53451 Indonesia development policy review Enhancing government effectiveness in a democratic and decentralized Indonesia November 2009 Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Acknowledgements ii Executive summary iv What the report is about and its central thesis ................................................................................................ iv Indonesia in 2008 is a glass half-full ................................................................................................................. iv Indonesia in 2008 is a glass half-empty because its post-crisis governance transition is still incomplete... ......................................................................................................................................... vi ...and because the tasks facing Indonesia, as an emerging middle-income economy are more difficult vii Looking ahead to the decade to 2018 and beyond, Indonesia's development agenda is clear ................. vii Accelerating growth ......................................................................................................................................... viii Making growth inclusive .................................................................................................................................... ix Ensuring growth is sustainable ........................................................................................................................ xi Building resilience............................................................................................................................................ xiii Enhancing government effectiveness is central to realizing the development agenda .............................. xv ...which will take time, but maintaining a sense of urgency--making haste slowly--is critical ............. xviii A. INDONESIA 2009: A GLASS HALF-FULL 1 1 . Indonesia has done well in terms of macroeconomic performance in the decade since the 1998 Asian crisis 1 1. a. Per-capita GDP has exceeded pre-crisis levels and growth has picked up..................................... 1 1. b. Prudent macroeconomic management has resulted in lower budget deficits and a much lower debt-to-GDP ratio .................................................................................................................................. 1 1. c. Inflation has generally been at manageable levels, although periods of rising commodity prices have pushed inflation significantly higher .......................................................................................... 2 1. d. The banking sector has largely recovered from the 1998 crisis and market sentiment, until recently, was positive ........................................................................................................................... 3 1. e. Foreign reserves rose to historic highs on ongoing balance of payments surpluses ................... 3 1. f. Investment, while still low by historical standards, is rising ............................................................ 4 1. g. The macroeconomic fundamentals strengthened over the last decade have helped Indonesia weather the current global economic crisis ....................................................................................... 4 2 . Indonesia has continued its remarkably stable transition from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic polity 5 2. a. The legal and institutional foundations of a decentralized democratic polity have been established ............................................................................................................................................ 5 2. b. Freely and vigorously contested direct elections to all levels of government have strengthened electoral accountability ........................................................................................................................ 6 2. c. Political stability has calmed separatist sentiments and regional conflicts .................................... 7 3 . But Indonesia is still a glass half-empty because there has been less progress on other important fronts ... 7 3. a. Higher levels of economic growth have not translated, to the extent hoped for, into greater poverty reduction .................................................................................................................................. 7 3. b. A large percentage of the population remains vulnerable to poverty .............................................. 7 3. c. Despite recent signs of progress, Indonesia lags behind its more prosperous neighbors in producing higher value-added non-agricultural jobs ........................................................................ 8 3. d. Human development outcomes continue to be uneven despite significant increases in public expenditures ........................................................................................................................................ 10 3. e. Environmental quality is deteriorating and natural resources are being unsustainably depleted12 4 . Why Indonesia, in 2008, remains a glass half-empty 13 4. a. In 1998, Indonesia underwent not only a severe economic crisis, but also a dismantling of the previous political order....................................................................................................................... 13 4. b. The priorities in the first five post-crisis years were to restore macroeconomic and political stability and put in place the basic framework of laws for the new polity ..................................... 14 4. c. In the last five years the fiscal space has been created and structural reforms initiated in pursuit of the broader development agenda but progress has been slow.................................... 14 4. d. Indonesia's governance transition is still incomplete in that electoral accountability has not yet translated into broader forms of accountability... ........................................................................... 15 4. e. ...and government effectiveness is further constrained by a lack of coordination mechanisms and capacity for formulating and implementing policy ................................................................... 16 4. f. The tasks facing the government have themselves become more difficult, in part because of Indonesia's own past successes... ................................................................................................... 17 4. g. ...and in part, because of the changed global economic environment Indonesia faces .............. 17 5 . While Indonesia is in a relatively strong position, the medium-term outlook is uncertain and there are significant downside risks 18 5. a. Indonesia should weather the global economic slowdown better than many countries but growth will be lower going forward ................................................................................................... 18 5. b. There is however considerable uncertainty about the medium-term outlook and Indonesia remains vulnerable on some fronts ................................................................................................... 18 5. c. ...and the economic slowdown will also slow gains in social outcomes ....................................... 19 B. INDONESIA 2014 AND BEYOND: THE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA 20 6 . Indonesia's development agenda--what Indonesia aspires to and what the broad challenges are--is clear 20 7 . Accelerating growth 20 7. a. Indonesia has the potential to achieve the rates of growth it achieved prior to the crisis ........... 20 7. b. Making the most of Indonesia's resource endowments while also developing globally competitive clusters elsewhere ......................................................................................................... 21 7. c. Alleviating infrastructure bottlenecks ............................................................................................... 26 7. d. Improving the investment climate by remedying weaknesses and inconsistencies in the regulatory and policy environment.................................................................................................... 28 8 . Making growth inclusive 31 8. a. Raising rural incomes by revitalizing the rural economy ................................................................ 32 8. b. Facilitating the transfer of labor from low-productivity activities in agriculture to higher-value added activities elsewhere ................................................................................................................. 34 8. c. Improving the poor quality of, and limited access to, water and sanitation services ................... 36 8. d. Restructuring the health system........................................................................................................ 36 8. e. Providing quality education for all..................................................................................................... 39 8. f. Improving the allocation and efficiency of expenditures in the context of a decentralized Indonesia, not financing, is the main challenge ............................................................................... 40 8. g. Community-based approaches such as the PNPM offer one means of addressing that challenge by enhancing voice and accountability............................................................................................. 41 9 . Ensuring growth is sustainable 42 9. a. Managing Indonesia's forestry and marine resources sustainably while providing adequate livelihoods ........................................................................................................................................... 42 9. b. Meeting Indonesia's energy needs without sacrificing Indonesia's environment ........................ 45 9. c. Making Indonesia's rapidly growing towns and cities livable growth poles ................................. 49 1 0 . Building resilience 51 10. a. Managing disaster risks and adapting to climate change ............................................................... 51 10. b. Enhancing security and protecting the poor .................................................................................... 55 10. c. Reducing vulnerability to financial sector shocks ........................................................................... 56 C. FROM 2009 TO 2014 AND BEYOND: REALIZING THE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA 59 1 1 . Furthering Indonesia's ongoing, and still incomplete, governance transition is central to realizing the development agenda 59 11. a. Furthering the governance transition means adapting and strengthening the institutions and mechanisms that govern the functioning of the state and shape state-society interactions ...... 59 1 2 . Restructuring and strengthening the core processes and institutions for formulating and implementing policy 62 12. a. Reforming public financial management systems ........................................................................... 62 12. b. Initiating civil service reforms ............................................................................................................ 63 1 3 . Making the most of decentralization: helping local governments realize their potential65 13. a. Improving the framework governing centre-local relations ............................................................ 65 13. b. Increasing the capacity and accountability of local governments ................................................. 68 1 4 . Increasing the legitimacy of the state and building consensus 68 14. a. Strengthening the rule of law and reforming the judicial system ................................................... 68 14. b. Building on the momentum gained in anti-corruption efforts ......................................................... 70 1 5 . How to approach strengthening public institutions and processes 73 15. a. There is no simple recipe for strengthening public institutions and processes and it will take time... ................................................................................................................................................... 73 15. b. ...and involve learning from experimentation, monitoring and evaluation and replicating existing pockets of success ............................................................................................................... 73 15. c. But maintaining a sense of urgency - making haste slowly - is critical ......................................... 74 LIST OF CHARTS Chart A: Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda xx LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Indonesia continues to under perform on some critical health outcomes 11 Table 5.1: Indonesia's recent and projected macroeconomic performance 18 Table 7.1: Commodities account for more than half of Indonesia's merchandise exports 22 Table 7.2: Export "discovery" has been minimal 26 Table 7.3: ...but Indonesia still does poorly in international comparisons 29 Table 7.4: Indonesia has taken some significant steps in investment climate reforms 30 Table 9.1: Why Indonesia's common property resources are being depleted: proximate and underlying causes 44 Table 9.2: Indonesia has abundant energy resources other than oil 48 Table 9.3: Indonesia's legal and policy framework for energy 48 Table 9.4: Indonesia's urban population is growing rapidly 49 Table 11.1: Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda 60 Table 14.1: Number of corruption cases concluded by apex agencies between 2004 and 2007 72 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Per-capita GDP has exceeded pre-crisis levels and growth has picked up 1 Figure 1.2: Prudent macroeconomic management has resulted in lower budget deficits and a much lower debt-to-GDP ratio 2 Figure 1.3: Inflation has recently been at manageable levels periods of rising commodity prices flowed into higher inflation 3 Figure 1.4: Indonesia's balance of payments position has been strong up to the global financial turmoil 4 Figure 1.5: Fixed Investment in Indonesia is rising, but is still low by historical standards 4 Figure 1.6: Indonesia's GDP growth is expected to slow considerably in 2009 but the slowdown relative to 2007 is the mildest in the region 5 Figure 2.1: By 2010, all local governments in Indonesia will have directly elected heads 6 Figure 3.1: Nearly half of Indonesia's population in 2007 could be considered near poor or poor 8 Figure 3.2: Employment growth has failed to match population growth since the crisis 8 Figure 3.3: ...and unemployment rates, especially among youth, remain high 9 Figure 3.4: Over 40 percent of Indonesia's labor force is still in agriculture... 9 Figure 3.5: ...and unlike its neighbors, Indonesia is not moving its workers out of agriculture 10 Figure 3.6: Formal sector job creation has been sluggish till recently 10 Figure 3.7: Infant and child mortality rates vary widely across Indonesia's provinces 11 Figure 3.8: Indonesia's forests are being rapidly degraded 12 Figure 4.1: Indonesia's growth recovery compared to other countries that experienced economic or political crises 14 Figure 4.2: Prudent fiscal policy has increased the funds available for development spending 14 Figure 7.1: From Indonesia's current income levels, some economies achieved economic take-off, while others languished 21 Figure 7.2: Indonesia's growth in the last-quarter century has come primarily from manufacturing and services 21 Figure 7.3: Commodity prices are forecast to remain high for the next decade relative to 2000 22 Figure 7.4: Oil exploration activity in Indonesia has declined steadily since 2000 23 Figure 7.5: Indonesia has tremendous mineral prospects but little investment 24 Figure 7.6: Even when primary sectors contributed significantly to Indonesia's economic growth, manufacturing and services contributed most to labor income growth 25 Figure 7.7: Old stuff still dominates export growth: very little creation and very little destruction 25 Figure 7.8: Infrastructure investment, as a percentage of GDP, is about half what it was before the crisis 26 Figure 7.9: Perceptions of Indonesia's investment climate have improved since 2003... 28 Figure 8.1: Agricultural growth rates have been falling till recently 32 Figure 8.2: Per-worker value-added in Indonesian agriculture has not grown much in the last two decades and is low relative to other countries 33 Figure 8.3: Minimum wages rose substantially between 1999 and 2003 35 Figure 8.4: Mandated severance pay in Indonesia increased sharply between 1999 and 2003 35 Figure 8.5: ...and the severance pay rates Indonesia mandates are the highest in the region 36 Figure 8.6: Public health expenditures have risen in the last decade but are still a lower share of the budget than they are for Indonesia's neighbors ... 37 Figure 8.7: Spending on health and education has increased 41 Figure 8.8: The strategic framework underpinning Indonesia's poverty reduction efforts 41 Figure 9.1: Indonesia's demand for electricity is projected to grow rapidly in coming years 46 Figure 9.2: Indonesia relies more on expensive fuel for power generation than other countries 46 Figure 9.3: Indonesia's emissions per capita are higher than in other countries 47 Figure 10.1: Indonesia's fossil-fuel emissions have been growing rapidly 53 Figure 10.2: Indonesia's population is rapidly aging 55 Figure 14.1: Most Indonesians resolve disputes and seek justice through traditional channels 70 Figure 14.2: Perceptions of corruption in government have declined 71 LIST OF BOXES Box 4.1: The lack of mining investment, despite Indonesia's potential provides a particularly stark example of the lack of coordination and uncertainty about policy 16 Box 7.1: Delays and difficulties in implementing investment climate reforms: three examples 30 Box 8.1: Indonesia's BOS (School Operational Assistance Grant) Program 39 Box 10.1: Global financing for climate change mitigation offers opportunities for Indonesia 54 Box 12.1: The Bureaucracy Reform Initiative of the Ministry of Finance is a promising start 64 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ASKESKIN Asuransi Kesehatan Miskin (Health Insurance for the Poor) Bakornas Badan Koordinasi Nasional Penanganan Bencana (National Disaster Management Coordinating Board of Indonesia) Bapepam LK Badan Pengawas Pasar Modal dan Lembaga Keuangan (Financial Institutions and Capital Markets Supervisory Agency) Bappenas Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (National Development Planning Agency) BOS Bantuan Operasional Sekolah (School Operational Assistance) BPK Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan (Supreme Audit Agency) BPKP Badan Pengawasan Keuangan dan Pembangunan (Financial and Development Supervisory Board) BPN Badan Pertanahan Nasional (National Land Agency) BRR Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi (Aceh and Nias Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Agency) CCT Conditional Cash Transfer CDM Clean Development Mechanism DAK Dana Alokasi Khusus (Special Allocation Funds) DAU Dana Alokasi Umum (General Allocation Funds) DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DSM Demand-Side Management EAP East Asia and Pacific? ECD Early Childhood Development FDI Foreign Direct Investment GNI Gross National Income GoI Government of Indonesia IIEE Indonesian Institute for Energy Economics JAMKESMAS Jaminan Kesehatan Masyarakat (Public Health Insurance Program) KDP Kecamatan Development Program KKPPI Komite Kebijakan Percepatan Penyediaan Infrastruktur (National Committee on Policy for Accelerating Infrastructure Provision) KON Komisi Ombudsman Nasional (National Ombudsman Commission) KPK Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (Corruption Eradication Commission) LPKPP Lembaga Pengembangan Kebijakan Pengadaan Pemerintah (National Public Procurement Planning Office) LPS Lembaga Penjamin Simpanan (Deposit Insurance Corporation) MDG Millennium Development Goals MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoF Ministry of Finance MoH Ministry of Health Musrembang Musyawarah Rencana Pembangunan (Development Plan Consultative Forum) NBFI Non-bank Financial Institutions NCBR National Committee for Bureaucratic Reform NSSS National Social Security System NPL Non-performing Loan P4K Pembinaan Peningkatan Pendapatan Petani Kecil (Small Farmers Income Generation Improvement) PDAM Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum (Regional Water Utility) PISA Program for International Student Assessment PKH Program Keluarga Harapan (Family Hope Program) PLN Perusahaan Listrik Negara (National Electricity Company) PNPM Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat (National Program for Community Empowerment) PPP Public Private Participation PPATK Pusat Pelaporan dan Analisa Transaksi Keuangan (Financial Transaction Analysis and Reporting Center) PSO Public Service Obligation RDA Regional Development Accounts REDD Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation Reksadana Managed Funds Renstra Rencana Strategis (Strategic Plan) RKP Rencana Kerja Pemerintah (Government Work Plan) RPJM Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menegah (Medium-Term Development Plan) RPO Rural Producers' Organization RUEN Rencana Umum Energi Nasional (General Plan for National Energy) RUKN Rencana Umum Ketenagalistrikan Nasional (General Plan for National Electricity) RUPPN Rencana Umum Perminyakan dan Pergasbumian Nasional (General Plan for National Oil and Natural Gas) SLA Subsidiary Loan Agreement SME Small and Medium-size Enterprises UNCAC United Nations Convention Against Corruption UNFCCC COP United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ­ Conference of the Parties to the Convention UPP Urban Poverty Project UUPK Undang-Undang Pokok Kehutanan (Basic Forestry Law) INDONESIA DEVELOPMENT POLICY REVIEW i World Bank Acknowledgements This report is the joint effort of a large team within the World Bank's Indonesia country office. The team was led by Shubham Chaudhuri and included Magda Adriani (Statistical Annex), Vivi Alatas (poverty), Enrique Aldaz-Carroll (trade and commodity-led growth), Dayu Nirma Amurwanti (anti-corruption), Tim Brown (environment and climate change), Tim Bulman (macroeconomics), Mafalda Duarte (climate change and energy), Sebastian Eckardt (public financial management), Peter Ellis (urban issues and local government), Fitria Fitrani (Statistical Annex), Hongjoo Hahm (infrastructure), Joel Hellman (governance), John Holdaway (infrastructure), Leonardo Iacovone (trade and commodity led growth), Migara Jayawarderne (energy), Vishnu Juwono (anti-corruption), David Newhouse (labor), Andrew Radatz (education), Jamele Rigolini (social protection), Kurnya Roesad (labor), Claudia Rokx (health), Peter Rosner (investment climate), Shobha Shetty (agriculture and rural), Djauhari Sitoris (financial sector), P.S. Srinivas (financial sector), Staffan Synnerstrom (civil service reform), and Matthew Zurstrassen (judicial system). The peer reviewers were Dan Biller (Lead Economist, South Asia Sustainable Development), Mona Haddad (Sector Manager, Trade), and N. Roberto Zagha (Senior Advisor, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management). The report was prepared under the guidance and direction of William Wallace (Lead Economist, Indonesia), Joachim von Amsberg (Country Director, Indonesia), and Vikram Nehru (Sector Director, East Asia Poverty Reduction and Economic Management). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank ii Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank iii Executive summary What the report is about and its central thesis A decade ago, in 1998, Indonesia experienced a severe economic crisis that resulted in the economic dislocation of millions of households, a sharp rise in poverty, a 13 percent decline in GDP, and near bankruptcy of the financial sector. The economic crisis precipitated a dismantling of the previous political order, leading to a period of wrenching political turmoil characterized by several changes in government and the heightening of separatist tensions. Ten years later, Indonesia has emerged economically strong and remarkably stable in political terms. This report takes stock of where things stand today, by reviewing Indonesia's development performance of the last decade, and looks ahead to the development agenda for the next decade. Indonesia, in 2008, is in Indonesia, in 2009, is in many ways a glass half-full. What it has achieved in terms of many ways a glass half- macroeconomic and political stability is quite remarkable. If Indonesia is able to build on full the robust foundation of macroeconomic and political stability it has established thus far and accelerate growth while ensuring that growth is shared and is sustainable, it has the It has the potential, in the decade ahead, to rise to potential to "fill the glass" in the decade ahead and rise to become a dynamic, competitive, become a dynamic and inclusive middle-income country. At the same time, much remains to be done if that middle-income growth is to be sustained in the face of the risks that lie ahead, and if it is to be shared economy... more widely and translate into improvements in the broader dimensions of well-being for Indonesia's population. If these challenges are not addressed, Indonesia risks remaining a glass half-empty, floating along as long as the external economic environment is favorable ...or it could float along, but still fragile and vulnerable to global downturns and increasingly vulnerable to domestic remaining a glass half- discontent as aspirations for more widely shared growth and broader improvements in empty well-being continue to be unfulfilled. Neither scenario is Neither scenario is inevitable but both are possible. The central thesis of this report is that inevitable but both are which scenario is ultimately realized will depend in large part on how successfully possible Indonesia is able to navigate its own ongoing and as yet incomplete governance transition from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic state. Thus, the core challenge Indonesia faces in the decade ahead is one of enhancing government Enhancing government effectiveness in the new democratic and decentralized Indonesia by adapting and effectiveness by adapting strengthening the institutions and processes that govern the functioning of the state and and strengthening the shape state-society interactions. institutions of the new democratic and The task will not be easy and it will take time. Democratization and decentralization have decentralized Indonesia fundamentally changed accountability structures and decision-making processes within is the central challenge government. These changes have highlighted systemic weaknesses in the processes and Indonesia faces if it is to "fill the glass" in the capacity for formulating and implementing policy and have made the process of decade ahead implementing reforms a more challenging and time-consuming task. Government effectiveness has been limited by insufficient capacity and accountability of civil servants and by coordination problems within government. Because highly competitive elections have led to coalitional politics at the national level and in many regions, and greater voice in the political arena has been afforded to a wide range of non-state actors, the task of reaching consensus on critical policies and reforms has become that much more challenging. Decentralization has changed accountability structures or weakened them, as the division of roles and responsibilities between the various levels of government remains unclear in many spheres of government activity. At the same time, the tasks Indonesia faces, as an emerging middle-income economy, have become more difficult, in part because of its own past successes and in part because the global economic environment is rapidly changing. Indonesia in 2008 is a glass half-full Indonesia has done well Indonesia has done extremely well in terms of macroeconomic performance since the in terms of 1998 crisis, particularly in the last five years. Per-capita GDP has exceeded pre-crisis macroeconomic levels and growth picked up in the lead-up to the global economic downturn. Indonesian performance since the growth accelerated to a ten-year high of 6.3 percent in 2007, and continued at 6.1 percent 1998 crisis, and Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank iv Executive Summary particularly in the last in 2008 despite the sharp slowdown in the global economy. Real GDP has been growing five years, and has been at 5 to 6 percent annually since 2002. In 2005, per-capita real GDP for the first time less affected than many exceeded the high that had been reached in 1997, immediately prior to the crisis, and by by the global economic early 2009 it was more than one-fifth higher. Prudent macroeconomic management has turmoil of 2008 and 2009 resulted in lower budget deficits, a much lower debt-to-GDP ratio, and, for the most part, manageable inflation. The financial sector has largely recovered from the 1998 crisis and, overall, financial ratios remained healthy or even improved during the period of greatest distress in global finance. Successive balance of payments surpluses allowed foreign reserves to accumulate, and while these were drawn on when pressure on the IDR peaked in the last quarter of 2008, they have subsequently recovered as that pressure has receded. Indonesia's exports have grown strongly, while the external debt to GDP ratio has fallen. Investment has risen to over 27 percent of GDP, approaching pre-crisis highs. ...and Indonesia has In the decade since the crisis, Indonesia's political system has undergone a profound continued its remarkably transformation, from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic stable transition from a polity. The transition was initially tumultuous, but there has been a growing sense of centralized authoritarian political stability, particularly in the last five years, as the democratic process has both regime to a decentralized democratic polity deepened and achieved wider acceptance. Constitutional reforms mandating direct elections to all levels of government have created greater electoral accountability. An extensive system of institutional checks and balances has been introduced, apex government oversight and accountability agencies have been established, and the judiciary has been made independent. A "big bang" decentralization in 2001 has devolved substantial funds and authority to local governments and new forms of decentralized participation in policymaking have been created. The political stability and the broader embrace of the democratic process that these changes have engendered have been critical to supporting Indonesia's economic recovery and calming separatist sentiments. But Indonesia still is a Higher levels of growth have not translated, to the extent hoped for, into greater poverty glass half-empty reduction. A large percentage of the population remains vulnerable to poverty. Despite because there has been recent signs of progress, Indonesia lags far behind its more prosperous neighbors in less progress on other creating higher value-added non-agricultural jobs. Employment growth has failed to match important fronts ... population growth since the crisis and job creation in the formal sector has been especially sluggish. Though the open unemployment rate has fallen since its peak of 11.2 percent in 2005, unemployment remains high, especially among youth. Of greatest concern is that, as of 2008, over 40 percent of Indonesia's labor force still derives its livelihood from low- productivity activities in agriculture and related areas, while only 30 percent of Indonesia's growing labor force appears to have made the transition to what are considered high-value added activities, as employees in the formal manufacturing and services sector or as employers in organized enterprises. Because of geographic and income-related disparities and the poor quality of health, water and sanitation and education service delivery at the local level, Indonesia's performance in terms of human development outcomes has been quite uneven over the last decade despite significant increases in public expenditures. For some indicators, there has been little improvement in the last decade, and in the case of a few, there has even been some regression, and as a result Indonesia lags behind its neighbors in a number of areas. There is considerable evidence as well that Indonesia's environmental quality is deteriorating and its natural resources are being unsustainably depleted. As a result, Indonesia's record on the MDGs is decidedly mixed. ...and while Indonesia The turmoil in global finance of late 2008 and early 2009 and the subsequent economic has weathered the global downturn did affect Indonesia's financial markets, especially the government bond market economic turmoil better and the exchange rate. But the impact on the real economy has been far smaller than for than most economies... most economies, in particular, Indonesia's neighbors in the region. Some export industries were especially affected by lower prices and retrenched demand, and many firms cut their investment plans, but economic growth remained well positive overall, and the slowdown in Indonesia's growth from early 2008 to the first quarter of 2009 was smaller than all the major economies in East Asia. ...signficant risks remain Despite the relative robustness of Indonesia's economy, significant risks remain. The openness of its capital accounts, its perceived financial risk rating, and the shallowness of its capital markets leaves financial asset prices susceptible to greater volatility than occur elsewhere. In turn this creates risks for the government's ongoing ability to meet its Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank v Executive Summary financing needs and fund vital infrastructure and social investments, and for the private sector's access to capital. A prolonged period of slower global growth, and a recalibration of growth among Indonesia's neighboring economies from tradables production to domestic demand, also increases the importance of achieving a supportive domestic economic environment if Indonesia is to resume its recent growth rates. Indonesia in 2008 is a glass half-empty because its post- crisis governance transition is still incomplete... That Indonesia in 2008 Indonesia, in 1998, underwent not only a severe economic crisis, but also a dismantling of remains a glass half- the previous political order. That Indonesia in 2008 remains a glass half-empty can be empty can be traced to its traced to the dramatically changed circumstances Indonesia finds itself in as a result of own ongoing and as yet these twin economic and political crises. Though voice and accountability in the political incomplete governance transition from a process has increased dramatically in the decade since the crisis this has not translated centralized authoritarian into similar improvements in other aspects of governance as Indonesia has faced the regime to a decentralized complex task of reconfiguring the institutions and processes of the state at a time when democratic state the global economic environment is rapidly changing. These changes have highlighted systemic weaknesses in the processes and capacity for formulating and implementing policy and have made the process of implementing reforms a more challenging and time- consuming exercise. Democratization and Democratization and decentralization have fundamentally changed accountability decentralization has structures and decision-making processes within government and the broader public fundamentally changed sphere. Before 1999, power had been concentrated in the executive and largely at the accountability structures center. In the new Indonesia, power is dispersed and devolved to other actors beyond the and decision-making processes within executive branch of government at the national level. The national legislature, the government judiciary, oversight institutions, and local governments and legislatures all now have a say in the formulation and implementation of government policies and programs. The fact that highly competitive elections have led to coalitional politics at the national level and in many regions, and that greater voice in the political arena has been afforded to a wide range of non-state actors has made the task of policy formulation, of reaching consensus on critical policies and reforms that much more challenging. Decentralization has changed accountability structures or weakened them, as the division of roles and responsibilities between the various levels of government remains unclear in many spheres of government activity. Government Government effectiveness has been limited by insufficient capacity and accountability of effectiveness has been civil servants, both at the national and the local level. Bureaucratic accountability is limited limited by insufficient by rigid civil service rules and the problem is compounded at the local level by a lack of capacity and clarity in Indonesia's decentralization framework. Capacity is also low in many arenas of accountability of civil servants... state activity, particularly, but not only, at the local level. ...by coordination Weaknesses in the mechanisms and frameworks that Indonesia has in place for problems within coordinating the formulation and implementation of policies and programs within and government, which has across the different branches of government, at both the central and local level, have also hampered the formulation hampered the government's effectiveness in promoting Indonesia's development agenda. and implementation of effective policies and Both the decision-making processes underlying the formulation of policies and the programs delineation of roles and responsibilities needed for implementation of policies are often unclear. For instance, uncertainty about economic policies and regulations, which is cited as one of the weakest aspects of Indonesia's investment climate, appears to stem primarily from a lack of coordination across different ministries at the national level and between the national and sub-national governments. Weaknesses in service delivery are also attributable to a confusion of roles and responsibilities between the central line ministries and local governments. That different parts of government may have differing perspectives and competing priorities is to be expected. What Indonesia appears to lack are clear and effective mechanisms for reconciling these differences. There has been momentum on the control of corruption but it needs to be maintained. And there has been relatively little progress in strengthening the rule of law because of resistance to reform within the judiciary. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank vi Executive Summary ...and because the tasks facing Indonesia, as an emerging middle-income economy are more difficult The tasks facing the Democratization and decentralization have made the functioning of the Indonesian state Indonesian state have more complicated at a time when the tasks facing the state have themselves become themselves become more more challenging. Partly this is attributable to Indonesia's own past successes and challenging in part due to nowhere is this clearer than in the delivery of health and education services. Because Indonesia's own past successes and government policies in Indonesia, during the three decades of sustained growth prior to emergence as a middle- the crisis, were quite successful in meeting basic needs and increasing coverage of basic income economy... services, Indonesia today faces a second-generation set of challenges--increasing the allocative and technical efficiency of public spending, raising the quality of services, and mitigating the remaining income-related and geographic disparities in access and outcomes. For instance, in the 1970s, the government used part of its windfall oil revenues to finance a large-scale school construction program and hire and deploy teachers. Empirical analysis indicates that the initiative was directly responsible for substantial increases in primary school enrollment. As a result today, the main challenge is less the relatively simple task of construction of school facilities than it is to ensure that children from poor households and remote areas have access to a quality education, that the attrition rates in the transition from primary to secondary school and from secondary to tertiary are brought down, and that the quality and relevance of the education that students receive at all levels is improved. Indonesia's success at resuming growth and its re-entry into the ranks of emerging middle income economies has created its own challenges as well. For instance, like many other emerging middle income economies Indonesia is experiencing simultaneous demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions as population growth slows and the population ages, and growing incomes and changes in lifestyle shift the focus in disease control to non-communicable diseases. ...and in part because of The changed global economic environment implies a very different, though equally the changed global important, role for the state than in the past. Agglomeration economies, international economic environment production networks, reductions in transport and logistics costs, the growth of information technologies, and the rise of China and India have all changed the nature of competition and the distribution of rewards in the global economy. Home market advantages are now subject to international competitive pressure as continuing progress in transportation and communications has made it increasingly feasible to procure most components from any part of the world. These changes in turn necessitate a shift in the role of the government, not just in Indonesia but all around the world, from one of direct involvement in production to one of regulation and of facilitating private-public partnerships and of enabling private citizens and firms to better prepare themselves to compete in the changed global environment. Looking ahead to the decade to 2018 and beyond, Indonesia's development agenda is clear The government's The priorities in the first five post-crisis years were to restore macroeconomic and political agenda has evolved from stability. The government lacked the finances to undertake many needed investments, and restoring and the focus was necessarily on fiscal consolidation and on putting in place the basic consolidating legislative framework for the new Indonesian polity. The next five have been, first and macroeconomic and political stability to foremost, about consolidating that hard-earned stability. Fundamental structural reforms meeting Indonesia's were initiated, new laws introduced or existing laws amended, and numerous decrees and development challenges regulations issued, in an attempt to reinforce macroeconomic stability, restore confidence in the Indonesian economy and boost investment. And through continued fiscal prudence, the fiscal space has been increased to meet Indonesia's development challenges. At the same time, work was initiated on a broader development agenda, articulated in the medium-term strategy (Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah, or RPJM) for 2004- 2009. The RPJM specifies three broad and multi-faceted goals: (1) a safe and peaceful Indonesia; (2) a just and democratic Indonesia; and (3) a prosperous Indonesia. The goals articulated in the RPJM have been further elaborated in Annual Work Plans (RKPs) through which the government has identified specific priorities and associated targets. Economic policy packages introduced in each of the last three years illustrate the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank vii Executive Summary government's recognition of the need to accelerate growth by improving Indonesia's competitiveness. These policy packages have focused on priority areas such as infrastructure, investment climate, financial sector, and SME development that are critical to enhancing Indonesia's competitiveness by promoting private-sector-led investment. Public pronouncements and programmatic initiatives reflect the government's desire to build a more inclusive Indonesia by making growth more broad-based, improving service delivery, and enhancing voice. In particular, in addition to a number of sector-specific initiatives such as the introduction of the ASKESKIN health insurance scheme for the poor and the passage of the Teacher Certification Law to improve teacher quality, the government, in 2007, launched a nation-wide poverty reduction program (PNPM) consolidating and building upon existing models of community-driven development. The government and political leaders are also paying increasing attention to the need for more sustainable growth and development. The 2004-2009 RPJM had three main priorities, and within those a number of targets, one of which was environmental sustainability. This was reflected in the stated commitments by the Indonesian Government, as host of the December 2007 13th Conference of Parties, to putting climate change on the top of Indonesia's development agenda. Indonesia, in 2008, can be said to have achieved "half" the goals articulated in the 2004- 2009 RPJM. Continued political stability has meant a "safe and peaceful Indonesia" and a "democratic" Indonesia that is increasingly confident, while strengthened macroeconomic fundamentals and robust growth has increased the prospects for a "prosperous" Indonesia. But for a truly "prosperous" Indonesia growth needs to be accelerated, and for a "just" Indonesia, that growth has to be more widely shared. The process of drafting the 2010-2014 RPJM has begun and early indications are that the unfinished agenda of the current plan will frame the broad priorities of the next one. However, the upcoming 2009 presidential and legislative elections necessarily make any statements about the next government's development agenda somewhat speculative. Accelerating growth Indonesia has the In the three decades prior to the crisis, between 1967 and 1997, Indonesia's economy potential to accelerate grew at an annual average rate of 7 percent. Only 11 other countries have enjoyed such growth to the levels it an extended period of high sustained growth. Indonesia has the resources and the achieved prior to the potential to attain the rates of growth it achieved prior to the crisis. crisis... ...if it makes more of its Indonesia is a resource-rich economy and increases in commodity prices in recent years resource endowments have benefited Indonesia. Rising commodity prices lifted Indonesia's terms of trade and and the opportunities increased its current account surplus. Stocks of Indonesian companies with commodity afforded by high interests led the performance of the Indonesian stock market to one of the world's best commodity prices... performances between January 2005 and mid 2008. But Indonesia did not make enough of the opportunities offered by rising commodity prices. The growth in export values in the last few years has been driven more by export price increases than it has by growth in export. It may well be that the supply response will be forthcoming with a lag because of the multi-year gestation periods for many commodity-related investments. But there are indications that investments themselves have been lagging and the reasons for that have to do with structural impediments specific to Indonesia, in particular the bureaucratic burden faced by firms and the high degree of uncertainty surrounding policies and regulations. ...and at the same time At the same time, a solely commodity-based growth strategy is unlikely to be sufficient. facilitates the market-led With its still young population and rapidly growing labor force, Indonesia needs to create development of globally jobs on a large scale, something that commodity-sector driven growth is by itself unlikely competitive clusters to yield. With the emergence of China and India as well as a number of low-cost competitors such as Vietnam, Indonesia can no longer rely on its traditional manufacturing export base. Growth of traditional manufactured exports such as textiles, garments and footwear is slowing. So Indonesia may need to further diversify its export basket and to do this it needs to keep pace with its EAP neighbors in facilitating the market-led development of new globally competitive clusters Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank viii Executive Summary Alleviating infrastructural The poor quality of Indonesia's infrastructure, particularly transport, logistics and energy- bottlenecks is essential related infrastructure, is a significant deterrent to job-creating investment and has hindered for accelerating growth Indonesia's competitiveness. Indonesia has among the lowest levels of access to infrastructure in the region and infrastructure performance has actually deteriorated in some sectors in the last decade. Infrastructure investments have declined dramatically since 1996 and though public infrastructure investment has rebounded since 2000, private investment in infrastructure has yet to recover. With insufficient investments in infrastructure, bottlenecks and shortages have begun to emerge. The government has Recognizing its potentially catalytic role in accelerating growth, the government has made made infrastructure a infrastructure a major economic priority and has, over the past three years, taken a major economic number of measures. Central among them is an effort to foster Public Private priority... Participations (PPP) in infrastructure. A National Committee on Policy for Accelerating Infrastructure Provision (KKPPI) was established in 2005, which includes a PPP Unit as a center of technical expertise in project preparation. Infrastructure summits have been held in each of the last three years to solicit private investment. And through its annual economy policy packages, the government has aimed to encourage competition, to eliminate discriminatory practices that obstruct the private sector's participation in infrastructure provision, and to redefine the government's role, including separating policy- making, regulatory and operational responsibilities. ...but progress has been But progress has been slow and concrete results have yet to be obtained because of a slow and concrete variety of institutional challenges. Retail tariff levels remain below costs, and tariff reforms results have yet to be have been hampered by political considerations, discouraging investment in new facilities obtained because of a or expansion of existing service networks, especially for critical sectors such as power and variety of institutional challenges water. Weaknesses in the transparency and efficiency of public infrastructure spending have slowed procurement. Land acquisition processes for infrastructure projects remain cumbersome and often inequitable. Operational and cost inefficiencies plague a number of infrastructure service providers because of weak incentives, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities--policy making, regulatory, and delivery--between central and local service providers and between different institutions, public and private, local and community. The incentives and capacity for local governments to undertake infrastructure investment and ensure the sustainability of such investments through proper maintenance remain weak. Many regional governments have not been able to put the funds made available through intergovernmental transfer to good use in building the necessary infrastructure partly because of limited planning and implementation capacity, and in part because budget execution in key ministries remains slow. In addition, regional borrowing mechanisms remain underdeveloped, further constraining infrastructure finance and public service delivery. The policy, regulatory The uncertainty that characterizes the policy, regulatory and legal aspects of Indonesia's and legal uncertainty that investment climate is the other main deterrent to investment. Though business perceptions characterizes Indonesia's of the investment climate have improved since 2003 (except for infrastructure), Indonesia investment climate is the still has a long way to go. In the 2008 Doing Business survey Indonesia was ranked 123rd other main deterrent to investment out of 178 countries in terms of the overall ease of doing business, behind all its EAP neighbors except Cambodia and the Philippines. The government has made efforts to improve the investment climate. Economic policy packages covering the investment climate have been introduced in each of the last three years. An Investment Law and a Tax Administration Law were both passed in 2007. Major reforms of tax and customs administration are underway. Judged in terms of the volume and substance of the reforms announced, the accomplishments have been significant. But effective implementation of the policies has been slowed by poor coordination between the relevant government agencies, and uncertainty about the legal framework and judicial intervention remains high. The local level investment climate is a particular concern because of inconsistent and often arbitrary regulation imposed by local governments. Making growth inclusive Because so many of the More than half of Indonesia's population, and nearly two-thirds of Indonesia's poor lived in poor still live in rural rural areas in 2006. Agricultural growth rates had been falling till recently because public areas, revitalizing the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank ix Executive Summary rural economy is critical investments in agricultural infrastructure and agricultural support services declined and to making growth more resource management was neglected following the crisis and subsequent decentralization. inclusive Because the share of the labor force engaged in agriculture and related activities remains high, the slowdown in agricultural growth has meant that value-added per worker in agriculture in Indonesia has essentially been stagnant in the last decade and remains low relative to other countries. If growth is to be more inclusive, rural incomes have to grow, and to raise rural incomes, the returns to the main asset of poor and low-income households--their labor--have to be raised. That will mean revitalizing the rural economy by raising agricultural value-added and stimulating rural non-farm employment by improving the rural investment climate. The technical options for The technical options for directly raising agricultural yields are currently limited, and have directly raising been since the early 1990s, especially for rice. And though genetically modified crop agricultural yields are technologies hold hope for the future, there are few immediately applicable new currently limited... technologies available to provide a significant boost to yields. Raising rural incomes will therefore require the diversification of agriculture into higher-valued added activities and the development of agricultural supply chains. To a certain extent this is already happening. Changes in consumption patterns and retailing networks have induced rapid growth in supermarkets, which have begun to influence the agricultural production ...and so raising rural structure, processing, handling and marketing systems. But more could be done and new incomes requires approaches will be required given the changed, more decentralized, institutional promoting the environment. Decentralized extension systems that involve the private sector and civil diversification of society need to be replicated nation-wide and strengthened. Indonesia's agricultural agriculture into higher- valued added activities product regulatory framework is quite developed but attention is needed on capacity and the development of building and maintaining the integrity of national systems with decentralization. Because agricultural supply less than 25 percent of holders of rural land parcels in Indonesia have a formal land chains certificate, which reduces incentives to invest and hampers access to credit, clarifying land use rights through land titling and, in the case of communal lands, other approaches, is critical. Better maintenance of district roads and increased access to credit for small and medium enterprises would improve the rural investment climate. Raising rural incomes Raising rural incomes will also mean speeding up the transfer of labor out of agriculture to will also mean speeding higher value-added activities elsewhere. During the first five years after the crisis, up the transfer of labor increasing numbers of workers were pushed into agriculture, with the result that in 2003 out of agriculture to agricultural employment had returned to 1991 levels. In the last five years, that trend has higher value-added activities elsewhere. slowly begun to reverse, though more than 40 percent of Indonesia's labor force still remains in agriculture. The slow growth in high value-added (largely urban) jobs is explained in part by the weaknesses in Indonesia's investment climate that have deterred investment but restrictive labor market institutions and policies appear to have also played a role. Indonesia's employment protection legislation is amongst the strictest in East Asia. Legislated severance rates for dismissals have more than doubled since 1996, and on paper, the costs of firing workers are extremely high by both regional and global standards. Minimum wages, which since the decentralization in 2001 have been set at the provincial level, increased sharply in real terms between 1998 and 2003 at a rate well above the growth in labor productivity. At the same time, there is wide recognition that weak enforcement of the legislation means that many workers, in effect, are not protected--particularly those laid-off from smaller and medium-sized firms. Legislation needs to be simplified to increase firms' compliance and the promptness of payments, and lower the potential for litigation, red tape and corruption emerging from the difficulty in interpreting the law. Indonesia will require a Like many other emerging middle income economies Indonesia is experiencing different, more expensive simultaneous demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions as population and sophisticated health growth slows and the population ages, and growing incomes and changes in lifestyle shift system in the not-too- the public health priorities to non-communicable diseases. These transitions are putting distant future... additional pressures on the health system and will necessitate a different, more expensive health system in the not-too-distant future, especially since Indonesia is one of a small but growing number of middle income countries that has made the decision to transition to universal health insurance coverage for its population. ...but the immediate task The immediate task Indonesia faces, however, is to reverse the stagnation in priority Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank x Executive Summary Indonesia faces, health outcomes such as maternal mortality and child malnutrition rates since 2000, however, is to improve reduce large geographic and income inequities for many health outcomes, and improve its priority health outcomes district-based health system. Fragmentation, allocative and technical inefficiencies, low and reduce geographic productivity, and, low quality have resulted in low utilization rates of both public and and income inequities within an imperfect private facilities, and high rates of self-treatment. Experience from around the world decentralized system suggests that a decentralized model of service delivery can be an important tool for improving accountability of front-line service providers and hence the quality of services. But in Indonesia this potential has yet to be fully realized. Decentralization has indeed put more money and responsibility in the hands of local officials, but there continues to be confusion concerning the division of roles and responsibilities between local governments and the health ministry at the national level. There is little correlation between health spending and health outcomes at the district level, even though decentralization has started reducing fiscal inequities. Service delivery has suffered from these weaknesses in the decentralization framework, which are compounded by, and in some cases reinforce, a lack of capacity and accountability amongst frontline service providers. A lack of professionalism, non-compliance with good practice protocols, high absenteeism (e.g., 40 percent of medical doctors being absent without valid reason during official public working hours), uneven deployment, and low motivation in the health workforce are common problems. Providing quality Education is central to the Government of Indonesia's development agenda and Indonesia education for all has made remarkable progress on primary and secondary enrolment rates. However important challenges remain: expanding access by making primary schooling more affordable for the poor, lowering attrition rates in transitions to junior and senior secondary school, raising the quality and relevance of education at all levels and improving governance and increasing accountability throughout the system. The cost of even primary education remains high for many, especially poor, households. The BOS system of direct transfers to schools, and a recently introduced CCT is aiming to improve access for the poor. The spatial distribution and quality of teachers is uneven and Indonesia continues to rank poorly in international standardized tests of student performance and drop out rates are high for junior and secondary education. The government is making efforts to remedy this with the passage of the Teacher Certification Law in 2005 and the provision of incentives to teachers to re-locate to more remote areas. Overall progress has been hindered, however, by the unfinished decentralization agenda, which has left responsibility and accountability for many education areas vague. There is no clear and efficient definition and assignment of functional roles and responsibilities and there is often a misalignment of responsibility and authority. There is a lack of effective management systems and skills (generic and system-based) to implement the reform. Ensuring growth is sustainable Managing Indonesia's Inadequate environmental management is leading to unsustainable degradation of forestry and coastal Indonesia's considerable forestry and coastal resources. Many of these resources are resources sustainably common property resources or are perceived to be so. Indonesia's administrative and while providing adequate regulatory framework for environmental management, while improving is still uneven. livelihoods Forestry policies and legislation are reasonable, but land use rules and allocation decisions are inconsistent, non-transparent, and disputed by many, leading to conflict over land and resources on the ground. Implementation and enforcement of rules and procedures is often poor and slow due to weak commitment by sectoral agencies, low awareness amongst local departments and officials, and capacity challenges--technical and financial--at all levels, but especially at the local level, which has an important share of environmental management responsibilities under the decentralization framework. Weaknesses in the judicial sector and in the rule of law, vested interests, money politics and corruption among the powerful have impeded efforts to match performance with policy. Environmental institutions, roles and responsibilities are fragmented and coordination mechanisms at national and local levels are poorly defined. While the main problems appear to be on the implementation and enforcement front, the policy and planning framework could also be strengthened to provide better incentives for sustainable use of natural resources. At the moment, there is little integration of environmental considerations at the planning and program levels, especially in the public investment Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xi Executive Summary planning process and in regional plans for land and resource use. The challenge of environmental management has also become more complicated in the context of decentralization as many regulatory functions have devolved to provinces and districts, which are reinterpreting existing rules or adopting new regulatory procedures. Some of these innovations strengthen environmental controls, highlighting the potential of decentralized governance, but many relax them or seek to bypass national standards. Meeting Indonesia's Indonesia's energy demand is projected to grow rapidly, with some projections estimating energy needs without a near-tripling of demand between 2005 and 2020. In 2006, total installed generation sacrificing its capacity of the national power system reached 28,926 MW, making it one of the largest in environment the region. Given the size of its population, however, Indonesia's per capita electricity consumption and electrification ratio are among the lowest in the region. Because of under-investment in the decade since the crisis, the state-owned power company, PLN-- which, as a vertically-integrated power company, generating, transmitting and distributing most of the electricity in the country, effectively has a monopoly--has added relatively little new capacity to its system, and demand is beginning to outstrip supply. PLN's current fuel mix, the legacy of past access to subsidized oil and the slow development of gas production and transmission infrastructure, is skewed towards the use of diesel, with diesel-based power generation currently accounting for over 35 percent of the total electricity generated. With PLN no longer enjoying access to fuel at subsidized prices, and with mandated tariff ceilings (which have not been raised since 2004), the government has had to provide Public Service Obligation (PSO) subsidies to maintain PLN's financial viability Not only has that proved a drain on the central government budget, it distorts PLN's incentives to develop the most cost-effective generation sources. The legal and regulatory framework that governs the electricity sector is presently in a state of uncertainty. This is mainly due to the annulment of 2002 Electricity Law that established the unbundling of PLN and a gradual transition towards greater competition. In addition, the legal ambiguity has impacted electricity pricing policy and hindered private investments. PLN is currently undertaking a substantial expansion program, in particular through a 10,000 MW coal-based "crash" program. Rapid expansion of coal generation raises concerns especially in light of the environmental impacts. In the absence of clean coal technologies, fast growing coal consumption will pose serious threats to the local environment. Indonesia is rich in renewable energy resources and could benefit from increasing the share of renewable energy sources in power generation. Biomass and hydroelectric resources are abundantly available in most of the outer islands, and can be attractive options for switching away from the largely diesel-based generation in many of these locations. Promoting energy savings and efficiency provides further opportunities for ensuring energy security and sustainable development. The Indonesian economy is particularly energy intensive, judging by the value-added (in terms of GDP) that Indonesia obtains per unit of energy, which is lower than most other countries in the region. It is estimated that Demand-Side Management (DSM) measures that are already being considered or implemented to some degree have the potential to reduce power generation capacity needs upwards of 2,500 MW. International experience suggests that DSM measures are most successful when complemented with fiscal incentives and incentives provided through price-based regulation. Making Indonesia's Like much of East Asia, Indonesia has been rapidly urbanizing. Between 1995 and 2005, rapidly growing urban Indonesia's urban population grew by 39 million or 55 percent, a much greater proportional agglomerations livable increase than most other countries in the region. In the decade up to 2015, the urban growth poles population is projected to increase by another 39 million, nearly two times the population of Indonesia's largest current urban agglomeration--the greater Jakarta area--which in 2007 had a population of over 22 million. This rapid urbanization is placing significant stresses on Indonesia's urban centers, reducing the quality of life and straining the ability of local governments to deliver services. Investment in water and sanitation services is urgently needed in Indonesia's cities. Only a sixth of a total of 9.6 million low-income urban residents throughout Indonesia and less than half the residents in Jakarta have access to piped water. The environmental consequences of access through large scale private unregulated wells are high. Land subsidence, higher costs of reaching drinkable well water and proximity to septic tanks pose high environmental and health risks. The centralized sewer system covers less than 2 percent of the urban area and most human waste is not treated prior to disposal. The manner in which private sanitation systems (including septic Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xii Executive Summary tanks) are managed and operated frequently risks contamination of ground and surface water. With no significant investment in city-wide sanitation infrastructure in the last 20 years, Indonesia has the lowest percentage of urban households with adequate sanitation in Asia. With limited investment in road infrastructure, most major urban areas are subject to severe traffic congestion, particularly the quickly urbanizing satellite towns. Flooding also continues to be a challenge in urban areas. In 2007, the worst episode of flooding in Jakarta covered 60 percent of the urban area. If urban local governments are to be able to meet these challenges, which they must if Indonesia's urban agglomerations are to be dynamic and livable centers of growth as in other East Asian countries, their ability to mobilize resources and manage expenditures must be enhanced, their institutional capacity for urban planning, including budgeting and development planning has to be strengthened and their management of land and other municipal assets needs to be improved. Building resilience Managing disaster risks Indonesia is highly vulnerable to natural disasters, as the record of the last five years and preparing for climate attests and the capacity to plan for, insure against, and respond to natural disasters is change currently limited. But that may be changing, with the passage in March 2007, of the Disaster Management Law that codifies the national plan for disaster risk reduction [DRR] issued a year earlier, sets out responsibilities for DRR as well as disaster response at the local and national levels and modernizes institutional arrangements for disaster management. Indonesia is also vulnerable to climate change mostly linked to reduced agricultural productivity, higher levels and intensity of flooding and higher incidence of climate change related diseases. Indonesia has developed a strategic, multi-year action plan and policy reform program, outlined in the National Climate Change Action Plan and the Development Planning Response to Climate Change (both from December 2007). This high-level focus should help Indonesia to improve energy and forestry sector management, prepare for the post-2012 climate change regime, and establish a sound framework for coordination and implementation of adaptation activities. But because, institutionally, climate change mitigation and adaptation actions cut across nearly all sectors of the economy and all levels of government, coordinating, planning, and targeting appropriate actions is likely to be a challenge, and the establishment of the National Council on Climate Change in 2008 is an important step in meeting that challenge. Global financing for climate change mitigation efforts offers Indonesia promising opportunities to undertake an integrated approach to climate issues without compromising growth and development. Indonesia has significant potential to control carbon intensity while continuing to develop and grow (including energy efficiency and renewable energy sources), and accessing this kind of innovative financing presents a strategic opportunity for Indonesia, opening the door to carbon market payments and other financing alternatives. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xiii Executive Summary Designing social Indonesia's existing complex suite of social protection schemes has to be expanded and protection schemes that improved. There are four main reasons why. First, Indonesia's social protection system, buffer the population and in particular its employment protection legislation, is mostly designed to cover urban from the adverse impacts workers who have a formal labor contract. Since only about a third of the labor force falls of shocks into that category, the bulk of Indonesia's workers and their families rely on family ties and community networks, which, as a consequence of sustained economic growth and rural- urban migration, are slowly eroding. Second, Indonesia's population is aging, and is doing so at a much faster pace than OECD countries when they were at similar levels of economic development. Demographic and economic forecasts suggest, for instance, that Indonesia should be growing by an additional two percentage points if it is to reach Japan's income at the same point of aging. The rapidly aging population will become a growing burden on family networks, which currently are the main caretakers of the elderly population, and pressure to extend old age social protection to poor and informal workers who did not contribute much or at all to their pensions during their working years is likely to grow significantly. To avoid placing the burden of increased pension costs on future generations, a fully-funded pension system that is financially sustainable in the long term should be developed soon. Third, Indonesia currently lacks a countrywide safety net that can buffer the population from the adverse impacts of shocks. While the government rolled out unconditional cash transfer schemes at short notice following reductions in fuel subsidies in 2005 and 2008, the absence of an existing reliable targeting mechanism raised concerns about leakage and exclusion in the implementation of the schemes. Had an ongoing safety net program with a tested targeting mechanism already been in place, it might have been possible to rapidly scale it up in the case of large covariate shocks such as the rise in food prices in the first half of 2008. Fourth, an existing safety net that keeps workers who lose their jobs from falling into poverty, might ease resistance to the relaxation of the stringent employment protection legislation that may have inhibited job creation in the past few years. On some of these fronts Indonesia is making progress. It has developed a means-tested health insurance scheme for the poor, and it is piloting a conditional cash transfer program. Through its community-based poverty alleviation scheme it enhances the income-generating capacity of poor rural households. Enhancing the capacity of Indonesia's banking system has gradually become stronger over the past several years and coordination and headline indicators of most measures of banking soundness indicate this strength. mechanisms among But, there remain areas of vulnerability, primarily related to the capacity of and financial sector coordination mechanisms among financial sector regulatory and supervision institutions to regulatory and supervision institutions deal with systemic shocks from either external or internal sources. The financial sector to deal with systemic safety-net is less than secure. While with the recent increase the deposit guarantee covers shocks from either 97 percent of depositors, it still covers only 25 percent of deposits, so in case of a bank in external or internal distress, large depositors still have the incentive to withdraw their deposits. The deposit sources insurance agency (LPS) has been given strong powers of bank resolution, but has neither adequate staff nor the on-going knowledge of individual banks, both of which are needed to adequately address resolution. Thus far, the emphasis has been on the organizational structure of the safety net, but there has been less emphasis on thinking about it on a detailed operational basis. These weaknesses are being addressed through the Financial Sector Stability Committee, which has recently become operational, though its mandate is still subject to confirmation by Parliament. The inability of Indonesia to undertake consolidated supervision of financial conglomerates is another area of vulnerability. As in other countries, Indonesia's financial sector supervisory agencies have relatively narrow mandates--for instance, BI's current mandate is to review only "banking operations"--and so unless the separate agencies cooperate in jointly supervising the full set of activities of diversified financial conglomerates, emerging risks may be missed. A similar need for coordinated supervision arises even when firms in different segments of the financial sector are not jointly held but have extensive dealings with one another, for instance, multi-finance companies operating in consumer finance (e.g., motorcycle lending and leasing) depend on commercial banks for funds. In such cases, unless industry regulators work together to jointly assess the overall risk, the supervisory actions of one agency may inadvertently generate contagion-type effects in other segments. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xiv Executive Summary Enhancing government effectiveness is central to realizing the development agenda The central challenges If Indonesia is to realize the development agenda reviewed above and rise to its potential Indonesia faces today in as a competitive, inclusive, sustainable and resilient middle-income country, it has to realizing its development adapt the institutions and mechanisms that govern the functioning of the state and shape agenda are all, in one state-society interactions, to the changed circumstances it finds itself in. The central form or another, of an institutional nature... challenges Indonesia faces today in realizing its development agenda are all, in one form or another, of an institutional nature in that they entail furthering Indonesia's as yet incomplete governance transition by improving the effectiveness of public institutions and processes through longer-term institutional and process transformations. Put another way, financing is not the only or even the main challenge Indonesia faces. Spending better, rather than simply spending more... ... even in areas where Even in areas where additional financing is clearly needed--for instance, from the private additional financing is sector in the case of many infrastructure sectors, or from the public sector if the clearly needed restructuring of Indonesia's health system is to be financially viable--institutional challenges need to first be sorted out for that financing to be forthcoming and for it to be effectively deployed. Details of the institutional The details of the institutional challenges naturally vary from context to context and from challenges naturally vary sector to sector. For instance, the particular set of institutional issues that have to be from context to context... addressed to achieve a breakthrough in the construction of toll roads are the difficulties in land acquisition because of a weak legal framework and weak dispute resolution mechanisms, corruption and weaknesses in public procurement. The ones that hinder the provision of quality education in rural areas are the limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers and weaknesses in the management and flow of funds. But in both cases, the constraints are clearly of an "institutional variety", and in particular, one ...but they all are related that has to do with one or more aspects of governance. Chart A illustrates this by mapping to one or more aspects of the key constraints corresponding to each of the broad priorities identified in the review the governance challenge above of Indonesia's development agenda, to one or more of the components of Indonesia faces governance--policy and regulatory quality, government effectiveness conceptualized in terms of coordination, capacity and accountability, control of corruption and rule of law. There are as well some At the same time, there are a number of core systemic processes and institutions for common core systemic formulating and implementing policy that are common to all or at least most of the challenges challenges that constitute Indonesia's development agenda. The core processes, human resources and institutions for formulating and implementing policy have to be strengthened. Mechanisms and frameworks must be developed for overcoming coordination problems within and between the national and local levels of government and making the most of the significant decentralization Indonesia has undergone. And the momentum in controlling corruption needs to be sustained and the rule of law strengthened in order to increase confidence in state institutions and build a national consensus around needed reforms. Reforming public The core public financial management systems public institutions rely on to implement financial management government priorities and effectively spend public funds have to be strengthened. This systems means greater emphasis on the reform of public sector systems including procurement, financial management and budget execution, project design, contract management, information management, and monitoring and evaluation. Indonesia has made major advances over the last five years in establishing a sound legal and administrative framework to manage its public finances and improve transparency. With the legal architecture in place, reforms have been initiated to reorganize the Ministry of Finance (MoF) and re-engineer business processes across the budget cycle. Budget planning, formulation, reporting and execution have improved but significant weaknesses remain. In particular, the Indonesian budget system is still heavily reliant on ex-ante controls and does not yet use ex-post control systematically. Indonesia still spends 50 percent of its total capital expenditure in the final quarter of the year and this disrupts project implementation. The process of rapid democratic transition restored parliament's substantial powers in what was previously a closed budgetary system. The institution of appropriate checks and balances, particularly with regard to budgetary decisions, are Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xv Executive Summary important pillars of sound governance systems. However, the evolving practice of very detailed legislative involvement in the current budget preparation process, and the resulting appropriations structure embodied in the budget law and annexes, has profoundly affected the quality of legislative interventions and neither the executive nor the legislature seem to be fully satisfied with executive-legislative interactions in the budgetary realm. The public procurement system has seen incremental improvements but still has significant deficiencies. A national public procurement office (NPPO) has been established as a regulatory body for public procurement but progress in developing a procurement law, as well as standard bidding documents and users manuals has been slow. Due to the absence of a clear professional stream for procurement experts as well as the lack of a national procurement capacity building strategy, there is continuing weakness in procurement capacity in implementing agencies, especially at the provincial and district levels, and that has raised concerns about collusive and corrupt practices in the bidding process and the efficacy of anti-corruption measures and sanctions. The internal audit framework of the government is extensive but its scope and organization do not match needs. Despite (or perhaps because of) the existence of multiple internal audit agencies, the internal audit function continues to be a weak link in governance. The institutional arrangements are complex and the mandates and division of labor between the various internal audit institutions are unclear. Initiating civil service A strengthened public financial management system will not by itself resolve the reforms weaknesses in the implementation of programs. Increasing the accountability, incentives and capacity of civil servants is equally critical because the civil service plays such an important role in driving institutional performance. It is generally acknowledged that insufficient administrative and technical capacity and distorted incentive structures within the government bureaucracy limit government effectiveness. The reasons why the capacity and accountability of the Indonesian civil service is low are clear. A large number of agencies with overlapping authority share responsibility for management and oversight of various aspects of the civil service. As a result no single agency is proactively managing the structure and shape of the civil service and no agency has the recognized authority to undertake comprehensive civil service reform. The 2001 decentralization law transferred over three million civil servants from central to local authority, but did not give the local governments adequate powers to determine the size and allocation of civil servants within their jurisdictions. The result is that, since decentralization, there has been a misallocation of civil servants across levels of government. Demand for civil service positions is high, and the recruitment system is characterized by informal payments for entry into the system and for promotions. Performance criteria for promotion are weak, and there are few credible sanctions for low performance and corruption. And the system for determining overall compensation is opaque, discretionary and prone to abuse, with weak links to either individual or group performance. In such a context there is clearly a need to clarify institutional responsibility for civil service reform, improve incentives and governance and revise the legal framework. Action on such a broad systemic front is, however, unlikely to be politically and institutionally feasible. In the meantime, efforts are under way in selected agencies to clarify job descriptions and job grading, enhance performance incentives through greater pay and promotion linkages and improve human resource management functions. Making decentralization With the "big bang" decentralization of 2001, Indonesia went from being one of the most work by clarifying the centralized countries in the world in administrative, fiscal and political terms, to one of the framework governing most decentralized. Decentralization has transformed Indonesia's governance and center-local relations... economic landscape. Sub-national governments have become major players in service delivery and their role in public investment and economic development is increasing even as the spatial diversification of economic activity within Indonesia has grown. But the transition is far from complete, overlapping responsibilities abound, and sub-national government accountability and transparency mechanisms are weak. The slow progress on elaborating a clear, consistent decentralization framework has led to confusion over roles and responsibilities between central line ministries and local governments, and horizontal coordination across local governments is extremely limited. The central government continues to spend significant amounts of resources on local government tasks. Unlike most decentralized countries, Indonesia has not transferred significant tax power to local governments, and this has created a possibly unhealthy dependence on transfers from the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xvi Executive Summary center. Local and provincial governments have a key role in public investment particularly in the infrastructure sector. However, borrowing for infrastructure and other projects is underutilized and slow progress on elaborating a clear, consistent intra-governmental fiscal framework has obstructed the flow of development resources. Almost every aspect of local government performance is compromised by the lack of clarity and inadequate coordination, from service delivery to infrastructure provision to the local investment climate to environmental management. ...and increasing the In addition to addressing administrative and regulatory issues, improving decentralization capacity and outcomes requires increasing the capacity and accountability of local governments. The accountability of local accountability of local governments to their constituents is crucial for the success of governments... regional autonomy but, by necessity, developing new accountability relationships and ...by integrating systems takes time. One approach would improve performance incentives by providing performance incentives additional financing for sub-national governments that met established criteria i.e., with into inter-governmental respect to financial and other reporting or more ambitiously on service provision (i.e. transfers... health and education outcomes or even road maintenance). The Central Government could provide this support through the DAK along with complementary technical assistance in the specified area. An improved system for monitoring of sub-national governments would provide incentives for good performers and technical assistance for those lagging behind. A credible performance system would provide transparency, attract ...and better monitoring investors to strong regions and provide a basis for an allocation system based on of local government performance and needs. Despite the increased responsibility of sub-national performance and governments, Indonesia does not yet have a sound system of sub-national fiscal and improving sub-national financial reporting to facilitate systematic monitoring and evaluation of performance. In fiscal and financial most middle and high-income countries the financial performance of local governments is reporting measured by rating agencies and performance measurement mechanisms create competitive and political pressures. An improved system of reporting that reliably captures the performance of local governments and provinces would represent a positive development. Building on the Indicators of corruption in Indonesia are slowly improving. Most global corruption surveys momentum gained in still place Indonesia low in cross-country rankings but most also indicate that the situation anti-corruption efforts... has improved in the last five years. The improvement in perceptions reflects the genuine momentum generated in the fight against corruption in the last three years. With the strong support of the president, who has made the fight against corruption a theme of his administration and ensured that dedicated resources have been made available to at least some of the agencies critical to the anti-corruption initiative, powerful independent oversight and prosecutorial institutions such as the Anti-Corruption Commission (KPK) and the Anti-Corruption Court have begun to deliver tangible results. In addition, institutions like the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK), the Financial Transaction and Analysis Centre (PPATK), and the Attorney General's Office (AGO) have become more active. High profile corruption investigations have been launched, leading to a number of successful prosecutions. ...by strengthening the The government now needs to turn to deeper institutional reforms, particularly in the legal rule of law and judicial system, where progress in improving governance has been much less evident. The adoption of an impressive blueprint for reform of the court system has not been followed through with effective implementation. Also, despite good success in prosecuting corruption, there has been less progress in developing and implementing a coherent, well-focused anti-corruption strategy and in tackling corruption in those arenas of state activity where concerns about corruption are especially prevalent such as: the judicial sector, supervision of the financial sector, political parties and parliaments, and military procurement and military-owned businesses. Addressing corruption in all four of these areas is critical to the overall fight against corruption. There have, however, been some important positive recent developments. The legal framework for preventing corruption should be considerably improved with the recent passage of the law on witness protection in 2006, which protects whistleblowers, and the law on freedom of information in 2008, which promotes transparency of essential public information such as budget, expenditure and procurement related information. Of course, the passage of laws is just the beginning and a strong framework to implement the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xvii Executive Summary freedom of information law will be critical to ensure genuine access. Recent KPK investigations involving the judiciary and parliament are beginning to put pressure on these institutions to initiate reforms. That is critical, because without progress in civil service and administrative reform, legal and judicial reform, accountability measures at the local government level, as well as the more sensitive issues of political party and electoral financing and the role of quasi-public foundations (yayasan), the early gains from the government's anti-corruption drive may not be translated into sustainable improvements in the quality of governance. ...which will take time, but maintaining a sense of urgency-- making haste slowly--is critical There are no simple or Adapting the institutions and mechanisms that govern the functioning of the state and universal recipes or shape state-society interactions will take time and not be easy. Institutional reforms and models for complex process transformations by their very nature are complicated undertakings. Building institutional reforms... consensus around more easily implementable but contentious reforms can also be a lengthy process. There are no simple or universal recipes or models for how to do this-- the particulars of the model will necessarily vary from context to context. ...and a step-by-step And so the approach to reforms may be as important as the substance of the reforms approach may be themselves. Whether the task is civil service reform at the national level or improving warranted service delivery at the local level, much trial and error and institutional adaptation is required. The approach often involves piloting reforms--selected from a menu of reform options that hold some promise, but the particulars of which need to be "field-tested"--on a small scale or in a clearly demarcated realm (a region, a ministry, a sector or sub- sector), monitoring and evaluating them carefully and using these assessments to adapt and improve the design of reforms and determine when and how to scale them up. Indonesia is doing just Indonesia is doing just that in some areas. Civil service reforms were first initiated only that in some areas... within MoF and that too, only in a limited form. Over time, the scope of the reforms has gradually broadened, while similar reforms have been initiated in selected other institutions such as the Corruption Eradication Commission and the Supreme Audit Agency. Similarly, the approach to budget reforms is going steadily but slowly, initially in selected departments within MoF and Bappenas, but now beginning to move to a few selected line ministries. The nationwide rollout (under the label of PNPM) of the approach to community-based poverty alleviation that was tested and refined over the last decade through the KDP and UPP programs, the piloting of a future conditional cash transfer program (PKH) and to a somewhat lesser degree, the expansion of BOS, are all other examples of this approach, where initiatives, initially limited in scope or scale are being scaled up as evidence accumulates of the effectiveness of the initial efforts. ...but maintaining a Though it is important to recognize that institutional reforms take time and it is often sense of urgency-- advisable to take a step-by-step experimental approach, maintaining a sense of urgency-- making haste slowly--is making haste slowly--is critical throughout the process. That is because without a critical throughout the continued sense of urgency there is a risk that Indonesia's hard-earned reform momentum process if the hard- earned reform might stall. The government has shown commitment to reform, but significant obstacles to momentum is not to stall change remain. There is a risk that the reform effort will languish as even committed because of resistance to reformers are overwhelmed by the extent and complexity of the task of pushing forward reform as well as political institutional reforms and putting in place new ways of doing things in the face of dynamics entrenched organizational cultures and behaviors. The task is especially challenging when, as is often the case, the implementation of institutional reforms relies on the very unreformed systems and processes that are themselves the object of change. Those who benefit from the existing system, whether from corruption, capture or nepotism--the very institutional distortions that are often the target of the reform agenda--can use those distortions to politically derail efforts at serious institutional reform. Broader political dynamics can also intervene when the electoral imperatives of coalitional and money politics undermine incentives and efforts to strengthen the accountability of state institutions. A sustained focus on governance and transparency can help by restoring confidence in the legitimacy of public processes and institutions and building a consensus for continued reforms. If Indonesia can make haste slowly and maintain a sense of Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xviii Executive Summary urgency in furthering its governance transition, it has the potential to become a dynamic, competitive and inclusive middle-income economy. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xix Executive Summary Chart A : Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda DEVELOPMENT AGENDA Policy and Government effectiveness Control of corruption Rule of regulatory Coordination Capacity Accountability Control of law quality Coordination Local governments Civil service Public financial management corruption Accelerating growth Alleviating infrastructure bottlenecks Weaknesses in procurement Difficulties in land acquisition Difficulties in land acquisition Low tariffs Delays in budget execution Delays in budget execution Policy Insufficient local level capacity Uncertainty about uncertainty judicial intervention Remedying regulatory weaknesses in Uncertainty Inadequate coordination between Resistance to Uncertainty about investment climate about policy ministries and between ministries reform judicial intervention and local governments Regulatory Limited capacity to formulate and Regulatory burden burden implement reforms Making growth inclusive Raising rural incomes Insufficient capacity and incentives at the local level Land tenure insecurity Land tenure insecurity Poor rural investment climate Facilitating the transfer of labor Labor Law Restrictive minimum wages Improving water and sanitation Low tariffs Unclear allocation of responsibilities Insufficient horizontal coordination Sub-national financing constraints Sub-national financing constraints Restructuring the health system Limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers Fiscal inequities Uneven staffing Unclear division of responsibilities Weak stewardship Weaknesses in provider between local and central payment and budgeting government systems Providing quality education for all Limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers Weaknesses in management of funds and transfers Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xx Executive Summary Chart A (continued): Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda DEVELOPMENT AGENDA Policy and Government effectiveness Control of corruption Rule of regulatory Coordination Capacity Accountability Control of law quality Coordination Local governments Civil service Public financial management corruption Ensuring sustainability Managing Indonesia's environmental Unclear division of responsibilities Low awareness Corruption and weak and common property resources between local and central and limited enforcement of laws government capacity Lack of coordination Limited consideration of between ministries leading environmental impacts in to policy uncertainty public investment planning Meeting Indonesia's energy needs Low tariffs and distorted Uncertainty about legal without sacrificing its environment incentives because of fuel framework subsidies Complex structure and lack of implementing regulations Making Indonesia's urban areas livable Insufficient budgeting and planning Improper functioning of capacity land markets Sub-national financing Sub-national financing constraints constraints Building resilience Managing disasters and preparing for Lack of coordination Technical capacity Corruption and weak climate change across ministries in policy is limited law enforcement formulation Enhancing security and protecting the Untargeted Leakages in poor subsidies targeting Reducing financial vulnerability Limited coordination Possibilities of amongst various corruption and regulatory and collusion supervisory agencies Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank xxi A. Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Indonesia has emerged Indonesia, in 2008, is a glass half-full. Ten years after an extreme economic crisis, which from the economic crisis led to a 13 percent decline in GDP, and a concurrent political crisis, Indonesia has of the late 1990s with emerged economically strong and remarkably stable in political terms. While mixed results macroeconomic fundamentals have been strengthened and political stability achieved, there has been considerably less progress on other important fronts. The global financial turmoil is expected to reduce growth for the next year or two but Indonesia should return to higher growth in the medium term. However, there are heighted risks of even slower growth for a longer period due to the global economic slowdown and potential capital reversals. 1. Indonesia has done well in terms of macroeconomic performance in the decade since the 1998 Asian crisis 1. a. Per-capita GDP has exceeded pre-crisis levels and growth has picked up Real and per capita GDP Indonesian growth accelerated to a ten-year high of 6.3 percent in 2007 and 6.1 percent in are growing... 2008 as the global economy entered a deep recession. Real GDP has been growing at a rate of 5 to 6 percent annually since 2002 and, in 2005, real per-capita GDP for the first time exceeded the high that had been reached immediately prior to the crisis in 1997, and by early 2009 was more than one-fifth higher. Figure 1.1: Per-capita GDP has exceeded pre-crisis levels and growth has picked up 16% Real GDP grow th rate (LHS) GDP per capita index (RHS) 120 12% 115 8% 4.7% 5.4% 5.0% 5.7% 110 3.8% 4.4% 4.7% 4% 105 -13.1% 0% 100 0.8% 5.5% 6.3% 6.1% -4% 95 -8% 90 -12% 85 -16% 80 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: World Bank calculations and BPS. 1. b. Prudent macroeconomic management has resulted in lower budget deficits and a much lower debt-to-GDP ratio ...while debt levels have In the wake of the crisis of 1998, total government debt rose sharply, putting pressure on declined and ratings Indonesia's fiscal and financial position and ultimately its macroeconomic stability. improved Prudent fiscal management and a strategy of fiscal consolidation have led to a significant reduction in debt levels, from 80 percent of GDP in 2000 to less than 33 percent at the end of 2008. The major ratings agencies have all gradually raised their ratings for Indonesia, with Standard and Poors raising their ratings for Indonesia's sovereign long-term debt from CCC+ in 1998 to B in 2003 to BB in 2008 while Fitch upgraded their rating to BB in early 2008, and as other economies' ratings were being downgraded or placed on negative watch lists, agencies were moving Indonesia to a potential upgrade status during the recent economic turmoil. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 1 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 1.2: Prudent macroeconomic management has resulted in lower budget deficits and a much lower debt-to-GDP ratio Public debt (% of GDP) (LHS) Budget deficit (% of GDP)(RHS) 120.0 3.0 100.0 2.5 80.0 2.0 60.0 1.5 102.5 40.0 80.0 1.0 65.4 76.4 55.2 38.6 20.0 58.3 0.5 34.9 32.9 45.6 0.0 0.0 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Sources and notes: MoF, BI and World Bank staff calculations. 1. c. Inflation has generally been at manageable levels, although periods of rising commodity prices have pushed inflation significantly higher The Bank of Indonesia Indonesia's central bank adopted an inflation targeting framework for the conduct of now has an inflation monetary policy in mid-2005, shifting from the previous dual focus on monetary and target... inflation targeting. The inflation target is set jointly by Bank Indonesia (BI) and the government, and is framed as a moving band, of inflation limited to one percentage point above or below the target. BI now explains moves in its interest rates policy in terms of inflationary pressures. BI largely lets the exchange rate float, intervening when appreciations lead to concern about export competitiveness, or depreciations risk fuelling domestic inflation, or market volatility is becoming a particularly great . ...and inflation has largely Inflation has largely been kept under control. While a large increase in fuel prices in late been kept under control, 2005 led to a temporary rise in inflation in 2005 and 2006, inflation quickly moderated, even in the face of albeit to levels above regional neighbors. The run-up in commodity prices in 2007 and surging fuel prices early 2008, especially for food, flowed through from into accelerating consumer prices and into higher core inflation which was exacerbated by the fuel price increase in May 2008. The strengthening economy also raised demand-side price pressures, as capacity constraints are reached, particularly with respect to infrastructure. The central bank tightened monetary policy swiftly, and the drop in commodity prices led to a stabilization in prcies. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 2 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 1.3: Inflation has recently been at manageable levels periods of rising commodity prices flowed into higher inflation 24 % Cost of the poverty Food basket 18 12 6 Headline inflation 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Sources and notes: BPS, CEIC, World Bank staff calculations. 1. d. The banking sector has largely recovered from the 1998 crisis and market sentiment, until recently, was positive The banking sector is now The banking sector is on a much stronger footing than it was a decade ago. NPLs as a sound while finance and share of total loans have fallen from 48.0 percent in 1998 to around 4 percent in early credit are more available 2009 and other indicators such as capital-asset ratios have improved. Bank credit to the private sector, especially consumers, has accelerated. Indonesia is now accessing alternative sources of finance for both government (domestic & foreign bonds) and the private sector (bonds & equity). Funds raised in domestic capital markets increased substantially in 2007, while other financial market institutions, such as life insurance, have also expanded rapidly in recent years. Foreign investment and capital flows have been volatile. 1. e. Foreign reserves rose to historic highs on ongoing balance of payments surpluses The balance of payments Indonesia's balance of payments has been strong in the years leading up to the global is at a record high while economic turmoil, and exports grew to record levels. In 2007, the current account surplus exports are rising and reached USD12.5 billion, slightly below 2006's USD14.5 billion surplus but much higher diversifying... than in 2004 (USD1.7 billion) and 2005 (USD0.4 billion). These significantly larger surpluses were partly due to high commodity prices, which pushed exports to almost USD120 billion in 2007. Manufactured exports also continued to grow strongly, at rates above 10 percent in 2006, through 2008. With increasing competition from Vietnam and China, growth has shifted from traditional exports of textiles, clothing and footwear to transport equipment, which grew by over one-quarter in both 2007 and 2008. Indonesia's export destinations have diversified with accelerating exports to other regional emerging economies. Imports had been increasing at a more measured rate, reflecting the relatively slow pace of economic activity in 2005 and 2006, but then accelerated in line with strengthening growth in investment and consumer demand and the run-up in commodity prices. With import values continuing to accelerate in 2008 and commodity prices coming off their highs, the current account surplus was reduced substantially to USD 0.3 billion. ...providing a sizable The strong performance in the current account contributed to the accumulation of official cushion of international international reserves. These grew rapidly in 2005 through to 2007, and reached USD 60 reserves billion in the first half of 2008 before falling back to a low of USD 50 billion in December, then recovering towards USD 58 bn again through the first half of 2009, level that continue to provide Indonesia some cushion against external shocks. Furthermore, the ratio of total external debt to GDP, a key external risk indicator, fell to below 30 percent at the end of 2009, from a peak of 158 percent in 1998. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 3 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 1.4: Indonesia's balance of payments position has been strong up to the global financial turmoil 60.0 Capital account balance Current account balance Foreign reserves 50.0 40.0 (billion USD) 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 -10.0 Sources and notes: CEIC and Bank Indonesia. 1. f. Investment, while still low by historical standards, is rising Public investment has Following the crisis, investment rates fell to a low of 19 percent of GDP in 2002. Both risen steadily and private private and public investment fell, the former because of a combination of both lower investment is now domestic saving and lower inward foreign investment, and the latter because of the weak following state of public finances. With fiscal consolidation, public investment has steadily increased over the last five years. Private investment has only more recently picked up and still remains below pre-crisis levels, but is rising fast. In 2007, Indonesia's investment rate was 25 percent of GDP. Figure 1.5: Fixed Investment in Indonesia is rising, but is still low by historical standards 50.0 Fixe d inve s tm e nt (% of GDP) 40.0 30.0 THA IDN 20.0 M YS PHI 10.0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Sources and notes: CEIC and Bank Indonesia. 1. g. The macroeconomic fundamentals strengthened over the last decade have helped Indonesia weather the current global economic crisis The turmoil on global The turmoil on global financial markets, especially in the fall of 2008 and early 2009, had a financial markets and had significant impact on Indonesia's markets. The government bond market was especially a large impact on affected, as non-residents reduced their holdings on a thin market, creating spikes in Indonesian markets yields. Credit default swaps and spreads on Indonesian government USD bonds widened, briefly, to distress levels. The rupiah depreciated sharply, by more than most currencies in the region but much in line with the more freely floating exchange rates associated with commodity prices and carry trade, such as the Australian dollar or South African rand. The Indonesian stock market fell sharply, but the fall was typical of most markets and over a 5- year horizon the market remained a relatively strong performer. Consistent with the greater longer-term volatility in Indonesian financial asset prices, just Indonesian financial Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 4 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full market conditions improved in the second quarter of 2008 just as dramatically as they had deteriorated over the previous months. For example, by mid-year, the currency and equity prices had recorded among the largest increases in the region compared with December, government bond yields were at or below the levels of a year earlier, and spreads on Indonesian government USD debt were below the global average. ...but the downturn in the In contrast, while most economies entered a deep recession, Indonesia's economy has global economy has slowed by less than most and continued to grow at a moderate pace. Some sectors have affected Indonesia by less been deeply affected, especially those exposed to the slump in commodity prices or the than most contraction in external demand, and firms have generally cut their investment plans. But as global conditions deteriorated, fiscal and monetary policy makers moved swiftly to support domestic demand and protect employment levels, by easing monetary policy, cutting tax rates, and generating new stimulatory spending. These moves coincided with the stabilization in consumer prices to have supported consumer demand ­ indeed, consumer confidence rose to 4-year highs in early 2009. Election-related spending coinciding with the probable low-point in global economic conditions is also likely to have supported the economy. Figure 1.6: Indonesia's GDP growth is expected to slow considerably in 2009 but the slowdown relative to 2007 is the mildest in the region 2 % 2 00 7 g ro w th : 6 .3 8. 5 7 .2 11 . 4 1 3 .0 6 .3 4. 9 0 -2 -4 -6 2 0 0 9 fo r e c a s t: 3. 4 5 .5 1 .9 5. 3 6.5 -1 . 0 - 2. 7 -8 Philippines Malaysia Vietnam Thailand Indonesia China E. Asia* Sources and notes: CEIC and Bank Indonesia. 2. Indonesia has continued its remarkably stable transition from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic polity Democratization and In the decade since the crisis, Indonesia's political system has undergone a profound decentralization have transformation, from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic brought greater political polity. The transition was initially tumultuous but there has been a growing sense of stability and political stability, particularly in the last five years, as the democratic process has both accountability... deepened and achieved wider acceptance. Constitutional reforms mandating direct elections to all levels of government have created greater electoral accountability. The political stability and the broader embrace of the democratic process that these changes have engendered have also been critical to supporting Indonesia's economic recovery and calming separatist sentiments. 2. a. The legal and institutional foundations of a decentralized democratic polity have been established ...while responsibility for With the "big bang" decentralization of 2001, Indonesia went from one of the most many government centralized countries in the world in administrative, fiscal and political terms, to one of the services and funding has most decentralized. Within a single year, much of the responsibility for public services was also been devolved decentralized and new forms of decentralized participation in policymaking have been created. Authority over more than one-third of the budget was shifted from the central Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 5 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full government to over 400 local governments, doubling the share of sub-national governments in public spending. Two-thirds of central civil service staff were reassigned to regions and control of more than 16,000 service facilities was transferred. Extensive changes have The relations between the different branches of government have been fundamentally occurred in legislative restructured. An extensive system of checks and balances has been created with new representation and powers for national and local legislatures and the creation of a new upper legislative house processes... to provide stronger regional representation (DPD) at the national level. A system of publicly accessible wealth declarations for public officials has been introduced, along with some conflict of interest guidelines. The direct representation of the military in the political arena has been ended. ...while new institutions To improve the oversight and accountability of state institutions, a number of independent have strengthened checks agencies have been established or strengthened. These include the Supreme Audit and balances... Agency (answerable to the Parliament), the Judicial Commission, the Police Commission, the Office of the Ombudsman, the Corruption Eradication Commission, the Elections Commission, the Financial Transactions Task Force, the Anti-Corruption Court, and the Commercial Court. The judiciary's independence has been enhanced, with the management of the court system shifting from the Executive Branch to the Supreme Court and legal review vested in a new Constitutional Court. ...and there is space for Indonesia has ratified key international treaties on governance and anti-corruption, civil society and an including the UN Convention Against Corruption. Finally, and in marked contrast to the independent media pre-crisis period, virtually unfettered space has been provided for a vibrant civil society and independent media to emerge. 2. b. Freely and vigorously contested direct elections to all levels of government have strengthened electoral accountability Elections are vigorously These reforms, coupled with constitutional reforms mandating direct elections for all levels contested in a multi-party of government, have greatly increased electoral and political accountability. Indonesia's system... political system has become highly competitive. Indonesia has had 4 presidents in the decade since the crisis and the fall of the New Order regime, and all have governed within multi-party coalitions. In 2004, Indonesia conducted its first ever direct presidential election, and its third peaceful presidential transition since the crisis. Direct elections to local government are now being held on a rolling basis in all of Indonesia's provinces and districts. ...while politicians are Political party allegiance and coalition-building, especially at the local level, are highly fluid. being made more There is open political space for the rise (and fall) of new political parties. Issues related to accountable the performance of elected officials, especially regarding governance and corruption, generally rate high among the expressed concerns of voters and in the rhetoric of political campaigns. Though Indonesia's democratic transition may still be quite young, there are clear signs that Indonesia's politicians are increasingly being held accountable for their performance with 40 percent of incumbent governors and district heads voted out of office in 2006. Figure 2.1: By 2010, all local governments in Indonesia will have directly elected heads % of local government heads appointed vs. directly elected 100% 80% Directly 60% elected Directly Appointed 40% elected 20% Appointed 0% 2002 2007 2009 Sources and notes: World Bank. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 6 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full 2. c. Political stability has calmed separatist sentiments and regional conflicts Greater local political Another important consequence of growing political stability and greater decentralized involvement has reduced governance and regional development is that regional separatism has declined and regional conflict regional conflicts have diminished. The government received international praise for signing a peace deal in mid-2005 with separatist rebels in Aceh, which has held firm to date. The peace deal ended a 29-year conflict between the Indonesian state and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and was made possible by changed attitudes in the wake of the December 2004 tsunami. There have also been reduced tensions in the Poso area of Central Sulawesi, in conflict-prone regions of Maluku and Flores, and in Papua. 3. But Indonesia is still a glass half-empty because there has been less progress on other important fronts ... There has been mixed Indonesia's progress against a range of Human Development Indicators shows mixed progress against MDG results with Indonesia likely to reach some MDG targets while falling short in others. The targets with good news good news is that Indonesians are living much longer than they did four decades ago and on rising life expectancy child mortality has fallen dramatically. Since 1960, Indonesian's life expectancy at birth and falling child mortality... has increased from 40 years to 68, only slightly lower than China, Thailand or Turkey. In the same period, Indonesia has reduced child mortality by more than one-third and infant mortality by 25 percent. ...and rates of literacy Indonesia has extended compulsory basic schooling to a universal nine-year program and resulting from higher has boosted the literacy rate among 15-24 year olds to 99 percent. Indonesia's progress school enrollment and in boosting primary and secondary enrollment rates has been remarkable. Net primary lower attrition rates... enrollment is just under 93 percent, and the gross enrollment rate for secondary education has been consistently rising and is now 83 percent at the junior secondary and 54 percent at the senior secondary level. The enrollment gap between males and females and across income groups has also been reduced - especially at the primary education level. ...while progress in Indonesia has also made major strides in promoting gender equity and empowering gender equity has also women. The ratio of girls to boys at all levels of the schooling system is at or close to 100 been impressive percent. In higher education there has been similar progress with equal numbers of males and females now attending higher education institutions. These advances in women's education have resulted in a literacy rate for youth aged 15-24 that is equivalent for both males and females at 100 percent. Nevertheless, whilst there has been significant progress in life expectancy, lower child mortality rates, literacy and gender equity, there remain significant challenges to advance the overall welfare of Indonesia's people, especially the poor. 3. a. Higher levels of economic growth have not translated, to the extent hoped for, into greater poverty reduction Nevertheless, higher Though poverty rates fell quickly from peak crisis levels, progress since then has been rates of growth have not slow and higher levels of growth have not translated, to the extent hoped for, into greater been matched by a poverty reduction. With the exception of 2006, when the poverty rate jumped sharply in commensurate fall in the response to the increase in fuel prices, poverty has been declining in Indonesia since the poverty rate... crisis, and the poverty rate in Indonesia in 2007 had, at 16.6 percent, fallen to below pre- crisis levels. The rate of decline has been disappointing, however, especially in the context of stronger growth. GDP growth averaged 7 percent per year between 1990 and 1996, and headcount poverty fell nearly 4 percentage points, to 11.3 percent. By contrast, since 2003, poverty has fallen by only one percentage point though growth has averaged over 5 percent per year. 3. b. A large percentage of the population remains vulnerable to poverty ...so many people have Nearly half of Indonesia's population in 2007 could reasonably be considered amongst the been able to move out of "near poor" or poor because their per-capita consumption levels were less than a third poverty while others above the national poverty line. These households are vulnerable to a myriad of remain vulnerable aggregate and idiosyncratic shocks such as food price increases or health shocks that can drive them into poverty. Although 40.5 percent of the initially poor households escaped poverty between 2003 and 2004, over one-third of the households that had been classified Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 7 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full as non-poor fell into poverty. Figure 3.1: Nearly half of Indonesia's population in 2007 could be considered near poor or poor Distribution of 2007 per capita expenditure .6 .4 Density .2 0 0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 Per Capita Expenditure ('07 rp / month) Expenditure distribution $1 per day poverty line National poverty line $2 per day poverty line Sources and notes: World Bank calculations from 2007 SUSENAS. 3. c. Despite recent signs of progress, Indonesia lags behind its more prosperous neighbors in producing higher value-added non-agricultural jobs Employment in the formal Employment growth has failed to match population growth since the crisis and job creation sector remains sluggish, in the formal sector has been especially sluggish. Between 1999 and 2003, the unemployment levels percentage of the Indonesian workforce employed in the formal sector fell from 43 percent remain high, especially to 35 percent. There are signs of a recovery since then but the employment rate in the among youth and wage levels have stagnated formal sector is still below what it was prior to the crisis. The open unemployment rate, which was 8.1 percent in 2001, rose further to 11.2 percent in 2005 before falling to 9.1 percent in 2007. This trend is mostly driven by youth aged 15 to 24, who have consistently made up over half of the unemployed and currently have an unemployment rate of 25 percent. Unemployment is especially high - roughly 33 percent - among young people under the age of 25 with high school and college degrees. In addition, real median wages, after growing rapidly from 1999 to 2003, have since stagnated. Figure 3.2: Employment growth has failed to match population growth since the crisis 64.0 % of population em ployed 63.0 63.0 62.0 61.6 61.3 60.9 60.9 61.0 60.0 59.3 59.4 59.0 58.0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: BPS (SAKERNAS labor force surveys). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 8 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 3.3: ...and unemployment rates, especially among youth, remain high 35.0 Youth 33.4 30.6 29.6 Unemployment rate (%) 27.9 28.1 30.0 24.1 25.1 25.0 20.0 15.0 All 9.9 11.2 10.3 9.1 9.7 9.1 8.1 10.0 5.0 - 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: BPS (SAKERNAS labor force surveys). A large portion of the During the post-crisis recovery period, increasing numbers of workers were pushed into Indonesian labor force agriculture and by 2003, agricultural employment had returned to 1991 levels. Most of the remains in agriculture, increase in agricultural employment came at the expense of the service sector, a driver of where productivity the pre-crisis expansion. Non-agricultural employment resumed growing rapidly between growth has been low 2003 and 2006 and agricultural employment fell to its lowest level since 1997. Despite this growth, just 30 percent of the labor force are employed in high-value added activities in manufacturing and services. Indonesia's agricultural productivity has been low with just half the average productivity of the services sector and 1/8 the productivity of industry. There have been no signs of productivity improvement despite the recent falling share of the labor force engaged in agricultural employment. Figure 3.4: Over 40 percent of Indonesia's labor force is still in agriculture... 50.0 45.3 46.4 Agri. 44.8 43.8 44.3 44.0 43.2 43.3 45.0 42.0 41.2 40.6 % of the labor force 40.0 40.3 38.8 38.9 39.3 39.9 35.0 37.5 38.7 37.3 36.9 37.2 35.9 30.0 Serv. 25.0 Mnfg. 17.8 18.7 18.8 17.7 18.0 18.8 18.6 18.8 17.4 20.0 19.1 16.3 15.0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: BPS (SAKERNAS labor force surveys). Indonesia has reduced In 2008, over 40 percent of Indonesia's labor force still derives its livelihood from low- agricultural employment productivity activities in agriculture and related areas. Indonesia is not keeping up with its more slowly than neighbors in moving workers out of agriculture and progress has stagnated. Vietnam has Thailand and Vietnam, a high share of agricultural employment but it is falling quickly as the country's share of and remains far below Malaysia industrial employment is increasing and will soon surpass Indonesia. Thailand has already surpassed Indonesia and workers are continuing to move off the farm while Malaysia's share of agriculture workers remains stable and very low. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 9 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 3.5: ...and unlike its neighbors, Indonesia is not moving its workers out of agriculture 80 Share of the labor force in agriculture (%) 70 THA 60 VNM 50 IDN 40 PHL 30 20 MYS 10 KOR 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Sources and notes: WDI and BPS (SAKERNAS labor force surveys). Figure 3.6: Formal sector job creation has been sluggish till recently 50.0 % of the labor force in form al sector jobs (2006 definition) 45.0 43.2 41.7 41.6 38.5 38.7 40.0 36.7 36.8 36.8 37.2 35.3 35.0 30.0 25.0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: BPS (SAKERNAS labor force surveys). 3. d. Human development outcomes continue to be uneven despite significant increases in public expenditures Progress in human Because of geographic and income-related disparities and differences in the quality of development indicators health, water and sanitation and education service delivery at the local level, Indonesia's has been patchy... performance in terms of human development outcomes has been quite uneven over the last decade. Over that period, there has been little improvement in some indicators and, in the case of a few, there has even been some regression. As a result Indonesia lags behind its neighbors in a number of areas. ...and despite impressive Indonesia continues to under-perform in a number of important areas, however, and as a gains on some fronts, result is unlikely to achieve several of its health-related MDGs. In particular, the country Indonesia continues to has made very little headway in reducing maternal mortality (which, at 420 per 100,000 under perform on some births, is high ­ especially given Indonesia's income level), in improving child nutrition critical health outcomes... (which have remained at around 25 percent in the last few years), and in addressing geographic and income-related health disparities. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 10 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Table 3.1: Indonesia continues to under perform on some critical health outcomes Country or category Life Infant Under-5 Maternal DPT Skilled birth Per-capita expectancy mortality mortality mortality rate immunization attendance GNI (2006) rate (2006) rate (2006) (2005) rate (2006) (2000-2006) (2006 USD) (years) (per 1000) (per 1000) (per 100,000) (% ) (%) Bangladesh 440 64 52 69 570 88 20 Cambodia 480 57 68 87 540 82 44 Vietnam 690 71 15 17 150 94 90 India 820 64 57 76 450 55 47 Sri Lanka 1,170 75 11 13 58 99 96 Indonesia 1,420 68 26 34 420 70 72 Philippines 1,420 71 24 32 230 88 60 China 2,010 72 20 24 45 93 98 Thailand 2,990 70 7 8 110 98 97 Malaysia 5,490 74 10 12 62 96 98 East Asia & Pacific 1672 71 22 27 124 90 92 Lower middle income 1936 71 23 28 130 91 92 Sources and notes: World Bank (2008a) and World Bank (2008b) drawing on WDI and WHO data. ...while regional and National averages for health indicators mask significant geographic and income-related income-related inequalities within the country. In poorer provinces, such as Gorontalo and West Nusa disparities are Tenggara, the infant and child mortality rates are four to five times higher than those in pronounced richer provinces such as Bali and Yogyakarta. Health indicators for the poor are also far worse than those for the rich: child mortality rates among the poorest quintile in 2003 were 3.5 times the rate among the richest quintiles (World Bank, 2008a). Figure 3.7: Infant and child mortality rates vary widely across Indonesia's provinces Sources and notes: Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey, 2002-03 . Advances in school Behind the impressive increase in enrollment rates at the national level, wide regional and enrolments hide systemic systemic differences remain. Indonesia tends to lag behind in Early Childhood Education and regional inequities and Higher Education compared with other Lower Middle Income Countries, with gross nationwide enrollment rates of 21 percent and 17 percent respectively. In addition, while the enrollment gap between males and females and across income groups has been reduced - especially at the primary education level - striking inequalities remain across income groups at the pre-school, junior secondary and senior secondary levels. The fact that Indonesia scores low and lags behind in student learning in international assessments such as the PISA indicates that the quality of education remains a concern. Access to piped or Access to water supply services in Indonesia is among the lowest in the region. Provision improved water in both of piped water services is inadequate. The percentage of the urban population served by urban and non-urban piped water had reached 40 percent by 1997 but declined to 31 percent in 2005 while only areas is inadequate and 17 percent of the total population has access to piped water. Access to "improved" water declining... (a UN definition that excludes bottled water but includes, among other sources, water from Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 11 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full covered wells that may be contaminated) has declined from 90 percent in 1995 to 87 percent. The environmental consequences of access through large-scale use of private unregulated wells are high. Land subsidence, higher costs of reaching drinkable well water and proximity to septic tanks pose high environmental and health risks. The high incidence of water-borne diseases disproportionately affects the poor. ...while the coverage of Sanitation coverage in Indonesia, at about 55 percent in 2006, is well below the average sanitation services is for South-East Asian countries of 67 percent., while network sewerage coverage, among the lowest in Asia estimated at 1.3 percent, is one of the lowest in Asia. Sanitation coverage has increased nationwide by 9 percentage points since 1990 but, on current trends, Indonesia will fall short of the MDG sanitation target of 73 percent by 10 percentage points, or about 25 million people. Over 96 percent of human waste is not treated prior to disposal while the manner in which private sanitation systems (including septic tanks) are managed and operated frequently risks contamination of ground and surface water. 3. e. Environmental quality is deteriorating and natural resources are being unsustainably depleted Natural resources are Natural resources are critical to Indonesia's economy and to the many poor and rural critical to the livelihoods Indonesians who depend on them for their livelihoods. Two-thirds of Indonesians live in of half the labor force... rural areas and are directly or indirectly dependent on common land, coastal and environmental resources that are being rapidly depleted. Farms, plantations, forests and fisheries accounted for one-sixth of GDP in 2007 and half of employment. Agricultural and mineral products are a key input to the manufacturing sector, half of which is food-based. Natural resource based royalties and revenues account for about one-quarter of the central government budget. ...but forest loss and Deforestation rates in Indonesia are amongst the highest in the world and that is the main degradation rates are reason why Indonesia is estimated to be the third largest source of greenhouses gas high... emissions, behind only the U.S. and China. Forest loss and degradation during the 1990s exceeded 1.5 million hectares per year or an area roughly the size of Java every 10 years, though recent data indicates some improvement. Figure 3.8: Indonesia's forests are being rapidly degraded 3.0 De fore s tation rate (m illion he ctare s pe r ye ar) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1982 to 1990 1990 to 1997 1997 to 2000 2000 to 2006 Sources and notes: DG for Rehabilitation and Social Forestry, National Consultation on ADB Regional Review of the Economics of Climate Change in S.E. Asia (23-24 May, 2008, Jakarta) ...causing a host of Forest degradation contributes to decreasing water quality, soil fertility and land downstream productivity as well as increasing water shortages, fires and haze, health impacts, environmental problems downstream siltation and flooding. Moreover, because more than one-fifth of Indonesians live in government-claimed "forest land" and are vulnerable to shifts in policies and land use claims, environmental problems and conflicts are increasing, putting pressure on state assets and budgets. In addition, twenty-three million hectares, or 12 percent, of Indonesia's lands are classified by the Government of Indonesia (GoI) as "critical" (based on degradation and reduced ecological functions). Fisheries resources are Fisheries resources that provide the main source of livelihood for fishing communities are declining, exacerbating declining throughout the country. Fishing communities have nearly twice the poverty rate Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 12 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full high rates of poverty... as the national average (30 percent compared to 16.5 percent nationally) and are vulnerable to loss of fisheries habitat, climate change and rising fuel prices. Since 1991 fishing efforts have more than doubled while the fish catch has increased only 60 percent. Regional fisheries in the "inner" maritime areas (bordering Java, Bali and Kalimantan), contribute a declining share of Indonesia's total catch, despite significant increases in fishing efforts. ...that creates economic Indonesia's deteriorating environmental conditions impose significant economic costs costs for all Indonesians (Bappenas, 2007). The health and other economic costs attributable to water pollution and limited access to safe water and sanitation are estimated to have been USD6.3 billion, or roughly 2 percent of GDP, in 2006. The annual costs of air pollution to the Indonesian economy have been calculated at around USD400 million per year. These costs are disproportionately borne by the poor because they are more likely to be exposed to pollution and less likely to be able to afford mitigation measures. 4. Why Indonesia, in 2008, remains a glass half-empty Economic and political The limited progress Indonesia has made in many critical areas can be traced to the change is still in dramatically changed circumstances resulting from the twin economic and political crises transition of 1998, and its own ongoing and as yet incomplete transition. These changes have highlighted systemic weaknesses in the processes and capacity for formulating and implementing policy and have made the process of implementing reforms a more challenging and time-consuming task. 4. a. In 1998, Indonesia underwent not only a severe economic crisis, but also a dismantling of the previous political order Indonesia experienced a The Asian financial crisis of 1998 hit Indonesia more severely than it did any of its South- more severe economic East Asian neighbors and Indonesia took longer to recover than its neighbors. Indonesia's crisis than its slower recovery is often attributed to the more severe macroeconomic imbalances it faced neighbors... in the immediate aftermath of the crisis, its less favorable business environment and poorer infrastructure. Unlike its neighbors, however, Indonesia did not just experience an economic crisis but also went through a wrenching political transformation. ...but its recovery Indonesia's record over the last decade is thus perhaps more appropriately compared not compares favorably with to its neighbors' performance following the crisis but with Brazil (since the late 1980s) and other countries that also Russia (since the early 1990s). Like Indonesia, Brazil and Russia are large heterogeneous experienced political federal states that also experienced both economic upheaval and a dramatic change in upheaval their respective political systems. Closer still, the Philippines since 1986 has also been transformed from a centralized authoritarian regime to a decentralized democratic state in response to popular unrest triggered by economic crisis. Indonesia's recovery following its twin crises compares favorably to the record of these countries following their respective dual crises (see Figure 4.1). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 13 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Figure 4.1: Indonesia's growth recovery compared to other countries that experienced economic or political crises 120 THA(1996) BRA(1987) Index of real GDP per-capita (100=year pre-crisis or regime MYS(1997) IDN(1997) PHL(1983) 100 change) 80 60 RUS(1990) 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Years since crisis or regim e change Sources and notes: World Development Indicators. 4. b. The priorities in the first five post-crisis years were to restore macroeconomic and political stability and put in place the basic framework of laws for the new polity The priority post-crisis The first five years after the twin crises were, understandably, about restoring stability on was to restore financial both the macroeconomic and political front. The government lacked the finances to and political stability... undertake many needed investments and the focus was necessarily on fiscal consolidation and putting in place the basic legislative framework for the new Indonesian polity. This was a much more contentious and uncertain process than the simple summary provided earlier might have suggested. Within the space of three years, Indonesia had three presidents, passed a series of laws completely remaking the state and undertook constitutional reforms, all of which were heavily contested and politically charged endeavors. On the economic front, the focus was on restructuring the banking sector, which had collapsed as a result of the crisis, and on restoring the fiscal position of the government. There was little time or money available for efforts directed at Indonesia's longer-term development agenda. By the end of the first five years, however, macroeconomic stability had been restored and, in the political arena too, things were settling down. 4. c. In the last five years the fiscal space has been created and structural reforms initiated in pursuit of the broader development agenda but progress has been slow... ...while recovery has In the last five years, as the hard-earned stability has been reinforced, fundamental allowed the government structural reforms have been initiated in several areas. A number of new laws have been to concentrate on introduced or existing laws amended and numerous regulations and decrees have been initiating fundamental issued. Following the termination of the IMF program, the government issued a White reforms during the last five years... Paper in September 2003 that outlined plans for macroeconomic and fiscal consolidation and a series of structural reforms to restore confidence in the Indonesian economy and boost investment. The plans were broadly maintained by the government led by President S.B. Yudhoyono who came to power in late 2004. At the same time work has been undertaken on preparing a broader development agenda, articulated in the medium-term development strategy (Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menegah - RPJM) for 2004-2009. Continued fiscal prudence has provided the government with the fiscal space needed to meet Indonesia's development challenges. Figure 4.2: Prudent fiscal policy has increased the funds available for development spending (Fiscal space of central and sub-national governments as a % of GDP (1997 to 2007)) Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 14 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full Sources and notes: World Bank estimates from Bank Indonesia and Ministry of Finance data. Fiscal space is defined here as discretionary spending--i.e., total expenditures minus salary, interest payments, subsidies and, in the case of the central government, transfers to regions ...although The process of reform has proved challenging - implementation has been slow and often implementation has been quite weak and ineffective, and there remain some critical areas where further reform at problematical the legislative level has stalled. 4. d. Indonesia's governance transition is still incomplete in that electoral accountability has not yet translated into broader forms of accountability... Democratization and Democratization and decentralization have fundamentally changed accountability decentralization have structures and decision-making processes within government and the broader public fundamentally changed sphere. Under the New Order, power was concentrated in the executive and largely at the accountability center. Now power is dispersed and devolved to other actors beyond the executive branch structures... of government at the center. The national legislature, the judiciary, oversight institutions and local governments and legislatures all have a say in the formulation and implementation of government policies and programs, making the task of policy formulation and reaching consensus on critical policies and reforms that much more challenging. ...but the dramatic The stability of political transitions in Indonesia over the last decade, the competitiveness increase in electoral of electoral politics, and the emergence of a vibrant civil society and independent media all accountability has not yet suggest that voice and accountability in the political process has increased substantially. translated into broader But this substantial increase in political accountability has not led to concomitant increases forms of accountability... in other essential forms of accountability necessary for improved governance outcomes, forms such as legal, bureaucratic and corporate accountability, and the accountability of public service providers to their constituents. The result is that politicians are held accountable for their performance through periodic elections, but appointed officeholders are not routinely held accountable for their performance. ...such as bureaucratic Indonesia's rigid civil service rules limit the ability of even reform-minded agency heads accountability which is and political leaders to introduce greater accountability over their own staff, though this is limited by rigid civil changing gradually through a series of pioneering pilot efforts in some agencies. In service rules... Indonesia, high level civil service appointments are subject to strict eligibility rules that limit the ability of politicians to promote, transfer, release and recruit new staff. Such rigidities weaken the accountability of civil servants within institutions to their politically appointed leaders. It also weakens the performance incentives for civil servants. In addition, pay and promotion guidelines within Indonesia's civil service provide minimal ability to reward good performance within institutions. Some ministers do have control over a limited range of pay supplements and benefits that could be used more strategically to promote greater accountability for performance, but currently few take advantage of such discretionary compensation sources. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 15 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full ...while weaknesses in Indonesia's weaknesses in service delivery can be traced to the limited accountability of service delivery can be frontline service providers such as doctors, nurses, and teachers to their clients or to traced to the limited elected officials and the problem is compounded at the local level by a lack of clarity in accountability of frontline Indonesia's decentralization framework. International experience suggests effective service providers service delivery is best ensured by strengthening the "short route" of accountability whereby clients of public services can hold frontline service providers directly accountable for their performance as opposed to depending upon political accountability at the ballot box as a means of providing their feedback. Strengthening this short route of accountability is particularly critical where competitive elections at all levels have not yet translated into other forms of state accountability. Social accountability Few public institutions in Indonesia make an effort to solicit and monitor client feedback on mechanisms within their performance in a systematic way. External oversight mechanisms with client or public institutions are citizen participation are limited, though this is changing in some arenas. Public weak.... participation and consultation are channeled through highly ritualized, pro-forma processes (such as Musrembang) that were inherited from the authoritarian system. While most public institutions do not provide sufficient space for social accountability, it should also be recognized that social mobilization remains at an early stage in Indonesia so that the "demand side" for good governance at the level of public institutions is weak. ...while inadequate public Inefficiencies in public spending in Indonesia stem from the weaknesses in public financial financial management management systems that diminish financial accountability of government agencies and systems weaken financial individual office-holders. Examples of this include weaknesses in procurement processes, accountability in non-transparent and non-competitive bidding, which hurt the quality of Indonesia's government infrastructure as well as inadequate financial controls within the bureaucracy. 4. e. ...and government effectiveness is further constrained by a lack of coordination mechanisms and capacity for formulating and implementing policy The formulation and Weaknesses in the mechanisms and frameworks that Indonesia has in place for implementation of coordinating the formulation and implementation of policies and programs within and effective policies and across the different branches of government, at both the central and local level, have programs has been hampered the government's effectiveness in promoting Indonesia's development agenda. hampered by coordination problems Both the decision-making processes underlying the formulation of policies and the within government... delineation of roles and responsibilities needed for implementation of policies are often unclear. Uncertainty about economic policies and regulations, which is cited as one of the weakest aspects of Indonesia's investment climate appears to stem primarily from a lack of coordination across different ministries at the national level and between the national and sub-national governments. Weaknesses in service delivery are also attributable to a confusion of roles and responsibilities between the central line ministries and local governments. That different parts of government may have differing perspectives and competing priorities is to be expected but Indonesia appears to lack clear and effective mechanisms for reconciling these differences. ...as well as confusion of Following decentralization, sub-national governments have become major players in roles and responsibilities service delivery and their role in public investment and economic development is between central line increasing. The slow progress on elaborating a clear, consistent decentralization ministries and local framework has, however, led to confusion over roles and responsibilities between central governments that has impeded service delivery line ministries and local governments, and horizontal coordination across local and weakened the governments is extremely limited. Almost every aspect of local government performance investment climate is compromised by the lack of clarity and inadequate coordination, from service delivery to infrastructure provision to the local investment climate. Gaps between policy and practice in environmental management have increased under decentralization. Box 4.1: The lack of mining investment, despite Indonesia's potential provides a particularly stark example of the lack of coordination and uncertainty about policy Why there hasn't been more investment: uncertainty and inconsistencies in policy local governments and the center disagree over who controls mining activity; environmental rules are unclear and changing and are interpreted differently by different Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 16 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full ministries; an unclear legal environment that causes uncertainty in the administration, interpretation and enforcement of existing regulations; arbitrary application of rules for divestment and mine closure undermining the rule of law; uncertainty regarding which taxes and royalties are owed, and to whom; district licensed mining permits that overlap with concessions provided national permits lack of certainty over cost recovery; and lack of clarity regarding gas domestic market obligation requirements. Source: World Bank forum on oil, gas and mining investment climate (2007). Limited capacity, Limited capacity, particularly but not only at the local level, has also hindered government particularly at the local effectiveness. For instance, the lack of a professional stream for procurement experts as level, has also hindered well as the lack of a national procurement capacity building strategy results in continuing government effectiveness weakness in procurement capacity in implementing agencies, especially at the provincial and district levels. Financial sector regulators who are unfamiliar with the latest financial instruments, teachers who are unable to pass basic certification exams, and healthcare workers who do not follow professional protocols are some of the other examples. 4. f. The tasks facing the government have themselves become more difficult, in part because of Indonesia's own past successes... The tasks facing the Democratization and decentralization have made the functioning of the Indonesian state Indonesian state have more complicated at a time when the tasks facing the state have themselves become themselves become more more challenging. This is partly attributable to Indonesia's own past successes and challenging in part due to nowhere is this clearer than in the delivery of health and education services. Because Indonesia's own past successes and government policies in Indonesia during the three decades of sustained growth prior to the emergence as a middle- crisis were quite successful in meeting basic needs and increasing coverage of basic income economy services, Indonesia today faces a second-generation set of challenges - increasing the allocative and technical efficiency of public spending, raising the quality of services and mitigating income-related and geographic disparities in access and outcomes. More schools have been For instance, in the 1970s, the government used part of its windfall oil revenues to finance built and students a large-scale school construction program and hire and deploy teachers. Empirical enrolled but attrition analysis indicates that the initiative was directly responsible for substantial increases in rates remain high... the primary school enrollment rate. As a result, the main challenge today is less the relatively simple task of construction of school facilities than it is to ensure that children from poor households and remote areas have access to a quality education, that school attrition rates are brought down, and that the quality and relevance of the education that students receive at all levels is improved. ...while demographic Indonesia's success at boosting growth and its re-entry into the ranks of emerging middle changes present their income economies has created its own challenges as well. For instance, like many other own challenges... emerging middle income economies Indonesia is experiencing simultaneous demographic, epidemiological and nutritional transitions as population growth slows and the population ages, and growing incomes and changes in lifestyle shift the public health focus to non-communicable diseases. 4. g. ...and in part, because of the changed global economic environment Indonesia faces ...as do globalizing The changed global economic environment implies a very different, though equally trends which add to the important, role for the state than in the past. Agglomeration economies, international pressure for change production networks, reductions in transport and logistics costs, the growth of information technologies, and the rise of China and India have all changed the nature of competition and the distribution of rewards in the global economy. Home market advantages are now subject to international competitive pressure as continuing progress in transportation and communications has made it increasingly feasible to procure most components from any part of the world. These changes in turn necessitate a shift in the role of the government, not just in Indonesia but all around the world, from one of direct involvement in production to one of regulation, of facilitating private-public partnerships and enabling private citizens Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 17 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full and firms to better prepare themselves to compete in the changed global environment. 5. While Indonesia is in a relatively strong position, the medium-term outlook is uncertain and there are significant downside risks 5. a. Indonesia should weather the global economic slowdown better than many countries but growth will be lower going forward The severity of the The weaker global growth environment and lower commodity prices have impacted current global economic Indonesia's externally-oriented firms' revenues and demand, hence the dividends they downturn imply that pay their owners, the wages they pay their employees and the size of their workforce. Indonesia's growth will Tighter global credit conditions restrict investment and reduces consumer financing, be lower in the next two years than it has been... affecting domestic demand. Partially offsetting these negative external developments, Indonesian policy makers have sought to provide some offset, and the stabilization in consumer prices especially appears to have supported overall consumer confidence. On balance, these developments weaken Indonesia's economic outlook for the coming years. Indonesia's economic growth is expected to slow to around 3.5 percent in 2009 before lifting to 5 percent or a little above in 2010 and then rising towards its current projected potential growth rate of between 6 and 6.5 percent. This slowdown is generally smaller than projected economic growth among other major emerging economies in the region. Table 5.1: Indonesia's recent and projected macroeconomic performance Actual Projected 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Real GDP growth (%) 5.0 5.7 5.5 6.3 6.1 3.5 5.0 6.3 Domestic: Inv estment (% change) 9.2 11.7 4.1 8.0 10.2 Consumer price index (% change) 6.2 10.5 13.1 6.5 9.8 5.0 4.0 4.0 Budget deficit (% of GDP) -1.0 -0.5 -0.9 -1.3 -0.1 -2.5 -1.4 -1.2 External: Current account balance (billion USD) 3.3 0.3 9.9 10.4 0.5 1.0 0.0 -1.0 Exports (GNFS) (billion USD) 74.1 89.2 103.0 131.0 155.0 113.0 124.0 140.0 Imports (GNFS) (billion USD) 71.3 91.5 95.3 110.0 145.0 104.0 113.0 125.0 Source and notes: World Bank staff calculations. GNFS refers to "goods and non-factor services". ...but Indonesia is well- Indonesia is less exposed to external shocks than other economies in the region. Its trade positioned because of its share (the ratio of imports plus exports to GDP) at about 50 percent of GDP is relatively size and the structure small even accounting for its size. The structure and destination of Indonesia's exports and destinations of its also protect its external sector from the current downturn. Indonesia's exports are exports increasingly directed towards emerging economies, especially those in Asia. China's share of Indonesia's exports has doubled this decade, while India's has tripled, although from a low base. Almost two-thirds of Indonesia's exports are primary products, and the prices of these, though projected to decrease from recent highs, are likely to remain high through 2009, according to World Bank forecasts. Further volume growth for these exports is likely given the lagged response of production to price movement. 5. b. There is however considerable uncertainty about the medium-term outlook and Indonesia remains vulnerable on some fronts Considerable uncertainty But considerable uncertainty surrounds the baseline outlook. Global economic conditions surrounds these remain volatile and uncertain. Weaknesses in the global financial sector weakness could forecasts ­ the external prove to have and deeper with more pronounced effect on investment and consumer environment may be demand across the developed economies. Sluggish real economies and ongoing considerably worse, or measures to support weakness in the financial sector could generate a self-perpetuating adverse cycle, leading domestic demand even to further financial instability. And in the medium term are the challenges of higher public more effective than debt, weaker consumer demand and unwinding the monetary stimulus in the high-income expected economies, and on recalibrating emerging economies' growth towards domestic demand. ...and Indonesia remains Indonesia, however, remains vulnerable. Volatile commodity prices have generally vulnerable... supported Indonesia's terms of trade, the current account and growth, but have adversely Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 18 Indonesia 2009: a glass half-full impacted inflation, the fiscal balance and income distribution, while the sharp downward movement in prices in the second half of 2008 was disruptive in the opposite direct. Another round of increases in commodity and oil prices may pose risks if the fiscal and distributional effects are not managed properly. Many financial markets are still embryonic, and susceptible to swift changes in sentiment that may be only marginally related to economic fundamentals, leading to a small but potentially significant risk of sudden capital flight. ...to growing fiscal High commodity and crude oil prices also pose risks to Indonesia's public finances. The pressures especially in budgetary costs of energy subsidies and measures to protect consumers from increases the budgetary impact of in food prices can undermine Indonesia's hard-earned fiscal discipline. Energy subsidies subsidizing dramatically consumed almost one-quarter of Indonesia's 2008 budget, or about 4. 5 percent of GDP, higher global oil prices... and the unanticipated increase in budgetary outlays on fuel subsidies led to cuts in line ministry budgets. This constitutes a large lost opportunity to invest oil and gas revenues in social programs and infrastructure projects that can lift long-term growth potential. Most of these subsidies are also highly regressive--the richest one-fifth of households directly receive as much as two-thirds of Indonesia's fuel subsidy. Although the government raised subsidized fuel prices by an average of 150 percent in 2005 and a further 28.5 percent in May 2008 this only restrained the rate of growth in the size of subsidies during those periods. The lowering in regulated prices as global energy prices collapsed in December 2008 and January 2009 is likely to create a new round of pressures when fuel prices rise again. ...that also amplifies the Of more immediate concern, however, is the impact on the government's borrowing costs impact on government and financial stability. Indonesian government debt markets are sensitive to uncertainty bond yields over the size of government energy subsidies and their financing needs and charge a premium on debt when subsidies are expanding. The politically-charged nature of Indonesia's regulated fuel prices amplifies the general uncertainty associated with volatile world oil prices, leading to cases of temporary illiquidity in the government debt markets and sharp increases in the yield on government debt. 5. c. ...and the economic slowdown will also slow gains in social outcomes The global downturn is In the medium term, volatility in food and fuel prices is a source of concern. Food and expected to slow the pace energy account for three-quarters of household expenditure among low income groups. of gains in poverty, while Rising food prices in the year to mid-2008 could have potentially caused over 8 million volatility in food prices more Indonesians to fall into poverty if no policy response had been forthcoming. Both remain a concern international experience and Indonesia's 2005 and 2008 cash transfer programs have shown that a targeted cash transfer scheme offers the best means of protecting the greatest possible number of poor and low-income households from rising food prices and mitigating the risk of social unrest. The government's move in May 2008 to reduce fuel subsidies financed 9 months of unconditional cash transfer to Indonesia's poor and near- poor, and a renewed, better targeted program may be needed with a new round of volatility. With this transfer program, the poverty rate is expected to have declined slightly to 15.0 percent in early 2009 from 15.4 percent in early 2008. This reflects firm economic growth, especially for agriculture, and slower growth in food and fuel prices, and it especially reflects the impact of the government's 2008-09 unconditional cash transfer program to poor and near-poor households (BLT). Through 2009 and into 2010, the global economic downturn is expected to put pressure on poverty. Slower growth, and with the BLT having ceased in March 2009, poverty is unlikely to fall much further by early 2010 without a new program of public assistance. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 19 B. Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda 6. Indonesia's development agenda--what Indonesia aspires to and what the broad challenges are--is clear A five-year development Since 2005 work has been initiated on a broader development agenda, articulated in the plan has been prepared RPJM. The RPJM for the five-year period 2004-2009 specifies three broad and multi- that focuses on building faceted goals: (1) a safe and peaceful Indonesia; (2) a just and democratic Indonesia; and a safe, peaceful, just and (3) a prosperous Indonesia. Under each of these three broad goals, the RPJM lists more democratic, prosperous Indonesia... specific objectives in a number of sectoral or thematic policy areas. Recognizing Indonesia's international commitments, the RPJM also incorporates ambitious interim targets toward attaining the eight MDG-related development goals by 2015. ...with annual work plans For each of the past three years, the goals articulated in the RPJM have been further established to deliver on elaborated in Annual Work Plans (RKPs) through which the government has identified these goals specific priorities and associated targets. The priorities of the annual RKP provide an umbrella guide to aggregate state budget allocations that attempts to align spending, programs, policies and activities with current and evolving development needs while responding to emerging challenges. Progress has been made Indonesia, in 2008, can be said to have achieved "half" the goals articulated in the 2004- on the development 2009 RPJM. Continued political stability has meant a "safe and peaceful" as well as a agenda in the 2004-2009 "democratic" Indonesia that is increasingly confident about its own democratic future, RPJM... while strengthened macroeconomic fundamentals and robust growth has increased the prospects for a "prosperous" Indonesia. For a truly prosperous Indonesia, however, growth needs to be accelerated, and for a just Indonesia, that growth has to be more widely shared. ...and the next The process of drafting the 2010-2014 RPJM has begun and early indications are that the development plan will unfinished agenda of the current plan will frame the broad priorities of the next one. With build on the unfinished 2015 approaching, the Millennium Development Goals are likely to take a prominent agenda... place. There are also signs that the government will put a stronger emphasis on program approaches, with key programs targeted to the poor, such as ASKESKIN and PNPM continuing to be implemented in addition to selected sectoral programs. However, the upcoming 2009 presidential elections necessarily make any statements about the next government's development agenda somewhat speculative. 7. Accelerating growth 7. a. Indonesia has the potential to achieve the rates of growth it achieved prior to the crisis Improving Economic policy packages introduced in each of the last three years indicate that the competitiveness will lead government recognizes the need to accelerate growth by improving Indonesia's to faster growth... competitiveness. These policy packages have focused on priority areas such as infrastructure, investment climate, the financial sector and SME development that are critical to enhancing Indonesia's competitiveness by promoting private-sector-led investment. ...that could potentially In the three decades prior to the crisis - between 1967 and 1997 - Indonesia's economy match the growth rates of grew at an annual average rate of 7 percent. Only 11 other countries have enjoyed such regional neighbors an extended period of high sustained growth. Thailand was at Indonesia's current per capita GDP level in 1986, having grown in the previous seven years at almost the same rates as Indonesia has in the last seven. Thailand's growth rate subsequently accelerated and within a decade Thailand was firmly established as a middle-income economy (Figure 7.1). Indonesia has the potential to do the same although there is no guarantee that growth can be accelerated. The case of the Philippines provides a counterexample. In 2000, the Philippines was at the level of GDP per capita that Indonesia was at 2007. Unlike Thailand, however, in the seven subsequent years, growth, while respectable, did not accelerate. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 20 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 7.1: From Indonesia's current income levels, some economies achieved economic take-off, while others languished 1600 Pe r-capita re al GDP grow th traje ctorie s Thailand (cons tant 2000 USD) (1979 to 1993) 1200 Indone s ia (1978 to 2007) Philippine s 800 (1993 to 2006) 400 0 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Sources and notes: World Development Indicators. 7. b. Making the most of Indonesia's resource endowments while also developing globally competitive clusters elsewhere Relatively high Indonesia is a resource-rich economy, however, with the exception of the 1970s, the commodity prices offer contribution of the commodities sector to Indonesia's growth has been minimal, primarily Indonesia, with its natural because of stagnant or declining prices (Figure 7.2). In the last three years, however, resource endowments, a commodity prices rose sharply up to mid-1998. Oil prices more than tripled to new records unique opportunity to accelerate growth... near USD140 per barrel; metals prices increased five-fold and world grain prices surged 87 percent. World Bank forecasts suggest that while commodity prices have now peaked, they are likely to remain high for the next decade (see Figure 7.3). After 30 years of declining commodity prices, this represents a significant break. Indonesia is not, however, making the most of the opportunities that relatively high mining and energy prices and its resource endowments offer for accelerating growth through a commodities-based strategy. Figure 7.2: Indonesia's growth in the last-quarter century has come primarily from manufacturing and services G D P p e r c a p i ta b y S e c t o r s ( c o n s ta n t 2 0 0 0 L C U ) 9.00E+ 06 8.00E+ 06 7.00E+ 06 6.00E+ 06 5.00E+ 06 4.00E+ 06 3.00E+ 06 2.00E+ 06 1.00E+ 06 0.00E+ 00 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 A g r icu lt u r e M in in g an d Q u ar r y in g M a n u fa c t u r in g C o n s t r u ct io n U t ilit ie s S e r v ice s Sources and notes: WDI. ...but its high Indonesia's economy is especially sensitive to changes in commodities prices because of dependence on its relatively high dependence on commodities. Despite having clearly diversified into commodities leaves it manufacturing products, commodities still play an important role in Indonesia's vulnerable to price international trade, production, financial markets and government revenue. The share of movements... non-fuel commodities in total exports was 39.6 percent, and in total imports, 24.3 percent in 2007 (see Table 7.1). Commodities represent a significant share of GDP: the share of non-fuel commodity exports in GDP was 10.4 percent in 2007 and the share of oil and gas Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 21 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda was 5.2 percent, while the share of manufactured goods is 11.1 percent (World Bank and COMTRADE data). Commodities are also a key source of revenue ­ plantation, forestry, mining and oil and gas constituted 22% of total government revenue in 2008 ­ and are important players in the stock market ­ mining plus agriculture represented 15 percent of total market capitalization in January 2009. Figure 7.3: Commodity prices are forecast to remain high for the next decade relative to 2000 3 0 0 Re al price s (p rices d efla ted by M UV, 2000 =100) 2 5 0 2 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 2005 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007 2008 2009 2010 2015 2020 E n e rg y F o o d M e ta ls & M i n e ra l s Sources and notes: World Bank DECPG forecasts. ...although recent price Indonesia benefited from the 2005 to mid-2008 increase in commodity prices. Increases in increases lifted commodity prices lifted Indonesia's terms of trade and enlarged its current account Indonesia's terms of surplus. From 2005 to 2007, higher commodity prices explained about 78 percent of the trade and trade surplus $24.5 billion increase in total exports. Export growth largely followed commodity price and contributed to the dramatic rise in rises, driven by crude palm oil (which accounts for almost one-quarter of export growth), Indonesian stock prices nickel, chemical materials and copper. Importantly, oil and gas exports have languished, despite the surge in world crude oil prices, with non-oil and gas exports contributing ten times more to total export growth from 2005 to 2007 than oil and gas exports. Stocks of Indonesian companies with commodity interests have led the performance of the Indonesian stock market, which has risen by nearly two and one-half times and been one of the world's best performers since January 2005. Higher commodity prices also prompted an important increase in FDI approvals in the primary sector - albeit limited to certain segments - during 2005-2007 when manufacturing FDI remained stable. Table 7.1: Commodities account for more than half of Indonesia's merchandise exports Table 7.1: Commodities account for more than half of Indonesia's merchandise exports Merchandise category 1979-1981 1989-1991 1999-2001 2007 % of exports Agricultural Raw Materials 13.0 6.3 3.6 6.2 Food 7.2 11.4 9.7 14.6 Minerals and Metals 4.1 7.7 9.7 18.7 Oil and Gas 73.1 39.9 22.1 19.7 Manufactures 2.7 36.2 55.6 42.3 % of imports Agricultural Raw Materials 3.4 4.9 7.2 3.5 Food 12.7 5.9 11.5 10.5 Minerals and Metals 12.5 11.5 8.5 10.2 Oil and Gas 13.6 8.5 17.6 29.7 Manufactures 66.3 75.2 59.9 52.3 Sources and notes: COMTRADE. Agricultural raw materials comprise SITC section 2 (crude materials except fuels) excluding divisions 22, 27 (crude fertilizers and minerals excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones), and 28 (metalliferous ores and scrap Sources and notes: WDI. Indonesia is not, Nevertheless, Indonesia still may not be making enough of the opportunities offered by the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 22 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda however, making enough present historically high energy and mineral prices. The growth in export values in the last of the opportunities few years has been driven more by export price increases than it has by growth in export offered by higher energy volumes. It may well be, however, that an improvement in the supply response is lagging and mineral prices... because of the multi-year gestation periods for many commodity-related investments. There are also indications that investments themselves have been lagging and the reasons for that have to do with structural impediments peculiar to Indonesia. ...because investment in Despite a sustained commodities boom and excellent geological prospects, Indonesia is the resources sector has facing under-investment in oil, gas and mining. Exploration investment has been almost been lagging nonexistent in recent years (Figure 7.4). Greenfield exploration spending dropped to just USD7 million in 2004 from USD54 million pre-crisis, and total investment dropped by two- thirds. Decades of weak investment in oil exploration have led to a 38 percent fall in production since 1994 resulting in Indonesia now being a net importer of oil and oil products. Figure 7.4: Oil exploration activity in Indonesia has declined steadily since 2000 120 No. of e xploratory w e lls drille d 100 Oil dis cove re d 80 60 40 20 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. Minerals production has Supply growth has been most strikingly absent in mining. In 2004 Indonesia accounted for performed particularly less than 1.5 percent of worldwide mining exploration spending. This is despite poorly, despite Indonesia's significant potential - in a 2005 survey of 259 mining and exploration significant potential... companies worldwide, Indonesia received a score of 97 (out of a maximum of 100) for mining potential and ranked 6th out of 64 regions (Figure 7.5). Although Indonesia is endowed with large reserves of coal, copper, nickel and tin, its production to reserves ratio is low by international standards for some minerals, being, for example, half that of Chile and Australia for copper and of China for coal. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 23 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 7.5: Indonesia has tremendous mineral prospects but little investment Sources and notes: Price Waterhouse Coopers. Indonesia's poor The main reason Indonesia is missing out on the global oil, gas and mining resource investment climate is boom appears to be its investment climate. It remains comparatively unattractive to impeding the resources international resource companies because of its complex bureaucracy and the high sector... degree of uncertainty surrounding policies and regulations. A successful outcome to the ongoing discussions on the implementing regulations for the new mining law may trigger a response by domestic and international mining investors that preliminary estimates suggest could potentially be quite large. ...although growing Indonesia's population is still relatively young and its labor force is growing rapidly. Youth Indonesia's unemployment is already high, as noted earlier, and if Indonesia's future growth is to be manufacturing and broad-based, its growing labor force has to be productively employed. Undoubtedly, services sectors is the growing incomes in the commodity sector will have positive multiplier effects on the rest of main priority to absorb an expanding labor force the economy, particularly in services and non-tradables. There are already signs that this is happening with the growth of bank deposits in the outer-islands and increasing cement sales and construction activity. Nevertheless, Indonesia's own past growth experience suggests that growth in manufacturing and services will also be necessary to absorb Indonesia's growing labor force. Even in periods when the primary sectors made significant contributions to Indonesia's GDP growth - oil and gas and mining in the 1970s and agriculture in the 1980s - manufactures and services contributed more to labor income growth (Figure 7.6). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 24 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 7.6: Even when primary sectors contributed significantly to Indonesia's economic growth, manufacturing and services contributed most to labor income growth Se ctora l Co ntribu t ion to G DP Grow th Sectoral Contribution to Labor Income Growth (Se ctora l G row th - w e ighte d by se ctor's share i n v al ue adde d) (S ect oral gr owth - weight ed by sect or 's labor int en sity) 3.0 0 2.50 2.5 0 2.00 2.0 0 1.50 1.5 0 1.00 1.0 0 0.50 0.5 0 0.00 0.0 0 -0.5 0 -0.50 -1.0 0 -1.00 1 970 -19 80 19 81- 199 0 19 91- 2000 200 0-2 006 1970-198 0 1 981-1990 1991-200 0 2000-20 06 Agric ulture Minin g a nd Qu arrying Man ufac turing Co nstruction Utilities Se rvices Agriculture M ining and Qua rrying Ma nufa cturing Construction Utilitie s Se rvice s Sources and notes: World Bank estimates using WDI data. Commodity-led export Recent commodity-led export growth has led to an increasing concentration of Indonesia's growth may lead to exports. In 2007, 5 commodities accounted for half of all non-oil and gas export growth, excessive concentration continuing a trend of increasing concentration since 2005 that stands in marked contrast of exports, which has to the period between 1980 and 2004 when Indonesia's export basket was much more adversely affected growth elsewhere... diverse. Recent research suggests that excessive concentration of exports can adversely affect growth, in part because it increases vulnerability to exogenous commodity price shocks, but also because it can reflect a lack of innovation and productivity improvement in the private sector. ...but natural resources The implication is that while economies endowed with natural resources should make the need not be a curse if an most of them, these resources pose a risk only if the economy is not able to also diversify economy is able to also its export base at the same time. Diversification need not involve the promotion of high- diversify its exports... tech manufactures but can also originate in efficient resource-based and natural resource processing sectors as these show a substantially lower degree of concentration than primary sectors. ...which hinges on a Diversification hinges on a process of export discovery as firms "discover" and develop process of export competencies in new and non-traditional products. This could be achieved by increasing "discovery" which the weight of products that are already produced and exported and by producing and Indonesia has not been exporting new varieties of products. The latter represents a significant challenge. As very successful at in the last decade... shown in Figure 7.7, a decomposition of export growth during the period 1998-2007 shows that the expansion of the intensive margin products ("old good stuff") dominates over expansion of "extensive margin" in manufactures (little "new products"). Figure 7.7: Old stuff still dominates export growth: very little creation and very little destruction .2 .1 0 -.1 1 9 9 8 19 9 9 2 0 00 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 04 2 0 0 5 20 0 6 2 0 0 7 T ot . E x p o rt C h a ng e In t e n s i v e M a r g in E xte n sive - N e w E x te n s i v e - E x i t Sources and notes: World Bank estimates using data from UN-COMTRADE database. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 25 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda ...with few new products Indonesia's limited progress in diversifying its exports after 1997 is confirmed by Table 7.2 growing in importance which shows that new products and products that were relatively unimportant in terms of Indonesia's exports in 1997 have remained unimportant after 10 years. Table 7.2: Export "discovery" has been minimal Products that were Products "discovered" "undiscovered" in 1997 between 1997 and 2001 Year Share of all exports Share of all exports Share of mfg. exports 1997 0.00% 2001 0.29% 1.17% 1.65% 2007 1.26% 3.12% 6.05% Sources and notes: Products that Indonesia did not export or those that were in the bottom decile in terms of their share of Indonesia's total exports in 1997 are labeled "undiscovered" products (as of 1997). Products that were "discovered" between 1997 and 2001 are those whose share of Indonesian exports went from zero in 1997 to some positive fraction in 200 Manufactured exports With the emergence of China and India as well as a number of low-cost competitors such need to diversify into as Vietnam, Indonesia can no longer rely on its traditional manufacturing export base. globally competitive Growth of traditional manufactured exports such as textiles, garments and footwear is clusters slowing. Indonesia instead needs to keep pace with its East Asian neighbors in developing new globally competitive clusters. There are some signs of hope; there has, for example, been rapid growth (37 percent in 2007) in exports of transport-related equipment (e.g. automotive components), however, more clearly needs to be done. The two main priorities are to alleviate infrastructure bottlenecks and reduce the policy, regulatory and legal uncertainty that currently characterizes Indonesia's investment climate. 7. c. Alleviating infrastructure bottlenecks Indonesia has poor levels Indonesia has among the lowest levels of access to infrastructure in the region, and of access to infrastructure indicators have actually deteriorated in some sectors in the last decade. infrastructure and Infrastructure investments have declined dramatically since 1996 and, although public investment has infrastructure investment has rebounded since 2000, private investment in infrastructure declined... has yet to recover. Infrastructure investment has risen from a low of 2 percent of GDP in 2000 to just 3 percent of GDP in 2005 which is well below the pre-crisis levels of about 6 percent of GDP. Figure 7.8: Infrastructure investment, as a percentage of GDP, is about half what it was before the crisis Infrastr uct ure invest me nt ( % o f GDP) 8 6.1 6 4.5 3.7 3.6 3.2 3.2 4 3.0 2.8 2.1 2 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Sources and notes: World Bank (2007). ...hindering job-creation, The poor quality of Indonesia's infrastructure appears to be a significant deterrent to job- competitiveness and creating investment and has hindered Indonesia's competitiveness. Although business economic growth perceptions of Indonesia's investment climate have improved, there are no signs of progress, and some of deterioration in the area of infrastructure. Better infrastructure will also be critical if Indonesia is to accelerate growth. Both cross-country analyses and time- Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 26 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda series evidence from Indonesia's own past history suggest that the strength of an economy's infrastructure is closely associated with the economy's growth performance. The government has Recognizing its potentially catalytic role in accelerating growth, the government has made initiated a number of infrastructure a major economic priority and has taken steps to introduce reforms. A regulatory and National Committee on Policy for Accelerating Infrastructure Provision (KKPPI) was institutional changes... established in 2005. The KKPPI, which is an inter-ministerial committee chaired by the Coordinating Minister of the Economy, is tasked with increasing both public and private investment in Indonesian infrastructure. In February 2006, the Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs announced an Infrastructure Policy Package outlining more than 150 policy reform items that aim to encourage competition, to eliminate discriminatory practices that obstruct the private sector's participation in infrastructure provision, and to redefine the government's role, including separating policy-making, regulatory and operational responsibilities. Infrastructure summits held in 2005 and 2006 to solicit private- sector participation were poorly received as many of the showcased projects were not well prepared while there are still policy blockages in the preparation of bankable projects. ...through an integrated In July 2007 the government issued an integrated economic policy package (Inpres approach that establishes 6/2007) that builds on the previous year's set of policy packages. The package was a framework for future intended to identify and spur action on regulatory and institutional reform in four broad progress including an areas including infrastructure. Reforms in the infrastructure sector were mainly focused on Infrastructure Fund with an equity injection from the establishment of what were seen as key laws, regulations, decrees and institutions government... and on this it was relatively successful. Laws on maritime and rail transport and power were all completed on schedule in 2007, although the implementing regulations are still being formulated. Master plans for 2008 have also been completed for railways and telecommunications. The division of responsibilities between the central, provincial and kabupaten governments was clarified by government regulation. The Indonesian Infrastructure Fund was established in 2007 on schedule and in August 2007 the government committed to investing equity in the fund through government regulation. ...although this reform The reforms that the government has taken thus far are commendable but they have yet has yet to translate into to translate into large-scale increases in infrastructure spending. Budget execution in key large-scale increases in ministries remains low and sub-national governments are still arguing over who should be infrastructure spending responsible for infrastructure spending. On the PPP front, progress has been disappointing. More than four years after the first infrastructure summit, Indonesia has yet to conduct a single successful tender for a project in compliance with its law governing PPP. With this in mind, the government issued a new policy package (Inpres 5/2008) to update target dates for reforms that have slipped and provide a new set of priorities for the government's reform agenda. The focus on regulatory and institutional reforms from Inpres 6/2007 has been replaced with output-based measures including, inter alia, the number of kilometers of new toll roads to be built by year end. PPPs are seen as a key PPP reforms have been a central element of the government's infrastructure agenda. component of the Recognizing that meeting Indonesia's infrastructure needs cannot be financed by the solution to pressing public sector alone, the government has sought to enhance the institutional framework for infrastructure needs... public-private financing of projects. A PPP Unit was established within the KKPPI as a center of technical expertise in project preparation. The unit is responsible for ensuring that projects proposed by the government's line ministries for possible private sector investment meet stringent international best practice guidelines. The Ministry of Finance has supported the infrastructure agenda with the establishment of a risk management unit and the framework for the creation of a guarantee fund to provide public support for private investment in infrastructure is due to be established in December 2008.. ...which are causing Nevertheless, with insufficient investments in infrastructure and strong demand growth, bottlenecks and bottlenecks and shortages have begun to emerge. The road network, which is the primary shortages, particularly in means of transportation in Indonesia, grew by 12 percent between 2000 and 2004, while the road network which is the number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons increased by 80 percent. The result, not severely underfunded surprisingly, has been increasing congestion which is expected to increase to 55 percent of the network by 2010. The most important infrastructure constraint faced by firms at the Kabupaten level is the poor quality of local roads which are a district responsibility. Estimates suggest annual expenditures on Kabupaten road maintenance are around Rp1 Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 27 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda trillion whereas the full cost of periodic maintenance of the Kabupaten road network is estimated at around 17 times that figure. Moreover, national policies inhibit local governments from implementing performance-based contracts which might improve the quality of maintenance and construction. Enhanced efficiencies Improvements in the transparency and efficiency of public infrastructure spending and the and regulations are regulatory environment for private investments are needed and the incentives and needed to maximize capacity for local governments to undertake infrastructure investment have to be public and private improved. Significant funds have been made available to regional governments through investment as well as capacity building for local the intergovernmental transfer system in order to finance local infrastructure service government... delivery, but many regional governments have not put those funds to good use in building the necessary infrastructure. In addition, regional borrowing mechanisms remain underdeveloped, further constraining infrastructure finance and public service delivery. ...by, for example, raising Demand for electricity has been growing at around 6 percent per year since 2000, but retail tariff levels for there has been no corresponding growth in available system capacity. PLN made 3.5 electricity which are million new electricity connections in 1997 but now connects only around 1 million new below costing order to customers per year. Retail tariff levels remain below cost in almost all infrastructure allow service providers to invest in infrastructure... sectors, including electricity, discouraging investment in new facilities or expansion of existing service networks for critical sectors such as power and water. Despite success in raising fuel prices to ensure macroeconomic stability, the government has struggled to increase other tariffs. The government is addressing the large public service obligation (PSO) payment to the state-owned electricity company PLN and Bappenas completed a blueprint for increasing its efficiency through a better designed tariff system. ...while land acquisition Land acquisition mechanisms have to be reformed to speed up transport and energy mechanisms also need to investments. Land acquisition remains a key constraint to infrastructure development in be reformed Indonesia and while the National Land Body has issued a set of standard operating procedures consistent with the legal framework in place, no benefits have been seen yet by projects stuck in this phase of development. 7. d. Improving the investment climate by remedying weaknesses and inconsistencies in the regulatory and policy environment Indonesia's investment Indonesia's business environment ranks poorly in international comparisons. In the 2008 climate still ranks poorly Doing Business survey, Indonesia was ranked 123rd out of 178 countries in terms of the in international overall ease of doing business, well behind regional competitors such as Thailand (15), comparisons... Malaysia (24), China (83) and Vietnam (91) and ahead of only Cambodia and the Philippines. IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook ranked Indonesia 54th out of 55 countries, well behind the Philippines, India and Thailand. The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Index ranks Indonesia in last place (131st out of 131 countries) in terms of the transparency of government policymaking, and Indonesia is also ranked near the bottom in terms of the quality of infrastructure and labor regulations. ...although business Business perceptions of the investment climate have improved since 2003 (except for perceptions improved infrastructure). Concerns about macroeconomic instability, uncertainty regarding between 2003 and 2007... economic policy, corruption at both the national and the local level, the burden of taxes, the cost of finance, customs and trade regulations and about almost every aspect of the investment climate have diminished, at least as reflected by the share of firms that report them as major impediments to doing business. Figure 7.9: Perceptions of Indonesia's investment climate have improved since 2003... (Percentage of firms who consider the relevant aspect of the investment climate a major or severe obstacle) Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 28 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda 80 2003 2004 2005 2007 60 40 20 0 Financial Economic policy regulation-Nat. Corruption-Nat. Monopoly Cost of Finance Electricity regulation-Loc. Corruption-Loc. Tax rate Telecom. Licenses-Nat. Crime Customs and Customs and administration Transportation permits-Loc. practices Labor skils Macroeconomic Legal System procurement access trade-Reg. trade-Nat. License & uncertainty instability Land Labor Labor Tax Sources and notes: LPEM-UI(2007). See University of Indonesia, Monitoring the Investment Climate: A Report from the Mid-2007 Survey, LPEM-FEUI, December 2007 (in cooperation with the World Bank) ...reflecting the high The improvement in perceptions reflects the high priority that the government has placed priority in government on improving Indonesia's investment climate. The investment climate is featured policy given to improving prominently in the 2005-2009 Medium Term Plan and has been a central component of the investment climate... the economic reform packages introduced in each of the last three years. Nevertheless, Indonesia still has a long way to go in creating the investment climate needed to accelerate and sustain growth. Macroeconomic instability, infrastructure bottlenecks, corruption, and economic policy uncertainty remain severe obstacles to doing business. Table 7.3: ...but Indonesia still does poorly in international comparisons Country Start Business Firing costs Time to pay taxes Enforce a (days) (weeks of salary) (hrs a year) contract (days) Indonesia 105 108 266 570 Thailand 33 54 264 479 Malaysia 24 75 166 600 Vietnam 50 87 1050 295 Philippines 58 91 195 842 China 35 91 872 406 India 33 56 271 1,420 Sources and notes: Doing Business 2008. ...through numerous A new investment law was submitted to Parliament in March 2006 and enacted in March initiatives such as a new 2007. The law, which unifies previously separate laws for domestic and foreign investment law... investment, mandates equal treatment for foreign and domestic investors and requires that all business activities that are closed or restricted to investors be listed in a single regulation issued by the president. Any activity not listed is fully open to investment. This provision should prevent line ministries from creating their own ad-hoc restrictions on foreign investment. The law also eliminates the limited duration and forced divestiture requirements in the old law (Foreign Investment Law of 1967), allows for binding international arbitration in the event of disputes between the government and foreign investors, provides protection against nationalization and states that expropriation must be based on law and compensated at market prices. ...a landmark tax A landmark tax administration law was also passed in 2007 that strengthens the rights of administration law... taxpayers and limits arbitrary decision making by tax officials. Taxpayers will no longer be required to pay 100 percent of any tax assessment prior to filing an objection or appeal; only that portion of the assessment which is agreed during the closing conference must be paid before initiating the objection process. The tax office must provide a written explanation concerning the basis for the decision to reject an objection. Taxpayers can request that a tax assessment be cancelled if they were not provided with written findings during the tax audit or if they were not given the opportunity to attend the closing Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 29 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda conference. The new law also reduces the statute of limitations for tax assessments from 10 years to 5 years. The final version of the law was adopted following a lengthy period of consultation between the government and the business community and reflects a new spirit of openness to public-private dialogue on the part of the bureaucracy. ...and a series of The government's economic reform program has been articulated through a series of economic reform economic policy packages issued in 2006, 2007 and 2008. The first package, entitled packages... Policy Package to Improve the Investment Climate, was released in March 2006 and contained 85 specific reform measures across five broad areas: general investment policy, customs and ports, taxes, manpower and SME policy. This was followed by an infrastructure reform package and a finance sector reform package in 2006. A second investment climate policy package was released in June 2007 entitled Policies to Accelerate Development of the Real Sector and Empower Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises. This package combined investment climate, infrastructure and financial reforms into a single package covering six areas: institutions, ports and customs, taxation, the financial sector, infrastructure and SMEs. A total of 141 specific actions were stipulated in the package, each with a target date and responsible minister, along with the expected outcome for each action. The government's final reform package, covering the remaining period of the current administration, was signed by the president on May 22, 2008 (Inpres 5/2008). It covers reforms of investment policy, ports and customs, taxes, the financial sector, state-owned enterprises, energy policy, natural resources, the environment and agriculture, SMEs, implementation of the ASEAN Economic Community agreement, infrastructure and labor. Table 7.4: Indonesia has taken some significant steps in investment climate reforms Issuance of comprehensive investment negative list that includes all restrictions in a single more transparent presidential regulation, thereby reducing official discretion and limiting the ability of line ministries to create their own ad-hoc restrictions; An acceleration of the VAT refund system for exporters, with "gold list" taxpayers promised refunds in 7 days, low risk exporters in two months and medium risk exporters in four months; and settlement of more than Rp 10 trillion in outstanding VAT claims owed to exporters; Establishment of a complaint management system and a code of conduct for tax officials; Launching of the Indonesia National Single Window for trade facilitation at the main seaport; Simplification of business start-up and licensing procedures; and A new law on electronic transactions that provides a legal basis for e-Government. Sources and notes: World Bank staff. ...that have boosted The impact of these successful reforms is verified in business surveys, which show both business confidence... improved business perceptions across a wide range of indicators and measurable improvements, such as reduced incidence of paying bribes, faster port and customs clearance and faster tax refunds. ...despite the slow pace Judged from the volume of reform legislation, the accomplishments have been significant, of implementation of however there is a widespread view that implementation has been less successful. This reforms partly reflects the inherent inertia and resistance to change that is common in any bureaucracy but is also compounded by a lack of coordination within the government as well as uncertainty about legal and judicial intervention. The local level investment climate is a particular concern because of inconsistent and often arbitrary regulation imposed by local governments.. Three examples can illustrate this problem. Box 7.1: Delays and difficulties in implementing investment climate reforms: three examples Investment procedures decree The first investment climate package, issued in March 2006, stipulated that a revised Investment Procedures decree would be issued in conjunction with the new Investment Law. One of the main objectives of this decree, as explained by the president in August 2005, was to replace the existing investment approval system with a simpler registration system. Disagreements within the government, between the economic ministries on the one hand and the Investment Coordinating Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 30 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Board on the other, prevented this decree from being finalized on time. It was then included as the first item in the next economic policy package (Inpres 6/2007) with an implementation deadline of June 2007. One year later (June 2008) the decree had still not been issued. The government's final economic reform package, signed by the president on May 22 2008, again lists the Investment Procedures decree as the first item with a target deadline of July 2008. Multiple revisions to the decree, and its combination with a decree on one stop shops, have altered the content so that the original objective of eliminating the investment approval system is no longer clear. The drawn-out fate of this decree illustrates the coordination problems that have hindered reform. Investment Negative List The 2007 Investment Law stipulates a single comprehensive investment negative list issued as a Presidential decree. The first investment climate policy package (Inpres 3/2006) states that this list will be clear, simple, explicit and transparent. The objective was to create a simple checklist understandable by anyone, eliminating the need for a complex investment screening process dependent on human judgement. Listing all restrictions transparently in a single regulation issued by the president would also prevent line ministries from making up their own ad-hoc restrictions. Unfortunately, in the process of drawing up the new negative list, the line ministries included all of their existing restrictions, many of which were obscure and arbitrarily enforced. Most of these restrictions had not appeared in any previous negative list, making the new list much longer than previous lists. Some ministries also insisted on completely new restrictions. Lacking clear direction from the highest level of government, the bureaucracy issued a new negative list in July 2007 that was considerably more restrictive of foreign investment than previous official lists, (although not necessarily more restrictive than previous practice within ministries). The new negative list also failed to stipulate clearly that existing businesses were fully grandfathered, causing some companies already in operation to be deemed illegal. Ambiguities remained. Once again, the difficulties encountered during implementation reflected a lack of cohesion within the government, with some ministries intent on tightening restrictions on foreign investment and others favoring a more open investment regime. The 2007 Tax Administration Law The 2007 Tax Administration Law was viewed as a victory for the business community, which had objected strongly to the draft law submitted to Parliament in 2005. One of the biggest perceived wins was a provision allowing businesses to file a tax objection or appeal without first paying 100 percent of any tax assessment. One year after the new Tax Administration Law was approved by Parliament, however, it became clear that this new provision was not being applied. A little noticed transition article at the end of the law stipulates that the old tax administration law remains in force for "all taxation rights and obligations from tax year 2001 to tax year 2007 which have not been settled." This means that tax assessments for years prior to 2008 continue to follow the provisions of the old law. Given that tax assessments can be issued up to five years after the tax year, taxpayers will still be receiving tax assessments in 2012 that cannot be objected to or appealed without first paying 100 percent of the assessment. While this might not be an implementation failure in a narrow sense, it is a surprise to much of the business community and reflects the tenacity of the bureaucracy at delaying reform. Source: World Bank. The challenge now is to Uncertainty about government policy, unclear and poorly enforced regulations and improve coordination, excessively complex approval and licensing requirements will continue to be major reduce uncertainty and obstacles to investment in coming years. Weak governance and infrastructure bottlenecks complexity... will compound the regulatory problems. The good news is that the main problems are well understood and the government has developed comprehensive reform programs designed to unleash private sector investment for faster growth. ...and overcome The challenge will be to improve coordination within the government between different bureaucratic inertia and ministries and agencies in support of the reform program, and to drive reform against resistance and enhance bureaucratic inertia and resistance. Improving the capacity of the government to monitoring and implement reform will be a necessary element of success, including capacity building for evaluation of government performance monitoring and evaluation. Building public and regional support for reform will, however, be equally important, as will strengthening the capacity of the private sector to articulate and lobby for a better business environment. 8. Making growth inclusive Growth needs to be Public pronouncements and programmatic initiatives reflect the government's desire to Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 31 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda shared and services build a more inclusive Indonesia by making growth more broad-based, improving service improved delivery and enhancing voice. In particular, in addition to a number of sector-specific initiatives such as the introduction of the ASKESKIN health insurance scheme for the poor and the passage of the Teacher Certification Law to improve teacher quality, the government, in 2007, launched a nation-wide poverty reduction program consolidating and building upon existing models of community-driven development. 8. a. Raising rural incomes by revitalizing the rural economy Many of the poor still live More than half of Indonesia's population, and nearly two-thirds of Indonesia's poor lived in in rural areas, so rural areas in 2006. On average, rural households derived half of their income from revitalizing the rural agriculture, with the rest coming from rural non-agricultural activities such as petty trading economy is critical to and seasonal construction work. If growth is to be more inclusive, rural incomes have to making growth more inclusive grow. That will mean revitalizing the rural economy by raising agricultural productivity and stimulating rural non-farm employment by improving the rural investment climate. Agricultural growth rates Rural incomes did grow in Indonesia during the 1970s and through much of the 1980s as have been falling till Indonesia achieved rapid growth in both crop and animal production. "Green revolution" recently... technologies brought large increases in rice yields, and the area under non-food crops grew rapidly outside Java. Agricultural growth rates have fallen, however, since the late 1980s, reaching a low in the first few years after the 1998 crisis before picking up again in the last five years (Figure 8.1.). Continuing the trend from the 1990s, the more rapid recent growth has come primarily from tree and industrial crops, horticulture, fisheries and livestock, which have benefited from rising demand and higher prices. While there has been a shift toward higher value-added agriculture, the shift has remained limited to a few regions and a few commodities within each sub-sector. Figure 8.1: Agricultural growth rates have been falling till recently 7.00 5.88 Average annual grow th (%) of agricultural value-added 6.00 5.00 4.33 3.60 4.00 2.94 2.75 2.52 3.00 2.26 1.68 2.00 1.00 0.00 1977-1981 1981-1985 1985-1989 1989-1993 1993-1997 1997-2001 2001-2005 2005-2007 Sources and notes: World Bank estimates using BPS data. Agriculture includes forestry and fisheries activities. ...because both public A major cause of the agricultural slowdown has been the relative decline in public and and private investments private investments in the agricultural sector, particularly since decentralization. in agricultural Government spending and private investment in agriculture in Indonesia fell in the 1990s infrastructure and as a percentage of agricultural GDP. Investments in irrigation stalled after the crisis agricultural support services have declined leaving much of the current irrigation infrastructure in poor condition. Agricultural research and resource and extension services have suffered serious decline and fewer farmers are actually able management has been to receive such services. Inadequate resource management has resulted in soil neglected degradation in irrigated areas, groundwater depletion, water pollution and degradation of water-related ecosystems, and wasteful use of already developed water supplies. Maintenance has been systematically under-funded, requiring at least one-third of the 3 million hectares of government-designed irrigation schemes to be rehabilitated twice in the last 25 years. Water resources are used unsustainably and growing water scarcity is now projected to further slow irrigated crop yield growth. Per-worker value-added Because the shift to higher-value agriculture has not been more widespread, and because in agriculture in the share of the labor force engaged in agriculture and related activities still remains high, Indonesia has essentially the slowdown in agricultural growth has meant that per-worker value-added in agriculture been stagnant in the last in Indonesia has essentially been stagnant in the last decade and remains very low decade relative to other countries (Figure 8.2). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 32 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 8.2: Per-worker value-added in Indonesian agriculture has not grown much in the last two decades and is low relative to other countries value added in constant 2000 USD 1400 Index of per-worker agricultural 1200 1000 (IDN 1988=100) 800 IDN MYS PHI THA 600 400 200 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Sources and notes: World Bank estimates using WDI data. Agricultural value added per- worker in constant 2000 USD is converted to an index with the value for Indonesia in 1988 being set equal to 100. Technical options to The technical options for directly raising agricultural yields are currently limited, and have raise agricultural yields been since the early 1990s, especially for rice. Although genetically modified crop are limited so boosting technologies hold hope for the future, there are few immediately applicable new rural incomes will require technologies available to provide a significant boost to yields. Raising rural incomes will diversification into higher-value added therefore require promoting the diversification of agriculture into higher-valued added activities and the activities and the development of agricultural supply chains. To a certain extent this is development of already happening but more could be done. Changes in consumption patterns and agricultural supply retailing networks have induced rapid growth in supermarkets, which have begun to chains... influence the agricultural production structure, processing, handling and marketing systems. Diversification is especially important in the estimated 24 million hectares of agricultural dry-land where measures which encourage livestock, vegetable intercropping, reforestation of small areas with high-value wood species and diversification into cashew or fruit could all contribute to more stable incomes and poverty reduction. ...through new more New approaches will be required in the context of the changed institutional environment. participatory approaches There is growing evidence of significant benefits to decentralized extension systems that to research and involve the private sector and civil society which need to be replicated nation-wide and extension services strengthened. Governments, specifically local governments, need a paradigm shift from (i) involving the private sector and civil society... top-down to participatory approaches, (ii) input and technology dissemination to dissemination of market and upstream information and technology, and (iii) from centrally managed extension services to decentralized services, as well as some movement toward privatization of extension services. Privatized extension services will assume greater importance in the dry-land cash cropping sub-sector in Eastern Indonesia since exportable commodity production is being increasingly supported by the private sector. The present political climate of Indonesia also provides a more conducive environment for a range of rural producers' organizations (RPOs) than was possible in the past. In all of these initiatives, it is important that measures are put in place that better link agricultural research and extension; the separation of these functions within the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has militated against ensuring focus on farmer's problems when setting the research agenda. ...by developing the Indonesia's agricultural product regulatory framework is quite developed but attention is market-supporting needed to capacity building, maintaining the integrity of national systems with product regulation decentralization and focusing on assisting small holders to meet trade specification regime... requirements. Private markets depend on an effective and streamlined regulatory environment, including grades and standards, food safety, bio-safety and environmental regulation in order to lower transaction costs. Regulations must also be matched by a partnership with traders, processors and producers in a system of effective (and transparent) self-regulation. This will be important not just for domestic consumer Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 33 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda protection and safety, but also to gain and maintain access to international markets. Importing countries are increasingly tightening the quality/safety requirements for food products, including measures that permit "traceability" of the product all the way back to the farm level. Without attention here, a focus on productivity gains for farmers could fail to translate into welfare gains if market outlets are limited. ...and by clarifying land Less than 25 percent of holders of rural land parcels have a formal land certificate, use rights through land compared to almost universal possession of land use certificates by farmers in China and titling, where appropriate Vietnam. The small number of land owners who possess a formal certificate of ownership is also a constraint to access to credit. Although alternatives exist to the use of land certificates as collateral for loans, Indonesia's underperformance on land administration is a major constraint to expansion of commercial microfinance. Analysis demonstrates that rural recipients of land certificates borrow more, invest more, and earn more from their land-based economic activities (SMERU, 2002). Moreover, around 64 percent of Indonesian land is classified by the Ministry of Forestry as forest land and is therefore administered under the Basic Forestry Law of 1967 (UUPK). UUPK precludes individual land tenure despite the fact there are private dwellings, farms, and even cities on this land. Moreover, some forest land overlaps with land that previously enjoyed traditional land rights (adat) adding further complexity. The government has titled over a million parcels of land since 1997, increased capacity at the National Land Agency, and carried out a comprehensive review of the policy and legal reforms needed to modernize the land system under democratic, pro-poor principles. Titling of non-forest land has, however, been slow with only about 25 percent of the nation's estimated 80 million land parcels having been registered in the 40 years since land registration began. If the current pace of registration continues, it would be difficult for land registration to catch up with the growing number of parcels. Moreover, a large share of land off-Java is communal land and private titling of this land may work against the poor and increase conflict. It is, therefore, important that the process of titling is closely supervised in terms of the costs and benefits it accrues to the poor. Access to credit and poor The results of the Indonesia Rural Investment Climate Survey show that demand infrastructure also constraints, access to credit, poor roads and unreliable electricity supply top the list of impedes the growth of concerns faced by rural micro and small enterprises. This is in marked contrast to small non-farm macroeconomic instability, policy uncertainty, corruption, the legal system and taxation enterprises and employment in the issues that are the main concerns of large formal firms. Thus a different emphasis is regions... needed both at the national and the regional level to stimulate the growth of micro and small non-farm enterprises in the regions. ...so subsidies should be Access to financial services for micro and small enterprises has been hindered rather than provided to extend the helped by years of subsidized credit programs. Rather than making borrowing cheaper, reach of financial subsidies should provide incentives for extending the reach of financial services, for services and enhance example, by extending the successful P4K program which connects rural household their management systems enterprises to the formal commercial banking system. Improving the Debtor Information System so that repayment history can become an asset is also a critical need. Bank Indonesia's current Debtor Information System only records outstanding debts. This system needs to be developed to include repayment records both for loans and ultimately other forms of regular payments too. In addition records of repayment to non-bank financial institutions should be included too. In the longer term the government should move towards the creation of private credit bureaus with Bank Indonesia acting as a credit data wholesaler. 8. b. Facilitating the transfer of labor from low-productivity activities in agriculture to higher- value added activities elsewhere Raising rural incomes Raising rural incomes will also mean speeding up the transfer of labor out of agriculture to will also mean speeding higher value-added activities elsewhere. Slow growth in high value-added jobs is up the transfer of labor explained in part by the weaknesses in Indonesia's investment climate but restrictive labor from agriculture to higher market institutions and policies appear to have also played a role. Indonesia's employment value-added activities elsewhere. protection legislation is amongst the strictest in East Asia. Minimum wage Minimum wages, which since the decentralization in 2001 have been set at the provincial Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 34 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda legislation needs to be level, increased sharply (by an average of 19 percent) in real terms between 1998 and simplified to be 2003 at a rate well above the growth in labor productivity, meaning that the minimum wage effectively enforced... is high as a percentage of the median wage.. At the same time, there is wide recognition that weak enforcement of the legislation means that many workers are not protected - particularly those laid-off from smaller and medium-sized firms. Legislation needs to be simplified to increase firms' compliance and the promptness of payments, and lower the potential for litigation, red tape and corruption emerging from the difficulty in interpreting the law. Employers tend to see the prevailing minimum wage not as a floor wage - protecting vulnerable unskilled workers, but more as a relatively high entry level wage in large firms. Figure 8.3: Minimum wages rose substantially between 1999 and 2003 4 0 0 3 5 0 3 0 0 2 5 0 2 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 5 0 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 L P R M W (w e i g h te d a vg ) Sources and notes: Selected country labor laws. Severance pay rates are for workers with a tenure of 4 years who were dismissed for economic reasons. ...while high severance Severance pay rates have continuously increased since the mid-1990s and, on paper, the payments that make it costs of firing workers are extremely high by both regional and global standards. Since expensive to fire labor... 1996 the government has increased severance pay rates and coverage three times. Traditionally, severance pay acts as an unemployment benefit for most wage workers in the formal sector. During most of the Suharto era, severance pay rates and general compliance with the labor legislation were reportedly low. In combination with a repressive political regime, hiring and firing costs were relatively low for employers, resulting in a very flexible labor market, but at the expense of workers' rights and conditions (Manning 1998, Suryahadi, Widyanti and Sumarto 2003). Figure 8.4: Mandated severance pay in Indonesia increased sharply between 1999 and 2003 m o n t h s o f s a la r y 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 < 1 3 5 10 20 M ax Y e a r s o f s e r v ic e 1 9 9 6 la w 2 0 0 0 la w 2 0 0 3 la w Sources and notes: UNPAD (2004) ...and are viewed as While the exact empirical impacts of high severance pay rates on employment trends are barriers to investment... still being researched, labor regulations are regularly perceived as significant barriers in investment climate surveys. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that many firms fail to pay out mandated severance pay rates, raising worker's income insecurity in the absence of a formal unemployment insurance scheme (LPEM-FEUI Investment Climate Surveys, ADB- Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 35 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda WB Investment Climate Survey 2005). Together with high minimum wage rates, firms in the labor-intensive manufacturing sector were likely facing substantially higher labor costs, which in turn might have reduced the willingness of employers to absorb more labor, especially from the ranks of the young, female and rural labor force. Figure 8.5: ...and the severance pay rates Indonesia mandates are the highest in the region S e v e r an ce p ay in m o n t h ly w ag e s 1 0 8 6 4 2 0 a ia si na es nd si a d ay hi in la e In al pp i on C il i ha d M T In Ph Sources and notes: Selected country labor laws. Severance pay rates are for workers with a tenure of 4 years who were dismissed for economic reasons. ...so reform is needed in From a policy perspective, reforms in these two areas of labor policy should be prioritized. labor costs, especially In the case of severance pay rates, the government is currently drafting a new regulation severance pay and aiming to reform the severance pay system. In the case of minimum wage policies, minimum wages which reforms should aim to use minimum wages as a safety net wage for lowest paid workers, should be set as a safety net based on realistic and professional estimates of basic living indexes, which provide the basis for provincial wage councils to recommend the level of the minimum wage. 8. c. Improving the poor quality of, and limited access to, water and sanitation services Access to water and Local governments in Indonesia have historically had significant responsibility over water sanitation services is one and sanitation services, in the case of water these services have been provided through of the lowest in the utilities that they own and manage. There are over 315 public water utilities (PDAMs) region... operating in Indonesia - many are too small, with limited customers, low tariffs and weak management, but their main problem is a lack of access to finance for investments. Investments in the water and sanitation sector have sharply declined since the financial crisis, from an average of USD400 million in the 1990s to under USD45 million in 2005. It is estimated that government spending on the sector is about one-tenth of the level needed to achieve 2015 MDG targets. It is not surprising that access to water supply and sanitation in Indonesia is among the lowest in the region. ...due to poor policy, Investment has dried up due to inadequate sector policies, unclear allocation of insufficient funding and responsibilities and insufficient financing that has left local utilities in crisis. Inadequate an absence of clear lines financing has resulted in unpaid debts, arrears accumulation, deferred maintenance and of responsibility deteriorating services. About 65 percent of PDAM loans with the MoF are in arrears or in default, accounting for USD500 million in debt. PDAMs that are in arrears on past loans from the central government are now prohibited from borrowing again for infrastructure development. Plans for restructuring, rescheduling, and/or writing off PDAM debt, which would allow renewed borrowing have been slow to evolve. Water losses, both physical and administrative, account for up to 60 percent of PDAM production. Key priorities are tariff Tariffs are set well below cost recovery levels by local governments. The average water reform, debt re- tariff for low-income households in Indonesia is less than 50 percent of the lowest tariff in structuring, market-based Vietnam, and far below those of other ASEAN countries. Key sector priorities, therefore, financing of include tariff reform and the debt restructuring of water utilities. A more market-based infrastructure and performance-linked system of financing PDAM infrastructure, perhaps using non-public financial subsidies intermediaries and/or various forms of credit enhancements, needs to be developed. Performance based subsidies (Output Based Aid) should be developed to target the poor and to increase efficient service provision. 8. d. Restructuring the health system Indonesia's health Indonesia's health system is at a critical juncture and needs to be restructured. It faces the system is at a critical Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 36 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda juncture and needs to be multiple burden of improving key lagging outcomes, better controlling communicable restructured to ensure diseases such as TB, dealing with emerging and re-emerging diseases such as HIV/AIDS, sustainability avian influenza and polio and addressing changing disease patterns, in particular the rising incidence of non-communicable diseases, all of which present new challenges in terms of disease surveillance, control and immunization. At the same time, with the move towards universal health insurance coverage, Indonesia must address fundamental questions regarding the design, affordability and sustainability of alternative financing and implementation mechanisms of such coverage. Indonesia is transitioning Like many other emerging middle income economies, Indonesia is experiencing to universal health simultaneous demographic, epidemiological and nutritional transitions as population coverage to cope with growth slows, the population ages and growing incomes and changes in lifestyle shift the demographic, public health focus to non-communicable diseases. These transitions are putting epidemiological, and nutritional change... additional pressures on the health system and will require a different, more expensive health system in the not-too-distant future, especially since Indonesia is one of a small but growing number of middle income countries that have made the decision to transition to universal health insurance coverage for its population. ...and the challenge of At the same time Indonesia faces the immediate task of reversing the stagnation which improving priority health has occurred since 2000 in priority health outcomes such as maternal mortality and child outcomes and reducing malnutrition rates as well as reducing large geographic and income inequity. geographic and income Improvements are also needed in the district-based health system, which is still adjusting inequities within an imperfect decentralized to the 2001 decentralization that shifted half of all public health financing to the district system government level, with provincial and central governments spending 18 percent and 33 percent respectively. Under-funding may be The health system, overall, faces problems of under-funding. Though public expenditures one reason for the poor on health rose from 0.4 percent of GDP in 1998 to around 1.1 percent in 2007, the level of performance of spending still remains low in comparison to Indonesia's neighbors in the region. The Indonesia's health decentralization of public health services to the district government level has compounded system... the problem. There is very limited health insurance coverage and financial protection for the poor who also incur half of all health spending directly out-of-pocket, hurting them further. Figure 8.6: Public health expenditures have risen in the last decade but are still a lower share of the budget than they are for Indonesia's neighbors ... Sources and notes: World Bank estimates from Ministry of Finance data. Expenditures in constant 2000 rupiah prices. ...but it is not the only or The low level of public spending is, however, not the only or even the main problem. even the main problem as Capacity to spend and the efficiency of spending, especially at the local level, are fragmentation and arguably even more serious problems. Fragmentation, allocative and technical inefficiencies resulting in inefficiencies, low productivity and poor quality have resulted in low utilization rates of both low quality and low utilization rates of public public and private facilities and high rates of self-treatment. Utilization rates of public and Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 37 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda facilities are a major private facilities, both out-patient and in-patient services have declined since the 1998 reason for inequities in crisis, falling to a low of 34 percent in 2006. The latest figures point towards an increase in health access utilization of public services in particular between 2006 and 2007, most likely due to the government's insurance program for the poor, but utilization rates still remain low with only about 40 percent seeking treatment for an illness. Differences in utilization rates between poor and richer households are a major source of inequity in healthcare access and the main reason why health spending is regressive. Decentralization has not Experience from around the world suggests that a decentralized model of service delivery delivered better services can be a potentially important tool for improving accountability of front-line service while a confusion of roles providers and hence the quality of services. Since decentralization in 2001, this potential and responsibilities has yet to be fully realized. A lack of professionalism, non-compliance with good practice between the local and national governments... protocols, high absenteeism (e.g., 40 percent of medical doctors being absent without valid reason during official public working hours), uneven deployment and low motivation in the health workforce are common problems. Decentralization has indeed put more money and responsibility in the hands of local officials, but there continues to be serious confusion concerning the division of roles and responsibilities between local governments and the Ministry of Health (MoH) at the national level. There is very little correlation between health spending and health outcomes at the district level, even though decentralization has started improving fiscal inequities. There are still mismatches in the revenue sharing formulas with respect to accommodating differences in local fiscal capacity and need. After initial progress in decentralization, the MoH appears to be responding to emerging constraints by attempting to re-centralize certain functions while also continuing to apply a uniform service delivery model that does not address a range of different contexts and that risks causing further confusion of roles and responsibilities. ...needs to be clarified to In order for the GoI to develop an appropriate 5 year plan and to implement its ongoing improve service delivery reform efforts it needs to address all aspects of the health sector including health systems' that requires a holistic constraints and other sector impacts on health (e.g. water and sanitation). The MoH approach to the health stresses maintaining the broad policy settings of the last two decades that call for public sector to build the capacity for greater local funding and provision of healthcare and the uniform implementation of the public health autonomy and enhance model across diverse settings throughout the country. Making decentralization work will the role of the private involve building the capacity of institutions at the local level, finding models to ensure the sector delivery of core public health functions, and transitioning the MoH to its new stewardship/regulatory role whereby hospitals are given greater autonomy. A purchaser- provider split where money follows patients should be implemented. The government has to better recognize the role of the private sector and of decentralized public health institutions, providing guidance and regulation of services such that the benefits of privatization and decentralization are fully captured. The establishment of Indonesia also needs to address the implementation and financing challenges brought JAMKESMAS has made a about by the passing of Law 40/2004 that established the National Social Security System start in delivering more (NSSS) as the starting point for universal health insurance coverage and a holistic reform equitable outcomes of the social security system in Indonesia. With the introduction of the ASKESKIN program although better targeting will be important... for the poor in 2005 (now called the JAMKESMAS program), an important step was taken towards achieving this goal. JAMKESMAS is the successor to earlier experiences in providing health cards to the poor, and positive results are starting to show with regard to increased coverage of the poor and increased rates of utilization of public facilities by the poorest quintiles. Fundamental fiscal questions remain regarding the affordability and sustainability of the proposed new health insurance system. With increasing coverage and access to private health care, it will be important to better target government funds to public goods and to subsidized services for the poor. ...to achieve the best The government's health financing reforms face key challenges including: defining the outcome from health basic benefits package; finding appropriate mechanisms to enrol and the financing of non- financing reforms... formal sector workers. There is also a need to ensure that adequate and equitable financing is available and appropriately balanced among individuals, the national budget, local revenues and through the intergovernmental transfer system. Finally, the GoI needs to develop a transition plan based on local evidence, global best practice and the fiscal and institutional realities facing the country. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 38 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda ...including the key Provider payment is one of the key areas for reform and an area in which Indonesia's priority of establishing a traditional salary, capitation of public health centers, budgeting systems for public provider payment system hospitals, and fee for service for private providers needs serious upgrading and based on outcomes modernization. Although current spending levels are low, Indonesia, like many countries, faces serious efficiency, access and quality problems. There is urgent need to develop and implement modern payment systems based on `results' rather than inputs and eliminate supply side subsidies in favour of a `money follow patients' system in order to encourage technical and allocative efficiency, equity, quality and create `a level playing field' for the private sector. 8. e. Providing quality education for all Education is central to Education is central to the Government of Indonesia's development agenda. Education the Government of spending has significantly increased in recent years and since 2006 national education Indonesia's development spending has been higher than for any other sector, exceeding 16 percent of total agenda with a focus on expenditures, or 3.5 percent of GDP. Indonesia has a constitutional target of allocating 20 equity, quality and governance... percent of the central and local budgets on education. In 2002, the government reaffirmed this spending target and revised the Constitution to emphasize the right of all citizens to education. Furthermore, Law 20/2003 states that there should be no fees for basic education. The Ministry of National Education has chosen a three-pronged development approach with the current five-year (2005-2009) development plan (Renstra) focusing on equity and expansion of access, quality, relevance and competitiveness, and governance and accountability. . ...while the most The most important challenge is to improve the quality of education spending. Indonesia important challenge is continues to rank poorly in international standardized tests of student performance, getting better outcomes experiences high drop-out rates as well as lower access to junior secondary education. from spending... The cost of even primary education remains high for many, especially poor households. School fees and various other school-related expenses create barriers to the poor's access to education and 44 percent of households in the two poorest quintiles report difficulties in financing education for their children. The central government's School Operational Assistance Grant (BOS) program as well as a recently introduced CCT is aiming to improve access for the poor. Box 8.1: Indonesia's BOS (School Operational Assistance Grant) Program The BOS system of direct transfers to schools was introduced initially as a scholarship grant program to mitigate the effects of the government's radical fuel subsidy adjustment in 2005 and stabilize the enrollment of children from Indonesia's poorest households. The introduction of BOS served to maintain enrolment levels and to prevent dropouts during a critical period. Quickly thereafter ­ reflecting the needs of school managers ­ the program evolved into a general purpose grant for operating costs. The BOS program amounts to USD1.3 billion, which represents 23 percent of central government education spending and about nine percent of total public spending on education. While BOS represents a small share of total education spending, it is Indonesia's most significant policy reform in education financing in two important aspects: (1) grants are based on a per-pupil formula, and (2) funds are directly channeled to the school. It is the first time in Indonesia that Government funding has been used to support enrollment of pupils rather than the recruitment of additional teachers or other input-focused investment. At the school level the BOS program also provides incentives for headmasters and teachers to focus on maintaining and increasing enrollment levels. The program empowers school managers by allowing them to choose how to allocate the BOS grants and thereby enhances the sense of ownership, encouraging school based management. After two years of operation, there are indications that BOS has been successful. Not only was there no significant drop in enrollment or increases in drop-out rates in a period of hardship for households, but, in fact, improvements have been recorded since 2005. Three-quarters of households surveyed in a preliminary evaluation reported that they had benefited from BOS funds and over half of the households reported that school fees have been reduced as a result of BOS. Some 90 percent of schools reported receiving the grant in line with their expectations based on enrollment. On average, school fees were reduced by 37 percent in primary schools and 39 percent in junior secondary schools (in real terms). Source: World Bank. ...through, for example, The distribution of teachers is inequitable with remote schools often being understaffed Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 39 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda the more equitable with teachers having lower educational levels. Nevertheless, Indonesia overall has one of distribution of teachers to the lowest student-teacher ratios in the world, indicating an overall surplus. This is due to provide additional inefficiencies and imbalances among urban and rural areas. It is estimated that if a more resources... efficient teacher distribution system is used, the teaching force could be reduced by approximately 20 percent, freeing up resources for other areas of education. ...and improving the The government is attempting to remedy the unevenness in the spatial distribution in the quality of teachers numbers and quality of teachers with the passage of the Teacher Certification Law through setting (UU14/2005) and the provision of incentives to teachers to locate to more remote areas. standards and certifying The law lays the foundations for a massive teacher certification program which is one of and rewarding teachers... the largest civil service reforms in the world and is expected to take 10 years. The program is a central government initiative to set standards for teachers, upgrade their skills, and ultimately improve the quality of education. The costs of certifying, training and allowance payments imply considerable new investments in education by the government. New incentives will significantly increase teacher salaries including the professional incentive (for certified teachers) and the special area incentive (for teachers working in remote and other hardship areas) that are equal to the teacher's base salary. ...in order to enhance Indonesia lags behind in terms of quality of schooling and learning outcomes. Decades of learning outcomes and rapid expansion of enrollment have not produced graduates with the consistently high produce better qualified quality of knowledge and skills needed to build a strong society and competitive economy. graduates Indonesia participated in the OECD-sponsored PISA study in 2000, 2003, and 2006. The results show that Indonesian students have improved their performance in reading and math skills, but they still lag behind other lower middle income economies in the sample. As well as unqualified teachers, a key reasons for the low quality of Indonesia's school graduates is an ineffective learning process (focused too heavily on theory and rote learning). Only four of Indonesia's higher education institutions made the Asiaweek 2000 ranking of top Asian universities, with the best ranking only 61 out of 77. Improving governance The decentralization process, which began in 1999, has left responsibility and and increasing accountability for many education areas vague. Recently there has been a strong push for accountability is faster and more complete implementation of the decentralization policy. Although the important in the districts have already taken the responsibility for the delivery of primary and secondary decentralization era... education for several years now, public expenditures at the district level are still largely supported by the general allocation fund (DAU) and the special allocation funds (DAK). Assistance provided to districts still often comes in the form of in-kind funding and/or so- called block grants for narrowly defined categories of inputs and activities. ...although there are There is concern about the capacity of local government to use these funds appropriately. concerns about the There is no clear and efficient definition and assignment of functional roles and capacity of local responsibilities and often a misalignment of responsibility and authority. There is a lack of government to use funds effective management systems and skills (generic and system-based) to implement the effectively reform. Information collection, which was considered to be good before decentralization, has collapsed as many districts no longer turn in data and there is a lack of monitoring and evaluation. The reconstruction of the basic architecture of information collection is essential in order to make more informed policy decisions and properly target programs. 8. f. Improving the allocation and efficiency of expenditures in the context of a decentralized Indonesia, not financing, is the main challenge The allocation and Spending on health and education has increased during the last 5 years but there are efficiency of cross-sector other challenges. These differ across the different sectors and services but a common spending needs to be thread is the need to improve the allocation and efficiency of expenditures. Indonesia now improved to improve faces the challenge of improving public services and reducing inequalities in accessing government efficiency and deliver better them. Despite increased public spending in health and education post decentralization, services progress in service delivery is mixed. Rather than focusing solely on increasing public spending, there is merit in a three pronged approach that (i) increases the accountability and incentives of government agencies and providers (ii) strengthens the role of clients in service delivery and (iii) makes inter-governmental relations work. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 40 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 8.7: Spending on health and education has increased 20.0% % of total gove rnm e nt e xpe nditure Education 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% He alth 0.0% 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: World Bank estimates from MoF data. 8. g. Community-based approaches such as the PNPM offer one means of addressing that challenge by enhancing voice and accountability Community-based To promote more broad-based post-recovery growth, in August 2006 the Government of programs such as PNPM Indonesia (GoI) launched the first nationwide poverty reduction program. It comprises two and CCT offer the means primary pillars: (a) the National Program for Community Empowerment or Program to improve accountability Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat (PNPM); and (b) the Conditional Cash Transfer and effectiveness... (CCT) Program targeting poor communities and households. A number of sectoral programs are linked to this main umbrella in ways that are expected to increase over time. The Ministries of Education and Health, for example, are expected to target their investments and measure their effects in parallel with the entry of PNPM into poor communities. ...and to deliver benefits The government has produced a clear strategic framework for PNPM. The program is part to the poor of a much bigger effort to reduce poverty, as shown in Figure 8.8. Error! Reference source not found.. The five focal areas for the 2008 poverty reduction action plan are: stabilizing prices for basic commodities used by the poor; promoting pro-poor growth, with a special focus on small and medium enterprises; increasing access of the poor to basic services such as health, education, water and sanitation; developing safety nets, primarily through the conditional cash transfer system; and consolidating and expanding the community development programs. Figure 8.8: The strategic framework underpinning Indonesia's poverty reduction efforts L a b o r - r e la t e d P ro g r a m s E m p lo y m e n t · F is ca l- M o n e ta r y C r ea t io n P o lic ie s · In f r a st r u c t u r e A c ce le r a tio n E co n o m ic G r o w t h C o m m u n it y P a c ka g e · In v e s tm e n t a n d S t a b i l i ty W el far e C lim a t e P a c ka g e · E n e r g y p o licy P o v e r ty · SM Es Pac k age R e d u ct io n · E tc . P N PM : · S m a ll- sc a le P r ice S t a b iliz a t io n H a r m o n i za t i o n i nf r a s tr u ct u r e B a s ic N e e d s S o c ia l ( r ice , e d u c a tio n , C o m m u n it y · E c o n o m ic p r o d u c ti vit y Im p r o ve m e n t P r o t e c t io n he a lt h , b a s ic E m p ow e r m e nt · E n v ir o n m e n t P r o g ra m s S y s te m in fr a st r u ct u r e ) P r o g r am s im p r o ve m e n t · H u m a n r e s o u r ce s im p r o v e m e n t ·C o n d it io n a l C a sh tr a n sf e r (P K H ) Sources and notes: Bappenas, 2007. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 41 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda PNPM provides the PNPM will provide an umbrella framework for all community-driven development umbrella for community- interventions in Indonesia, which at present number somewhere between 60 and 114 driven development... nationally as well internationally-funded community development projects. By consolidating these often overlapping programs under a single framework, PNPM will create a unified design for program delivery, ensure better national targeting of the poorest, the direct transfer of funds to villages, and increased allocations for block grants. ...but finding an effective Managing the scaled-up national program effectively requires a permanent management management framework framework and finding a sustainable, effective management framework for the scaled-up will not be easy... program will not be easy. Several different options are being discussed. Parliament is suggesting that physical works all be under Public Works but the management of facilitators, local government and training be placed under Home Affairs. Another option is to create a cabinet level Badan (Board) similar to the BRR which was created for post- tsunami Aceh and Nias. PNPM's steering committee will review options throughout the project period and propose a preferred management framework to parliament in 2009. ...and future funding is Reaping PNPM's benefits depends on full funding at an average of Rupiah 3.0 billion still uncertain (approximately USD330,000) per sub-district. Employment and poverty benefits from PNPM are very sensitive to reductions in funding. The Cabinet has already approved in principle full funding, however Indonesia's parliament has only approved funds to 2009. Furthermore, a portion of the approved budgets are consolidated and repackaged existing programs rather than the addition of new resources. The GoI's 2008/2009 budget negotiations will be crucial in assessing the expected benefit stream of the whole PNPM program. 9. Ensuring growth is sustainable The government is The government and political leaders are also paying increasing attention to the need for committed to more more sustainable growth and development. The 2004-2009 RPJM had three main sustainable growth and priorities, and within those a number of targets, one of which was environmental development, including sustainability. This was reflected most recently in the stated commitments by the environmental sustainability Indonesian Government, as host of the December 2007 13th Conference of Parties, to put climate change at the top of Indonesia's development agenda. Although the regulatory Indonesia's administrative and regulatory framework for environmental management is framework is improving improving, but remains weak at the level of implementation and enforcement. implementation, Implementation and enforcement of rules and procedures has been poor and slow due to enforcement and weak commitment by sectoral agencies, low awareness in local departments and officials, technical capacity are inadequate and capacity challenges at all levels. Environmental institutions, roles and responsibilities are fragmented and coordination mechanisms at national and local levels are poorly defined. One of the key needs is to improve the effectiveness of the environmental management framework by improving technical capacity - human financial and technical resources - especially at the local level which, post-decentralization, has an important share of environmental management responsibilities. 9. a. Managing Indonesia's forestry and marine resources sustainably while providing adequate livelihoods Poor environment and The GoI recognizes that resource degradation poses a risk for continued growth and natural resource development. The Country Natural Resource and Environmental Analysis (Bappenas, management threaten 2007) addresses concerns related to energy, water, forestry, mining and climate change. future growth prospects "Negative externalities from inappropriate or inadequate environmental management and over-utilization of natural resources" can undermine future growth prospects by degrading water quality, increasing competition for water quantity, declining quality of air and soils, and contributions to GHG emissions. Improved forest and Indonesia's forests and watersheds are a concern because of their social, economic and watershed management environmental importance in promoting high quality economic growth and lasting poverty would have widespread reduction. Indonesia has the world's third largest area of tropical forest and globally benefits across society... significant biodiversity. Improved forest management is essential for improvements in decentralization and democracy, conflict and injustice, poverty and vulnerability. Forest Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 42 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda and watershed management issues touch every segment of civil society. Forests and watersheds are a national asset (67 percent of the country's total land area), a global public good, and central to the livelihoods of many of the 36 million Indonesians living in poverty. ...however a range of Indonesia's forest resources and watersheds are not contributing as they should to threats and poor poverty reduction, economic and social development and environmental sustainability. management come at an Instead, forest areas are threatened with degradation, fragmentation and destruction. economic cost One-quarter of the "state forest area" lacks tree cover, mainly due to illegal cutting and land conversion fueled by excess industrial processing capacity and a lack of effective management and law enforcement. These underlying drivers also contribute to underperforming plantation lands, losses in GoI tax earnings, and indebted firms. Poor forest management damages the investment climate, rural economic potential as well as Indonesia's competitiveness and international reputation. Forest crime exacerbates problems of budget and fiscal balance, and diverts public revenues that could be better spent on poverty reduction and development goals. New approaches to As Indonesia moves to stabilization and growth, there are important opportunities to help sustainable forest find new ways of managing forest areas in partnership with local communities, contributing management need to be to democracy, justice, equity, rural sector investment, jobs and growth. A more diversified, adopted... efficient, competitive and sustainable future is feasible. Studies and roadmaps are available that chart a course toward forest management approaches that entail more plantation-grown timber, less degradation and encroachment, alternative timber sources, retooled mills and higher value-added processing, with more small-scale enterprises and employment. ...although vested Past efforts have strived to assist the GoI to deliver on its own stated forest management interests and corruption goals and commitments and to promote wider policy dialogue among forest sector will impede the stakeholders, however vested interests, money politics and corruption among the powerful implementation of good impede efforts to match performance with policy. At the same time, poor, rural, traditional management practices and marginalized forest users remain politically disenfranchised and voiceless in most governance and resource allocation decisions. Conflict over land and traditional rights not only undermine economic potential and threaten local livelihoods, but also can turn violent, creating a wider and more negative development impact. Weaknesses in the judicial sector and in the rule of law are nowhere manifested more clearly than in the forestry sector, where competition among governance institutions (police and ministry, central and local) is illustrated in the daily press. Nevertheless, Indonesia's forest sector has been in crisis for some time, yet many observers and democratization and analysts believe the likelihood of successful outcomes is higher now than at any time in decentralization offer the past. This is because democratization and decentralization of government are creating some hope for change... positive political pressures and commitment to good governance and fighting corruption at the highest levels. Attitudes and roles among government, big business and civil society are changing. Central policy-making is more consultative and transparent. Local governments are becoming more responsive and accountable. Civil society and business are repositioning themselves for more constructive relationships. In the Department of Forestry, a gradual process of evolution and reform is resulting in new opportunities for improved forest management and governance. ...because Although forestry policies and legislation in managing greenhouse emissions are implementation of adequate, law enforcement and implementation are weak and not aimed at reducing national laws and policies emissions. In contrast, land use rules and allocation decisions are inconsistent, non- on emissions is transparent, and disputed by many, leading to conflict over land and resources on the compromised by vested interests ground. Forest and peat land conversion to agriculture and plantation crops ­ or degradation and open access ­ is an important source of emissions, but the local governments and private interests that make these decisions are not well regulated and do not face incentives to control emissions. Indonesia's coastal and Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic nation and encompasses some of the world's marine resources are richest areas in terms of potential economic activity and biodiversity hot spots (including environmental hot-spots more than one-quarter of coral reefs in the region). The coastline and near-shore waters Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 43 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda that also offer economic account for about 15 percent of GDP and support the coastal and fisheries activities of potential... 8,400 rural communities and 6 million fishing and aquaculture households spread over 1,100 sub-districts. ...but communities Coastal and fishing communities face a unique poverty-trap because there are few dependent on these livelihood opportunities available other than continued overexploitation of a declining diminishing resources resource base. Nevertheless, economic opportunities exist because new markets and new are acutely poor with few technologies are making household aquaculture and value-added processing more alternative sources of livelihood feasible and profitable. To improve local livelihoods, the challenge has been to diversify fishers' income streams by supporting new economic opportunities, to create enabling policies for local economic development and to reduce impediments to household aquaculture and small enterprise development. The major constraints and market failures include knowledge of appropriate fisheries production and processing modalities, marketing of these products and access to a formal supply of affordable credit. There is a need to protect Government-community co-management of protected areas is an important approach to habitat through co- improve governance of fisheries resources. Indonesia has a target to create a marine management with local conservation area of 20 million hectares by 2020. Partnerships between local government communities and resource users have proven effective in sustainably managing fisheries ecosystems and reaching consensus among communities/users with competing interests. Continuing the decentralization agenda to further empower communities to enter into co-management partnerships can help to rehabilitate depleted fisheries resources and ameliorate the current crisis in the sector. Awareness has risen but There has been improved awareness by coastal communities, both national and regional there are still governments, business groups, politicians and academics on the importance of impediments to sustainable management of coastal and marine resources. The Ministry of Marine Affairs improving performance... and Fisheries has, however, identified several fundamental factors that impede performance in the management of marine resources (see Table 9.1). Table 9.1: Why Indonesia's common property resources are being depleted: proximate and underlying causes Proximate causes ...and why they occur illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing perceived open access by many primary continuous habitat degradation users conflict over use of coastal and marine competition that weakens bargaining resources positions in traditional markets poor application of appropriate technology poor information among primary users limited financial resources for fisheries-based small-scale and remote business units economic activities poor knowledge of biological characteristics marine pollution in coastal areas ecological linkages among marine-based excessive exploitation activities and terrestrial and coastal/marine poor law enforcement environments poverty in coastal communities poor capacity of regulatory institutions lack of qualified human resources Sources and notes: Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Aquaculture production Due to declining resources, emphasis is now being placed on promoting high value offers a new household-based aquaculture production, however many constraints make this a opportunity... challenging proposition. Fisheries-based rural enterprises lack equity and face credit market failures that inhibit start-up or expansion. Fisheries households need better information about outside job and market opportunities. Lack of appropriate infrastructure (e.g. cold chain to preserve the catch on its way to market) impedes the growth and development of rural, coastal fisheries-based economies. ...while the government To increase future production and local incomes of poor fishers and fish farmers, it will be has developed a strategy necessary to develop high value fisheries commodities, reduce fishing efforts and protect to develop high-value critical fisheries ecosystems. The main engine for economic growth would be the scale- commodities, reduce production and processing of fisheries commodities that have high export value, with over-fishing and protect eco-systems direct links to poor fisheries households. The GoI has a three-point strategy: (a) enhancing the production and supply chains of export-oriented fisheries commodities; (b) Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 44 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda strengthening and expanding access to finance programs for aqua-farmer groups; and (c) support for collaborative partnerships between resource users, government agencies, and non-government organizations in designing marine reserves and larger marine protected areas. Raising public awareness Public awareness is needed to address environmental problems, both through behavior is critical to improving change and through political constituencies for action. There is an active nationwide management of the network of civil society organizations focused on environmental issues, with significant environment... advocacy experience. Recent environmental disasters (floods, mudslides and fires) have stimulated greater public environmental concern. Further analysis of knowledge, attitudes and practices is, however, needed to determine the depth of understanding, public ranking of issues, and useful next steps in moving toward improved outcomes. ...but this needs to be Nevertheless, Indonesia's macroeconomic policies (tax and non-tax revenue policies and accompanied by fiscal balancing formulas) appear to favor resource depletion over sustainable use as they government policy that reward district governments on resource revenue and not performance or stewardship. emphasises sustainable The fiscal policy framework also tends to under-tax forestry and fisheries (relative to other use rather than resource depletion... natural resources), under-collect taxes that are levied (impeding their ability to influence behavior at the margin) and does not allow charitable contributions by individuals or corporations (undermining one potential source of funding for environmental and conservation improvement). Finally, there is little integration of environmental considerations at the planning and programmatic levels, especially in the public investment planning process and in regional plans for land and resource use. ...although the challenge Under decentralization, sub-national governments feel less strongly bound by national of environmental guidelines. This creates another hurdle for environmental management, since many of management has also these environmental management responsibilities have been devolved to provincial and become more district level. Regulatory bodies in many provinces and districts now fall directly under the complicated in the era of decentralization control of the governor or district head who is often also the proponent of the projects or activities that must be regulated. Despite the substantial investment in environmental policy and staff development, actual implementation of rules and procedures has been poor. Many provinces and districts are reinterpreting existing rules or adopting new regulatory procedures; while some of these innovations strengthen environmental controls, many relax them or seek to bypass national standards. These problems are unlikely to get better under decentralization unless a more effective approach to regulation can be developed. 9. b. Meeting Indonesia's energy needs without sacrificing Indonesia's environment Under-investment in Indonesia's energy demand is projected to grow rapidly, with some projections estimating electricity generating a near-tripling of demand between 2005 and 2020. In 2006, total installed generating capacity since the crisis capacity of the national power system reached 28,926 MW, making it one of the largest in is leading to system the region. Given the size of its population, however, Indonesia's per capita electricity capacity... consumption and electrification ratio are still the lowest in the region. Because of under- investment in the decade since the crisis, the state-owned power company, PLN has added relatively little new capacity to its system, and demand is beginning to outstrip supply. Inadequate funding to recover PLN's supply costs under the current electricity tariff regime has created a substantial disincentive to expanding connections and, as a result, many households who live in rural areas and outside of the dominant economic centers of Java and Bali still do not have access to electricity. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 45 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 9.1: Indonesia's demand for electricity is projected to grow rapidly in coming years Indonesia electricity demand projections 400 PLN 2006-2015 plan (Grow th: 8.5% /yr) Beicip study 2002-2025 (Grow th: 6.2% /yr) 300 Nexant 2005-25 (10% /yr to 2010 then 6%) e a o rs T rw tt-h u 200 100 0 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 5, Annual GDP growth: PLN 7.3%for 2006-201 Beicip study 5%for 2002-2025, Nexant study 6%for 2005-2025 Sources and notes: PLN, Nexant, Beicip Franlab ...while PLN's generating PLN's current fuel mix, the legacy of past access to subsidized oil and the slow capacity is skewed development of gas production and transmission infrastructure, is skewed towards the use towards the use of of diesel, with diesel-based power generation currently accounting for over 35 percent of expensive and non- the total electricity generated. With PLN no longer enjoying access to fuel at subsidized sustainable oil and diesel products prices, and with mandated tariff ceilings (which have not been raised since 2004), the government has had to provide PSO subsidies to maintain PLN's financial viability in the context of rising oil prices. Not only has that proved a drain on the central government budget - over USD4.2 billion in 2007 - but it distorts PLN's incentive to develop the most cost-effective generation sources. Figure 9.2: Indonesia relies more on expensive fuel for power generation than other countries Power Generation Fue l Mix (PL N Plan 20 06-2015 , IEA 200 5) 1 00% Other Ren ewa bles 80% Hyd ro 60% Nuclea r Gas 40% Oil 20% Coa l 0% Indone sia Ind onesia Chin a Ind ia Brazil US&Cana da OECD The World 200 4 2015 (PLN) Eu rop e Sources and notes: The government and PLN To combat high supply cost and meet increasing demand, the Government and PLN are have prepared a joint focusing on: (i) facilitating private investments and increasing public financing in the development and sector; (ii) improving generation fuel mix and PLN's management efficiencies; and (iii) expansion strategy... promoting rural electrification. Under the strategy, PLN is undertaking a substantial expansion program that entails an estimated USD41.4 billion total investment, most of which (USD28 billion) will be funded by PLN. In addition, the Government and PLN are trying to scale up development of geothermal and other sustainable resources, and strengthen the transmission and distribution systems for efficient use of generation resources and increasing access to the electricity grid. Nevertheless, this is a long-term project (2006-2015) and project preparation efforts will be required to fulfill the investments needs within the planned timetable. ...that includes more Indonesia understands the strong economic sustainability rationale to address governance efficient use of energy as and policy concerns in the energy sector. "Relatively low energy consumption per capita a key to economic and high energy intensity indicate both Indonesia's relatively low welfare levels and development Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 46 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda inefficient use of energy." The GoI is also working to improve policy consistency, reduce distortions and improve management to become more efficient and competitive, encourage energy security, improve environmental services and quality of life and to free up budgetary resources for priority needs for investment and job creation. Nevertheless, excessive Excess and inefficient use of energy resources in industry, power production and motor use of fossil fuels has vehicles causes emissions and pollution that damage the environment and impose health significant environmental and other social costs. Key pollutant levels are high compared with other Asian countries, costs and contributes to partly due to excessive use of fossil fuels for electricity generation (see Figure 9.3). climate change... Excessive use of fossil fuels also contributes greenhouse gases to the atmosphere ­ contributing to global climate change. Future threats include increased coal use (due to energy demand), which could exacerbate air pollution problems, forest clearing and contribute to the acid rain problem in the region. IIEE (2007) also notes that power sector expansion plans will also strain water supply and transport systems, especially on Java. Figure 9.3: Indonesia's emissions per capita are higher than in other countries R e la ti v e l e v e l s o f p e r c a p i ta e m is s io n s w i th In d o n e s i a ' s e m i s s io n s = 1 1. 2 C O 2 f r o m p e t r o le u m use CO N Ox 1. 0 IN D O N E S IA 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 - In d o n es i a V i e tn a m I n di a C h in a P h i li p p i n e s Sources and notes: World Resources Institute Climate Change data for CO and NOx; US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration website for CO2; World Development Indicators 2006 for population. CO2 emissions for 2004; CO and NOx emissions for 2000. ...but Indonesia has Indonesia is rich in renewable energy resources and could benefit from increasing the significant potential in share of renewables in power generation (see Figure 9.3). Indonesia is striving to increase renewables to contribute its use of renewable energy sources, including geothermal, hydro, solar and biomass. This to meeting rising would not only contribute to meeting increasing demand and enhancing energy security, demand... but also sustainable development. Indonesia has nearly 40 percent of the world's potential geothermal resources which could be a viable addition or alternative for base load power generation. Geothermal generation can be developed at a scale that would be economically feasible, especially if coal prices keep rising. Biomass and hydro resources are abundantly available in most of the outer islands and can be attractive options for switching away from the largely diesel-based generation in many of these locations. To exploit these resources, however, there is a need to develop a strategy and action plan to address technical, policy, and commercial barriers that presently hinder progress. Expanded production of other bio-fuels could also lead to more conversion of forest area into oil palm plantations. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 47 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Table 9.2: Indonesia has abundant energy resources other than oil Major islands Coal Natural gas Oil Geothermal Hydroelectic Biomass (MTOE) (MTOE) (MTOE) (MW) (MW) (MW) Java 6 165 67 3086 54 13,622 Bali - - - 226 20 347 Sumatra 13,558 425 1,551 5,433 5,489 6,433 Kalimantan 5,885 1,180 200 - 6,047 6,231 Sulawesi 20 24 - 721 4,479 5,337 Nusa Tenggara - - - 645 292 1,174 Maluku - - 1 142 217 1,093 Papua 64 24 2 - 24,974 6,814 TOTAL 19,533 1,817 1,822 10,027* 41,436 41,651 Sources and notes: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Indonesia. Total geothermal potential that is presently ready for commercial extraction. There is an estimated additional potential of 17 GW that could be exploited with more development. ...while energy savings Promoting energy savings and efficiency provides further opportunities for ensuring and efficiencies can energy security and sustainable development. It is estimated that Demand-Side moderate demand Management (DSM) initiatives that are already being considered or implemented to some degree have the potential to reduce power generation capacity needs by upwards of 2,500 MW. If these programs are scaled-up and realize their full potential, this would be tantamount to expanding generation capacity. International experience suggests that DSM measures are most successful when complemented with incentive in price-based regulation of consumption. In order to rapidly assess the benefits and potential of DSM programs, PLN will need to identify priority sectors and incorporate them in the power sector master plan as well as commit adequate financial and human resources. Delivering on this The legal and regulatory framework (see Table 9.3) that governs the electricity sector is program is, however, presently in a state of uncertainty, complexity and inconsistency. The uncertainty is mainly impeded by problems in due to the annulment of the 2002 Electricity Law that established the unbundling of PLN the legal and regulatory and a gradual transition towards greater competition. The annulment also left PLN in an framework institutional state of flux since PLN had to suspend its partially completed restructuring measures to unbundle some of its operations as stipulated by the 2002 Law. In addition, the legal ambiguity has impacted on electricity pricing policy and hindered private investments. The complexity and inconsistency results from the patchwork of laws, regulations and plans that were developed independently of each other and that have created adverse conditions, such as over-exploitation of natural resources, insufficient energy for domestic use, under development of renewable energy resources, unfair wealth distribution and environmental degradation (IIEE, 2007). Table 9.3: Indonesia's legal and policy framework for energy Energy type Laws Policy Roadmap Energy Law 30/2007 on National Energy Policy Draft blueprint for energy National Energy Industry (RUEN) Coal Draft law on minerals National Coal Policy Roadmap for coal and and coal minerals Oil and natural Law 22/2001 on oil Draft Petroleum Policy Draft General Plan for gas and natural gas (upstream) National Oil and Natural Draft Fuel policy (downstream) Gas (RUPPN) Renewable Law 30/2007 on Policy on renewable energy and Roadmap for Green energy energy energy conservation (2004) Energy Geothermal Law 27/2003 on Geothermal policy Blueprint for geothermal energy Development and Utilization of Geothermal energy Nuclear Law 10/1997 on Nuclear policy Roadmap for nuclear nuclear energy energy Electricity Law 15/1985 on Power sector restructuring policy National General Plan on electricity (1998) Electricity (RUKN) Draft law on electricity Sources and notes: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Indonesia. IIEE (2007). Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 48 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda New laws have been Law No. 30/2007 on Energy was enacted in August 2007 and provides the umbrella for enacted but further general energy policy. The new law includes significant improvements over the prior change is necessary to energy management paradigm but the complex structure of laws and regulations remains. improve efficiency, Implementing regulations are not yet in place and the proposed national energy board has environmental outcomes and access by the poor not yet been formed. Improvements in the regulatory and institutional front will be and SMEs essential in the energy sector if Indonesia is to meet its key future challenges, namely, (i) improve efficiency on both supply and demand side as well as to reduce supply cost; (ii) move the sector towards an environmental friendly path; and (iii) enhance access to energy for the poor and small and medium sized businesses. 9. c. Making Indonesia's rapidly growing towns and cities livable growth poles Indonesia's urban Like much of East Asia, Indonesia has been rapidly urbanizing. Between 1995 and 2005, centers are facing rapid Indonesia's urban population grew by 55 percent, a much greater proportional increase population growth... than most other countries in the region. In absolute numbers, Indonesia's urban population grew by nearly 39 million during the decade. In the decade up to 2015, the urban population is projected to increase by a further 38.4 million, nearly twice the population of Indonesia's largest current urban agglomeration, the greater Jakarta area - often referred to as Jabodetabek - which in 2007 had a population of over 22 million. The changing urban landscape created by Indonesia's urbanization trends does, however, present opportunities for growth through the large agglomeration economies generated. Table 9.4: Indonesia's urban population is growing rapidly Past and projected increases in urban populations in selected countries Country or (Millions) (% increase) region 1995-2005 2005-2015 2015-2025 1995-2005 2005-2015 2015-2025 China 150.1 152.8 138.7 39.4 28.8 20.3 India 71.8 90.0 122.4 28.3 27.7 29.5 Indonesia 38.6 38.4 31.5 55.1 35.3 21.4 Korea 3.5 2.1 1.0 9.8 5.5 2.4 Malaysia 5.9 5.4 4.4 51.2 31.2 19.5 Philippines 16.0 17.3 16.1 43.1 32.6 22.9 Southeast Asia 75.9 81.0 76.3 44.7 32.9 23.3 Thailand 2.9 3.8 4.9 16.9 18.6 20.4 Vietnam 6.2 8.0 10.0 37.9 35.6 33.0 Sources and notes: UN World Urbanization Prospects 2007. ...although the trend The national average hides regional disparities in urbanization trends. For instance, the shows regional population residing in urban areas in the provinces of West Java, DKI Jakarta and Banten disparities... is currently about 60 percent of Indonesia's total urban population and is expected to grow to more than 80 percent by 2025. The island of Java represents only 7 percent of the total land area of Indonesia, yet is home to 59 percent of the population. ...and rising rates of Although rural-urban migration statistics are limited, available data suggests migration rural-urban migration rates continue to rise. Socio-economic linkages between rural and urban areas usually take the form of seasonal migration, remittances for food provision and political/administrative transactions. Net rural-urban migration is, however, estimated to account for approximately 25-30 percent of urban population growth. Migration is having a substantial impact on the structure of urban areas, since many new entrants settle in peri-urban areas, which are poorly linked with infrastructure and other services. Expanding informal slum Despite the relative success of slum upgrading projects in many of Indonesia's urban settlements present areas, these initiatives are limited and not keeping pace with the growth in informal slum particular challenges in settlements resulting from the growing urban population. As a result, environmental meeting demand for conditions in the country's urban slums have deteriorated and the increasing demand for services... urban infrastructure services for the urban poor continues to be a challenge. As many slums are still located in central areas of most cities, increasing land values are driving low-income residents, especially new arrivals, into more peripheral areas. Land tenure rights are complex and often entail owners, lessees, sub-lessees, and "sharers"; all made legally binding through the issuance of various certificates. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 49 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda ...that requires urgent Investment in water sector assets is urgently needed in Indonesia's cities. Throughout investment in Indonesia, an estimated 8 million out of a total of 9.6 million low-income urban residents infrastructure, especially have no access to piped water. Fewer than 50 percent of Jakarta residents have access water and sanitation and to piped water and the centralized sewer system covers less than 2 percent of the urban roads... area. With no significant investment in city-wide sanitation infrastructure in the last 20 years, Indonesia has the lowest percentage of urban households with adequate sanitation in Asia. With limited investment in road infrastructure, most major urban areas are subject to severe traffic congestion, particularly the rapidly urbanizing satellite towns. Flooding also continues to be a challenge in urban areas. In 2007, the worst episode of flooding in Jakarta covered 60 percent of the urban area. Local governments' Rapid urbanization is placing greater demands on the ability of local governments to capacity to improve deliver services. Decentralization presents an opportunity for local governments to have services is still inhibited greater control over the delivery of services, while at the same time presenting difficulties by over-reliance on as local governments struggle with their new roles and responsibilities. Local governments funding by central government... are importantly playing a larger role in their own affairs, but a lot still needs to be done to strengthen LGs, improve their functioning, financial and expenditure management and ability to deliver services. Urban municipalities (kotas) remain highly dependent on transfers and shared revenues from the central government. For the average municipality, own source revenues constitute less than one-fifth of total revenues, with shared taxes and shared natural resource revenues contributing approximately another one-fifth and the remaining three-fifths being made up by general and special purpose transfers. ...but there must also be Decentralization presents good opportunities for LGs to take control of their development; attention given to however, if urban LGs are to assume their role as the key drivers of economic growth, improving central they need to address some constraints on their ability to support faster growth and greater government allocation of poverty alleviation efforts. Key challenges fall into four broad categories, namely: (i) funds, removing constraints, institutional improving the central government allocation of funds; (ii) addressing LG financing and strengthening and better borrowing constraints, which is related to enhancing financial resource mobilization and land management... expenditure management; (ii) strengthening LG institutions in order to enhance urban planning, including budgeting and development planning; and (iv) improving the management of land, as well as municipal assets. ...and reining in Administrative spending represents the largest share of sub-national government administrative spending spending, with other sectors, such as infrastructure, receiving lower shares as a while devolving further consequence. Deconcentrated spending today mostly goes towards the provision of taxing power to local services that have become the responsibility of the LGs, however unclear and conflicting government service assignments persist. Decentralizing property taxes, particularly urban taxes and in the extractive industry sector, would give LGs a significant revenue instrument which could be used to overcome these challenges and better address local needs. There is no mechanism to Despite the need for substantial urban investment financing there is no systematic support urban investment mechanism in place to support these transactions. Since 1999, sub-national borrowing financing while loan has remained at consistently low levels. Long-term borrowing is restricted to financing financing from central infrastructure that "generates revenue" and local governments cannot finance more than government is not functioning well... one-sixth of a year's expenditures with borrowed funds. Requiring long-term financing, urban investments are poorly supported by limited municipal revenues. The development of urban local governments can be facilitated with the creation of sound credit markets for local government borrowing to finance capital investment needs. Loan financing is available through GoI Subsidiary Loan Agreements (SLA) and the Regional Development Accounts (RDA) but both financing mechanisms are functioning poorly. As of 2004, 332 out of 431 sub-national borrowers were in arrears on loan repayments to the central government. ...and local governments' Although direct foreign borrowing by local governments is permissible only through special ability to borrow on central government approval, LGs are allowed to borrow from domestic capital markets or domestic capital markets engage in revenue sharing among provincial and district governments. As of 2007, urban is inhibited by a complex administrative areas in Indonesia had received just 116 loans totalling Rp702 billion. The regulatory framework new regulatory framework for sub-national borrowing introduced new rules related to on- lending, however the new mechanism for submitting and reviewing project proposals and approving loans is complex. The new arrangements also stipulate long-term lending to Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 50 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda sub-national governments may only be used to finance public infrastructure that directly yields revenues for local budgets. Spatial planning suffers National Spatial Planning Laws 24/1992 and PP 47/1997 are the basis for urban spatial from inadequate vertical planning in Indonesia. A National Spatial Development Plan is devised then integration between compartmentalized in Regional, City or District Development Plans. Sector Master Plans agencies... are then created based on these development plans, but are not integrated with local development planning or budgets. Central Government bodies engaged in the housing sector include the Ministry of Settlements, the Regional Infrastructure (MSRI), and the National Urban Development Corporation (Perumnas). ...while local housing Local government housing agencies (Dinas Perumahan) draft local housing policy, plan agencies could play a for site identification for housing, monitor and evaluate implementation, and assist in land more active role in acquisition. In relation to public housing, the local dinas manages government owned housing development housing, allocates public housing, and sets up tenant management groups. To date, most post-decentralization local housing sections have not sought to improve capacities or play a more proactive role in housing development following decentralization. Bureaucratic deficiencies Formal land markets are dominated by developers who must obtain a location permit (Izin discourage private Lokasi) from the head of the district. The permits comply with local development plans and investment in housing may require special provisions from the developer. Deficiencies in the formal system, development and however, have led developers to evade the formal process in order to avoid incurring informal means of transaction... significant costs related to delays. Delays also discourage private investment in land and housing development. Much of the land around large cities continues to be transacted outside of the formal process. ...while regulatory reform The Regional Governance Law devolved much of the responsibility for routine land is necessary to clarify administration to local government. The National Land Agency (BPN) continues to provide responsibilities under the some services in monitoring standards and training, however relatively few changes have Regional Governance taken place since the Regional Governance Law was enacted and responsibilities of the Law... BPN relative to the districts have not been defined. Many district Land Offices (LO) have limited capacities and financial resources, further hampering tenure security and other possible benefits of decentralization. Regulatory reforms are needed to reduce costs, lower transaction risks, decrease delays, and improve access to formal financing associated with land titling and registration. 10. Building resilience 10. a. Managing disaster risks and adapting to climate change Indonesia is highly Due to its geographic location, Indonesia and its population are highly vulnerable to vulnerable to natural disasters. In the 2003-2005 period alone, the national disaster coordination agency disasters... (Bakornas) counted 1,430 disasters, including flooding and windstorms (accounting for 70 percent of all disasters), landslides and geological disasters (earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions). In addition, the country is prone to drought, forest fires, epidemics and anthropogenic (technological) disasters. The potential for increased storm and weather variability due to climate change (discussed below) will potentially increase Indonesia's vulnerability further as will increased floods and rising sea-levels. ...that cause large-scale In recent years, the development impacts of disasters on health and livelihoods have been loss of life and significant severe. Nearly 170,000 people died in the Aceh tsunami of 2004 with USD5 billion in economic costs damages and losses and more than 5,700 people perished in the Yogyakarta earthquake of 2006, with estimated economic costs of USD3.1 billion and thousands of survivors made homeless. The development impact is also enormous, requiring major reconstruction of housing, infrastructure and the economy. Equally important, but less well-known, are the many smaller monthly disasters that result in deaths, injuries and economic hardship. The poor in coastal and natural resource dependent communities are particularly vulnerable to shifting weather patterns, extreme tides or increasing storm severity. Natural disasters are Natural disasters are caused by largely uncontrollable forces such as the movement of Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 51 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda uncontrollable but tectonic plates or the eruption of magma through the earth's crust; however, exposure and exposure and vulnerability to disaster risk are more controllable. Exposure to risk is increased with poor vulnerability to disaster spatial planning and natural resource management. Vulnerability to risk is greater when risk is more manageable there is low public awareness, inadequate infrastructure and poor enforcement of standards such as building codes. Greater exposure and vulnerability to risk factors increases the loss of life and property from disasters. Indonesia has therefore In 2006, Indonesia issued a national action plan for disaster risk reduction (DRR) that developed a national seeks to: a) ensure that DRR is a national and local priority; b) identify, assess and action plan for disaster monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning; c) use knowledge, innovation and risk reduction... education to build a culture of safety and resilience; d) reduce underlying risk factors; and e) strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response. In March 2007, the DPR approved the Disaster Management Law that codifies this plan, sets out the responsibilities for DRR as well as disaster response at the local and national levels and modernizes institutional arrangements for disaster management. ...although Indonesia's The GoI's national action plan to improve preparedness and response capacity will require capacity to plan for, further investments in institutional strengthening, capacity development, enhancing insure against, and monitoring and data analysis capability, installation of early warning systems and respond to natural communication networks and outreach and socialization of the priority scheme. Realizing disasters is currently limited the GoI's plans to reduce underlying risks and build a culture of safety and resilience would entail improvements in spatial planning (with a political commitment to reduce development in threatened areas); public education programs focused on risk, location, and response; and possibly infrastructure investments in key threatened areas. Efforts to improve the capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change (e.g. insurance markets, agriculture changes, information provision systems and spatial planning) could also improve resilience and could also reduce risks associated with some kinds of disasters (e.g. extreme weather). Indonesia is also As a coastal, island, and agricultural nation, Indonesia is particularly vulnerable to the vulnerable to climate impacts of climate change. The majority of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; change that will impact a large share of GDP is generated from agricultural (14 percent) and coastal/fishery on food security, activities (15 percent), while 43 percent of the labor force is engaged in agriculture and agricultural productivity, livelihoods, health fisheries and 3.3 percent of GDP is generated from tourism. Climate studies suggest that outcomes and natural Indonesia is likely to experience modest temperature increases, but climate change will ecosystems likely result in more intense rainfall and sea-level rise. Potential development impacts include: a) increased threats to food security; b) declining agricultural productivity; c) inundation of productive coastal zones and communities; d) loss of farming and coastal livelihoods; e) consequences for water storage (water reservoirs, electricity generation and drinking water supply); f) intensification of water- and vector-borne diseases; and g) deterioration of coral ecosystems. Given these changes and Indonesia's geographic and socio-economic profile, costs can be expected in coastal cities and communities, agricultural areas, artisanal and commercial fishing, tourism potential and infrastructure development. High levels of Indonesia's high level of greenhouse gas emissions is being driven by deforestation, greenhouse emissions in forest fires and degradation of land, especially peat swamps. Although forestry policies Indonesia are largely and legislation are adequate, law enforcement and implementation are weak and not driven by poor forestry aimed at reducing emissions. Land use rules and allocation decisions are inconsistent, management practices... non-transparent and disputed by many, leading to conflict over land and resources on the ground. Forest and peat land conversion to agriculture and plantation crops - or degradation and open access - is an important source of emissions, but the local governments and private interests that make these decisions are not well regulated and do not face incentives to control emissions. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 52 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda Figure 10.1: Indonesia's fossil-fuel emissions have been growing rapidly Sources and notes: IEA,2007. ...but are growing rapidly Emissions from the energy sector are relatively small but growing rapidly as the in the energy sector government pursues a coal-fired power expansion program and because of barriers to the development of renewable energy sources. While energy policies are designed to promote economic development through access to energy, in practice, low energy prices prevent private investment in more extensive renewable energy and energy efficiency programs, while the subsidy program reduces the availability of public resources that could be applied to improve resilience among the poor. Indonesia's president is The Government recognizes the challenges and opportunities of climate change and is strongly committed to deeply committed to successful action. The President of Indonesia expressed Indonesia's climate change actions... commitment to climate change action at international venues in 2007. Indonesia has also achieved global visibility as the president of the UNFCCC COP process in 2007, as a leader of the troika countries in the negotiating process up to 2012, as a founder of the Forest-11, and as a leader in the global Finance Ministers' dialogue process. ...and the government is The GoI is developing a strategic, multi-year action plan and policy reform program, as developing a strategic outlined in the National Climate Change Action Plan and the Development Planning action plan focused on Response to Climate Change (both from December 2007). This high-level focus will help both alleviation and Indonesia to improve energy and forestry sector management, prepare for the post-2012 adaptation measures... climate change regime, and establish a sound framework for coordination and implementation of adaptation activities. Strategic choices about energy sector investments, policy reforms, and inter-ministerial coordination could yield development benefits in terms of new private sector investments, greater energy efficiency, energy security, additional fiscal resources and revenues from GHG emissions reductions. ...and integrating climate Indonesia is also now integrating climate change actions and policy reforms into the change actions and development planning cycle. Bappenas will develop the Medium Term Development Plan policy reforms in the in 2009 to guide GoI activities and budgeting during the period 2010-2014. Institutionally, development planning climate change mitigation and adaptation actions cut across nearly all sectors of the process while ensuring these do not adversely economy and all levels of government. This is a challenge for coordination, planning, and impact on the poor... targeting appropriate action. The government is working to improve policy consistency, reduce distortions and improve management to become more efficient and competitive, encourage energy security, improve environmental services/quality of life and free up budgetary resources for priority needs for investment and job creation. Both domestically and internationally, Indonesia stresses the pressing need to ensure that efforts to address climate change are not at the expense of the poor. ...through the measures Current adaptation plans focus on water resources management; water supply and currently being planned sanitation; agriculture, irrigation and farmer education; spatial planning and co-benefits Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 53 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda in agriculture, water use, and disaster risk management and early warning systems. Longer term interventions spatial planning and could include development and use of pest or drought-resistant crop varieties, adoption of insurance schemes new technologies to reduce crop yield losses, improvements in irrigation efficiency, integrated approaches to river basin and coastal zone management and risk management or insurance schemes to assist farmers and fishers with increasing variability and uncertainty in their planning and operating environments. Mitigation efforts need The current global climate context is creating an historic opportunity for an integrated not compromise growth approach to climate issues without compromising growth and development. In the and poverty reduction aftermath of Bali COP 13, billions of dollars are being mobilized across the globe to help and can also provide countries with mitigation and adaptation needs (see Box 10.1). An important constraint to strategic opportunities... the rapid diffusion of new technologies or innovation (for both adaptation and mitigation) is the lack of human, institutional, technical, managerial and financial capacities needed to manage change. Controlling emissions is a potential source of carbon financing that can help offset the cost of better control, new technologies and adaptation needs. ...through new and it is clear that the financial and investment flows required both for adaptation and innovative financing mitigation are beyond the financial capacity of Indonesia and therefore access to global mechanisms that offer support and instruments will be needed. Innovative financing opportunities such as the incentives for change... Climate Investment Funds under development through Multilateral Development Banks, The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, global carbon markets, the Adaptation Fund, bilateral donor programs and private sector participation may offer sufficient incentives for change. Accessing this kind of innovative financing presents a strategic opportunity, however, both legally and institutionally, some improvements may be needed to reduce constraints and enhance Indonesia's ability to take advantage of carbon markets and international financial flows. Box 10.1: Global financing for climate change mitigation offers opportunities for Indonesia Carbon markets and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) The dramatic growth in recent years in global carbon markets provides opportunities for Indonesia and financial incentives for addressing some mitigation needs while off-setting the potential cost of some actions. With the introduction of emissions trading, the global carbon market has rapidly risen in value to USD64 billion (in 2007), of which USD7 billion was related to transactions under the primary CDM market. Assuming a Carbon Emission Reduction worth USD10 per ton and the estimated potential of the Indonesian carbon credit pipeline by 2012 of 38.7 million carbon credits (excluding the forestry and land-use sector), Indonesia could receive USD387 million in energy- related carbon markets revenues from CDM for a span of several years. More significant still is the potential revenue stream that can be obtained once carbon markets start trading on changes in the deforestation rate. Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) New mechanisms under negotiation in the global climate regime offer the potential for payments for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD). Incentive payments of this type could generate revenue that would help to offset the costs and compensate the losses of making real and concrete changes to improve forest management outcomes. It is estimated that if Indonesia could reduce its annual forest loss by half a million hectares the value of CO2 not released could well be worth USD600 to USD3,000 million annually. Though economic factors are not the only causes of tropical forest decline, it is clear that additional financing of this magnitude, if well managed, could well be a decisive factor in reducing deforestation. Accessing REDD financing will, however, require marked improvements in institutional coordination, law enforcement, forest management and stakeholder engagement ­ all challenges that have not been met in the recent past. Because of the size of financial flows, however, this mechanism has a greater chance of to contributing to needed governance reforms than traditional aid initiatives to control deforestation. Demonstration activities are now being designed to test approaches. Indonesia, as one of the three most important nations in terms of land use sector emissions, is at the forefront of preparing for REDD. Source: World Bank (2008). ...however Indonesia also To access these resources, credible policies, programs and institutional arrangements needs to make better use must be put in place. Initial planning and strategy documents have been produced, but are of fiscal and other policy works in progress and institutional responsibilities for implementation are still under to effect energy discussion and formalization. There is ample scope as well for Indonesia to make better conservation Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 54 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda use of a spectrum of fiscal and other policy instruments at the disposal of national economic authorities to promote energy efficiency, reduce the energy-intensity of industry by encouraging a shift to areas of competitive advantage with low carbon characteristics, and promote investment in and use of local renewable energy resources. 10. b. Enhancing security and protecting the poor Indonesia's social Indonesia's existing complex suite of social protection schemes has to be expanded and protection schemes improved. There are four main reasons why. First, Indonesia's social protection system should be expanded and, in particular, its employment protection legislation, is mostly designed to cover urban because formal workers who have a formal labor contract. Since only about one-third of the labor force employment protection covers only a minority of falls into that category, the bulk of Indonesia's workers and their families rely on family ties workers... and community networks, which, as a consequence of sustained economic growth and rural-urban migration, are slowly eroding. The public sector has a limited role. In 2004, social security spending averaged 2.75 percent of government revenues, against 4.86 percent in Thailand; and in 2005, Indonesia spent 0.98 percent of GDP on public health care, against 1.54 percent in Vietnam, 1.82 percent in China, and 2.24 percent in Thailand. ...Indonesia's aging Second, Indonesia's population is aging and is doing so at a much faster pace than population will place a OECD countries when they were at similar levels of economic development (Figure 10.2). growing burden on family Demographic and economic forecasts suggest, for instance, that Indonesia's economic networks... growth rate should be two percentage points higher if it is to reach Japan's income at the same point of aging. Families, especially poor ones, receive little support to take care of old relatives, and a large share of health spending remains private. The rapidly aging population will exacerbate the burden on family networks, which currently are the main caretakers of the elderly population, and pressure to extend old age social protection to poor and informal workers who have contributed little to nothing to a pension scheme during their working years is likely to grow significantly. Figure 10.2: Indonesia's population is rapidly aging 9% t o re a c h J a p a n 's in c o m e a t 8% s a m e p o i n t o f a g in g 7% per capita income growth in $US 6% la s t tw o d e ca d e s 5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0% In d o n e s i a In d i a T h a i la n d S r i L a nk a C h ina V ie tn a m Sources and notes: World Bank estimates from WDI and UN World Population Prospects. ...there is no safety net to Third, Indonesia currently lacks a national safety net that can buffer the population from protect the population the adverse impacts of shocks. While the government did manage to roll out an from the adverse impacts unconditional cash transfer scheme (the BLT) at short notice following reductions in fuel of unexpected shocks subsidies in 2005 and 2008, the absence of an existing reliable targeting mechanism such as rising fuel prices... raised concerns about leakage and exclusion in the implementation of the transfer schemes. Had an ongoing safety net program with a tested targeting mechanism already been in place, it might have been possible to rapidly scale it up in the case of large covariate shocks such as the recent rise in food prices. Targeted cash transfers are a cost-effective way of helping the poor through social assistance that present several advantages. First, by administering cash they can be used to help households cope with several types of shocks. Second, to the extent that the private sector is able to provide cost-effective services, they avoid excessive crowding out of the private sector. Finally, once a means-tested targeting mechanism has been put in place, they can be rapidly scaled up in case of emergencies. Conditional cash transfers present the additional advantage of reducing future poverty and inequality by linking transfers to incentives for Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 55 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda investments in health and human capital. Conditional cash transfers have been proven to increase school enrollment rates and health outcomes. Moreover, to the extent that a good means-testing system has been designed for conditional cash transfers, in times of major crises the same system can be used to administer additional unconditional cash transfers. ...while a safety net for Fourth, an existing safety net that keeps workers who lose their jobs from falling into workers losing their jobs poverty, might ease resistance to the relaxation of the stringent employment protection might allow the relaxation legislation that may have inhibited job creation in the past few years. of employment protection legislation Indonesia is making On some of these fronts Indonesia is making progress. It has developed a means-tested progress on these issues health insurance scheme for the poor, and it is piloting a conditional cash transfers with a health insurance program. Through its community-based poverty alleviation scheme it enhances the scheme for the poor and income-generating capacity of poor rural households. In the context of the current a CCT program already established... conditional cash transfers pilot, a means-testing system could be developed at the national level to be used for rapid scale-up in case of emergencies. Designing an effective means-testing system is the key to avoiding excessive leakage to non-target recipients. As it takes some time to put in place a means-testing system, it could be designed in advance, so that in case of emergency, targeted cash transfers could be rapidly scaled up. ...that should be To avoid placing the burden of increased pension costs on future generations, a fully- complemented by a fully- funded pension system that is financially sustainable in the long term should be developed funded pension scheme as a priority. The current pay-as-you-go system will soon become financially unsustainable. Pay-as-you-go systems are appealing when the population is rapidly growing (since the costs of paying pensions to retirees are shared across a growing active population), but quickly become financially unsustainable when the population is aging (when a shrinking workforce has to maintain an increasingly high number of retirees). Contributions will soon have to be increased and benefits lowered in order to avoid a deficit in the current (partial) pay-as-you-go system. The extent to which this remains feasible, however, remains unclear. Caution is, however, Poor social protection design can have long-lasting consequences - both on growth and needed in the design of a on poverty reduction. To the extent that it encourages prudent risk-taking, an efficient social protection system social protection system enhances and supports growth, while, at the same time, being an so as to avoid unintended effective poverty reduction instrument. Worldwide experience shows that it is much easier consequences to design a good social protection system from a blank page, than to improve the design of an existing one. Each reform entails losers and would-be winners, and it is often the case that losers are a well-organized minority, while would-be winners, though being the majority, tend to be less organized and to have less voice. In this context, short-term, quick-fix solutions that only benefit a well-organized minority could have long-lasting consequences that prevent the development of an efficient social protection system. While it may be premature to embark on radical reforms of the social protection system, it is crucial to develop a medium to long-term vision for reform. 10. c. Reducing vulnerability to financial sector shocks The banking system is The banking system has gradually become much stronger over the past several years. much stronger but there Headline indicators of most measures of banking soundness confirm this strength, are still areas of however, there remain areas of vulnerability ­ especially at an institutional level, as vulnerability... discussed below. Indonesia continues to be a bank-dominated financial sector - the non- bank financial institutions (NBFIs) are much smaller. While there are areas of weakness, vulnerabilities in this sector are likely to affect the overall system to a much smaller extent. Finally, there are growing links between the banks and the NBFIs that raise areas of potential concern and vulnerability. ...including inadequate Firstly, the sound capital position of banks assumes the restructured credits are sound capital provisions, poor credits whereas in other markets they are considered "impaired assets" until repayment. bank lending practices, There is a concern that a number of restructured credits particularly in the state banks lack of flexibility in have been restructured several times and, accordingly, provisions may be inadequate. decision making Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 56 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda processes and a less This would tend to overstate the capital position of the banks. The second concern is with than secure financial bank lending. The recent BI policy aimed at credit expansion needs to be re-assessed, sector safety net especially in the current global environment. It is probably an inappropriate time to be supporting a relaxation in prudential standards, although any resultant problems will most likely not manifest themselves through NPLs for 2-3 years. Thirdly, the fact that three former senior Bank Indonesia officials have been arrested for their roles in the provision of liquidity credit during the crisis may hinder rapid decision making if similar support were required in a future situation. Fourthly, the financial sector safety-net is less than secure. The deposit guarantee covers 75 percent of depositors but only 25 percent of deposits, so in the case of a bank in distress, large depositors still have the incentive to withdraw their deposits. The deposit insurance agency (LPS) has been given strong powers of bank resolution, but has neither adequate staff nor the on-going knowledge of individual banks ­ both of which are needed to adequately address resolution. Thus far, the emphasis has been on the organizational structure of the safety net, but there has been less attention to detailed operational issues. These weaknesses are being addressed through the establishment of the Financial Sector Stability Forum. Inflation is running ahead There is concern in investors' minds - despite BI's inflation targeting framework - about of the BI target range, how BI will, over time, get inflation back from the current 12 percent+ to its 5-6 percent raising concerns about target. Price increases usually adversely affect household income, which in turn may the ability of households cause deteriorating quality of loans to individual consumers i.e. credit card and unsecured to repay loans for consumer items multipurpose loans in banks. Commission-based agents have been aggressively selling these products at shopping malls. BI statistics indicate the value of non-performing consumer loans increased by 31 percent year-on-year in 2007 and 27 percent year-on- year in February 2008. A similar story may be seen in motorbike financing by multi-finance companies. Experience with the previous round of fuel price hikes in 2005 indicates that BI has performed creditably in its prudential oversight of such practices. To restrain price expectations in the face of such circumstances, clearer support is, arguably, necessary on the part of BI, in the form of actions on the policy rate and clear statements setting out its agenda. Government bond yields In this environment, the yield on government bonds - that has already increased over the are rising and will impact past several months - could potentially increase further. The pressure on government on bank balance sheets bonds prices will have impacts on several fronts: (i) bank balance sheets. A few banks still and cause a possible keep fixed rate government (recap and non recap) bonds in assets either as short-term shift of funds from banks to more attractive investments (to park excess liquidity) or portfolio. Bonds under the latter group are not investments... shown at market prices but nominal values so their capital ratio is somewhat overstated; and (ii) unit link products of life insurance have returns based on equity and debt holdings and may be subject to some volatility. This type of product has been the driver of strong growth in the life insurance market in recent years. Bank liquidity could be a problem if there is a shift of funds from bank deposits to investment products such as government bonds or mutual funds. Bank deposit rates are low and unattractive whereas government bond prices have gone down recently and thus appear to be attractive. This would also expose the banks to an interest rate risk because 90 percent of time deposits in banks are on one month maturity. ...as well as precipitating In addition to the fiscal difficulties posed for the government, rising yields could be a a run on mutual funds by problem for the mutual funds (reksadana) as the price of fixed income mutual funds fall panicked investors and this could again trigger panic and runs on funds. This market has already faced a crisis in 2005 - when nearly three-fourths of the funds were withdrawn from the market by investors. Since then the market has grown again significantly, taking advantage of declining interest rates. Mutual funds have since diversified into equity in addition to the mainstream fixed income funds however many of the debt funds - called "protected funds" - impose liquidity constraints on investors (investors are required to stay in the funds until the maturity of the bonds underlying the fund) and are not marked to market. BI's prudential regulation The inability of Indonesia to undertake consolidated supervision of financial and supervision needs to conglomerates is an area of vulnerability. BI's current mandate is to review only "banking be expanded to non-bank operations" - and therefore they are vulnerable to poor supervision of NBFIs. For instance activities and cooperation if a pension fund was insufficiently funded to the same extent as the capital position of a with the pension bank below necessary minimums, BI would become aware of this only if it acted in close Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 57 Indonesia 2014 and beyond: the development agenda regulator needs to be concert with the pension regulator (there is evidence that this may have happened in the enhanced case of one large bank a few years ago). Conversely, in the case of insurance firms - especially large ones that have banking arms - the insurance and banking regulators need to be working together. There might be future potential risk if a bank without solid group risk management gears up its securities company operations in areas such as project finance and capital markets underwriting which could potentially cause significant losses. Even among senior bankers there is limited understanding of non-recourse project finance and most see infrastructure finance as a normal corporate finance transaction. Attention needs to turn to Multi-finance companies - operating in consumer finance (e.g. automobile or motor cycle multi finance companies lending and leasing) depend on commercial banks for funds. Bank lending accounts for that are heavily reliant on over 60 percent of industry funding. There is also a good deal of channeling so the real banks for funds and that dependence on banks is likely to be much higher. Some large banks - including state- may be at risk as banks gear up their consumer owned banks - have concentration risks in their portfolios with over 50 percent capital lending portfolios... equivalent loaned to the industry. As banks progressively gear up their own consumer lending capacity in-house, the good risks will likely migrate to the banks from the multi- finance companies, thereby increasing the risk profile for the industry considerably. (As an example, in Malaysia most mult-finance companies have closed.) On the other hand, if BI were to instruct banks to quickly reduce their exposures to the industry it could cause further problems for the industry and potentially have a flow-on effect. It is important that the two industry regulators - BI and Bapepam LK ­ work more closely to jointly assess the true scale of, and subsequently address, this risk. ...while some insurance Several insurance firms - some large - are known to have solvency issues. Resolution of firms also have solvency their problems has effectively been postponed since the crisis - with the focus of resolution problems efforts being on banks. The size of the problem in some of the institutions has most likely grown substantially. Management weaknesses and poor policy holder records are well- known problems. While the small size of the sector makes it unlikely that the problems here will result in systemic issues, their vulnerability raises significant confidence issues. Depending on the timing at which their problems manifest themselves, they could create contagion effects for the financial sector. There are many small local life insurance companies. They have survived to date because they still have positive cash flow (i.e. still liquid) and are able to pay out claims using the proceeds of new underwriting, however, their solvency ratio might not be high. This risk is partially mitigated with the fact that substantial portions of their business are being ceded to reinsurance companies. Given that many of the insurance products sold in the market are investments with cash value, a loss of confidence in the sector could trigger liquidity and then solvency problems in the sector. Confidence is critical to Lastly, Indonesia still remains vulnerable to sudden capital outflows - the hot money issue. maintaining the financial Funds can move easily in and out of Indonesia's capital markets and thus maintaining fundamentals and confidence in Indonesia's macroeconomic indicators and financials is important. preventing sudden capital outflows Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 58 C. From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda 11. Furthering Indonesia's ongoing, and still incomplete, governance transition is central to realizing the development agenda The core message of this What the preceding review of where things stand, and of Indonesia's development report is that institutional agenda, clearly indicates is that Indonesia's incomplete governance transition is the main change is imperative to reason why Indonesia remains a glass half-empty. The core message of this report is that realizing Indonesia's furthering Indonesia's governance transition by improving the effectiveness of public development agenda institutions and processes through longer-term institutional and process transformation is central to realizing Indonesia's development agenda. 11. a. Furthering the governance transition means adapting and strengthening the institutions and mechanisms that govern the functioning of the state and shape state- society interactions The central challenges If Indonesia is to realize its potential as a competitive, inclusive, sustainable and resilient Indonesia faces today are middle-income country, it has to adapt the institutions and mechanisms that govern the all of an institutional functioning of the state and shape state-society interactions, to the changed nature that will require circumstances it finds itself in. The central challenges Indonesia faces today in realizing its the transformation of those institutions and development agenda are all, in one form or another, of an institutional nature in that they processes entail furthering Indonesia's as yet incomplete governance transition by improving the effectiveness of public institutions and processes through longer-term institutional and process transformations. Even in areas where additional financing is clearly needed - for instance, from the private sector in the case of many infrastructure sectors, or from the public sector if the restructuring of Indonesia's health system is to be financially viable - institutional challenges need to first be sorted out for that financing to be forthcoming and for it to be effectively deployed. Although these The details of the institutional challenges naturally vary from context to context and from challenges differ between sector to sector. For instance, the particular set of institutional issues that have to be sectors and contexts... addressed to achieve a breakthrough in the construction of toll roads are the difficulties in land acquisition because of a weak legal framework and weak dispute resolution mechanisms s well as corruption and weaknesses in public procurement policies and practices. The ones that hinder the provision of quality education in rural areas are the limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers and weaknesses in the management and flow of funds. In both cases, however, the constraints are clearly of an "institutional variety" and, in particular, one that has to do with one or more aspects of governance. Table 11.1 illustrates this by mapping the key constraints corresponding to each of the broad priorities identified in the review above of Indonesia's development agenda, to one or more of the components of governance - policy and regulatory quality, government effectiveness conceptualized in terms of coordination, capacity and accountability, control of corruption and rule of law. ...there are a number of At the same time, there are a number of core systemic processes and institutions for core systemic processes formulating and implementing policy that are common to all or at least most of the and policy- challenges that constitute Indonesia's development agenda (see Table 11.1). These are: making/implementing institutions that are common to all the public financial management system public institutions rely on to implement government priorities and effectively spend public funds; the capacity and accountability of the civil service; the decentralization framework determining the flow of funds and the division of responsibilities between levels of government; the control of corruption; and the judiciary and legal system which ensures the rule of law. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 59 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Table 11.1: Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda DEVELOPMENT AGENDA Policy and Government effectiveness Control of corruption Rule of regulatory Coordination Capacity Accountability Control of law quality Coordination Local governments Civil service Public financial management corruption Accelerating growth Alleviating infrastructure bottlenecks Weaknesses in procurement Difficulties in land acquisition Difficulties in land acquisition Low tariffs Delays in budget execution Delays in budget execution Policy Insufficient local level capacity Uncertainty about uncertainty judicial intervention Remedying regulatory weaknesses in Uncertainty Inadequate coordination between Resistance to Uncertainty about investment climate about policy ministries and between ministries reform judicial intervention and local governments Regulatory Limited capacity to formulate and Regulatory burden burden implement reforms Making growth inclusive Raising rural incomes Insufficient capacity and incentives at the local level Land tenure insecurity Land tenure insecurity Poor rural investment climate Facilitating the transfer of labor Labor Law Restrictive minimum wages Improving water and sanitation Low tariffs Unclear allocation of responsibilities Insufficient horizontal coordination Sub-national financing constraints Sub-national financing constraints Restructuring the health system Limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers Fiscal inequities Uneven staffing Unclear division of responsibilities Weak stewardship Weaknesses in provider between local and central payment and budgeting government systems Providing quality education for all Limited capacity and accountability of frontline service providers Weaknesses in management of funds and transfers Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 60 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Table 11.1 (continued): Why furthering Indonesia's governance transition matters for realizing Indonesia's development agenda DEVELOPMENT AGENDA Policy and Government effectiveness Control of corruption Rule of regulatory Coordination Capacity Accountability Control of law quality Coordination Local governments Civil service Public financial management corruption Ensuring sustainability Managing Indonesia's environmental Unclear division of responsibilities Low awareness Corruption and weak and common property resources between local and central and limited enforcement of laws government capacity Lack of coordination Limited consideration of between ministries leading environmental impacts in to policy uncertainty public investment planning Meeting Indonesia's energy needs Low tariffs and distorted Uncertainty about legal without sacrificing its environment incentives because of fuel framework subsidies Complex structure and lack of implementing regulations Making Indonesia's urban areas livable Insufficient budgeting and planning Improper functioning of capacity land markets Sub-national financing Sub-national financing constraints constraints Building resilience Managing disasters and preparing for Lack of coordination Technical capacity Corruption and weak climate change across ministries in policy is limited law enforcement formulation Enhancing security and protecting the Untargeted Leakages in poor subsidies targeting Reducing financial vulnerability Limited coordination Possibilities of amongst various corruption and regulatory and collusion supervisory agencies Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 61 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda 12. Restructuring and strengthening the core processes and institutions for formulating and implementing policy 12. a. Reforming public financial management systems Public financial The core public financial management systems public institutions rely on to implement management systems government priorities and effectively spend public funds have to be strengthened. This need to be means greater emphasis on the reform of public sector systems including procurement, strengthened... financial management and budget execution, project design, contract management, information management and monitoring and evaluation. ...to complement the Indonesia has made major advances over the last five years in establishing a sound legal legislative reforms and and administrative framework to manage its public finances and improve transparency. re-engineered budget New laws on State Finance, State Treasury and State Audit were passed in 2003 and processes that have 2004. These laws together have provided Indonesia with the framework for the already been put in place... modernization of public financial management in line with good international practice. With the legal architecture in place, reforms have been initiated to reorganize the Ministry of Finance and re-engineer business processes across the budget cycle by improving budget documentation, making the national budget compatible with the internationally accepted classification systems, streamlining the budget preparation process, consolidating government accounts into a Treasury Single Account (TSA) and establishing forward- budgets. ...although budget Budget planning, formulation, reporting and execution have improved but significant preparation still suffers weaknesses remain. While the budget has been unified for presentation and reporting from dual budgeting and purposes, the budget preparation process continues to suffer from a de facto continuation inadequate long-term of dual budgeting, with few links between discretionary and non-discretionary expenditure projections and less emphasis on expenditure prioritization. The 2008 budget includes for the first time a Medium-Term Budget Framework based on aggregate macro-fiscal forecasts of both revenues and expenditures for two out-years, however budget plans continue to be prepared on a strictly annual basis and medium-term public investment needs are not yet addressed in a systematic framework that reconciles medium-term budgetary costs with aggregate resources. The reliability of budget Budget reporting is timely, but not entirely reliable. The aggregate government annual reporting would be financial statements have been prepared in a timely manner since 2004, which is a improved by enhancing remarkable achievement. But external audits suggest the reliability of these financial accounting capacities statements could be improved, which reflects an environment where accounting capacities and processes and introducing performance- at the grassroots are weak and accounting processes are not yet integrated or fully based budgets... automated. Furthermore, the Indonesian budget system is still heavily reliant on ex-ante controls and does not yet use ex-post control systematically. Indonesia still spends 50 percent of its total capital expenditure in the final quarter of the year and this disrupts project implementation. Integration of planning and budgeting processes, and a move towards performance-based budgeting would improve budget execution, however implementation will take more time and require a clearer strategy. ...within a more The process of rapid democratic transition restored parliament's substantial powers in democratic system that what was previously a closed budgetary system. The institution of appropriate checks and has enhanced the balances, particularly with regard to budgetary decisions, are important pillars of sound legislature's oversight governance systems. The evolving practice of very detailed legislative involvement in the role current budget preparation process, and the resulting appropriations structure embodied in the budget law and annexes, has profoundly affected the quality of legislative interventions and neither the executive nor the legislature seem to be fully satisfied with executive-legislative interactions in the budgetary realm. Reforms have been The public procurement system has seen incremental improvements but still has initiated in public significant deficiencies. A presidential decree on procurement in 2003 set out the basic procurement with the principles for public procurement, namely transparency, open and fair competition, establishment of a economy and efficiency. The decree also established a national public procurement office National Public (NPPO) or Lembaga Pengembangan Kebijakan Pengadaan Pemerintah [LPKPP] which Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 62 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Procurement Office commenced operations in December 2007 as the regulatory body for public procurement. although the legislative It is expected to be staffed by July 2008. Although there has been progress in establishing framework is still in LPKPP, progress in developing a procurement law, as well as standard bidding progress and capacity is documents and users manuals has been slow. Due to the absence of a clear professional lacking... stream for procurement experts as well as the lack of a national procurement capacity building strategy, there is continuing weakness in procurement capacity in implementing agencies, especially at the provincial and district levels and that has raised concerns about collusive and corrupt practices in the bidding process and the efficacy of anti- corruption measures and sanctions. ...and the internal audit The internal audit framework of the government is extensive but its scope and function remains a weak organization do not match needs. Despite (or perhaps because of) the existence of link in governance multiple internal audit agencies, the internal audit function continues to be a weak link in governance. The institutional arrangements are complex and the mandates and division of labor between the various internal audit institutions are unclear. 12. b. Initiating civil service reforms Reforming the civil Increasing the accountability, incentives and capacity of civil servants is equally critical. A service to enhance strengthened public financial management system will not by itself resolve the accountability, capacity weaknesses in the implementation of programs. The civil service plays an equally and incentives is important role in driving institutional performance. There is an increasing recognition that critical... the lack of administrative capacity and distorted incentive structures within the government bureaucracy has hampered the effectiveness of spending and the quality of service delivery. ...and has the support of A broad consensus on the necessity for civil service reform has grown strongly since the the president and his fall of the New Order regime and particularly over the last five years due to the strong government reform commitment of President Yudhoyono and his government. In spite of this, there has been very little action from the leaders and institutions that should spearhead reform. Fundamental features of the existing civil service system continue to provide compliance- based human resources management and distorted incentives, resulting in poor performance in large parts of the Indonesian state administration. Civil service reform is Civil service reform is often presented in Indonesia as simply a matter of reforming human more than reforming HRM resource management practices or increasing salaries. To have an impact on practices and must performance and efficiency, civil service reform must be both broader and deeper while, at include the way public the same time, it must be selective and well sequenced. To have the desired impact, civil institutions are structured, operated and service reform must also target the way public institutions are structured, operate and are financed... financed, in addition to reforming human resource management practices and salaries. Finally, reform must address features of the civil service that preserve old behavior such as distorted incentives facing individual civil servants. All of this is difficult to effectively address at the institutional level, as fundamental changes in basic HRM policies and processes for the allocation of human resources are required. Reforms at the institutional level therefore become designed in a way that does not challenge current central policies; instead reforming institutions work around existing policies and regulations, for example by adding new allowances instead of reforming the basic pay scheme and introducing merit based selections in a system that largely does not recognize professional, technical skills or the importance of performance. ...but this will take time The task of civil service reform is therefore a challenging one and will take time, though as the legislative, some initial steps have been taken. Nevertheless, several reform-minded regional administrative and governments have initiated strong civil service reforms in such areas as performance cultural changes take budgeting, one-stop public services, productivity improvement measures and transparent place... recruitment for key positions. The legal framework for the civil service is being reviewed and revised, including the basic Civil Service Law of 1999, the Law on Government Organization and the Law on Pensions. Included in this review are a range of government regulations encompassing decentralization of the civil service, performance appraisal, separations and civil service discipline. The government is therefore beginning to give greater attention to reforms to strengthen human resource capacity, revise standard operating procedures, clarify job descriptions and job grading, enhance performance incentives through greater pay and promotion linkages, improve human resource Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 63 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda management functions and strengthen access to policy research and analysis within government ministries and agencies. ...and reforms initiated in As a consequence of the lack of central engagement, civil service reforms are conceived reform-minded agencies and implemented at the institutional level, such as in MoF and in a few other central state are replicated elsewhere institutions as well as in several regional governments with strong and reform-minded leadership. Until recently there has not been a common understanding on what civil service reform actually should imply. Today, however, a comprehensive concept for civil service reform has been developed and implemented in MoF. The initiative requires extra budget allocations for its implementation and the DPR, in approving the extra allocation, has required MoF to make sure its reform concept gets replicated in other state institutions. So far, the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK) and the Supreme Court have received extra budget allocations together with specific reform requirements set up by MoF. The replication of the bureaucracy reform is done under the National Committee for Bureaucracy Reform (NCBR), chaired by the Minister for State Apparatus (MenPAN) and including the institutions mentioned and the KPK that is assigned to monitor reform progress in the other institutions. Box 12.1: The Bureaucracy Reform Initiative of the Ministry of Finance is a promising start The Bureaucracy Reform Initiative in MoF aims at: · strengthening MoF's human resource management capacity; · systematically reviewing business processes; · modifying job classification/job descriptions in every department; · creating a revised remuneration scheme based on new job descriptions and pay grades linking pay to responsibilities, complexity, workload and, eventually, performance; · establishing new guidelines for staff recruitment; and new approaches to career paths including establishment of an assessment center; and · developing and implementing a new MoF wide HR Information System (HRIS). New job descriptions and a new grading scheme have been introduced. Take-home pay has been increased by an extra allowance determined by the new job descriptions and by allocating positions to one out of 27 additional grades. In that context, Echelon I officials in MoF have begun to resign from commissioner assignments in state-owned enterprises within their field of authority. Currently, the selection process for recruitment and promotion is being transformed into a process based on announced vacancies, voluntary applications and competitive selection based on merit. Simultaneously, the rotation policy, i.e. the policy under which civil servants in Echelon II ­ IV are moved between offices, functions and locations on average every third year, is being reviewed to better support career development. Development of a new intranet based HRIS has recently been initiated. Source: Synnerstrom (2008) Reforms must be It is important that reforms be sustained through corresponding changes and increased sustained through flexibility in central policies and regulatory frameworks. The current divided set-up for civil changes in central service management has so far proven incapable of delivering required civil service policies and regulations reforms under a coherent national reform strategy. Indonesia's civil service reform efforts for the coming years will therefore need to focus on several things. The Minister of Finance The first priority is personnel pay and conditions. The Minister of Finance has set up a has made a start by task force to examine the entire compensation package for high-ranking state officials with establishing a task force the goal of creating a more transparent, systematic and coherent framework of pay and to examine the allowances linked to a comprehensive review of job classifications and categories. This is remuneration of senior officials linked to job intended to lead to an independent remuneration commission to determine both the level classifications... and structure of the compensation package for Indonesia's highest ranking political officials. Such an approach would be followed by a similar comprehensive review of pay issues for the larger civil service. ...while the reforms A second priority will be to ensure that the reform concept developed by MoF will be initiated in the Finance widely introduced in other institutions. The additional budgetary allocation necessary gives Ministry need to be MoF and eventually the DPR a strong mechanism to safeguard and control reforms to extended to other state Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 64 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda institutions ensure they will be implemented and have the desired impact. Today, it is not MenPAN but MoF that is the driving force behind reforms, due to its precedence in reform design and its authority to set up reform requirements linked to budget allocations. Due to the very fast pace in which reforms are implemented in MoF, there will be a need both to evaluate outcomes and assess outputs to maximize impact. For other institutions, improvements can be made in the context of adapting MoF outputs to their operational requirements, for example when introducing new job descriptions and key performance indicators to professionalize jobs and improve performance. Current HRM policies and Thirdly, current HRM policies and the regulatory framework should be changed so that the regulatory framework reforming institutions will not have to work around those policies or violate regulations. need reform to encourage Outcomes of reforms should be sustained through amended legal frameworks reform-minded accommodating what is going on. MenPAN is the competent authority for preparing institutions... amendments to the Civil Service Law and is currently planning to submit a new law this year. For the new law to meet current and future reform requirements, however, MenPAN needs to engage in a much broader process involving stakeholders and assessing good international practices. The NCBR could be instrumental in this regard and regional governments need also to become partners in this exercise. Before a law can be put into the inter-governmental and parliamentary processes, a thorough analysis and subsequent definition of new policies need to be undertaken. ...and also feed into the Lastly, the extension of MoF reforms to other agencies will have to be part of the policy development process for development process leading to a new Civil Service Law. Basic HRM policies that need to a new Civil Service Law be reviewed are, for example, the current lack of professional classification of jobs and the subsequent poor match of skills and requirements in most institutions. In addition, current policies and mechanisms for determination of organizational structures and staffing establishments (formasi), need to be reviewed. This is currently done through an administrative process separate from the budget process and leads to poor allocation of human resources, fragmentation of responsibilities and excessive staffing levels. Most state institutions In late 2009, a new government will take office. Unlike 2004, the new government will take are working at improving over an administration where many serious problems are recognized and openly efficiency and service discussed, where most institutions are actively trying to improve efficiency and service delivery and a new delivery and where clear reform concepts are already established and implemented. The government in 2009 will benefit from the new government will be able to benefit from a strong momentum to actually implement the momentum to build a fundamental reforms required to move the Indonesian state from a compliance-based professional civil service administration without focus on efficiency and performance into a professionalized administration ruled by efficiency, performance and service delivery standards. Problem recognition and reform commitment on the institutional level has not been missing during the last five years, but central guidance, coordination and follow-up of reforms has. 13. Making the most of decentralization: helping local governments realize their potential 13. a. Improving the framework governing centre-local relations Responsibility for most Much of the responsibility for public services was decentralized in 2001. The process was public services was based on three basic laws 1) regional autonomy; 2) fiscal relations; and 3) regional devolved in 2001 while government taxes and fees passed between 1999 and 2000. Not surprisingly, the process central funding for those has been a work in progress and both the regional autonomy and fiscal relations laws services was boosted substantially in 2006 and were amended in 2004 to provide more clarity while the critical government regulation on 2007... functional assignments (central, provincial and district) was only completed in 2007 and the amended version of the Law on regional government taxes is still pending in Parliament. A second phase of decentralization in 2006 increased financial transfers to the regions by 50 percent, followed by a further 15 percent in 2007. Indonesia's roughly 440 local governments now undertake nearly 40 percent of public spending with most services provided by kabupaten governments who are responsible for approximately 75 percent of the total with provincial governments 25 percent. ...to equalize financial The basic decentralization laws provide that more natural resource revenues are to be capacity so resource- retained in the regions where the resources are extracted. As resources (especially oil and Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 65 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda poor regions are not gas) are concentrated in only a few regions, the process of decentralization has increased disadvantaged regional inequality and, with rising energy prices, the inequity is more pronounced. Fiscal balance funds (especially the General Allocation Grant or DAU) have, however, been designed to compensate for this and the evidence is that the DAU is assisting to equalize financial capacities. By any criteria, however, regions, even the poorest, have received large increases in transfers in recent years (most now have surpluses) and the challenge has moved to spending wisely. Perceptions about Perceptions about how decentralization is working vary. Claims about poor education and decentralization vary but health outcomes, especially malnutrition, abound. Infrastructure deficiencies are surveys show that observable and businesses list local government procedures as one of the chief satisfaction with service impediments to investment. Comprehensive surveys of perceptions indicate, however, delivery is improving... that satisfaction with service delivery is improving. When asked about whether things have improved in the last two years, over 70 percent of public service users indicate that they believe that there have been improvements in health and education services, 56 percent in administrative services and 45 percent in police (not decentralized). This matches another survey two years earlier that had a similar outcome. ...but the transition is far Nevertheless, despite amendments and regulations designed to address legal from complete with ambiguities, the framework governing the division of roles, responsibilities and resources unclear and overlapping between the national and local governments (including between provinces and regencies) responsibilities... remains ineffective and incomplete. The central government continues to spend significant amounts of resources on local government tasks and, de facto, it is not clear who is in charge of key public services. Moreover, a clause in the regulation turns over responsibility for detailing service responsibilities to central departments themselves. There have been recent efforts, including a new regulation on deconcentrated spending, that are designed to address the confusion of roles but experience indicates that the longer the ambiguity about function exists the more entrenched it becomes. An improved functional division among the different levels of government would promote greater clarity, more accountability, higher quality and more efficient service delivery. ...while much central Sub-national expenditures at both the province and regency level are dominated by funding is spent on administrative spending (usually for salaries for the administration, local parliament, excessive salary and buildings etc) at close to 30 percent of budgets. By contrast best practice is usually closer other administrative to 5 percent. As a result, much of the DAU is earmarked for financing civil service wages. costs, so reducing the incentive to address civil This eliminates the incentive to address civil service costs (and shift spending to capital service costs expenditure and other areas) and reduces the share of the DAU available for fiscal balance. Removal of full coverage would strengthen the equalizing impact between own- source and natural resource revenues and empower sub-national governments to find the optimal combination of inputs (size of workforce, capital, intermediate inputs and outsourcing) for public service delivery. The equalizing effect of The equalizing effect of the DAU could, however, be improved. In particular, the the DAU could be elimination of the hold-harmless provision, that each sub-national government has the improved while the right to at least as much funding as previously should be enacted. A combined reduction government's strategy for in the pool of DAU funds reserved for salaries and the elimination of the hold-harmless the DAK is not yet clear... provision would make the pool available for equalization larger and overall transfers more pro-poor. The use of the special autonomy grant (DAK) has been growing rapidly from less than USD500 million in 2005 to USD2.3 billion in 2008. This reflects a conscious decision to reduce deconcentrated spending but, aside from increasing the amounts, it is not yet clear what the government's strategy is for using this important instrument. In particular it would be important to clarify priorities, including its use for poverty reduction and the achievement of minimum standards. ...and there is a need to Unlike most decentralized countries, Indonesia has not transferred significant tax power to strengthen sub-national local governments, distorting incentives and creating an unhealthy dependence on finances by amending the transfers from the center. In particular, the central government administers the relatively law on regional efficient property tax including setting rates and evaluations although it provides 92 government taxes and fees and transferring percent of the proceeds to regional governments as part of its transfers. The statutory rate responsibility for is 0.1 percent to 0.2 percent which is one of the lowest in the world and enforcement is generating own-source weak. The Amendment to Law 34 on Regional Taxation (due for enactment in 2008) Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 66 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda revenues, including represents an opportunity to address some of the difficult issues in own source revenues. property taxes to the In particular, the Law moves from a negative list on taxes and fees to a positive list of regions... preferred revenue sources. This should restrict the proliferation of uneconomic local government interventions, which on average have administration costs of 50 percent and some of which have costs above yields. The pending amendment does not provide for control of administration or rates of property taxes to be delegated to sub-national governments, but there has been discussion within Parliament around this issue. Thus the amendment to the Law represents an opportunity to shift this important source of revenue to regional governments and this would address one of the largest imbalances in Indonesia's decentralization, i.e. the lack of regional government revenue sources. ...as well as reforming Local and provincial governments, especially in urban areas, have a key role in public on-lending and on- investment, particularly in the infrastructure sector where the needs are great. Borrowing granting regulations... for infrastructure and other projects is virtually non-existent with total outstanding sub- national debt at 0.14 percent of GDP. There is a legacy of arrears for both sub-national governments and their local water providers (PDAMs) which inhibits the development of new lending. To increase sub-national government access to credit the government needs to revise on-lending and on-granting regulations to facilitate support for local infrastructure finance and service delivery, to address overly complicated rules and such provisions as those that limit borrowing for non-revenue producing projects. At the same time the arrears problem (including for PDAMs) needs to be addressed comprehensively. ...and transitioning to a It will also be important that the central government continue to build credibility on its market-oriented system willingness to use intercept mechanisms for sub-national governments that again fall into of sub-national credit arrears. Finally, while regional governments can now borrow in anticipation of increasing sub-national financing needs, especially for urban infrastructure, the government should address the issues that continue to constrain the development of market-based sub- national bonds, including rules about securitization, and procedures to address fiscal distress and bankruptcy. On the sub-national government side, local governments will need to improve transparency including submission of externally audited statements. Indonesia does not yet Despite the increased responsibility of sub-national governments, and a regulatory have systems in place to framework for regional public financial management, Indonesia does not have systems in improve transparency, place designed to deliver transparency, accountability and efficient development. Most accountability and the regions need to improve technical capacity and human resources to implement reforms. technical capacity of regional Sub-national governments are obligated by law to report certain fiscal and financial administrations... information to the central government but many are not (in 2006 the central government finally began to impose sanctions with some improvement). Sub-national governments are not required to make this available to the public and most do not. ...and while there are The devolution of political authority to local governments has also posed challenges for signs of improvement the investment climate. Post-decentralization the initial reaction was often to increase many local governments charges on local businesses and trade. Inconsistencies as well as the sheer number of continue to misuse local regulations have made doing business more difficult in many places. Districts have, revenue-raising authority to impede business at times, used their newly acquired powers to issue excessively stringent local labor development and trade... regulations or target businesses with a plethora of new local taxes, levies and fees. In fact, the costs, delays and inconvenience of business licensing is one of the most commonly mentioned criticisms of the local investment climate. Although illegal, restrictions in the movement of goods across district and provincial borders still exist and impose additional costs and delay to the distribution of goods, interfere in domestic trade and undermine internal market efficiency. Incomplete regulations at decentralization and the tug-of-war between the center and the regions on issues such as investment approval, land and the like affect the "bankability" of investments and have been a factor in the slow recovery of investment post-crisis, especially in mining. Finally, businesses have to face corruption in the regions as they do at the center. ...and compromise the As local level democracy spreads, there are signs that enlightened leadership is investment climate increasing and a number of local governments are beginning to address service issues, although there are signs excessive regulation and policy deficiencies with a focus on improving the investment that some reform-minded climate. These "second generation" local governments often have a better understanding local governments are of business needs and higher levels of responsiveness to citizen demands and their Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 67 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda now more responsive to successes are being noted. Nevertheless, the process of clarifying and shifting the needs of business responsibilities and building capacity at the local level has been slow. There are a number and their citizens of reasons: i) views on appropriate models of decentralization are continuing to evolve, in part based on how the situation has played out; ii) the roles and responsibilities of central government institutions are still to be brought into line with the new reality (between and within ministries) raising bureaucratic tensions and resistance as budgets and status shift; iii) incentive problems resulting from the existing framework (e.g. the high share of transfers and a lack of transparency) and; iv) the slow process of creating local government capacity after more than 30 years of centralized decision making. The concern is that a process that stalls during this transition will end up with vested interests building up around an inefficient equilibrium with reduced accountability and efficiency and severe governance problems. 13. b. Increasing the capacity and accountability of local governments There is ongoing Capacity problems at the local level remain. The unclear division of tasks between the confusion about financial Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Home Affairs has resulted in confusion with respect management to financial management, especially as new procedures are introduced. Regional responsibilities while governments have had difficulty spending increased resources and surpluses have built large surpluses have accrued in resource- up in most sub-national governments, with especially large surpluses in natural resource- endowed regions endowed regions. While the situation is improving, sub-national governments have not had experience in dealing with businesses and typically lack understanding of what it takes to create a good business environment. Improved accountability In addition to addressing administrative and regulatory issues, improving decentralization will require innovative outcomes requires increasing the capacity and accountability of local governments. The solutions such as accountability of local governments to their constituents is crucial for the success of performance-based regional autonomy but, by necessity, developing new accountability relationships and financing... systems takes time. One approach would involve improving performance by providing additional financing for sub-national governments that met established criteria i.e., with respect to financial and other reporting or, more ambitiously, on service provision (i.e. health and education outcomes or even road maintenance). The central government could provide this support through the DAK along with complementary technical assistance in the specified area. ...better monitoring of An improved system for monitoring of sub-national governments would provide incentives local government for good performers and technical assistance for those lagging behind. A credible performance and performance system would provide transparency, attract investors to strong regions and improving sub-national provide a basis for an allocation system based on performance and needs. Despite the fiscal and financial reporting increased responsibility of sub-national governments, Indonesia does not yet have a sound system of sub-national fiscal and financial reporting to facilitate systematic monitoring and evaluation. In most middle-income and high-income countries the financial performance of local governments is measured by rating agencies and performance measurement mechanisms create competitive and political pressures. An improved system of reporting that reliably captures the performance of local governments and provinces would represent a positive development. 14. Increasing the legitimacy of the state and building consensus 14. a. Strengthening the rule of law and reforming the judicial system Years of mismanagement The judiciary and associated law-enforcement agencies are perhaps the weakest link in have left the judiciary and Indonesia's governance and accountability system. In the three decades prior to the crisis, law-enforcement the legal system had been weakened by inadequate funding, ineffective procedures and agencies in a weakened inconsistent decision making. That led to a systematic demoralization and condition... "deprofessionalization" of judges, police officers, prosecutors and other key players in the legal system, which has, in turn, hampered efforts to reform and improve these institutions. The result is that the rule of law is far from guaranteed in Indonesia today, and the uncertainty about, and the arbitrariness of, judicial interventions continues to be identified as one of the most serious obstacles to investment. ...but open to major In the initial years following reformasi, there had been encouraging signs that the Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 68 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda reforms which have government and justice sector institutions were open to reform. A number of independent included new oversight judicial review and oversight mechanisms had been established, including the Judicial agencies and legal Commission, a Prosecutorial Commission to oversee the AGO and a Police Commission. institutions... Other bodies that have been established include a Constitutional Court, an Anti-Corruption Court, the KPK and an Ombudsman's Office. The judiciary started a process of reform in 2001 and 2002 that was closely linked to the transfer of court administration from the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights to the Supreme Court (the satu atap or "one-roof" system). The Supreme Court, with support from Indonesian civil society and donors, developed a series of nine blueprints that covered most areas of judicial administration and laid out a roadmap for reform. The Supreme Court established a reform team to implement these changes, and many of these initiatives were incorporated into the Government of Indonesia's National Medium Term Development Plan (2004-09). Other agencies, in particular the AGO, launched similar reform initiatives. ...although progress has The momentum generated by these initiatives has not translated into substantive progress slowed considerably due and reform of the legal system has slowed considerably in recent years. There appear to to resistance by be two main and inter-related reasons for this. The first is the resistance to reforms from entrenched interests... entrenched interests in the legal system. Because of the steps taken to strengthen the independence of the judiciary and insulate it from direct political influence, those interests within the judiciary who are most opposed to any institutional transformation, ironically, now control the reform agenda. In addition, there does not yet appear to be a critical mass of political will to challenge these interests. ...and contestation The second reason is the growth in the number of institutions with judicial and oversight between the newly- powers, which has led to significant contestation between institutions. Some new enlarged body of legal institutions, such as the Constitutional Court and the KPK have been successful. The institutions creation of a number of new institutions has, however, resulted in an overlap of jurisdictions and competition between these new institutions and those whose interests lie in maintaining the status quo. In this environment, the process of creating a normative framework at the national level with an appropriate system of checks and balances is likely to be a long-term process, especially when undertaken through trial and error. A lack of substantive Nevertheless, despite (or perhaps because of) the fact that there is a lack of substantive reform at the national reform at the national level, efforts are being made to strengthen accountability from the level has highlighted the bottom up by nurturing "demand for justice" at the local grassroots level. At the moment, need to strengthen the vast majority of Indonesians continue to have limited or no interaction with the formal community-based justice systems... legal system. Village heads and community figures (tokoh masyarakat) are the main agents of justice for most Indonesians (Figure 14.1). Only the police, of the formal justice sector institutions, play a significant role. To be relevant to the vast majority of the population, the legal system needs to be made more accessible, transparent and accountable, particularly to the poor. Local dispute resolution mechanisms need to be made consistent with state law, and the protection of women and marginalized groups (including ethnic minorities) in non-state systems needs to be strengthened. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 69 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Figure 14.1: Most Indonesians resolve disputes and seek justice through traditional channels Villa ge o f fic ia l I nf o rm al le a d er s P o lic e F a m ily o r fr ie nd S ub - d is tr ic t o ff ic ials D on 't k n o w P r o s e c u to r P a r ale g al D is tr ic t o ff ic ials L a w ye r NG O 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 P e rc e n t re p o r t in g Sources and notes: McLaughlin & Perdana (forthcoming) and The Asia Foundation (2001), Survey Report on Citizen's Perceptions of the Indonesian Justice Sector, p.21. ...which are being With support from donors, the government is making efforts to enhance community legal supported with additional awareness and to strengthen village level dispute resolution processes and out-of-court funding to enhance mediation services. Communities and civil society are increasingly playing a key role in informal, local dispute demanding better performance from justice sector institutions at the local level. resolution and mediation services... Communities who are empowered with knowledge of their rights and provided with access to legal services are placing pressure on district level law enforcement officials to perform their functions in accordance with the law and are supporting local level reformers within the legal sector. ...within a National Recognizing the value of these efforts, the Government of Indonesia is drafting a National Strategy on Access to Strategy on Access to Justice that will attempt to provide a regulatory framework for Justice demand-driven initiatives. The development of the Strategy is being coordinated by Bappenas and the intention is to include it in the next Medium Term Development Plan. The success of this Strategy will depend, to a large degree, on the extent to which it links with, or incorporates, the perspectives of formal justice sector institutions. 14. b. Building on the momentum gained in anti-corruption efforts Indicators of corruption Indicators of corruption in Indonesia are slowly improving. Most global corruption surveys and the investment still place Indonesia near the bottom but most also indicate that the situation has improved climate are improving... in the last five years. For instance, the World Governance Indicators standardized Control of Corruption measure for Indonesia rose from -0.97 in 2003 to -0.77 in 2006, raising Indonesia's percentile rank globally from the 14th percentile to the 23rd. Large-sample firm level surveys of Indonesia's investment climate indicate similar improvements. The percentage of firms citing corruption at the local level to be a severe obstacle to doing business fell by nearly 12 percentage points between 2003 and 2007. Perceptions regarding corruption at the national level improved even more markedly, with the percentage citing it as a severe obstacle falling by over 20 percentage points. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 70 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Figure 14.2: Perceptions of corruption in government have declined % of firm s re porting corruption in ce ntral and local gove rnm e nt to be 60.0 a m ajor or s e ve re cons traint to doing bus ine s s 50.0 Local 40.0 gove rnm e nt 30.0 20.0 Ce ntral 10.0 gove rnm e nt 0.0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sources and notes: LPEM-UI (2007). ...in response to the The improvement in perceptions reflects the impetus provided to anti-corruption efforts by impetus given by the the Yudhoyono Government that came to power in late 2004. With the strong support of Yudhoyono Government the president, who has made the fight against corruption a theme of his administration dedicated resources have been made available to at least some of the agencies critical to the anti-corruption initiative. The president also continues to enjoy a reputation for personal integrity and there is a perception that nepotism in appointments, political favoritism in commercial relations and regulatory decisions, and political intervention over independent commissions and oversight bodies, which all used to be common practices under previous governments, has diminished. The legal framework for The legal and regulatory framework needed to support anti-corruption initiatives was put anti-corruption initiatives in place in the early years after the crisis with the enactment of a number of anti- was enacted in the early corruption laws and their subsequent amendments.1 These laws define corruption, the years of reformasi... roles of different agencies in handling corruption, and the procedures and types of evidence required in corruption investigation, none of which had previously been specified in the criminal code or court process code. ...which established a In parallel to, and in some cases, as a result of, the enactment of these laws, a number of number of new apex apex institutions have been established. These include specialized law enforcement institutions... institutions and teams such as the KPK, the Indonesia Financial Transaction Reports and Analysis Center (PPATK) and the temporary (from 2005 to 2007) Corruption Eradication Coordination Team (Timtas Tipikor), which have a clear mandate and broad authority to strengthen, streamline and expedite investigation, prosecution and court hearings of corruption cases. They also include the Judicial Commission, Prosecutorial Commission, National Police Commission, and National Ombudsman Commission, whose main functions are to promote reform and to execute external oversight over the general law enforcement agencies such as the police, AGO and the Supreme Court. ...although their The record of these institutions has varied. KPK and Timtas Tipikor have exercised their achievements to date mandate vigorously and quite effectively in investigating and prosecuting high-level have shown mixed corruption cases. Among the list of successfully prosecuted high profile cases are those results with the involving a former governor of Aceh, a former Head of the Investment Coordination Board investigative agencies, KPK and Timtas Tipikor, and former Minister of Fisheries & Maritime Affairs. KPK was also successful in among the more effective prosecuting heads of local governments and former ambassadors. Table 14.1 shows the number of corruption cases concluded by the KPK, AGO, National Police and the temporary Timtas Tipikor. _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 1 Law 28/ 1999 on Clean Government Free from Corruption, Collusion and Nepotism; Law 31/1999 on Eradication of Criminal Act of Corruption; Law 20/ 2001 on Eradication of Criminal Acts of Corruption; and Law 30/ 2002 on Commission of Eradication of Corruption. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 71 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda Table 14.1: Number of corruption cases concluded by apex agencies between 2004 and 2007 Agency 2004 2005 2006 2007 KPK 12 19 17 29 AGO 241 354 477 460 National Police 116 118 314 97 Timtas Tipikor 10 37 Sources and notes: Annual Reports of the Anti-Corruption Commission 2005, 2006, 2007, and presentation by the National Police to Stolen Assets Recovery Initiative assessment mission, November 12th 2007. The oversight agencies On the other hand, despite a few successes, the oversight agencies have not been as have been less effective effective because they have encountered resistance from the very institutions they are due to entrenched meant to oversee and have lacked the adequate investigative authority as well as the resistance and financial and human resources to overcome this resistance. Under the law they can only inadequate resources... recommend new policies or policy changes to the president and to the leadership of the respective law enforcement agencies. Agencies like the PPATK, the financial intelligence unit, and the National Ombudsman Commission (KON) have also been limited by their lack of investigative authority and resources. Cases have to be referred to the police, often with limited preliminary evidence, and few referrals are investigated. ...while KPK and Timtas Three features that distinguish KPK and Timtas Tipikor from the others, and which might Tipikor have been more explain their relative success, are worth noting. The first is that they both were created to successful due to an resolve the problems stemming from a lack of coordination between existing law integrated approach, enforcement agencies, by bringing together investigators, auditors and prosecutors under clearly defined mandates and adequate resources the same roof, working jointly on high profile cases. The second is that both had clearly defined mandates and broad investigative authority. Timtas Tipikor had a clearly defined mandate to investigate high profile cases associated with State-Owned Enterprises with a clear timeline (2 years), whereas the KPK has broader investigating authority compared to other law enforcement agencies and has the power to coordinate and supervise other institutions' investigations. The third is that both were provided with adequate financial resources and were able to recruit highly competent professionals. Timtas Tipikor was a group of 45 carefully selected specialists from the AGO, police and the Financial and Development Audit Agency (BPKP). KPK is exempt from the civil service scheme and is therefore able, given its financial resources, to offer attractive remuneration to its staff who, except for prosecutors and investigators seconded from AGO and the police, are mostly recruited from the private sector. There has been success While there clearly has been some initial success in prosecuting corruption, there has in prosecuting corruption been less progress in developing and implementing a coherent, well-focused strategy for but less progress in corruption prevention. The government did, early on, lay out an anti-corruption strategy in prevention efforts... two documents - a presidential instruction (Inpres 5/2004) and the National Action Plan for the Eradication of Corruption (RAN-PK) in February 2005. The former instructs all executive branch institutions of the government to expedite efforts to eradicate corruption and the latter collects detailed policy and reform measures from each institution to implement the presidential instruction. Both documents are comprehensive in scope, covering prosecutions, prevention and education however, neither document specifies any deadlines or sanctions. In addition, MenPAN, the ministry tasked with coordinating, monitoring and evaluating implementation, has only limited authority. ...where implementation As a result, implementation of these anti-corruption strategy documents has, to date, been of an anti-corruption weak. Moreover, there are several important corruption-prone arenas of governance that strategy has been weak... are not covered by these documents. These include the judicial sector, supervision of the financial sector, political parties and parliaments, and military procurement and military- owned businesses. Addressing corruption in all four of these areas is critical to the overall fight against corruption. The general court system, for example, is still largely untouched by the anti-corruption efforts while the successful Anti-Corruption Court has been ruled unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court refused to allow the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK) to audit fees generated from registration and trials of cases. Reform in general law enforcement agencies have stalled as the National Police Commission and Prosecutorial Commission have not been given adequate mandates and appropriate resources. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 72 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda ...and wealth disclosure Performance in another important mechanism for corruption prevention - wealth disclosure by senior government by public officials has also been lagging. By the end of 2005, only 54 percent of senior officials has been lagging government officials had submitted their declarations to the KPK, which is responsible for the management and implementation of the wealth reports of public officials, and only a small share of these submissions have been properly audited. Furthermore, the impact of these declarations is limited by the fact that they are not fully available to the public, as in most countries, and by the fact that the relevant current legislation does not specify a criminal offence for intentional illicit enrichment. Nevertheless, there is There have, however, been some important positive recent developments. The legal ongoing progress with framework for preventing corruption should be considerably improved with the recent recently enacted freedom passage of laws on freedom of information and witness protection. The latter protects of information and whistleblowers while the former promotes transparency of essential public information whistleblower legislation ... such as budget, expenditure and procurement related information. Of course, the passage of laws is just the beginning and a strong framework to implement the Freedom of Information law will be critical to ensure genuine access. In order to promote international cooperation in recovering proceeds of corruption, Indonesia ratified the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) in 2006 and signed Mutual Legal Assistance treaties with South Korea, China, Australia, Hong Kong, and ASEAN. ...while high-profile Recent KPK investigations involving the judiciary and parliament are beginning to put investigations by the KPK pressures on these institutions to initiate reforms. That is critical, because without are putting pressure on progress in civil service and administrative reform, legal and judicial reform, accountability institutions to initiate measures at the local government level, as well as the more sensitive issues of political reforms party and electoral financing and the role of quasi-public foundations (yayasan), the early gains from the government's anti-corruption drive may not be translated into sustainable improvements in the quality of governance. 15. How to approach strengthening public institutions and processes 15. a. There is no simple recipe for strengthening public institutions and processes and it will take time... There are no simple or Adapting the institutions and mechanisms that govern the functioning of the state and universal recipes or shape state-society interactions will take time and not be easy. Institutional reforms and models for complex process transformations by their very nature are complicated undertakings. Building institutional reforms... consensus around more easily implemented but contentious reforms can also be a lengthy process. There are no simple or universal recipes or models for how to do this - the particulars of the model will necessarily vary from context to context. 15. b. ...and involve learning from experimentation, monitoring and evaluation and replicating existing pockets of success ...and a step-by-step And so the approach to reforms may be as important as the substance of the reforms approach that involves themselves. Whether the task is civil service reform at the national level or improving learning from service delivery at the local level, much trial and error and institutional adaptation is experimentation, required. The approach often involves piloting reforms - selected from a menu of reform monitoring and evaluation, and options that hold some promise, but the particulars of which need to be "field-tested" - on replicating existing a small scale or in a clearly demarcated realm (a region, a ministry, a sector or sub- successes may be sector), monitoring and evaluating them carefully and using these assessments to adapt warranted... and improve the design of reforms and determine when and how to scale them up. ...which Indonesia is Indonesia is doing just that in some areas. Civil service reforms were first initiated only already doing in some within the Ministry of Finance and that too, only in a limited form. Over time, the scope of areas... the reforms has gradually broadened, while similar reforms have been initiated in selected other institutions such as the Corruption Eradication Commission and the Supreme Audit Agency. Similarly, the approach to budget reforms is going steadily but slowly, initially in selected departments within the Ministry of Finance and Bappenas, but now beginning to move to a few selected line ministries. The nationwide rollout (PNPM) of community- based poverty alleviation that was tested and refined over the last decade through the KDP and UPP programs, the piloting of a future conditional cash transfer program (PKH) Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 73 From 2009 to 2014 and beyond: realizing the development agenda and, to a somewhat lesser degree, the expansion of BOS are all other examples of this approach, where initiatives, initially limited in scope or scale are being scaled up as evidence accumulates of the effectiveness of the initial efforts. 15. c. But maintaining a sense of urgency - making haste slowly - is critical ...but maintaining a Though it is important to recognize that institutional reforms take time and it is often sense of urgency -making advisable to take a step-by-step experimental approach, maintaining a sense of urgency - haste slowly - is critical making haste slowly - is critical throughout the process. That is because without a throughout the process if continued sense of urgency there is a risk that Indonesia's hard-earned reform momentum the hard-earned reform momentum is not to stall might stall. The government has shown commitment to reform, but significant obstacles to because of resistance to change remain. There is a risk that the reform effort will languish as even committed reform and political reformers are overwhelmed by the extent and complexity of the task of pushing forward dynamics institutional reforms and putting in place new ways of doing things in the face of entrenched organizational cultures and behaviors. The task is especially challenging when, as is often the case, the implementation of institutional reforms relies on the very unreformed systems and processes that are themselves the object of change. Those who benefit from the existing system, whether from corruption, capture or nepotism - the very institutional distortions that are often the target of the reform agenda - can use those distortions to politically derail efforts at serious institutional reform. Broader political dynamics can also intervene when the electoral imperatives of coalitional and money politics undermine incentives and efforts to strengthen the accountability of state institutions. A sustained focus on governance and transparency can help by restoring confidence in the legitimacy of public processes and institutions and building a consensus for continued reforms. If Indonesia can make haste slowly and maintain a sense of urgency in furthering its governance transition, it has the potential to become a dynamic, competitive and inclusive middle-income economy. Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 74 Indonesia Development Policy Review World Bank 75