'Orked out, :r. t ';' the system of succession to land. Here too the planners do not al-"'Pear ~ 0 have considered the difference in traditional tenure systems that prevaj 1 in Halagasy -- varying between systems that permit indi 'w"idual 0~mer­ ship to lineage-based systems l±J.ere only the right to use the soil is recognized but tlv!re is no right to the ownership of the land uBed vlhich is transferable or c~pable of inheritBnce. HoW are these systems to be reconciled in the new area? Land and the social structure of a group ace interrelatE7(l. The inter- relationship is partly reflected in patterns of O1·:rt,::>r~.hip and use of land, and partly in i10rk patterns. 4.34 In Halagasy some groups are agricu1tur~",:~:· others, predominantly pastoralists. From lmich groups had the settlers . ::11 drarffi? Even if they were drawn from fumng the agriculturists, the diff' ,-.:nces in ownership and - 25 - work patterns, and the differences in types of crops cultivated prior to resettlement hr~d not been coneidcred. Extension 1-1Ork llOuld have to be relat-cd to this. Extension Hork for training j.n irrigated crop cuIti vation "t-1ould also have to be planned, D...'1d this does not appear to have been carefully considered. :ehe project provides for in±:. vidu.9.l farms and state farms, "oTi th the labor of the settlers being divided between the two. 4.35 Historically, there had been a pattern of forced labor in Halat.asy , -- a system that came to be hated. We wondered imether w"Urk on the statf! fal~S might not be considered a revival of the forced labor system llildsr a different guise. Could t.rl() settlers then be expected to be satisf"lcd tU th '\'lork on the state farm~, and adopt cooperative profit-sharing? T'nis question could have been n.nsl.;erecl q1.ti te easily with an attitudinal su:rvey. He also noticed that work on indi \ridual farRs appeared (from the !igttres supporting the project) to be more profi tG.ble than nark on the state far:n:s. 1{ould this consti tute an inducement to neglect the state farms? The chc;ice of the settler group and t.~e org<,,.nisational fra"7le1'lOrk are questions that could have been asked and quite easily answered. 4.36 A familiarity vdth the social structu:res and cult\lJ.'al background of the ethnic gI'O'u_ps in Halagasy llOuld have incited these questions. The physical planning could then follow. Unfortunately, the contrary procedure appears to have been adopted. T"niG results in the attempt to mould hllinan behavior to the physical f~cilities,a procedure that takes far long~l' (assuming that it is successful) and inherently contains the greater proba- bility of problem occurrence -- problems vmich in a large measure could have been foreseen and reduced in effect. - 26 - 4.37 In the Morondava project some of the details of the scheme were still left t.o be worked out after the Crem t had been approved: for exa.TJ1ple, land consolidation and distribution, patterns of settlement. ive brought our questions about the project to the notice of the staff members who sought our advice. The staff members, "mo i-Tere to proceed on a mission to Malagasy shortly after our meeting with them, stated that they would bring the points we had raised to the attention of the consultants and would see to it that , the problems' likely to arise 'lriould be ironed out and considered before occurrence insofar as that 1vaS now possible. 4.38 2. Uvestock: Shortly after our t.alk to the then East Asia and Pacific Depou'tment lie 1-Tere asked to advise on a livestock project in Papua and l'Je. . i Guinea. Our comxn.ents yIere sought on the Appraisal Report (PA - l44) 'Hhich had by t.hen reached the II green coveI'" stage. After reading the report one of the first questions that occurred to us lias ffwho vJill benefit from this project"? He raised this question because the design of the project appeared to ignore I,:elanesiml cultural patterns in P.&""'l.G., lvas unclear about the tenurial system, and assU:lled 1:TOrk patterns l'nlich did not exist. The project goals include the improvement and extension of pig and cattle herding. It assuillsd that Helanesians accepted cattle. It also assuJlled that the participants in . the project 'Hould produce extra Sl1eet potato for consumption of their pig herds. It further assllIrv.:d that the ·participnnts had unused time imich could be profit- ably employed in 'bo cultivation of these increased amounts of sweet potato. These assumption.;-. ;,;,ppeared incorrect. 4.39 Pigs; '. ;.;cavengers;, their consumption is related to a ritual cycle which is trigge, < '- l1hen the pigs become so n"..llUerous as to require food to be specially produv,\. for them. Cattle were introduced by expatriates to keep down "brushing" CO~j lis in the coconut plantations, Melanesians fear them. - 27 - Host of the cattle are on expatriate ranches or plantations. The possibilities of increased sv18et potato production assumes l€::isnre and the ability to Hark in the fields almost tvdce as much than at present (the increased production being for the benefit of the pigs). This ignored the vlDrk pattern lmere the Helanesian carmot and will not spend more than 3 or 4 hours in the gardens each day. There is also the question of the ecological imbclances resulting from increased sweet potato production. l-lith these patterns in mind, it did not seem to us ," likely that there 1fould be -w-.i.desproad accept,anee of the project goals, and the project vre believed 1muld have a minimal spread effect. 4.40 But the group tha,t lrould accept and benefit by the l,rojc:ct 1-muld 'be the expatriate and affluent Helanesiruls. "ive felt that even here the rate of return on the project vrould be subst,antially affected by the departure of the expatriate after independence. He therefore suggested that the project be altered in focus: that it b;;; directed to the urban areas, that increased attention be paid to imprm~:. the local pig breed rather than the import of foreign breeds. Ue believ,-' that at least 1-lith the altered focus the problem of urban malnutrition coru.,' be partially ameliorated. However, our main question remained: were there no other alternative projects considered esps(.;ially lfhen the livestock project as framed would benefit only a small sect,ion of the people, v'"1z., the expatriate and thC-3 affluent, and appeared unlikely to have a spread effect? h.41 ,,[nen we discussed this [',rolysis with the relevant staff me.i'ilbers from the then Area Department we were informed that the project had gone to: ~ to be modtfiod and that., therefore, the points we raised would be borne iL :.~d during supervision. \'/e doubt whether these project deficiencies can 1" :. I (edied - 28 - during supervision and believe that this project will soon find its way into the "problem projectsl! file. 4.42 3. In~.£rate9- Agricult]:r,al p(~Y.~.lQ.P.mQrtt.: The Sierra leone Integrated Agricultural Dcveloprrent project (Credit 323) is an example of the increasing Bank interest in integrated rural development, and of a project directed to smallholder agriculturists. TIle goals of the project are to increase the income and raise the living standards of about 2,500 smallholder farm fuwilies; increase rural employment; and give rise to a diversification of the economy. Our advice in this project might be termed "pre-consultative ": there is a great lack of hard inforln.ation about the project area and the countrJ and we would, therefore, have recorl]'nended the appointment of a consultant-anthropologist to gather information on the points we had rai.sed before formulation of the project. 4.43 Sierra Leone has a plural society. TIle three major groups are the }ruslim Te~~es of the north, the Mende of the south, a~d the Creole population of the vlest. In this project it is the first two groups that concern us. There are divisive conflicts bet-'leen the north and south: agricultural development in the north has been neglected; political power rests with the southern descendants and relatives of paramoUJ1t chiefs. Our first question with the project was that it appeared to continue this division and apparently re-inforce the political structure: the first benefits were to go to the south and the north would then receive extension workers trained in the project. Secondly, the development and marketing organizations proposed under the project would freeze private enterprise in a country where such enterprise flourishes and substitute a monopoly in its place. This would also stultify locai entrepreneurial talent and direct the benefits of the project to wealthy traders. Besides thi~1 the performance record of the proposed monopoly marketing - 29 - organisation had been poor and there were no grounds contained in the project which could lead us to suppose that this record would not continue. 4.44 One of the secondary goals of the project is the prevent:i,cn of the rural-urban drift. The project does not identify the causes of this urban drift in the project area and it is therefore difficult to assess the potential success of this project hope. 4.45 An important lacuna in the project is the failure to provide any specific role for women. Women play an important role as flpenny capitalists!! # in Sierra Leone (as in many oth(;r parts of 'YJest Africa) and have shown great organisational capabilities. 4.46 Once again the systems of land tenure prevailing in Sierra leone do not appear to have been appreciated. An appreciation of these systen~ would, 'He believe alter the credit :rrangements under the project. 1~.47 Finally, the project pai...:, tar too much attention to created organi- sational structures and too littlf' t·o the already-existing or potential voluntary org[,:Ulisations. There W(f no assessm.ent of the role Hhich local associations and local decisions (;()v1d play in a.cceptance of, and partici- pation in, the project by the peop), , 4.48 There is no suggestion in '[.hese observations that individual entre- ,preneurs are alHays preferable to r:>~' .o:p<.)listic organisations; or that a vol'tUlta..ry association is, by. its HRt ,better than a created association. "Jhat is suggested is that the liter·,' ';'(; on Sierra Jeone does point to the existence of a successful pattern of -; r·diit'i.dual entrepreneursrd,p, of voluntary associations, of the petty exactiom; ~,.r chiefs. And it might have been pre- ferable that before a choice was mad.,··tween the organisational types there was an enquiry made. We would have ,':' :;(;r.:.mended the appointment of a consultant -30- to gather evidence -- l;hich would not have been difficult -- on the basis of anthropologicaJ observations before formulation of the project. 4.49 We discussed these observations with one of the staff members concerned with the project and were inforrred that after further analysis the staff 'Vl0uld try to modify the project scheme (which has still to be 'I-1Orked out in detail) to accomodate our suggestions. However, we were informed that the proposed project for the north, which has yet to be formulated, may have an anthropological input before formulation. Transport 4.50 1. Roads: The first example in the transport sector relatec to the construction and maintenance of roads and the reorganL:ation of a Road 1-1aintenance Directorate in Afghanistan ( Credit 158). vie were consulted about this project after a talk to the Transportation Projects Division. 4.51 What anthropologists can sa:y about roads does not relate to their method of construction, the engineering required> their methods of maintenance. Anthropological areas of experti.se relate to tho social effects of roads (and of feeder roads, in particular) and the orgardsational problems of maintenance. The problem in the Afghanistan p:roject related to the latter aspect: how were the tecr...niques of road mai..ntenance to be transferred and how could the trained personnel be induced to remain at their jobs? 4.52 T'ne problems, therefore, related to the choice of media and the methods of inst,ruction, the availability of su.itable training personnel, an appreciation of the problems facing the trainee, and of the cultural back- ground of the trainees. The consultants employed in this project, partially financed by UNDP, had perform~d averagely well. Their performance could be the subject of constant supervision by the Bank. But more important was the - 31 - trainee: was the training he was getting such as to permit him to stay on in the reorganised department? 'ins (in terms, for in.stance, of efficiency, greater standardization of "::~ltput, lOi~r production costs) versus social losses. h.68 The ginneries are in urgent need of rehabilitation i f Egypt is tD }113,intain her place in the world cotton markets. This is an eeonornic necessity. The industx7 is seasonal, generally eX+v8nding from the end of September to the end of 11'arch each year. The hulk of the (~mployment in this industry is" therefore seasonal contract or weekly paid e:>',plo,}'1'llent. Only a skeletcm staff is permanent. The proposed progrJm of ruhabilitation would involve the construction of 11 nell ginneries, the c'r ~;;'nre of 31 e:xisting ones, and the rehabilitation of the remaini11g )~2. 'fi;C' r:':3ult of this program is that it will reduce the wory10rce in the ginnerj by about 20,000 people. MOst of the redundant labor would be contract and ~cmpora....J employees. - )8 - 4.69 A further aspect of employment in the ginneries is the age of the "lorkers and the conditions of work. .An est:Lmated 17% of the i'lorkers are children belovl the age of 14. Most of the seasonal workers are employed as beaters, carriers, and feeders. They, including the children, work under unsuitable conditions, in a lint-fi.lled atmosphere. The carriers are over- loaded. Most are not paid the legal ~~imum wage; most children are worked be-yond legally proscribed limits. l-mat \'le were asked to advise on Wms designed to find out in particula-r whether the employees who 'were likely to be affected by the pro'- posed project contributed significantly to their family budgets, what their attitudes Here to their work, vlhether they had any preferred alternative emplo;yment, and their mohil:Lty in terms of Hork. The qh8stionnaire has been annexed to this report, the results of the survey are presently being a,'1ulyzed. was 4.71 The project is a..'1 exa.'nple of a problem that/.nentioned earlier: economc development is seen from the poin,t of view of an economy. In this sense, the project is a necessity.' Social development is viewed from tihe point of view of the individual. Seen from the individual's perspective, loss of employillent is nei'ther meaningful nor necessary; social unrest may not be preferable to economic gain. The project raises the necessity of eX8.!nining alternative avenues of employment for the affected, or ueighi..11.g the problems that might result from unemployment. - 39 - 4.72 3. ~E ~st .!.'r0ject (Turkey): Anthropological assistance in the proposed project has been minimaJ.: mainly lirr.ited to discussion \dth the concerned staff member of social aspectn of the project that should be watched, and alternatives that could be built into the project. There are two reasons why 1'18 refer to this project: first, because it evidences the sensitivity of an individual staff member to the social effects of a project; secondly, becanne the project is an example of a rural industrialization scheme in which anthropologists have SOln.e interest. 4.73 The Antalya project is part of an overall scheme of reorganization and modernization. of TU1"'kish forestry and forest industry. ID.tirr.ately, the program \:511 involve an expenditure of about $500 million, phased over a period of 10-15 years. The present proposed project includes the construction of a modern sm'mull integrated with a pulp and paper mill. What struck the staff member on. the pre-apprcti.8al mission was the possible effect that this project nould have on the neighboring village;i and on the lives of the villagers. This induced the member to inquire wheth~r the project had a potential for social development, what the villagers wan ted, and whether t.he proposed project llOUld assist in stemrr.ing the urban drift of the educa.l(,')d village youth. He came back from the mission i-r.Lth some partial anm-lars. 4.74 1'le were consulted aft.ar the member had returned. Anthropological concerns were ,?lhether the proJ8c t could generate sufficient incentives (1."1 terms of \'Jhat the people want2d) GO induce them to remain in the village; secondly, to the discovery of tJ;(: disorganization of life that the project might create. Was it possible ',,'J dive,rt some of the project returns to the construction of schools and ::,.[,,'."S which the villagers appeared to want? - 40 - Could training be given in forestry so as to create employment opportu...'1ities for the villagers? Could this training be adapted to different levels? What credit facilities ,-muld be made a\Tailable to the villagers? 1-Jhat organ:L-;ation was envisaged? Did the villagers comprehend this proposed organization? 4.75 These questions are nO'\oi being borne in mind before final formulation of the project and 'tve . .,ere informed that we would be consulted again before that stage. Education 4.76 We have not been as involved in education projects as we would have wished, more so since ue believe that anthropology has extensive insights into tradition.::ll p3tterns of education. These comments, therefore, on the two education projp.cts belo\-1 are brief cmd we have takOrl the liberty of an extended note on education in the Annex.. 4.77 1. Sudan Education ---- Project (Credit 122): .... - Anthropological interest is limitc:d to two as::,'~ts of this project: first, the location of the project; secondly, some iteY,;, in the project plans. 1+> 78 Sudanese identify themselves \-lith the North or the South. This identification Hhich is, in part, the result of historic colonization patterns, has re su.lted in cont,L.'1uing conflict be t'l"l'een the two geographic area.s. Since independence the North has dominated the South economically and politically. The southerners claim that this domination is extended into the sphere of education as 1-11311: Arabic is the main la..11guage of government n.n!:'. instruction; the South has hardly any representation in institutions of hight,::- education Which are mainly in the North. -41- 4.79 This project appears to be directed solely to the e~vension of educatiop.a.l facilities in the North. And vrhat ha~) struclc us is whether tJus has been done with full ai-mreness of the divisions. How do the southerners view the project? Do they see the Bank as supporti11g and perpetuating the present allocation of power and rights? 4.80 Secondly, liy~ the proposed Ethiopian project, which we refer to beloii, this project appe~irs to extend facilities which are in themselves not best suited to develop.-nontal needs. . This cOllllTl..ent is limited to the development of agricultural institutes where rural needs could have first been assessed before training institutes were constructed. " 4.81 on this proposed project, like t.llose on the Sierra Leone project, are in the nature of a pre-consultative note. 4.82 'He believe that a novel approach -- working towards rural change through the Ethiopia."1 church -- may not have been sufficiently thought out in terms of its social consoquences. The project appeared to insufficiently appreciate the historic conservatimll of the church and the diffic't~~ :,ies in using this channel to spread a scientific approach to agriculture. We, therefore, recommended that part of the proposed training scheme which ooncerns the church be limited to increrr.ental improvements in agricultu: • 4.83 But the reason why it was concluded that i f the proposed proj ;t had been sent to us at an earlier stage we would have recommended tl-.'; appointment of a consultant-~~thropologist was the lack of information in areas we consider vital to the formulation, and success of the proposed project: the reasons for the urban drift of the educated; the possible incentives - 42 - needed to motivate rural residents and students to remain and work in the ~ural areas; the necessity of designing jobs ~~d types of training to fit the rural situation rather than the reverse. Population 1.1..84 1. India: A PQP}ltl!.ioD....Pro:iGcj~, (Credit 312-IN). This is the first Ban.k credit for a popUlation project in ~dia. It is experimental and innovative in design. Its pUl~ose is to obtain information from the ~ centers set up under the projE:ct in t"YlO Indian states which will enable the Indian gov'crnment to ascertai,11 the opti.'nal levels of population program inputs and to tra.."1s1ate this information into a national strat3gy. These worthy rr: '~p('\ses spring frcra the desire to assist in a faltering national population i)rogram. The project provides for the appointment of one or more sociologists/~~thropologists to assist in the execution of, and research related to, the progra.i11. Anthropological corr.ment was li.mi ted to the design of the project. 4.85 There were two major reasons why we believe that the project was likely to be less than successful in attaining its goals: first, the selection of units of comparison; and secondly, the organizational set-up. 4.86 In the selection of ll.'1its, the project had not chosen homogeneous units for comparison: population density, income levels were identified as differential but other signi.fic,"nt variables had been ignored. In the formu- lation of the project the culbr:tl patterns present even in the two States went unnoticed. These pattern' :l.!:'e of prime importance not only for the communication of a population ,:"igra.~, but also in assessing the results or effects of the program. A po;;,! ttion program design "lOuld also be influenced - 43 - by the identification of these variables -- as, for insta~ce, the number of castes, relicious groups, Olm6rship patterns, level of educa·t.lon, pro::r..imity to urban areas, means of communication. The project l-Jent further in neglecting the existence of regionalism in India. In effect the failure to cQY'...str'o.lct homogeneous un.its for experimcntati.on results in infol"'l:l1ltion of unreliable validity, vlhich liQu1d be even more unreliable if translated into a national strategy. 4.87 Secondly, it was fOlmd that the organiza.tiona1 structure proposed for t:3 ey..ecution of the project bore a marked resemblance to that tried out under the COl;:rrrJ.:nity fuvelop!nent mLd Panchayati Raj progru:1.3 in India. These progra.'11S ha.ve been found to be less than successful and one of the major reasons for the lack of success has been the organizational structure under these programs. 4.88 T'nese apparent pitfalls in the (lesign of the project could have been avoided i f there had been an anthropological input into the project at the stage of formulat.ion. Homogeneit~' uf units would have provided information not merely about the level of the population program that 'Has optL~a1, but also on the variables of greatest weight and of variables that could be considered idiosyncratic to a particular locality or region or state. 4.89 2. ;r"rot"):")ce,d DOD1)!_a.tlon nro~~: 1$"P.!!y'a; If in India castes" religions, land and region play an important part in the choice of units, in Kenya's multi-ethnic society it1s tribes and tribal patterns that must be studied before population planning can be effective. 4.90 We were consulted about a prop:>sed project in Kerwa through l ..hich the Five-Year Kenya Family Planning Program is to be put into effect. Popu- -44- lation pla~g is an extremely sensitive area of social change. The success of such a pla..'l depends to a cri t.ical extent on the prior identification of the belief and value SysteJrlS of a group to whom the plan is directed. It is only after identification that a plan can be formulated, and organisation plan.'led. To put it slightly differently, a successful plan ..:ill be one i-lhich takes into account the value systems and det.e!'1i':ines the most effective mode of cha.nging these values (if they are to be changed) or building upon the existing value systems. 4.91 In Kenya the role of the family, the importance of children, the different prestige attaclJing to the sexes, varies even ldthin a limited area. It varies even more bet1men the different tribes. These have already been identified in the literature. The next step is the choice of the media of communication: hOi" can the plan be most effectively cOn:lJ'1:~.lJlicated so as to gain the widest acceptance possible? An anstlier to this question would generally imply local level planning. The third question is the choice of the organization and personnel to communicate the plan, and to supervise its execution. The choice of personnel is of importance and the test for this choice should be: who can be the most effective and most acceptable person to translate the plan into local 1ings. 1T'£a.. .. FLnally, we have the choice of incentives -- which, again, would vary even locally. 4.92 These aspects were. pointed out to the staff member concerned with the formulation of the project. A media con8ultant has been appointed and the project is to be formulated \-lith governmental and university assistance. The concerned staff member is to consult with us about the draft outline of the project on his return from mission. - 45 - 4.93 3. Propo~~"?- PhilinpiE!? E9Jl1});~1!,:tl2!l :groject: This involved a proposal by a non-staff member to use legal measures as an incentive in a population progr&'7l. The area suggested was a city in the Philippines. The actual proposal lacked clarity and depth and the staff merr~er had already decided before lye were consulted to ask for further clarifications. 4.94 It ivas the first attempt to use munic~pal po-v:ers to assist in the execution of a popul~tion plan. Incentives such as deferred wage bonuses have been tried out, as also special leave facilities and lump-sum payments. But the use of legal-adlninistratj.ve measures on a municipal level is still to be vlOrked out thoroughly. 4.95 \'le believe that anthropology can be of great assistance in such a program: not merely iIi the identification of values and their resista.~ce to change, but also in the frarring of "developmental law". This would involve the choice of the legal-administrative framework related to the level of develop~cnt and the social structure of the people concerned so as to induce directeo change. He have often found that the choice of both the 1a"-15 and the organizational fra:"'rlework framed and created to induce change have little relation to the social structure and cultural patterns of the people on Hhom these are imposed, and have even less meaning for these people. The laws and organization chosen usually employ western models and the result is that a constant avoidable problem is that they do not Ilriork tl • This is not suprising to an anthropologist particularly since the models have no cultural fit. 4.96 The proposal had to be dropped and we l'lill have to Hait for a similar idea to be tried out in the future. - 46 - Tourism 4.97 1. J1.'1.1j.: pr029..~~_ tOUrj.fl~ p;,oject: rrourism, like mining, often offers the less developed countries a relatively easy opportunity of earning needed foreign exchange, in addition to a partial solution for imbalanced budgets. There are t'l-!O major reasons for tourism: sites of natural or architectural beauty and antiquity, or an "exotic ll culture (that is, exotic to the tourist). 4.98 Although anthropologists are concerned with the~former aspect, it is the latter for i-lhich their expertis(C; is most often required. In the C~';3e of the latter it is of the very nature of tourism that the culture ceases to be of interest when it is no longer exotic. The consequence is that an attempt is often made to continue the exotic nature of the culture, to keep the group from ch~~ging even though the meaning of those exotic aspects have been lost. Anthro~'Ologists have also noted the d~~gerous effects of unregu- lated contact bet'Heen people belonging to different cultures: the resultant disorganization of the social fabric of the lesser d;.'leloped (economically) peoples, the breakdown of their family systems, the loss of values, the ulcreasing rootlessness. Further, we have often discovered that when tourism is mooted as a means of adding to a national exchequer, those who are most affected by tourism, that is th(l local people, are usually not consulted about the proposed tourism scheme. 4.99 The advice given on the proposed tourism project in Bali has attempted to take into accoun the factors mentioned earlier in an island where both the reasons for tr ," ; :~m exist -- natural beauty and. exotic culture. - 47 - 4.000 He might also mention that the recommendation that an anthropologist be involved in thG project as advisor and to !"aonitor the project as Hell as to identify other credit-11Ort.hy dcvelo:p,,'11ent projects has been accepted. Tourism when regul::J.ted could be a financial boon, it could also and more importantly permit of directEd change. :Further tIhen the local people part.i- cipate in the project the chances of a successful project are i.mmeasurably increa~; ,d. Urban 1. Sen~.gE:!: Dakar Site and Service project (Credit 336): This project is the first of its kind to be assisted by the vffiG. The provision of services, techr~cal assistance, 2nd assistance in the acquisition of plots for about 156,000 people is innovative and ,..-orthwhile. h.OO2 The project provided for a monitoring study in the first instance. We were consulted about a draft of the monitoring study outline. 'lllere 'Here two reasons for this monitoring study: first, the project was the first of its kind and the experience and insightr:: r.:-merated in its execution Hould prove valuable for the Bank; secondly, i~ "las also hoped that the conclusions derived from the execution of the projfJct could become the stra.tegy of a.ction .. and a model for other similar schemes in Senegal. In other words lithe catalytic and demonstration H effects of the project were also considered of some importance. 4.003 Anthropological comments were confined mail~ to the design of the study. First, we pointed out the need for a unit of comparison which would enable the Bank to assess the degree to which changes were the result of the Bank project. Secondly, we felt that it was necessary to establish - 48 - what was idiosj!lcratic to the project scheme so that what was non-idiosyncratic could then be capable of transfer to other slll'..ilar projects. Third, 'VIe thought it necessary that the nutritional, and reproductive aspects, the communication processes, and the role of voluntary associations be carefully scrutinized and that any survey of the pro~j0ct 8,rea jnclude questions relatir:g to these aspects. In addition 'i'Ie refined to insights covering the type of personnel involved, the tenuy'e arrnngements, and the occupational alignments 'Hhich the literature on Senegal disclosed. 4.004 The outline fjnally approved contains modifications in the light of these suggestions -- particularly the recognition of the need for a unit of comparisor:., the nutritional and population aspects. Some observations on the above analYsis -...;;.-,..;...;;..;....;....;....;....;....;...--...;.-._-'---,-------'''--- 4.005 '.llhis analysis was designE:d to produce information on the utility of adding the anthropological d:L"llension. He have been concerned with the quality and design of projects to take into account significant behavioural patterns Hhich 140Uld affect bot.h the design and the success of projects. In effect i'ie have tried to demonstrate the greater probabiJj.ty of the attainment of project goals by noticing the social millieux in which projects are execuJued. 4.006 Clearly ,\ie have not dealt in depth with all the types of projects that the Bank undertakes; this has'been a function of time and staff interest: apart from some projects 'Hhi,ch we analysed, arm-chair fashion, ue assisted in projects rihere our he1p 'hras S01J.Cht. This merely emphasizes what we stated earlier, that at present and in the absence of any defined policy the intro- duction of an anthropological d:i.Jnension is usually the result of individual initiative and sensitivity on the part or the staff member. - 49 - 4.007 But does an anthrop010gical approach have utility? Or, to put it differently, have "le said anyt.rdng new which ..muld involve are-assessment of project design. He believe Ulat this is so. A few examples would suffice: Project calculations are arrived at on the assuw~d behavior of the project participants. This assumed bel ,viol' may mean that people are expected to accept nevI techniques, to folloH prescribed \\"or~ patt.erns, to accept the organizational structures provided ~~der a project. It is on this basis that projects calculate an "economic rate of return ll • But i f the assumptions are lllaccurate because they have not taken into account social values and patterns (\vhether vic\Jed as constraints or a baseline for action) hOH 2.' '.;u..rate would the rate of return be? TIle examples given show that there is a 10Her probability of attaimnent of project goals becnuse of this failure to take into ac.count the social dil'oonsion. Further, in many instances (for example in Burma, or Egypt, or in Colombia) it is not impossible to quantify this social data which vlOuld make ·the econoHic rate of return more meaningful. Again, it is not difficult to obt.ain the information required: in most cases there is a vast resource of literature already dealing with most of the problem.s, as we believe 1-16 have demonstrated. vlliat is needed in most cases is a familiarity with the literature, the mmreness of a problem, the ability to ask the right questions. 4.008 We believe we have gone some way tom.l.rd demonstrating the necessary pragmatism. The approach has been preventive rathE;r than remedial. He believe that this approach is far more effective: it is ea.sier to re-design a project at the pre-appraisal stage than la.ter. Exp0rience with projects at varying stages merely confirms this belief. - 50 - 4.009 But vre are still left \-lith an unspoken question: can anthropology assist in all projects? In oth~r fJOrds, are there some t;ypes of projects in which no antp.J.'opological dimension need be added? It is L'tlpossible to deal vrlth this question in the abstract. For instance, a telecommunications project may h:~~ye an fu'1thropoloGical dimension \lhen it. deals with TV for villagers. It is easier to anS'Hor this question in t,t'l'O ways: by referencE: to actual projects; and, by reference to the questions anthropologicts L~ally ask with regard to projects. The first aspect dealt with below; the second, in the ,Ar..nexes. 4.010 It would be incorreot to sue;gest that 'He only dealt \-lith projects where we could demonstrate a successful ant~opological input. One exampJ e comes to ~ld inst~tly: we thought that we could not be of assistance after perusing the papers in the proposed Da.ka.r Ship R<::pair project, and infom.ed the staff member concerned to this cf:,'oct. Projeot Identj.fication for an Anthropolo&!ical Input 4.011 It is necessary and useful to identify projects which we believe 't-lould priln8; facie need a.."1tbropoloe;ioal input. This exercise has been carried out with reference to projeots signed for FYl968 through FY1972. We have only summarized the figures and set out the sectors below, the detailed names of the specific projects are in Annex II. -$J.- FY1968 East Asia & South \vest East South Pacific Asia ElfENA Africa Africa A.'1lerica Caribbea11 Agriculture 2 (1 ) 3 (2) - - 4 2(2) 1 12 Transport 1 - - - It - - t .:.: Educatton - - - 1 2 (1 ) 1 1 5 Power - - - 1 (1 ) - - - 1 Industry - - 1 - - .~ j - - 1 Total 3(1 ) 3(2 ) 1 2 (1 ) 1 o( 1 ). i 3(2 ) 2 2h Note: The figures in brackets denote projects classed as "problem projects!!. FY1969 ~ East .Asia & Sout.h West East South Pacific Asia EMENA Africa Africa A."nerica Caribbean Water - - 1 - - - - 1 ..!griculture 6(3) 4(2 ) 1 4(3) 7(3) 3 (1 ) 1 26 TranG1'JOrt - 3(2 ) - 3 3(1 ) - - 9 Erlucation .- 2 - - 1 2(1) 1 4(1 ) 10 Industry - - 1 1 (1 ) - - - 2 Total 8(3) 7(4) 3 9(4) 12(5) 4(1 ) 5(1 ) L5 Note: The fi[;,'Ures in brackets denote projects classed as !!problem projects II. - 52 - FY1970 East Asia & South West East South Pacific Asja EHENA Africa Africa America Caribbean -- Water - - - - - 1 (1 ) - 1 Agriculture 6(2 ) 8(5) 3(2) 4(2 ) -.1.(2) 3(1 ) 1 28 'fransport - - 1 2 3 - - 6 EdUcation 1 - 1 1 3( 1 ) 2 3 - 11 Industry _. 1 (1 ) - - 1 - 1 3 . Dev.Fin.Cos - -- 2 - - - - - 2 Population - - - - - - 1 1 Tc-!' "1 ----.:.., ."" 7(2 ) 12(6) 5(2 ) 9(3) 9(2 ) - 7 (2) 3 52 Note: The figtu."'es in brackets denote, projects classed as '1lroblem projects u. FY1971 East Asia & . Sout.h I West East South Pacific i ASIa EMENA Africa Africa America Caribbean ___-+---=::5-->.(__ _+-=4_ _+-::::-5_ _ _~33 I-A...,l.~g:,-,-r_ic.;....;;u1~t\-"U'_et--..:::.5_ _+-_4i12-+-_4-'----1r--_6 2.!-) 1-~~ans~>~~r__ __ 2-->.(_1.!-)-4___ _______-+__..:::.3~(1~)~~_1 t-+___ -, 1 ____-+__-____~_-______+-~7 Education 1 1 2 3 4(1) 1 2 14 Power 1 2 (1 ) Industr;y' 1 (1 ) 2 Population 1 1 2 Tourism 2 2 other 1 (1 ) 1 ~____ ___~~9(~1~)~__ 6_~(2~)~____~,__~13-->.(_2~)~~13~(=4~)~~5___~~8 _____~6~L fu t_al 10 Note: The figures in brackets denote projects classed as IIprobl€:r. 2)rojects ". - 53 - FY1972 East Asia & South Hest Ea.st South Pacific Asia EH.c:~A - Af:c:i<:.:a, Africa America Caribbea,'1. Water - - 1 - 1 - - 2 Agriculture .-JL_ 5 h - -- 10 7 2 3 35 Transport 1 1 2 4 5 - - 13 Education 3 - ____ - 5 .. 4 1 - - 13 Power - - - . - - . .. -- - 1 Cor:rnu..rrL c. - 1 - - - - - 1 2 Dev • Fin .Cos. 2 1 .... .,.. ~- 1 - I 1 I - - r: ./ I Population 1 1 - - f - - - 2 Tourism - 1 1 - I - - 1 3 Urban - - 1 1 - - - 2 Total 12 9 15 19 15 3 ;; 78 Note: Y In 54 of the above projects, the effective date fell after June 30, 1972 • ~ In 3 projects, the agree~£nt was signed after June 30, 1972. - 54 - 4.012 This J2rimaj:~cie identification could be expressed in a different ma.'1ner, i.e. in relation to the total number of projects signed from FY1965 through FY1972: Namber of Projects Number of Projects 7J of Identified Identified Signed to-_.Total i-later 4 26 15.3 Agriculture 134 139 96.4 Transport 40 116 . 34.4 Education 53 53 100.0 POH"!' r------" 5 77 6.4 Industry .-- _.- 8 23 34.7 Comrnunic''lti ons -_.-."' 2_.. __ . 30 6.6 Dev.Fin.Cos. 7 ._.. - 59 11.8 Population 5 ~ .. - .. 5 100.0 Urban 2 2 100.0 .- Tourism 5 5 100.0 -- Other 1 --.- ... 2 50.0 Total 266 537 49.5 4.013 Although it might be sai0 that these figures speak for themselves, we believe it useful to emphasize' t,ome conclusions that ca.'1 be drawn from them: ftrst, it will be no·ticed th::::.~ the projects identified ,Eri..'lla facie as meriting anthropological scrutil. increases over the five years both in absolute numb('·:; and in relation to the number of projects signed for each year. Thj[, is primarily. the l''''' \.it of the changing nature of Bank projects: the increasing involve.rreJ.l, ',lith projects that predominantly deal with human change, rather than the W;1"'d physical items (dams, railways, - 55 - pOiler plants). A corollary of this is that Hi th the changing trend, which the projected projects plans over 'l.he next five years confirm, there iiill be a continued rise in the nw~ber of projects needing anthropological inputs. 4.014 Second, the nature of anthropological scrutiny ifill necessarily vary. This should be obvious frcITt the eXaJllple s of our assis Lance rendered, and is dealt. within Annexes to this report Vihen,1tJe analyze the types of projects and rofer to a general check-list, of the questions that vIe ask. 4.015 Third, it should be noted that this ennumeration does not eXJ.'1aust the projects in Hhich 3....l1thropological assist&" ,e ma.y be necessary. There may be projects in which problems arise in which arlthropological insights would aid tOl1ards solution. Some examples should clarify this statement. Our first example is the Sierra leone Electricity Corporation expansion project (loan 553-SL) i'ihich was not, identified as requiring anthropological assistance Erilna facie. This was classed as a Ilpl'I..'.':JJ.em projectll from the Problem Projects file of July 28, 1970 (that is, soon after the project became effective). Some of the major problems id"ntified as causes are lIorganizational problems II and IIgeneral lack of d:lscipline l!. These are problelus which to an anthropologist are the result of tbe choice of an organiza.tional fraInework which may not have a good cultural fit. 4.016 Further, the problem of IIlack of discipline!1 is viewed by us in 8. cultural context: what sta..l1dards are set up for workers, are they comprehended, are they capable of being adhered to? If they are incapable of being adhered to, what alternative standards can be set up? This problem is often the result of imposing working standards :that may be an acceptable standard in one country and expecting them to be equally applicable to another where the - 56 - \vork patterns axc: quite differ6nt. He touched on this problem in an3J.ysing the P .&N .G. livestock project. lmother G):2Jnple i.s that of the Sudan RoscireD POvier project (Loan 522-SU) Hhich Has also not identified ao Erj~ fac.~f:. requiring anthl'opological scru.tiny. HeI\".l too the problem 1'1'8.8 ma.inly lIorg;:.,'1i- zational fl and we would have asked sirnilar questions. 4.017 Thus there may be projects Hhich at first sight do not appe:.:.r to require anthropological scrutiny but which are later fo~~d to need this. Once, hOl-lever, projects like those of the SLEC and Roseire3 are found to require sCr"J.t:i.JIY, the store of Imo\i'ledge through experience grOllS and a sirrlilar project Hill later be excull.i.ned for such problem-causing pot.entip1. v. .::.THE.:.::::....:.;lJ:;;::A:.::..:yS::.....:IN::.:....;\;.;..;·JHI.:;;:;.;;.C;;,;:;.H~A..;;:.N;.;;;.;..Tf!.Il0POLOGICAII DAT!> COULD BE }flADE AVAILABLE 5.01 How can the Bank add a social dirrension to its project design, supervision and evaluation processes on a, system,atic basis? How can anthro- pological infor~Ati0n be made available to a staff member in the form and within the time frarrte'l·mrk in 1'l'11ich he needs it? Can this dimension be added without altering the present staff pattern, the BaPJc organizational set-up, or its practices? These are questions that must be dealt ,\-lith, if this report is to have operational value. Here analysis, or indication of areas of need, is insufficient. 5.02 There are, we have concluded after careful exanlination and weighing of the facts, five ways uhich i f systematically and methodically car.dod out can improve the present position. 5.03 First., as this report evidences, the sensitivity of the individual staff meriller has been an important factor in the emploYI.,ent of anthropolpgists. It could be exp3cted that this sensitivity Hould increac8 as more staff members were made awar~ of the role of anthropology, its capacities and limitations. And, in fact, this process of sensitization should contlllue. But we are again left Hi th the problem that the employrl1ent of anthropologists is based on individual sensitivities which apart from the variance between individuals leaves the method as unsystematic as before. He are still left vlith the questions of when to employ an anthropologist, why, and \;ho. 5.04 This problem could. not be solved by the trainir:g of staff members on a regular basis. Firs·t, such a solution pre-supposes 'rhe existence of anthropologists on a regular basis within the Bank. Second, the next problem that would have to be dealt with is the content of the tr~ining: in which geographical area should the staff memberu receive trainiDc, and in what - 58 - branch (urban, medical, legal, for instance)? Does this mean that when the staff rr,ember is transferred to another dep8xtment or another region he should be sent back for further training? Does it mean that when the staff member has been trained in-depth in one :cegion he is never to be transferred from I that regional d 3partmsnt? f Does the staff lnember have the time for this traininG· 5.05 In any event, is there any necessity for training? Is it possible that a sensitive, intelligent individual, 'I-1ho reads and pays a sufficient number of visits to the borrolling country could learn as much as an antI, ;:'0- pologist could teach him? But then he could r:.~)O becoms an economist, or an engineer, or an agronomist. ~~y must a person receive a training in those disciplines, III the sense of a fOl~al set of courses? The dangers of untutored observation, slanted reading, and e:x.-perimenting on the lives of people (for that is what social change is all about) are too great to need further state- mente An individual becomes an anthropologist not merely when he has the capacity for empathy, but when that empa.thy is channelled and direci..s·l, when it is immersed in the studies already existiI1g of a group of people, when he learns to ask questions that will give pragmatic ansl-1ers. Anthropology deals \'Ii th man in society, it studies the interaction and consequenc'es of that interaction among various institutions: economic,. religious, political, social. Development anthropology concerns itself with institution building. Directed training is, therefore, essential. 5.06 It is true that an unquantifiable percentage of Bank projects O1-ed during project, preparation~ The use of libr:lFJ resources presuIJ.')() 3: CG a b10111edge of the literature" Hhich is often unayail- able at the Banks ,;.:ud the ability to separate the dross from the gold. The search would be': roo tilne-constl.'T..i.ng, and not nec8ssarily fruitful. 5.08 Third, '~'3 have urgently reconnnended construction of an International roster of consult,1:".s. Assuming a roster of consultants is constructed which is not merely rE'r" :-lJ.tative but also related to the Bank I s needs both present and projected, CO:.1' i ("llis suffice in combination with a\·mre staff merrJ)ers. The construction (;" :~ roster of consultants is not an automatic panacea. After constructior', ,d'e will still remain the problems of up-dating the list, the choice of vY.;:; most appropriate anthropologist, the construction of terms of referUll(·;. the evaluation of the advice given. 5.09 The fourLL j,)int is a further factor of importance: Bank projects are changing, it can 1 ~<)refore be expected that new types of projects will be undertaken and nc',( ",l~)(~r countries will join the Bank. HoVl does a staff member, with all the ~. '0UI'CeS at his command decide that a specific new type - 60 - of project requires anthropological scrutiny or w'hen a consultant should be called in? A necessary step is to move away from chance, from situatiom where the identification and treatment of crucial social issues is left to the attitude and for experience of the individual staff members. The method that can best help to avail this situation will be one which produces strong policy directors from top management which i~~:3r !£~ vlOuld insist on systematic professional treatment. 5.10 All these alternatives are fr8.ught with difficulties i-lhich we believed will be resolved by the appointment of anthropologists as staff members. This is the fifth and final method. The reasons for this conclusion and the me{~hod by which the appo:i.ntmEmts can be made are the subject matter of the next chapter. VI. CONCHJSIONS AND RECOHHENDATIONS 6.01 Two questions remain unansviered: whether it is incumbent on the . Bank to consider "soel.all! factorg and assess their effect in identifying, designing, and supervising credit-Horthy projects? Secondly, 'Vlhether this consideration and a:Jsessment can be efficiently and effectively carri0d out "lithout altering ex.:lsting resources and practices. That is, whether the existing personnel and practices folloi-led by th.9 Bank would be sufficient to introduce the analysis of the social dimensions &~d effects of a proposed or on-goL~g project. 6.02 We believe that the answer to the first question is quite simple: yes. The Articles of Agreenl<::mt of the IBRD provides that loans shall be made, inte.:r:.~, for IIdevelopment. II Similarly, with slightly more detail, the Articles of Agreement of the IDA provide for financing lito further development II and, in particular, for the financing of specific projects "1hich are !lin the opinion of the Association" of llhigh developmental priorityll. 6.03 An examination of the effect of these articles involves first, an assessment of the meaning of the term IIdevelopmentl!; and, secondly, an opinion as to the obligations of the Bank in regard to the promotion of IIdevelopment rr • 6.04 He do not intend to enter here into a philosophical discussion of the meaning of the term IIdevelopmentll. It vlOuld suffice to point out that the term is fley~ble in ccnnotation and that its meaning has widened cOlwiderably since the 1940's. This broadening of the context of the term is partly the result of the widespread adoption of social goals by nations-- newly-independent and old. It stems .in part from the realization that the distribution of the benefits of economic advance cannot be left to the will - 62 - a...'1d good sense of individual beneficiaries; that benefits received by the most pOHerful sections of a nation do not nt3cossarily trickle dO'Ym to tho 101lor sections; that economic growth does not automatically denote equality of opportunity or access; that thero must be a specific channelling of aid to the flweaker H sections of a nation; that economic growth C8.."l result in social poverty. 6.05 This changing meaning of the term is reflected in the chal1ging nature of Bank projects: from pOlJer, water, and transport~ to a grot-ling nu.1ilber of population, education, rural a1'ld urban dev-olopment, and tourism projects. It can be seen in the enlarged range of projects in the agricul- tural field, and tbe creation of a neH unit within that division: the rural dev-elopment unit. 6.06 Again the altered connotation of the teI'Iil IIdevelopmentll and the inclusion of social dimensions is explicit in several recent projects, al1d implicit in others. 6.07 It may, hOvrever, be argued, and it has been urged by some, that If the Bank is primarily a bank; it is concerned with lending money and seeing to it that -t,he loan is returned 1-1ith interest. II Another way of expressing this view is that the Bank should not concern itself, or investigate, the social consequences of the loans it makes; that priorities are for the borroNer to determine; that i f the borrower believes that a mining project, for instance, is more creditworthy than a livt'f.;tock project, then notl':ithstand:L"1g the Bank's o~~ view of tt~ matter, provided the mining project (in this exa.."11ple) is I! cradi t-worthy II (tbat is will prd; lee an "economic rato of re turn II ) the Bank is obliged to advance the amount tL.· Bank believes can be given. - 63 - It has also been urged that for the Bank to enter into these "social issuec;t! will result in uncoordi...."'lated and far too heavy a burden for the Bank to undertake, particularly in terms of increased personnel requirements and the quantu.l1l of time devoted to the formulation and design of projects. 6.08 A distinction must be d.r~l\m betr:cen the obligation to assess in terms of pointing to possible consequences or alternatives ~"'ld the obligation to lend. It would be true to say that the Bank cannot, Rnd should not, prescribe priorities for its borroVlers. This non-prescriptive stance, which t:t9 Articles implicitly prescribe, does not extend to the obligation to assess which projects Hould lead to greater development~·-the veF'J phase "hig,.~ developmental priority" implies an ordered priority of projects, all of v1hich may be "credit-Ho:c,thy. II This means that the Bank is in dut,y bound to investi- gate, and determine for itself at least which projects should rank higher on the list of lenQtng obligations. In actuality, this is not a novel practice for the BEtnk: tru~ CountF'J Economic Reports are an investigation into the state of the econonrJ of a country and of those sectors :J'here assistance is most required. 6.09 In large measure the literature which could be used to add the social dimension is aVailable, but untapped. Nor did it appear to us that the addition of this dimension would add to the time it now takes to process and prepare projects. The tilne frame\wrk in which we worked \-las the same as that prescribed for Bank Staff, and we found that it could be met. 6.10 There are three other aspects which lend support to the view that the Bank should systematize the inclusion of the social dimension in its project work. First, new nations are still applying for admission to the - 64 - Bank. A survey of the developmental levels of most of these nations will show that these nations are often incapable of entering the field of social change unaided; that the type of problemB that affect them differ quite radically from those of the more adv~~ced nations. It is impossible t~ assist these nations without being aware of their aspirations and potential. A know-ledge of their potential necessarily includes a study of their human , potential--the beliefs, patterns, levels of knowledge, organization. This knowledge is essential also because pl~~ng must be reallstically based • • 6.11 Secondly, the BmU~ projects have as their goal institution-building. This necessitates an aw'areness of the constraints, the impediments to directed change; and a choice among alternatives of those means llhich will have the greatest catalytic effect. 6.12 Thirdly, although the Bank recognizes the existence of the social dimension as a factor in its "problem projects", this dimension has not been categori~:ed or examined. The result of this exception is that problems are not classified in a manner that would enable identification and analysis of cause£> of problems in the Hsocial ll sphere. 6.13 This leads us to the second major question, to which a partial ans'V1er hr s been given in the previous chapter. To sum.'1larize that answer: the pre~8nt resources and practices of the Bank are inadequate to deal with the soc:i.;·..l dimension of projects on a systematic basis. 6.14 'I'here must, hO'Hever, still be a justification for an anthropologist. The type of analysis that anthropologists do--which our eX~'1lples evidence-- is not now being done in the Bank, except on an irregular and uncoordinated basis. Fu~ther, there is a necessity for a trained individual to carry out - 65 - the identification, analysis, and supervision/monitoring of these social aspects. Again, the necessity for this trained individual stems from the fact that in large measure the problern.s that arise in project3 are the result of a non-identificat.ion of the social constraints on institution building "lhich, if identified, vwuld have reduced problems, speeded up the completion of projects and improved their design. If anthropology is co~~on sense, it appears to be very uncommon. 6.15 But anthropology is not mere COllliiion sense. Anthropology sees the economic behavior of man as beL~g embedded in his social relationships, as being one aspect--albeit of an important aSI)8ct--of his interrelationships, influencing and influenced by other aspects of life, beliefs, and social organization. Evell if the Bank desires to express development in quantita- tive tenns--in terr:lLi of an lIeconomic rate ofreturnll--in its projects, which it does not in the case of education and pop~lation projects, the possibilities of attainment. of that qua.7J.titative goal are limited, or fostered, within a social group. 6.16 The second strength lies in the anthropologist's familiarity with a body of data that is consistently overlooked. For the anthropologist has at his com.'iJ.a.nd a body of data that has been built up over the years and which he is capable of translating into operational terms. This data is adequate and comprehensive for most societies~ It would be useful to base to srnne extent, social development policies on this useful resource. 6.17 The third factor i~ related to both the foregoing c01l8j.;:.'I)cd the tlrl:!:n~s fo',~' tC':~'iO~"l.">C-.'>' ~ to=~"5 [~bo"Ut tCC:~:T £:.110 ,JC':-::,:'/8 tornol':;:c·.T~ (2) lIo'iCid~'Y~; one dc-c:m It !-21C'.1 .:Ilq!l ;1<3 (:2.n t~·u~;t. (3) HCre.ly;lcss of \·;l1(';,t ot::c~.-'s G2.:)~, t~,~ t)5.~=,1};:-~ti(·:-1 :~~s 1~o!:'s("!')i~:,','~ c1.2'ld noi., LC l)cttsi~. (1:) peo})}e den It c<~:·,~ 11::at to o-L:',cT's. (:)) 1-:0Dt fOV8ril1:·C':.1t:;1 off:' havc; no intc;l'est :in tl:w n:'cblcr;s o.:.~ t.:.x: E'lch z)e:',3cn '·;C1t1 2.s1 Iln::;thcr he (2) CO;~)}ctr::ly <,::,:. ; (2) (3) ~~2S jflc~.i'fe}'ent: CL) ag : o::~ (5) COT:~~:~! dis[c.:~["~- ;'?itJ1 c~,ch ~;t~,t.(":-:-~:1t~ J'::!:l i11dj_i~fr-~ _ : . . ;:.~!t, ~"3.!:;?<;::. . . :.:, to alJ s~,ttt.Si:~('--nt[3 It·(;"t11C ci,re a tO~§:l]_ 0CO.~"e of 1.5. [:{:reGri-.eTlt 1-lith t~u ne[;D.ti"ve ctat.c:;;~·;n.ts and n J_a-l.-·ge~·.' sco:"'e, s to. t(;I;;Cn t S • SGttle~c~] had a r:~n.n score of Jo.8. rfL.'.) scale, 1'J~itl} :its inc:i.cato . . ·s~ 112.8 va:cions li;;jtClJ..,:icns Qr,c) :inDdec.!.'Jac:je~; but it ((lOS funlish s(,n!E:"! w:asu;'c; of ::l1G;de • .The 'scale h~ s l)8t~n tsstec1. b.? ot:~(~X·3 ill Colo~'~)1Ji[," <~-nd 1{D·S .fOlD1C; to be v<~lj (1 ~YlG reliable. (~ui to (:JC21" t.;,c,t scttJ(; '.S h~,vc }~_t,t.le TOfJI)-2ct for the rOVCi'{lJi::.:;nt It is or fox' pGoi)le. l.i'l~c:: Oth8~~ C<,'lt:iC:"lS r:!'t::~ ()(f',.:r:'.Ol)S. l~n c:·:t(;n~;·~on l)~:;'o~:r[;.?:1, b. credit pl'ogram, 0: a coJonization pC'eject '\-.-iJ.l haye to (lvo"'co:r:e f:·08S0 !")c:::':2.tj_-vo att,ituc'es. Th(~ f<:.nilie::s 1::10 ht~..ve r;j;:;:at.sd :to C,o;.qt'eta £ji"C 115UhJ;y su["p:lc:~c"\;.s (;;~ stranGers and de not t:"'D.St others o·,.tside their m.TI g1:-011.o. Eo',:, 60 thC~T t:!'~J.st , governr;.cnt officials. Tile unc.~e~·JJ':i!lG c~ttiV1C'0 17hich COiLf-::'vnts 2n;1 pc::: son int~~(;stcd iy} hc:'ping jml)rO'18 the SGtt~QI" 5 let :i [j that the GcttJ.e:·~s CllS1)!::ct b:i~ actions. The funr,Grs f8c] tr~o st 1'cl1::::or h2S a hiC:.dcn rccson for askinG questlcas or eEltting l'c}1po!:t and tbat this uiJ J be used prc:d... '1st tl:cn A hiGh oorreo of anomie b3.8 also been fOD.m1 in 0t,:1(";]:' <:~l'cas of Co)c.:,lbi a. Th:i s irflpl:i.cs tr1<.'t t~c settlers al'::"i vUl :i.n C:--,C}uClta Hith Co reJ.c:tiveJ.y hie:: .levt::l of anomie. All CoJ.o~.lbic.ns hG.vc idt'l(; sEled ~, c oJ J 2·()f.:e of the social st~c -t.:!:~e .::::rC 110 ,•. 1:18 cue t ,0 t" J , " 1 ' ., ,18 CJ.V::"_ v:: a.Lence . ' .y ~ c; 1 (.' ~" L::lJ.nb ...:1 J- ., .;v <.:..'1G con •v_nU}dr, t 0 t'·· . ..i ' .,,..." c. .18.i,)- ~St·.. :1lJ. y The govc;'nJ':cnt 1::2.(:0 pr'cl:--:Lscs to the C:ircct",d coJordsts but tl!os~ ,7e;:e not. C2!"~'::C(: out. only d:l.d they st':L't 1yj t:l a n(:gati-.;e attituc"c tOl:o.:::·d tbe eovc:rnr.:cnt bu'\:. j t !1<'.S been reinfo:C'ced by the CO\'C.I'l1.i;;cnt ~.n failjn[; to 1j.v8 up to its pI'ol,d 50S. The rr.(,.:'.n cizo of ~;d,t1er ho}c;incs \-1<',8 't5 hectal'E'S. Nost of the bOlJllC.:l::'i.cS betm~en fa1r,w, in both f";'~ ~'!);::;, \;cre r.:3.:d:cc'by tr<'.ils or by 'STY.cj c.J.Jy l;,:'tc'b:::Cl trees. For this reason, the farmers ~:el'e o.ble to closel;r eS.tblate the size. of their fam::; even thou['h lllHeh of each farm !Hay have still been in forc~t~ . leneth of time on the f(j1~1! \J<:lS pos.5.t:i.vely co.:'.:'o} ... tcd to the size of i'an;-: for the ::;pont 1~3 .0'3:' cent havinG a bill of sale but not a rq-;istered title. 0:11y 22 ;<~r c€;nt haa £. :cesistcreo fee sir.:pJct:Ltl0. .A biD of sale is mack to p~'otect. th8 b'-lJer. In 2, sensG, the prcvious Olmer }lho act1wlly occupied tho lane turns the possession 01.' t:lC land ove::.' to the buyer. The bill of sale reco:cos tl1is trC::Yl~fcr b:1t it is not a rcgistc:ced lq;al dgcument even t};ouSh it is reGpccted b;y the fa1"",01'3 of the region. Thc proceduro for obtaininc tit] 0 to p'i.lblic Innd is quite c1iffcront from tb:t for gettint:; title toprivatc prOpci'ty. That is, ther'e is no adverse possession o:~ pr8sci~iption OYer public dCi':ain. To obtain title, a Batt] el' on publj.c }anc:s :must follo';-; the ad:,:i::1istrati vc pl'ocec:Ul'c set forth p::':inar:U~i' jr. J a,\,; 97 of J):;cc::bc-" 30, J.9h6. 1m: 135 01.' 196J deJegatcd po,::crs of adjuciicatio::1 of pubJ5c lands to IIJCORA "7h.ieh t.hen p:artialJ.y cel'2[;at(;u this pouer to: (1) All fovernors as lonG as the area did not exceod 100 hectares. (2) 1'110 Lcrari&n Credi t ~,a!1l: v:}lich ad~iu6jcated public lcmds l:ithin the co1onh,u.tion i~:conts of Aria:ci (D l'nc""""~;+C(' .. c .... I:...v __ ~_...L l',,--" U _r"";'w .. L'_v.1 "'1:1'::'" ,",,~x-iJI'l)m C1.,,·J.GC· c " '':m;t Ca'1 b'o c"tcnc' "'0' by ~".:>• _> l;!U Jj. "'''''''r,,,,,,c ..L... . l l _ <.1..1 ........ ~: 1,.-;. INCOH.A to 1,000 tectai~N: for 1 £'.:.1 c.', situ , or to tho pab~ic offidaJ (Col'rcgic1o:» of th2 ''In.1.l~''~:->''''C-j.,, OH C(;'-'-; <'<""]' ~l :...._,'~'::.: ,' ____ .#~(.: ..L vh-i ,,1'le,'Ho>Y' 1.'." 21)')i'ODj")' til,,, 1'0'" ll'is area. .. _ ! ...:.:~",~.-....~:;_~; " i~-,- ........ 1- \.,.; .. '-"- ...., .. J.. - - ..... ...., - .. TIl() p'11))j C offj cin 1 then notifies the ~[c:rit of the Public r-:'inistr'J Hh:~,chis usua J:ty thr; 1\::~'['0:10ro LmiC'j At tho SC:UT:C tin:e, he rr.ust. post a notice of tr~C' lJ;:;ti ::':~o:l'-m'l 001' of:ricc 1'0).' 30 c:C:~:''/s: it must be pLlr:;- lished :iJl [1l1 offid,2J ;:mhJj,cat:ion of the·tr:c:1t or in an offic:inJ di2.: his rcp"'csentati vo J alonE; ,;:i th the local alcalce (trust8c) C:' an niCO?.):. rcpresentClt:tve: is in charge of t:le insl)(;ction. Once thG inspectim is cOl7'pleted, a notice is posted at tho office of the alca1ce foJ.' 10 d<"tys, curing ,'7hioh time OD2 rJ'J.;/ oppose the proposec adjud- ication by supplying l;ri ttcn p:~oof contesting it. ~'he petitim is then subr:J:i,tted to mco;:-'f, or to the other des::;plate:d 11'eo' "n'h. "l'411 fa~'" of cO 'n'"'ct"'re'" 0" 1e"'- a1tho'Uf'I'l thc to"'''' J~"" .. __ "'. ~ ,", V. "~J v ... ·· \oJ;:", _,,, "'.. .4.,,1."';G vt;..l_, ,-"1,. :; .. .....,l .... _ .~ holding of a f2.ffiiJy is often mo: e. The comr;;ission h2.s h.:mdled up to four l'c:.qUC::;ts in the n~:;e of a ftJ...--:1ily. Ther'c is cyidcnce t:lat f2J"'d.1ics '\;ith lnl'Gc, f~!,,:s c;.;:v us:l.ng this mothod of applyinc, fo:, adjucicatio:1 of are<:lS of 50 ha. 0:[' less [it a U:'.C to eyade <:!!1y [;i:' e r ...·str·j ctions set forth by the Gove~l1;;:cnt. Even though many assert that cm"pesino~ (pcas.:;:.nts) arc not interested in getting title to 1':U1d, the study djC:: not suppo;:·t thio YiN;. The carnpccinoG 'ileT'e interested in t~c adjudication of lLmd but r!ere unfamiliar "lith the p;·ocedures. - 13 - C!:;tt~·"n.ir~[: .t.:.L ';1..-.:. tiC. f~'c,.: 8:1(; \.,0 1:i:O ':; p0l' ncctD1'8. 1T~;C:ll t):c ~>_~'~-L~;(',,:'::'; ;;:) .CO P,-' ~;cek .fOj: food) ti tJ:inc; Ie.TI'::: ::)~ca: c;; So;-::c LC L:!.Cli n~-:-n b:{ 1~ JCO ~-~)~ ~ 11 ~j t:L tl~! insGcur'i ty bat 1:.!:r·C'..1Jy }~ th:L11 r):-'o~jcct In the c~-~se o.f ,),:,1:f) colon:i7.8_tion projects t\:e qUE~ s t,icxt1 r~:-i.E', <- 2.:':'c::~ c;~,:·r l;ere not [;.~':2re of the ~;e·;.··\:"j_cc L:n::!1:=-: p:~o\r:L(; t,~~ ~~2·;,C'.;;:~J. fC):-.' secu -Li t~~cs ;-~t D. relEti\reJ:r :lo~': COGt. Tllis j~~~~)}jcs L11C T!.c;ccJ .fo~C' rl,or'c (J=Lss(;n:.ill.at~i"C)11 of info~J:~'0:..1n6 ~li t:l .., c:tick 2.nc~ the scconci C0r::UG bC:1inc: p:u;cinS a fm: into t:'1C bole "oy trnd. Fe t:,cn f:ilJs tL:; hoJc l:ith oi-;:·t usjnc; his bnre fcot. Rice pJ .o.n ted in n c :Lc.o.rcd <::.ro&:; is 1.wua1Jy not Hc(;dcd. If t:18 } and h.:-.8 been pl~~.!lJj_·~~_ to cr:'p!J C:1S~_Y; one or ·t,~·:o ;. rrl'.::;t be r;,:xlo. The harvest bc[;in~~ ar'cf.u1( tl-l'. ~ le Oj~ t..!l11)B. 11. secon(~_ c"O? Til:i.Z:!:Tc be planted in a lot. ~'n.e otheY' OI'CPS, hO';:<::VCl', &J:'8 oltten. t,e(~ tOGether in ,,' field that h0.3 previcJ.sly been :in l'jee. It is COf,1;.:on fo::' fan;::;r:::; to go into par'-;"nel'ship l·!nere the Oviller .pl'(!pares the li.nel .?r.d the dc>-:::d. The :r DU,::::; ~.nc ha::-'vest::::; th13 Cl'Op. Eac?1 then td:es half CJ~ the .field. After the ricl) is hm','cs (,cd the ] F-nd r,1:::'Y be falJO~'T8d-- brush is al] 0'.:<';0 to gro:: f&~ Jo:;inC' p2~'io( &nQ )3 ~' eu L l'Clore pJ.:;.nbng the J<:"1JC to ot];,::!, Cl'Ol)s. 'll1C crops follmdnc the m'O u!'3ualJy intc!' pl1.lDted and El:'o::n on the: r;r,c;~(' pJo:, fur enJ)' 2. cr)~:p:':c. of yec~'s sinco U~r; yieJcs d:~o~ J:r 1.;lte:' the fil':.;t bio yC;~i'S. The hnG :i.s t~Cl1 ~ceci int0 }")2StUt'C. lu;:--ing this ti;;:e : ne1-.' l&!;rl is bejn c cleared to rep]: cc tho .. ~oYn out ~oDs p12nted to crops. J,O ODC hDS -:t <~bai.lt -:-::::,';" 't.3.JJ ._ 1":1'::>.:' is no r.;Cl·8 fc.::csi.. 2c:.no to 1..1[;0 f01' cr0P:?::ing. l·n~cn th::t foo<.: p:'ouu:::ts will have to be ir.;portcc! f:co;;: cl!'C'::::"~ C}' nc.: P~';":'c'v:_C(;S ~;'Jch CJC lc!·tiJ:i z:.ill~~ Hill neve to be c::-lp]o:.red to :imp!'ove the yie2.ds on the o]c\;;r les. Co:m if:; the secc;nci Ir:C)St tcnt ce.:::'eaJ crop, and is usually intc~- planted Hith the rice after the 'lnttcr has geYT.1:D;:ltcd. It is hnrvested after the :rice, usu;:.) J,v in J\ucust. A s."cond c ~op of C(lrn is SOf.12tiJllcS smm lli th the sec one crop of rice. . -- .- - 14 - '11::: ('tllc~' c C:l t~c f::r'l'l [;"f' pl~lntc,C.t:l.~C'uCho:lt U~C year dopcncjo; upon th . .' '.:~;t1 ., ~mcl tL·;~ IDLor fO!'ce av(]:LJebJE'. SlJE'v i ,.:::.:..:...~c::... i.;;Vi,<"·o- .11 .~_, '""""'. Cone c.:m be " __ ,.c.~_ ell t [~l)Clu. t "l:(:)1 th8 £.f t01' p = ;:l11 t:ll1L; • PJ 0.11tuin ;3.11d ~l:tlrlioc ( ar'c j:'""1tc:"'pJ.£!.!1tcd o~i1cr crops ~ny t.:1r:n 0.1 t:1C p 'o-,licl:iJlg i t i~i COlle at th.G pc;-·~:-j ..t.s, C0::Tcct tin; r..~,nnlint(; (ttc P2l'': hct·~·:ccn f'i.lll TilOon cnc the nCH DOC!!). 1'}:~ f;:;~,:::e-"s b0 8"'c--~::is-j_0 the LCSt. tj,1~,Q to p1[.11t t!1CSe c:. . c~)!]. 111e pJant:::.i!1 nccc:s to be ycecied cveI'y six n:ontbs ~nd often PT'oc.uce foo' 10 to 15 ~PJ~~!l t~"in is SjI:li 122" :i.n alJ}..,e.sh i.s nceccd for [!. speci0.J rnt~"\c;l~se o,:c for CO} j tC;~8 J.ike s21 t, m,2c::etes; etc." D. !1m[~JJ. t:in 01' 01.; i8r' crop is sold at the nark(;t. It l:o'Jlc: t:3 difficult to measu,'8 tte a.i:.ol.mt of ],md allocated to each Crol) ::;jnc.::; t :;8 <1 gr8c.t d8aJ of tien <.:nc rr:ost of t!'H) cropG are inter- pl.e.nted IT.<::l:inc qUflnUtative c:.n2.1ysis virtua1J.y irn~)ossible. Livestock Tho oi·:-n8~·sh:i.p of cEttle is ccn G:i 6ercd very impc:ct:.'(!t by most Co] o;;:bi ." C::-€'Cr);;. Gra:in j~; to tho ol(cr anjrrals vhen av~i]2blc. 'rite Jnr[(~~' c:?1:~;-->~-';j [;r(~ (~ftCTl ~' :Id on U:c J oc<:iJ nc:. tCl :P2'OVj ce c2sh .for- ~~C.4"Ve 8S Cl .f01'1n of SiWj :1S'8 fo::' the ~;ettlers. lTl[; liv·cDtock. or; in E~C'-lTle cClses, 1;:!1d. Jnstj t,yC,c' ::<:'0:1 o:"!:' 1 do :~t-;:3tr~.:i cntc>s (E:J..): . '\-.'28 osto.blisnco as a price c(lntrQj-':16;;-11~ro::- 2no sells Grains to ccnt::.'oJ. 80<:20nal c:'j(j otr,E:'~' p~'·:;.cc f1·:r:.t~1;'lt:iC"13. f,s shm:n b;'T the; stucly~ only a j'Ci'; of t~e fc:;:t'J;:cl'S sold di:rectJ;,r to Il;L 'file hj7jn;~ p:rice fer ~'ice at INA .:28 &'ppl'o::.:.imatcly 1]0 to 115 pesos POY' 250 Jes. hut tl:c i';u11:cr S~]J liDS: on the cpcm r:;;~r}~et. received L'om eO to 90 pesos ;-:'8~' 150 11.;:;. '~v(on l:jt:l t,lj8 d:iffcl'C~;CC jn pl'jre veT)' fei-! f811-:':21'S sold directJy to 1;U,.. Tho::; f,,2j:n Y'eDSC'n cjven F2.S that it. D(,out, a n:onth to r·ccC':ivc.' t;.(.~ r:(!:1~':;: L'c-:-c: 1:~L .::-.:; onc VeL cC'.sh };1"311 sel::'.in[ en the m<::l'l:ct. It js }jh;J:r thLt tY':'!1f:.port;;t:ion CC)sts up s~ne of the price dii'fe1'(;!'1ce alt.!iu'..'Ch not ",J.]. It F.p;)r·ofl}·S th:1t rt,~(~ciJ.cmcn have deveJopeo l:ho buy from t.he fDr,:c~' ~,t. £.. 10:: }L':i ce :1 t ,~_. ~:tT {'C(l?1i':":lC (:l1C' in C ':0: -tj~"r.~:::.t,j .. 1 C.;~,-"r:) cC I,=[:!:,,~~'l:> l'~C2 <~r;d CCl'n. 1.1:Y- 11C~'; C:;:--C~) r·'·. .:_~~~.:, be risl: 2~~ 'r.?(: l;ci'c} C"~ t tlY it· fcc f it v'-:;~'C to fed 1 he I:Ol']C 1 .,(, l""'{'·.:;r.:CY' j :'1::'iC: l1'::·", hjn C· on}y E~:-~·icr;]-I:,~_:l-'-. J :Lr:fr:~.-:·-,t.·~.~~ C1l fo~'" 5rt C[:q~i.ct? t};c ~-.ic~~e t.:"1Cj'f; ot~;s~,~ 1~[":!7;;C::'5 Unf'ort.ur:2"'l tr:c'(, 1":, '10; 1'",,\;. j" hi p:·c!'o,··t:i('·n) 7£; po!' cent, of t},c; :JpOjlt'D.}l(>();~··s [,CttJCl ~.; }';;:.c.~ no SOl;.:tCe fc:~ J e£: '~fn:1}~G [)l)oD.t r:.e'.-.~ c.g?--:tCi..tJ"'",i.1J't:_l P:-"'2.. c"t,:Lc-es. The radj ~1 l.':-~f; t~~e r".:-=:i_Tl rou~_"cc, l7i tb J I! fJC':.'· CC'lllt O~~ t};e se:ttl(,Y'f1 it.. 'lIne: l:i]:~it(':c [~c('ss to ['~~"!'5_~~·n~:tr_r2J i11fo:j':r[~tj_C!1 t\OU~""G(:[) 1':;:f; DJ:-;O rcfJectc:::l i11 the 10',·; fCc·n-L.~~ Cl of m::~.' r:~ct:l C':;8. of selected j tC71S :':11 o:-(c:' VE]ue 1:1.0': in Goe:, C)~l)Cl·j \::'!.:':',E :in ·ciE:c:i.Cl1.:! t'l~l~-'C..., tl:'9 :_'~lcc;t~!..O:·l of" .1~.hc l~[~:"";.-.t) f~~.Le G_~ the: f<._~:~~.J:>r, fC}?r;: [.'cre2fc, ~I;.b1t.ic'r;'J Dnr] [OO( !-::- ..-_~ ;'·c-.;-:cnt. l::t"crr f2.7TI:(~1· l~2.S ;:; sl:C:G to C\t2Juatc t:-;.e jr,pc>Y't.::.~.<:€ of the t.:x~,:; jn e~:')J c~,:2 r,:' l,:i s f;:)~. 'I'l:C nor f.c:tt.:io. f'r:(-'}s th;-",. l.oJicf' jn G~;~: is t'rr. west iT'i'JucntiCtl f2C7,C~' on his fc:.;~T.1 opere-.tjon .. that he-Lv:;n! pH.:vi01.'S CX1.lerj.encG; a 1d2.'€,;e fD2Jily, c.r.c. <:.:. goc~d loc{;.t:ic~ h~~".rc ~~ ~~( ':!C:~'.Yh~:t.. JC::.:::3e~~ 5r~:l)nJ."·~:<'JleC~, [~~:d t.h.<~t 2..Cre:D[,6 ~n.":: hi~~h ambitions have htt.:lc ';n:'JnC;lce on .:Cal1rj.nr jn Cc:qucta. 'I'he ColorrJ)iC:.n f2.rr.e~' is often 6cc~r·j.Lc·d (::s "rc:.~.~:.Jjfj"!.,ic. C~.. l·~ rr~ust !cJ~,r on IJ01Jcrs Cd..1.t.!:"'::_c:e b:is cc,:-;tro1-- cxtrer.~c (''::·f(;:;.~. 0:1 h:;s F :,t i·;ijJ hc_V8 no :.<:.:.bJe cff,,!ct oa his cconon:i.c il~11)1~O\"cr,c~1t [;rl(~ b8tte : "l:,('11t. ----- Cc:-:cl:':=~(,:-:3 (J) Th.c [OVL1T:.J7iC'r:t.~·] p~;sistcnce prc!£2'<:r, .fo~' cc,}on:Lsts in Cc'q1..~etD. hc:s not. becn cffcct.·ivc. (2) Land \:<" Sn('·t, t:x~ 7't;'a1 Brait-j.nr; fC'.ctc.r ol' proc:uction, Alr"iost (lJ 1 tJ'Je ceLt ~~-:.:; :l": C:.C2-,::C'~·.:·: heel [;Ufl'jc:~r~lt J~".l:C~ yet t::c~ j' Jc~.rel of Ji"\.jnr:~ ".~25 stiJJ vc"Y 1c~.'. EcccivinG Ti,Ol'0 lane r;:-7 be D. n(CN;~;2.2"Y CO!lC:] 50n fo:' J .. m:q::r L' :7:',(:,'[; j.!. 1 ctin i:..;:o;'ica cut it !l()t. 2. sufficient con6j tion fo,:, )rlC':"!,<'.::~-:_ -~!.(; ::1J(;(:~: ':: JC\'(:};: uf i...:.c i':.' ... ~ :;j(;~.. }f a f2~'~:: t:2.1i1. to p.·C(:1.~cr.: 01' <.,cc:c!,t::1bJe Jevcl of jncC",:o: even UllGer e·~;v.:r:C'c6 ]cyeJ.s of 1...(:(:1 '1{):'c~ . ~.r! '!.!1Cil ':\}C<:CLflj:; (-.:i_OIt or r(~(~~~t:jLltt.~Cl1 of t!1C ]~11#~ j S R :1CCC~SD;:;· COIJ.i::;"iun. Gi v:i nz ) c!lt; l:iJ 1 not by :i. kcl.r, GU;('n to t,;:c i'[,)r~('!' 2JC'll[ 1::' t:: il~C' C ;\J:;; t to fr:.2.1.'Je h:ir.l to incJ'cDsc the proc.u:::tivity of his labor <:nci l::mc;. It :\S k;:'c t.he:,!:' the J:e:::.1 n20cl lice. - 18 - vIe have quoted somewhat extensively here with the object of showing that the literature often has a rich vein of' insights which are relevant. TItis data is not im~ressionistic and includes attitude and opinion surveys eiving a r8J'lge of ii"nportant attit.ud.es and beliefs YJhich have a beari.'1g on the outcome of the venture. The data is capable of replication. Tho data shaHs that this project could meet a real need in rural Colombia. Our role is n01'l designed to shm. hOi.)' the project might have been improved. In accordance with our specification of types the first point of int.erest is the settler himself: he has little reason to trust authority; he has a fatalistic attitude; his performance is related to his educational level; the majority of tho people in his category are illiterate; his first concern is to feed his family. He ,"Iill therefore resist the adoption of new techniques unless the foregoing extension campaign has been of an intensive and imaginative order. There is no reason to doubt the comprehensive and the competence of INCORA extension work. The settler has little security of tenure unless he stays for five years and follmfs all INCORA directions which, incidentally, appear to fall below standards agreed on at the 1951 World Conference on Tenure. Farming operations are of a family nature and this seems to be t.he largest unit of association. But 'tIe have no real indication of the method of succession to the neH lands lihcn the original titleholder dies. Nor have we any idea of what Idncis of pressure there may be for fragmentation and how such pressures will be dealt with. These are issues Hhere \-1e iiould have asked for additional clarification. This is an importan< observation not only in relation to tenur(' but also because of the tendency of shifting cultivators to keep moving or remigrate. It might have been usefQl to have these tenure arrangements clarified. Sedentary agriculture is more labor-intensive than shifting culti- vation. Therefore from the peasant I s point of vie1-1 we must assess the strength of the forces that would tend to keep him in place. We would tend to conclude that the measures envisaged are geare"i to\iard the bettor educated and the more afflUent. With l~spect to the 1atte;. group, the project calcu- lations are probably entirely accurate. TIle settlers have, in view of their past, a high degree of nor.mless- ness or anomie. One area lyhich we feel would have been of importance in stabilizL~g the population is concerned with comm~~ity organization. \Vbat kinds of association coulrt .have been created to focalize local attitudes and opinions and also to serv~,; as an important channel of communication i"li th official agencies? If the self-help measures in education and health are to be successful then th8 creation of such organizational infrastructures is very important. One of the key problems in any resettlement progra.'11, vlhere colonists come from diverse backgrounds, is the r;.·ed to cl~ate and foster a sense of community. We would have re c01l1'11ended that attention be paid to this aspect. - 19 - This project nill hCllp those that are in a sense really able to help thcrl1selves. If this trend to be corrected, and a spread effect achieved, then extension methods must be geared tOHard the educational level, fatalism, and SUbsistence needs of the majority of people living in this area. Some of the data on which such programs might be based has already been given and many bottlenecks have been identified. Hhat ,. .ill this project contribute tOl-lard the solution or realization of social goals? Tne contribution may not be as significant as the B~~ would vlish. Add to this the uncertai.n title to land and the need to obey an extension agency whose personnel are not respected. vlhat may well happan is that some of the settlers Vlill clear land and then move on because shifting cultivation appears to have more to reco~~nd it than sedentary agriculture. In the second stage wealthy ranchers will acquire cheap cleared land that has already been made suitable for grazing. In fact some large tracts of land have already been acquired by ranchers near Florencia i.e. this manner. Land title measures might have been relaxed on occupied land and tightened on vacant land to avoid i'u.:cther expansion. Tied to this would be extension progr~~s and the credit and infrastructural improvements envisaged in the project. The most crucial and pressing problem of the project is the need to ensure that tho historic pattern of inequitable land use in Colombia does not reassert itself. nlat could only be guarded against by more intensive examination to tenure, land use, and extension habits. What is importa."lt - 20 - about this project is the fact that it may be successful in terms of the cri teria used in the project cycle but Tiny not be so Guccessful in torms of the requirements of the broader social situation. vIe carno across this project v1hon it was at the supervision st::q;e. Our analysis vlith re8pect to the project calculations '!,-Jas not entirely agreed with by the agricult1.1re projects department B...'1d 'He have learned a good deal from their criticisms. But our queries with respect to the relationship bet'l-leen the project and the wider social situation was no'(' strongly cont-ested. Education The 1(;\'131 of education for the heads of households loms quite 1011. The mean of the number of years of school attended lias 2.2 years. Population Illiteracy Rates by A~e.~.ups and Sex A~e Group Male Female T%) (%) 10 - 19 62 44 20 - 29 47 50 30 - 39 56 57 40 - 49 48 40 50 and up 51 65 Economi.c and Social H~ll Beil'!,g Each family was aked to compare his present home to that in which he had liver previously. The results were: Worse Better (%) (%) - 30 29 A number of i terns were selected and listed in the questionnaire to give an indication of the relative wealth of the family. The items listRd included most of the material possessions found in the area with the e·xceptj on of hand tools and essential household items. - 21 - The extension agency--INCORA--does not have a good record in the op~lon of settlers and so it would appear that much of the success for this enterprise must be attributed to the settlers themselves. But the s00ial characteristics of t.hese successful settlers, the target group of this project, are not those of the mass of distressed people in this area. This brings in the second p::lint of concern: the likelihood of significant spread effects. If the most successful have been helped, i.e. those ' Viho are tV'orthy of help because they have demonstrated superior performance then what measures are built into the scheme to ensure that those who were not able to do that will, in the long r1L'1., be able to catch up? Those Hho were able have been helped. But how are the other to qualify? Planning is mostly on the credit Side, little is said about extension work. (See the Appraisal P~port appendices on staff for credit vs. extension). \'le feel that this is a cr. . lcial element even though it may not appear so in view of the stated project goals. - 22 - References Glynn Cochrane 1970 liThe Adlunistration of Hagina Eesettlement Scheme," Human Orgonization, Winter. R.. H. Di.x 1967 Color~b:i_a: The Pohtical Dimensions ·cf Chan[c Ernest A. Duff 1964 "Agrarian Reform In Colombia: Coloni~,at.ion or ParcelJjzation, II Inter-Lmedcan F,conom~_c Lffairs, Vol. 18(3) Hinter. Parsons, Pe~~, and Raup, 1951 land Tenure: Proceec:tnr;s of the InternationaJ Conference on land Tenure and Hela:'ed ProbJeTcs -inJ,r:TictlJturc HeJcl at l·Iadisoy!', 1lISC-b"D'Bin. Ronald L. Tinnenneier Neu land Settlement in the EE' ~:tem 10l-ilancs of Colombio.. Ph.D Thesis {microfiJm) " Aim Arbor, E2chigan. - 23 - B. ... ....... Types. Introduction of Net'l or ImDrovement of old Crol) _.:...t _ _ __________ ....... ...:: _ _ _ _ _._,.,... ~...,."''' ,~ Frequently schemes to introduce new types of crops psy insu.fficien'~ attention to preexisting fonns of social organization. The cultivation of certain types of crops entails a cycle of activities which have social and, possibly, ritual significance. Change may affect the 'Hhole division of labor, the utilization pattern of land and labor, the 1:lOrk patterns. Consequently patterns of leadership and the distribution of resources may be affected. A first step is to examine the incentives from the individUals and then from the associations I points of viei1. Are changes in the design of the project called for? Shifts in terms of the distribution of potier, wealth and status and their effects on the group can be assessed. Do these suggest long term structural realignrnents within the group? Are credit arrangements satisfactory? vJha.t will the consequences of the new income generation be in terms of increased P1.lrchasing power, increased leisure time? Will migration to cities be affected? Will crop specialization have any marked effect on nutrition and reproductive behavior? What is the relatioD3hip betvJeen this project and the "iid~r society? Is the project special to this region or this group of people? Are the results capable of emulation and are the recessary measures an explicit part of the project desi,gn? What kinds of evidence are there that suggest that the project will be enthusiastically supported? vfuat is the attitude of local leaders and opinion makers? What decisions are called,for on the part of participants. Can the positive and negative features of these decisions be elucidated? - 24 - Given a basic concern with sUbsistence needs doss the project alter the basic confidence of the participant to be able to provide for his family? If there is a reason to suspect that success depends largely on the quality of goverr.ment or some other authorities I intervention, then what is the local opinion about and confidence in such types of intervention? vlhat contribution does this project make tov.rard the solution of pressing social problems in that society? Are the benefits likely to be absorbed by increased reproduction, a demand for new services, new political tensions stemming from the resentment of those 1'lho have not benefited from the project? What are the implications of the improvements for employment. "V.1'h.at are the social consequences of the appropriate technology? h'hat are the organizational requirements for obtaining the appropriate inputs when needed? - 25 - Project SUilL'lHlry a.nd. :oeser:i pHon Rate of Descri,Etlon Total IBHD IDA Return COl'TI.:ent Sierra leone Integrated Agri- $5.6 Project is first cultural development of proer[:Ll to rC'.:"'se project ircluding income, Ii vine st<::r. estabHs[;ncnt of project about 2,500 81,,<:.11- management unit; p1antine holder fa.!'ln f8T":"2.i e. 510 acres in oil palm, conprising sor;,e 13, ( constructing pal]) oil mill,; people ~~d ecnfo~.s smallholders credit to Government policy 0: bring 6,000 acres into rice increasing exports production, p1,mt 750 acres of cocoa, crops and expandir.g plant 1,830 acres of oil p2,JJn; smallholder crop?:'::~ fa1:',er training; agdcn1 tura1 Project liil1 incl'eE ~ studies,; estabHsh..i:cnt of rural employr::G! -::. c.::.c Agricultural Development is inj tia.1 step l.,."1 Authority. diversification of econonw· Appr,dsal of Integrated Agr:i cuI tural D9ve1cpr:1c,nt Project ~a leor.e (PA-104b z P-I096) (Cr;EDIT 323) As we do not have enough information to undertake a type analysis "Ii th respect to the three categories, we concentrate on issues that could have been sent to a consultcnt for further analysis and clarificcttion. An intel~stine feature of this project is n quite blunt reference to the fact that prev10us attempts to carry out lart;e scale agricultural develop:tent have failed inter c::.lia because of' IlpoliticD.l intel'.ference. 1I But beyond this reference "rie-a.re-not told exactly ..That the nature of' this interference iTas and so 'He nre not able to see hOV7 the present scherr.e lTill guard .ins three major groups, the tuslim Temnes of the north, the Mende of the south, and the Creole population of the rlest. It is the position of the first tHO Groups that is ir:1portant for tr:is project. The north is dry cmd has had relatively D.ttle aEricultural c1c:ydcp7Jent. The south is tropical and has received a greater amount of agricu1tul'al a.s~·;:i.stC'nce in U:e past. Political developments and tensions have foDm-led th~:;e dhrisions. But Sierra Leone po Ii tical develop:nents have, as rle stdEd, been uniqu~ L'1 the sense that the neH ~li tes have not been entirely neVl ~:dnccnc<,.::-J:' all l"".cc'ct'n polit.ical leaders in Sierra leone have been fran tr:c sot:the:rn .:.;'!;toCI'(!cy bc:'ng as they were relatcd to par'~'T!ount chiefs. In viCH of thi::: h:istc:-,;: the st:-<::.teCY of the project may be unfort~~ate and could be seen by some as a rcinforcGr.ent of the traGi tionn1 posi ti on. - 26 - Althou€h there has been, in the 1:01'08 of the project, IIno (ngricultu::,al) research Hork of jmportcmce ll in the north, thj s pro~ect cnters in the fi~'::;t instance to the south. And in terns of extenoicn the south '1dll Get the c:::pa- triate staffed scheme l-ihile the north 'l'nll later receive the people r:ho hs.vc been tra:in8d. Hmr this proposf:d extension In]} be vim,cd in the nortl: lie do not MOl{ but it 1·:ouJ.d be useful to have some asseDsr.:ent of this situaticn. There is reason to doubt that the pres8nt proposals Hill be free from political interfeY'cnce. The Sierrc. leone people, in particular the rlO:-::cn, are natural traders, and yet they are largely excluded from such a function by tihat 'Hill be a monopoJy. The project is ciesigned in such a \ley thnt it must surely faci1itate political interference because it is likely that only pmwrful and wealtby people lrill p<'-rticipate in the administration and in later marketing functions. The activ.i. ties are so an'anced that such entre- preneurial arral'lgements as there are may be taken'up by li'ealtlTJ traders. It llOulc1. have been useful to see the full case for this monopo1y. Govemr:!0n tIs desire to get its money back is one thing, but the freezjng of private enterprise for the marketing of the project enterprise is quite [nother natter for 1.hich a. very strong case should be made since it does not perInit the fullest eX;"ession of local entr.eprcneur-lal talent • . 'Sierra leone has had m~~y expatriate-led schemes in the past and they have obviOl:'f~ly not sparked a great deal of indieenous agricultural development. Therefore if one "I'nshes to be a-vlk\-;ard one :must ask \"here the concrete evidence is that this project has elements i'ihich Hill produce a different long-tern resuJ.t? ..:here is the evidence to 5hm: that pl'cviOllsly unsuccessful and umlOrkable marketine arr[;';''1gerrents can nOH be cmsidercd a viable long term proposition? He suggest, in later parc:graphs, that these may be cultural1y inappropriate arrange~ents. Ther", are other assumptions which may not be sufficj.entJy tested or explored. The project is to prevent migrat..i.on fro"n rural areas to t01-JT'!S and it is assumed that these project developments ney act as a counterbal~~ce. Jlad the causes of mieration been more fully identified it mieht have been easier to assess this project hope. In this respect it is useful t.o list some of the factors that have been thou.ght responsible for increased urban drift in Hest Africa. These are: increased populc:.tion rrithout corl'eBpcnding ipcre(;l,scs in food production; diversificnticn of the econ071Y 1-Thich can mean that labor, entcJ.'prise and sldll are marketable in their o.:n riCht c:nJ"'Hhere in the country; a desire to have cash for b:d.Q(:price or to bu:( mate:rial thinr.3; to obtain access to education or govcrnJr:cTlt offices; to visit the tOlm as a..11 essential part of one's experience !.!inee it is the center of Itcivilizationll; to be free of punish.";J,cnts, fines, taxes, and \-rhat rural people ccnsider to be the exploi tation by ebicfs. These mir:r<,tor'j' pattenlS r;',ay be seasonal. or permc=:ncnt. An I:intcgl'atedl! pro- ject could have assessed the strenr,th of these variables. In this . . lay the goal of arrestini urban drift r.1if,ht have teen more effectively addressed. - 27 - In the absence of information on the current political ~ituation in the project areo. in terms of an as:::;c:::;s;;;ent. about the nature of the 1'13lat:Lcns!:ip bet\~een chiefs and folJO'"<181'5, and tne educational situation, \·:e are left.. 11i th tHO objectives: to say sOli:etr.ing ",bout the need to increase the circulatio:1 .of money in the project area; secondly, to sny 1,:hy and how the project miC:lt ensure the rr.col1in~ful participation of as l~ide a number of people as possible. rrny cannot people procuce and sell vr.1. thout the intervention of go-;cmr..ent? '\-]hat the project's marlceting C1rl'2.."'1ger!cnts overlook is a need to have the fanner h"mdle his mm noney, PC):' his Or;n viay, a.Yld even do a little better than the raolll next door. If all farmers pay their loa.ns in kind and all reed va the came price for their proJuce i'lhich is, 'Ke are 'told, 101wr th2n the markct price (in the case of cocoa) then incc'ntive is dampened ~nd a tendency may dc{elop to trude illegalJy. Enforcement could be expensive. frut is tr~s realJy necessary since produce is for local consQ'1)lption? liny not permit it as a matter of individual choice for famers for 10211 repayment or JYi.ilJinc; or processing charges to be "tendered in Idnd or cash?I' This project reaDy has no specific r01e for Homen. In Hest Africa 'FlOmen have displayed considerable org211izational abilj.ty and it would be a pity not to recognize this in a project of t.b.is natu:re. If there is more circulation ofmoney--and this ought to be an objective-- thsn one can be sure that l,cmen 'id.ll plC1.y a signi£': 'nt role. It might also hcwe been possibJe to ex.plore the role t.hat Horr.en COUld pl&y in other nec.pss[,.:ry ldnds of development that r~ust take place if the stead;;,- urban drift of the most able is to be halted or stcrr..mcd. They, that is the lIor,ion, he.ve been kno~m to run J I'd thout gOVClTlmen t heJp, their om) schools and health clinics. It may be thought that such things are outsid.e the scope of the project but they are not outside the scope of the project's stated goals. This project neglects the social irnportance of Hhat has been called IIpenny capi tali sm. II 1m s can be seen in Hes t ,African tmms 'Yr.1. th their myr.i c.d traders; it needs t.o have the chc:rlce for expression :in a project like this. There may be mistQkcs but legal re7;('clies are at hand mel these people are, it must be re;n€.nbercd> IIpenny capit.alistsll and therefore should not, perhe.pc, have a scheme llhich HouJd be more apprc?riate for IIpenny social; sm.!! Jmd such a free enterprise systo::J. is no-::' on}y in tune 1:-1 th their cultural past, but it ic also a good 1·W.Y of n.:;.kjn~ cure that chiefs and other poi-ierful fil3ures cannot put thei:r hwd in the till. It ensures local cont.rol .::nd local initiative,; it l:ouJd also cut do....-n on t.he heavy 2,dministrative costs of government oT'[;wizations that fOl; peopJe really seen to i'iant or to appreciate. These proposed project CllTcllzcr.:ents have a poor cultural IIfit" and they open the door to political interference. There is a Hay to ensure rr.ore id.ciespread participation.. 1'he1'_e OUGht to be rno!'e legal provision 2nd offjcial encC:.lragcl7:ent for the crr:ergenc) of volunt~~:ry associations C:urin;::: V;:::d(L~S phases of ·the project. Such kinds of association are cor.rmon to the area and 4'-1'0 r:u2 tiP:'l:l'O!3e i..'1 fw.ction. Such o:'u.nizations have been. kn01·:n to make lows, to !'(;lccive repa;Y1l1ent in kind, to r~arket, 2nd to perfonn a whc:!.e host of i'ur.ctions s:iy..ilal' to thoEC envisaged hc~e for official enti ties. Such nssociations rmuld be qci te capable of opera tine mills and marketing 0 ·This 'Hould certainly provic.c an organizaticnal b~s0 that \-IOuld - 28 ~ be replicable eIsel/here. There is perhaps too much emphasis on efficie::t project manaccmen t and insufficient attention to ] ess expensive and tr.:!ci tic!12.1 seli'-help methods. Good a~ricultur2.1 extension Hork will be necess2ry, of ccurse, c:;t irit.h respect to the tr;:dninc; eJc.;-:,snt it miEht be ad'risable to enSUl'e th<:t sC::-.e of the govcrnn:ent l G pro~3ct tndnees are from regions Hhore the scheme is to be reduplicated. 'iiley ought not all be lffiership and thus is not at the discretio,1 of the traditional authority but at the sole discretion of the individual 1-1ho pl':"'1ted the trees. \-lith respect to the trans.'Ilission of cultivationa1 riGhts these are rights granted the individual OUCtr..dj.u si b€ne gessel'int. Thc;-{ are not gro.nted to the individual and tffi natui'al heirs his body_ The individual does not have an alienable interest at death a...'1a so passes nothing to his heirs. l!js chiJdren are not his heirs but the heirs of the juridic.::;1}y rccq;niscd ]j.neac;e. Therefore it might be 'YTise to extend credit to the lineaEe and to r..d:e clear that the members of the lineage be jointly and sevcralJy li&ble for repayment. It is very importc:r. t to have the tenure systcm c1early undt;rstocd before substantial invE'stIuent ~b::::: place. [;ueh -syste.llS C2n change very rapidly under the impact of c2sh croppinG end one !"It.-cds to be able to estirr.ate the cbmges and so the degree of dc·nf;er in the r.:e<.:!:;:.;~'es proposed. ~Iedo not have sufficient data to make S'.lch .:l preCi:':i.::on nOil" This 'rIiI1 be even TtlOre in;porta.'1t rlhen it comes to consider2.tion of f0l"(:Jt l;::nds, a developrr.ent l7lcntioned ill passing in the reI)Ort. - 29 ~ If thest:, COi1'Jr.ents appear somewhat inconclusive it is because insuf- ficient dab exist to enable a more positive approach. Erima facie, as l·;e remarked at the o'J.tset, this is an instz.:"'1ce v:hich Hould have .:a::.Tanted appoint-ment of a consultant Ilho could have been briefed on the basis of the foregoing analYsis. References J .R. Carh·;rrieht, Politics in Sierra leone 1947-57, Torontc University Press, 1970. GlJ'1U1 Cochrane, "Individual and Group 1a..11d Tenure 5'ystemsrl ,Ar.lerican Anthro- Eologist, October, 1972 F .. H. HaYVTard, "Sol'ile Generalisations About Progressive Political Organization" NSS,. S-,rracuse University Iibrar.r. 11. Kilson, ;;;"""";';:';;'-r.r- Chanf'8 in a He st ~.----- Poli. t.ic?l ~ African Sta to" Harvard Uni versi ty Press, 19bO. K.L. Lttle, ,';rest Afric:.?~'1 Urbanisation. Cambridge University Press, 1965 • ..!h£..!is:.nde of S5_er1'a leone. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 19510 O.K. Meek, lend La:... and Custo:Tl in the Colonies. Oxford University Press, 1949. N. Okoro, The Custonary h'lHS of Succession. SIre tha'1 their laborers. It is not sufficiently realized that pigs and cattle are luxury items. It is extrer:;ely unlikely that ordinary l~elanesia..l1s ,-muld have the mone~ or the inclination to purchase meat on a regular basis. There is little data on urban wage levels but if it Here obtai."1.cd and then compared against selling prices, one can see that only a fe}] people--r.1ainly expat.riates--could afford to purchase. A pound of meat \dll probably cost mGre than a man viiIl earn in a day (see the meat prices vs. the Hage for f"U:'111 laborers). ~'lould it be politically or sociaIJy acceptable to support ~his state of affairs lihen more equitable investment opp0 r-c,uni ties may exist. Cat.tle Here traditionally introduced, by expatriates, onto coconut , plantations to keep d01m the t1brushingll costs, a.'1d today this is still their t.-'\':'~o.j­ form of use. Helanesia.."1s are frequently afraid of catt.le and 1-ihere they have been introduced, there have been many instances of neglect. There is room to doubt uhether thECre Hill be a significcmt departure from traditional practice. We are asked to believe that this is poss1ble, but it is our feelin~ that most of the cattle in lieH Guinea are on expatriate ranches or plantations (the, figurefl given_ bear this out). There is reaDy very little data shmr.i.ng that this scheme ..Jill i-:ork, i.e. that ,,:hat has been prjmarily a European enterprise ltill be adopted by a substantial nur.;,ber of l-~elanesians. Pigs are usual~ kept to scavengeo Wnen it beccmes necessary to pro- duce food wluch humans might cat f<;)1' their consumption, and lolhen the here.'> grow so large that there are s:i.gnificcmt fencin~ problems our data ShOHS that this is normally the trie;gering mechanism for a feast a.."1.d for a general slaughter of the herds. The-cyc::!.e becins againo The central and essential idea of this project that the people vlill produce extra S1':eet potato to build up herd numbers is extre!.1eJy doubtful. In our experience this has not happcned~ It m;,:,! be logically possible, but it is socic..ll;r lallike}y. This is where supporting data from the administration is required. FIJ.rther V:e calculations about the possibility of increased s\.;eet pot-:lto yields s1lJ;!Jose that those people h,"iye unused ti.'7le. They are going to have to spend almost double the effort no:r:nally eA1Jended on grOidng food for pigs. This is not so. Nelanesians l;ill not, and cL!nnot, spend more than three of four hours in the gardens each dny. To this must be added the ecological imbalance caused by erm-ling more sweet pot2.to. This is not a traditional cro'O . , - 33 - it takes a eood deal out of the soil, speeds up the traditional fallow cycle and, :i.n time, this result8 in land pressure and tenure problems. He need more precise :i_nformation on the location of the enterprises. Improved varieties of pig, for ex ..nthropoloeieal viet-1point, these projects share much i-lith industrial projects. Host of the questions asked in the case of industrial projects would also have to be asked in the case of vJater and power projects. "Ie distinguish, for the purposes of this COmi'l1ent, between rural irrigation schemes (which are classed and dealt viith under lIagricultural projects II ) and water projects. Here \-Je deal with projects designed to introduce or extend \-rater facilities for human consuption. One question, in addition to those mentioned under industrial projects, merits examination, viz. the rate structure that is usually contained in the Loan/Credit agreem~nts. The rate structure provided for undor water and power projects is usually related to calculations of the economic rate of return. It is essential, in fixL~g the rate structure, to examine the general income levels of the people in the project area. Quite often, the result of the fixation of a rate structure is to prevent those who cannot pay from receiving the benefits of the project. In effect, the accidental effect of the prescription of a fixed rate structure and covenants against subsidizing it, is to confirm benefits in favor of those who form the elite of a society. This serves to confirm the existing power structure. Some recognition of thiG implicit effect has taken place in the Bank (see, for instance, Gabon: Appraisal of the Libreville Hater Supply Project--Back--to-Office Report: July 10, 1972). But this recognition, in the manner of other projects l,yhere the IIsocialll factor is taken into account, is the result of individual initiative, not of a systematic inclusion of the mechanism which would enablf, identification and assessment of the social effects. A good example of t.I13 effect of an insistence on rate covenants and of organizational difficulties is the Botswana Water Project (Credit 233). APPENDIX E EDUCATION PROJECTS Because educational planning policy often seems less settled, in the LDC1s if not in Bank, '\,e had better spell out ,.;hat our understanding is of some of the involved. Educational planning in tbe LDC I S has only noticably emerged since the close of the Colonial era and yet :LTl that short space of time it has gone through changes \.,.hich bring the art quite close to the interests of many of our colleagues. InitiaLly, in the post World War II period, there was an attempt to encourage agricultural education in the rural areas which failed due to the fact that able pupils saw no real future in agriculture. Then came the idea that, education could be considered an investment; the new focus on relationships 'between cost and benefit appeared to be validated by examination of differential earnings. But these considera- tions did not do sufficient justice to the fact that r16stern-style education lias very expensive. The LDC1s were beginning to plan from 1m., enrollment ratiOS, and since there was little capacity to absorb output, the phenomenon of the "educated unemployed II began to appear. But there iVere other competing ideas which had the effect of maintaining tension among educational planners. UNESCO in its early days proposed universal primary education for all LDC's, second~~ enrollment quotas (roughly 35%), and university enroll- ment quotas (roughly 5%). These proposals were p=oduced without due regard to the individual circwnstances of various countries in terms of available complementarities or opport~~ty costs. OECD, focusing more on the probleF~ of southern Europe, then attempted to develop methods which would integrate educational plannL~e into the entire framework of development objectives. l'h2 roodel using a quite rigid rate of return method suggested that education, - 43 - occupation, and output could be mean:i_l1cfu11y lin.ked. This in some sense 'Has different from 1100 1 G man:rX:n'Jdl' approach uhich had the prilnary objective of creating employment 1~bilr-) paying less attention to rate of retu.rn calcu- lations. Though all these approaches had their respective merits and though they were pursued \'li th a surprising de gree of enthusiasm by the IDC I s they had in common a philosophy that education w'as a matter of developing human capi tal. .An example is an empha:::is on a na.rr01.nolog:::l from experience in a particular culture but perhaps not enough about development work in general and the question of where and how their contributions relates to the work of others. An interest in nonformal processes has virtue in that - 47 - it deals vlith the broad spectrtLt. anc1 forces attention on a host of previously unrecognized or insuffici.ently Heighted factors. Educational goals must be meaningful to participants, they should probably be capable of short term realization, and airned at people seeking improvement of their existing positions rather than those seeking entirely neli positions. Since the traditional classroom situation is not usually replicable on the desired scale, there is often he~vy use of mass media. These can serve to focus attention and raise aspirations ~hile at the same time indicating the means for achieving "dsh fulfillment. This being the case, it is axiomatic that media messages have a good cultural. fit. The need for continous monitoring and adjustment is a first requirement. In formal education there is an emphasis on acquistion of kn01..rledce and insufficient attention has been paid to ways in which values and attitudes are inculcated; but, in nonformal education a major emphasis must be placed on changing behavior. Nonformal education for rural life must be looked at in terms of agriculture and small scale economic activities, health and nutrition, and population control. These diverse prograw$ and objectives must be mad·-, coherent, comprehensive and meaningful from the standpoint of potential recipients. The same can be said about nonformal education in urban areas: the urban slum and lIsquatter settlementtl. To do this, traditional forms of education must be examined. How is knol-1ledge passed on and who is responsible for this process? \mat are the aims and objectives of traditional education? wno is responsible for what kinds of instruction? Is instruction by example, by practice, through discussion, or writing? What are the rules for par·ticipation with respect to age, sex, paren'~l constellation, or belief? - 48 - Neu programs must be grafted as far as is cognizant with their objectives onto what is already done rather than att.empting to introduce entirely nm; and untested forms of instruction. Formal educat:ion may have relevance to a future state of society but nonformal instruction must have relevance to contemporary society. "]116re western style education was missing there has been a tendency to ignore the traditional educational processes. Since the annual volQme of educational projects is not yet great we have, at this stage, spec~fied only two types. Unsurprisingly they are concerned with formal education in the fir;; instance, and with nonformal education in the second instance. Naturally these cover a great deal of ground but we believe that the kinds of things we are interested in can usefully be asked of a wide number of educational projects even though those projects themselves may be quite different. Type A: Formal Education 1. What are the social characteristics of actual or potential pupils in terms of sex, age, parental constellation, religion and ethrLi.c or tribal origin? What are the mechanisms making for exclusion or inclusion of particular groups? 2. What are the social characteristics of the teachers, in terms of the language of instruction, and their likely attitudes tOiiard a selected series of occupations and roles? 3. In the case of nonresidential institutions, what is the degree of reinforcement attained by dii'ferent home backgr01.Ll1ds during non-school periods? Are instruction methods culturally relevant or are failing to maximize the dAvc-loprnent of potential? - 49 - , -----------.-"~-'--~-'." --_._.__ ... - \ L. Does content t~naJysis of instructio;) methods :).ndicatc the existence of value conflicts or does it tend to dO'l-JI1[;l'r,de US8 of fr~:dn:ing in occu- pations considered key in the development of the econo:r.y? >. Vnat are processes nnd influences at ilork 1;hen students select the kinds of career they riant7 Is choiCE: primarily n. ~'el:ml t of access to particular kinds of info:mtltionJ the example of parents te 1':hieh has been one of the greates:t:. impediwmts to agricultural refor.m in Ethiopia" 1-!Ould be useful. But these advantages do not cIPP]Y to Eritrea, the non-Amharj.e-speaking peoples, and the Huslims. \-!hat does the project propose to do about these? Secondly, the church has been extremely conservative and not P.J1 enthuslast5.c supporter of higher education--it Has the uniVersity students who revolted against the Emperor a decade ago. In terms of the project plans, the consequencC!s that folloH from this are: a. The need for care jn the fO!1-:1ulation. of a curriculum i'or the pro- posed training· of priests. The curriculu,'7l should blend in lvi th church teachins about ngr1cultnrc--a contradiction bot".r~;?en the religious and scientific l:ould not be easily s1..lffored, by priest or pupil. Va.l1 Hensburg I s study in BotS'dan-3., for example, has sho1-m hoY! long it takes for a rural pupil to accept scientific rationalism. b. Because of the resistance to a scientific input and the length of trae involved> it :l S sUEgested that the proposed training sche:i1e aim at incrcn:.ental improveiilents in agriculture. A.l1Y attempt t.o employ priests beyon1 the demonstration of basic agricultural techniques &nd the provision of leadership r:ould possibly meet w-i th resistance and fe.ilure. c. The need to guard against the .·nculcation of those values '\-Thich have led to the presc;:nt maldistribution of po'",'..;!r. The church and the priests h&ve tended to produce ~;tud':.mts oriented to',:ards careers in the church, the. aIT.v, a."rJ.d the civil servico. T'nis is the state of affairs which the project seeks to cha11ge. - 53 - ThirdJy, ..:e believe that sor.;c infonnational inputs are necessary ·;.rhich could su.bst~mtially altsr the proposed project before final approval: Does the pres(nt educatjonal ~;ystem cO::lpel tbe educated to leave rural areas because they are overcducat:::d for the tasks that can be perfo!1n8d in the rural sector at present? 1-,'hat are the problc]:;s experienced in moti vat:ing students to i-;ol'k in rural areDs? C::JuJ.d chc:.nges in te.::tcr:l.ng staff, textbooks, or f:L'1ancial :i.nducement8 produce di fferent resnl ts? Can I'm'a] appointments be given equi valen t (or e-.,ren greater) prestige than that uhich attaches to urban appoint>ncnts? vlould it be possible to design training and certain categories of jobs to fit the rural si tua tion > ra the r th~n 1:lOr1: the other '.,ray around? Fourthly, manpoi'ler studies for Ethiopia point to the unfavorable distribu tion of human resources in the cOlmtry: the urbClJ1 concentration of medical personnel, the concentration of the educated in the civil servj~ce or the army, the p:l.'eponder£!l1ce of expatriate teachers. Hc believe that this concentration is the result of the v21ues imparted by the presf:nt educational system--a pattern t:Jat has a curiously 19th century British tinge. 'Yle find it disturbing that even though the appraisal report notes these facts it prop038S expansion of the existing system to :r:eet rural (as \'lell as other) needs. Unles::: reform of the sysi,cm is thorough, "'10u1d this not rasu1 t in continuing the serne pattems of e!r:plo:nncnt? The cl1.el' Dt.:-!t.C is the lcrge0t ,s.nd "one of the poorest, II the lath:r being vrou :.' 1 epref'oltative, jn terms of economic devclop:r:ent, of the C'.vel·"Gc Indim! S... "to \:ith the (;.Xcs;'ption of its southern part rlhich is above the averaGe. - 59 - In uttar PradeC3fl trw urban segment l!:.i11 be implemented in lucl:nou, the optima} procr£m in L districts, tho intensive in 2 districts. In l:ysore the three sC[lT,f:nts vli]1 be carded cut in Jbncalore, 3 districts, Emd 2 districts" respec "vi'\' o1:y • To cO:::ltrol for result:~, in each State it, proposed , to i~pl(rr:cnt the project at least one relat:i.v<.:ly socio-cconoJ:lically IJ.dv.: and one relativeJy bnch:ard nd (:ii) ultimCite goals. ie The :iJ:ll1:cdiatc coals eire three-fold: a. conpletion of infrastructure, training facilities) <:end cqu:iplllent up to the level adopted by the GOl, ).n the project are<:l.s together i-rith the teDtjnG of alternative input.::;: the intensive phase, al1ci t.ho nut.rit.ion CO:iiponent • ..- b. creation of tHO Popuhtion Centc·rs to pl~n, evaluate, alter desisn, extract. infolt.. td~ion, sec'll to L"l1p) CJii8n ta tion. . c., the provision of technical assist.mco for the! project, cmd financial aid to meet n::current costs 0 . - 60 - ii. The u1 timats Eoa}, l/rLi ch :i.s f2.r !rare important, the cre3 tioD of a a l1anageT:lcnt Infonnation Iuation Systc;n (HIES) l;hich yJiJ1 gathoY' :tnfonnntion from the YiorkhlC of the: project. It is hoped that trIO rer.;ulto of tbJs cont:inuOl18 r:oni todnC 2nd illfon::aUon collection, together U:U.Jl jnput ViU'jO. diffc.re,'1t nreas, 1!1wve dcmollBtratjon y<:'.}ue throughcJut India. 1I It i~;, furtJ:cY', expected that the COi·1C1u[;ions deduced froffi this exper:iJnentc~ project C2n be I!tr.:-~~slntcd into a n2:b.ona1 tL[;;Y. II II. AnaJysis l'his row.lysis is of the project. The analysis 1dJl keep in rr.:ind the foJJo-vling questions 2n~ CODBideY'e;d crucia.l: first, ribether any othsr info:rrr.ation re1.::.ting to type of project. and the areas of implementation jn pm:,ticular Has aV2.:iJablee Second, llhether this infol'f.1aticn, if any, should hz.ve beon utilized. 'l'h:lrd, if the information h2.d been utilized, whether the project 1-:'ou1d have been modjJ:':ied--in terms of Kccas, inputs, organizational structu:ce, or phYfd.cal components, for inctance. l<:tnaD.y" vlhether the altered i·lOUJ.d be Teare effic:i.cnt than the existing design. 'l'hat is 'Hhethor, for iI13tance" the modified ces:'i.£:,-n liOuld be cheaper in ten.Is of costs, wl1ether it 'Hould faci1itate goal attair.lJilent. 1. points of criticism ••••••••••••• The Hepor·ts recognize the need for a social science input. The project has bc(:n des:i.gned to for this. '1'he dcsir;n, hm·iever, tends to perpetu.::.te and rcduplj.cate [;tructures that have eiYen rise to problems of implementation and have been the subject of widespread criticism. .Flirthe r, the areas selected do not appear to 11arrant their choice for the reasons suggested. More specifical~: 1. The proposed orgmlizational structure is top-henvy and bureaucr'atic. i1. The· structure at the. 21'2X creatcs a parallel structure to that alrec:(; r in existence m1ct is ]ikcJy to lead to overlappinc of function, dupl:i.~ ca.tion, and friction. :: i:i.i. The pJ<'nnine pyramjd appem·s to draH a sharp lir.e beh:een poli ey forr.mlation end pl<:mning on t71c one hemd, and :implementation (n the other. The f01Ti:Gr is confjned to the upper levels of the orUlli;: 2.tiona.l ladder, the lat.ter, l.i.rr.ited to the 10'cI arbitradJy, rather then throur;h statisUcDDy r~ndom seJectio!1. Tho ccnr.;cquences of this <:.11Q the foregoinc po~ ntis that <.!Jl..y Hcol1clusiens" from the irrpJcmentc:tion of the proiect are JjJ~cJy to be mj siI:te:rprckd, misC'pplicd~ and invalio.ly f,el~erali: - 61 - vi. '1'he st:ipends and sal2.ries propoocd to be paid to trzjnees durinG training and tutOl'S under the project arc corr:paratively huch nigher thM sa] aric[) a:'ld stj,pends paid to personnel of sir.lilal' 8ta tus in sjJdJ2l' occu11loations. This is likoly to rcdse the status of the pers~nT!(3l und~r the project to th8t of em elite and to cc::uoe conflict bob-Icen thc..l1 an1 the l'CDllar medicDl and para medical personnel. Further, it is not cle;:;r v;het.her on cor::pletion of the project in 1978 t.he sruLe talaries a'1d stipends u:ill continue to be paid. vii. Trainees under the project l,ho are later emplo;yed under the prog:r·a.m have no defined civil service status Vis-2-,ris other civj.l servants. This lDck of definition is likely to· affect. the ri'orking of tre p~o­ gram, and the motivations of the trainees employed. The numbers of applicants ldll gracuaDy decJine thereby putting the entire project :in jeopardy. ~ viii. There is no assurance of cont:inui ty of postinc of trainees/employees to one project area. This 2,bsence of any assu!,~::rJce, and the normal civil service practice of rotation of postings, will reaul t in d1s- continuitieG of project impler.:cnt&t:im, inefficiency of data col- lection, and lack of rapport bet~.;e8n project personnel md residents in the project areas. ix. Assuming t.h the mUfiber anci dist:dbution of cas lo and religious groups, the means of COD1.j·'rlUnication, the relative possessio:l of )~ealth anci p01':e:,~, the system of land tenures, the age dj.stritution of trw population, m. It might be sugGc8ted tbat this exer~~ise is too tilr.e-consuming 1'c:>.: the project; tU160r revie11. But ,the !lexe:reisc 11 lThe vc:;,riablcs that are identified are a function of info:rmDtion l:hieh, in the instant c",-S(~, is equated vith the literatUTc available. The phrase IIll tcratUl'e ava:i J2,b1c" refers to l'lhat is nvaiJable in the joint librar-.f of the Bank publisheo prio~' to lTanualJ' 1, 1972 (to alloH six months for project formulation) and, in particular, m<:dnly ons periodjcal: The Economic a.'1d Po]i t:lcal l;eckJy. The choice of this periodical is arbi trary. 2See V.H. DDrlc!ekar and Nil<>kontha Rath, 11Poverty in IndiCt" If Econo:nic and Pol:itica1 HG8kJy, VI, (Januar.f 2 ancl January 9,1971), IJo3. 1 and 2, pp.2.5-l;8, 106-14.5. - 63 - has been conducted. TIehance is not beinz; placed on the Indian Census Rcpo:,ts, 1961, \:hich p:::'ovjde dj.st:rict-idS8 elat.a, no:;:' on the Indian Ccnsl:S Rcpo~·ts, 1971 .. as the forr;,cr appe;:tr t.o be j_nco:~;:.:I}ctr]Jy avajl,,,,ble in VlC I..:ibra;~y, in the C2.se 01 l'.yso::e, the units sC!Jccted for project i);;p1cJT.ent3.tic~·1 <"md compacison are not ho:noGcneous or cO"jpa:::ablo. Third, the o:;:ganizational structure UJ.'1der the project bears 8. remarkable silililari ty to that set up u.nder the COlrJTJUni ty D;welopr:lcnt Projects (CDP) and P.?.l1chayati Raj in Inc~ia. Past e}:perience .;md many eve.1U<.~t.ions should have po:::inted out the dcfects in sett:Lng up a s:iJ;lilar ol'[2!"dzat.ional structure and the pi tfal1s to be avoided. 2 Unfo.:·tlU1c;.tcJ~r" this li.lCeratu::e docs not appear to have been considered. "rnile subscribing to the idea of 10c<::1 level pla.'1ning the p:'ojcct sets up nn oTgC4'1izaticn that does not p:C'ovJde f01' this. The result is likely to repeat the history of CD? in India. The above factors, if considered at tho stage of p:::,oject formulation, would have resulted ina differerit desjEn. Fu.rther, the altered oesicn ..;ould have e:iven a greater reJjabiJi ty to the conclusions sought to be deduced from the pi'oject. III. 1m Alternative Hodel The above analysis pr'oceedcd on the basis of literature available at the Bank. The altem.::J.tiv8 design nOH proposed takes into additional consideration . Ii terature H hich is not avuilable at the Bank. The project is desIgned on the assumptj.on that the differences betHeen States in India are largeJy (or only?) socio-economic cJffcrences. Thc:;:cfore, an equation of' 'Stat",:} on the saClc socio-cconordc: level is possible. Such.an IBiplab Dasgupta, IISocio-EcoI1omic CIC',ssificatJ on of Districts. A Statistica.l i.pp::'aisaJ, II Economi.c Dud Political 1,rleekl.'l, VI, (Aueust Ii), 1971), 1:0.33, pp. 1763-177!1. 2 KJ;.N. Raj, II IPlannin8 from Eelo'H' uith reference to District J)..:;veloPr.1Bnt and Stat~ P12nninc .. II Economic 2nd J>olitical Heekly, VI, (July 1971), &'pecial Hur::be:-, Hos. 30-32, pp. 1690-1618. Joan P. Nenchel', IIChanGe J.tents ana VDJagers. Their Re1ationshjps an( RoJe of Class Values, II Economic and Political ';lcekly, V, (JuJy 1970), Nos. 29-3], pp. IlB?-119 (r r A.H. Hanson: !!~;. Pro~eJ;s c:f_~~<::~mjn~:. (Jondon: O:'(£o1'd Univ81.::;ity Prcs~;, 1905), pa.rt.icul.1l'1.:: Cfl~J.pte·- XI. Ca,rl C. Taylor et a1: Indj at s Poot::; of Icr.;oc}:"ncy. (New Yorj~: F.A. £r.?er;el', 1966). - - 64 - approach is b'::cscd on tHO fm'ther jr:-,phcit nssUJnptions, first, that there is a unity of Inc:i.~ppear. Nor is it truG to Gay that the \.;ages earned are a benefit since the er1.ployee may adopt clothing and expend.iture patterns modolled on those he works for rather than in conforrd.ty with his home situation. Traditior~l cultural forms may be despised as being an indication of bacm-mrcmess: traditional elders not possessing monot~ry power tend to lose control over the actions of the YOlmger generation. Traditional ritua~s and the making of artifacts become routinized and stylized and the standc4rd and meaning of traditional forrr~ become lost. Local people are in these ways forced to conform to the pattern of tourism though they do not have the opportunity to participate as equals. They are forced to appreciate 'Iuth grOrling distinctness the gap that exists between their situation and that of the affluent tourist. The attractions of wage labor and the desires that such work engenders cannot be satisfied in the home community so that processes of migration to urban areas may be accentuated. RemediaJ. measures must i.ni tially begin by supposing that tourism is designed as part of a coordinated series of actions to develop a community rather than a resource whose benefits are to be appreciated entirely from a national point of vim,. Planning for tourists must go hand in hand with planning for local people. It is not enough to design hotels, designate beaches and so on, attention must also be paid to educational and recreational facilities for local people. The aim must be to reduce visible disparities as much as possible. These measures' are best illustrated by refer~nce to the types we have identified. - 68 - A. l!bcrc V:8 loc21 j s 'ex h'aneous to thG eeL Our fj l'St concern is 'IIi th the nature Cind typo of the contact bot;:cell the, 10cal corr...,nmity a'1d the tourJst area. Are riGhts of aecCE;S t~_lond or fis!ililG " affected? 'boat kim1s of c:;'plcJ~~r.cnt 21'13 on·:i.0nmption arc not prejud:iccd by the presence of the project. Hhat arc the market effects of the project in tenns not only of K.?[;e labor but also in tC:::1ns of the possible 82.1e of local produce to hotels 2.nd ::;hops? l-fnat. leo tho pos;;ibiJities of establishing 'rlOl'k progl'ems 1-:]-,5ch though they Iflay he UJ1justifi2blc in terms of their economic rate of rehun n:a:r be thought llCCCf.SCl:ry if local cDrmnunities a1'0 to survive? Tourist and hotoli.e:'s have a responsib:i.li t.y to the' cOn'.nnmi ty in ''Hhich they are located. Hhat steps a.rd to be taken to alert these people to desirable forms of conduct? Has the nature ,mel th0 possible :i.ll:pact of the proGr<.1)ll been ci.j,Dcusscd -.;i t?1 local cOlTJ:nmity Je2.del's and have thcir rd,shcs or fears been tekcn into 2CC(;',;JI~ llhat deGree of control is vested in the 10cCil cCf;'.1i;un:i:ty and to l;hat ext~:- rlill they hociat:io!1. '1'0 preserve traditional cuI tures one Ti'iUst pre- serye a traditional cOTrJrlUnity. l-lhere this cannot be done then serious educat,iO:l~ efforts rrust be made to ensure that oncoming eenerations are .te. - 70 - '1'he scme :is alGa t!'lle of the mE1l1ufacture of artifacts. As India has discovered. There the b,in objective;, of obt.;:dn:ing a source of income for craftsmen find cn~'U:r:inG the preservetion of trndi t.ional skilJs have been served by the creation of a..'1 all India Handicl'c.,Jts Board. 'l"he functions of this board coull rd.th profit be incorpor8.tod :into the plc'-Tlning of many: tourist enterprir;cs. Decisions that have to be taken can only tnke place ,,:11cn tho nature of the resources th2t can be devot.ed to preservation is appreciated and,·,\dlCn cno r,a8 determined \Ihieh ii..cms of cultural behavior are cY1.H.:ial and libich arc not. It is not the case th "mel it is not the case that all 1'i tuels H01.ud be rnissed. But many represent llhe.t iIC term core values and fu beliefs and theIr enactment is a method of reinforcing commonly held beliefs anel value!' much in the same 1-:t1;,'" that Occidental rcJieiolls ceremonies have the fU.l1Ctic!] of promoting soliduri ty arnong peoples rIho Dhare eOH'JllOn belief~! .. ThUD 'tTe have to determine the function pl<\yed by thNje ri tunIs and so to be able to estiIi~ate even rOllghJy the effects of their f«i1in8 to su!'V'ive as a .consequence of a tou!'ifim P!·ojcct. At the sa'Tle time v;hen the relative importance of the rituals :i.s assessed it should be possible to say l:hich should be ~uppo:,·t:;u and in ,,!hat mrumer this support should be rendered end "Ihich rituals and ccrcmonl may safe ly vanish ent:Ll'c ly • - 71 - BALt: A Note on the Tour:i sm Study (SCETO/UHDP) 1 C017anent The study is a careful and sensitive doctunent \:hieh covers nearly all tte problems of the touristic development of BaJi }rithin the framei'lOrk of the te17.:s of reference. The l-18almesSeD of the Report, and the aspects 1-lhich have been omitted are: 1. An c.xanl.ination of the patterns of land o111 adyjsory PO::3itiOl' ta confonn to the principles of development referred to earlier in tlus note 0 The 8_dvisor should have a lmo}:led~e of Balinese culture c:md socia] structure; (Hnd, preferably, of the language as viell) and be idlline to l'eside in B2_1i during the continuance of the project. The advisor should also be charLeci, in add5_ on to the monltor-:ing of thc pl'oject J a.l1d -v.'i th the identif:icaticn of other clevelop;c,c::l tal projects in Bali (l:hetbcr arising out of the pr-oposed toudEm project or not). 40 It is finally recoDr.:ended that some of the funds accruing froD the tourism project be carmarked fo!' developr:-;cnte.l projects other than tutu'ism" ---_. APPENDIX II ----- URBAU PllO,JECTS There is a cert<:lin settled hopc;lecmoss ubout urba.'l projects in the 1l)~1 s. The rcso'..tl'CCS that C,,_11 be alloc[ttecl 21.'0 so far :::hOl't of those available in r.:e:,:: developed co'mtr:i.cs, the problcl;i 1lOrsens Hi th the ever inerca[;ing Urbr\l'l crj:ft} the mign!lts ,'Te U11Cducc.tcQ. and unskilJed. The }jyjng conai tiorrs seem Clpp 21lin C; breed:ing gl'OD1!OS for 2. viciuus drele of crir.:e, mamutriticn, increCl,:dng P(""(;l:'ty .. amI population increase. A.'lthropolosists have in recent years looked at these overcrol~dcd· areas and at areas of IIfiquattcr settlements II in tems that arc applicabJe to ~L.'ly other groClp of peopJe. That is to say that they have st.udied interaction tbat t21~e p1cco J the hopes, fears and desires of these urb".n people. lnlat has [;Ppcdl:"cd llntc11C"!bl0 often after study turns out to be a viable social !:1y.<',t('lf'. ~ _, • ~:IS a i'l.).1>lnnation of migration and rural-~rb(m Jinks? Role of local govcrn:r.:cntal authorl ty al1d cor;~'nuni ty voluntary associations? Cl'ccli t a!ld budGet arr~.n£emenh,? Employment patterns? Religious beliefs and attitudes? Arrangements for om1ership and transferance of property? - 75 - better. To dd.o 1-iC have developed only onc type) the slte fmd service schewe, . c.xclucline our 3e1'0.1'.: te observ0. tiODS on industry) p01:er, 1-1a ter and transport. It has s8crr:ed para.mot:nt to us that :;uch SChCl;]CS must be capable of cr:ml<:ttio:1; that they !:lust be ,caDable of doing so,nething about nutrition .'bove all projects, must be di.:::'cetcd touard the other press:il1g problems of population. and nutritio;l--they must be int€:grc~ted. LTlll if they arc not nOH. intcgratGcl, then this in not beccmsc such approaches arc not "tJarrantGd, it is because the Bank has not yet developed an integrated r'lethodology. ~e : 8i te and SGrvice: Housing design standards ••••• t.raditional, prefDbricated?, Indivicluv.l 0 choj.cc or regul<:tGd control? Corr,posi Uon and choice of resicients, prcr;encc of etr:21: minority or SP9ci?~ist groups? Spread effect and measures tC'J:cn to {:n~::u'e f~)::h? };md t.enu.re ar:r2.ngcments? PopuJ.f~tion T:1ctisu:::-e[~? Hutr'i tion mC8sures·? Some e)..1)lenat.ion of migrat.ion and rural-urban links? Role of local govcJ.'TlJ;;.cntnl aut.hori t.y end cor;:mmi ty voluntary associations? Cl'edi t a."1d buc[;et arr2.l1(;CmGnts? Err.plo;yment patterns? Religious beliefs and attitudes? Arrangements for ownership and transferance of property? - 76 - Project Surrn;11Y e:. Description Rate of Descdntion Totul IBRD IDA Return Senegal Acqu:isj.tion, p:::,ep[lr~­ $12.9 $5.0 16% Project is fi2-.st 0: tioD of about 1,JLO its kinci to ts as ~ (l_ercs in fnkar, Ti]j.cs by Bal1k Group and cc wi th provi~:.:i en for IS, 600 sists of prcpar2ticn Jot.s; extensions to of si ks and p2'ov-isj primrY'Y road, '-:2tcr, of services for pur- pm-wI', yater-', scnitation fE'ciJitics chasers to build the Hi_thin nei-! sottlcr:cnts; cen- Clm cr!eDj ngs--C"icccJ;:: s true tion "nd c.quj pring of }L cdating em cSti.':le. t.ce pr:iJ:lary and l~ scccnc:nr:"r schoo18 140,000 paop]c in and 5 health center'>; technical and 16,000 in Thie::;. ass~stan~e;)n si tu ,i'l?.:'oVCInent Project 1-dJ.l upg:-.'c:6e stucy ana plJot P20J2CI:, to dHe1Jjnf,s .) To knoF Fha t cl,<'mgcs h!:~vc been lilr.'.ce, there JiiUSt be inscn·tec1 in to t:-:c scheIne c::notLer unit of con:parisc:n. \'.'0 SUCf~(;st that you alBa Tilcke pro-visi on to monitor a sma]l evolvinG unhnprovf;d urbc?n section. Bcsice the virtue of cer.,- pad son ane trial it Kill also-:-yTeJd <:m oppo~·tlUli ty to monitor the \;ays in y2;ich neliS of y011r Sllcc(;;5sful project spreads to oth8r areas. It shouId sho.,: hOll ttl;:; nccess<1ty der:lOnstret:i.c!l1 effect cc:.n be improved. This 'I-:i11 provide all 8.ctuc::.l situational bJ.seJjne for evaluation. (b) A second necessary basc,]ine Des in the existing l i te.!..'~I:.tn!·e abcut this region ane. its mb,m problems. He have found, in a Sh01, space of -drr.e, a con8io(;Y·&.bI0 voJur;,e of 17ork. This is also necessc;c:y h:::cE:.use j.f you. ClY'e to fot fran thi.s scfJeJ;;e sOl1:Gthing t!1at is transi'erc:b.1c elsG1!herc then you Ti:ust cstc.blish Hhat is CUI~Ll!2]];0di(~s;VncrD,tic to Dakar. (The Principal I:ms't kno',; D'?kar). (c) It "ri.Il also be necoss31'Y to cX<'.m:i.ne nutY':iticnnl aspects since the liter- ature suCgE~sts that thi.s has been <:~ gener'al probJCl11 of Afr:i.can urbanizati.cn. 7-:ere again the need fo:,' ,"nothe!' tmi t of ccmparison, as sngGcsted above, is c:nlcj.e:l, adcquute caJibrtltion, is to be ach:iev6d. (d) A series of questions on reproductive beho.vior ought to be inse ...·t'2c. Data that could come from such en enquiry Hi11 be vi tal for planning purp0s~;s. (e) Communication processes must be exam:ined. l'Jhat killds of mcditl are usce? Hm) does inforrr.ation transi°erral taj:e plr,ce? These HD1,r l-lidespreD.d are they? kinds of data arc vital for cemonstl'ation PU"-'}>OSC8. (f) The role of voluntary aS8ociatj.ons has been seen by reany observer's as crucial in VI. Africa. Their origin ane. groHth must be exa.rnjneo. Therefore the timjng of the comrnunj.ty developri1cnt processc8 should be altered. This survey must commcmce as soon as possible. 4. The experience of many sociologists in this part of tho 'l-Iorld Jeads us to doubt the err;phasis placed on the abiJ.i ty of questiomp,ires and quantitative techniques to achieve the desired data. The data must be obtajl1cd but \·;e think that the strategy presently advocated 1-;111 run a high risk. The foll01,r.L."1g are the reasons for this opinion: (a.) The researchers KiJl be cpenJy attached tc a Eovernment af.enc:!. They are askinf for quito sen.s:i.:ive f:inancial infc·rv.,~tion. Eap-y PGoplc "liD. tend to be quite suspicious as to '\-;hy this infozr.1ation is being collected. Is it for tax pUlposes? \-lill their rents be r~ised i f they appear too 'uealtlly? (b) If there is too much stress on cata col1ect.jon Jess attention may be paid to l:hy -these !::intis of resuJ.ts hnve been achieved. You need to have SC::18 i~<:a of the "k:inc1s of value, bcJicf, unel ntti tm:'c, \Th:ich have given r:ise to those k:incls of respom;e. ' - 78 - . -.- .. , .- -.~--".,.-..,.-- - ----~----- .. --- ------~ .. -. 5 l,'e that one tC.1H1 concent!'2.te on t:w offici;:1 c]-:-!T.c:l:, .:hj Jc " "JOHlc) f,urrr:cst ttJG oth~r elees fj~Jc>iwl'l~ in the tuo urban control arc~s. hlequate :iJ!l~C:1~.::lt:i.C:1 on the urb,::n are2S liiJlc,!1Jy be achieved :Lf goO(: rappClrt. C2n be cst;::,b~:iD~iCC. Here 1Ie t;ugr,cst rcprc3(·ntative r ... 81 - in the CoursE; of P:rC;lJai'jnr; th~i s B:tief , & Kuala IR.:.. N (nez, Stage I: irrig* 6 ngric.) l~f)IA (Tarai - on- 'fam development) llu:;'ol11 6. seed) *C;Af:r.ROON (Oil pa 1ml I t\!:".;mr~ 'teorl~' l:..,ter pri va te nmche s) creGit for livestock) ::"'!?t .. S('l<1nu~r) PAKISTAX (ADE: ·mech. r.1!: 1 5) (Livestock ~.;.. "2:.""" '::'.~ ::.t:::;;-..A & tub"",. 11 ) IVOxtcnsicn: eel leges) (lr\':\;~\ ((("><',$ t r., eau ip- r:v~:1tt txters:0n: schc('l s. c(l11~~es~ r:L Sr\L\'AI;:)R (C('ns':r •• eGu~p:0ent. c·xte~~:'on: SCh~0tS. cn:legcs. f~llowships aoro6c) F' l'(),":~R >J : r~;:':S1'R,{ YUGOSu\VIA (Modern. incu8tria1 enter- , *clm;r.A (~aning infrn!.ltructure/ 2~ . t prie".) I ,Hoke) 2 ; :::!:c~. o cry. F:~;A~CE I I- I. o s 9 12 4 48 " *1 Dcr.otes 8 projec~ classed as a "problem proj(:ct". ,Y,9iO ~ Europe, Middle East, Ct;r.tr.al. ;'.eerica Ex East Asia &. Pacific South Asia & f~ot'th Africa West: Africa !:~st Africa Caribbean ·"l.7?R - I- COI.O}m Iii (I-:a tor I sUflply & sewerai;;e) ACR:ct'LTI:?r ?ilIL,P?::::S (~"'LA':';,:A (Forest irri~. &: m-echlln! groundnut, cotton, ex?1oitatio:l: Guj.urat) rice) ';e;:~~~{5) ~"E~ PAKlS'iAN (Karnll'" Gllt\~~!, (Cocoa rehab.) (f:i.:nabJ fuli ~;u:h\Jt'i: irrig) Gove :;:i:>1A (Creclit~ see C:Jjarat; Punjab) *S. mKI~TA:; (3,000 (?enabl tubcwc 11 s) lrrig Java) 2& 1P.A:~3PCRr ~K,~0CCO (Roads, Sr:~:ECAL (Cons tr. , UGAXDA (Primary & 1 - Hr5 t.::;c ':. ~0:1" }~.1 i.n:...: T'oa(is/ Feeder Roads) slll~nts) icede ") KE:.-rA (Reconstr. MALI (Highway, f€:cder/constr. fam fce(;"r t m.,int ... ncccr.$ r"ada) con.!>ul Cants) ETltlOi'L\ (Highway! rcads/wa ter) E::t:CATlO!; C:!l~:A (Exp •.:n!llon: 1-1. rAn STA:: sr,\!:; (Dv.mon3tra- CA~~r::ROON (Dcv. &: ZA:-clIA (Extensionl CHIIJ'; (Est/ext. trng SC~0015~ col!~~es; (Cons:r .. bldgs, tion school;;: I imrfOvcm. teacni"r cqui? univ. &. curriculum d~v.! r.ostels, houses. ?ri~ry, secondary, tnlg) hoste18 constr.) educ. planning) constr. equip .. teacher trng, SIER'lA LEO~E (Ext. I KE,YA (A;;rte. Fae. CHILE (!;ew/Ext.: ment:; W. Puk Un!v. research institute) C!quip. schools, Univ.! Expans. agric teacher trng college; of Eng. &. Tech. & coll~gcs, consul- ins t.. I tcnche r t rug osric. scl1oo1s, tcell. Gove. Eng. College) tnnt!l in 31;ric. J college/teacher! 8ssistar.ce & ov~rseas stat{stics~ currie. comprehensive review) rev i si on) (Ccrl5tr.! i lVORY C(1\ST (Ext. I Equip: 9 cornpTt:hen.. I equip. fichools. 51 ve seconuary SCh')0151 coll-ec:;cs. consul- tants in asric. t statictics, currie. revi s ion) 11 PO;;::R I I o i I c:., ru:? I:\~)::S7?Y ?AKISTAN (Small ir.ciustr. credit:) ilOTSWAI'A (Mining infrastrue ture) I- DO~ 11'1 (:-I1nir& & !r•• t.: Fa1conbridr,e) ;=:~co~:. o r>:'.'. r: ~\A>;CE l:cr c,,1Trtr.crcinl fa ~".,,) i.~--CEA~~ISTAN J (ACr.Ai;r() POl'l.1.A':lOli I I- I I I I I l- 1- 12 5 ... / :>er:ot<:s a. proJect ci.).t)st'U 8:; (1 "prvLl,..rn pro.itc\.:t". .. ,1\ "f" ;; (;- i";'Ft"l r~/ +{ JI ~ ruro~e. Ml(:dle E,at t Centr.l A:l1('r{("a. ;';.~:. :.$1.6. Padfh: South As Ia. (.. !{v1'th Aft-ica \.'cst Aer(e .. F..at AfricA South Atnel'i(Di 6. (rtCI\: lt~;)[;' ~i.:r.·~Ht: tl'P!Jt V.J!:rA (Crt'!d: "UCANt\.\ (T()hacco ta'Aooa (!,!V1:"Ht'),k) f,t;y\,\,.\ (T,h!(,""h}do;< t.'.,; -:.:. ,: ... ;,; ~~. ;;;ula~ irr!b' lUI.J lc· ...el- prud, .tor<1(;f!. COU>!'IDIA (Lbnd I: :'-.• r,;~·o;;h. flUlrlu·t:'\I;) .. j\mIl1on) $t,ttl(,Ii~'l\t S :.\ (lrcl b " :r.l\:tors 1 b."~:J.) i'v.: ..·c,:,~;y {taKe!' Rm.lvlA (UVt,~tMk) c.'J'r~:'l. c('\! •• co('o~ 1',,; .t,.J cr (Crl,.,uHlwatcr .\l::wtra irl·ts,. t rRUC\lAY (Uv"'stQ,;k Il\lt citl'>dl, b ...·.·t • .\ (~;~)t!" rn. • rO.lQs) II) rl.d .:) (fruits, 6- ~"~'"~r~:~:~} !,,', ~ s, ';~IRf:::\' (Flue .. q'.\ ~>f.\' ..\ l!.tve lH"ckl d~v.) cur",d tobacco) ;:~)" '::c.,~~,; h..::r (1 tv~~ :", ;,;. to .... c i:1~ Coar }t,\l'H.ITtUS (Small .. stf't;'" r..~vl.:r: !:.\ultip. dev .. IY\,;.;'{ CO,\S1' holdl..'r te-:l) ~'.f./~('O ((redit·, r',- irrig. duttlj. hydro .. (htiu:;tri::t1 Gn HAl.J\\H (Lilongwe A{:l'i(, .:. 1I\lll'H,',\() L:.! .$; ~ •.dr;.') clcc. , ¥" 1M ~5t(ltt"lJl Ph ... ll) Cl''''O!~llt!;.. t'(lJQs. ki )} ::::- ~! ;::~! /':"Cl iH~h~ TUt\tSlA (lHi~h'W.;l'! KEh'YA (li1~h"'.y ::. 1'.:1- (R(.'(.o;\~ .grit::. 6. t>.lVOStU.) (n .. rCI:{'I~Hl lIi!;h- " Maint. rethHlal ..,ork .. .hoi'·) f or~. ~ I I" j!(·del") ",.ily, Ivo.n ,l\'asU·. roa ..ls) c.: ::C~. ~ .... "".~:<'; {C.?r.$cr. IRt\~ (Cunstr: cr":':;CE: (C;;'cdltt'. cm;c:o '(COnl:ltr., 'fAN(~uaA (Cslng '~Jd. IV) trlllW'l~" tU.in!n,j' ~r.lirwse~ t~·:;<::·: p:..:rC)-,.se: !I.c<;.h •• is. 200 1'1ll1~$ .e.:.en C)L0X!f;A (Dr,tt~­ YI:~;t::~"2U (CTt:,;~c H'CC:'i5tL it'l."tg J.l.tf' 11"1,($- rQ.lds, technical "'.";;<'. r~~«d •• lands. - L1\'~s~<~tiiii.t:. loa~s: $;nall &' .(ana II) 1::~/::' Pl.!ni ~ ns ::-l.h.· rn0d l\;1':! da i ry} {.>r:',cr;o, :-:.H.)re} ! }'~·"':'l..CI.) tl"cr. • ~~\L:(.,:! (Int. 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I." c) roads II) \·vLTA (Cotton project Lobatsl! r04d) ZAiRE {Buruu of l'.,qads. tech •• s.t. tuinini. !f.-tnt, I aut, tl'4illin& l\'O.W CCAS7 ir.?rovC'!l), ) j .brQ&4) {"Xa int./ i!ll?t'ovelll~ TA.!;U:"'IA (R".. ds: rcae,,) t:'"\lnk. £~ecH) on) SE~{:';;AL (Rdh... y ~;.;,;!.::h\. (Road c..1nt •• lI.x1erll' l training. "pet' •• ) I tech. u,t) ETHIOPLJ.. (rudel'! rural) (V) u --.----~--------~---~----------~-----------4----------~------------~--~------+------------+~I tDl"CA!lO)l S::;CAPoR! (£1(,/ JQRMN (Conatt. NIGERIA {Rehab/ lJ:!Kt (F.e~. 6. ~~u1PJ ulan-ticn 1,.'. of eqoip) r~;!on"!tr • • ehooh~ tuc"ter tt'.llir:.i:'lg. 1 S to I(.efit Rid!lt:) XO:l.(lCC(\ (ConBtt'. tr:':i c.olleres, cur. • •e(; .... ~cJl!""y ~t;h. r~v.¥S:A «('''r.$~rl equip~ tun. t:rne. tt:c.:l., .u: tor &. :n.lMge:"C:nt it'Jcy) eQ'4!9. E:l I)@v. (II) ,chru;.e. teac!\er ttrtg c.ur· Cent~t. te