E N E R G Y A N D M I N I N G S E C T O R B O A R D D I S C U S S I O N P A P E R P A P E R N O . 2 0 J A N U A R Y 2 0 0 7 Closing the Electricity Supply-Demand Gap Venkataraman Krishnaswamy and Gary Stuggins THE WORLD BANK GROUP Energy and Mining Sector Board AUTHORS DISCLAIMERS Venkataraman Krishnaswamy is a consultant in the World The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in Bank's Energy Unit (EWDEN). this paper are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated Gary Stuggins is a World Bank Energy Adviser in the World organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Bank's Energy Unit (EWDEN). Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this Power Planning Associates Limited is a consulting firm based publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any in the United Kingdom (www.powerplanning.com). consequence of their use. Luiz T. A. Maurer is a senior energy specialist in the World CONTACT INFORMATION Bank's Africa Energy Unit (AFTEG). To order additional copies of this discussion paper please Peter Kelly is a consultant in the World Bank's Energy Unit contact the Energy Help Desk: +1.202.473.0652 energy- (EWDEN). helpdesk@worldbank.org James Sayle Moose is a consultant to the World Bank's This paper is available online: www.worldbank.org/energy/ Europe and Central Asia Energy and Infrastructure Services department (ECSIE). Defne Gencer is a consultant in the World Bank's Energy The material in this work is copyrighted. 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All other queries on rights and licens- es, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street N.W., Washington, D.C., 20433, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org E N E R G Y A N D M I N I N G S E C T O R B O A R D D I S C U S S I O N P A P E R P A P E R N O . 2 0 J A N U A R Y 2 0 0 7 Closing the Electricity Supply-Demand Gap A Venkataraman Krishnaswamy and Gary Stuggins The World Bank, Washington, D.C. THE WORLD BANK GROUP Energy and Mining Sector Board Copyright © 2007 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank Group. All rights reserved. B CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..........................................iii TABLE D-3. ATC Losses--Targets and ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................iii Achievements....................................................70 UNITS OF MEASURE............................................iv TABLE D-4. Capital Investment Performance FOREWORD..........................................................v of the New Distribution Companies....................70 1. OVERVIEW ....................................................1 TABLE D-5. Bulk Supply Tariffs to the 2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND ......................3 Distribution Companies ....................................70 3. SCOPE AND COVERAGE OF THE STUDY..........5 TABLE D-6. Envisaged and Actual 4. KEY LESSONS AND BEST-PRACTICE Tariff Increases ..................................................71 EXAMPLES ......................................................7 TABLE D-7. Actual Average Revenue CASE STUDY A. BOTSWANA ..............................19 Realized by the Distribution Companies..............72 CASE STUDY B. BRAZIL......................................43 TABLE E-1. Access to Electricity, Gas, CASE STUDY C. BULGARIA ................................57 and Wood ........................................................76 CASE STUDY D. DELHI ELECTRICITY BOARD, TABLE E-2. Summary of Sector Reform ..............77 INDIA..........................................................65 TABLE E-3. Effective Capacity, December CASE STUDY E. THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC......75 2000 and December 2003................................79 CASE STUDY F. ETHIOPIA ..................................89 TABLE E-4. Breakeven Tariff Analysis ................85 CASE STUDY G. LITHUANIA ............................101 TABLE E-5. Effect of Collection Rates i CASE STUDY H. TURKEY ..................................109 and Losses on the Breakeven Tariff ....................85 CASE STUDY I. VIETNAM ................................125 TABLE F-1. Key Indicators for the REFERENCES ....................................................135 Power Sector ....................................................91 TABLE F-2. Customers and Sales, TABLES 2003/04 ..........................................................91 TABLE 1. Basic Details of the Nine Countries TABLE F-3. EEPCo Long-Term Debt....................93 Selected for Case Study ......................................5 TABLE F-4. EEPCo Summary Financial Results-- TABLE A-1. Economic Indicators, Income Statements, 1996/97­2004/05..............98 1999­2004 ......................................................22 TABLE F-5. EEPCo Summary Financial Results-- TABLE A-2. Major Economic Indicators­­ Cash Flow Statements, 1996/97­2004/05 ........99 BaseCase Scenario............................................23 TABLE F-6. EEPCo Summary Financial Results-- TABLE A-3. Forecasts of Surplaces and Deficits Balance Sheets and Ratios, in the Budget and Balance of Payments..............23 1996/97­2004/05..........................................100 TABLE A-4. Household Income Quintiles ..........27 TABLE G-1. Installed Capacity and Power TABLE A-5. Financial Performance of BPC ........28 Generated, 2004 ............................................104 TABLE A-6. BPC Electricity Tariffs ......................29 TABLE G-2. Generation Forecast for TABLE A-7. Revenue per Kilowatt-Hour 2011 with and without a Common Sold by Consumer Group..................................29 Baltic Electricity Market ....................................105 TABLE A-8. Capital Expenditure and TABLE H-1. Economic Indicators, Work in Progress ..............................................31 1999­2004 ....................................................109 TABLE A-9. Forecast Growth Rates of TABLE H-2. Peak Demand and Electricity Sales by Sector, 2003­23 ..................................36 Consumption, 1990­2004 ..............................113 TABLE B-1. The Role of the Private Sector TABLE H-3. Breakdown of Electricity in Power Generation..........................................47 Generation by Ownership, 2004 ....................114 TABLE B-2. Private Investments in the TABLE H-4. Breakdown of Generation Power Sector, 1900­2003..................................51 by Primary Resource, 2004 ..............................115 TABLE B-3. Improvement in TABLE H-5. GDP Growth Rate Service Quality..................................................53 Assumptions for the Three Scenarios ................116 TABLE D-1. Financial Structure of the TABLE H-6. Electricity Demand Forecast Unbundled Entities ............................................68 Scenarios........................................................116 TABLE D-2. Stipulated Minimum ATC Loss Levels and Agreed Loss Levels......................................68 TABLE H-7. TEIAS 10-Year Projection FIGURE D-1. DVB Restructuring Model..............67 Based on Average Hydro Conditions, FIGURE E-1. Capacity Dispatched and 2005­14 ........................................................117 Marginal Variable Cost......................................80 TABLE H-8. Private Electricity FIGURE E-2. Electricity Supply as a Generation, 2004 ..........................................119 Percentage of Demand ......................................82 TABLE H-9.BOT Power Plants ..........................121 FIGURE E-3. Revealed Willingness to TABLE H-10. BOO Power Plants......................121 Pay in Relation to Tariff ......................................83 TABLE H-11. TOOR Power Plants....................121 FIGURE H-1. Transmission and TABLE I-1. Economic Indicators, 2000­05 ......125 Distribution Losses ..........................................111 TABLE I-2. Electricity Transmission Assets ........127 FIGURE H-2. Residential and TABLE I-3. Breakdown of Electricity Industrial Prices ..............................................112 Consumption by Sector, 2004..........................127 FIGURE H-3. Comparison of Industrial TABLE I-4. Financial Performance of Prices with OECD Average ..............................112 Electricité du Vietnam ......................................130 FIGURE H-4. GDP-Electricity Demand TABLE I-5. Expansion Targets for Relationship ....................................................114 Generation Capacity ......................................131 FIGURE H-5. Generation Mix, 2004 ..............115 TABLE I-6. Private Participation in Power FIGURE H-6. Peak Demand versus Generation, 2004 ..........................................132 Installed Capacity, 2005­14 ............................117 ii TABLE I-7. The Phu My Complex ....................132 FIGURE I-1. Evolution of Generation Fuel Mix, 1972­2002......................................128 FIGURES BOXES FIGURE 1. Supply-Demand Balance Pyramid ....17 BOX 1. Implications of Lesson 1 FIGURE A-1. National Electricity Grid for World Bank Group Staff ................................8 of Botswana......................................................25 BOX 2. Implications of Lesson 2 FIGURE A-2. Household Expenditure on for World Bank Group Staff ..............................10 Fuel by Income Level ........................................26 BOX 3. Implications of Lesson 3 FIGURE A-3. Average Price of Electricity Sold by for World Bank Group Staff ..............................12 BPC, 1993/94­2003/04 ..................................30 BOX 4. Implications of Lesson 4 FIGURE A-4. BPC Electricity Sales, for World Bank Group Staff ..............................13 1993/94­2003/04............................................32 BOX 5. Implications of Lesson 5 FIGURE A-5. Sector Shares of BPC Sales, for World Bank Group Staff ..............................14 1994 and 2004 ................................................32 BOX 6. Implications of Lesson 6 FIGURE A-6. BPC System Indicators, for World Bank Group Staff ..............................15 1995­2004 ......................................................33 BOX B-1. Results of the Reform Process ............54 FIGURE A-7. System Losses, 1991­2004 ..........34 FIGURE A-8. Electricity Imports, 1991­2004 ....35 ANNEX FIGURE A-9. Electricity Demand Forecast ANNEX B-1. Results of the Reform Process........55 for the BPC System, 2004­13 ............................36 FIGURE B-1. Results of Residential Energy Savings during the 2001 Power Crisis ................49 FIGURE B-2. Annual Growth in Capacity Additions ............................................51 FIGURE B-3. Annual Increases in the Length of Transmission Lines ............................................52 FIGURE B-4. Premium over Minimum Price in Distribution Privatization ....................................53 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The main report was written by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy and Gary Stuggins, with contributions from Defne Gencer and Peter Kelly. The case studies were written by Peter Kelly, Venkataraman Krishnaswamy, Luiz T. A. Maurer, James Sayle Moose, and Power Planning Associates. Peer Reviewers were John Besant-Jones and Sameer Shukla. Comments, suggestions, and clarifications were provided by Philippe Benoit, Istvan Dobozi, Sunil Kumar Khosla, Rohit Mittal, Lucio Monari, Mantas Nocius, Sameer Shukla, and Richard Spencer. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADB Asian Development Bank ICS Interconnected system AKP Justice and Development Party IEA International Energy Association (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi) IFI International financial institution ANEEL National Electricity Regulatory Agency (Brazil) IMF International Monetary Fund (Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica) IPP Independent power producer ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations KfW Reconstruction Credit Institute iii ATC Aggregate technical and commercial (losses) (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau) BGN New Bulgarian lev (on July 5, 1999, the "old" LPC Lithuanian Power Company lev, BGL, was redenominated thus: BGN 1 = LPG Liquefied petroleum gas BGL 1,000) MAE Commercial market operator BOO Build-own-operate MMEWR Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water BOT Build-operate-transfer Resources (Botswana) BPC Botswana Power Corporation NDP National Development Plan (Botswana) CBEM Common Baltic Electricity Market NEK Nationalna Elektricheska Kompania EAD CDE Compañía Dominicana de Electricidad (Bulgaria) CDEE Compañía Dominicana de Empresas OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation Eléctricas OYAK Turkish military pension fund CEE Central and Eastern European (countries) PEEPA Public Enterprises Evaluation and Privatisation CHP Combined heat and power Agency (Botswana) CPI Consumer price index PPA Power Purchase Agreement CRI Cash recovery index PPCL Pragati Power Company Limited (Delhi) CRISIL CRISIL India Ltd.--an Indian credit rating PRA Blackout Reduction Program agency associated with Standard and Poor's (Programa de Reducción de Apagones) of the United States PSA Power sales agreement DERC Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission REDI Regional Economic Development Initiative DPC Delhi Power Company SAPP Southern African Power Pool DTL Delhi Transmission Company Limited SCS Self-contained system DVB Delhi Vidyut Board (a state-owned vertically SEB State electricity board integrated power utility) SFR Self-financing ratio EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and STEM Short-Term Energy Market Development TEAS Electricity Generating and Transmission EEA Ethiopian Electricity Agency Corporation (Turkey) EMRA Energy Market Regulatory Authority (Turkey) TEIAS Turkish Electricity Transmission Company ESW Economic and Sector Work TETAS Electricity Trading and Contracting Company EU European Union (Turkey) EUAS State electricity generating company (Turkey) TL Old Turkish lira EVN Electricité du Vietnam TOOR Transfer of operating rights GCE Electric Energy Crisis Management Board UEAP Universal Electrification Access Programme (Câmara de Gestão da Crise de Energia UCTE Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission Elétrica) of Electricity GDP Gross domestic product U.S. cent 1 U.S. cent = $0.01 GNI Gross national income VAT Value added tax ICRA ICRA Limited--an Indian credit rating agency WTO World Trade Organization associated with Moody's of the United States UNITS OF MEASURE GJ Gigajoule GVA Gigavoltampere GWh Gigawatt-hour Hz Hertz km Kilometer kV Kilovolt kVA Kilovoltampere m Meter MVA Megavoltampere MVAR Megavoltampere-reactive MW Megawatt MWh Megawatt-hour Tcf Trillion cubic feet TJ Terajoule toe Tons of oil equivalent TWh Terawatt-hour iv V Volt VA Voltampere FOREWORD The investment needs of the electricity sector in the developing countries are immense and growing. The recent surge in oil prices will make the costs of investments even higher. In this context, the goals of this brief study are timely: to seek to identify the factors that enable some countries to succeed in closing the supply demand gap, as well as the factors that inhibit progress in some other countries. The case study approach covering representative samples of the developing countries that was adopted in this study enables the reader to understand the identified factors in their context and makes the lessons operationally relevant. We hope this proves useful to World Bank Group staff, as well as the authorities in the developing member countries. v Jamal Saghir Director, Energy, Transport and Water Chairman, Energy and Mining Sector Board January 2007 1. OVERVIEW The International Energy Association (IEA) has estimated Lesson 3: The importance of good governance and that the developing countries would need an annual transparency. Good governance and transparency at the investment of $160 billion through 2010, $185 billion state level and at the corporate level are the keys to the thereafter through 2020, and $210 billion in the following reform efforts to make the sector financially sound and decade through 2030.1 Even on an optimistic basis, the attract foreign and domestic investors to meet the identifiable sources are likely to fund about 50 percent investment needs. of these needs, thus leaving a large investment gap. Unless ways are found to fill this gap substantially, Lesson 4: The importance of the role of third parties in rotating blackouts and limited access to electricity will promoting reform. Benign third party (such as European hamper economic growth and the achievement of Union (EU) or World Trade Organization (WTO) accession, Millennium Development Goals. participation in regional markets, international financial institutions (IFIs) and credit rating agencies) interest and Although this study does not seek quantitative solutions involvement provide political motivation to pursue sector on how much of this gap would be filled in which countries reform, increase transparency, enable meaningful and in what time frame, it builds on nine country case disclosure and thus promote investment. Continuity of studies that are representative of several country typologies the IFI involvement through the long drawn out reform reflecting the diversity of the World Bank group client process is necessary and IFIs should not be content with 1 base. It also seeks to identify some of the key underlying short duration interventions. The IFIs could play a role factors that must be addressed to enable utilities and in low income countries similar to that of credit rating countries to manage demand and mobilize the needed agencies and build up a standardized client risk database resources to augment supplies from public, private, and both to facilitate the use of appropriate vehicles and commercial sources to bridge the supply-demand gap. instruments and to help the international investing community to invest in such countries. Successes in attracting sustainable investments are highlighted, and attempts are made to identify the key Lesson 5: The need for demand management, determinants for such success. The impediments that optimal generation planning, and electricity trade. have been encountered and methods by which they were Demand management, optimal generation planning, overcome are also highlighted. Cases in which the and electricity trade across the countries, along with investments did not prove sustainable are also included, joint investments, can significantly reduce the volume and reasons for such failure are highlighted. Although of incremental investment needs. the full text of all nine case studies will be published on the World Bank website, the present document highlights Lesson 6: The importance of the role of the private sector and discusses the more important among the lessons and of meeting the increased demands it makes on the drawn from them: state. Private sector has an important role to play in closing the investment gap in many countries, but association of Lesson 1: The importance of the rule of law and private sector makes far greater demands on the quality enforcement of contracts and property rights. Whether and sophistication of governance. The enhancement of the services are provided by the public sector or private the capacity of the governments in this regard should be sector, greatest benefit to the society and sustainability of the focus of IFIs. the sector results only when the rule of law prevails and property rights are respected and contract obligations Out of the investment needs of $160 billion, about 30 are enforced. percent can be expected to be generated by the internally generated cash surplus. Private investments and IFI Lesson 2: The need for internal generation of surplus assistance--if they maintain the present low levels-- cash after meeting all operational expenses and debt would provide another 12 percent and 3 percent, service adequate to meet at least the equity requirements respectively, leaving a gap of about 55 percent. of the system expansion projects. Utilities which manage Efficiency improvement, demand management, to achieve this, generally manage to raise the rest of the optimal general planning, and trade could be used needs as debt and manage to keep the demand and to moderate the volume of investments needed. supply in balance. These estimates by the World Bank staff are expressed in 2006 dollars and are based on IEA estimates expressed in 2001 dollars and making 1 suitable adjustments for universal access to electricity. Throughout the text, $ and dollars are used to denote U.S. dollars, and cents is used to denote U.S. cents (1 cent is equivalent to $0.01). Filling this gap would call for a substantial improvement of the factors, such as good and transparent governance, adherence to the rule of law, respect for private property, and contracts. These factors underlie successful commercialization of the sector, demand management, mobilization of private and public sector resources, supply augmentation, and trade. Among other things, this situation highlights the catalytic role of the financial and advisory assistance by IFIs and using such assistance to promote policies not only to improve sector operational efficiency, stabilize internal cash generation, and to attract substantially higher levels of commercial financing and private investment, but also to improve the underlying factors mentioned above. 2 2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND Together with basic health and education services--as well in promoting appropriate and timely investments in the as physical infrastructure such as roads, railways, ports, sector, and helping the economies to access the resources and telecommunications--provision of reliable electricity needed for such investments. supply is crucial to economic development. Surveys indicate that investors assign a high priority to the reliable Based on the estimates made by the IEA in its World supply of electricity at reasonable prices. Reliable electric Energy Outlook (2003) and adjusting them for 2006 supply fosters growth by enabling productivity gains in the price levels, as well as for universal access to electricity, industrial and service sectors and is an equally important Bank staff have estimated that the annual investments in input to support health and education. the power sector of the developing economies would be of the order of $160 billion until 2010, would rise to In the developed economies, the entire population $185 billion per year during 2011­20, and further to has access to electricity, and the electricity industry-- $210 billion in the following decade.2 This has to be organized on a self-sustaining basis--functions in a considered in the context of the following: market milieu. It operates increasingly on a competitive basis, where possible, and the remaining monopoly · Private sector investments in the power sector of segments are subject to independent regulation. developing countries declined from $47 billion in The operating entities, whether in the private or public 1997 to $14 billion in 2004.3 3 sector, function on a financially sound basis and are able to raise or access the resources needed for system · Economic growth in Asia accelerated subsequent to expansion to meet incremental demand. the currency crisis of 1997. In many developing economies, these conditions do not · Africa has been experiencing its fastest economic prevail. In the least developed and low-income economies, growth rate in the last two decades. access to electricity is limited, and the low income level of consumers often does not enable the utilities to cover · Developing economies as a group have been fully the cost of supply, let alone generating surpluses to experiencing consistent economic growth during the finance system expansion. The power sector must compete last few years. with other multiple essential demands for the scarce government funding. Access to international debt and · Sharp increases in oil prices have been driving all equity markets is practically nonexistent, except in the energy prices upwards globally and have been context of limited official development assistance that is seriously affecting the oil-importing economies. being provided by the IFIs and the donor community. In other developing economies, political and institutional · The IFIs and the donor community have been providing constraints inhibit the evolution of financially sound a considerably lower level of support to the power power sector. sector since the early 1990s in the belief that private capital flows would take up the consequent slack. The consequences of inadequacy or failure in the power sector are serious. At worst, the population would not be Even assuming (somewhat optimistically) that 30 percent able rise beyond the subsistence standard of living, and of the investment needs (or $48 billion) would come the failing power sector would retard the movement of from the net internally generated cash of the utilities and the poor countries towards the Millennium Development that the annual private flows and IFI assistance would Goals for poverty alleviation, health, and education. remain at 12 percent (or about $19 billion) and 3 percent (or about $5 billion), respectively, the investment The IFIs, including the World Bank Group have a major gap in the power sector would be of the order of $94 role in enabling the developing economies to ensure billion (or about 55 percent of the total requirements). sustainable provision of electricity services to their people at acceptable levels of quality and reliability and especially This compares with an earlier estimate of investment needs of $138 billion per year (including maintenance needs) or about 1.63 percent of their 2 GDP during 2005­10 made by Marianne Fay and Tito Ypes (2003) using a regression model covering 147 countries and data set covering the period 1960­2000. There has been a revival of private sector investment interest in 2005 and 2006, especially on the part of domestic and regional investors, as 3 opposed to the conventional "strategic investors." Unless ways are found to fill this gap, electricity access rates will remain low in poorer countries, and reliability and quality will fail in other developing economies, which will result in rolling blackouts and brownouts that seriously inhibit their economic growth prospects and degrade the environment. 4 3. SCOPE AND COVERAGE OF THE STUDY The present paper is a follow-up document to the cases of present excess capacity that is utilized to export Operational Guidance note, Public and Private Sector electricity. They will face capacity replacement problems Roles in the Supply of Electricity Services (World Bank when their nuclear units are shut down in accordance 2004). It focuses on the investment challenges facing with their agreements with the EU. By contrast, Delhi and developing economies. Nine countries were chosen from Vietnam (low-income economies) represent cases of Asia (2), Africa (2), Europe and Central Asia (3) and relatively high population access that still face high rates Latin America and Caribbean (2) regions for preparing of demand growth driven by rapid economic growth case studies. The case studies provide information on from a low base. Brazil and Turkey (middle-income the status of the sector in these countries and highlight countries) face a situation of excess capacity arising from their experience in succeeding or failing to close the an unanticipated downturn of their economies at the supply-demand gap in the past.4 This paper seeks to beginning of the present decade. Both had built highlight the best-practice examples drawn from these substantial generation capacities with the significant nine case studies, which could possibly be replicated in participation of foreign investors in the sector. similar circumstances in other economies. The analysis The Dominican Republic represents a unique typology, focuses not so much on quantitative investment issues in since it has considerable excess capacity in relation to a given time frame, as on the underlying factors that its demand and a high degree of foreign private investor must be addressed to enable the countries to manage participation in the sector, yet finds itself unable to 5 demand and mobilize resources to bridge the supply- provide reliable service to the people and the economy. demand gap on a continuous basis. Except for Botswana and Ethiopia, all countries have notable participation in the sector by foreign and local The basic details of the nine cases are summarized in private investors in different forms. Thus, the case studies table 1. provide a range of typologies of developing economies. Botswana and Ethiopia represent countries that have low levels of electricity access and low levels of saturation with an urgent need to focus on increasing access. Bulgaria and Lithuania represent countries in which the entire population has access to electricity and only a modest demand growth is forecast. They also represent TABLE 1. Basic Details of the Nine Countries Selected for Case Study ANNUAL FORECAST GDP INSTALLED LOAD ANNUAL PER ELECTRICITY GENERATION PEAK GROWTH LOAD CAPITA POPULATION ACCESS CAPACITY DEMAND IN THE GROWTH COUNTRY ($) (MILLION) RATIO (%)* (MW) (MW) PAST (%) (%) Botswana 4,840 1.7 28 132 400 8.8 5.7 Brazil 3,000 177.0 95 > 82,500 >70,000 6 to 7 5.2 Bulgaria 3,109 8.0 100 12,310 6,900 Close to 0 1.0 to 1.8 Delhi, India 1,000 14.0 93 1,000 3,500 5.2 5.0 Dominican 2,400 9.0 88 3,600 1,900 7.5 2.0 Republic Ethiopia 112 73.0 14 792 468 5.0 >5.0 Lithuania 6,454 3.4 100 6,570 1,952 Close to 0 2.5 to 3.5 Turkey 4,114 71.7 100 36,856 23,199 9 8.3 to 6.4 Vietnam 480 82.0 90 11,340 8,300 15 15 *This represents the percentage of the population with access to electricity. The case study from India covers only the Delhi Electricity Board rather than the whole country. Others are Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, the 4 Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, Lithuania, Turkey, and Vietnam. 4. KEY LESSONS AND BEST-PRACTICE EXAMPLES The important lessons and best-practice examples that The Dominican Republic has had a culture of have emerged from a review of these nine case studies nonpayment--"la cultura de no pago"--and a belief are discussed below. Boxes 1­6 in lessons 1­6 below that electricity was a "free public good" for over 40 discuss the implications of each corresponding lesson for years. Theft of power was rampant, and the threat of World Bank Group staff and business activities. disconnection was nonexistent both because of the constraints to the utility in disconnecting delinquent customers and the ease with which such customers Lesson 1. The Importance of the Rule of Law reconnected themselves to the system even if the utility and Enforcement of Contracts and Property succeeded in disconnecting them. The CRI fell to a very Rights low average level of 43 percent in 1999. The government privatized the distribution companies in 1999 in an effort Operating the existing sector assets with high efficiency to improve the situation. Although the two private according to industry norms is the first important step investors managed to raise the index to about 62­69 in bridging the gap between supply and demand. percent in the next two years, they could not sustain this Reduction of technical and commercial losses, efficient level in the absence of the rule of law and the failure of metering and billing of consumption, and efficient, the government to enforce the laws. Low levels of cash timely, and full collection of the bills are the fundamental recovery led to higher tariffs, which increased the 7 responsibilities of any utility whether operated by the incentive to steal power and evade bill payment in a public sector or private sector. Since it is normally difficult vicious cycle. Thus, with the highest tariff in the region in many developing countries to separate the technical (about 14 cents/kWh), the sector had no cash to pay for from the commercial losses, the efficiency aspect is the fuel for power generation, and the country faced expressed as a cash recovery index (CRI) (as in the rolling blackouts, despite the generating capacity being Dominican Republic) or as aggregate technical and far in excess of demand. By 2004 the CRI had fallen to commercial (ATC) losses (as in Delhi). CRI is a product 35 percent, 46 percent, and 51 percent in the three of two ratios: (a) the billing ratio or the ratio of electricity distribution companies. actually billed in gigawatt-hours to the electricity input into the system in gigawatt-hours and (b) the collection ratio or In 2001­02, Delhi had ATC losses as high as 57.2 the ratio of actual cash collected to the amount billed in percent in one distribution area and 48.1 percent in the money terms. ATC losses are expressed as [1 - CRI]. remaining two distribution areas. Privatization was carried out with the specific objective of reducing these In order to achieve the industry norm of a CRI of about losses in a five-year time frame. The new private owners 88­90 percent, the utility must function in an environment have succeeded in bringing the ATC losses down to the of respect for property rights and contractual obligations, level of 50.1 percent, 40.6 percent, and 33.8 percent, where theft of power by tampering with the meter or by respectively, in the three areas in three years (actually other means is defined as a criminal offense punishable ahead of the agreed schedule), and they are confident by deterrent penalties, and where the utility would be free that they can reduce them further to 40 percent, 31 to disconnect and deny service to those who do not pay percent, and 30 percent--or even lower--within the next the bills or who indulge in theft of power. Ensuring two years.5 What helped in the process was not merely payment discipline, punishing power theft, and effectively improved corporate governance of the three distribution implementing bankruptcy laws and speedy debt recovery companies, but also the timely payment by the mechanisms are all important responsibilities of the government of its own dues and the noninterference by government. Most countries may have laws that respect the government in disconnection cases. To accelerate private property and contractual obligations, and frown progress further, the companies are persuading the on power theft; but enforcing mechanisms (prosecuting government to constitute dedicated special prosecutors systems, court systems, and adjudicating systems) may and courts to speed up the disposal of cases related to be weak, time-consuming, inefficient, corrupt, or subject power thefts. to political interference. The rule of law involves both having the right laws in place and enforcing them fairly On the whole, the CRI was higher and the sustainability and effectively. The experience in Delhi and the Dominican of the sector better in those countries that had relatively Republic brings out the significance of this issue. consistent adherence to the rule of law. The record of This corresponds to a CRI of 60 percent, 69 percent, and 70 percent for the next two years. 5 Ethiopia and Vietnam in this respect, despite their low and nonfunctional, and have left the country to suffer income status, is noteworthy. Bulgaria and Lithuania from continued rolling blackouts. have made great advances in this regard in the context of their EU accession efforts. Turkey had high rates of losses arising from theft in the eastern and southeastern Lesson 2. The Importance of Generating parts of the country, which perhaps reflected the level of Internal Cash for Investment interference on the part of local officials in the electricity business or the lower efficiency levels of the state-owned Of the possible sources for meeting the power utility's distribution units, or both. incremental investment needs (to rehabilitate existing assets, replace retiring assets, or acquire new assets Fair and effective justice systems and arbitration systems needed for meeting incremental demand), the most to enforce the rule of law, property rights, and contract important one is the internally generated surplus cash obligations are essential for reducing the business risk after meeting all its operational expenses and debt and for attracting private sector investment to the sector. service needs. Power sector investments, especially in From this perspective, Brazil had been spectacularly the public sector, generally call for an equity investment successful in receiving foreign and domestic private of 30­40 percent of the total cost--the remaining investment. Bulgaria and Lithuania had also been able 60­70 percent being largely financed by long-term to attract foreign private investment for their sector debt. Thus, most successful utilities traditionally aim to 8 needs with relative ease. Turkey and Vietnam received secure internally generated cash surplus at least significant private investment, although most of it was equivalent to 30­40 percent of the incremental based on sovereign guaranteed "take or pay" contracts investment needs. Such funding expressed as a ratio of for the outputs. Delhi attracted domestic private the annual investment needs is commonly referred to as investments in the context of international bidding the self-financing ratio (SFR). To even out the lumpiness among qualified investors. Vietnam is also encouraging of power sector investments and to avoid large annual domestic investors, and its equity sales relating to power fluctuations in tariffs, annual investment needs are assets are directed mostly to domestic investors. The typically averaged over three or five years (usually one or domestic investors, on the whole, have a greater level of two previous years, the current year, and one or two risk tolerance, since they have a better appreciation of following years) for purposes of the calculation of this the degree of risk and confidence in their ability to ratio. Achievement of an SFR of 30­40 percent is a manage them. The Dominican Republic is an exception function of a range of efficiency factors, including (a) in that it received substantial foreign private investment for least-cost planning and construction, and efficient power generation based on sovereign guaranteed "take operation of the system to minimize costs; (b) securing or pay" contracts with high power prices mostly in a cost-reflective tariffs; (c) efficient billing and collection; nontransparent manner through direct negotiations. The and (d) prudent borrowing that matches the maturity of macroeconomic problems and lack of consistent rule of debts with the average useful life of the assets and law have actually made these investments highly risky hedging for foreign exchange risk. Most of the successful BOX 1. Implications of Lesson 1 for World Bank Group Staff The sustainability of power sector investments can be achieved mainly in the context of the country's consistently adhering to the rule of law and impartially enforcing property rights and contract obligations. Justice and arbitration systems, debt recovery systems, and bankruptcy laws need to be adequate, impartial, and effective. Often, operations may have to be carried on during periods of transition when the country is actively moving toward this objective. In such cases, the ring-fencing of the specific Bank operation from the prevailing political and legal culture of the country provides some protection from fiduciary risks. However, problems encountered in the Dominican Republic demonstrate that even well-designed projects can be prone to problems if the broader reform agenda is not adequately addressed. Perhaps the best policy is to present the experience of successful economies (in deriving optimal benefits from investments through adherence to the rule of law and good governance) in seminars and training sessions funded under technical assistance. It is important for the Bank staff to maintain support for a broad-based reform agenda, using a multisector approach. Accelerating power sector reforms ahead of some of the more fundamental reforms concerning the rule of law and respect for private property has often proved counterproductive. Particular focus on broad-based judicial reforms that support an improved investment climate, capital market reforms, and a disciplined approach to publicly owned assets is important for the success of power sector reforms. utilities covered by the case studies (Botswana, Brazil, In Botswana and Ethiopia, access to electricity is very low Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Lithuania, Turkey, and Vietnam) had and the internally generated cash surplus of the existing SFRs at or exceeding this range. Financially sound utility cannot be expected to be adequate to finance the utilities with good SFRs would be able to raise debt large system expansions to provide access to the rest of financing from domestic commercial debt markets, as the country. Even when the costs of such grid expansion well as from IFIs and export credit agencies. Depending are met from government grants or equity, the financial on the country's credit rating, they may be able to health of the utility is strained, since the new areas tend access the international commercial sources to have poor load density and poor load factors for a as well. In the event of the country seeking private number of years. Thus, the pace of grid expansion must participation, the terms would be more attractive in be phased to avoid a significant dilution of the financial relation to dealings with such financially sound utilities. health of the utilities. In respect of countries where the The better terms obtained for build-operate-transfer area and population without access to electricity are (BOT) cases in Vietnam and build-own-operate (BOO) several times larger than those with access, what is cases in Turkey (for example, in comparison with those needed is the ushering in of multiple new organizations obtained in the Philippines or Indonesia) attest to this. in the private or public sector to cover different parts of Further the high net cash flow, as evidenced by high SFRs, the country if universal coverage must be achieved makes the privatization of the utility easier, and it makes within a reasonable time frame. The IFIs and the donor their valuation higher and able to fetch attractive community may have an important role in enabling such privatization receipts, as attested by the experience of increased electricity access in low-income countries, 9 Brazil, Bulgaria, and Lithuania. such as Ethiopia. An important element outside the control of the utility in In large markets, such as in Brazil, Turkey, and Vietnam, achieving this ratio is the timely adjustment of the tariffs the sheer volume of incremental demand is so large that to adequate levels. The role of the government in several players are needed to meet it. Thus they focus enabling such price adjustments in a manner that is fair on creating a range of generating companies financed both to the consumers and the utility, either by itself or by foreign and domestic public or private enterprises, through a regulatory body (allowing it to have adequate creating competitive markets at least at the wholesale independence), is a critical success factor for the financial level. In Brazil 27 percent of the generating capacity is sustainability of the sector. Bulgaria, Brazil, Delhi, Lithuania, in the private sector. This share is expected to rise to 44 and Turkey have independent regulatory bodies. In Ethiopia percent when the plants under construction are completed and Vietnam, the regulatory body is either a part of the and when the plants for which concessions have been relevant ministry, or the government gives final tariff given materialize in the next three or four years. In Turkey approval. The regulatory body in the Dominican Republic 41 percent of the generating capacity is in the private was initially a part of the Ministry of Commerce and sector. In Vietnam the capacity owned by independent Industry and later became an autonomous body with its power producers in 2005 was about 22 percent of the members being appointed by the president, and subject country's total installed power generation capacity. to ratification by the congress. Its independence is largely Several new independent power producers (either under theoretical. In Botswana the government decides on BOT or other types of arrangements) are constructing tariffs proposed by the power company. The record of new generation capacities. Bulgaria in adjusting tariffs to minimize cross-subsidies and reach cost-reflective levels in the last three years is Even in such reformed multiple agency power systems, especially noteworthy. Delhi still has a long way to go to the transmission and distribution network entities reach cost-reflective tariffs and eliminate sector subsidies. performing monopolistic functions (and therefore subject The record of the governments of Botswana, Ethiopia, to regulation) need to meet SFR targets, since these and Vietnam and in relation to tariffs is also noteworthy. systems constantly need investments to rehabilitate, The Dominican Republic proves that even the highest reinforce, and upgrade system components to meet tariffs in the region are of no consequence when poor incremental demand reliably. Network loss reduction governance and corruption inhibit sector operational through such investments has a critical impact on system efficiency and even its sustainability. reliability and generation needs. BOX 2. Implications of Lesson 2 for World Bank Group Staff Bank staff need to have a clear focus on the ability of the utility or the sector to generate a net internal cash surplus (after meeting all operation expenses and full debt service obligations) that is adequate to meet at least the equity requirements of the system expansion as it provides the basis for institutional viability and investment planning. Such a focus enables an analysis of both efficiency aspects relating to load forecasts, system planning and operation, and pricing (tariffs). This approach would be valid even after sector unbundling and reform, especially in respect of regulated segments. An analysis of the limitations of utilities with good SFRs that are still unable to meet the needs of system expansion would trigger sector reform to usher in new players and investors to handle the incremental investments. Lesson 3. The Importance of Good Governance leadership provided by the government, the new private and Transparency sector owners are succeeding in reducing losses even below the agreed targets. Good governance and transparency are the two critical ingredients for enabling the sustainability of the sector The situation in the Dominican Republic provides a sharp operations, creating confidence among potential investors, contrast. Sector reforms initially attracted significant levels 10 attracting and sustaining reputable domestic and foreign of private investment, although many of the BOT investors, and ensuring successful sector outcomes.6 contract awards were made in a nontransparent manner. Aspects of good governance include the following: Lack of political will to continue the reform, poor governance, extensive corruption, lack of transparency, · Recognition of the sector problems and needs in all ill-designed subsidy schemes, and high tolerance of the their dimensions and configurations, and their impact culture of nonpayment have resulted in the sector on sector policies. continuing to face relentless rolling blackouts and failing to provide any reliable service, despite extensive private · Full and consistent ownership of the program designed sector investments and high tariffs. The two distribution to overcome the problems and meet the needs companies owned by Union Fenosa of Spain were (through all its political vicissitudes). renationalized in a totally nontransparent manner.7 · Transparency in all transactions to enable meaningful Turkey's early set of BOT contracts were awarded in a accountability. nontransparent manner. The power reform process in Turkey experienced delays and setbacks caused by a · Oversight (without interference or micromanagement) lack of shared vision and cooperation among those to ensure that sector agencies provide services to committed to reform and those opposed to reform in customers at acceptable levels of quality and reliability. sections of bureaucracy, the utilities, and some consumer groups. Ambiguities in the constitution and the rulings of Elements of good governance are seen in the case of the Constitutional Court and the stance of Administrative Delhi where the government displayed great political will Court (Danistay) hindered the implementation of the and resolutely adhered to its reform program involving reform program. Distribution privatization that had been distribution privatization to reduce ATC losses and delayed for several years is finally being undertaken on improve the quality of service through all the opposition the basis of giving selected private investor operating faced by the reform program in a democratic milieu. rights for 49 years and not on the basis of outright sale The privatization involved writing down the asset values of assets, as originally envisaged. By contrast, Vietnam's based on "business valuation" and undertaking innovative attempts to attract private sector investment seems to be bidding on the basis of the extent of the ATC loss reduction successful on account of the consistent and shared vision the bidder commits to achieve in a five-year time frame. of the government and the utility and the coordinated Although the continuity of the same political party and functioning of the government and the utility the same chief minister in power was a great help, the complementing each others' skill sets. Stability of chief minister on occasion had to overcome reservations policies and transparency of transactions also seem to from her own party. Largely because of the disciplined enable Vietnam to secure attractive terms. See also World Bank (2006) for a fuller discussion of this aspect. 6 Union Fenosa owned 50 percent of the equity and was given managerial control at the time of privatization. 7 Bulgaria and Lithuania represent cases of sharply improving Rapid system expansion to cover the vast areas without governance and transparency in the context of their EU electricity access could dilute its financial soundness, accession efforts, thus ensuring successful sector outcomes. unless tariffs are raised further and its debts restructured. The autonomy and leadership of the Lithuanian regulatory More practical solutions may lie in the direction of body, coupled with sustained political support for reform, creating a plurality of small utilities clustered around the greatly facilitated sector reform. Bulgaria was able to scattered potential load centers, preferably privately privatize its distribution assets on attractive terms and owned and with freedom to have tariffs different from secure private investment for some of the new generation national tariffs to cover differing costs of supply in each needs.8 The Bulgarian power utility and its subsidiaries such utility. As load density and load factors develop to enjoyed considerable operational autonomy and good a reasonable level, the interconnection among these corporate governance. The government tended to monitor utilities would become economic. and evaluate their performance over time and across the legal entities through the credit ratings they managed to Effective communication of the objectives and rationale secure from international credit agencies from time to for specific reform efforts prior to and during their time. Brazil managed to maintain good governance and implementation to all the affected parties and the people continuity of the substance of reform in a pragmatic in general is an important component of good manner, despite changes in the administration. Its efforts governance. Managing expectations and making people at creating new institutions and enabling them to function understand that successes cannot be achieved overnight with autonomy and competence have contributed to its in reform efforts are critical tasks. This adds to the 11 spectacular success in attracting and sustaining massive transparency and also helps the government make foreign private investments in the sector. improvements based on meaningful public reaction. It helps to influence public perception and create and Botswana represents a case of good, clean, and maintain support for the reform efforts. It has been transparent governance, where the government gives pointed out that in the case of Delhi's privatization of the utility full operational autonomy and monitors its distribution, better and more timely communication performance through rates of return on net revalued efforts on the part of the government and the new owners assets, and provides funds for phased rural expansions. of distribution systems would have contributed to a higher The utility was thus able to attain high standards of level of public support for the privatization transaction efficiency and profitability at an average tariff of about and a better appreciation of the post-privatization 5.2 cents/kWh and fully succeed in its mission to provide performance of the companies. A successful example of least cost and reliable service to its customers during the effective communication greatly assisting implementation last two decades or more. The government is considering is provided by the Brazilian experience in power rationing putting in place a performance contract between the during the 2001­02 power shortage. utility and the Public Enterprises Evaluation and Privatization Agency. Lesson 4. The Importance of the Role of Third Ethiopia, by contrast, provides good governance by close Parties in Promoting Reform control and supervision of the power utility. Its eight- member Board includes three important cabinet The reforms that are needed to enable the power sector ministers, two ministers of state (slightly lower in rank to become financially sustainable and capable of attracting than a cabinet minister), and a senior official of the investments from domestic and foreign private Ministry of Infrastructural Development. It is chaired by entrepreneurs are often politically difficult, especially in the most senior among the three cabinet ministers. democratic countries with multiparty systems. Political The utility was well run and remained (at an average opposition generally tends to delay and defeat the ruling tariff of about 5.3 cents/kWh) profitable with good SFR, party's reform efforts, which call for unwavering adherence debt service ratio, and with good levels of liquidity. to the reform program despite temporary setbacks. Its system losses are contained at 20 percent, and its An external stimulus is often known to create a national receivables are equivalent to less than 40 days' sales. consensus that overcomes the partisan approach and Government policy had maintained continuity for more enables such unwavering focus on reform. than 15 years; at the same time, both the government and the utility had been receptive to the needed changes. According to Transparency International (2005), the Corruption Perception Index of Bulgaria improved from 2.9 in 1998 to 4.0 in 2005 on 8 a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being corruption free). Its composite score of six governance indicators (voice and accountability, political stability, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, and control of corruption) improved from -0.06 in 1998 to +0.21 in 2004 in a scale of -2.5 to +2.5 (the latter score of +2.5 being the best governed). (See the World Bank websites on governance indicators listed under References.) BOX 3. Implications of Lesson 3 for World Bank Group Staff Good governance and transparency at the state and corporate levels are the keys to the reform efforts to make the sector financially sound and to attract foreign and domestic investors to meet the investment needs. Technical assistance to review the existing governance mechanisms and identify and implement improved mechanisms, both at the state and corporate levels, need to be considered and given priority. Country Assistance Strategy (CAS), Regional Economic Development Initiative (REDI), and Economic and Sector Work (ESW) work need to focus on these issues and attempt evaluation of the situation in the country in a manner comparable over time and, if possible, across similarly placed countries in the regions. In the case of transition economies, such as in Bulgaria with their lending operations. This was evident in the and Lithuania, and also in the case of Turkey, the cases of Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Lithuania, Turkey, and prospects of accession to the EU acted as the powerful Vietnam. Reform efforts proceed for several years in any external stimulus. Lithuania had recently become part of country, so an important issue in this regard is to ensure the enlarged EU. Bulgaria is a candidate for accession continuous involvement and dialogue during the entire in 2007, and Turkey is a candidate for accession in the period and not to resort to one-time interventions of subsequent round. The desire to become part of the EU short duration. Short-lived interventions may help to deal 12 enabled these countries to overcome party differences with a specific problem and provide socially justified and and arrive at a national consensus and muster the urgently needed funds for helping the poor, but necessary political will to put through reform programs, generally they have the effect of diverting the attention which often involved difficult decisions and called for and focus of the government away from the medium- stern political will. The EU directives on electricity and term pursuit of serious sector reform. By contrast, the gas, and the detailed review and monitoring by the experience with the Dominican Republic proves that European Commission of reform progress in adopting despite such involvement on the part of IFIs, a country the EC acquis communautaire and the implementing can slide back on reform and good governance and directive had proven effective in facilitating electricity surprise the donor community with opaque and gas sector reform. The various chapters of EU renationalization deals. accession dealt with a wide range of issues related to public policy and public administration, as well as The case studies also show that international and national conformity of the policies and institutional arrangements credit rating agencies can perform a useful function in with EU standards as a condition of accession. The EU monitoring and evaluating the performance of the review in terms of each chapter had greatly helped utilities and the sector. They have the relevant expertise these countries to upgrade their governance systems, and analytical skill, and they look at performance from institutional arrangements and levels of transparency. the perspective of the market and the financiers. The government and the utilities get the benefit of Involvement of IFIs, such as the World Bank and the evaluation by a neutral, highly competent, and impartial European Bank for Reconstruction and Development outside agency. The use of such agencies tends to greatly (EBRD), complemented the external assistance and improve the disclosure standards of the utilities by imposing oversight function of EU and facilitated transition. discipline and consistency in financial reporting. The desire for accession to the WTO has also provided Experience in Bulgaria, Brazil, Lithuania, and Turkey for such motivation in some countries, including Vietnam. indicates that when the government expects the utility to The desire to join the Association of Southeast Asian secure its debts from commercial sources, the exposure Nations (ASEAN) and its common market was also one of the utilities to such evaluations by international rating of the factors motivating reform in Vietnam. agencies is entirely benign. Such rating exercises provide an internal compulsion and motivation for the utilities to Similarly, the involvement of such IFIs as the World improve their efficiency and financial performance to Bank and the regional multilateral development banks secure better ratings. Better ratings improve their access (either by themselves or in concert with IMF programs) to debt markets and the terms of their borrowings. has salutary effects on governance and transparency, In Bulgaria many public enterprises entered into a spirit and facilitates sector reform through their advisory, of competition and strove to beat other enterprises in monitoring, and evaluation functions in conjunction this ratings game with excellent beneficial results. In India, the Ministry of Energy and the Power Finance management measures had proven effective in resolving Corporation have commissioned the national credit supply crises. The serious supply shortages in Brazil rating agencies (ICRA and CRISIL) to undertake an between May 2001 and February 2002--and the effective annual rating exercise of all state electricity boards manner in which the supply crisis was managed-- (SEBs) and their unbundled utilities. Interestingly, in the showed the huge potential for energy efficiency and first full exercise carried out in 2004, Delhi Electricity energy saving in the economy. The manner of managing Board came out on top of the list on account of the the crisis by relying on pricing and quota trading efficacy of the sector reform. The CRISIL rating system mechanisms has turned out to be among the best used 100 parameters that covered all areas of utility practices in power rationing internationally. A serious operation and government-utility interface, as well as supply shortage emerged early in 2001 as a result of matters related to business, financial, and regulatory risk. poor rainfall in successive years and consequent reduction in hydro output, as well as delays in the construction A similar approach to standardizing the evaluation of of new thermal power-generating capacity. Exhortations performance and the creditworthiness of power companies for voluntary load reduction did not prove fruitful. in low-income countries as a resource for all IFIs and the The government then took emergency rationing measures donor community would be helpful. An appropriate set under which consumers were given quotas--generally of benchmarks could be established for this client base about 80 percent of past consumption. Consumption that would be useful for the lenders and investors by above the quota was penalized by electricity prices clarifying the level of risk in the power sector of each substantially higher than normal rates, which generally 13 country. Such risk profiling would also be instructive in reflected the marginal cost of energy in the wholesale determining the appropriate level and approach to market (along with a threat of disconnection for continued public-private partnership programs. High-risk countries violation). Nonresidential consumers could trade their would resort to public sector ownership and management quotas to others at market prices. Formal auctions of of the utilities or management of the government-owned quota entitlements were held. Poorer residential consumers utilities by private management contractors. Both cases were given bonuses if their actual consumption went would call for instruments in which the risk is largely lower than 20 percent of the base line consumption. The borne by the government. The lower-risk countries could use of such market mechanisms, rather than rolling resort to concessions, divestiture, and IPPs, and could blackouts, averted a great deal of economic loss to the use instruments where the risks are borne largely by the country and, more importantly, reduced the demand by investors or where they are equitably shared. an aggregate 20 percent. It also triggered the habit of energy saving and led to the replacement of old appliances and equipment with cost- and energy-efficient ones. Lesson 5. The Importance of Demand Although rationing ended by the end of February 2002, Management, Generation Planning, the demand did not reach the earlier levels even in 2003. Electricity Trade, and Joint Investments When the delayed generation capacities materialized, there was actually excess capacity in relation to somewhat Demand management, optimal generation planning, stagnant or lagging demand.9 More important than and trade and joint investments are three of the practical anything else, this episode demonstrated clearly the tools for moderating the incremental investment needs of potential for economic energy saving in the Brazilian individual countries. The case studies show that demand economy.10 India also had been successful in using the BOX 4. Implications of Lesson 4 for World Bank Group Staff Staff needs to be alert to the opportunities of benign third-party interest (such as EU or WTO accession, and participation in regional markets and credit-rating agencies) and make the best use of them to further sector reform and promote investment. Based on the analogy of EU experience, staff could also focus on influencing regional cooperation organizations to evolve uniform sector reform guidelines for their member countries to adopt. Staff should also focus on continuity of the IFI involvement through the lengthy reform process and not be content with interventions of short duration. The World Bank and other IFIs could play the role equivalent to that of credit-rating agencies in low- income countries and build up a standardized client risk database both to facilitate the use of appropriate vehicles and instruments and to help the international investing community invest in such countries. OECD 2005, chapter 3. 9 Considering that Brazil has generation capacities exceeding 82,500 MW and energy generation of exceeding 350 TWh, the potential for savings 10 at 20 percent is huge. BOX 5. Implications of Lesson 5 for World Bank Group Staff Demand-side management, optimal generation planning, promoting electricity trade, and joint investments in generation can greatly help to moderate the volume of investment needs for system expansion and make the task of closing the demand supply gap a little easier. Brazil's experience indicates that demand management is best organized based on economic incentives and economic penalties. Resorting to trade and joint investments may reduce the cost of meeting incremental demands, and staff should be alert to the possibilities in this regard. Economic and sector studies focusing on such possibilities would be the nonlending instruments to formulate such regional trade arrangements and foster institutional changes needed to promote trade. Lending instruments and guarantees would come in handy to facilitate construction of transmission links and other physical facilities needed to enable trade. pricing mechanism to achieve real time load management, system reliability and moderates system capital costs. promote grid discipline, and improve the quality of Realizing this, these countries in the last few years have supply in the national and regional grids.11 focused on increasing the thermal generation capacity. Unit sizes also have a major effect on system capital Demand management efforts, however, should be used costs. The large nuclear units in Bulgaria and Lithuania not only as a quick fix to address crisis situations, but create the need for large system reserves, which are 14 also in a systematic and comprehensive manner to costly. Transmission tariffs in Bulgaria tend to be high, improve energy-use efficiency and energy conservation since the transmission company also owns this expensive on a permanent basis. Brazil is pursuing such energy-use reserve capacity with little energy generation. efficiency projects. Such energy efficiency efforts would be most relevant in transition economies, such as in Electricity trade among utilities within or across countries Lithuania and Bulgaria, that have excessive per capita reduces costs relating to reserve margins and incremental electricity consumption in relation to their per capita investment, as well as energy and operating costs of gross domestic product (GDP). These countries do have supply entities, depending on the country circumstances. programs that focus on this aspect, although with less It also leads to improved reliability of the participating spectacular results. The IFIs may have an important role systems. Even more importantly, it helps to overcome the in strengthening these efforts. problems of uneven energy resource endowments and load distribution across contiguous provinces and countries. The Dominican Republic's efforts to handle electricity shortages provided a stark contrast to the efforts of Brazil Botswana was able to reduce substantially its energy based on economic incentives. The Blackout Reduction costs by relying on imports from South Africa. It has also Program (PRA) of this country was intended to ensure been able to postpone investment in additional capacity supply to the areas believed to contain the poorer for several years now. Ethiopia plans interconnections sections of the population in the context of power with Sudan, since the latter has a large thermal generation shortages, and rolling blackouts actually exacerbated base. This will improve the reliability of the Ethiopian the problem, since prices were heavily subsidized and system, which is predominantly hydro, and will enable meters were removed. Theft of power increased, and Ethiopia initially to meet a part of its base load and collections did not improve. Thus, wasteful consumption move its storage hydro units to meet peak demand in a was fostered, which further worsened the shortage least-cost manner and later even to export peaking situation. capacity to Sudan.12 Optimal generation planning can reduce investment Delhi relies on imports from the northern regional costs of the capacity addition program. Reliance on all grid of India and operates its system with only modest hydro systems reduces reliability of the systems and adds installed capacities. Bulgaria and Lithuania are able to substantially to the system capital costs. This was found get better returns from their nuclear assets by substantial to be the case in Brazil, Ethiopia, and Vietnam and, to export of power to adjoining countries. The evolution of some extent, in Turkey in the earlier years. Balancing the the South East European Regional Energy Market would system with a mix of hydro and thermal units improves make the trading arrangements more attractive for The provincial government-owned electricity boards (SEBs) in India buy power from central government­owned generating companies (CGGs) 11 through the Power Grid Corporation of India. Under the availability-based tariff system, the price of electricity consists of a capacity charge, an energy charge, and a charge for unscheduled interchange (UI). The scheduled dispatch is on the basis of implied contracts between the SEBs and CGGs. The UI charge is based on the frequency of the grid at the time of such interchange. Thus, the UI charge when the frequency falls to 49 Hz is 3.8 times the UI charge for supply at 50 Hz. Further, the charge falls to zero when the frequency exceeds 50.5 Hz. SEBs are thus compelled to manage their loads better in order to avoid very high UI charges. Peaking power fetches a much better price than base load energy. 12 Bulgaria. Completion of the Baltic Electricity Transmission the electricity sector (so as not to inhibit economic growth), Ring and related arrangements would enable Lithuania the public sector in most countries cannot possibly do it to diversify its electricity exports to solvent customers, as alone without participation from private investors, well as to secure better prices. especially in the context of such enormous investment needs. Government's responsibilities toward the attainment Turkey had been meeting a part of its shortages in of Millennium Development Goals and the need to the past through imports from Bulgaria. It is making alleviate poverty have placed immense demands on the arrangements to become part of the Union for the scarce public revenues, and the prioritization of the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), demands on public revenues has become urgent. so that it can become a part of the large European Inevitably such prioritization would involve allocation of electricity market and be in a position to market electricity investment responsibilities to the private sector for all from its multiyear storage hydroelectric stations for the commercial goods and activities that the government daily peak requirements of the Western countries at does not need to do and that the private sector is well attractive prices.13 equipped to handle. Although providing access to electricity to the population in the areas not yet electrified Brazil also makes use of imports from adjoining countries could possibly be regarded as a public good and a to meet the demands, especially in its various isolated responsibility of the state, continuous provision of electricity systems. Joint investment in the Itaipu Hydroelectric for consumption is clearly a commercial activity that the Power Station by Brazil and Paraguay has been of state can shed to, or share with, the private sector. 15 immense economic benefit to both countries in meeting Structural changes to the power sector that involve the their demands. unbundling by function (generation, transmission, distribution, supply, and trading) to varying extents, Vietnam imports electricity from the Yunan and Guangxi depending on the size and country circumstance, to Provinces of China and is making significant transmission enable the entry of private investors have thus become investments to increase the level of imports. The Asian necessary. The experience in most of the case studies Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank Group clearly illustrates the evolution of this line of thought. are promoting Greater Mekong Regional Cooperation initiatives under which Vietnam is considering electricity Initially private sector entry into generation took the form imports from Cambodia and Laos, and for this purpose of BOT and BOO types of contracts, in which the vertically it is strengthening the relevant transmission links. integrated state-owned utility gave a "take or pay" contract Vietnamese companies are investing in BOT projects in for the full output covered by sovereign guarantee. This Laos, among other things, to secure the import of power was done extensively in Brazil, the Dominican Republic, from Laos to Vietnam. and Turkey, and to a much smaller extent in Bulgaria and Vietnam. Experience in these countries showed that in the early years, the transactions were opaque (based Lesson 6. The Importance of the Role of the on private negotiations), and the resulting contracts had Private Sector and of Meeting the Increased very high electricity prices and allocated a majority of Demands It Makes on the State the risks (market, exchange, dispatch, fuel price, and payment) on the government. These transactions have Although the governments of the developing economies created large contingent liabilities to the governments. have a substantial responsibility in ensuring that supply- BOT and BOO contracts obtained in the later years demand balance is achieved on a continuous basis in based on competition and transparent procedures tended BOX 6. Implications of Lesson 6 for World Bank Group Staff Given the growing demands on the state revenues, it will be advantageous to help governments devise ways appropriate for the country circumstances to help associate private investors meet the supply-demand gap in the power sector. Based on the experience of many developing economies in the last 15 years, staff need to impress on the governments the greater and more sophisticated demand that such association would make on the governments for improved governance. Technical assistance, as well as economic and sector work, should focus on the improvement of the capacity of the government to handle this responsibility. The time difference between Turkey and the major demand centers in Western Europe also helps Turkey in this regard. 13 to have reasonable electricity prices and resulted in hydro, nuclear, and some reserve capacity units) and contracts with a much fairer allocation of the various private sector (all other forms) in generation, largely risks among the parties. The BOT and BOO contracts in public sector­owned transmission--and mostly privately Bulgaria and Vietnam, and the BOO contracts of Turkey owned or operated (based on concessions) distribution. serve as examples of this type. The regulated segment would cater to the needs of captive consumers with consumptions below the Contracts with durations of 20 years or more, however, threshold prescribed for the "eligible consumers." tended to create problems when the sector was sought Eligible consumers would secure their supply in the to be unbundled to introduce competition. Increasingly, competitive segment. Delhi and the Dominican Republic private sector entry in generation is desired in the form follow a simpler form of the single buyer model, while of merchant plants assuming increasing market and Botswana and Ethiopia do not as yet have any private dispatch risk and competing in the wholesale market for sector investment involvement. dispatch. This is broadly the case in Brazil nowadays, where periodic energy auctions reduce the market risk Privatization of generation and distribution assets proved for the investors. In most EU accession countries successful in Brazil, Bulgaria, and Lithuania as a function (including Bulgaria and Lithuania), a regulated market of the competitive and transparent procedures that were for captive consumers and a competitive market for adopted, the quality of the governance provided by the eligible consumers coexist. The latter is expected to state, the structure of the sector, and the credibility of 16 cover all but the residential consumers in a few years regulatory arrangements. Privatization of the distribution and ultimately all the consumers. In this environment, segment in Delhi was characterized by the innovative private investors in generation tend to have negotiated method of bidding that focused on the reducing ATC long- and medium-term supply contracts with eligible losses and writing down the asset values based on a consumers (including distribution entities) to reduce their business valuation methodology. Vietnam does not plan market risk. to privatize its power assets through outright sale. Rather, it sells minority equity shares (in phases) to Private investors are reluctant to invest in generation and recoup the money locked up in those assets. Turkey has face the market risk. In the absence of evidence of a had constitutional and legal problems in privatizing its credible revenue stream, these investors have trouble distribution systems and, after long delays, has decided raising debt financing. To overcome this problem, in to transfer the operating rights for a period of 49 years 2004 Brazil adopted the novel method of energy on the basis of competitive bidding. auctions to promote a form of forward contracts for electricity needs of the distribution companies to serve Although privatization is no panacea, private sector their captive consumers. Such auctions would be held a investment is both desirable and unavoidable in the few years in advance of the forecast delivery. Thus, the context of widening the investment gap in the power auction held in 2004 for about 40 GW was for firm sector. The private provision calls for a greater and deliveries starting in 2006, 2007, and 2008. The next more sophisticated role and governance from the state auction, to be conducted soon, will be for deliveries in to ensure competition and prevent anticompetitive 2009 and 2010. The bidders should have decided on behavior, so as to enable independent and fair sites and should have secured environment licenses. The regulation and ensure the accountability of the installation and operational business licenses can be regulators. The state must reduce the country risk to the secured after the auction. The prices obtained in such foreign investors through the adoption of prudent competitive auctions would be allowed as "pass exchange rate, trade and investment regimes, and sound through" in full by the regulator in determining retail macroeconomic policies. It must usher in sound tariffs. Armed with such contracts, entrepreneurs are financial, banking, and insurance systems and promote expected to secure finance and bring the generation credible stock exchange and company law capacities on schedule. administration. Brazil's case illustrates the possible need for the state to take the lead in making demand Bulgaria, Brazil, Lithuania, and Turkey are moving to a forecasts and force the distributors toward forward market model in which there will be coexistence of an contracts to promote timely generation investments to expanding competitive segment and a gradually ensure system reliability and maintain the supply- contracting regulated segment. There will also be a demand balance. Thus, privatization is not an easy coexistence of the public sector (some multipurpose solution or a substitute for weak and corrupt government ownership of the sector. It is suitable only for Figure 1 is an ideal "construct." Such a combination of ideal the strong and well-governed states.14 When this is not conditions may not prevail in all economies at all times. To the case, privatization is merely exchanging one form of the extent actual conditions approximate the ideal, the incompetence for another, as was illustrated clearly in supply demand balance would be more within the reach. the case of the Dominican Republic. To the extent the actual conditions deviate from the ideal, supply-demand gap would widen. Turkey, Vietnam, and Brazil achieved better results, each emphasizing different Conclusions and the Role of the Bank elements to make conditions in their country closer to the ideal. Vietnam focused on efficiency of operations and Closing the supply-demand gap in the electricity sector is pricing. Its approach to governance and rule of law was not a one-time exercise, since systems in balance today good enough to enable the utility to collect its revenues and may go out of balance in a few years. It calls for a constant run an efficient and financially sound operation. Turkey and ceaseless effort. Supply must increase to keep pace focused on certain types of private investment and created with demand growth, while at the same time avoiding a substantial excess capacities. Brazil's recent experience buildup of excess capacities. Demand management must emphasized spectacular demand management through supplement prudent supply augmentation, and trade must pricing mechanisms. Still their successes are fragile. be effectively used (where possible) to fully exploit Capacity shortages are already emerging in Vietnam. available excess capacities or to meet shortages arising Forecast demand growth in Vietnam is so large that it has in the context of delays in commissioning new capacities to adjust to independent regulatory regimes and attract 17 or where imports make better economic sense than substantial private investment to meet future demand. For creating new domestic generation capacities. These this its governance practices and adherence to rule of law ceaseless efforts must be made on a solid foundation have to be upgraded, and there is evidence of that of efficient system operation and economically sensible happening already. Brazil's system of energy auctions pricing through competition or transparent regulation. remove market risks and promote private investment in Investment regimes, fiscal and trade regimes, and sector generation and may thus prove a hedge against anticipated regulatory regimes (including network access) must be capacity shortfall a few years later. Turkey which is likely to conducive to attracting private investments. All of this face capacity shortages toward the end of the decade is yet has to rest on the bedrock of the rule of law and to figure a way to ensure that desirable types of private transparent good governance (see figure 1). investment would flow in generation without increasing the government's contingent liabilities. Medium term options under consideration include capacity incentive mechanisms to promote the evolution of capacity markets complementing the energy markets. FIGURE 1. Supply-Demand Balance Pyramid Supply-demand balance Demand-side management, supply capacity addition, and trade Efficient system operation, sensible pricing, regulatory, investment, fiscal and trade regimes conducive to investment Rule of law and transparent good governance As Rene Prud'homme (2004) puts it, "Privatization is a desirable goal at the end of a long and arduous road." 14 The power sector entities in Botswana (clearly) and Given the huge investment needs and the large Ethiopia (generally) have succeeded in getting better investment gap, there could be a case for some increase results by focusing on pricing as well as on investment and in the level of IFI assistance to the sector from the operational efficiency within the limited areas of the country present low level (of about 3­4 percent). The World in which they operate. However, providing access to Bank has recently increased the share of the energy and electricity to the remaining areas, which are several times water sectors in the total annual Bank lending. Hopefully larger than their very limited operational areas, is well all the other IFIs would adopt a similar approach. In this beyond their control. While they could hope to interest context the IFIs should be prepared to lend to the private investors in such electrification, the process is likely electricity sector, more than in the recent past. The to be long drawn out. The provision of access to electricity increased lending or guarantee assistance could be to the remaining population in such countries may have to used effectively for operational efficiency improvements, be handled by the public sector, though consumption demand management, optimal generation planning, subsidies could hope to be avoided. International aid promotion of regional trade and joint investment could accelerate the process to some extent. initiatives (all of which would reduce the incremental investment needs) as well as in promoting policies which Bulgaria and Lithuania, which managed their supply- will stabilize internal cash surplus generation of existing demand balance well, based among other things on utilities and provide attractive structure and environment their substantial nuclear generation capacity. Some of for the flow of private investments. Such IFI lending 18 their nuclear units have already been shut down, and would focus on "public good" aspects of the sector such some more are due for shutdown fairly soon. When this as regulation, market design, transmission access and happens, they would need additional capacity. By and competition as well as on strengthening of transmission large they should be able to manage the change, as and distribution networks and dispatching arrangements forecast demand growth is moderate, and as both to enable competition. Funding could also focus on countries have adopted sector reforms, pricing and assets with very long life (such as hydroelectric dams regulatory improvements, and have created conditions and reservoirs) in respect of which the maturity of conducive for continued private sector interest in commercial financing cannot match the useful life of the investment in the context of their EU accession. asset. Further, the IFI lending would have to continue to be highly selective and catalytic in nature and mobilize Delhi's courageous move to privatize its distribution much larger sums of funding from sources, not segment and create and support an independent otherwise accessible to the utility or the country. Finally regulatory regime has clearly accelerated the pace the IFI lending has to be conditioned on securing toward achieving a supply demand balance in not too substantial sector reforms and governance distant a future, especially in the context of its ability to improvements to make the sector operation efficient and trade in the region and the investment regimes in the sustainable. country favoring private investment in generation. Success would depend on a continuation of the present political Special focus of the technical assistance operations commitment to reform and securing public support. would be on (a) promoting transparency, information flows, and adequacy of financial and technical The Dominican Republic represents a sad case of disclosures; (b) enabling the evolution of appropriate deviation from most of the ideal conditions with benchmarks for operational and investment norms; and unsurprising and unflattering results. (c) upgrading the capacity of the governments to handle the demand for improved and alert governance that The clear lesson emerging from the case studies is that enhanced private participation would call for. while it may not be possible to reach the ideal set of conditions in all countries and at all times, serious attempts to reach them have a good correlation to the extent of success in closing the supply-demand gap. Short to medium term plans and strategies may have to be evolved based on country circumstance to reach those ideal conditions, at least partially, if not substantially. The implementation of such plans should help fill the gap to a large extent. CASE STUDY A: BOTSWANA Botswana is a large country (600,370 square kilometers) BPC is profitable, has low borrowings, and regularly pays with a small population of 1.68 million (as of the 2001 dividends to the government. It has low system losses; census). More than four decades of peace and economic billing and revenue collection is good; and almost 50 growth have created one of the success stories of Africa. percent of its capital investment over the past seven Since independence from the British in 1966, Botswana years has been funded from retained earnings. has graduated from the status of a low-income country to that of a middle-income country with a GDP per The electricity sector in Botswana has not experienced an capita of $5,000. Although Botswana's economic investment gap on the basis of its planned development in outlook remains strong, the country is threatened by AIDS, recent years. The main issue does not appear to be one because infection is widespread even among skilled and of an investment gap, but rather of affordability of electricity well-educated members of the workforce. Hitherto, the by lower-income households in both urban and rural main driver for economic growth has been diamonds, areas. Although access remains relatively low--at about although the government is now pursuing a policy of 28 percent in 2003--substantial progress has been diversification of the economy to reduce its reliance on made since the early 1990s when it was only 11 percent. the extraction of minerals. The following are the noteworthy elements of the Botswana experience: 19 Overview · Noninterference on the part of government in the Electricity supply in Botswana is provided by the Botswana affairs of BPC. Power Corporation (BPC), a parastatal established in 1974. BPC is generally well managed and has achieved · A strong and well-managed economy, which created a strong growth in both sales and numbers of consumers. favorable environment for the electricity sector. In recent years, however, costs have escalated; in particular, staff costs have increased at more than 20 percent per · An enlightened and flexible approach adopted by BPC year since 1998. Electricity is supplied by the 132 MW and government over the policy of electricity imports Morupule coal-fired power station and increasingly by has resulted in a reduction in the real tariffs with no low-cost imports from South Africa. The availability of loss of reliability of supply. low-cost imports has allowed BPC to defer the construction of additional generating capacity and to maintain stable · The government has provided strong financial support electricity tariffs in nominal terms (reduced in real terms) for the rural electrification program, the implementation for the last 10­15 years. of which has been well managed by BPC. The government supports rural electrification through · A low level of consumption of electricity by low-income the funding of grid extensions and basic distribution households may be more a function of affordability infrastructure within the villages supplied. It also guarantees than a function of inadequate electricity sector loans provided by BPC to cover connection costs. investment. BPC funds distribution extensions within the villages, along with the cost of connections. However, in spite of · Increases in BPC's operating costs, in particular the financial support provided for rural electrification, staffing costs, are being addressed by an internal the take-up rate remains low in some villages. The issue restructuring of BPC into separately accountable of increasing access appears to be principally one of business units. affordability and sustainability, rather than a lack of investment. There appears to be a risk that further · BPC must take into account the impact of the HIV/AIDS substantial progress in increasing access may be hampered, pandemic on its management and technical strength. unless these factors are addressed, possibly through a lifeline element in the domestic tariff. · BPC's success has been achieved with virtually no involvement of the private sector, other than in the design and construction of system extensions. This case study was prepared by the consulting firm Power Planning Associates Ltd., United Kingdom (www.powerplanning.com). It has been edited slightly for consistency of presentation of all case studies. The currency equivalents in this study were based on the exchange rate as of March 2005: Pula 1.0 = $0.22. The fiscal year is April 1 to March 31. N.B. A 12 percent devaluation of the pula against the basket of currencies to which it is pegged was announced on May 31, 2005, after the report was drafted. Botswana has increased access to electricity--from 11 employment sector is included. The principal activities percent of the population in 1993 to 28 percent by in the formal employment sector are wholesale/retail 2003--and is considered unique, certainly in Sub-Saharan (24 percent), construction (17 percent), manufacturing Africa, in that this increase in access has been funded (17 percent), hotels/restaurants (8 percent), and mining without recourse to large external financing and with a (5 percent). substantial proportion of the funding generated internally by the wholly government-owned BPC. This has also been Although Botswana's economic outlook remains strong, achieved without significant private sector involvement in the devastation that AIDS has caused threatens to destroy the power sector. Botswana does not therefore have a the country's future. In 2001 Botswana had the highest power sector investment gap in terms of its current and rate of HIV infection in the world with 350,000 of its planned investments, and it has managed to fund its 1.68 million people infected. In 2002 with the help of expansion primarily from internally generated funds. international donors, Botswana launched an ambitious The report also discusses whether the low (if increasing) national campaign to tackle the problem by providing level of access is the result of insufficient investment or assistance so that those infected could get access to is more an issue of affordability, given that the BPC is antiviral drugs. The program, however, is costly, and health charged by law to conduct its affairs on a sound spending is rising rapidly as a result. The government commercial basis. budget for the HIV/AIDS program in 2005/06 is P 650 million. HIV/AIDS remains the single biggest threat to 20 Economic Background the country, since infection is widespread even among skilled and well-educated members of the workforce. Botswana is landlocked and has borders with Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. About 80 percent of the Botswana is a member of the Southern African population lives in the eastern part of the country. Development Community (SADC), which was initially The country has indigenous coal reserves, but no hydro formed in 1980 as a loose alliance of nine majority- resources or petroleum reserves, and all the country's ruled states. In 1992 SADC achieved legal identity with petroleum product requirements are imported-- the signing of the Declaration and Treaty by the heads mostly from South Africa. The country has good of states of the current 13 member countries. SADC road infrastructure. headquarters is in Gaborone. More than four decades of peace, stability, and enlightened The currency of Botswana is the pula. From independence democratic government have created one of the economic in 1966, Botswana continued to use the South African successes of Africa. During the three decades following rand until 1976 when the pula was introduced. The pula independence from the British in 1966, Botswana achieved is linked to a basket of currencies, including the South an annual rate of growth of 9 percent, which has made African rand and the currencies within the Special Drawing it one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Rights (SDR). Since it was introduced, the pula has Since 1996, the rate of growth has slowed. The principal generally traded at a premium against the rand. driver for this growth has been diamonds, which have The government has devalued the pula at various times been successfully exploited since 1971. Government to control domestic inflation and maintain the competitiveness revenues depend heavily on the export of diamonds, of the country's exports. The most recent devaluation of which account for 82.5 percent of export receipts and 7.5 percent occurred in February 2004. Botswana offers 50 percent of government revenues (2003). Botswana's attractive incentives to foreign investors. All exchange other principal exports are copper, nickel, soda ash, and controls were ended in 1999. Botswana currently has beef. The country also has a small, but rapidly growing, an "A" credit rating with both Moody's and Standard tourism industry, which is now the country's second largest and Poor's. foreign exchange contributor, earning $240 million per year and accounting for 10 percent of GDP. The Legal System The formal employment sector is divided at 61 percent Botswana's legal system is based on a written constitution private (including parastatals) and 39 percent government. that contains a bill of rights that guarantees everyone Unemployment is about 53 percent based on the formal fundamental human rights and freedoms without regard (paid) employment sector and 24 percent if the informal to ethnic origin, religion, or sex. Since independence in 1966, Botswana has had an impressive record of Tourism has been growing rapidly and has been driven observance of the rule of law, and its citizens have by Botswana's strict conservation policies and diverse generally enjoyed the rights and freedoms guaranteed wildlife. Tourism is now the second largest foreign exchange by the constitution. contributor after mineral production. The government is promoting Botswana as a regional hub for communications Botswana is a parliamentary republic. Parliament consists and as a financial services center. The Botswana of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory body comprising International Financial Services Centre has been 15 members, 8 of whom are tribal chiefs, 4 of whom established as a cross-border financial services center. are elected subchiefs, and 3 of whom are members selected by the other 12 members), plus the National The government has used its flexible exchange rate Assembly (with 61 seats, 57 members are directly policy to control inflation and to act as an automatic elected by popular vote, and 4 are appointed by the stabilizer to absorb fluctuations in the terms of trade. majority party). Elections are held every five years: the Although the pula is nominally linked to the rand and last election was in 2004. the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) currencies, the government has devalued it from time to The judiciary comprises the High Court, Court of Appeal, time in order to protect its trade and prevent overheating and Magistrates' Courts (one in each of the nine districts). of the economy, thereby helping to create a stable business environment. The government is in the process of introducing a new 21 Companies Act in order to "...remove bureaucratic Botswana is also considered to be relatively free from restrictions that prevent all firms, both private and public, corruption. A recent survey of perceived corruption from operating efficiently and profitably."1 There is currently covering more than 150 countries worldwide ranked no Competition Law, although the government intends to Botswana at 31st overall the least corrupt country in introduce legal provisions for competition and regulation. Africa, ahead of South Africa in 44th place and Namibia at 54th place.2 The Business Environment The Current Economic Situation The business environment in Botswana is open and relatively free from bureaucracy. Companies are required GPD growth was 5.7 percent in 2004, equal to the to register in accordance with the Companies Act and average value recorded over the previous six years. obtain a license, a process that normally takes four weeks. GDP per capita (in current prices) has grown from P The government is intent on diversifying the economy and 13,700 ($3,000) in 1999 to P 22,700 ($5,000) in has been focusing on manufacturing, tourism, information 2004. In dollar terms, economic growth has been and communications technology, and financial services. particularly strong over the past two years because of the weakness of the dollar. In the past, Botswana Investment in manufacturing has been limited because generally ran budget surpluses because of revenues of the size of the local market and long supply routes, from the mining industry. However, in four out the past the limited raw materials produced in Botswana, and the six years, there has been a small budget deficit, price of electricity, which is higher than in South Africa, principally from increasing recurrent expenditures. Botswana's principal trading partner. Since the government Key economic indicators are shown in table A-1. established the Botswana Export Development and Investment Authority (BEDIA) in 1997, it has attracted 20 Annual inflation has moderated in recent years, companies with total employment of 4,400 in various averaging just under 8 percent, in line with the current sectors of the economy. Manufacturing companies enjoy government target and compared with more than 10 tax incentives, including the duty-free import of machinery percent annual inflation during the first half of the 1990s. and equipment, and exemption from sales tax on imported raw materials, provided the products are for export. Government long-term debt is extremely low by developing The corporation tax rate--at 15 percent--is one of the country standards. In absolute terms, it has remained lowest in the region. fairly constant in recent years (at about P 2.4 billion) but, expressed as a percentage of GDP, long-term debt fell from 11 percent in 1999 to 5 percent in 2004. Republic of Botswana (2000), p. 17. 1 University of Passau and Transparency International (2004). 2 TABLE A-1. Economic Indicators, 1999­2004 FISCAL YEAR* INDICATOR 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 GDP current prices (P billion) 21.5 24.9 28.6 31.9 36.7 39.9 GDP growth current prices (%) 6.6 15.8 14.9 11.5 15.0 6.8 GDP growth constant 1999 prices (%) 4.1 6.6 8.5 2.1 7.8 5.7 GDP per capita (P) 13,700 15,600 17,400 19,000 21,300 22,700 GDP per capita ($) 2,970 3,070 2,990 3,010 4,330 4,840 Budget balance (P billion) -1.4 +1.5 +2.5 -0.96 -1.4 -0.08 Budget balance (% of GDP) -6.5 +6.0 +8.7 -3.0 -3.8 -0.2 Annual inflation (%) 7.8 8.5 6.6 8.0 9.2 7.0 Long-term debt (P billion) 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.9 2.2 2.0 Long-term debt (% of GDP) 11.1 9.6 8.4 9.1 6.0 5.0 *Government fiscal years ending March 31. Source: Bank of Botswana. 22 The Economic Outlook The government recognizes that its development plan is vulnerable to natural disasters, such as droughts and Although the economic position remains good, outbreaks of animal disease, and to external shocks, a number of important challenges face the country. including the price of diamonds, and has therefore Government expenditure has been increasing rapidly, developed alternative scenarios. The government's and the economy is exposed to the vicissitudes of the optimistic and pessimistic scenarios for the economy international diamond and metals markets. An important forecast the budget and balance of payments surpluses element of current government policy is to diversify the and deficits by the end of the plan period in table A-3. economy and to privatize parastatals where this makes sense. This policy is set out in National Development Under the optimistic scenario, the budget surpluses Plan (NDP) 93. The important elements of the program generated would be plowed back into development are combating HIV/AIDS and unemployment, reducing expenditure, thus raising GDP growth from 5.5 percent poverty, diversifying the economy, reforming the public to 5.7 percent, whereas under the pessimistic scenario sector reform, and introducing financial discipline. the country's balance of payments and reserves would be significantly worsened. In this case, the current Combating HIV/AIDS is taking a large and increasing expenditure would have to be scaled back to bring it share of government expenditure, and the medium- and into balance with revenue. long-term impact on the economy through the depletion of the workforce is potentially catastrophic. Botswana is Current Issues in the Power Sector not hiding from the AIDS problem, though; the President is personally leading the campaign to fight the disease. Specific government policy objectives for the power sector are as follows: The key strategy of the government is to promote budget sustainability and increased private sector development · Achieving a balance between electricity imports and targeted at sustainable economic diversification. The local generation. forecast GDP growth during the period is 5.5 percent per year. The major economic indicators resulting from · Improving electricity sector efficiency. the government's base case scenario for the NDP 9 period are shown in table A-2. · Increasing access to electricity. Republic of Botswana 2003. 3 TABLE A-2. Major Economic Indicators--Base Case Scenario FISCAL YEAR* INDICATOR 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Real GDP constant prices, 19.3 20.5 21.8 22.9 24.1 25.3 1993/94 (P billion) GDP growth (%) 5.1 5.9 6.6 4.9 5.0 5.4 Employment growth rate (%) 5.4 5.0 5.2 5.8 5.8 5.7 Government share--employment (%) 37.1 36.2 35.2 34.1 33.0 31.9 Investment (% of GDP) 26.9 29.1 30.7 31.5 32.1 31.9 Balance of payments (P million) 413 201 1,078 534 46 -86 Reserves (months of imports) 30.0 27.8 26.5 25.1 23.6 22.0 Budget balance (P million) 102 136 162 137 76 303 Budget balance (% of GDP) -6.5 +6.0 +8.7 -3.0 -3.8 -0.2 Reserves ($ bn) 6.8 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.1 *Government fiscal years ending March 31. Source: NDP 9, Ministry of Finance and Development Planning model. 23 TABLE A-3. Forecast of Surpluses and Deficits in the Budget and Balance of Payments SCENARIO BUDGET SURPLUS BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (P MILLION) SURPLUS (P MILLION) Base 303 -85 Optimistic 302 1,657 Pessimistic -1,520 -1,835 · Improving the commercial operations of the electricity The extent to which these policies have been addressed supply industry. is discussed in the following sections of the report. Specific measures that have been identified to achieve these objectives are as follows: The Electricity Sector · Expansion of the existing 132 MW Morupule Power Various aspects of the electricity sector are discussed in Station, including retaining sufficient financial reserves this section. in BPC to finance this expansion. Structure of the Sector · Procurement of power from regional markets (the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) and the Short The BPC was established under the Botswana Power Term Energy Market (STEM)) to achieve a least-cost Corporation Act 1974 as a wholly government-owned mix of supply. corporation with responsibility for the generation, transmission, distribution, and supply of electricity in · Extension of the electricity network, particularly to Botswana. The act requires BPC to conduct its affairs on targeted rural electrification projects. a sound commercial basis and, to this end, tariffs are reviewed periodically to ensure they are cost-reflective. · Introduction of a new regulatory authority, and use of The responsibility for BPC within the government is held innovative pricing structures. by the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources (MMEWR). During the past 30 years, BPC has managed Transmission and Distribution high growth in electricity supply in the country. Since 1990 electricity sales have increased at an average The BPC transmission system mainly covers the eastern annual rate of 6.7 percent (from 1,021 GWh in 1991 part of the country with radial lines feeding mining and to 2,366 GWh in 2004), and the number of consumers other small towns and rural electrification schemes, as has grown at an average annual rate of 13.7 percent shown in figure A-1. The 220 kV transmission system (from 23,000 in 1991 to 123,000 in 2004). linking Gaborone and Francistown with Morupule Power Station was constructed at the same time as the power Generation station. The 220 kV system was subsequently extended to Orapa to service the DEBSWANA diamond mine. Morupule is BPC's sole major power station. The station-- BPC has three 132 kV cross-border feeders that import with a capacity of 132 MW from 4x33 MW units-- power to Gaborone from South Africa. In addition, there is located at Palapye about 300 km north of Gaborone. is a 220 kV cross-border link between Francistown and Coal for the station is obtained from the nearby Morupule the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) system colliery, which was acquired recently by Anglo-American of at Bulawayo (Zimbabwe). South Africa. The first three units were commissioned in 1986 and the fourth unit in 1989. A second station located In March 1998, the Phokoje 400/220 kV substation near in the mining town of Selebi Phikwe was decommissioned Selebi Phikwe was commissioned, which strengthened the 24 in 1996; most of its staff were offered alternative BPC system considerably and provided enhanced employment at Morupule. opportunities for electricity imports. Phokoje is tied into the 400 kV line that was constructed to link the Eskom Although Morupule has been well maintained and is in system at Matimba to the ZESA system at Insukamini reasonably good condition for a station of its age, it has near Bulawayo. a relatively high unit generating cost. BPC has benefited in recent years from surplus capacity in South Africa and Other small isolated systems in the south, west, and currently purchases more than 70 percent of its electricity north of the country are fed by cross-border supplies requirements from Eskom, and to a lesser extent from from Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. the SAPP's STEM, at a substantially lower price than it can generate at Morupule. However, the contract with Rural Electrification Eskom expires in 2007, and Eskom has not yet given any commitment on future supplies. Rural electrification is an important aspect of government policy, and BPC is the implementing agent for this both in Morupule Power Station has been in service for almost 20 the short and in the long term. This has been achieved by years. The units are relatively small and inefficient, and setting up a separate Rural Electrification division with a the technology is becoming outdated with consequential small staff whose sole responsibility is for implementation of difficulty in obtaining spare parts. However, the station the village electrification schemes planned by the MMEWR. has performed reasonably well in recent years. Morupule has generally operated as a base load station with At present, the policy is for the costs to be shared imports making up the balance of the demand. The between rural electrification customers, the government, average station plant factor has been 82 percent since and BPC, with BPC in theory not exposed to losses on 1997, which compares favorably with other coal-fired rural electrification. Although there is an expectation that stations in the region. on-grid and off-grid solutions should be integrated, much of the focus to date has been on electrification The cost of generation from Morupule is relatively high through grid extension. because of the age and size of the units and the measures used to reduce water usage in the power The number of rural consumers now exceeds those in station, which adds to the auxiliary consumption and urban areas. During the three year period, 2000­03, therefore the "sent-out" cost per kilowatt-hour. In 2004 rural connections increased by 26,598 (78 percent), the average cost of generation at Morupule was 3.4 compared to an increase in urban consumer connections cents/kWh sent out, compared with the cost of electricity of 8,714 (20 percent). This has been achieved through imports of 1.6 cents/kWh. a combination of government funding, careful planning FIGURE A-1. National Electricity Grid of Botswana Angola Kasane Ngoma Shakawe Pandamatenga Zimbabwe Gumare aibi Maun BULAWAYO ma Tsau Gweta N Tutume SOWA Dukwi Rakops FRANCISTOWN ORAPA SELEBI PHIKWE Gantsi Mmashoro Semolale 25 Tsootsha Mathathane Serowe Charles Hill Palapye Zanzibar Sherwood Ncojane Mahalapye Sefhare Sojwe Kang Salajwe Mookane Takatokwane Artesia Lentsweletau MATIMBA Mochudi Molepolole JWANENG GABORONE Kanye Werda LOBATSE South Bray P/Molopo Mabule Africa Tsabong Middlepits South 400 kV Line Africa 220 kV Existing Line 220 kV Proposed Line 132 kV Existing Line 132 kV Proposed Line 66 kV Line 33 kV Line Towns Electri ed Villages Electri ed Villages 2002/2003 Diesel Power Thermal Power Station Cross Border Supply Source: BPC 2003. by the MMEWR, and strong project management by villages, the connection rate has been less than 20 percent BPC. All the new system expansion work is undertaken up to 10 years after electrification, as compared with by private contractors that are managed by BPC. BPC's target of 25 percent of domestic consumers taking supply in the first year. In order to improve take-up of supply, the government's Rural Electrification Collective Scheme was reviewed in The two key issues are affordability of the tariff, since all April 2000, which allowed for a decrease in up-front domestic consumers pay the same tariff, and the connection connection costs from 10 percent to 5 percent and cost. Costings for a recent project to electrify 14 villages repayment over 15 years rather than 10 years. The indicate a connection cost to be paid by the consumer revision of the Rural Electrification Collective Scheme of P 5,000 ($1,100), of which 5 percent is required as benefited more than 18,000 consumers during the NDP an up-front payment. In addition, the consumer has to 8 period (FY1997­2003). pay for internal house wiring and electrical appliances. This is unlikely to be affordable for lower-income Once connected, consumers pay the standard BPC households. The results of a recent household survey in tariff, which does not include a lifeline element. All rural Botswana that was carried out for the World Bank electrification consumers are provided with a prepayment indicate clearly the problem of affordability with the meter. Vending stations have been established in local lowest-income households in the first quintile paying P shops, or similar public places, with the vendor retaining 42 ($9) per month for prepayment consumers and P 26 5 percent of the revenue collected. The objective is that 116 ($26) per month for those with credit meters (see no consumer should be further than 5 km from the figure A-2).4 The income ranges of the quintiles are nearest vending station. shown in table A-4. One of the key problems with the grid village electrification As expected, expenditure on electricity increases with schemes has been low take-up rates. Take-up remains income--with the increase more marked among low in many villages in spite of government subsidies consumers with credit, as opposed to prepayment, covering the costs of bringing supplies to the villages meters. The sharp increase in expenditure on electricity (including the basic distribution systems in the villages), for those on credit meters between the fourth and fifth a standard costing method used to calculate the consumer quintiles probably reflects the shift to electricity for connection costs, and generous terms payment offered cooking. This is also accompanied by a small downward under the Rural Electrification Collective Scheme. In some shift in expenditure on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). FIGURE A-2. HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON FUEL BY INCOME LEVEL 450 400 Electricity 350 bill htno 300 Electricity prepayment 250 m re 200 p LPG alu 150 P 100 Kerosene 50 0 Fuelwood 1 2 3 4 5 Income Quintile Source: EECG 2004. EECG 2004. 4 TABLE A-4. Household Income Quintiles QUINTILE INCOME (PULA) $ EQUIVALENT 1 0­249 0­55 2 250­449 55­99 3 450­799 100­177 4 800­1,479 177­328 5 1,480 and above 328 and above Source: EECG 2004. The increase in fuelwood expenditures between the first Another factor that affects staff numbers is HIV/AIDS. It is and second quintiles is probably a result of low-income clear that this will have a substantial impact on BPC's ability urban households having to buy fuelwood rather than to undertake key areas of business activity in the future. gather it themselves. A program of anonymous testing has been undertaken, covering some 75 percent of the workforce. The results 27 Commercial Practices indicate that one-third of BPC staff tested positive. BPC commissioned a study to measure the impact of HIV/AIDS BPC's billing and collection record is good with meters in the workplace and used the results as input to develop a generally read and bills sent out on time. In rural areas, long-term strategy. BPC has also launched a Special Benefit prepayment meters are used rather than credit meters. Fund to assist employees who may wish to enroll in an Anti- Collection rates are good, averaging 97.5 percent, Retroviral Therapy program. It is understood that some key with accounts receivable at 45 days. employers in Botswana are deliberately overstaffing by up to 20 percent in an attempt to maintain critical skills. BPC has expanded the number of customers at high Therefore, maintaining adequate management and rates in recent years. Since 1997 the number of technical skills is a fundamental challenge for BPC. customers has doubled from 60,023 to 122,625, equivalent to an annual rate of increase of 12.6 Operational Efficiency percent. The corresponding increase for domestic customers has been even higher at 13.2 percent. It is BPC system losses, including both technical and believed that this record is unsurpassed by any other nontechnical losses, have averaged 10.3 percent of electricity utility in Sub-Saharan Africa in recent times. energy sent out or purchased during the period since Domestic connections have averaged almost 10,000 1997. This figure indicates that there is no significant per year during the past six years with a large proportion problem with nontechnical losses as is the case with in rural areas. utilities in many developing countries, since technical losses for the BPC transmission system should be However, staff numbers and costs have also risen expected to fall in the range of 2­3 percent, plus 5­7 steeply--by 4 percent per year and more than 20 percent for the distribution system. A contributing factor percent per year respectively during the past six years-- to BPC's relatively low losses is the large proportion of compared to inflation, which has averaged about 8 mining load that is supplied at high voltage, thus percent during the same period. In terms of the ratio of eliminating medium-voltage and low-voltage distribution customers per employee, BPC fares unfavorably in losses. BPC's loss figures compare favorably with other comparison with many electricity utilities in the region. utilities in the region, including South Africa. Some of this increase is caused by the need to keep up the needs of the rapidly growing customer base. BPC is The reliability and quality of supply have been good over also not alone in experiencing pressure on salaries. the years. BPC does not regularly publish statistics on Public sector salaries have increased by an average of the reliability and quality of supply, although its target is 15 percent recently as a result of a new pay structure. to restore supply within four hours for high-voltage faults. In its 2000 annual report (BPC 2000), BPC stated that performance target is the rate of return on net revalued supply availability to customers remained high at above assets. The target rate increased from 5 percent in 99.97 percent. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that 1998, 1999, and 2000 to 6 percent in 2001 and supply to all classes of consumer is generally reliable and 2002, and 6.5 percent in 2003 and 2004. The target of good quality, although there is some evidence of low rate was achieved in five out of the last seven years, as voltage in a few urban areas. In addition, commercial shown in table A-5. and industrial consumers do not generally feel the need to install back-up diesel generators. The falling self-financing ratio is a result of the heavy investment in rural electrification that has taken place in Financial Status recent years. BPC has contributed substantially to the investment cost of the rural electrification schemes, BPC is in a very healthy financial state. The corporation particularly since 2000. is profitable and has benefited from the deferment of Morupule extension, which has allowed substantial Two areas of concern are the rapidly increasing staff capital reserves to be accumulated. As a result, net costs and the average cost of electricity purchases. long-term debt has been decreasing; it decreased from Staff costs increased from just over 20 percent of P 329 million ($73 million) in 1998 to P 205 million operating income in 1998 to over 30 percent in 2004. ($45 million) in 2004. Debt service has also been During the same period, the cost of imported electricity 28 falling; it fell from P 47.1 million ($10.4 million) to P as a proportion of BPC's total operating costs increased 25.9 million ($5.7 million) during the same period. from 29 percent to almost 34 percent. Operating profit has averaged P 70 million ($16 million) BPC's financial performance measured by the rate of during the past seven years and net profit P 148 million return on revalued assets is excellent and is believed to ($33 million), primarily because of a substantial increase be one of the best performances among Sub-Saharan on interest earned on accumulated reserves. BPC's primary African utilities. TABLE A-5. Financial Performance of BPC FISCAL YEAR* UNIT OF INDICATOR MEASURE 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Operating income P MILLION 278.9 311.2 361.9 411.9 449.7 537.9 593.3 Operating profit P MILLION 58.8 53.9 74.0 87.9 56.1 93.2 66.6 Net profit P MILLION 95.7 89.5 127.6 165.3 135.8 214.8 206.0 Dividends P MILLION 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 90.0 Debt service P MILLION 47.1 59.0 69.8 47.8 41.3 39.5 25.9 Cash flow P MILLION 110.7 124.8 154.3 163.0 175.5 267.1 198.2 Debt service ratio TIMES 3.6 3.0 3.2 5.6 6.1 8.3 12.7 Self-financing ratio % 187 311 195 271 284 204 100 Current ratio TIMES 4.5 5.0 5.5 5.4 4.5 4.0 3.8 Return on net % 6.5 6.0 7.7 7.7 4.8 7.6 5.3 revalued assets Staffing costs/ % 21.3 23.1 22.0 24.0 28.4 29.0 30.5 operating income Staffing costs/ % 4.3 4.6 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.4 6.8 net assets Power purchased/ % 29.0 27.2 26.0 28.3 22.7 27.4 33.9 operating costs Source: BPC 1998­2004. Electricity Tariffs total increase in tariff in current prices. Thus, in real terms, electricity prices in Botswana have declined substantially Although tariffs proposals are prepared by BPC, they are over the past 10 years. subject to approval by the government. One of BPC's key performance targets is the overall level of tariffs. For the last The current tariff schedule is set out in table A-6. 10 years, BPC has had a target of maintaining increases in The table reflects the 6 percent across-the-board tariffs to below 50 percent of the rate of inflation, and has increase that was implemented in March 2004. succeeded in this without jeopardizing its business. There are a number of reasons for this achievement, including The revenue per kilowatt-hour sold for each primary rapid and sustained load growth, a good payment and consumer group is shown in table A-7. The mining sector collection record by consumers (including government accounted for 45.5 percent of total electricity sales and consumers), and access to relatively cheap electricity 33.6 percent of sales revenue in 2004. imports from South Africa and through the SAPP's STEM. The availability of cheap imports has allowed BPC to defer The average price of electricity has remained essentially the extension of Morupule, thereby building up substantial constant in nominal terms in recent years. Figure A-3 financial reserves that were earmarked for the extension. shows the price of electricity measured in terms of the These reserves have, in turn, generated substantial revenue average revenue per kilowatt-hour sold since 1998. for BPC in the form of interest payments. In nominal pula terms, the price has increased by 17 percent, whereas in dollar terms, the price in 2004 was 29 Tariff increases in the past 10 years (since 1995) have the same as it was in 1998, and lower than in 1994. been limited to 5 percent in February 1999, 5 percent in July 2002, and 6 percent in March 2004. Over this No significant cross-subsidies exist between the main period inflation as measured by the Consumer Price Index tariff groups, with the exception of government consumers (CPI) has been 115 percent, as compared to a 17 percent (except water pumping), which pay significantly more TABLE A-6. BPC Electricity Tariffs SMALL MEDIUM LARGE ITEM HOME BUSINESS BUSINESS BUSINESS GOVERNMENT WATER PUMPING Monthly fixed P 8.58 P 20.82 P 20.82 P 20.82 P 20.82 P 20.82 charge ($1.9) ($4.6) ($4.6) ($4.6) ($4.6) ($4.6) Energy charge P 0.3089 P 0.3089 P 0.1643 P 0.1482 P 0.4153 P 0.3268 (per kWh) (8 cents) (7.1 cents) (3.6 cents) (3.3 cents) (9.2 cents) 7.2 cents) Monthly demand 0 0 P 39.34 P 37.03 0 0 charge (per kW) ($8.7) ($8.2) Source: BPC. TABLE A-7. Revenue per Kilowatt-Hour Sold by Consumer Group CONSUMER CATEGORY THEBE/KWH EQUIVALENT CENTS/KWH Domestic 27.5 6.1 Commercial 26.6 5.9 Mining 17.7 3.9 Government 36.4 8.1 Total 23.6 5.2 Note: 100 thebe = 1 pula. Source: BPC 2004. FIGURE A-3. AVERAGE PRICE OF ELECTRICITY SOLD BY BPC, 1993/94­2003/04 30.0 9.0 Total 8.0 Thebe/kWh 25.0 Total 7.0 USc/kWh 20.0 6.0 h Wk/e 5.0 15.0 behT 4.0 10.0 3.0 2.0 30 5.0 1.0 0 0.0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Note: 100 thebe = 1 pula. Source: Bank of Botswana and BPC data. than the cost of supply as a form of direct subsidy to During the past seven years, an estimated capital BPC. As discussed earlier in the section on Rural expenditure of P 631 million had been incurred. Electrification, the absence of a lifeline tariff or other It was financed by the government (48 percent), form of direct subsidy in the domestic tariff means that BPC (47 percent) and a loan from the European electricity is not affordable by most low-income households, Investment Bank (5 percent). The government portion and is a key factor in the low take-up of supply in some was expended principally on rural electrification. villages that have been connected to the grid. In addition, the government provides guarantees on the consumer connection fees, which are funded under Investment the Rural Electrification Collective Scheme over periods of up to 15 years. As discussed in the previous section, BPC's capital investment requirements have been reduced in recent years BPC's present long-term debt is P 204.8 million, of which because of the deferment of Morupule extension. However, 29 percent is pula denominated and 71 percent foreign there has been significant investment in the transmission currency denominated. The principal foreign currencies and distribution systems to meet the very high growth in are the dollar, Japanese yen, euro, and the South African customer numbers. A large proportion of this capital rand. The government bears a portion of the foreign investment has been self-financed through BPC's retained exchange liability on BPC's long-term debt equal to P earnings and interest on investments. Capital investment 34.7 (2004). The debt is divided between the Government during the period 1998­2004 is shown in table A-8. of Botswana, the European Investment Bank, the Nordic TABLE A-8. Capital Expenditure and Work in Progress FISCAL YEAR P MILLION $ MILLION 2004 198.8 44.7 2003 130.7 23.9 2002 61.9 8.9 2001 60.3 11.2 2000 79.3 17.1 1999 40.1 9.0 1998 59.3 15.6 Total 630.4 130.4 Source: BPC 1998­2004. Investment Bank/Fund, the Reconstruction Credit Institute Evolution of Supply and Demand (KfW), and the Japanese Overseas Economic Cooperation 31 Fund. Most of the overseas funding is onlent to BPC Electricity Demand from the government. Interest rates on the long-term debt vary widely between 0.75 percent and 13.75 The growth in electricity demand in Botswana has mirrored percent. BPC has successfully managed its foreign the growth in the economy; electricity sales have increased currency exposure by taking out hedging contracts. by 130 percent during the past 10 years, equivalent to an average annual rate of growth of 8.8 percent, as BPC is presently planning an extension to Morupule shown in figure A-4. Significantly different growth rates Power Station and has recently completed a full feasibility have been experienced among the consumer categories. study of the project assisted by international consultants. Domestic consumer demand grew at 14.9 percent, The study has recommended the construction of two followed by government consumption (12.3 percent), additional generating units each of 100 MW capacity. commercial consumers (9 percent), and mining industry The consultants estimate that the earliest feasible (6.3 percent). commissioning date for the extension is 2009. It is understood, however, that no decision has been made As a result, the domestic share of total sales increased as yet to proceed with the extension project. substantially from 12 percent in 1994 to almost 21 percent in 2004, whereas the mining sector share The required investment cost is estimated to be of the decreased from 57 percent to 46 percent, as shown in order of $300 million (P 1,360 million), up to half of figure A-5. which BPC expects to fund from its financial reserves, which stood at P 1,080 million ($240 million) as of Growth in consumer numbers has been equally strong, March 31, 2004. It is understood that the option of with increases from 37,000 in 1994 to almost 123,000 bringing in a strategic partner to oversee the in 2004, equivalent to an annual rate of growth of 12.6 implementation of the project has been considered by percent. Most of the growth has come from the domestic the government, but no decision has yet been made. sector. The number of domestic consumers has more The most likely option is that the balance of the funding than doubled in the past six years from 50,700 to will be raised by government and onlent to BPC. 103,000. Many of the new connections are a consequence FIGURE A-4. BPC ELECTRICITY SALES, 1993/94­2003/04 2500 Government Mining 2000 Commercial Domestic 1500 h W G 1000 500 32 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Source: BPC data. FIGURE A-5. SECTOR SHARES OF BPC SALES, 1994 AND 2004 Government Government Mining Mining Commercial Commercial Domestic Domestic 7.0% 12.0% 9.6% 20.7% 23.7% 24.2% 57.4% 45.5% Source: BPC data. of the government support to the village electrification Generation and Imports program (see the section on Rural Electrification). In March 2004, domestic consumers accounted for As discussed in the previous section, BPC has become 87.2 percent of the total number of consumers. increasingly reliant on imports during the past 15 years and currently produces less than 30 percent of its System peak demand has grown more or less in line with electricity requirements. The principal reasons for this are energy demand, doubling during the past nine years-- as follows: from under 200 MW in 1995 to almost 400 MW in 2004. The system load factor is high, at about 75 · A surplus of generation is available in the region--and percent, reflecting the large component of continuous in particular in South Africa where a number of large processing mining load. The very high growth in coal-fired stations were mothballed because of the domestic consumption has not had a noticeable impact lower-than-expected level of economic growth in the on the system load factor. The load factor fell between 1990s. As a result, Eskom was willing to enter into 1998 and 2002, but rose again in 2003 and 2004. relatively long-term firm export contracts with its Details are shown in figure A-6. neighbors--Botswana Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland and, more recently, Zimbabwe. System losses have decreased, indicating that investments in the transmission and distribution system made by BPC · The price at which Eskom was willing to sell electricity have kept pace with the large increases in the number of to its neighbors was based on the short-term marginal 33 consumers. The decrease in losses also indicates that the cost of large, baseload, coal-fired power stations, BPC management of nontechnical losses is good and which made it extremely attractive to countries such that there are no significant problems with theft and as Botswana with smaller, less-efficient sources of other unauthorized uses of electricity. Details of system generation. The 2004 average price paid by BPC for losses since 1991 are shown in figure A-7. imports was 1.6 cents/kWh as compared to the cost of generation at Morupule of 3.4 cents/kWh. FIGURE A-6. BPC SYSTEM INDICATORS, 1995­2004 450 80.0% 79.0% Peak 400 Demand (MW) 78.0% Load 77.0% Factor (%) 350 76.0% W 300 75.0% M 74.0% 250 73.0% 72.0% 200 71.0% 150 70.0% Source: BPC data. FIGURE A-7. SYSTEM LOSSES, 1991­2004 20.0% 18.0% 16.0% stro 14.0% p mi sul 12.0% p noitareneg 10.0% 8.0% tenfo 6.0% 4.0% 5 34 2.0% 0.0% 1991 2991 3991 4991 5991 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002 1002 2002 3002 4002 Source: BPC data. · In the mid-1990s, Eskom wished to construct a relying on imports to supply more than 70 percent of 400 kV interconnector with Zimbabwe. By permitting its demand. Up to the early 1990s, BPC had two the construction of this line across its territory, operational coal-fired power stations that met virtually Botswana obtained an agreement for the construction all the demand. The old Selebi Phikwe Station was shut of a 400/220 kV substation to tap into the line at down in March 1996. In the same year, BPC signed a Phokoje near Selebi Phikwe, thereby increasing both new agreement with Eskom of South Africa to provide the capacity and reliability of its imports from South firm imports until 2003 at rates that were substantially Africa and other SAPP member countries. Up until the lower than BPC's cost of generation at Morupule. commissioning of Phokoje, BPC was reliant on The new agreement coincided with an increase in imports substantially lower-capacity 132 kV interconnectors of more than 100 percent in that year, from 392 GWh with South Africa. in 1996 to 812 GWh in 1997. Imports have continued to rise to meet the rapidly growing demand and by With the above circumstances, BPC had a strong incentive 2004 had reached 1,915 GWh, equivalent to 72.5 to import electricity to meet its strongly growing demand, percent of the demand, as shown in figure A-8. and the government allowed BPC to continue to expand its imports year by year. BPC was able to benefit further The government decided to defer the development of from the increasing reliance on imports, since it was able Morupule extension, and BPC's contract with Eskom was to defer the construction of the planned additional extended in 2000 to cover the period up to 2007. The generating capacity at Morupule. The retained earnings contract was renegotiated in 2001 with the opening of that had been earmarked for the extension were invested, the SAPP's STEM to allow BPC to purchase up to 25 which then earned substantial additional revenue for the percent of its imports from the open market.5 Although utility. This policy has served Botswana well and has not BPC has continued to increase imports from Eskom, the led to any deterioration in supply reliability. surplus generating capacity in the region--and in particular in South Africa--is now expected to be used As a consequence of the availability of firm low-priced up within the next five years. Furthermore, Eskom has imports, Botswana has moved from a position of being not given any assurances to BPC on imports beyond virtually self-sufficient in the production of electricity to 2007 covering either quantum or price. The SAPP STEM started trading on April 24, 2001. In 2003, 720 GWh was traded on the STEM with a value of $3.6 million, an average price of 5 0.5 cent/kWh. FIGURE A-8. ELECTRICITY IMPORTS, 1991­2004 2,000 80.0% 1,800 70.0% 1,600 60.0% % of total 1,400 system demand 50.0% 1,200 Imports 1,000 40.0% 800 30.0% 600 20.0% 400 10.0% 200 35 0 0.0% 1991 2991 3991 4991 5991 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002 1002 2002 3002 4002 Source: BPC data. In 2003 BPC initiated a full feasibility study on a project Future Balance of Supply and Demand to extend the capacity of Morupule Power Station. The study recommended the construction of two additional The most recent comprehensive load forecast for the generating units each of 100 MW capacity. The consultants BPC system was made in early 2004 by the consultants estimated that the earliest feasible commissioning date undertaking the feasibility study for the extension to for the extension is 2009.6 It is understood, however, Morupule Power Station.7 that no decision has been made as yet to proceed with the extension project. Differing approaches were considered in forecasting the demand of the various consumer sectors. In view Meanwhile, the government has also been considering of the importance of the mining sector in Botswana, the development of a large coal-fired power station for the forecast for this group was based on discussions with export to address the impending regional capacity the major customers. Sales to the mining sector shortage and the new SAPP competitive electricity market. represent 47 percent of the total sales (2002/03 figures), and the forecast showed a modest increase in As discussed in the section on Electricity Tariffs, 2005 from the commissioning of the Mupane Gold the availability of cheap imports from South Africa Mine, with further increases in 2008 (because of the and through the SAPP's STEM has served the electricity doubling of demand at Tati Nickel). consumers of Botswana well. The average price of electricity sold in Botswana during the past 10 years has only Demand for the commercial and government sectors increased by a total of 17 percent compared with inflation was based on a regression analysis of historical data, of 115 percent, and in dollar terms the price in 2004 assuming that the relationship between sales to this was the same as in 1998, as shown in figure A-3. sector and government GDP is unchanged in the future. The completion may now be later in view of the time that has elapsed since the consultants submitted their report. 6 PB Power 2004. 7 The forecast for domestic sales was based on the The overall forecast of future demand is shown in figure number of connections and the specific consumption per A-9. connection. Forecasts of the numbers of future households were derived (based on population growth The forecast shows the demand increasing from 360 and number of people per household). The former was MW in 2003 to 626 MW in 2013, an average annual estimated using a least-square, time-dependent growth rate of 5.7 percent. System losses are assumed logarithmic curve fit, and the latter on a second-order to decline from 12 percent to 10 percent over the polynomial. This gave an estimate of the potential period. Sales growth for the various consumer sectors number of customers. Specific consumption for the vary quite widely, as shown in table A-9. domestic sector is forecast to fall as the electrification program continues to roll out and the proportion of The future demand growth is expected to be met by the lower-income customers increases. A regression analysis Morupule extension and imports from SAPP member using data from the last five years was used to identify countries. BPC expects to fund at least 50 percent of the this trend. However, no account was taken of the estimated P 1,360 million ($300 million) capital cost of substantial impact of HIV/AIDS on the population. the Morupule extension from its reserves. FIGURE A-9. ELECTRICITY DEMAND FORECAST FOR THE BPC SYSTEM, 2004­13 36 5,000 700 Commercial Energy Sales 4,500 600 Government Energy Sales 4,000 Mining Energy 500 3,500 W Sales h M W ni Domestic Energy G 3,000 ni 400 Sales selas dna 2,500 me System Maximum d Demand 300 ygren 2,000 mu E 1,500 200 mixa M 1,000 100 500 0 3002 4002 5002 6002 7002 8002 9002 0102 1102 2102 3102 Year Source: PB Power 2004. TABLE A-9. Forecast Growth Rates of Sales by Sector, 2003­23 (%) DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL MINING GOVERNMENT TOTAL 2003­13 8.3 6.9 2.7 6.2 5.4 Source: PB Power 2004. Government Strategy and Sector Reform result, suffered financial hardship because of the new competition. Air Botswana is to be offered for sale. The basic strategy of the government is to run the public However, the transaction is being delayed by government sector entities efficiently and enable private sector as a result of the present unfavorable environment in the participation prudently where necessary and feasible. aviation industry. It is expected that 45 percent of the shares will be sold to a strategic investor, 10 percent distributed Privatization Policy to employees, and the remaining 45 percent either sold to Botswana citizens or retained by government. The Government of Botswana has never adopted a policy of nationalization of private sector companies, nor has it Private Sector Participation in the Electricity Sector created parastatal manufacturing companies. It has, however, created at various times a number of development Private sector participation in the electricity sector in banks, public utilities, transport enterprises, and an Botswana has been considered, but as yet not agricultural marketing board. Botswana has about 30 implemented. In a recent study commissioned by parastatals. The stated policy for public enterprises is MMEWR, four strategic options for the electricity supply that they should be managed and made to perform industry were identified:9 along commercial lines. · Improving governance: Where the structure and The available data indicates that nonfinancial public ownership of BPC are left as they are, but where 37 enterprises in Botswana account for about 6 percent of governance mechanisms are improved, primarily GDP, whereas their share of employment is slightly less through a performance contract between PEEPA than 6 percent. However, their share of investment and BPC. exceeds 15 percent. · Privatization of BPC: Where BPC is privatized as a One of the first steps in the implementation of the vertically integrated entity, possibly with an obligation government's privatization policy is to incorporate public to invest in Morupule Expansion if this proves viable. enterprises, giving them an appropriate financial structure, and making them subject to the provisions of the · Private generation: Where BPC's generation activities Companies Act.8 are separated and sold, with an obligation to invest in Morupule Expansion, if viable. The government has created an autonomous public entity-- the Public Enterprises Evaluation and Privatisation Agency · Competition: Where large customers in Botswana are (PEEPA) to oversee the process. Although government given the option to import power and pay a wheeling provided the initial capital for PEEPA, it is an autonomous charge to BPC. organization run on commercial principles. The main functions of PEEPA are as follows: As an interim measure, the MMEWR is proposing to adopt the first option whereby BPC will enter into a performance · Effective monitoring and evaluation of the performance contract with the government that will be administered by of parastatals. PEEPA, pending the establishment of an electricity regulator. A recently completed study commissioned by PEEPA · Advice on the commercialization and privatization recommended the establishment of a combined processes. electricity and water regulatory body.10 · Management of the implementation of the The 2004 Energy Master Plan refers to possible commercialization and privatization processes. privatization of BPC.11 However, as yet the government has not made a decision to go ahead with privatization. To date, the telecommunications industry has been To date the involvement of the private sector in the restructured and the mobile telephone market opened to electricity sector has been limited to the following: competition. A bidding process was undertaken and two licenses awarded. Botswana Telecommunications (BTC), · All system design and construction activity, which is the previous parastatal and holder of the monopoly in outsourced to private contractors by BPC. Botswana, did not win one of the licenses and, as a Botswana Power Corporation Act, CAP 74:01. 8 Power Planning Associates 2003. 9 Shaw Stone and Webster 2005. 10 MMEWR 2004. 11 · The supply of electricity in Ghanzi, a remote town in electricity, but it does not appear from BPC's accounts the western part of the country, through a performance- that there is any net payment to the government of based contract between BPC and a private contractor. revenue raised through the VAT. The contract was successful, but is due to terminate once BPC has completed the construction of a BPC has been able to meet its debt commitments since it transmission line to supply Ghanzi from the Namibian was established in 1974. There has been no write-off of its grid. It is interesting to note that the government is not debt to the government, and much of its capital investment currently planning to extend the operation of remote program has been funded from revenues. It is only the electrification schemes in other parts of Botswana to major capital projects, such as Morupule Power Station in private contractors. the 1980s and the Phokoje 400 kV substation project in the 1990s that have needed external funding either directly The Impact on the Government Budget to BPC or to the government and onlent to BPC. Principally because of the deferment of the Morupule extension The principal impact of the electricity sector on the project, BPC's long-term debt has diminished in recent government budget in recent years has been in the years and currently stands at P 205 million ($45 million). provision of direct funding for village electrification. BPC also has a low debt-to-equity ratio of 0.21. The government meets the total cost of providing supplies to villages, including the cost of a skeletal In summary, BPC has not been a drain on government 38 distribution system within the village. During the period finances and, apart from the government's capital 1997­2002, the government provided P 305 million contributions to rural electrification, BPC has been a ($68 million) in direct funding to rural electrification. net contributor to the government budget. The government has also provided loans and onlending The Impact on the Economy of Botswana of development loans from bilateral and European funding agencies. According to BPC's 2004 annual report, As a land-locked country, Botswana struggles to attract the corporation's long-term borrowings are P 204.8 foreign investment. The principal export earning sectors million ($45.4 million) comprising government direct of the economy are minerals and livestock, and there is lending (25 percent), government onlending (41 percent), a small but rapidly growing tourism industry. Botswana's and Nordic and European Investment Bank lending indigenous energy resources include coal and solar (34 percent). energy. The country does not have exploitable oil and gas reserves, although there is some prospect for the BPC is by no means the largest recipient of government exploitation of coal-bed methane. lending. BLC Ltd., the partly government-owned copper- nickel mine at Selebi Phikwe, the Botswana Housing Coal is used for electricity generation at Morupule, and the Corporation, Botswana Telecommunications Corporation, power station helps to sustain coal production at the and the Water Utilities Corporation have a total adjacent colliery that recently passed from government to indebtedness to the government of about P 1.9 billion private ownership. The use of coal is not widespread in ($0.42 billion), or almost 70 percent of total other sectors of the economy.12 All Botswana's liquid and government lending. gaseous fuels are imported by road and rail, almost entirely from South Africa, which is also Botswana's most important The government also has irredeemable capital (equity) trading partner, accounting for 80 percent of trade. A in BPC of P 145.6 million ($32 million). BPC normally recent study concluded that the export of coal was not pays a dividend to the government of 6 percent of the economically viable because of the long land transport irredeemable capital equivalent to P 8.7 million ($11.9 distances to the available ports.13 Neighboring countries, million), but in 2004 declared an additional special including South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, all have dividend of P 81.3 million ($18 million). BPC is currently their own coal reserves. However, the government is exempt from taxation. considering the construction of a major coal-fired power station primarily for export to take advantage of the trading A value added tax (VAT) was introduced in July 2002, opportunities that are expected as the surplus of generating which replaced the 10 percent sales tax. The VAT at the capacity in the region comes to an end and the new SAPP current rate of 10 percent is applicable to sales of competitive regional electricity market is developed.14 Surveys conducted by EECG consultants in a study for the World Bank carried out in 2004 showed that less than 1 percent of rural households 12 used coal (EECG 2004). MMEWR 2002. 13 It is understood that SAPP is about to place a contract for the implementation of the electricity market trading platform. 14 The completion may now be later in view of the time that has elapsed since the consultants submitted their report. 15 The combination of the long distances to markets and the mechanism for electricity in the region that should send lack of local raw materials have made it difficult to attract signals to investors and consumers alike. In the short foreign investment in manufacturing into Botswana. term, BPC is expected to make a decision to go ahead with the construction of an extension to Morupule Power Botswana enjoys membership of the Southern African Station for completion by 2009.15 This project will allow Customs Union (SACU), a free trade area that also the balance between electricity generated within the shares customs revenues. The other members are Lesotho, country and imports to be restored, making Botswana Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland. Southern African less vulnerable to external factors over which it has little Development Community membership also brings the control. Taken together, the expected increase in the benefit of access to customs-free trade in internally price of electricity imports from South Africa and the manufactured goods. construction of Morupule extension are expected to have a significant impact on electricity prices in Botswana, In addition, Botswana enjoys privileged access to European which will be felt by all consumers. This will have to be markets through the Cotonou Convention and to U.S. carefully managed by both the government and BPC in markets through the Africa Growth and Opportunities Act order to minimize the impact on the economy and in (AGOA) trade initiative passed by the United States in particular the urban and rural poor, many of whom 2000 that provides duty-free access to the United States for cannot afford electricity even at today's prices. various African exports, including manufactured goods. Government Policy 39 The Botswana Confederation of Commerce Industry and Manpower (BOCCIM), Botswana's trade and employment The government is intent on diversifying the economy organization, which also has representation from the of Botswana, which to date has been largely built upon mining industry, has an important concern over the price diamonds and other minerals. The revenues from the of electricity that is reported to be a major constraint in exploitation of these minerals have been spent wisely attracting foreign investment into Botswana. Although this on housing, health, education, and expansion of public may be true in manufacturing or minerals processing services. The government realizes that the country cannot where the price of energy represents a large proportion rely on expanding mineral production in the future and of operating costs, electricity costs are not a significant must therefore diversify the economy. This diversification, issue for the diamond industry in Botswana. However, including the reduction of unemployment and measures the cost of electricity is a major issue for BCL, a nickel/ to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic are the key elements copper producer based at Selebi Phikwe. BCL enjoys a of the current development plan (NDP 9), which started special tariff from BPC, which is linked to metal prices. in FY2004. Outside the minerals processing sector, it is clear that there are other constraints in attracting manufacturing Government policy is to diversify investment into any industry that may be of greater significance than profitable and sustainable sector of the economy. electricity prices. Investment is particularly encouraged in manufacturing, in tourism and its infrastructure, in the "knowledge The high price of electricity in the early 1990s was a economy," and in financial services, through the new critical concern to the government. For this reason, International Financial Services Centre. The country BPC was permitted to take advantage of the availability generally enjoys harmonious industrial relations, and the of relatively cheap electricity imports from South Africa basic level of education is good. However, as mentioned and through the SAPP's STEM. However, the Eskom in a previous section, manufacturing faces difficulties in contract comes to an end in 2007, and BPC has not yet view of long distances from markets and in sourcing raw been able to obtain commitments on future supplies and materials. However, Botswana does offer attractive tax prices. The capacity surplus in South Africa is expected incentives to encourage foreign direct investment. to be used up between 2007 and 2010, and the South African government is already inviting proposals to Concerning the parastatals, the government has a policy of construct new generating capacity. privatization where it makes commercial sense to do so. In respect of BPC there is currently a drive to promotegreater At the same time, SAPP is about to implement a commercialism through the establishment of a performance competitive regional electricity market. Once the market contract that would be initially managed by the privatization is established, it should provide a better pricing agency (PEEPA) until such time as an electricity regulator is It is understood that SAPP is about to place a contract for the implementation of the electricity market trading platform. 14 The completion may now be later in view of the time that has elapsed since the consultants submitted their report. 15 established. The government does not seem to have a · Earning a rate of return on revalued assets of 6.7 strong desire to privatize BPC, although consideration is percent on average during the past 10 years. being given to possible private sector involvement in future generation projects. · Significantly reducing tariffs in real terms. Tariffs have risen only by 17 percent during the past 10 years The Legal Environment compared to inflation of 115 percent. The following legislation will have to reviewed and revised · Reducing system losses to about 10 percent of net to facilitate the implementation of the privatization of generation plus imports. parastatals, and in particular prior to any privatization of BPC: · Funding almost 50 percent of capital investment during the past seven years from operating revenues · A Companies Act that reflects the current business and and interest on investments. regulatory environment. The new act is currently before parliament. As discussed in this report, the electricity sector in Botswana has not experienced an investment gap on the basis of · Legislation or other authorization to enable the full or its planned development in recent years. The positive partial transfer of BPC ownership and assets to the messages that can be taken from the performance of 40 private sector. the electricity sector in Botswana may be summarized as follows: · A Competition Law that will define the power rights and responsibilities of both monopolistic and competitive · Creation of a strong and well-managed economy built entities. The Competition Law will include an act to on diamonds and other minerals extraction has provided establish the powers and functions of the regulator. favorable conditions within which the electricity sector In particular, it has been proposed that a combined has operated. BPC's successful performance is also electricity and water regulator should be established. due in no small measure to the government's sound management of the economy, allowing reasonable returns to be made on investments. Successes and Lessons · Lack of interference on the part of government in the The electricity sector in Botswana has managed high growth affairs of BPC--coupled with a recognition, enshrined in sales, averaging 8.8 percent per year overall since 1991, in the 1974 BPC Act, that electricity tariffs should be including 15.2 percent per year growth in sales to the set along commercial lines--has allowed BPC to domestic sector. This has been achieved without excessive operate profitably while reducing tariffs in real terms. recourse to borrowing. BPC's long-term debt has been decreasing in recent years from P 329 million ($73 million) · Tariffs reflect the cost of supply. There is virtually no in 1998 to P 205 million ($45 million) in 2004. The cross-subsidy from commercial-industrial consumers government has funded 25 percent of BPC's current long- to domestic consumers. term borrowing from its own budget; the balance has come from direct external loans (34 percent) and external loans · An enlightened and flexible approach adopted by onlent by the government (41 percent). BPC and the government over the policy on imports of electricity. By taking advantage of the relatively BPC has played its part and has delivered notable cheap electricity that was available over the past 10 achievements. The key successes include the following: or so years, BPC has managed to keep tariffs stable in current terms (substantially reduced in real terms) · Managing the very high growth in both electricity and at the same time has accumulated more than access and sales. Access has increased during the P 1 billion ($0.22 billion) of reserves that were past 10 years from about 11 percent in 1993 to 28 earmarked for the development of the country's next percent in 2003, the majority of which has benefited power generation project--an extension to Morupule rural households. Power Station. · Government direct funding for rural electrification has · BPC's staffing costs. There is some concern over the allowed substantial progress to be made in increasing rapid increase in BPC's staffing costs in recent years, access to electricity in rural communities. The government both in staff numbers and costs. Staff numbers have has contributed more than P 300 million ($66 million) increased by almost 4 percent per year, and total of direct investment in rural electrification, P 31 million staffing costs have increased by more than 20 percent ($7 million) was raised from the European Investment per year for the past six years, compared to inflation Bank, and a further P 295 million ($65 million) was averaging 8 percent per year. Although some increase funded by BPC out of retained earnings from its in staff numbers is understandable in order to meet operations and investments. the rapidly growing customer base, the government has made it known that it wishes to improve the · Implementation of rural electrification has been generally efficiency of the parastatals. The intention is to well managed by BPC. This has been achieved by implement a performance contract with BPC to setting up a separate rural electrification division improve efficiency. The government has no firm plans with a small staff whose sole responsibility is for to privatize BPC at present. BPC has responded to the implementation of the village electrification schemes. government's move by carrying out a major internal restructuring that involves dividing its business into a · Outsourcing of the detailed design and construction of number of individually accountable strategic business the distribution systems to the private sector has allowed units, each of which would be performance driven. BPC to manage the system extensions and connections It has also put in place a program to combat the 41 required to meet the high growth in consumer numbers. effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic on the technical and management strength of BPC. A few areas of concern in the sector remain: · Affordability of electricity by low-income households is a concern, although this appears to be an issue of affordability of electricity by lower-income households rather than a lack of investment. In spite of the rapid increase in access, less than 30 percent of households in Botswana have an electricity supply. Although this is higher than most Sub-Saharan African countries, it is well below South Africa (70 percent) and Ghana (48 percent). In spite of the funding provided by the government for rural electrification and extended payment terms available to domestic consumers, there is a question of the affordability of electricity by lower-income households, since there is no lifeline element in the domestic tariff. This issue of affordability is manifested in very low take-up rates on some village electrification schemes. There appears to be a risk that further substantial progress in increasing access may be hampered, unless this issue is addressed. CASE STUDY B: BRAZIL Economic Background percent in 2005, it is expected to recover to 3.5 percent in 2006. The value of the real appreciated back to the With a population of about 179 million, Brazil had a per level of R 2.1 to $1.00. The country's exchange reserves capita gross national income of about US$3,060 in 2004. also reached $54 billion. Brazil prepaid its IMF obligations About 22 percent of the population was below the national in 2005 and is now repaying several other foreign debts. poverty line.1 Throughout the 1990s, Brazil had been Sovereign spreads fell from 2,400 basis points in 2003 fighting the battle to stabilize its economy, tame the to 220 basis points by April 2006. inflation, and reduce the economy's vulnerability to external shocks. The Power Sector in Brazil2 Its annual GDP growth rate averaged at 0.3 percent during 1990­93, 3.4 percent during 1994­98 and The power sector in Brazil plays a major role in supporting 2.1 percent during 1999­2001 broadly in line with or the development of a country with 179 million inhabitants exceeding the regional average. Since 1994 Brazil had and with a GDP higher than US$600 billion (as of 2004). used a crawling exchange rate band as a nominal anchor The sector serves more than 50 million customers, for managing exchange rate volatility. During 1994­98 corresponding to about 95 percent of the country's major privatizations and banking and financial sector households, who have access to reliable electricity. 43 reforms were pursued. However, in 1998 the economy Demand for electric power has increased during the last faced an overvalued exchange rate and the need for 20 years from 70 to 300 TWh and continues to show substantial public sector borrowing. Both made the high growth potential. Throughout the 1990s, electricity economy vulnerable to external shocks. demand grew at a steady 6­7 percent per year. In 1998 the country faced a major currency crisis. The industrial sector represents the largest consumer In January 1999 the crawling exchange rate band group. Historically, income elasticity of demand has approach was abandoned, and an inflation targeting been about 1.6, which implies a significant expansion approach came to be used. With tight fiscal controls, of the power sector to support the country's continued some stability and a growth rate of 4.5 percent in 2000 growth. The high income elasticity is also indicative of was achieved. During 2001­02 the shocks faced by the potential for demand management and the need to the economy included a major domestic energy crisis, choose a less energy-intensive growth path. slowing of the world economic growth, increased risk aversion for investments in emerging markets, higher oil Brazil's electricity market is by far the largest in South prices after September 2001, Argentina's debt default, America. Its power consumption is more than double the and market jitters preceding the presidential election. combined consumption of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and These events resulted in a rapid depreciation of the Uruguay. Its installed capacity is about 80 GW, making Brazilian currency (real), high inflation, and lower rates it comparable to Italy and the United Kingdom, but with of growth. A high volume of external debts and the a much larger transmission network. At 70,000 km of heavy burden of debt servicing became a major concern. high-voltage (230 kV and above) transmission lines, the Growth fell to less than 1.5 percent in 2001, public debt Eletrobrás high-voltage system dwarfs those of many rose to 60 percent of GDP, and the value of the Brazilian power systems, including those of the National Grid currency fell by half in relation to the dollar. (6,000 km) of the United Kingdom, and ENEL (10,000 km) of Italy. The government entered into a standby credit agreement for US$30 billion with the International Monetary Fund Brazil is extremely dependent on hydroelectric generation (IMF) in September 2002, which involved tight fiscal capacity in meeting its electricity demand. About 80 controls to attain primary fiscal surpluses, prudent debt percent of the country's electricity, and 88 percent of management, enhanced credibility of inflation targeting, what is fed into the national grid, is from hydroelectric and maintenance of the floating exchange rates. This generation. More than 25 percent (around 75 TWh per resulted in notable successes. Inflation fell from 12.5 year) in fact comes from a single hydropower generation percent to 5.7 percent during 2002­05. GDP grew at source, the massive Itaipu facility located between Brazil 4.9 percent in 2004. Although it slowed down to 2.3 and Paraguay. Itaipu's installed generation capacity has The original draft of this case study was prepared by Luiz T. A. Maurer. Venkataraman Krishnaswamy subsequently incorporated some additional information and edited the case study for consistency with the other case studies. This section draws heavily from World Bank 2003a, 2003b, and 2006. 1 Parts of this case study were adapted from Lock (2005) and Charles River Associates (2005). 2 recently been increased from 12.6 GW to 14.0 GW. Of reform. In fact, Brazil has been one of the largest the 80 GW of total installed power generation capacity recipients of private capital investment in its power in Brazil, only 4.6 GW is from gas-fired power plants, sector, exceeding those in other major markets, such as 4.8 GW from fuel- or diesel-fired facilities, 2.1 GW in China, India, and the Philippines.6 New capital was, from nuclear generators, and 1.4 GW from coal-fired to a large extent, the result of a market-driven power plants. Electricity imports are also relatively small, sector model conceptualized and partially implemented with 5.5 GW coming from 2.2 GW from Argentina, in the late 1990s. Paraguay (comprising its share of Itaipu), 50 MW from Uruguay, and 200 MW from Venezuela. Power Sector Reform Efforts: A Roller Coaster? Capacity addition had traditionally lagged behind demand growth. For example, between 1991 and 1994, demand Power sector reform in Brazil was not smooth and linear. grew at 2,500 MW per year, while generation and It faced many ups and downs, and twists and turns, and transmission capacity expanded by only 1,100 MW per tried to adapt based on experience. year.3 In 1999 forecasters estimated that about 27,000 MW of capacity additions would be required over the The State-Dominated Model next decade, requiring close to US$38 billion in new investment--most of it in new gas-fired thermal power Until the early 1990s, the power sector in Brazil was 44 plants and the gas pipelines to supply them.4 Even prior basically in government's hands. Despite its success in to the 2001 energy crisis, Brazil had blackout episodes buttressing the development of the sector in the 1970s, that reflected a strained system operating close to its the state-ownership model was on the verge of collapse technical limits. in the late 1980s. Tariffs were heavily subsidized, and the sector had a cumulative revenue shortfall of about The availability of abundant sources of hydroelectric US$35 billion. About 15 large hydro plants had their power is beneficial for Brazil in that it reduces the construction delayed or stalled because of the lack of country's overall generation costs relative to countries money for investments. There were complaints about the with more diverse supply mixes. Hydropower is also inefficiency and corruption in the construction of large more environmentally friendly in many respects than plants. Several efforts in the 1980s were made to arrest most thermal generation. the deterioration, but they were too cosmetic to produce any meaningful results. Those reforms did not challenge However, this dependence on hydropower makes Brazil the underlying assumption (in the existing sector structure) particularly vulnerable to supply shortages in low rainfall of having the state in the driver's seat, under the vertically years, especially when consumer and industrial demand is integrated model, and holders of private capital were strong and increasing. Experts have warned for years that understandably too skeptical to make significant Brazil's electricity supply mix is inherently volatile and that investments in the power sector. it needs to diversify its sources to avoid major seasonal supply shortages. The 2001 crisis vividly demonstrated Paving the Road for Reform Brazil's perennial vulnerability to drought caused by an excessive dependence on hydropower and the country's Although the precise triggers for reform initiatives are low reserve margins. That, of course, could and did often debated in Brazil, one can certainly trace the present an enormous opportunity to the developers of current reform initiatives to a major commitment by the nonhydropower plants to use Brazil's not insignificant oil, administration of President Cardoso in the mid-1990s to gas, and coal reserves, to the extent they were available, carry out a fundamental restructuring of Brazil's electricity to expand and diversify power generation.5 sector.7 The first steps involved amendments to the concession legislation to allow the participation of In fact, for almost 20 years Brazil has been on the radar private capital on a competitive, level playing field. screen of private sector investors, independent power Also, in preparation for a sustainable reform, important producers (IPPs), and those interested in power sector steps were taken to improve the economics of the power From de Martino Jannuzzi 2004. 3 Although Brazil has huge untapped hydro potential (estimated at 170,000 MW), most of the attractive hydropower resources have already been 4 developed, and high environmental and social costs, together with the difficulty of great distances between power plants and load centers have made likely the need for large additions in fossil energy supplied power sources. According to the Oil and Gas Journal, Brazil has 10.6 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, and 8.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves. In 5 addition, it imports substantial quantities of gas from Argentina and Bolivia. Its recoverable coal reserves exceed 11.1 billion tons. Its hydroelectric potential exceeds 170,000 MW. President Cardoso had two terms. The first one was from 1995 to 1998, and the second one was from 1999 to 2002. He was then succeeded 7 by President Lula da Silva whose term is from 2003 to 2006. sector by reducing its liabilities and by establishing a The remarkable results of attracting new capital to the new tariff system designed to provide incentives for power sector, both in terms of privatization and greenfield efficiency. Proper legislation and economic feasibility projects, have been attributed to the above-mentioned of the sector as a whole were recognized as important market-driven reforms.10 Under the Cardoso Administration, prerequisites for a sustainable restructuring effort in some existing state-owned generation capacity was the making. successfully privatized. As a result, some foreign investors, including Tractebel, AES, Prisma Energy, El Paso, Duke, The Reforms in the 1990s became significant bulk power producers in Brazil. In addition, many local investors, including industrial The blueprints and initial implementation steps of the groups, large customers, utilities, and pension funds power sector reform were carried out by the so-called heavily invested in the power sector. Some companies RE-SEB project, initiated in 1996 under the administration (Tractabel, El Paso, and Duke) had a clear strategic of President Cardoso.8 It was based on analytical inputs direction of being operators in the generation segment. and on experiences in other countries that were adjusted Others, such as Enron (gas and electricity) and AES to the specifics of the electricity sector in Brazil.9 The (generation and distribution) tended to look for objective of the reform was to establish a comprehensive opportunities for vertical integration. A third group effort to build a more competitive power sector, creating of companies, including EdF, Endesa, and Chilectra, a level playing field for private sector participation. focused on distribution business segment. Institutional At the same time, and running on a parallel track, investors participated in many segments of the business, 45 momentum was gaining for privatization of state-owned but a majority of their investments went toward the assets, including, among other things, state-owned utility distribution segment. International transmission companies. As a result of this effort, today about 85 companies, such as Enel, many construction companies, percent of the distribution sector and 25 percent of and equipment manufacturers participated in the generation are in private hands. Privatization of existing concessions for transmission expansion. The merits of transmission assets did not occur, but practically all the the reform started to be challenged in 2001 when Brazil expansion of the transmission network has been carried experienced a major electricity supply crisis brought on out by private capital. For many, the amount of capital by, among other things, a severe drought, which attracted to the sector, either through privatization or demonstrated concerns about its heavy dependence on greenfield investments, is a testimonial to the success hydroelectricity. The administration had to implement a of power sector reform in the late 1990s. significant power rationing program throughout Brazil, the results of which were decidedly mixed. Partly in One of the first steps of this reform was the establishment response to this energy supply crisis, the Brazilian in 1996 of ANEEL (Brazil's National Electricity Regulatory government is currently in the midst of a significant Agency), the federal agency established as a quasi- new institutional and regulatory reform effort, which is independent regulatory body charged with overseeing revisiting most of the market-driven reforms that took the electricity sector. Although ANEEL's precise role had place in the late 1990s. been evolving as the restructuring of the sector evolved over the previous 10 years (under two successive In 1999 when the impending power shortage was foreseen, administrations), and although some changes in its role the Cardoso Administration attempted to address the and functions are still contemplated, the essence of its expected shortfall through stepped-up efforts to increase independence had been preserved throughout. private investment in the electricity sector. An aggressive Priority Thermal Power Program (PPT) was launched to Then, under a new law enacted in 1998, the Cardoso construct more than 40 gas-fired thermal plants on a Administration took the major restructuring steps of fast-track basis. However, an ongoing reform process, establishing an independent operator of the national still with gaps and regulatory flaws, was not able to transmission system (ONS) and a commercial market attract this urgently needed capacity on time, and the operator (MAE). Because of delays in implementing the crisis became unavoidable. market rules and some contractual disputes, MAE could become fully operational only during the 2001 rationing episode, and its first energy settlement could take place only in 2003. RE-SEB is an acronym for Restructuring of the Electric Sector in Brazil. 8 Paixão 2000. 9 World Bank research (Kessides 2004) indicates that Brazil received US$31.6 billion in foreign investment in the power sector between 1990 and 10 1999; the next highest recipient was China at US$19 billion. Only a few of the gas-fired thermal power plants under However, contrary to the initial expectations, the model the 1999 PPT program have actually been completed by actually followed by the new administration overtly seeks 2003. Eight more were expected to go on line in 2004. to attract long-term private investment to the sector, Their cumulative generation capacity, however, will be heavily relies on competition for the market, as well as relatively small. Most other PPT projects have either increases the level and scope of retail competition.11 been cancelled or have stalled because of licensing All of the previously created institutions, such as the and other regulatory uncertainties. The contraction in regulator, the system operator and the market administrator demand by about 20 percent achieved under the energy were preserved and in some cases their functions rationing program and the consequent emergence of strengthened. A new company, called EPE, was created, excess generation capacity may also have contributed with the specific mission of developing an integrated to these decisions. long-term planning for the power sector in Brazil.12 To some extent, the actual model followed was very The 2003­04 Reforms different from the one put together during President Lula's political campaign. In January 2003, the new administration led by President Luiz Lula da Silva (Lula) came to power on a platform that Contrary to the initial public perception that private sector included criticism of the electricity sector reform efforts of entry into the generation business would be stopped, it is the previous administration of President Cardoso. This now expected that most of the generation expansion will 46 political change, combined with fallout from the 2001 be funded by private capital. Table B-1 illustrates the drought, also led to an initial apparent reversal of the point, showing a breakdown of existing and future plants Cardoso Administration's reforms. During his campaign, by size and technology. Currently, about 27 percent of the President Lula had put together a comprehensive alternative generation assets are in the hands of private investors. reform plan, challenging some of the fundamental Considering the plants under construction, as well as the principles of the earlier power sector reform in Brazil and concessions and licenses already granted by ANEEL, this worldwide, denying the possibility of having competition figure is expected to grow up to 31 percent in the and independent production in a system that (in his medium term and to reach almost 44 percent over 5­6 opinion) should be, because of its own nature, fully years. Even if the possibility of privatization of existing regulated. The proposed model included some elements, generation assets is overruled, private capital participation such as the establishment of a single buyer, the end of the in the generation business will likely represent 50 percent role of independent producers, reregulation of the of the installed capacity in the years to come.13 generation business on a cost-plus basis, and not allowing competition in the market and other similar features. At first, Energy Auctions it seemed to be a setback toward the old days of regulation and government control in the 1980s. The efforts to One of the landmarks of the model followed by the Lula privatize the generation sector (initiated by the previous Administration (the 2004 model) is the establishment of administration) stalled. The Lula Administration, generally energy auctions as the primary procurement mechanism opposed to privatization, stopped the pending privatizations for distribution companies to acquire energy to serve their of three major generation subsidiaries of the massive state- captive consumers. This measure helped in the creation of owned utility, Eletrobrás, which today controls nearly half of competition in the power sector, as well as addressed Brazil's installed capacity and most of the nation's some of the market imperfections observed in the past. It transmission lines. was observed in the past that distribution companies did not contract energy in the forward market as aggressively Much of the ongoing review of the policies of Cardoso as they should have. They claimed, among other reasons, Administration, commenced in 2003 by Brazil's Energy that the regulatory benchmarks for passing through the Minister, Dilma Rousseff, focused on the fallout of the cost of energy to their captive customers were artificially 2001 energy crisis. That has lead in the short term to a low, and that therefore they would run the risk of not being greater government role in supply expansion. Notably, able to pass through to their customers the full cost of the goals of the new model focused predictably on energy purchase, had they contracted more aggressively. reliability of supply and stabilization of prices for Although this is true, it is also true that distribution consumers. companies did not look at the consequences of not A comparison between the 1990 model, model proposed by President Lula and the one really implemented in 2004 is shown in Annex B-1. 11 Having an institution solely responsible for planning (IDESE) was also a recommendation in the previous model. However, it never came to 12 fruition. Privatization is less likely for federally owned generators, but possible for state- (province-) owned, vertically integrated utilities, such as Copel, 13 Cemig, and CEEE. TABLE B-1. The Role of the Private Sector in Power Generation PLANTS UNDER AUTHORIZATIONS OR EXISTING POWER PLANTS CONSTRUCTION CONCESSIONS GRANTED % % % Public Private private Public Private private Public Private private Hydro Hydro 310 5,874 95.0 Hydro 435 3,318 88.4 320­6,3 46,093 8,705 15.9 00 MW 40.4­26 2,130 3,344 61.1 4 MW 8.8­37 278 609 68.7 MW Small 250 593 70.3 12 219 94.8 15 1,289 98.8 hydro Nuclear 1966 0 0 Nuclear 0 0 Nuclear Coal 466 995 68.1 Coal Coal 2,359 100.0 Natural 600 2,151 78.2 Natural 1,638 5,219 76.1 Natural 500 11,306 95.8 47 gas gas gas Fuel oil 520 415 44.4 Fuel oil Fuel oil Diesel 1,732 1,117 39.2 Diesel Diesel 23 100.0 Biomass 0 1,540 100.0 Biomass Biomass 3 110 97.3 Wind 1.3 17.5 93.1 Wind Wind 0 3,337 100.0 Total 54,036 19,487 26.5 Total 1,650 5,438 76.7 Total 518 18,424 97.3 Total with plants under construction 55,686 24,925 30.9 Total with plants under construction and authorized 56,204 43,349 43.5 contracting. In the absence of a mature market, very few 1 percent of) their supply requirement through "adjustment generators would be willing to construct a new plant auctions" to be conducted several times a year, leading to without having most of the energy fully contracted. In sum, short-term (up to two-year) contracts. distribution companies did not contract, and expansion did not occur.14 In order to avoid delays in auction winners coming on line, environmental studies and reports, as well as the Auctions of capacity from "new" generation undertakings preliminary environmental licenses, must be obtained in (whether or not they already have secured concessions or advance of auctions, with installation and operational licenses) will be held three to five years in advance of licenses to follow in due course. The ongoing obligation delivery dates. The idea is to ensure that the totality of for environmental compliance will remain on the future expansion needs, under the watchful eye of the entrepreneur. Ministry of Mines and Energy, is met; and that plants are built only after they have won bids in energy auctions and Generally, distributors will be able to pass through supply are guaranteed long-term contracts. acquisition costs to end users, but they will be subject to new limits linked to the costs of acquisition in the auctions. Auctions for "existing" undertakings will occur a few years in Thus, the energy auctions provide a type of "market" test advance of forecasted delivery. Distributors who have not of the "prudence" of energy purchases by the distribution achieved the guaranteed 100 percent supply requirement in companies. the first instance will have the opportunity to true up (up to The problem is more complex, but a market failure is clearly involved in the decisions of distribution companies. They knew that if collectively 14 none of them contracted, the result would be a shortage of supply, which actually occurred. In a perfect market model, distributors being short of energy in a period of shortage (very high prices) is a risk that none of them should be willing to bear. However, they appeared to know (or had a strong feeling) that if things went sour (for example, leading to a major crisis calling for rationing), a bailout from the government would be inevitable. They did not trust the market signals and behaved in a way that contributed to the rationing crisis. The first auction was carried out in December 2004. It is percent of the generation capacity is hydroelectric, the usually referred to as the "Mega-Auction" because of sequence of a few years direr than usual is generally the sheer volume of electricity traded, even on a considered the immediate cause of the crisis,. Delays in worldwide basis. Contracts for a total of about 40 GW the commissioning of several new generation plants were traded. The auctions were for eight-year energy under construction and transmission problems in the contracts for firm delivery starting in 2006, 2007, third circuit from Itaipu hydropower plant (the largest and 2008. Contracts for delivery starting in 2009 and hydropower facility in the world) accounted for about a 2010 will be carried out soon. third of the energy deficit. Regulatory uncertainties concerning the pass-through of the full power purchase Uncertainties Related to the 2004 Model costs by the distribution companies are believed to have discouraged them from offering Power Purchase Despite the new model's maintaining some of the basic Agreements (PPAs) for future supplies to the prospective pillars of the competitive power sector developed in investors in new generation. Although the 1997 reforms the late 1990s and fixing some of its flaws, the Lula attracted considerable investor interest in the power sector Administration's efforts were viewed with skepticism by the the new investors dragged their feet in the absence of investors, who believed that, based on President Lula's such PPAs and new capacities did not materialize in the campaign and on the ideology of his party, some radical time frame envisaged. The resulting energy shortages changes were about to take place. Those radical changes were sought to be met by drawing down the multiyear 48 never materialized and as a result of Minister Rousseff's storage reservoirs, and reservoir levels reached such effort, a more robust model was put in place, where the dangerously low levels that supply would not last beyond government does have a stronger role to play in areas that four months.15 the current government views as market failures and which contributed to the rationing crisis (for example, the lack of Despite dwindling hydro reserves, the government did capacity expansion because of the lack of a mandatory not take any firm action until a lack of rainfall in 2000 contracting mechanism). Despite the more favorable and and 2001 made it clear that drastic demand reduction positive outcome, numerous regulatory changes and schemes would be necessary to avoid extended blackouts. surprises tend to scare investors and exacerbate the existing Although sophisticated trading systems were set up as level of uncertainty regarding the future of the power sector. part of the reform effort, they were largely useless at The jury is still out. It is not certain to what extent the 2004 stimulating investment in new capacity. The crisis demanded model will indeed lead to new investments and attract more drastic interventions. some of the major international players. The present excess generating capacity situation in Brazil is likely to last for two After the failure of two voluntary demand reduction or three years more. Since power generation plants take campaigns, the government created the Electric Energy two or three years to construct, this is the time to make Crisis Management Board, known as the GCE, in June commitments for new plants. Flaws in the existing model, 2001. The full board was chaired by President Cardoso, if any, will have repercussions three years down the road. and GCE was granted special powers that superseded those of ANEEL and MAE. Among these powers was the authority to set up special tariffs, implement compulsory Fallout of the Shortage--Building Nega-Watts rationing and blackouts, and bypass normal bidding into the System procedures for the purchase of new plant and equipment. In 2001­02 Brazil faced one of the most serious energy The government's handling of the shortage sent out crises experienced in the history of its power system. some important price signals to customers, largely The crisis led to a stringent power rationing regime and positive. Rejecting the more commonly used and easier- had a significant impact on the national approach to to-implement solution of rolling blackouts, the government power policy, planning, and regulation. opted for a quota system. The quota for the consumers was based on historical and target consumption The crisis remains a defining moment in the development levels, with penalties for exceeding quotas, bonuses for of the Brazilian power sector. As with most crises, it was consumption well below the prescribed level, and some the result of several intersecting trends, with a serious freedom for the large users to trade their quotas in a drought and lack of timely investments being the most secondary market. This heavier reliance on market signals important. In the Brazilian power system, in which 85 worked--and the government's goal of reducing See chapter 4 on Brazil in Maurer, Pereira, and Rosenblatt (2005) for a more detailed discussion of the causes and results of the Brazilian power 15 crisis. historical consumption levels by at least 20 percent for Figure B-1 shows the rather extraordinary results of an eight-month period was essentially realized. The rationing in the country. Year-on-year monthly usage fell anticipated dire economic impact (such as GDP more than 25 percent for a sustained period--well reduction and unemployment) was by and large below the government's rationing target for the sector. avoided, and a major long-term benefit--a significant The demand response to the rationing efforts were so long-term conservation impact, especially on residential successful that the government was obliged to pay out consumption--was achieved, thus leaving more room more than US$200 million in bonuses to residential, for increased industrial consumption.16 industrial, and commercial customers who met and exceeded their demand reduction goals.17 The sheer Ironically, the need for rationing--a form of compulsory efficacy of grassroots and universal customer engagement demand-side management--proved the efficacy of many in implementing power sector policy was brilliantly standard demand-side management and energy efficiency demonstrated during the crisis. market intervention strategies, especially customer awareness building, promotions, and incentive schemes The government also undertook drastic interventions on to influence customer behavior. The government's the supply side by mounting a program for contracting decision to adopt a semivoluntary quota system rather emergency generation capacity. Proposals for 117 than a totally involuntary rolling blackout scheme was generating units with total capacity of 4,000 MW were highly successful, yielding energy savings of up to 25 submitted, and bids totaling 2,100 MW of new thermal percent for residential consumers, 15­20 percent for capacity were accepted. The average contract price in 49 industrial consumers, and 10­25 percent for commercial respect of these emergency generation units (which consumers. The success of this decision demonstrated included barge-mounted diesel-fueled units and other the viability of engaging the demand side in the process similar options), amounted to about US$100/MWh, of saving energy. which was nearly three times the price commanded by the quotas trading in auctions at that time. FIGURE B-1. RESULTS OF RESIDENTIAL ENERGY SAVINGS DURING THE 2001 POWER CRISIS 7052000 5,108.071 MWh Average May/Jun/Jul 2000 6052000 5,738.340 MWh tegraT 5052000 4,730.516 MWh h 4052000 W M 3052000 2052000 1052000 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec -14.2% -27.9% -28.3% -26.2% -26.5%-23.7% -24.1% Ninety-one percent of households reduced consumption; and two years later, two-thirds of them were still saving on prior consumption. Annual 16 consumption growth rates, pre-estimated at over 4 percent, still hover in the 1­2 percent range. Maurer, Pereira, and Rosenblatt (2005). 17 Both generators and distributors were financially hard hit In addition, the immediate outcome of the rationing was by the power crisis. With the 20 percent reduction in a lesser need for new investment in the sector in the consumption, revenues of the distributors came down by short term. However, the most remarkable consequence 20 percent. They were thus unable to cover their fixed of the crisis was that, by the end of 2002, when the costs. In respect of generators, the risk-sharing mechanism President Lula took office, about 8,500 MW of surplus that pooled the generator production shortfall risk of all assured energy were available in the country, making a generators together meant that they were charged for supply crisis during his administration unlikely. About production shortfalls at spot prices that were much higher half of the surplus capacity is usually attributed to the than their contract rates. Only after extensive government expansion of the power sector during the rationing brokering was agreement reached on a series of tariff period, and the other half is attributed to the energy increases that would allow distributors to recover their rationalization and efficiency gains, which persist to the revenue shortfalls and generators to recoup their spot present (nega-watts).22 In sum, efforts on the demand market payments over a period of six years. side were able to create a virtual capacity of 4,000 MW, helping the country bridge the supply demand gap in a The financial position of the distributors was also weakened very economical way. by the concurrent and continuing devaluation of the real. From January 1, 1999, through December 31, 2001, the Attracting Capital and Power Sector Reform real fell in value by 92 percent against the dollar. From 50 January 1, 2002, through June 24, 2002, the real fell Despite all the criticism about the reforms of 1990s in value by another 20.3 percent. Thus, during the and subsequent mid-course corrections, they produced period of 42 months, the amount of reais equivalent to remarkable results in attracting capital. The power sector a dollar rose from 1.2 to 2.8 or by 133 percent.18 reform in late 1990s conveyed to the investors the country's serious intention to attract private capital, and Customers were hit hard as well. In addition to the showed industry experts and investors worldwide a threat of rolling blackouts (which never materialized) the consistent regulatory roadmap to do so. Brazil received average price of electricity skyrocketed 140 percent in about US$56.7 billion in private capital between 1990 nominal terms between 1995 and 2002--twice the and 2003. That represents more than 20 percent of the increase in the IPCA consumer price index over the same total private capital invested in the power sector of the period.19,20 The combination of the rationing and price developing countries worldwide. The next highest recipient increases led to a significant reduction in total use and was China with US$22 billion (table B-2). Brazil was use by sector which continues to date. After peaking at very fortunate that the timing of privatization of its assets 310,000 GWh in 2000, sales fell 10 percent in 2001 coincided with a window of opportunity in the late 1990s, and stayed flat through 2002. Forecasts for both GDP where international investors had funds and commitment and electricity growth rates stand only at 2 percent over to expand their operations abroad. As one commentator the short term, down considerably from the 6 percent put it, it was a time of great exuberance, unlikely to growth rate of the early to mid-1990s.21 occur again any time soon. The legacy of the power crisis and its effects on the One of the criticisms about the capital flow into the future of energy efficiency in the country are mixed. Brazilian power sector was that most funds were used for On the supply side, the crisis created more barriers to the acquisition of existing state-owned assets, future demand-side management and energy efficiency as opposed to promoting expansion of the power sector efforts, because distributors are averse to any further through capacity additions. If all the money had been reduction in their revenue and are not interested in invested in greenfield projects, some critics contend, undertaking new, discretionary activities. On the demand rationing could have been avoided. Although this side, the crisis provided incentives for all customer groups statement has some elements of truth, the proceeds for investments in energy conservation and efficiency. from privatization helped to reduce the country's foreign Furthermore, prices remain high for all consumers, debt and created fiscal space for new investments in since the bill for all the new capacity and the financial social areas. It is also worth noting that, despite two- hangover from the crisis need to be paid for. Continued thirds of the capital being used for privatization, Brazil high prices are likely to create new opportunities for still ranks number one in terms of capital invested in investment in energy efficiency. new, greenfield assets, as shown in table B-2. The depreciation of the real reached its lowest point during President Lula's election to about R 4.00 to the dollar. It has since appreciated again 18 to R 2.7 to the dollar, bringing relief and financial stability to the distribution companies. IPCA stands for Índice Nacional de Preços ao Consumidor Amplo (or Broad National Consumer Price Index). 19 Instituto Nacional de Eficiência Energética 2003. 20 Bourdaire 2003. 21 Nega-watt refers to the volume of watts of energy saved through such methods as demand-side management. 22 TABLE B-2. Private Investments in the Power Sector, 1900­2003 TOTAL PERCENTAGE GREENFIELD AND COUNTRY INVESTMENTS WORLDWIDE CONCESSIONS DIVESTITURE Brazil 56,672 21 17,689 38,983 Argentina 25,988 10 16,861 5,455 China 22,316 8 12,610 1,604 Philippines 14,214 5 12,126 563 India 12,688 5 10,547 188 Malaysia 11,120 4 8,525 2,595 Indonesia 10,737 4 8,098 2,176 Thailand 10,274 4 6,765 19,223 Others 105,865 39 67,171 38,677 Worldwide total 269,874 100 160,392 109,464 Source: World Bank (2004). Total investments include divestiture, greenfield, management contracts, concessions, and leases. Column 4 excludes leases and management contracts. 51 FIGURE B-2. ANNUAL GROWTH IN CAPACITY ADDITIONS 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000 W 2,500 M 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 Power sector reform had a remarkable impact on the The power sector reform also had an important effect on flow of capital indeed. The average investment in the the expansion of the transmission system. Investments electricity sector from 1984 until 1996 was about $500 from 1990 until 1995 in the "Basic Grid" expanded at a million per year. The investment increased to $8.3 billion rate of about 700 km per year.23 From 1996 onward, per year in the period from 1997 until 2003.The this figure jumped to almost 1,800 km per year, as average annual installed capacity addition until 1995 shown in figure B-3. This was a direct result of a BOO was about 1,100 MW. Annual capacity addition jumped model put in place, whereby the investor was granted a to 3,100 MW as a result of the reform (see figure B-2). relatively stable stream of revenues for the duration of "Basic Grid" basically includes transmission assets operating at 230 kV and above. 23 FIGURE B-3. ANNUAL INCREASES IN THE LENGTH OF TRANSMISSION LINES 3,500 3,000 senil 2,500 noissi 2,000 msnartfo 1,500 mk 1,000 500 52 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 the concession (20 years). Important new investments Frequency Index (SAIFI) and System Average Interruption were treated as separate projects and a specific concession Duration Index (SAIDI) for the Brazilian distribution put for bid. The winner was the one offering the lowest systems for the period 1996­2004.25 tariff to provide the transmission services. The independent system operator decides which transmission system In general, the reforms created a very robust and solid reinforcements or expansions are necessary. So far, environment for attracting new investments and for there is no merchant transmission in Brazil. building an efficient power sector. Many of the reform elements need to be preserved as key components of a As already mentioned, most of the distribution sector was long-term, sustainable reform. Some of its most positive privatized. Very high premiums were paid in the acquisition results of the reform process are summarized in box B-1. of state-owned distribution companies, for most distribution companies, as shown in figure B-4.24 Nothing, however, guarantees that the model adopted by Brazil so far will be successful or sustainable in the New owners of those distribution companies invested years to come. Neither is it guaranteed that the model significantly (after privatization) to improve the quality of adopted by Brazil in the 1990s can be replicated in service and to support the needs of a growing market. countries that are now considering restructuring their They also worked to reduce theft, nonpayments, power sectors. The regulatory system still has many gaps and technical losses, and to foster energy efficiency. and flaws that will need to be addressed and that will The distribution business benefited significantly from require new mid-course corrections. The perception that this new infusion of private capital. further changes are necessary creates more uncertainty among investors. Quality of service improved significantly in the privatized distribution companies, as can be seen from table B-3, which summarizes the System Average Interruption The premium were above the minimum price published by the government as part of the auction process. 24 SAIFI is the average number of times that a customer's service is interrupted in a year. It is calculated by summing the number of customers 25 affected by each event and dividing it by the total number of customers in the system. SAIDI is the average duration in hours a customer's service is interrupted in a year. It is calculated by summing up the restoration time of each interruption event times the number of customers affected for each event and dividing the result by the total number of customers in the system. The lower the index numbers are, the better is the reliability and quality of service. FIGURE B-4. PREMIUM OVER MINIMUM PRICE IN DISTRIBUTION PRIVATIZATION (PERCENT) Elektro Energipe AES Sul Enersul RGE Coelba COSERN CPFL CERJ COELCE CEMAT ESCELSA Light ELETROPAULO 53 CELPA Bandeirante 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: ABRADEE 2002. TABLE B-3. Improvement in Service Quality YEAR SAIFI (NUMBER) SAIDI (HOURS) 1996 21.91 26.09 1997 21.68 27.19 1998 19.86 24.05 1999 17.59 19.85 2000 15.29 17.44 2001 14.56 16.57 2002 14.84 18.07 2003 13.10 16.63 2004 12.12 15.80 Source: Website of ANEEL: www.aneel.gov.br. Less money is available now in the international market, Governments have to work harder to reduce regulatory and it is unlikely to have a new great window of risk (and the perception thereof) in order to attract new opportunity any time soon. Investors, on the other hand, capital. Reduction of risk will possibly entail a larger role are more skeptical and risk averse. Shareholders were for the state as a buyer, planner, or guarantor. To some hurt--partly because of the government's failure to fulfill extent, the pendulum has swung back from the days of their promises, and partly because of the exuberance irrational exuberance. Many investors in Brazil did take that led to questionable investments. Investors will be some extra regulatory risk in the expectation that regulatory more cautious in the future. No significant premiums gaps would be fixed later either by the invisible hand or should be expected. The competition for international by the investors' own influence over the regulatory compact. capital, now much more scarce, will be more intense. Such risks are unlikely to be taken now or in future. BOX B-1. Results of the Reform Process The reform process created a competitive business model for generation in which 10, 000 MW of hydro concessions were granted, and 19,000 MW of generation plants were commissioned in five years. Cost and time of construction were significantly reduced with private participation. Following are some of the most positive results of the reform process: · Consolidation of a business model for power system operation similar to the most advanced pools in the United States--"centralized least cost, security constrained dispatch," carried out by an independent operator. · Creation of a new business model in transmission--12,600 km of high-voltage lines and 23 GVA in substations were built, mostly by the private sector. · Creation of a wholesale energy market--now in full operation. · Privatization of 85 percent of distribution and 25 percent of generation with significant improvements in quality of service--timing of privatization coincided with the greatest availability of capital in the world market. · Electrification of 500,000 rural households. · Successful management of an eight-month, countrywide rationing program that reduced consumption by 20 percent, using market signals and no blackouts--with 8,500 MW of surplus capacity available at the end of 2002. · As a mid-course correction in 2004, establishment of a sound energy auction mechanism as the primary procurement of energy for distribution companies to serve their captive customers at the least cost possible. 54 Boards of the investing companies will be keeping a One major positive factor for Brazil that is not true for close watch over the investments being made by their many less developed countries attempting sector reform managers, who in turn will be extra cautious, so as to and instituting new regulatory regimes, is the already avoid such risks. The government now has a greater high electric penetration rates at the distribution level-- responsibility to tie up all the loose ends of the regulatory covering over 90 percent of the population. The tariff framework to minimize regulatory risks. regime and payment discipline had ensured broadly commercially viable distribution segment.26 That may Probably the biggest question hanging over Brazil's power have been one good building block for greater levels of sector, certainly from the perspective of the private investor, private investment and management in Brazil. One of is whether the reform program, initially instituted in the the greatest barriers to the sustainability of many of the mid-1990s, will remain essentially on track and what major IPP investments in the 1990s in countries, such as level of stability can be assumed in the basic power sector India, was the enormous disparity between the economic model, and in the legal-regulatory regime implementing terms of bulk power IPP contracts and the tariff and it. Put another way, will the Lula Administration's negative collection regimes faced by the distribution entities. stance on privatization during the elections resurface; or The financially strapped distribution entities could not will the pragmatic, if hands-on, approach to the path of hope to recover the bulk power costs from end-use the reforms the new government took initially be sustained? consumers. The indications are that it may be the latter. Brazil has presented, for at least a decade, an enticing Another of the challenges is whether the new "hands-on" but perhaps frustrating opportunity, both for private or "top-down" approach of government to the sector, investors and for power sector and regulatory reformers. evident in the 2004 reforms and the actions of the last Whether the 2004 reforms are another step (in a not two years, will require a far more rules-oriented control always clear but apparently inexorable process) toward of the sector, or whether the more traditional approach the opening up of Brazil's power sector to competition of leaving discretion with the regulator will be retained. and private enterprise, or just another episode in a If the latter, and if the discretions are to be exercised by vacillating trail of failed reform initiatives, the next year the Ministry of Mines and Energy rather than by a or two may provide an answer. sufficiently independent ANEEL, the issue of undue politicization of the process would arise and call for remedial action. The average retail tariff per megawatt-hour for the country rose from R 74.47 in 1996 to R 108.50 by 2000 and further to R 244.81 in January 26 2006. The residential tariff at R 295.29 was about 50 percent higher than the industrial tariff at R 195.20. At the exchange rate of R 2.1 to the U.S. dollar prevailing in April 2006, the average retail tariff in 2006 amounted to 11.66 cents/kWh (ANEEL website and World Bank 2006). ANNEX B-1. Basic Characteristics of the New Model for the Power Sector FEATURE TODAY LULA'S CAMPAIGN NEW MODEL Industry structure Proposed Deverticalization not an issue. Prohibits cross-ownership and self- verticalization of G, T, dealing. Separation between D and D, and C, partially C postponed. State companies implemented-- challenging restrictions. missing D and C. Trading arrangements Multiple buyers and Single buyer responsible for "Soft single buyer" (pool) allocating sellers. buying and selling all energy. contracts and coordinating auctions, but no title for the energy. Contracts outside the pool are allowed (IPPs and free customers). Primary nature Bilateral, of financial To be transferred to single As today. of contracts nature. buyer, possibly physical. Generation pricing Vesting contracts = All generation to have Freely negotiated if outside the regulated. New regulated prices. pool. Result of a competitive 55 contracts = freely process (auction) if within the pool. negotiated for IPPs and auction for public generators. Status of generation New = IPP. Old All generation must be public Status remains as today. However, gradually moving from service. if energy from public service public service toward generators is sold via competitive IPP as plants are auction, status becomes irrelevant. privatized. Operation of the Independent system Change trading arrangements As today, but government intends power system operator, security to allow optimal operation of to appoint most independent constrained, least cost the power system. Trading system operator executives. centralized dispatch. arrangements interfere in the optimal dispatch. Retail competition To be reduced below Allowed only for large Delayed the reduction in the 3 MW in 2003-- customers. threshold. proposed 1 MW. Tariff to large Subsidized. Idea to Reduce cross-subsidies Idea is still to eliminate cross- customers gradually eliminate immediately. subsidies, but special deals being cross-subsidies as cut with large customers at initial contracts expire, US$20/MWh. reflecting a commodity cost of US$30/MWh. Unbundle D and C to give visibility. Note: G, T, D, and C stand for generation, transmission, distribution, and electricity trading. Contracts between G and D are de facto capped at the normative value for pass-through purposes. "Today" represents 2004 or early 2005. CASE STUDY C: BULGARIA Economic Background 7 percent of the GDP in 2003 and are expected to exceed $2.0 billion in 2004, reflecting largely the success With an area of 111,000 square kilometers, a population in the privatization of energy and telecommunication of about 8 million, and per capita income of about entities. The average per capita income of Bulgaria in $8,260 in 2004 (on the purchasing power parity basis), 2004 at purchasing power parity was about 30 percent Bulgaria is already a member of the North Atlantic Treaty of the (enlarged 25-member) EU average.5 About 13 Organisation (NATO) and is poised for EU accession in percent of the people were believed to be living below January 2007. In 2002 the EU declared Bulgaria as the poverty line in 2003. having a fully functioning market economy.1 By June 2004, the country had closed all the EU accession negotiation chapters.2 Energy Resources The contraction of the GDP, which started in 1989 Energy resource endowments of Bulgaria are modest, (following the collapse of the communist regime), and the economy is dependent on imports of nuclear continued until 1996­97 when the country experienced fuel, oil, natural gas, and good-quality coal to meet 70 a serious economic crisis. Reforms undertaken in that percent of its energy needs. Its proven reserves of crude context helped to revive growth. The annual growth rate oil are about 15 million barrels, its proven natural gas 57 had been between 4 percent and 5 percent during the reserves are estimated at 0.2 trillion cubic feet, and its last several years and reached 5.6 percent in 2004. Still hydroelectric potential in its Danube River basin, Aegean the GDP in 2004 was about 90 percent of that in 1989. Sea drainage basin, and the Black sea drainage basin is In 2005 the growth rate was believed to have been of equally modest. The only significant indigenous energy 5.5 percent. Annual rates of inflation that reached well resource is the low calorific value (and high sulfur and over 1,000 percent by 1996 came down to a little lower high ash) brown coal and lignite. Estimated reserves of than 4 percent by the end of 2004. The fiscal deficit of lignite are about 3 billion metric tons, nearly 50 percent 10.5 percent of the GDP in 1996 came down to near 0 of which is considered proven. Reserves of sub- percent in 2003 and became a fiscal surplus of 1.8 bituminous coal are about 200 million metric tons. percent of GDP in 2004. A level of 1.0 percent surplus At current and expected production rates, the coal and is expected in 2005. Public debt as a percentage of lignite reserves should last for about 40­50 years.6 GDP came down to 40.9 percent in December 2004. The country is also believed to have a significant wind energy potential, which is in the initial stages of being Introduction of the new local currency and Currency exploited for power generation.7 Board arrangements for the exchange rate regime (pegging the Bulgarian currency, the lev, to the German mark initially, and later to the euro) adopted in July 1997 Power Sector Dimensions and Characteristics resulted in the stability of the exchange rate over the last several years.3,4 The Currency Board arrangement will At the end of 2003, the total installed power generation continue until 2010, when the euro will be adopted as capacity in Bulgaria amounted to 12,310 MW, consisting the currency. Unemployment (which remained high at 18 of 2,880 MW (or 23.4 percent) of nuclear, 2,730 MW percent of the active labor force in 2000­02) came (or 22.2 percent) of hydroelectric, and 6,700 MW (or down to 13.5 percent in December 2003 and 12 54.9 percent) of the conventional thermal capacity using percent by the end of 2004. lignite, coal, or gas as fuel. The nuclear units and lignite- fired thermal plants handled the base load. Other thermal The credit rating of the country had been revised upward plants handled the intermediate load, while the hydro several times in the past and stood in 2004 at BBB units handled the peak load and also helped to regulate (Standard and Poor's and Fitch Investment in 2004). system frequency and voltage. Foreign direct investment inflows were at $1.4 billion or This case study was written by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy Private sector share of the GDP exceeded 65 percent. 1 However, the European Commission would monitor closely the ongoing reforms and if the target dates are not met, the accession could be 2 delayed by a year (Transition Report 2004, EBRD, p. 110). The new lev was equal to 1,000 old leva. 3 The prevailing rate on January 19, 2005, was $1 = BGN 1.4976 (the new lev). 4 World Bank 2005, p. 24. 5 There are slightly lower estimates by the government in the context of studying the new nuclear option. These numbers are from USDOE 2005. 6 The nuclear plant at Kozlodui consisted of four units of may be closer to 1.0 percent.11 Generation investments 440 MW each, commissioned in the late 1970s and envisaged for the future are mostly for new capacity to early 1980s, and two units of 1,000 MW each, compensate for the closure of four 440 MW nuclear commissioned in 1987 and 1991. On account of safety power units at Kozlodui, and for the rehabilitation or considerations, the first two units were shut down replacement of the old thermal units, and partly for permanently at the end of 2002. The remaining two meeting the incremental demand. With the closure of 440 MW units are scheduled to be shut down by the the nuclear units, competitively priced export surplus end of 2006. Meanwhile, safety upgrades for them, as would come down notably. well as the two 1,000 MW units, are being undertaken. The construction of a 600 MW nuclear unit was started The transmission system consisted of 750 kV (85 km), in late 1980s at Belene, but was suspended in 1990 400 kV (2,266 km), 220 kV (2,650 km), and 110 kV after spending $1.5 billion. Proposals to complete the (9,511 km), and the total transformer capacity in the construction of the plant and commission it by 2008 at 277 substations amounted to 30,249 MVA. The Bulgarian an estimated cost of $2­3 billion are being pursued.8 system is interconnected at various voltage levels to the More than 75 percent of the thermal plants are in the adjoining systems of Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, age group of 21­35 years or older. Most of the combined Romania, Serbia, and Turkey, and had been a part of heat and power (CHP) plants are even older. Hydro units the South East European electricity market (known as are limited by variations in water flows. Because of this, UCTE Zone II). Recently it became a part of the Union 58 the available capacity was reported at 9,500 MW in 2003. for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE) covering most of the Western Europe, through the The peak demand of the system occurs in winter; it was synchronization of the first and second zones of UCTE. 6,717 MW on February 13, 2003. The average winter Dispatch function is handled by a national dispatch peak is of the order of 6,000 MW, and the average center and four regional dispatch centers. They all have summer peak is of the order of 4,000 MW. The system supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, load factor in 2003 was 62 percent.9 In 2006 the domestic and the national dispatch center has real time on-line peak demand reached 6,900 MW on January 24, while control of the generation and transmission. They are the system was also exporting 1,300 MW. The system supplemented by 25 district distribution control centers reserve was at a comfortable level of 1,300 MW.10 also equipped with SCADA systems. The total energy generated in 2003 amounted to 42,500 The distribution system uses medium-voltage lines at GWh, of which 40 percent came from nuclear, 36 percent 20 kV, 10 kV, and 6.3 kV and low-voltage lines at 380 V from thermal units fired by indigenous fuels, 16 percent and 220 V. It covers the whole country and connects from thermal units fired by imported fuels, and 8 percent 100 percent of the households. It was organized until from hydroelectric units. At the wholesale market level, recently into seven distribution companies, which the total sales amounted to 35,054 GWh consisting of were grouped into three larger ones for privatization.12 24,095 GWh for the distribution companies, 5,510 They supply electricity mostly to low- and medium- GWh for the 93 high-voltage consumers buying directly voltage consumers. Most of the high-voltage consumers from the wholesale market, and 5,449 GWh of net buy directly from the transmission grid. The total number exports to Greece, Turkey, and the Balkan countries. of consumers handled by the distribution companies in Net exports were in the range of 5,000­7,000 GWh 2002 was 4.473 million, of whom 10.92 percent during the previous three years. In 2004 gross generation were classified as commercial and the rest residential. was slightly less at 41,586 GWh, and exports were In terms of electricity sales, however, the share of slightly more at 5,901 GWh. In 2005 exports may have residential consumers (50.2 percent) was higher than exceeded 7,600 GWh. that of the commercial consumers (49.8 percent). The distribution companies bought 23,943 GWh of Domestic demand is forecast by the utility to grow through electricity in 2002 and sold 18,564 GWh. The system 2020 at the average annual rate of 1.8 percent. Other losses at the distribution level thus amounted to 5,379 observers believe that the average annual growth rate GWh or 22 percent of the input into the system.13 Completion of this plant may take a much longer time. The first unit may not be ready until 2012. 8 NEK 2003 and 2004. 9 Energy in East Europe, Issue 82 dated February 3, 2006. 10 See South East European Generation Investment Study by Price Waterhouse Coopers and Atkins International. See also Energy in East Europe, 11 Country Supplement 2006. A small eighth distribution company called Zlatni Pyasaatsi covers an area of 30 square kilometers, and has 480 industrial and 5 residential 12 customers. It seems to have been privatized much earlier (Koutintchev 2003). See Energy in Eastern Europe, Issue 44 dated July 23, 2004, pp. 9­11. 13 The losses were highest at 31.4 percent in the Sofia cents for residential and 5.5 cents for industrial region, whereas they were lowest at 19.1 percent in consumers.17 Substantial tariff improvements took place Sofia. The distribution companies had 12,828 since then under the three programmatic loans of the employees, which indicated a customer-to-employee ratio World Bank provided during 2003­05. In order to of 349 and a sales-to-employee ratio of 1.447 GWh.14 achieve the cost recovery level and to eliminate the cross-subsidy, the residential tariffs were raised by 20 All the consumers are metered, although about 70 percent in July 2002, 15 percent in July 2003, and by a percent of the meters are older than 20 years and need further 10 percent in July 2004, while maintaining the replacement. These distribution companies together had tariffs for industries and other nonresidential consumers total revenue of BGN 1,462 million in 2002 from electricity at the levels notified in January 2000. The present end- sales and accounts receivables of BGN 239 million, which user tariff per kilowatt-hour for high-voltage, medium- indicated an accounts receivable level equivalent to 1.9 voltage, and low-voltage industrial consumers appears months' sale.15 Their accounts payable to suppliers at BGN to be 6.2 cents, 6.9 cents, and 8.3 cents, respectively. 170 million was at a lower level of 1.16 months' sales. The rate for high-voltage consumers during holidays and weekends is slightly lower at 5.7 cents/kWh. Compared to this, the rate per kilowatt-hour for residential Electricity Tariffs consumers seems to be 6.5 cents for the first 75 kWh, 8.7 cents for the next 50 kWh and 10.22 cents for Government policy has been to have a uniform consumer consumption exceeding 125 kWh /month.18 59 tariff for electricity across the country. The differences in cost levels of the different distribution companies are The State Energy Regulatory Commission established balanced by differentiation in the bulk supply tariffs in 1999 and strengthened by the energy law of 2003 charged to them by Nationalna Elektricheska Kompania (Republic of Bulgaria 2003) is responsible for the EAD (NEK), the single buyer and seller in the market. regulation of electricity tariffs.19 It regulates (a) the prices at This policy is subject to review and revision in the context which the state-owned and other generation entities (with of sector restructuring and privatization. The tariffs vary public supply obligations) sell electricity to the single buyer among consumer categories (residential, nonresidential, (NEK); (b) the prices at which the single buyer sells and municipal) by days (working day or holiday or electricity to the distribution companies and high-voltage weekends), and by the time of use (daytime, nighttime, consumers; (c) the prices charged by the distribution and peak hours). Residential tariffs, which used to companies to the end consumers; and (d) the transmission be subsidized heavily by nonresidential consumers, charges. The regulation of generation tariffs, which would are being adjusted upward to reduce the cross subsidy. consist of capacity and energy charges, would be based The EBRD's Transition Report 2004 (EBRD 2004) reports on approved rates of return, whereas the distribution tariffs that the residential tariff in Bulgaria of about 5.0 cents/kWh would follow a revenue cap regime incorporating the pass- is about 105 percent of the nonresidential tariff, through of purchased power cost and the elimination of indicating the significant reduction in cross-subsidy already cross-subsidies. Presently the nuclear plant sells electricity achieved and the scope for further improvement in this to NEK at 1.19 cents/kWh. Other generating units sell to respect.16 In 2002 the weighted average electricity tariff NEK at prices in the range of 2 cents to 4 cents/kWh.20 in Bulgaria at 4.11 cents/kWh was believed to be 55 Transmission tariffs have been nearly doubled to the level percent of the long-run marginal cost (LRMC) and of BGN 11.8/MWh (excluding value added tax (VAT)), and compared with OECD country tariff level of about 11.2 this is believed to be a reason for the reluctance of eligible See also Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources 2004. 14 The average tariff realized at the distribution level in 2002 appears of the order of BGN 0.08/kWh (or 5.3 cents/kWh). The government's plan 15 was to raise average price per kilowatt-hour by 15 percent in 2003 and by 10 percent in 2004 to reach the level of about BGN 0.11 or 7.3 cents/kWh by end 2004. In most OECD countries, the residential tariff is double that of the industrial tariff (see EBRD 2004, pp. 60­61). 16 See also Government of the Republic of Bulgaria (2002), p. 10, which indicates that the average household tariff in October 2001 at BGN 0.067 17 was about 80 percent of the cost of supply at low voltage. These rates are for those with single register meter without the use of Time of use and converted using the exchange rate of $1= BGN 1.4976. 18 Most high-voltage, medium-voltage, and low-voltage industrial users have time-of-use meters with two or three registers, and they pay different rates for peak, off-peak daytime, and off-peak nighttime use. Many residential consumers also have time-of-use meters with different rates for daytime and nighttime use (www.doe.bg). Later the State Energy Regulatory Commission became the State Energy and Water Regulatory Commission. 19 Recently, the regulatory body approved a five-year PPA between the generating company owning Maritsa East II thermal plant and the single 20 buyer at about BGN 27.61/MWh or 1.84 cents/kWh of energy and BGN 11.36/MW or $7.59/MW of capacity (see Energy in East Europe, Issue 46 dated September 3, 2004). buyers to conclude direct supply contracts, even with such Essentially NEK worked closely and patiently with its large a low-cost supplier as the nuclear plant.21 By October industrial consumers, arranging export orders for them, 2005, the regulator had revised the transmission tariff escrowing the export receipts, and recovering electricity downward to BGN 9.31/MWh. dues as a primary charge from the escrowed amounts. It also used its extensive network of financial contacts During the mid-1990s, social protection for the poorer and superior credit ratings to arrange for financial segment of the population in the context of rising accommodation to its large customers to enable them electricity prices was sought by issuing energy vouchers pay their electricity dues. The disconnection threat was to the means-tested poor families.22 These vouchers effectively used in respect of smaller and residential could be used to buy coal, electricity, or heat, and the consumers, and collection efficiency reached close to energy companies would get the value of such sales 100 percent by 1998 and has remained in the healthy reimbursed by the government. Because of the range of 90­100 percent since.27 With the help of donor administrative difficulties of identifying the eligible families, agencies, it also succeeded in getting its electricity tariffs such social protection was later offered through the use of raised by the government to keep pace with the high a two-block tariff. Under this arrangement, the tariffs for rates of inflation and rising costs, although the tariffs the first block of 75 kWh of daytime consumption per could not fully catch up with full costs. The necessary month throughout the year and for the first block of 50 minimum capital investments were financed partly by the kWh of the nighttime consumption during the five months limited internal cash and mostly by government equity 60 of heating period would be frozen at the 2001 level, and or by government-guaranteed debt raised from bilateral, price increases would apply only to the higher level of multilateral, and commercial sources. The need for consumption.23 This arrangement was expected to expire reaching fiscal balance limited the capacity of the in 2004. In the tariff revision of July 2004, the size of the government to inject fresh equity and provide guarantees block has been slightly altered, but the principle for new loans to meet the financing needs of the sector continues.24 It would appear that the regulator may to rehabilitate the existing generation, transmission, and continue the arrangement until 2007.25 distribution system and build new generation capacities to replace the retiring units. The high level of technical losses in the network urgently called for large investments. Sector and Market Structure Thus, toward the late 1990s, it became necessary to initiate Nationalna Elektricheska Kompania EAD (NEK) was electricity sector reforms to enable private investment, established in November 1991 as a fully state-owned introduce possible competition in generation, provide at vertically integrated utility responsible for generation, least for the major consumers the right to choose their transmission, and distribution in the entire country. suppliers, and promote renewable and environment- It functioned in that role during the entire decade. Although friendly sources of power supply. The Bulgarian power it was operating a well-planned and well-run power system, system is well interconnected to all adjoining systems it ran into problems because of the economic challenges and is a key player with significant power export interests and crises faced by the country, it overcame them through in the UCTE II synchronous Balkan electricity market, disciplined and enlightened governance and, by and large, which was in the process of being integrated with the it managed to maintain the adequacy, quality, and reliability main UCTE I synchronous zone of Western Europe.28 of supply. During economic downturn, generation and The country's policies were also driven by the desire consumption declined, notably in the industrial segment. for early EU accession and conformity with related EU Many state-owned industries accumulated large arrears to energy and environment directives. the power utility. The patient, disciplined, and enlightened manner in which the utility overcame this nonpayment By the year 2000, the distribution enterprises had been problem has been adequately documented in separated from NEK, which became responsible for the Krishnaswamy (1999).26 generation, transmission, and sale of electricity to the See Energy in East Europe, Issue 48 dated October 1, 2004, p. 13. The generators have been given only a limited quota for such bilateral 21 contracts. The quota of the nuclear plant is 200 GWh for 2004. An appeal has been made to the Supreme Administrative Court against the transmission tariff decision. This covered about 10­11 percent of the house holds in the country with an income of lower than 150 percent nationally defined basic 22 minimum income. In addition, electricity sales to households were exempt from the levy of VAT at that time. This is only for consumers who are not customers of district heating companies. See Government of the Republic of Bulgaria (2002), p. 11. 23 Improvements to the social protection arrangements in the context of rising electricity prices through reforms to the lifeline blocks and 24 strengthening of winter energy benefits program were made under the three programmatic loans of the World Bank during 2003­05. See the regulator's statement in Energy in East Europe, Issue 49 dated October 15, 2005, p. 14. 25 Krishnaswamy (1999), pp. 58­65. 26 Even after NEK became a single buyer, its accounts receivable seems to be the equivalent of about 55 days' sales. 27 This has since been achieved, and Bulgaria is now a full member of UCTE. 28 seven newly formed distribution companies. A new the percentage of output (of any IPP), which must be energy law was envisaged to enable further sector supplied to the single buyer at regulated prices. The unbundling and the desired restructuring of the sector. system is dispatched largely on the basis of bilateral Anticipating this, in the next stage, all thermal power contracts (long-term and short-term) and a small units except the Maritsa East 3 (four units of 210MW balancing market for the real-time balancing of supply each) were separated from NEK and set up as joint and demand. stock companies. The nuclear plant at Kozloduy was also set up as an IPP. The ownership and responsibility The energy law also revised the prevailing regime for for rehabilitation and operation of Maritza Iztok 3 TPP bidding for new and upgraded energy facilities by (including the installation of flue gas desulfurization permitting freer entry into the business. Investors willing (FGD) equipment) was given in April 2003 to a joint to construct such new power plants could do so without venture in which Enel of Italy and Entergy of the United having to go through the bidding procedure, which was States had 73 percent of the shares and NEK had 27 to be held only in respect of the new generation units percent of the shares. This was the first major project considered vital for maintaining Bulgarian energy balance. without sovereign guarantees. NEK had the responsibility The sector and market structures are largely like those of for the operation of the hydro units, as well as for other countries acceding to the EU and would conform transmission and dispatch systems, and for acting as the to the EU directives. single buyer of all power generated in Bulgaria and selling it to the distribution companies, to high-voltage During 2005, accounting separation among the three 61 consumers connected to the grid, and for exports. key functions of NEK--namely, (a) hydro power generation, (b) transmission (including dispatch) and system control, Under the new energy law, which was passed in 2003 and (c) electricity trading--was implemented, to enable (Republic of Bulgaria 2003), a seven-member State Energy a further restructuring of NEK to separate these functions Regulatory Commission was created to carry out the fully to achieve greater transparency and objectivity. sector regulation. Its financial autonomy and regulatory The reform efforts in this direction are expected to reduce independence was considerably enhanced. Its decisions the risk premium in the supply chain. could be appealed against only in the courts, and could not be revised under the administrative system. Until recently NEK was a company with four distinct roles: (a) transmission operator (operating and maintaining the A market structure was adopted in which a large transmission network); (b) system operator (providing regulated market and a small (but gradually expanding) system dispatch instructions, performing the commercial liberalized market could coexist. The generating functions of real time balancing of the market); (c) companies (most of them fully state owned) had public wholesale public supplier in the regulated segment of the supply obligations and therefore sold their generation to market (mostly under long-term Power Purchase NEK at regulated prices. The thermal plants were given Agreements (PPAs)), including export-import monopoly; quotas (believed to be about 20 percent of their and (d) some electricity generation. In early 2006, generation) for direct sales to eligible customers on the NEK was legally split into NEK EAD (a holding company) basis of negotiated prices. The threshold for being an and EPSO (a wholly owned subsidiary of NEK EAD). eligible customer was set at an annual consumption EPSO will handle the functions of transmission operator level of 100 GWh in July 2003 covering 18.9 percent and system operator, while NEK EAD will handle the of the market. It was lowered to 40 GWh in July 2004, other two functions. Criticisms have been voiced to the raising the liberalized market share to 22 percent. In July effect that this could open the door for direct supplies 2006, the threshold was lowered further to 9 GWh. from NEK EAD to large enterprises adversely affecting The threshold would be revised downward further every the operations of the privatized distribution companies. year to enable full liberalization of the market by July 2007.Given the delays in the actual opening of the market, this target may take much longer to realize. Private Investment Since most residential consumers and a range of other low-voltage consumers are expected to remain as As a result of the sector restructuring, privatization of captive consumers of the distribution utilities, the generating and distribution assets had become possible. regulated market is expected to continue to exist even All the seven distribution companies were grouped into after 2007. The regulator has the authority to determine three large packages with good economies of scale and 67 percent of the shares in each were offered for sale, RWE of Germany is believed to be close to deciding using Bank Paribas as the advisor, and adopting on investing in Maritza Iztok 2 thermal power plant transparent bidding processes among eligible (1,450 MW) and in the related the brown coal mines international bidders. By July 2004 the winning bids were rehabilitation and development. selected and by September 2004 the privatization contracts were initialed. Eon Energie of Germany and Since the beginning of 2001, NEK has had 69 hydro CEZ of the Czech Republic bought the shares in the plants with a total capacity of 2,755 MW. Of these, North Eastern and Western packages of distribution 39 smaller hydropower plats with a total capacity of companies, while EVN of Austria bought the shares in 166 MW have been privatized by the end of 2003 the third South Western package of distribution companies. The total privatization receipts amounted to 693.9 to foreign and local bidders in auctions or through competitive bidding. At the end of 2003 NEK had above 230 per customer.29 The buyers cannot sell or million valuing the enterprises at more than 1 billion or only 39 hydro units with a total capacity of 2,589 MW. The Privatization Agency had also initiated the sale by transfer their shares to anyone without the approval of auction of the Petrochan hydropower cascade (16.66 the government until 2008. Further, the government was MW) with November 3, 2004, as the closing date.31 not obliged to give any contractual undertakings on the Also 7 out of a total of 21 CHP plants had been privatized. future regulatory framework. The remaining shares in the three distribution companies are expected to be sold Attempts to privatize three large thermal power plants at 62 by the government in the Bulgarian stock exchange for expected sales proceeds exceeding 1.0 billion. CEZ Varna (1,260 MW), Bobov Dol (630 MW), and Russe (400 MW) did not prove as smooth and speedy as in reported that in the first year of its operation of the distribution companies, it invested 33 million, distribution privatization.32 Credit Suisse First Boston was engaged as privatization advisor in July 2004 for the connected 13,050 new consumers, and reduced technical privatization of three large thermal power plants. Single- and commercial losses in the system by 10 percent stage bidding was carried out in December 2004 compared with the previous year.30 among eligible bidders, who should have owned and operated 1,000 MW of capacity and sold annually 2 In the generation segment, the first case related to AES TWh of energy for the last three years. They should also of the United States, which obtained the right to build, have a minimum capital of 500 million. They should operate, and own the replacement plant for Maritsa Iztok also have rating of B+ from Standard and Poor or B1 1 plant in 2001. The new plant will have two units of from Moody's. The bidders can bid for a 100 percent 335 MW each and will use the local lignite. The investment stake or lower in any or all of the three plants. The had been delayed because of the changing fortunes of buyers will not be given a guaranteed market or even a AES, which has recently announced that it will arrange five-year PPA. Eleven bidders showed interest, and four for finance and commence construction soon. The 15- (CEZ of Czech Republic, PPC of Greece, Enel of Italy, year PPA signed in June 2001 between NEK and AES and Rao Inter of Russia) submitted firm bids. However, has been revised to reflect today's realities (including a for a variety of reasons, the highest bids (Rao Inter for 14 percent reduction in the electricity prices agreed earlier). Varna and Russe and PPC for the third) were later not AES will provide 30 percent of the cost as equity, and debt pursued by the government or withdrawn by the bidders.33 for the remaining 70 percent of the cost had been After a long delay, negotiations were held for the sale of arranged. The World Bank Group will be providing a Varna to the second highest bidder CEZ and its bid guarantee through MIGA. The first unit is scheduled to go on stream in the spring of 2009 and the second within offer from 192 million to 206 million. The sale of the accepted in March 2006 after it had agreed to raise its six months thereafter. other two plants has not yet been decided upon. The second case relates to the rehabilitation (including Remaining thermal plants are due for privatization in the provision of flue gas desulfurization) of all units in the next couple of years. Pending this, they are being Maritza Iztok 3 thermal power plant (840 MW) by a joint rehabilitated, and the foreign entities handling the venture among ENEL of Italy, Entergy of the United States, rehabilitation are expected to have a great interest in and NEK. This is scheduled for completion by 2009. them when they are offered for privatization. Energy in East Europe, Issue 44 of July 23, 2003; Issue 47 of September 17, 2004; and Issue 48 of October 1. 2004. 29 Energy in East Europe, Issue 82 dated February 3, 2006. 30 Energy in East Europe, Issue 47 dated September 17, 2004. 31 The generating company owning Varna has been accorded a credit rating of Ba3 by Moody's, because of its low-cost generation and strong 32 credit metrics that have enabled it to compete effectively--even in the competitive market. This is better than that of NEK itself. The PPC bid was not pursued because the miners wanted the mine and the Bobov Dol plant to be sold together. The government insisted, 33 contrary to the bidding conditions, that no one bidder could buy more than one plant, and this enabled Rao-Inter to withdraw its bids. In any case, it had quoted prices double that of the next best bidder. Evaluation Unlike in many other countries in the world, the government of Bulgaria did not rush to give a spate of BOT contracts to On the whole, Bulgaria adopted a conservative approach the private sector with onerous and government-guaranteed and a practical and sensible sequence of sector reforms. PPAs when government resources available for the power It did not rush headlong into sector unbundling and sector became scarce. Only one such contract to AES competitive electricity markets, as did some of the other was given for replacement units of Maritsa Iztok 1 plant countries in the region, while the economy was in serious with a 15-year PPA. This PPA has also been revised to crisis, and when nonpayment problem was severe. reflect current realities. It focused instead on retaining the vertically integrated sector structure and improving the governance, efficiency, Sector unbundling and reforms to the market structure and performance of the utility (NEK). Its macroeconomic were done cautiously and carefully in stages after proper efforts to reduce inflation, stabilize the economy, and revive planning. The new law had given the regulatory body growth were conducive to the recovery of the sector. reasonable financial autonomy and regulatory Its major focus on liquidating loss making public sector independence. The creation of the single-buyer model units and privatizing public sector industrial and commercial for the market and its gradual liberalization through the enterprises had a major and favorable impact on the mechanism of eligible buyers will enable the country a power sector. The legal framework unambiguously allowed smoother change over from monopoly to competitive the electricity supplier to disconnect supply and deny market. The choice of a system dispatch based largely service to those who do not pay the utility bills. on bilateral contracts and residually on a balancing 63 market is also a wise and practical one. The use of the As noted earlier, NEK focused on operating its well- country's desire for EU accession as the driver for reform planned system optimally, reducing losses, improving was also wise and practical. collections through cooperative methods of working with large customers, and maintaining its liquidity and financial Asset sales of the power sector appear to have been viability, while continuing to meet all solvent demands at handled until recently by the country's Privatization an acceptable quality of service. Its metering, billing, Agency with competence, care, transparency, speed, and collection procedures were efficient, and it also and a concern to secure optimal privatization receipts.34 managed to secure tariff increases to keep pace with Units to be privatized are allowed to achieve reasonable inflation. It managed to achieve and maintain technical efficiencies resulting in acceptable levels of net cash and financial soundness of operations adequate to raise flows, before privatization, since the buyer values the significant financial resources from a range of multilateral, unit not on the basis of historical or revalued cost of official, and commercial sources to meet its urgent capital acquisition, but on the basis of present and future net expenditure needs, although most of them were based cash flows. Privatization advisors are engaged and on government guarantees. Its financiers included the asset sales are carried out using auctions or international World Bank, EBRD, European Investment Bank, Russian competitive bidding among eligible bidders. The Foreign Trade Bank, Citibank, Export Import Bank of government has been successful in privatizing distribution Japan, Euratom, CSFB, Société Générale of France, and generation assets without giving any state-guaranteed Raiffeisen Bank, Bank of Austria, Fortis, Österreichische PPAs or even without contractual guarantees of the future Kontrol Bank, and others. regulatory regime. The primary reason for this is not merely the reasonable and sound sector policies, but the An important aspect of the governance is continuity government's focus on enacting new and modern laws and reasonable tenures for key management personnel. relating to accounting, audit, financial system supervision, The utility enjoyed reasonable autonomy combined insolvency, and on reforms relating to civil service, with management accounting internal control and judicial systems, and fight against corruption. The EBRD's audit procedures, which were periodically updated. (2004) Transition Report 2004 classifies the Bulgarian The government encouraged to utilities to secure good insolvency legislation as one with a high level of conformity ratings from independent rating agencies, such as with international practice. Standard and Poor, Moody's, and Fitch. This brought in internal compulsions and motivation to improve efficiency and performance. However, the experience in the attempts to privatize generation assets had been characterized by delays, ambivalence, and lack of internal 34 cohesion within the Bulgarian government. Business entry has been made hassle-free with one-stop Consistent and disciplined governance thus far had service centers for administrative services and the adoption enabled the government to design a reform program, of the "silence is consent" principle, under which if an own it through its vicissitudes, and bring the sector to a entrepreneur does not receive any response from the state in which the future investment burden would be government within 30 days of his request, he is free to handled largely by the private sector. Deviation from the assume the consent of the government for his request. disciplined governance could derail the efforts at any Tax regimes have been made favorable for business with time. The handling of the bids for the privatization of corporate tax rate at 15 percent at the end of 2004. the three large thermal plants is a case in point. International accounting standards were adopted Inconsistency in policy and practice led to the withdrawal throughout the country by the end of 2005. The improved or cancellation of attractive bids. Some of the ministers sovereign ratings of the country achieved through prudent are hinting at partial reintegration of the sector to create macroeconomic management is, of course, a major "national champions" to compete in the European market. contributing factor the success. NEK still does not seem to have fully adjusted to the concept of domestic competition, and it may have a Bulgaria is a country in which the entire population has stance more appropriate for a "national champion." access to the electricity grid. Because of the contraction The independence of the regulatory body may yet prove in demand during the decade of transition, it also had fragile. Although in the recent past the government surplus generation capacity. Its demand until 2020 is facilitated commendably a rapid upward adjustment of 64 expected to increase at only about 1 percent per year. residential tariffs to minimize cross-subsidies, there are The investment burden in such countries is not as onerous always rising costs and the temptation to protect the as in low-income large countries in which only a small residential consumers against rises in tariffs. Continued, percentage of the population has access to electricity. consistent, and disciplined governance is the only solution to stick to the reform path and complete it. Nonetheless, to keep the system operating on a sustainable basis at acceptable service quality levels, Most of the government stance and policies are generally a great deal of investment is needed in all three replicable in other countries, but in Bulgaria the desire segments. Decommissioning costs of the nuclear units, to accede to the EU was the key driver for reform, rehabilitation costs of existing old generation assets, since it was powerful enough to overcome partisan costs of new units to replace the retiring units and to political differences in a democratic milieu. In countries meet incremental demand, as well as to seize export where this is not the case, it is not clear from where opportunities in the European power market, must be the primary motivation for reform will come. met. Considerable investments are also needed to complete the Belene nuclear plant. Transmission and distribution networks also call for significant investments for reinforcement, rehabilitation, and expansion. CASE STUDY D: DELHI ELECTRICITY BOARD, INDIA Dimensions and Characteristics of the Power extremely low tariffs and unmetered power supply to Sector the Agricultural pumps had proved to be a serious and intractable problem. The Delhi power system does not The national capital territory of Delhi in India has a face this problem, since it had very few agricultural population of about 14 million and an area of 1,483 sq consumers; sales to them represented a little over 1 km. Despite its small area, like any other state in India it percent of total sales. has its own elected provincial legislature and a state government.1 It also had its own electricity board (a Per capita annual electricity consumption in Delhi at state-owned vertically integrated power utility) commonly 1,321 kWh in FY2002 was significantly higher than in known as the Delhi Vidyut Board (DVB). most other sates. The total number of consumers reported was about 3.35 million and households had a share of During FY1995­2001 peak demand grew by 50 percent 38.6 percent of total sales, followed by industries (37.8 from 1,898 MW to 2,670 MW. During the same period, percent), governments, street lights and other miscellaneous the energy supplied increased from about 12 TWh to loads (16.1 percent), and agriculture (1.2 percent).5 17.4 TWh. In FY2002 DVB had peak demand of about The consumption needs (that is, energy generated and 2,900 MW and an electricity consumption of about purchased) had been growing at an average annual rate 18.5 TWh.2 The peak demand grew to about 3,500 of 5.2 percent during FY1999­2002 and were expected 65 MW in 2004 and is forecast to grow to 5,075 MW by to grow at about 5 percent per year for the next several 2010. It was a supply-constrained system with a load years. Tariff levels were not adequate to meet the cost of factor of about 73 percent and a shed load estimated at supply (average revenue per kilowatt-hour in FY2002 about 3 percent of the supply. was Rs 2.99 or 6.4 cents compared to the average cost of supply estimated at Rs 4.70), and the tariff structure Although DVB's own generation capacity is modest, it is did not reflect the structure of supply costs to various entitled to a formally allocated share of the capacity categories of consumers (average tariff per kilowatt-hour and energy from the thermal, nuclear, and hydropower for households was about Rs 1.51 compared to the stations of the power generating companies owned by average tariff for industrial consumers at Rs 4.28).6 the central government.3 However, it has to purchase the allocated capacity and energy from those companies at tariffs regulated by the Central Electricity Regulatory Status of the Power Sector in 2002 Commission. DVB also buys power from the power systems of the adjoining states. Thus in FY2002, while As in the case of many state electricity boards (SEBs), DVB's own gross generation was about 2,660 GWh (or DVB was also a chronically inefficient and financially about 14 percent of the total energy needed), its unsound entity. Its transmission and distribution losses purchased power amounted to 16,405 GWh. In 2004 were reported in the range of 45­50 percent of the total its own gross generation amounted to 17 percent of the available energy (net generation plus net imports) during total energy needs of Delhi.4 the period FY1999­2002. Metering, billing, and collection functions were highly inefficient, theft of power was Unlike other states in India, Delhi's rural population, extensive, and the conversion of distributed electricity which is less than 7 percent of the total population, is into actually collected cash revenues was unsustainably insignificant. According to the 2001 census Delhi had a low. Accounts receivables of DVB by the end of 2002 total of 2.4 million households--more than 93 percent exceeded Rs 20 billion (US$440 million or equivalent to of which had electricity service. Among all states, about 6.5 months' sales). DVB had a total of 24,100 Delhi had one of the highest literacy rates at around employees handling the sale of 18.5 TWh and dealing 82 percent. Its per capita gross national product in with 3.35 million customers (139 customers per employee). FY2002 was in excess of US$1,000. All over India DVB was unable to cover its high cost of operation and This case study was prepared by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy, with the help of data collected by Gary Stuggins and Defne Gencer during their visit to Delhi. Assistance provided by Sunil Kumar Khosla, Rohit Mittal, and others of the World Bank office in New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged. Provinces in India are called states. India is a union of such states. 1 In India FY2002 denotes the financial year commencing on April 1, 2001, and ending on March 31, 2002. 2 It was estimated at 994.5 MW in FY2002 (websites of DVB and the Delhi government, DVB). 3 Data relating to 2004 is from Power in Asia, Issue 412, dated September 20, 2004. 4 Because of extensive unauthorized consumption, the actual number of consumers was believed to be much higher. The number given here is 5 from the Planning Commission (2002). Most other sources give numbers between 2.5 million and 2.75 million. This is based on the information from the Planning Commission (2002). (See also the annexes relating to the SEBs in the Planning Commission 6 website: http://planningcommission.nic.in.) was making losses to the extent of about Rs 11 billion were considered the appropriate methods of overcoming a year (US$244 million). Cash losses were met by the lack of commercial discipline in the sector. The private a combination of delayed payments to suppliers, sector with its profit orientation could provide appropriate postponement of investments, nonservicing of liabilities management to enforce commercial discipline across the relating to the government, and cash injections by the organization, and stabilize and improve the revenue base government. Subsidy to cover the operations of DVB of the sector. To enable such participation, the Government became a significant amount in the state budget. of India enacted the Electricity Regulatory Commission (ERC) Act in 1998 to provide for independent sector Investments in transmission and distribution that were regulation, including tariffs at the national level. Later it urgently needed to rehabilitate and reinforce the systems enacted the new Electricity Act 2003 to enable the to meet the growing demand could not be made. Supply restructuring of SEBs by function, corporatization of the became highly unreliable and load shedding frequent, unbundled entities and commercialization of their even when the power available in the grid was adequate operations. This new law also provided for the to meet the demand, mostly because of transformer establishment of the state-level electricity regulatory failures, line faults, and network limitations. commissions. Meanwhile, several states had established state electricity regulatory commissions (SERCs) either by Agitation by the angry public forced the state government enacting their own laws or by using the enabling provisions to work out a sector reform program, the principal aims under the ERC Act of 1998. 66 of which were to improve speedily the quality and reliability of supply and to stop in a reasonable time frame the The Government of Delhi had formulated its sector endless need for the public resources to subsidize the restructuring strategy in early 1999 and the Delhi Electricity inefficient operation of DVB. Public pressure for improving Regulatory Commission (DERC) was set up in May 1999 the quality of service was the main driver of reform. under the central legislation and became operational by the The government came to the conclusion that the best end of that year.7 In October 2000 the Delhi government way of raising resources for the distribution system was issued the Delhi Electricity Reforms Ordinance, which by to curb the losses through improved governance to be March 2001 came into force as the Delhi Electricity provided by private sector participation, both as a Reforms Act of 2000. The restructuring proposed involved majority owner and operator of the distribution system. the unbundling of DVB into two generation companies, a Privatization was thus perceived as the preferred route to transmission company, and three distribution companies.8 improve the quality of service and for raising resources In addition to its transmission and dispatch responsibilities, needed for such improvement. the Delhi Transmission Company Limited (DTL) would act as the single buyer in the market and buy the electricity needed for the three distribution companies from the two Restructuring of the Power Sector Delhi state-owned generation companies (at prices regulated by DERC) and from other sources such as the Toward the later part of the1990s, the Government of central government owned generating companies and the India had also come to the realize the great urgency and power systems of the adjoining states (at prices regulated importance of focusing reform efforts on the distribution by CERC) and sell them to the distribution companies, segment of the electricity industry, since it had the highest NDMC and MES, at prices regulated by DERC.9 The end- concentration of sector inefficiencies, such as technical and use tariff in all three distribution companies would be commercial system losses, theft, poor metering, billing, and uniform, despite differences in their size, density of load, collections which had the effect of raising the cost of supply and other aspects of economies of scale. Thus, the bulk and more than halving the revenue base of the utilities. supply tariff charged by DTL to each of the distribution Distancing service providers from government through companies would be set at a level that would enable it to mechanisms, such as unbundling, corporatization, and meet its operating costs based on agreed targets for privatization and introducing independent sector regulation efficiency improvement and earn a 16 percent return on its It is also relevant to note that states, such as Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh had enacted their power reform 7 laws prior to the 1998 ERC Act, and had commenced restructuring and regulation. Thus, a body of "in-country" experience and knowledge was available to the politicians of the state of Delhi. The second Delhi state-owned generation company, Pragati Power Company Limited (PPCL), was formed as a separate state-owned power 8 generation company solely for the purpose of taking over the generation project under construction. DTL would also buy the power needed for the smaller distribution system operated by the Electricity Department of the New Delhi Municipal 9 Corporation (NDMC)--which has about 100,000 consumers, a peak demand of less than 200 MW, and annual energy needs of 954 GWh-- and Military Engineering Service (MES)--which serves military establishments with a demand of less than 35 MW and annual energy needs of about 160 GWh. They buy bulk power from DTL at 66 kV and 33 kV and distribute it to low-voltage consumers in their area following the tariffs prevailing in the DVB area. equity. DTL would be enabled to manage the losses arising To deal with the problem of the past accumulated liabilities from such an arrangement through long-term loans to be and to create viable sector entities, the mechanism of provided from the state government budget.10 financial restructuring adopted is summarized in figure D-1. All the assets, rights, and liabilities of DVB were transferred to the Delhi state government. All the assets Distribution Privatization Process and rights were allocated among the new generation company, transmission company, and the three distribution The financial problems of DVB were caused primarily by companies. All liabilities were transferred to a new holding its inefficient distribution operation and to some extent by company called Delhi Power Company (DPC), which issued the need to raise the level of tariffs and correct its its entire equity to the government. Of the total liabilities structure. Improvement in the operational efficiency of of Rs 231.37 billion (estimated at the end of FY2001), distribution companies would substantially moderate the the unserviceable portion of Rs 199.77 billion was retained tariff increases needed to phase out or minimize the by DPC, and only the remaining liability of Rs 31.60 subsidies from the state budget to the sector. The adopted billion (or about 14 percent of the total liabilities) was strategy was to provide for a transitional period of five transferred from DPC to the five unbundled companies.11 years, during which (a) the new distribution companies The assets of the new unbundled companies were valued would improve their operational efficiency in accordance not on the basis of their historical cost of acquisition or with an agreed annual target; (b) the average tariffs on the basis of their revaluation, but on the basis of a would be raised thrice, each time by about 10 percent business model, which assumed that the distribution 67 during the first three years and at 5 percent and 3 percent business would become self sustaining within the during the fourth and the fifth year; (c) the bulk supply transitional period of five years, that there would be no tariff from DTL for each distribution company would be tariff shocks to the consumers, and that the support from fixed by the regulator at a level adequate to enable each the government to subsidize the losses through the of them to earn a 16 percent return on paid-up equity transitional period (of about Rs 26 billion, later revised and free reserves after meeting all allowed operation and as Rs 34.5 billion, or about US$784 million) was maintenance (O&M) and investment expenses; and (d) as a guaranteed.12 The asset values were determined at a result of the combination of increasing efficiency and level sufficient for the operating surplus of the individual rising tariffs, the bulk supply tariffs for each of the companies to service the capital based on the business distribution companies would rise to a level at which model mentioned above. DTL would no longer need to subsidize them. FIGURE D-1. DVB RESTRUCTURING MODEL DVB Liabilities Government of New Delhi DPC Assets and rights Generation Distribution Distribution Distribution DTL PPCL company company 1 company 2 company 3 Source: Bhatia and others 2004. Loans to the extent of Rs 26 billion were envisaged (later increased to Rs 34.5 billion) with an interest rate of 12 percent per year, repayment of 10 principal in 18 equal semiannual installments, and a moratorium of three years (later increased to four years). The amount of Rs 199.77 billion included Rs 129.53 billion from the days of Delhi Electricity Supply Undertaking, a predecessor entity to DVB; 11 Rs 44.57 billion covered by bonds issued against power and fuel liabilities; and Rs 8.87 billion in treasury bill liabilities relating to staff terminal benefit fund. It is reported that DVB had no reliable asset register and that its accounts had not been audited for more than 10 years. 12 TABLE D-1. Financial Structure of the Unbundled Entities (Rs million) UNBUNDLED LONG-TERM TOTAL ASSET ENTITY EQUITY DEBT TO DPC VALUE Generation company 1,400 2,100 3,500 Transmission company 1,800 2,700 4,500 Distribution company 1 1,160 1,740 2,900 Distribution company 2 4,600 6,900 11,500 Distribution company 3 3,680 5,520 9,200 Total for all companies 12,640 18,960 31,600 TABLE D-2. Stipulated Minimum ATC Loss Levels and Agreed Loss Levels (percent) EXTENT OF DECREASE IN ATC LOSS LEVELS INITIAL ATC ATC LOSS LEVELS DISTRIBUTION LOSS LEVEL AT THE END OF 68 COMPANY IN FY2002 FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 FY2007 THE PERIOD MINIMUM STIPULATED BY THE GOVERNMENT IN REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL Distribution company 1 57.2 1.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.25 36.45 (Yamuna Power) Distribution company 2 48.1 1.25 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 28.85 (Rajdhani Power) Distribution company 3 48.1 1.5 5.0 4.5 4.25 4.0 28.85 (North Delhi Power) LOSS LEVELS AGREED UPON DURING NEGOTIATIONS Distribution company 1 57.2 0.75 1.75 4.0 5.65 5.1 39.95 (Yamuna Power) Distribution company 2 48.1 0.55 1.55 3.3 6.0 5.6 31.1 (Rajdhani Power) Distribution company 3 48.1 0.50 2.25 4.50 5.5 4.25 31.1 (North Delhi Power) The liabilities were divided into 40 percent of equity and the first five years. The efficiency criterion chosen for this about 60 percent of long-term debt. DPC held all the purpose was called the aggregate technical and equities in the unbundled companies, which also owed commercial (ATC) losses, which covered both system their debts to DPC.13 The resulting financial structure of losses and billing and collection efficiency. the companies is given in table D-1. In the absence of proper metering of all consumers and Having thus fixed the equity and debt values of each meters in the various parts of the system, it was difficult distribution company, the government decided to offer to properly measure technical losses and identify the 51 percent of the equity in each company to the new volume of commercial losses. In this context, the concept private buyers at face value and give them management of ATC losses was developed by taking into account the control. They would be entitled to earn a return of 16 billing ratio and the collection ratio.14 The product of the percent on paid-up equity and free reserves. The buyer billing ratio and collection ratio represents the would be selected in an international competitive percentage of energy actually converted into realized bidding among prequalified strategic investors on the cash. ATC loss bundles together the technical losses, basis of the efficiency improvement they would bring in commercial losses, and collection inefficiency and thus These debts had a moratorium of four years (capable of being extended to five years if the need arose), maturity of nine years (18 equal 13 installments of the principal) and an interest rate of 12 percent per year. ATC loss percentage is = 100 x 1 - [ (energy billed in GWh / energy available in GWh) x (revenue actually collected in rupees / energy billed in 14 rupees) ]. overcomes the problem of being unable to measure the addition to the sum of Rs 4.2 billion that DVB had technical and commercial losses. The opening ATC loss contributed. The investors were not overly concerned levels were determined by DERC while deciding on the with the large volume of employees, since the age tariffs for FY2002. Based on this, the government had profile was such that most would retire soon. Actually specified in the bid documents a minimum loss level 6,000 employees opted for the voluntary retirement trajectory for five years. Six bidders were prequalified, package, which strained the resources of the trust fund. but only two bids each for two distribution companies The reputation of DVB with the general public was so and only one bid for the third distribution company were bad that the employees are believed to have accepted received. All had quoted loss reduction targets actually reform as inevitable. lower than the level specified in the bid documents. The government negotiated a loss reduction trajectory somewhere in between the levels quoted and the Investment Support minimum levels indicated in the bid documents, completed the privatization transactions, and enabled The government committed itself to providing support to the new owners to assume control over the distribution the new distribution companies in two ways: companies on July 1, 2002. The minimum loss levels stipulated by the government and the loss levels agreed · DPC, which had the first charge over the distribution upon are given in table D-2. assets on the date of privatization, agreed to the creation of the pari passu charge over the assets to 69 It was also agreed during negotiations that if the buyer enable the companies to borrow funds for distribution achieved a level of ATC loss reduction higher than the investments. minimum level stipulated by the government in the requests for proposals (RFPs), he would be entitled to the · The government would provide support to facilitate benefit to the extent of 50 percent of such reduction. procurement of funds under the Government of India The remaining 50 percent would go to the benefit of scheme called the Accelerated Power Development consumers. The first two companies were bought by the and Reform Program that was designed to support Reliance Group, and the third company was bought by states in commercializing and improving the financial the Tata Group. Both were reputable Indian companies viability of the power sector. Its investment component with extensive experience in power distribution. Through a financed rehabilitation and reinforcement of the formal policy directive issued by the government in subtransmission and distribution systems. November 2001, DERC was obliged to respect the tariff- setting principles embedded in the privatization contract for the transition period of five years. The government realized Post-Privatization Performance of the a privatization receipt of Rs 4,814.4 million (or about Distribution Companies US$107 million). Although the agreed ATC loss level to be achieved at the end of five years (30­40 percent) is high compared with Handling of the Employee Issue the level of about 5­15 percent routinely achieved by the utilities in most developed countries, it still represents a The support of the employees of DVB for the reforms was notable improvement over the level prevailing in FY2002 secured through a negotiated tripartite agreement and would have a favorable impact on the necessary among the employee representatives, the government, tariff increases and the subsidy reduction.15 The and the new investors that broadly protected the interests companies have operated the systems for more than of the employees. Important elements covered such three years. In the first year, one of the three distribution aspects as (a) protection of the jobs and no mass companies (Yamuna Power) could not achieve the retrenchment; (b) terms of employment not to be diluted; agreed loss level. In the second and third years, all three (c) continuation of existing welfare schemes; (d) service met and exceeded the target loss levels (see table D-3). under DVB and the successor companies to be treated as continuous; and (e) a fund for pension and retirement The performance of North Delhi Power is remarkable. benefits to be administered by a trust to be set up by the Based on the tariff filings for FY2006, the three government. The government contributed a sum of Rs companies expect to reach loss levels of 32.85 percent, 8.6 billion toward the Pension Fund Trust. This was in 36.7 percent, and 45.05 percent, respectively. This loss level is based on system losses of about 5­10 percent and collection efficiency of about 95­100 percent. 15 TABLE D-3. ATC Losses--Targets and Achievements (%) FY2003 FY2003 FY2003 DISTRIBUTION COMPANY TARGET ACHIEVED TARGET ACHIEVED TARGET ACHIEVED North Delhi Power 47.6 47.6 45.35 44.86 40.85 33.79 Rajdhani Power 47.55 47.4 45.85 45.06 42.70 40.64 Yamuna Power 56.45 56.5 54.70 54.29 50.70 50.12 Source: Tariff orders of the DERC. TABLE D-4. Capital Investment Performance of the New Distribution Companies (Rs million) FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 COMPANY ESTIMATED ACTUAL ESTIMATED ACTUAL ESTIMATED ACTUAL North Delhi Power 1,650 485 2,870 2,871 3,034 3,284 70 Rajdhani Power 1,769 764 4,230 1,120 5,258 5,258 Yamuna Power 1,290 564 3,360 853 5,476 4,053 TABLE D-5. Bulk Supply Tariffs to the Distribution Companies (Rs/kWh) COMPANY FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 North Delhi Power 1.5754 2.1156 2.1121 Rajdhani Power 1.6005 2.0778 2.2101 Yamuna Power 1.2594 1.5647 1.7704 Source: Tariff orders of the DERC. Billing and collection percentages are 65 percent and 200­300 MW.16 Thus, it is difficult to sort out the public 100 percent, respectively, in the case of North Delhi complaints concerning outages. The new companies are Power. The company has also reduced sharply its share clearly making sure that the distribution bottlenecks are of the load shedding in Delhi state from 40 percent in being eliminated. Transformer failures and line outages FY2002 to 1.6 percent in FY2005. In respect of all have been reduced dramatically. reliability indicators covering frequency and duration of outages (such as SAIFI, SAIDI, and CAIDI), it has registered These companies are also undertaking significant capital remarkable improvements. Although less spectacular, expenditures on projects for rehabilitating, reinforcing, the other two companies also have registered notable and modernizing the system. At the time of tariff improvements in these aspects. Street lights in all three determination for each year, DERC agrees to include in areas have reached a high functionality ratio. Customer the calculations the estimate of proposed relevant complaints, which rose sharply in the first year, are believed capital expenditure. The actual level of relevant capital to have come down in the following year. Similar was expenditure of the previous year is discussed in the tariff the trend in the criticisms in the news media. The state decision for the following year (see table D-4). of Delhi is part of the northern regional grid of the Indian electricity system which, on the whole, is characterized The last two companies claim to have incurred substantially by a surplus of energy and a shortage of peaking capacity. larger amounts than what the DERC considered actual. Delhi cannot thus avoid power cuts in certain parts of Availability of funds does not appear to be a constraint, the year when the capacity shortage is of the order of although the flow of funds from the Government of India The Delhi government is pursuing the idea of setting up a 1,000 MW gas-fired combined cycle plant in the Delhi area for private ownership and 16 operation to overcome the capacity and energy problems. under the Accelerated Power Development and Reform The media had been frequently reporting protests by Program had been much smaller than originally sections of the population against privatization, as well envisaged.17 Difficulties in land acquisition have been cited as protests about the "fast-running" tamper-proof as a major problem. Nonetheless, progress is being made, electronic meters installed by the distribution companies, and all three companies have brought significant resources inflated electricity bills, continued power failures, for improving the distribution systems. A noteworthy feature unresponsive systems for addressing consumer complaints, is that more than 900,000 tamper-proof electronic meters and poorly functioning street lights. Apparently the capable of highly accurate measurement have been distribution companies had not done an adequate job of installed, replacing the old electromechanical meters that winning the confidence and understanding of the were subject to frequent tampering by consumers. consumers. In the context of supply shortages and tariff increases, the wrath of the public led to serious protests Loss reduction levels and tariff increases have a direct and has made it difficult for the politicians to support impact on the bulk supply tariff for the distribution future tariff increases. The companies need to adopt companies. The growth in bulk supply tariffs to them, better communication strategies, address at least the reflecting the reduction in subsidies to the distribution genuine consumer grievances, and secure the support segment, can be seen in table D-5. of the consumers for their programs. DVB always had difficulties in the past in settling its bills The Ministry of Power and the Power Finance Corporation for power purchases from the generating companies of India commissioned the country's leading credit rating 71 owned by the central government. After the privatization agencies, ICRA and CRISIL, to rate the performance of of the distribution companies, DTL was able to make all the SEBs of India. In the rating report of January 2004, 100 percent payment for all its power purchases, as the Delhi was rated as the first-ranked SEB, based on 100 new distribution companies managed to improve criteria. The high rating is based, among other things, collections and promptly pay their dues to DTL and as on the successful privatization and the functioning of the the subsidy support committed by the government in the regulatory system. In the rating report issued in the first context of privatization was available. half of 2005, Delhi had slipped from the first to the third rank largely on account of the performance of the In a press conference held on August 26, 2005, the Chief transmission company and the slide in overall sector Minister of Delhi summarized the achievements thus: viability.19 In the ratings report issued in the first half of The technical and commercial losses had fallen in three 2006, Delhi has retained its third rank. years from the 51­57 percent range to the 37­40 percent range. Load shedding had been reduced from 3 percent to 0.85 percent, while the daily availability of power had Emerging Areas of Concern improved to 20­22 hours from the 8­10 hours before privatization. There have been overachievements in relation Although the performance of the new distribution to targets, which is why the tariff hike had been only 23 companies warrants optimism, some dark clouds on the percent in the last three years compared to 40 percent horizon are causing concern. Tariff increases have envisaged at the time of privatization.18 lagged considerably behind the levels incorporated in the business model adopted for the privatization contracts (see table D-6). TABLE D-6. Envisaged and Actual Tariff Increases (%) ITEM FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 FY2006 FY2007 Tariff increase envisaged 10 10 10 5 3 Actual tariff increase 0 5 10 6.6 ­­ -- Not available. Note: Tariff increases in 2006 for residential consumers and agricultural consumers were subsidized by the government and distribution companies. See discussion in the later part of this case study. Source: Tariff orders of the DERC. The Chief Minister of Delhi stated that compared to the promise of the Government of India to provide Rs 4.73 billion under the Accelerated 17 Power Development and Reform Program, the actual releases were only Rs 1.06 billion (see Tribune On Line 2005). Power in Asia, Issue 436, dated September 15, 2006. 18 Power in Asia, Issue 432, dated July 7, 2005. 19 TABLE D-7. Actual Average Revenue Realized by the Distribution Companies AVERAGE REVENUE/KWH REALIZED (RS/KWH) FY2003 FY2004 FY2005 North Delhi Power 3.85 3.69 4.06 Yamuna Power 3.54 3.40 3.91 Rajdhani Power 3.35 3.63 4.05 Source: Tariff orders of the DERC. For a variety of reasons, the actual tariff increases have lower for industrial consumers (3.7­5.2 percent), and the been 0 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent, respectively, "nondomestic" consumers (3.6­4.9 percent). No tariff for the first three years. The actual average revenue increases were allowed for railway traction and the JJ realized is summarized in table D-7. clusters.21 This tariff increase resulted in widespread public protests.22 Protestors blamed the privatization of The average sale price per kilowatt-hour in Delhi in the sector for the problems faced. FY2005 was in the range of 9.09­9.44 cents/kWh. The Chief Minister resisted the political pressures mounted 72 Under the system of regulation that was adopted, by the opposition parties against tariff increases and for this should increase the element of subsidy to DTL by a review of the propriety of the privatization procedures lowering the bulk supply rate and correspondingly result adopted, but when her own party became concerned in larger loan assistance by the government to DTL. that the protests would erode popular support to the Although the government had allocated a sum of Rs 34.5 government, she reluctantly agreed to reverse the tariff billion for this purpose for the five-year period, it is not increases for residential and agricultural consumers. clear what would happen if the need becomes much Under section 65 of the Electricity Act of 2003, the state greater than this sum on account of failure to raise tariffs government of Delhi would provide a subsidy of Rs 890 in time.20 Actually when the revenue gap for FY2005 million (US$20 million) to cover 50 percent of the tariff became large (Rs 10.72 billion), warranting a tariff increase increase for residential consumers, and the distribution of 30 percent, the regulator decided to avoid a tariff shock companies were asked to bear the remaining burden to the consumers, allowed a tariff increase of only 10 through a grant of rebates to consumers. In respect of percent and instead of proportionately decreasing the agricultural consumers, the government would provide a bulk supply tariff of DTL, obliged the distribution companies subsidy of Rs 22 million (US$0.5 million) covering 100 to treat a sum of Rs 6.96 billion as a "regulatory asset" percent of the tariff increase. The distribution companies that would be allowed to be recovered along with financing proposed a scheme of rebates linked to consumers costs in future years. For FY2006, DERC allowed in July improving payment discipline and liquidating arrears 2005 an average overall tariff increase of only 6.6 and to absorb the cost against the potential percent, and the resulting revenue deficit was sought to overachievement in ATC loss reduction in FY2006 be covered partly by the government subsidy of Rs 1.38 and in the near future. DERC approved the proposal, billion and mostly by disallowing the full amortization of but without the linkage between the rebate and payment the regulatory asset created for FY2005. This presents discipline, as it believed, that this is really not a case of an easy way out of unpleasant increases in tariff or subsidy rebate, but one of passing on to consumers the benefits payments at the expense of the investors. The adopted of potential overachievement of efficiency. DERC also business model will become impractical if such choices left open further discussions on how exactly the cost of become a regular trend. the scheme would be adjusted to tariff hearings for FY2007 based on actual efficiency results. Although the average tariff for FY2006 was increased by 6.6 percent, the tariff increases for the agricultural The second troubling element is the very large subsidization consumers, domestic consumers, and Delhi Metro Rail of the households by the industrial and commercial Corporation were higher at 19.8 percent, 10 percent, consumers. The average revenue from the sales declines and 8.6 percent, respectively. The tariff increases were when the share of industrial and commercial consumers Of this amount, Rs 13.64 billion was disbursed to DTL in FY2003, and Rs 12.6 billion in FY2004. The commitments for FY2005 and FY2006 20 were Rs 6.9 billion and Rs 1.38 billion, respectively. These are the unplanned urban slum areas. 21 Residential energy charges would amount to 5.5 cents/kWh for the first 200 kWh, 8.9 cents/kWh for the next 200 kWh, and 10.5 cents/kWh for 22 monthly consumption above that level. Thus, a household consuming 1,000 kWh a month would pay an average rate of 9.18 cents/kWh. In addition, it would also pay a fixed charge calculated at 27 cents/kW of connected load. falls and that of the households increases. Thus, despite Lessons the tariff increase of 5 percent in FY2004, the average revenue fell for a variety of reasons, including an increase This case study was undertaken in the context of the Bank's in the share of household consumers in total sales and a study relating to methods of filling the investment gaps in decline in the share of industries. A recent Bank report the power sector. The basic step in this system is to operate states that industries in India pay some of the highest the existing system on a financially viable basis. The major tariffs in the world for a low quality of electricity supply.23 impediment for this in the Delhi system was the high levels This really implies that the scope for increasing the tariff of inefficiency in the distribution segment. Innovative of industrial and commercial consumers is limited or methods were devised to privatize distribution on the nonexistent and that the tariffs of households must be basis of efficiency improvements and subsidy reduction. revised upward to cost recovery levels in order to raise Despite political opposition--unavoidable in a democratic the average revenue realization. regime--the attempt appears to be largely succeeding, and the private companies are making significant Although the plans for reducing or eliminating this cross- investments in the distribution sector. subsidy are not clear, the regulator has notified phased retail competition (as envisaged in the Electricity Act 2003 What are the reasons for the success of the reform scheme of the Government of India) in terms of which, by 2008, so far in the case of Delhi? The availability of domestic consumers with a load of 5 MW and above would be companies with adequate experience and investment eligible to buy directly from generators at negotiated resources is an important factor. Only such domestic 73 prices, and the transmission and distribution networks investors could properly appraise the political risks would be obliged to provide nondiscriminatory open involved and judge whether they are manageable. access. This threshold would be lowered every year The well-developed domestic capital markets and banking thereafter so that by the year 2013 there would be full system, as well as the competent and independent retail competition for all consumers with a load of 10 judiciary and arbitration systems, provide support and kW and above. However, most households are likely to comfort to the investors, and the flourishing and totally remain captive consumers of the public utility as has free print and electronic media with sharp observers and happened in most parts of the world. Although such commentators protect them against arbitrary treatment opening of the electricity market is normally a welcome and abuses. They also keep the investors on their toes development, it will be a disaster if the tariffs for households in ensuring broad public satisfaction. The protests and and other subsidized consumers are not adjusted to complaints of the people ably reflected by the media reflect supply costs. In the short to medium term, all the have resulted in a management change in two of the remunerative customers would leave the distribution three distribution companies, and promises were made company and buy power directly from generators or energy to effect a visible change in the customer complaints merchants, and the utility would be left with households response systems. and small loads with tariffs substantially lower than the cost of supply. Thus if liberalizing the power market were Although these factors are generally applicable for all the to be pursued, a plan for rapid phasing-out of the cross- states, the continued existence in power of the political subsidy must be implemented. Otherwise, all the new party, the Chief Minister, and other key officials committed investors in distribution utilities would go bankrupt in a to the reform process is clearly the primary reason for very short time. If all remunerative consumers leave the success in Delhi. That the Delhi area does not have any utility, the entire subsidy burden will have to be borne by significant rural population or agricultural loads has the state, and this would be a major risk to the investors. helped, although this was offset to some extent by the To protect the incumbent utilities from the adverse financial large number of slums and colonies, which presented impact of such retail competition, an approach involving serious collection and subsidy problems.24 the phasing of the rollout of open access and a levy of cross-subsidy surcharge that gets phased out in about 10 years is being tried. World Bank 2004, p. 29. 23 Delhi is believed to have about 1,400 unauthorized colonies and about 3 million people living as squatters. 24 The financial engineering in valuing assets on a business First, the restructuring until the stage of retail competition model and providing the investor with a clean balance should be carefully thought through and a proper sheet and a business model with a transition period of schedule drawn up. The sequencing should be in this five years with subsidy was a practical solution for an order: (a) ATC loss reduction and creation of viable otherwise intractable problem. The success in the post distribution entities offering bundled services; (b) privatization phase owes much to factors such as (a) unbundling of tariffs for network services and commodity government departments and agencies, including state- price of electricity; (c) substantial minimization of cross- owned water utilities paying their bills in full and on time; subsidy to the households over a transition period of (b) the government adhering strictly to its commitments about three years; and (d) gradual phasing-in of of subsidy payments; and (c) the government not interfering liberalization of the retail market thereafter. in any manner in the decisions of the utilities disconnecting nonpaying consumers and the prosecution of those Second, a performance-based multiyear tariff and stealing power. subsidy package for the transition period of four to five years should be worked out by the regulator (and the The government did not enact, as earlier envisaged, government) and incorporated into the privatization a special new law to speed up the trials of electricity contracts. It should become binding on the regulator as theft, although the Electricity Act 2003 provides for well. The Electricity Act of 2003 appears to enable this. special courts and special police stations for handling Amendment of the State Regulatory Law might have to 74 these cases on a priority basis.25 The Delhi government be considered without diluting the responsibility and has set up two special courts compared to the total of powers of the regulator after the transition period. seven such courts planned. Third, once the business model for the privatization is In addition, the involvement of more than one private finalized, a substantial tariff increase should be secured investor in Delhi provided a competitive urge to each of before the privatization and the next increases scheduled them to perform better than the other.26 The public could for the third year onward of the transition period. easily compare and judge which one is performing This will give the time to stabilize the situation and make better. This was not the case in many other states, such tariff filings based on reliable system data and some as Orissa. improvements already achieved in the quality of service. Other major technical aspects of the privatization effort Fourth, the regulator should have a timetable and a and possible areas of improvement for wider applicability mandate for ensuring that end-use tariffs for all in India and elsewhere have been discussed at length categories of consumers reflect the cost of supply to and dealt with admirably in the two World Bank papers them, instead of focusing exclusively on the average authored by Bhatia and others (2004). revenue requirements for the utility as a whole. The privatization exercise in Delhi is considered a major Fifth, the corporatization of the unbundled units and improvement over the one undertaken a few years allocation of physical assets liabilities and staff among earlier in Orissa. Driven by the Electricity Act of 2003, them should desirably precede privatization, rather than distribution privatization is expected to be pursued in being done on the same day, as was done in Delhi. several other states. The experience of Delhi would be relevant for the other major metropolitan areas in India that have low rural population and little or no agricultural loads. What should they do differently? It is worth noting in this context that, unlike other state governments, the state of Delhi has no control over the police force serving its territory. 25 The Delhi police report directly to the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India. Nonetheless, Delhi has succeeded, although with some delay, in enabling reasonable police support to the distribution companies in their campaign against power theft. The Tata Group owned the North Delhi Power Company, while the Reliance Group owned Rajdhani Power Company and Jamuna Power 26 Company. CASE STUDY E: THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Economic Background Meeting these challenges requires first and foremost a dramatic improvement in the governance efficiency with The Dominican Republic is a middle-income country which public resources are used. The power sector had located in the Latin America and the Caribbean region, traditionally been and is continuing to be a bottleneck to with a population of about 9 million and a per capita the country's economic growth. Its reform and sound income of US$2,400. During the 1990s the country's GDP operation has an important role to play in the grew at an annual rate of 5.9 percent, and its per capita revitalization of the Dominican Republic's economy. income increased annually at 3.8 percent in real terms, making it one of the fastest-growing economies in Latin America--second only to Chile. This was achieved within a The Power Sector stable macroeconomic environment, characterized by low inflation, manageable fiscal deficits, and declining public The Dominican Republic operates a power system that sector debt. Tourism, telecommunications, construction, has an installed generation capacity of 3,600 MW to and manufacturing played an important role in generating meet a peak demand of about 1,900 MW. The effective this growth. capacity at the end of 2003 was about 3,339 MW, which consisted of 458 MW of hydropower units and However, the economy in the Dominican Republic started 2,881 MW of thermal power units fired mostly by 75 to derail at the outset of the new millennium. During imported oil or gas (from liquefied natural gas) and to a 2001­02, a combination of external factors and domestic small extent by coal. The total capacity included 1,713 challenges slowed the pace of economic growth to 3.3 MW of capacity owned by IPPs. Another 923 MW of percent. The global economic slowdown, the decline in capacity were under construction for being commissioned tourism following September 11, and high international oil during 2004­05. The transmission system consists of prices all contributed to a reduction in economic growth. 940 km of 138 kV single-circuit lines radiating from The peso, the local currency, depreciated by 20 percent in Santo Domingo to the north, east, and west. It is weak 2002 and by a further16 percent in the first two months of and overloaded and is in urgent need of reinforcement, 2003. This led to increased capital outflows and the both in east­west and north­south directions, to provide collapse of one of the country's largest commercial banks, reliable power in the capital and northern regions, and which caused a major banking crisis in the country. The to transmit power from the new power plants in the ensuing rescue operation pushed up the quasifiscal deficits eastern region. Transmission failures caused system-wide and public debt sharply. Inflation rose to 27 percent in blackouts in 2000 (eight times), 2001 (seven times), and 2003 and to 51 percent in 2004. The peso depreciated by in 2003 (three times). Distribution networks cover 88 100 percent in 2003. The program agreed to under the percent of the population (although the connections for two-year Standby Agreement with the IMF did not proceed about 8 percent may be illegal). This coverage reaches well until the elections of May 2004. Real GDP declined 100 percent if rural areas are excluded, as shown in by 0.4 percent in 2003 and recovered to about 2.0 table E-1. Government plans envisage coverage of 95 percent in 2004. The new administration has commenced percent of the population by 2015. implementing a new 28-month Standby agreement approved by the IMF Board on January 31, 2005. If the The power sector has grown rapidly to keep pace with agreed measures are carried out, GDP is expected to grow the growth in the economy. Between 1992 and 2001, by 2.5 percent in 2005 and to reach 4.5 percent in 2006. total demand for electricity in the Dominican Republic increased at an annual rate of 7.5 percent compared to As the Dominican Republic looks forward, many the GDP rate of growth of 5.9 percent for the same structural issues continue to constrain future economic period. The word "demand" is a misnomer in the growth. With increasing globalization, trade liberalization country's context as the country always experienced and competitiveness will be new challenges for the suppressed demand because of supply constraints. It has country to face. At the same time, many of the old been estimated that the unserved energy, which was 40 challenges remain. They include entrenched poverty, percent of the potential demand in 1991, had fallen to corruption, persistent inequality, relatively weak social 11 percent by 2002. During the same period, capacity indicators, a weak public sector, and equally weak deficits to meet unsuppressed demand were estimated to regulatory and management frameworks for important have fallen from 30 percent to 16 percent. Although a utilities, especially in the electricity sector. This case study was prepared by Luiz T. A. Maurer. It has been revised for consistency of presentation and updated by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy. TABLE E-1. Access to Electricity, Gas, and Wood ITEM ALL NONPOOR POOR URBAN POOR RURAL POOR Electricity in home 88 90 79 100 62 Gas lighting 65 19 34 31 57 Gas for cooking 85 89 73 89 60 Wood for cooking 3 2 6 5 8 Source: ENGIH 1998. lack of installed capacity has not been a problem since Power Sector Reforms early 2003, the country is facing what are called "financial blackouts" discussed later in this case study. Power sector reforms carried out in the Dominican Republic, initially with the assistance of the international At an average retail price of 15.7 cents/kWh in 2005, financial institutions, had a checkered history involving the Dominican Republic has one of the highest electricity sector restructuring, privatization, and renationalization. tariffs in Latin America and the Caribbean. The responsibility 76 for the power sector before the reform of the 1990s Sector Restructuring 1997­99 rested on the state-owned, vertically integrated power company, Compañía Dominicana de Electricidad (CDE), In an attempt to solve the long-lasting problems of whose performance was characterized by large energy the lack of available installed capacity and constant losses, poor collection, and deficient operation and blackouts, the government enacted the Public Sector maintenance. Many generation units were either Enterprises Reform Law and decided to carry out a major unavailable or operated well below their rated output. restructuring of the power sector under its provisions. To address the generation capacity shortages in the mid- Starting in 1998, the CDE's thermal plants were grouped 1990s, the government encouraged several IPPs to enter into two generation companies--Itabo and Haina--and into Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) with the CDE. its distribution facilities were divided into three distribution Since the deals were nontransparent and negotiated, companies--Empresa Distribuidora de Electricidad del they resulted in high electricity prices. Norte (EdeNorte), Empresa Distribuidora de Electricidad del Sur (EdeSur), and Empresa Distribuidora de Electricidad Reliability and quality of supply were, and continue to del Este (EdeEste). In 1999 the government auctioned be, major issues in the power sector. Power cuts had 50 percent of the shares in these five entities, along with been a constant problem in the Dominican Republic. management control, to the private sector, for a combined In the 1980s generation capacity was not sufficient to price of US$641 million, divided almost equally among meet the peak load. The power system was chronically the generation and distribution companies. supply constrained, and widespread blackouts (apagones) lasting up to 20 hours of the day were considered The government also attempted to improve the functioning "business as usual." of the sector by strengthening the policy and regulatory institutions, initiating a concerted effort to return the The power sector has been a bottleneck to the country's sector to financial sustainability, clearing all existing continued growth. The potential contribution of the large arrears in the sector, raising tariffs to cost recovery levels, foreign investments and sector reform to growth and and publicly supporting payment of bills by all customers poverty reduction has been limited by continued including government ones. problems of unreliable service in the sector. A recent report on the investment environment in the Dominican The first regulator was appointed in 1997 as part of the Republic noted that three quarters of the respondents Ministry of Commerce and Industry, rather than as an considered electricity one of the factors discouraging independent entity. There was no comprehensive investment decisions in the country both because of its regulatory framework, and the entire sector was either in high cost and unreliability of supply.1 the hands of the government, or consisted of IPPs regulated World Bank 2002. 1 by their PPAs and other government contracts. Some efforts charge of sector regulation. It was headed by a council have had positive results, but they were not sufficient to of three members, one of whom was the Superintendent, achieve a sustainable power sector. Further efforts to appointed by the President and ratified by Congress. reform the sector were pursued during 2001­02. The Consumer Protection Office (Oficina de Protección al Consumidor, PROTECOM) was placed under the SIE. Electricity Law of 2001 The Coordinating Agency (Organismo Coordinador), Under the new Electricity Law of July 2001 the government's whose directors are the Electricity Superintendent (whose operational presence in the sector was to be through (a) vote is called upon as a tie breaker) and four others-- the CDE, which kept the contracts with the IPPs; (b) a representing EGEHID, ETED, private generators, and the transmission enterprise, Empresa de Transmisión Eléctrica distribution companies--was placed in charge of Dominicana (ETED); and (c) a hydropower production dispatch. Table E-2 summarizes some of the most company, Empresa de Generación Hidroeléctrica important power sector reform components. Dominicana (EGEHID). A new holding company, Compañía Dominicana de Empresas Eléctricas (CDEE) At that stage of reform, and contrary to the initially was established to own ETED and EGEHID. agreed plans, important assets stayed as part of the The government planned to phase out the CDE and to CDE, such as most of hydro generation and all transfer its obligations concerning IPP contracts to the transmission assets. As it will be discussed later, having CDEE. Further, the 50 percent shares the government transmission assets under the CDE reduced the power 77 owned in the three distribution companies and the two sector's ability to increase investments in this area to generation companies were to be assigned to another reduce chronic transmission bottlenecks. new entity, Fondo Patrimonial de las Empresas (FONPER), to be managed as an investment rather than as a potential The Crises of 2002­04 sector policy instrument. Soon after restructuring, the international fuel prices The National Energy Commission (Comisión Nacional increased in 2000­01, striking a blow to the sector de Energía, CNE)--composed of the Secretary of because of its high level of dependency on imported Industry and Commerce, the Secretary of Finance, fuel. Retail tariffs required a substantial increase. the Technical Secretary of the Presidency, the Director Instead of raising the retail tariffs, the government chose of the Central Bank, the Secretary of Agriculture, to freeze them at February 2000 levels. During the tariff the Secretary of Environmental Affairs, and the Director freeze, the government sought to alleviate the financial of the Telecommunications Institute--was placed in charge consequences through lower-priced sales of hydro electricity of energy policy. The office of Electricity Superintendence from CDE-owned plants. The government also assumed (Superintendencia de Electricidad, SIE) was placed in the responsibility to provide a "general subsidy" to TABLE E-2. Summary of Sector Reform ITEM DETAILS Sector unbundling Sector unbundling in 1998, with the breakup of the CDE, to create thermal generating companies Itabo and Haina, and distribution companies EdeNorte, EdeSur, and EdeEste. Privatization Sale in 1999 of 50 percent shares of Itabo, Haina, EdeNorte, EdeSur, and EdeEste, including management control, to private investors. Legal and regulatory Passage of a modern Electricity Law in 2001 and issuance of its supporting regulations framework in 2002. This included creation of an autonomous regulatory agency--the Superintendencia de Electricidad (SIE), the National Energy Commission (CNE) as a policy-making body, and a wholesale market with economic dispatch and settlement--under the Coordinating Agency. compensate for the failure to increase tariffs for all The power crisis greatly worsened in late 2003 when a consumer categories reflecting the increases in fuel price significant currency devaluation of the Dominican peso and the consumer price index (CPI), as well as for the took place, caused mainly by an unprecedented banking depreciation in the value of local currency. crisis. Fuel costs, tied to the dollar, were not fully passed through to customer tariffs. The tariff for the first 700 kWh With the relentless increase in fuel prices, the government residential consumption block was frozen at the February was obliged to inject a subsidy of up to US$20 million 2003 level, and a Stabilization Fund was created to per month into the sector, which made this option quickly provide compensation and also handle electricity price unsustainable. Government agencies themselves had fluctuations. Since the government did not have any difficulty paying their electric bills. In addition, the PPAs funds, the Stabilization Fund became a forced interest- imposed a financial drain on the CDE, which was unable free loan to the government by the distribution companies. to draw sufficiently upon the limited fiscal resources The macroeconomic crisis, in tandem with tariff increases of the central government.2 The accumulated debt with for some customer segments, put the power sector in a the IPPs reached US$179 million in September 2002. more distressed situation. Collections and revenues Nonpayment for their supplies led the IPPs to decreased even further, and consequently distribution suspend production. companies were not able to pay for a large part of their power purchases, forcing IPPs to declare themselves The privatized distribution companies improved the chaotic physically unavailable, since they had no sufficient 78 situation they inherited from the CDE, but they still working capital to purchase fuel. Thus, the country continued to show large technical and nontechnical faced a "financial blackout," despite having generation losses and poor collection ratios. Despite government capacities far in excess of demand and one of the subsidies, the increase in fuel prices eroded their income, highest tariffs in the region. which led them to cut power supply to neighborhoods where losses and nonpayment were more acute, and Renationalization of the Distribution Companies suspend payments to the generating companies.3 Financial blackouts and extensive disconnection of The financial crisis of distributors and generators led nonpaying neighborhoods made the private distribution to one of the worst crises to strike the power sector. companies highly unpopular, and in September 2003 Starting in mid-2002, power cuts curtailed supplies by (eight months ahead of the elections scheduled for May more than 20 hours per day in very many neighborhoods. 2004) the government yielded to the political pressure Worst affected were the poorest areas, where the collection and decided to renationalize two of the three distribution rate was the lowest. By September 13, 2002, more than companies (EdeNorte and EdeSur) by repurchasing the 50 percent of all circuits of the principal distribution 50 percent shares held in them by Union Fenosa. companies were out of service. The resulting riots claimed The ostensible reason for such renationalization was that 15 lives. the companies were underperforming, both technically and financially jeopardizing the integrity of the power On September 17, 2002, the government announced sector. The acquisition process and the price paid to Union urgent measures to deal with the crisis and to seek a Fenosa were not transparent. It is also worth noting that structural and permanent solution to the sector's problems. AES Corporation (AES) also sold its shares to an The measures announced by the government included a international private equity fund and retained only its comprehensive settlement and payment for arrears; role as the operator of the distribution company EdeEste.4 elimination of the generalized subsidy, while maintaining Operation of the renationalized companies was restored focused subsidies for the poor; and a concentrated to the CDEE. Under public sector ownership and operation, effort to fight electricity theft. To achieve this goal, the the unit operating costs of the two companies sharply government established an antifraud unit, the Program rose (to 6­7 cents/kWh compared with 2 cents/kWh of to Eliminate Electricity Fraud (Programa de Apoyo a la EdeEste), and their performance deteriorated. Eliminación del Fraude Eléctrico, PAEF). Results to date, however, have been modest. The PPAs were renegotiated in 2001 (the "Madrid Agreement"). As a result the government's role as a single buyer was reduced, but the 2 government was obliged to compensate for the stranded costs. The government, however, lacked funds to pay the IPPs even the lower renegotiated costs and accumulated debts to them. These neighborhoods were predominantly poor. 3 It is believed that AES did this to clean up its balance sheet and shed risky assets worldwide in the wake of Enron scandal. 4 Attracting Investments To increase generation capacity before power sector reform was designed and implemented, the government The reform and privatization of the power sector in the invited IPPs, which entered into PPAs to supply the CDE mid-1990s managed to attract significant new capital as a single buyer of energy. This resulted in considerable for investments in revamping and modernizing existing new capacity, as well as reduced power shortage and generation capacity, expanding assets, and accessing outages. However, as in other countries, the IPP-PPA natural gas via the first liquefied natural gas terminal in approach led to its own set of problems, primarily related the country. Several new IPPs built greenfield generation to the agreed prices (especially for the capacity price). capacity, relieving constraints and providing additional Where the deals were worked out through negotiations resources to support the country's growth. (only one was tendered through competitive bidding), this was linked to issues of transparency. Furthermore, As a result of investments in the power sector, between the PPAs with the CDE became inconsistent with the revised the end of 2000 and mid-2003, the Dominican Republic sector structure, and had to be renegotiated post reform. witnessed a 43 percent increase in effective capacity (around 1,000 MW). The distribution companies also Currently, the Dominican Republic has an installed capacity made significant investments in the physical network and of about 3,600 MW for a peak demand of about 1,900 in the commercial processes. The boost in generation MW. The energy mix is diversified, involving a combination capacity provided temporary relief from the blackouts. of steam plants, gas turbines, combined cycle, fuel oil, Investments in distribution helped reduce losses and and hydro, as shown in table E-3. 79 improve the quality of service for a while. Given the excess capacity in the system, existing demand The Dominican Republic was able to attract about US$2.3 could potentially be met at a short-term marginal billion in new investments in the power sector, a remarkable generation cost of US$60/MWh. Figure E-1 illustrates figure for a country of that size. From this amount, about the merit order for the existing generation capacity. US$1.2 billion came from the divestitures of government At this point in time, the Dominican Republic could take assets, while the remaining came to finance new generation advantage of its relatively low cost of generation by capacity and distribution network improvements. not dispatching the least-efficient plants. Unfortunately, consumers have not benefited from this "cheaper" During those golden years, the electricity sector alone energy for three reasons. First, subsidy payments from accounted for 23.3 percent of all foreign direct investments the government to the generation companies to since 1995, and this trend continued with electricity sector compensate for the large losses in the distribution system investment accounting for 40 percent of all foreign direct have been unreliable, thereby delaying fuel purchases investments in 2001. This flow of foreign investment was and the availability of generation capacity. Second, an important source of financing the current account the main two IPP contracts have significant take-or-pay deficit. In 1999 the flow of foreign resources in the obligations. Third, transmission constraints inhibit a strict sector was 1.47 times the current account deficit. merit order dispatch. TABLE E-3. Effective Capacity, December 2000 and December 2003 (MW) STEAM GAS COMBINED MOTORS­ MOTORS­ PLANT TURBINE CYCLE FUEL OIL GAS OIL HYDRO TOTAL COMPANY 2000 2003 2000 2003 2000 2003 2000 2003 2000 2003 2000 2003 2000 2003 Haina 230 310 144 153 0 302 374 765 Itabo 379 230 174 173 553 403 CDE 353 458 353 458 14 IPPs 303 301 170 784 422 519 103 109 998 1713 Totals 609 540 621 627 170 784 422 821 103 109 353 458 2278 3339 Source: Organismo Coordinador 2003­2004. FIGURE E-1. CAPACITY DISPATCHED AND MARGINAL VARIABLE COST $0.2000 $0.1800 Existing No. 2 Demand $0.1600 $0.1400 Other No. 6 and N. Coal $0.1200 Gas Turbine h Wk$. $0.1000 No. 6 Diesel S. U$0.0800 NG CC $0.0600 $0.0400 80 $0.0200 $0.0000 500.0 1,000.0 1,500.0 2,000.0 2,500.0 3,000.0 MW The privatized distribution business also attracted new A Power Sector in Disarray investments in network improvement, loss reduction, and service quality. Both AES and Union Fenosa are used to Despite wide-ranging structural reforms, privatization, operate distribution systems in their home country and and significant foreign direct investments in the sector, abroad. They were fully aware of the importance of the power sector in the Dominican Republic continued to improvements related to theft, reduction, and collection. remain in total disarray. From the time they assumed operational and management control in 1999, they showed notable progress in reducing Quality of Service and Power Shortages losses until about 2001/02, as indicated below: Power shortages have been plaguing the Dominican · Union Fenosa­EdeNorte: From 41.9 percent in 2000 Republic for many decades. As already mentioned, in down to 32.3 percent in 2001. the mid-1980s the capacity of the system was constrained primarily from the lack of investment in the power sector. · Union Fenosa­EdeSur: From 37.3 percent in 2000 Lack of funds jeopardized maintenance of existing down to 22.2 percent in 2001. generation assets, as well as construction of new power plants. In parallel, consumption was outstripping supply · AES­EdeEste: From 40 percent in the fourth quarter of at a fast pace. In the absence of a robust demand-side 1999 down to 27 percent in the third quarter of 2002. management program, rolling blackouts were the last and only resort to deal with power shortages. Transmission is one area that has not attracted new investments. Bottlenecks still exist. The CDE remained The power sector reform provided some relief by the owner of transmission assets and hydro-generation increasing existing capacity. The power system now is facilities. However, it lacked financial resources to neither capacity- nor energy-constrained, in a purely improve the grid. Furthermore, legislation did not allow technical sense. However, the country is still plagued by other mechanisms for mobilizing private sector resources constant blackouts, as noted earlier. These are usually for transmission. referred to as "financial blackouts." The country has been experiencing blackouts because The unreliability of the service, especially blackouts of up of the financial difficulties faced by the generators. to 20 hours a day, is not distributed evenly among the Distribution companies suffering from poor collections rich and the poor. On one hand, the rich were able to could not settle their dues to the generators for the energy partially mitigate the negative consequences of shortages purchased from them. Often distribution companies do by installing their own backup generation systems. not even pay a sufficient amount to cover the fuel costs The Central Bank estimated that prior to 1999, 60 percent of production. Under such circumstances, some power of businesses used backup generators. This number was plants have been forced to stop producing, which led to still about 44 percent in mid-2002. Some experts estimate involuntary power rationing.5 that currently 1,500 MW of backup generation is available in the country.8 Although not the ideal solution for A weak transmission system is also a major source of businesses and industries, it was still better than not having service quality concerns. Transmission weaknesses have energy at all. This alternative is not available to the poor. led to frequent countrywide blackouts--eight in 2000 and six in 2001. Better grid codes and regulations could Shortages significantly affect smaller businesses and help make the power system more reliable and affordable. communities that have less access to coping mechanisms Recent independent technical analysis has suggested than larger businesses. Small businesses, such as that static capacitors should be installed if their capital mechanics workshops, carpenters and food retailers, cost is less than the total of generation capital and lost custom and their economic base. Essential social operating cost to supply reactive energy, but perverse services, such as schools--especially night schools attended 81 incentives exist that discourage investment in capacitors.6 by poorer groups--and medical services, were disrupted. No funds are currently available to the CDE's transmission The lack of illumination at night also affected the citizens' business to achieve this reinforcement, and the regulated sense of security and exposed them to a higher risk of transmission tariffs are set in a manner such that they crime and violence, especially for women, and particularly create no incentives for it to invest. Furthermore, the new in congested urban neighborhoods and slums. Electricity Law consolidates a de facto monopoly to the CDE, which precludes more efficient and faster solutions Furthermore, the way that rolling blackouts have been to expand the transmission grid.7 designed imposed a greater burden on some less- privileged neighborhoods. This was the essence of the In many cases, power curtailment and loss of load had ill-fated Blackout Reduction Program (Programa de been occurring in an unplanned--almost haphazard-- Reducción de Apagones or PRA), which will be discussed way. It had been difficult for customers to know where in the next section. and for how long the next blackouts would take place. Therefore, customers must deal with the cost of unserved The economic losses imposed on the poor are noteworthy. energy, as well as with a high loss of load probability. A recent study commissioned by USAID has estimated consumers' willingness to pay for reliable services. For low Figure E-2 illustrates the nature and extent of the power consumption brackets, such as 50 kWh per month, cuts in 2004 in the Dominican Republic. Despite a total customers would be willing to pay about 30 cents per installed capacity of more than 3,000 MW and peak kWh (figure E-3). This represents the costs that the lack demand of about 1,800 MW, the country has recently of reliable power inflicts on the society. It includes curtailed an average of 25 percent of the load, and in components such as the money spent on alternative some periods even 50 percent. The ups and downs are fuels, as well as the discomfort and loss of production the direct result of the availability of financial resources resulting from constant blackouts. to acquire fuel. During the periods of scarcity and shortage in recent The social consequences of the crisis were significant decades, demand response played a relatively small role and extensive. The population expressed dissatisfaction in alleviating the crisis. The opposite is what actually through public demonstrations that turned violent and occurred: Subsidized rates have fostered overconsumption led to the loss of lives. and wasteful use of resources. Lack of enforcement of basic property rights encouraged theft and nonpayment. According to the August 12, 2003, edition of Listín Diario, on the previous afternoon, generation was 1,279 MW, while unserved demand was 5 527 MW. As an example, with all units the Haina plant in the central zone was producing approximately 150 MW and 80 MVAR. It was estimated by CCE 6 that if the reactive requirements could be met by static capacitors, an additional 24 MW of generating capacity would be set free to serve load within the Santo Domingo load zone. For example, BOT schemes used in Peru or BOO in Brazil. 7 Blanlot 2004. 8 FIGURE E-2. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AS A PERCENTAGE OF DEMAND 110 (seven-day moving average) 100 90 80 70 60 50 82 40 Oct 03 Feb 04 Jun 04 Oct 04 Source: International document, USAID (2004). Removal of meters and payment of fixed fees in extensive For more than 40 years, electricity was perceived as a PRA areas have contributed to wasteful consumption "free good." Until privatization, theft was rampant, and among the poor. Needless to say, if an economic good procedures for cutting off customers in arrears were largely is perceived to be almost without cost, its consumption innocuous--customers could reconnect themselves without grows exponentially. Theft and nonpayment contributed any ensuing penalty. Theft of electricity was not culturally to the perception of electricity as "a free good," which perceived as a crime and was not enforced as such. fostered consumption even further. The performance of distribution companies is measured The Distribution Business and the Culture of through the cash recovery index (CRI), which is a product Nonpayment of the billing ratio (energy billed in gigawatt-hours divided by the total energy put into the network in gigawatt-hours) The distribution business is the most dysfunctional and the collection ratio (actual cash amount collected element of the power system in the Dominican Republic. divided by the total amount billed in monetary terms). Poor quality of service, permanent customer dissatisfaction, A well-managed distribution utility would have a billing and relatively high prices have induced theft through ratio of 90 percent or above and a collection ratio of illegal connections, as well as nonpayment of electricity 98 percent or above, and the resulting CRI would be 88 bills, by the rich and poor alike. Unpaid bills arise percent or above. At the time of privatization in 1999, because of what is somewhat facetiously known as la the distribution companies in the Dominican Republic cultura de no pago (an ingrained habit of not paying). showed dismal CRIs in the range of 40­50 percent, More realistically, the nonpayment is caused by the with the weighted average being 43 percent. The private inability of the distribution companies to cut off supplies sector was able to achieve substantial improvement by for overdue bills. Defective commercial processes and achieving CRIs ranging from 62 percent (EdeNorte) to poor law enforcement mechanisms, in tandem with the 69 percent (EdeSur), before macroeconomic factors put impunity with which customers reconnect to the grid the power sector in complete disarray. By 2004 the CRIs illegally, are additional layers of complexity to the problem. deteriorated to 35 percent in EdeNorte and 46 percent in EdeSur--both renationalized entities. It was a little better at 51 percent in EdeEste.9 These figures exclude the PRA areas, since they are not comparable. Most of the PRA areas are in EdeEste jurisdiction. 9 FIGURE E-3. REVEALED WILLINGNESS TO PAY IN RELATION TO TARIFF 0.35 0.30 0.25 WTP Revealed h 0.20 Wk/$ Ordered Tarif S U 0.15 0.10 0.05 83 0.00 <=50 50-100 100-200 200-300 300-700 >700 Consumption Ranges (kWh/month) Source: International document, USAID (2004). Lack of proper collections led the sector into a vicious The Complex Issue of Widespread Subsidies cycle. The vicious cycle starts with the end users, who do not pay their distribution companies for the energy In a few instances in the last couple of years, the consumed.10 Poor collections call for tariff increases to government has tried to limit and target subsidies better. survive, which in turn feeds back into the process by The government acknowledged that the electricity sector increasing theft and nonpayment.11 In turn, the distribution was a major source of fiscal costs, since the structure companies do not pay the generators for energy purchases, of the electricity tariff was not designed to reflect the and the generators end up facing liquidity crises and changes in the international fuel prices, exchange rate, curtailing generation. and differences in foreign and local inflation rates, even though the costs of production paid to generators As already presented, privatized distribution companies under the PPAs to the IPPs reflected these changes. were able to achieve important results in terms of losses This situation created a generalized subsidy amounting and collections. However, in absolute terms, the end to Peso 370 million per month or 1.2 percent of the result was still insufficient to assure sustainability. GDP in 2002.12 Financing such inefficiencies in the power Those companies alone were not able to go much further sector crowded out other social investments. In 2002, for in the absence of the rule of law and a government capable example, subsidies in the power sector reached US$300 of enforcing contracts and paying its own bills, as well million--half the budgeted amount for basic education as in an environment in which theft of energy was not in the country. treated as a crime. Some attempts made by the government to fix this problem produced cosmetic results. This The government has tried a few times to eliminate vacuum in governance impeded efforts in the sector to generalized subsidies, focusing instead on those who achieve further badly needed improvements. need the subsidy most. For example, a generalized Either because of delinquent payments or outright, rampant theft. 10 The impact of technical and nontechnical losses is remarkable in countries with high costs of bulk power, such as the Dominican Republic, 11 which basically imports hydrocarbons to meet most of its generation needs. Total arrears emerged and by the end of 2002 were as high as US$226 million or 8.3 percent of fiscal revenues of that year. 12 subsidy was eliminated in 2002, and a new indexation With technical losses running at 15 percent and collection system was established to take into account increases rates at 95 percent, the 2002 tariff levels would be in oil prices and movements in the exchange rate. sufficient to assure economic and financial equilibrium Electricity tariffs increased between 40 percent and 107 for EdeNorte and for EdeSur. In the case of EdeEste, percent, with the highest increases affecting the larger even a tariff reduction from US$155/MWh down to consumers of electricity. This has been replaced by a US$134/MWh would be possible.14 Conversely, at the much more targeted subsidy for poor urban neighborhoods 2002 performance levels for each company, the necessary through the PRA. This is implemented at a cost of Peso tariff for breakeven would require unrealistic tariff increases 100 million per month--less than 25 percent of the cost for all the distribution companies. under the generalized subsidy. In a country heavily dependent on imported oil, the cost However, the 2002­03 macroeconomic crises reversed of energy is high most of the time--and particularly so most of the ongoing effort to provide selective, smart during oil shocks combined with currency devaluations. subsidies. Political pressure to keep prices low was As a consequence, losses have an immense effect on intense. In response to the currency devaluation crisis, the financials of a distribution company. To illustrate this the government decided not to allow full pass-through point, the World Bank carried out another simplified of dollar-denominated fuel costs to customer tariffs. sensitivity analysis showing the joint impact of changes This action was an attempt to mitigate the impact on in the collection rates and technical losses. Table E-5 84 tariffs for all customer groups. It was a direct and explicit shows the average breakeven tariff, given different levels subsidy to electricity rates, for all customer categories, of operational performance of the distribution companies. at levels that did not fully reflect costs. This action served There is almost an exponential effect of the collection on not only to increase consumption, but also to further the breakeven tariffs. For example, if losses were 30 reduce the power sector's cash generation, which led to percent and collections 60 percent, the breakeven point escalating rolling blackouts. would be about US$242/MWh. A USAID report (2004) estimated the total subsidy provided Despite being a theoretical analysis, it properly highlights to the power sector in 2004 to be of the order of US$682 the substantial impact of collections and losses on the million. This consists of both explicit subsidies for fuel financial status of the sector. Needless to say, it is unrealistic (US$27 million), lifeline rates (US$112 million), and the to imagine that the tariff charged to customers who PRA (US$226 million), and the implicit subsidies resulting do pay their bills can be increased indefinitely, up to, from the cumulative losses of the distribution companies for example, US$240/MWh (see table E-5). Therefore, (US$317 million). it is not feasible to maintain such low collection rates over a long period. It would lead, and it has indeed led, It must be noted that the tariff in the Dominican to a collapse of the entire system. Republic is one of the highest in Latin America, reaching 14 cents/kWh (prior to the currency devaluation). To aggravate matters, because of the poor quality of By September 2004 the applied retail tariff reached service, customers used to paying their bills tended to 15.7 cents/kWh. Therefore, the government's latitude lose the incentive to continue to do so. On the government to increase tariffs further is relatively limited, particularly side, a poorly designed and enforced property rights system considering that customers always have the second best made things worse, since people who were stealing option to "steal" energy or not to pay for it.13 energy or not paying their bills were not compelled to change their behavior. The important issue is not so much to raise tariffs for the customers who pay as to decrease theft and nonpayment. Blackout Reduction Program A simplified analysis developed by the World Bank in 2003 showed that sustainability of the power sector In 2001 the government established the Blackout Reduction would be greatly enhanced if improvements in the CRI Program (PRA), a two-year program with the objective of could be attained. A sensitivity analysis of tariff levels is targeting subsidies to the poor on a geographical basis presented in table E-4. (barrios carenciados, or neighborhoods lacking in services) In 2003 the regulator authorized distribution companies to increase their tariffs, but they preferred not to do so, under the assumption that 13 further rate increases would aggravate the issues of theft and nonpayment. A tariff of US$155/MWh is the same as 15.5 cents/kWh. 14 TABLE E-4. Breakeven Tariff Analysis EXISTING CASH BREAKEVEN EFFICIENT TARIFF: CRI = 80.8% RECOVERY INDEX 2002 TARIFF TARIFF FOR 2002 (15% LOSSES, 95% COLLECTIONS) COMPANY (CRI) FOR 2002 (US$/MWH) (US$/MWH) (US$/MWH) EdeNorte 60.3% 124 167 125 EdeSur 68.8% 124 146 124 EdeEste 62.7% 155 163 134 TABLE E-5. Effect of Collection Rates and Losses on the Breakeven Tariff BREAKEVEN TARIFF (US$/MWh) COLLECTION RATE (%) AT A LOSS LEVEL OF 30% AT A LOSS LEVEL OF 15% 40 362 299 50 290 239 85 60 242 199 70 207 171 80 181 149 90 161 133 100 145 120 and implementing rolling blackouts in a more organized of the estimated installed load. A few commercial customers fashion.15 The program envisaged a provision of about who were located within the boundaries of the PRA were 20 hours of electricity per day in certain designated areas, charged regular fees, on the basis of kilowatt-hours generally the poorest neighborhoods (barrios) in the cities. consumed. Metering was virtually nonexistent, and payment The energy delivered to those neighborhoods was heavily was not based on metered consumption. The PRA tried subsidized by the government and by the utility. Roughly to facilitate the emergence of community self-monitoring speaking, distribution companies would be responsible groups to increase collection and defray the service costs. for covering 25 percent of the required subsidies to serve However, for practical purposes, the collections in the PRA customers, while the government was responsible PRA neighborhoods were negligible. for the remaining 75 percent. The PRA was a kind of geographic targeting methodology, Initially the program worked reasonably well. A tariff also known as a "poverty map." It is widely used in many increase was applied to other customers, who in turn sectors, because of its simplicity, when poverty is spatially obtained more reliable service. The poor also benefited, concentrated. This seemed to be the case in the Dominican since the number of hours curtailed in low-income areas Republic. However, one of its negative aspects has to do was reduced to reasonable levels. The program brought with incentive costs. It may affect people's behavior to some initial relief, but it did not prove to be sustainable. become eligible, such as through relocation and migration With the aggravation of the macroeconomic crisis, the to those designated areas. Perhaps even more serious flow of cash into the power sector started to shrink. That is the fact that there is no metering for any customers. shrinkage implied less money for fuel, fewer hours of Such a "negative incentive effect" induces higher generators running, and more frequent blackouts. consumption of a subsidized commodity, leading to waste and the crowding out of private and public transfers.16 Despite being initially touted as a success, the PRA had several built-in perverse incentives. Rates charged to The PRA's perverse economic incentives jeopardized its customers in the PRA neighborhoods were nominal and medium-term sustainability. Initially, subsidies were about based on a flat fee, which was determined as a function US$30 million per year. In 2003 the opportunity cost of In the absence of an alternative way to deal with the PRA issues, the program has been extended. 15 Coady and others 2004. 16 the energy consumed by the PRA grew to US$120 million, In addition to those perverse incentives, the PRA did not and it is expected to grow even further, perhaps to seem to be a well-targeted subsidy scheme, which is a US$200 million, in 2005. usual drawback of geographically targeted subsidies.19 This is because the population within the qualified The PRA represents the antithesis of a sound demand neighborhoods is heterogeneous in terms of income and management program. The subsidies and the mechanisms consumption. However, customers are treated equally in for rationing energy need to be completely revamped. terms of subsidies and the quality of service provided. Some of the most important issues to be addressed include This "one size fits all" approach is an inefficient way to the resource waste that this system seems to engender allocate subsidies and ration energy, since customers' and the growth in the number of customers in PRA areas. willingness to pay for electricity and the reliability of its However, addressing the PRA requires political courage, supply are not taken into account. investment, and time. Weak governance and lack of government commitment have led to the postponement It is unacceptable to maintain the current scheme in of the design and implementation of a sound plan to perpetuity, given the perverse incentives created. Other look for better ways to target subsidies and manage countries that have faced similar difficulties were able to shortages in the Dominican Republic. significantly reduce losses and increase collections. There is no political consensus among the distribution Most of the customers in the neighborhoods do not have companies and the several branches of the government 86 meters, and neither the government nor the distribution on what needs to be done. The blackouts are just the tip companies are planning to introduce meters in the short of the iceberg. Resolving the problems of the power term.17 Not surprisingly, lack of meters and payments sector requires a much more comprehensive approach. based on a flat fee (as opposed to individual kilowatt- The role of demand in response to prices (or the lack hour consumption) lead to resource waste. Cases of thereof) has to be better understood and taken into lightbulbs without switches have been documented. account in the design of a new subsidy and rationing PRA consumers are believed to have changed over from scheme. The political courage and commitment to propane to the use of electricity for cooking. Illegal address the intertwined issues in the PRA are yet to be hookups abound, and the distribution network in the proven, but they are a prerequisite and a priority to the neighborhoods is overloaded and deteriorated, which is medium-term sustainability of the power sector. increasing technical losses and facilitating theft. Key Lessons from the Experience in the Dominican Distribution companies have virtually no incentives to fix Republic this technical problem either. For them, providing 25 percent of generation costs to those neighborhoods as Below are seven important lessons that can be learned subsidies to the poor is more advantageous than delivering from the experience in the Dominican Republic. regular services to those poor customers, where losses and nonpayment are a chronic problem. They have been Power reform is not the culprit of the problems working actively with the government to qualify more faced by the electric sector in the Dominican and more areas and customers under the PRA umbrella. Republic The population under the PRA grew substantially. In early 2003, the PRA neighborhoods consumed an estimated Contrary to what is sometimes alleged, the reform does 10­12 percent of energy produced in the Dominican not appear to be the culprit for the problems faced by Republic.18 In late 2004, it was estimated that 500,000 the power sector in the Dominican Republic. Nothing customers, or one-third of the country's total client base, indicates that sector unbundling, privatization, and were located in PRA-designated areas. The current size segregation of the market into three distribution companies of the PRA may jeopardize the financial sustainability of led to inefficiencies of scale or scope. The causes of the the entire power sector. problems of the power sector in the country are more The introduction of meters is seen by the government and by the distribution companies as a dangerous move, since it would be met with 17 staunch resistance from the population and would risk jeopardizing the still fragile progress made in having them accept paying their bills. Furthermore, distribution companies have no economic incentives to do so. Installing, reading, and maintaining meters increase investment and operational costs, which are unlikely to be recovered by the tariffs charged in PRA-designated areas, often at great political cost. Distribution companies' real incentive is to extend PRA's life as much as possible. Funding 25 percent of the energy delivered to PRA neighborhoods is still more advantageous than serving those kinds of customers at nominal rates and with a very low CRI. In the same period hydro power represents 15 percent of national production. 18 Coady and others 2004. 19 deeply rooted. They have to do with a long history of Governance improvements must precede sector people's (as well as the government's) not paying their restructuring and privatization bills, voluminous subsidies, energy theft, lack of contract enforcement, and corruption. No power sector model is This question marked the debate about privatizations bulletproof in the face of this kind of void in governance. in the power sector in the early 1990s. The discussion Debating some of the imperfections of power sector reform centered on "fixing" the operational and financial does not address the central issue of lack of good aspects of the business prior to privatization. In retrospect, governance. As a corollary, new proposals tinkering the question was mischaracterized. What needed to be with industry structure and privatization are distracting, fixed was the governance system--not the utility per se. given the magnitude of the critical problems at stake. Governance here includes, among other things, respect for contracts and property rights. In the absence of this Sector reform did help attract capital, particularly in precondition, any ownership structure, either public or generation private, is doomed to failure. Despite the alleged problems, reform and privatization Fixing the power sector in countries like the were able to attract about US$2.3 billion to the power Dominican Republic requires serious political sector in a matter of a few years. This is a remarkable commitment and the right incentives feat, given the size of the power sector in the Dominican Republic. Investors were attracted in part by what seemed The impact of losses and collections on the sustainability 87 to be a coherent power sector reform in a market that of the power sector is evident. However, confronting this offered prospects for growth. Furthermore, the single-buyer issue is politically sensitive. It requires addressing cultural role played by the CDE at the outset of the reform attracted aspects related to a common view that electricity is a new IPPs and increased generation capacity.20 At that "free good" and that people do not have to pay for it. point in time, since blackouts were primarily caused by It is a flawed perception of property rights that needs to the lack of generation, resolving this bottleneck seemed change. The Dominican Republic is not the only country to be the avenue to eliminating the chronic power facing this problem. Other countries in Africa and Eastern shortages. Distribution companies in private hands made Europe, with less human and financial resources, were able some investments to enhance the reliability of the grid to tackle the problem of theft, losses, and collections and of the commercial processes, but more could have effectively. What seems to be lacking in the Dominican been done. Investment in transmission did not materialize, Republic is the incentives for the government to adopt a since this activity basically remained in the hands of a committed, forward-looking approach. The governments state-owned and regulated monopoly. On the whole, behaved as if they knew beforehand that if things went attracting investments was the bright side of the power really wrong, there would always be a safety net of sector reform in the Dominican Republic. international assistance to bail out the power sector. Politicians thus prefer not to confront the real, thorny Attracting capital is just one part of the equation, political issues, such as fixing the issue of subsidies to but it is not a guarantee to a sustainable power the poor. The constant sense of "urgency" and the sector mindset of managing the next crisis overshadow the importance of adopting a more coherent approach. Many countries struggle to attract capital to their power The donor community in general may have a role in sector. Some of them are more successful than others. discouraging such easy options. Despite being an important ingredient, capital is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition. Investments, Governance is important, but fixing the power sector public or private, must have decent financial returns to in the Dominican Republic requires more and cover operational costs and to support growth. substantial investments in distribution Otherwise, the system does not become sustainable. This did not happen in the Dominican Republic. For the Important investments in distribution are still necessary. power system to become sustainable, it is mandatory Some essential investments were planned, but never that a vigorous and effective effort be made to improve made. In 2003 AES estimated it would need about US$80 governance and enforce the rule of law. million to rehabilitate the system, while Union Fenosa As in most cases of the single buyer model, here too increased generation capacity had been acquired at a high cost, and a good part of such 20 high cost capacities soon became stranded. estimated that some US$40 million would be required. Some of those investments would have had a payback period of less than a year, but they never came to fruition. For example, the Union Fenosa loss reduction and collection increase plan should recover about 350 GWh in one year and therefore reduce its energy purchases by 13 percent. The situation is even worse today, because of the lack of investments by the CDE after Union Fenosa utilities were nationalized. In addition, one can reasonably assume a minimum of US$150 to provide meters and accessories for each PRA customer, which would result in a total investment need of US$75 million for the entire country for this purpose alone. The overall effort to increase efficiency in the distribution sector is a joint responsibility between the government and utilities. The government should consistently support enforcing property rights and should provide regulatory 88 incentives for the system to perform correctly. Utilities must have the motivation, capital, and management skills to carry forward an effective program of revenue recovery. Many of those elements were absent as part of the sector reform in the Dominican Republic. Demand-side management needs to be an integral component of sector reform because the Dominican Republic is the antithesis of conservation and energy efficiency The PRA is a flawed arrangement. Since energy is not metered, it provides perverse incentives for energy usage. Empirical evidence of wasteful use of resources abounds, both in regular and PRA areas. The consequences of waste are immediate: The more the community consumes, the fewer will be the hours of supply available. The PRA should be revised, both in its subsidies, as well as the way load shedding is implemented. In principle, the geographic targeting scheme may be preserved, at least as an interim measure. However, it must be combined with some metered consumption and subsidies to the poor in the form of energy vouchers or fixed monthly payments to be subtracted from their individual bills. A detailed plan to solve the problem should be put in place, which would probably take two to three years. Unless this issue is taken seriously by the government and by donors, the country will always be dealing with problems in the power sector as "the next crisis around the corner." CASE STUDY F: ETHIOPIA General Background survey), government decisions sometimes tend to favor enterprises controlled by, or closely connected with, Ethiopia has an area of 1.1 million square kilometers, the ruling party.1 The party, led throughout this period by equivalent to the combined size of Texas and France. Meles Zenawi, faced the first fully democratic elections Landlocked, it lies between Sudan to the north and west, in May 2005 and secured a majority in the parliament. Kenya to the south, Somalia to the southeast, and Djibouti The opposition party members, however, boycotted the and Eritrea to the east. Addis Ababa, the country's capital, parliament, and there has been political tension resulting is situated 9 degrees north of the equator. Ethiopia's in the clashes between the protesters and the police and topography is characterized by cool highlands running in the arrest and imprisonment of key opposition down the central and western parts of the country, leaders, civilians and journalists. and hot lowlands, mainly to the east. The dominant physical feature is the vast central plateau with an average Although the developmental challenges facing Ethiopia elevation of between 1,800 m and 400 m. Ethiopia has are intimidating enough, the country also faces a Africa's fourth highest mountain (Ras Dashen, 4,600 m) renewal of tension with neighboring Eritrea over disputed and one of the lowest points on the earth's surface (the border territories, as well as occasional outbursts of Danakil depression, up to 120 m below sea level). domestic insurgency by armed factions in the Ogaden and other regions. 89 The highlands are temperate, with most rain falling between mid-June and mid-September. However, many areas of Ethiopia shares with Burundi the melancholy distinction of the lowlands are susceptible to drought, which can being among the poorest countries in the world, measured lead to food shortages and even famine. Widespread in gross national income (GNI) per capita. Per capita GNI deforestation resulting from the extensive use of wood in 2004 was estimated at $110 based on the World Bank for fuel is having a deleterious effect on the natural and Atlas methodology (World Bank 2004).2 Agriculture human environment in some areas. provides the livelihood of 85 percent of the Ethiopian people, but drought, pests, and severe soil erosion have With a population 74.8 million in mid-2006, Ethiopia was kept agricultural yields erratic and low. GDP growth is the second most populous nation (after Nigeria) in the significantly affected by climatic factors, with low rainfalls Sub-Saharan Africa region. Life expectancy at birth was being associated with low or negative growth. After a 42.5 years, and the literacy rate was 42 percent in 2004. drought-induced GDP contraction in 2002/03, the Population growth is expected to remain at or above the economy rebounded with 11 percent growth in 2003/04 2 percent level. Ethiopia's rural population is 83 percent and 8.9 percent growth in 2004/05. Increasing oil prices of total population, a figure that has fallen only slightly could jeopardize similar growth in the near future. (from 87 percent) since 1991. In 2001 Ethiopia was the seventh least-urbanized country in the world. The consumer price index (CPI) grew at an average annual rate of 4 percent between 1980 and 1990 and at Ethiopia's political landscape has been dominated by the the same average rate between 1990 and 2003. In Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) 2004 it grew at 8.8 percent. party since the overthrow of the Marxist Mengistu regime in 1991. The government formed by that party had The current account deficit was 7.7 percent of GDP, an ambitious reform agenda, and showed focus and and the trade deficit was 25 percent of GDP in 2004. determination in pushing it through. However, the state Foreign debt amounted to 98.5 percent of GDP in controls much economic activity, directly or indirectly, 2003. Ethiopia is the world's eighth largest recipient of and observers in the donor community note a certain foreign aid, which amounted to $1.3 billion in 2002. doctrinaire inflexibility in policy implementation, which It is estimated that development assistance needs to be manifests itself, for example, in a reluctance to give at four or five times that level for the country to be able enhanced economic freedom to the private sector and to meet the U.N. Millennium Project goals for Ethiopia. a disinclination to accept externally originating policy proposals. Although the level of corruption is thought to be low (a perception that is contradicted by a recent This case study was originally prepared by Peter Kelly, Consultant. It has since been updated by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy in the light of new information that became available and also revised slightly in the light of comments from World Bank staff. Ranked 137th among 159 countries in the world by Transparency International (2005) with a score of 2.2 in a scale of 0 to 10, zero being the 1 most corrupt and 10 being the least corrupt. Per capita GNI is estimated to have improved to $130 in 2005. 2 Ethiopia suffers from severe infrastructural deficiencies In 1996/97, the weighted average electricity tariff was ETB in all important areas. Only 12 percent of the national 0.252/kWh, equivalent to 4.1 cents/kWh.3 EEPCo was road network is paved. There are fewer than 8 fixed being provided with increasingly large subsidies, which and mobile telephone lines per 1,000 people, and 2.2 took the form of direct grants for investment, as well as personal computers per 1,000 people. the forgiveness of debt servicing. This practice tended to impose significant burdens on the state budget. The Power Sector in 1997 EEPCo had total sales of 1,324 GWh at the average tariff of ETB 0.252/kWh, earning gross revenues of In 1996/97, the year in which electricity sector reform is ETB 399 million. Customer collections were poor and generally considered to have commenced, Ethiopia had receivables averaged 105 days' sales. A net profit a population of 60 million, implying about 15 million before tax of ETB 74 million was earned. Overall, households. It was estimated that about 5 percent of the funds from internal sources amounted to ETB 219 population had access to electricity. The Ethiopian million, but borrowings of ETB 101 million and grants Electric Power Corporation (EEPCo) had 536,000 of ETB 1.7 billion brought total sources to over ETB 2 customers at the end of the year, equivalent to about billion. Investments were ETB 329 million, but almost 3.6 percent of total households. Most customers were ETB 1.2 billion, which had been received from the in Addis Ababa and a few other larger towns that are government to finance a multiyear investment program, 90 connected to the main grid. Annual new connections were invested in treasury bills and government bonds, were of the order of 10,000­20,000, and the time the latter being redeemed over the following eight years. taken to connect a new customer was typically up to a The company had 8,353 employees. year from the date of application. In summary, EEPCo in 1996/97 was operating on a In 1996/97, power was provided through two distinct scale and at a level of efficiency that was in many ways sets of systems. The interconnected system (ICS) served admirable and more effective than similar utilities in many mainly urban customers in Addis Ababa and a few other countries with fewer disadvantages than Ethiopia. However, towns. It had 488,000 customers. Additionally, several the institutional arrangements that were in place were self-contained systems (SCSs) served a further 47,000 hardly touching the massive challenges that confronted the customers in towns all over the country. development of the country's energy infrastructure. Table F- 1 summarizes key operational data for EEPCo for 1996/97 The ICS generation capacity consisted of six hydro plants and illustrates the progress achieved up to the current and and a number of small diesel generators with a total most recent completed years. system installed capacity of 379 MW and a peak load of 294 MW. Plant availability of the hydro plant was 95 percent. Power generated was 1,552 GWh. Total network The Power Sector in 2003/04 losses amounted to nearly 18 percent, leaving sales of 1,277 GWh. In the following seven years, remarkable improvement in the performance of EEPCo had contributed to the The SCS sales base amounted to 37,000 customers economic growth of Ethiopia. New generating capacity dispersed throughout a country twice the size of France. was added, leading to total installed capacity of 792 Power was supplied by a mixture of minihydro plants MW in 2003/04 and a peak load of 468 MW, 90 percent and diesel-generating sets with total installed capacity and 48 percent higher, respectively, than in 1996/97. of 37 MW and a peak load of 22 MW. Power generated All the net increase in capacity was in the ICS. Capacity, in 1996/97 amounted to 62 GWh, and total losses output, and sales in the SCS actually declined over the were greater than 26 percent of the power generated. period, as a result of the separation of assets based in Sales were 46 GWh. Eritrea from EEPCo. The transmission network had grown to 6,534 km, an increase of 31 percent over the The transmission network was 5,006 km in length, 1996/97 level, and the length of the distribution networks and distribution networks totaled 14,624 km. now extends to over 23,000 km, representing an increase of 55 percent during this period. The average exchange rate during the year ended July 7, 1997, was ETB 6.13 to $1.00. The exchange rate as of March 31, 2006, was ETB 3 8.7283 to $1.00. The financial year is from July 8 to July 7. TABLE F-1. Key Indicators for the Power Sector ITEM 1996/97 (ACTUAL) 2003/04 (ACTUAL) 2004/05 (ESTIMATED) Peak load (MW) 317 468 Installed capacity (MW) 416 792 780 Gross generation (GWh) 1,614 2,316 Total losses (GWh) 292 470 Transmission network (km) 5,006 6,534 Distribution network (km) 14,624 22,662 Average tariff (birr/kWh) 0.252 0.463 0.463 Sales (GWh) 1,323 1,847 2,250 Number of customers (`000) 536 777 947 (World Bank estimate) Sales revenue (million birr) 399 930 1,235 Receivables as days' sales 105 35 40 Pretax profit (million birr) 74 105 257 Funds from operations (million birr) 219 245 1,055 Funds from other sources (million birr) 1,823 934 1,807 Investments (million birr) 329 1,089 4,098 91 Long-term debt (million birr) 1,647 4,597 7,024 Capital and reserves (million birr) 3,422 8,315 9,429 TABLE F-2. Customers and Sales, 2003/04 TARIFF CATEGORY CUSTOMERS (NUMBER) SALES (GWh) Domestic 667,100 652 Commercial 98,837 455 Street lighting 1,352 22 Low-voltage large industry 8,444 351 High-voltage large industry 96 365 Own consumption 470 2 Total 698,360 1,847 In mid-2004 EEPCo had 777,000 customers, an increase of EEPCo increased to 933,502 by September 2005. of 45 percent over the 1997 level equivalent to an average The billing-to-collection ratio improved to 97.4 percent for growth rate of 5.5 percent. All but 37,000 of the customers 2004/05, receivables expressed as days' sales dropped were connected to the ICS. Sales were 1,847 GWh from 105 in 1997 to 40 days in 2005, and total system compared with 1,322 GWH seven years earlier, an annual losses (both technical and commercial) including auxiliary average rate of increase of almost 5 percent. The average consumption dropped to 20 percent of gross generation. end-user tariff had increased to ETB 0.463/kWh (5.1 The tariffs were further raised in June 2006 by 22 percent cents/kWh), almost double the 1996/97 level in local which, after adjusting for the lifeline rate, is expected to currency terms. Customer collections were equivalent to 87 increase the average revenue per kilowatt-hour sold by percent of billings. Table F-2 shows the makeup of demand. 18.8 percent. The Project Appraisal Document of the World Bank for the Approximately 10.5 million people, or 15 percent of Electricity Access (Rural) Expansion Project (World Bank Ethiopia's population, now have access to electricity, 2006b) indicates further improvements since 2003/04. "access" being defined as residence in a town that is According to this document, the total number of customers connected to a power grid, and about 6 percent of households are actually connected. It now takes seven in 2004/05. To prevent a deterioration in the debt days from the date of application for a new customer to service capability of EEPCo and to improve its liquidity, be connected at the time of initial electrification of the the company has negotiated with the government a debt village when the utility crews are still working in the area. restructuring arrangement by which (a) an outstanding Applications for connections made after the departure of old debt of ETB 1.27 billion would be converted into the crews from the area may take longer. Overall the equity; (b) overdue debt service payments of ETB 291 waiting time for new connections had been reduced million would be rescheduled over the next 10 years; from more than 90 days to about 14 days by 2005.4 and (c) the grace periods for 12 loans would be extended by five years. Despite these advances, it remains a sobering fact that per capita consumption of electricity in Ethiopia, at around 30 kWh, is no more than 1.5 percent of the world average. What Happened between 1997 and 2004? From 1996/97 to 2001/02 EEPCo's revenues and The starting point of the change process in the Ethiopian profits grew steadily, on the basis of an average tariff, power sector was an acceptance of the fact that without which increased by more than 50 percent in 1997/98 extensive electrification of the country, it had no chance and a further near-20 percent the following year, of getting onto the path of sustainable development. thereafter remaining unchanged. However, profits were The Energy Sector Assessment carried out by the World 92 significantly depressed in 2002/03 and 2003/04 as a Bank/ESMAP in1994 suggested options and strategies result of rising operational expenditures (primarily fuel for energy development in Ethiopia and provided an and personnel costs). The availability of investment analytical base for donor financing. The World Bank funds was also affected adversely in these years by loan Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) noted in 1997 that repayments and by a buildup of stocks associated with per capita electricity consumption was only one-half of the investment program. A major recovery is expected that in Mozambique and one-sixth of that in Kenya. in the current year, with funds from internal sources in Shortage of electricity was a major impediment to 2004/05 projected to be at their highest level ever, industrial growth. over ETB 1 billion. This amount is expected to be supplemented by borrowings of ETB 1.8 billion (see table The dialogue between the government and the Bank and F-3 for a summary of outstanding borrowing) and ETB other agencies culminated in a series of major policy 1.3 billion in bond and equity issues to the government moves by the government starting in 1997, connected to the Universal Electrification Access which included the following: Programme (UEAP), allowing EEPCo to devote ETB 4.2 billion ($463 million)5 to its investment program in · The enactment of a new Electricity Law. 2004/05. This represents a 12-fold increase on the investment level in 1996/97. EEPCo had just under · An acceptance in principle of the need for private 10,000 employees in mid-2004, an increase of 18 sector involvement in the development of the sector, percent over the 1997 level.6 The growth in employee although precisely how this might be achieved was numbers has been mostly in the higher technical and not defined at the time. professional grades. · A Proclamation that established a new regulatory According to the World Bank's usual methodology for authority, the Ethiopian Electricity Agency (EEA), in order measuring the self-financing performance of utilities, to separate matters that are clearly regulatory from EEPCo's self-financing ratio was between 43 percent and EEPCo, which was corporatized under its present name 90 percent every year until 2001/02. Lower internally (it previously had the status of a state authority). generated funds combined with a much-expanded investment program have since reduced it to 24 percent · Establishment by the same Proclamation of the principle in 2002/03, 20 percent in 2003/04, and a projected of third party access to the grid. 14 percent in 2004/05. The company's debt service coverage ratio has, with the growth of new borrowing, · The establishment of a task force within EEPCo to fallen from extremely high levels in the years to 2001/02 design an internal restructuring of the utility, including to 2.9 times in 2002/03, 1.2 in 2003/04, and 2.1 times delegating more autonomy to regional managers, See World Bank 2006a. 4 The average exchange rate in 2003/04 was ETB 8.85 to $1. 5 This has further increased to 10,582 during 2005/06, which was caused largely by the opening of several new customer service centers and 6 district offices. TABLE F-3. EEPCo Long-Term Debt REPAYMENT PERIOD BORROWING LOAN AMOUNT INTEREST INCLUDING LAST NO. LOANS CURRENCY (MILLIONS) RATES GRACE REPAYMENT A Old AfDB/AfDF loans 1 MoFED--AfDF 87/006 UA 10 8.75% 5+15 2007 (Koka Dire Dawa) 2 MoFED--AfDF 87/022 UA 27 8.75% 5+15 2007 (Koka Dire Dawa) 3 MoFED--AfDB 92/11 UA 24 0.00% 5+15 2014 (Northern transmission) 4 MoFED--AfDB 92/35 UA 30 1.75% to 5+40 2045 (Northern transmission) 4/09 3.75% thereafter B IDA loans 93 1 MoFED--IDA 1704 ET SDR 40 8.00% 5+15 2013 (45 kV and 66 kV ) 6 MoFED--IDA 3019 ET SDR 146 7.19% 5+20 2025 (EII --ilgel Gibe I, ) 7 MoFED--IDA 3712 ET SDR 105 6.00% 5+15 2023 (Energy Access) C EIB loans MoFED--EIB 7--1114 ¤ 41 6.00% 5+15 2017 8 (EII--Gilgel Gibe I) ¤ 9 MoFED--EIB (Energy 25 6.00% 5+15 2025 Access, Load dispatch) 10 MoFED--EIB (Gilgel Gibe II) 82 6.00% 5+15 2024 Source: AfDB stands for African Development Bank. AfDB stands for African Development Fund. UA stands for Unit of Account. UA is used by the African Development Bank and is equivalent in value to SDRs or any other similar unit designated by the IMF. accounting separately for noncore activities, Some of these developments have been of radical decentralizing the accounting and billing system, significance in their impact--actual or potential--on the introducing a program of human resource development, massive challenge presented by the need to extend and improving operations planning. access to electricity to more people. · The initiation of an electricity pricing policy that included the phased elimination of all subsidies to EEPCo. Private Sector Participation · A new capital structure for EEPCo. The opening of the power sector to possible private sector participation, and in particular the liberalization of the · A new strategy on rural electrification. isolated SCS system, arose from the government's realization that because of capital, management, and · Major new investments in hydroelectric generating human resource constraints EEPCo alone could not feasibly facilities to meet urgent capacity constraints. expand access rapidly enough within a reasonable period. The government therefore adopted a two-track strategy, the public, and the supplier, and to contribute to the comprising grid extension by EEPCo, and isolated speedy development of the country." It carries out the electrification by the private sector, including community- normal duties of an energy regulator, including licensing, organized cooperatives and similar entities. For the grid- monitoring standards, issuing certificates of professional extension arm of this strategy, the key to progress was competence, and supervising the safe operation of facilities seen as success in implementing the commercialization in accordance with the law. It was also expected to and decentralization of EEPCo's operations. Much appears recommend tariffs for the approval by the government to have been achieved in this direction. and the parliament. It was headed by a general manager appointed by the Prime Minister. He heads a professional For the isolated rural electrification arm of the strategy, staff of 60 spread over several departments. The World the key was providing conditions that would encourage Bank is providing training support to improve its and promote private or community involvement. It is not regulatory capacity. so clear at this stage how effectively this part of the strategy has been implemented. It was decided to allow local private investment in generation facilities up to 25 MW Investment Program (hydro or thermal) and local or foreign investment in projects over 25 MW. About 400 local groups have EEPCo has under construction two large hydropower expressed interest to the Rural Electrification Agency in projects (Tekeze--300 MW, 980 GWh/year and Gilgel 94 developing minihydro-based isolated systems (less than Gibe II--420 MW, 1500 GWh/year) to be commissioned 100 KW capacity). Of these, about 12 have submitted in 2007 and 2008, respectively.8 It is also contemplating detailed business plans.7 The average scheme would several new hydropower projects. For the period 2006­10, supply 950 households and would cost about $100,000. the investment program calls for a total funding of $5.1 It is planned that, within the next two years, the agency's billion, of which 59 percent would be for new generation, throughput of schemes would reach 50 per year. 29 percent would be for distribution, and the remaining 12 percent would be for transmission. Overall about 25 However, despite these initiatives, it seems that little or percent of the total investments would be for the system no private sector investment in generation has taken expansion to rural areas. Such an ambitious program, place so far. It is thought that no private finance project especially the rural expansion, could strain the financial has as yet progressed beyond negotiation. The major soundness of the utility considerably unless accompanied barriers appear to be the following: by significant tariff increases, which could be difficult in such a poor country. The adverse impacts are sought to · Investors want higher tariffs than the prevailing EEPCo be moderated by (a) significant equity contributions by tariff. the government, (b) restructuring of the debts of EEPCo, (c) adoption of cost-effective appropriate technical · Investors want guarantees against perceived risks under standards and choices for rural expansion, and (d) tariff implementation agreements (especially the offtake risk). increases needed to keep the financial health of the utility sound. Still there may be a need to prioritize and rationalize the investment proposals and also rethink the Power Sector Regulation rural expansion strategy and its pace. The establishment of the EEA in 1997 under Proclamation No. 86/97 was an important step toward recognizing the Tariffs different roles that are appropriate to a modern power sector, and paralleled the corporatization of EEPCo, which The EEA is currently working on the development of relinquished its former regulatory role to the new agency. methodologies for price-setting (the World Bank is The agency, which became operational in 2000, defines financing consultancy assistance). Currently, EEPCo works its mission as being to "apply a regulatory system that on the basis of a four-year marginal cost­based price upholds transparency, fairness, and sustainability, and framework, which is the basis of annual applications for that encourages competition for high-quality, efficient, a price review. The EEA reviews the application and economical, and up-to-the-standard electricity services, makes recommendations to the government. The final thereby assisting the development of the electricity industry, arbiter of price increases is the parliament. The tariff in so as to ensure the rights and obligation of the customer, 2004/05 of ETB 0.463/kWh (about 5.1 cents/kWh) has By mid-2006, about 40 local business groups are believed to have submitted their business plans. 7 The country's hydroelectric potential is estimated at 30,000 MW. Of this, only about 2 percent had been developed by 2005. 8 remained unchanged since 1999. It allowed EEPCo to Exporting Countries (OPEC) were approached, together cover its cash costs, but has caused the company's own with bilateral financiers, such as Canadian International contribution to its investment needs to decline from the Development Agency (CIDA), Swedish International level of 43­90 percent prevailing during 1996/97 to Development Agency (SIDA), Norwegian Agency for 2001/02 to a low of 14­21 percent in the later years. Development (NORAD), France, Italy, Arab banks, In addition, the ability of EEPCo to service its rising debts the Kuwait Fund, and Japan. Project documentation was being fast eroded, and the company faced potential was prepared for submission to prospective financiers. liquidity problems. To provide some relief, in June 2006 EEPCo staff used industry-standard software for transmission the government approved a tariff increase of about 22 planning and prepared the transmission and distribution percent, which was expected to be implemented during projects themselves, while consultants were hired to course of 2006. Allowing for the adjustments relating to assist in generation planning. lifeline tariffs, this is expected to translate into an 18.8 percent increase in the average revenue per kilowatt-hour The company has made extensive use of modern of sales. Thus, when the tariff increase is fully implemented, organizational change techniques, including business the average revenue per kilowatt-hour would rise to the process reengineering, benchmarking against international level of about 6.05 cents. best practice, gap analysis, and the extensive use of performance management systems. EEPCo Organizational Reforms A bidding process has now been initiated with the aim 95 of concluding a management contract with a foreign The internal organization and management of EEPCo has utility to provide complementary services to the existing been transformed during the last eight years. The targets management within EEPCo. The conscious aim of this set by the government for the organization in 1997 were initiative is "to transform EEPCo into a first-class power simple: utility" in the context of the power sector reform program. · Increase generating capacity. Governance · Reach all regions of the country. In 1997 EEPCo reported to the Ministry of Mines and · Increase sales. Energy, but now reports to the Ministry of Infrastructural Development, one of two so-called super-ministries. It is · Improve collections. governed by a board of eight members--three ministers, two Ministers of State (lower-level ministers), a private In order to promote the achievement of these targets, sector representative (currently the head of a local the company was reorganized. The most significant consultancy company), an appointee from a university, measure was a decentralization of operations and and a representative from the official level of the Ministry management, with the division of the company into eight of Infrastructural Development. The Minister of State for regions with 10­15 districts in each region. Each district is Capacity-Building (this is the second super-ministry) acts responsible for supply, maintenance, and commercial as chairman. matters in the district, including new connections, revenue collection, and disconnections. (It is now proposed to set The Board of EEPCo can be regarded almost as a up subdistricts responsible for meter reading, collections, minigovernment, as far as power sector issues are and local customer relations.) Organization of a separate concerned, because of the extent of ministerial management unit (called the UEAP Office) within EEPCo in representation on the board. Major proposals developed 2004/05 with considerable autonomy to carry out the rural by EEPCo are brought in the first instance to the EEPCo expansion program is a recent innovation. Board. Following approval, perhaps in amended form, they are submitted to the Minister of Infrastructural Also in 1997, EEPCo prepared its first medium- and long- Development, which then obtains government approval. term business plan, which included demand forecasts and (At this stage, the Ministry of Finance may play a major a generation plan. These exercises provided the basis for role, especially if the proposal involves foreign borrowing.) approaching donors for investment finance. The World Proposals surviving these stages are finally submitted to Bank, African Development Bank (AfDB), European parliament for approval. Investment Bank (EIB), and Organization of the Petroleum In the case of foreign borrowing or foreign grant aid, the How Did EEPCo Manage to Do as Well as It Ministry of Finance is normally the borrower or grant Did? recipient, which then makes a subloan agreement with EEPCo. When EEPCo prepares a project, it carries out Over the years from 1996/97 to 2004/05, EEPCo will an economic and financial appraisal that shows the have invested more than ETB 10 billion (about $1.2 maximum cost of funds that the project can bear. billion) in roughly doubling its generation and distribution The government usually seeks to attach a 6 percent capacity, lengthening its transmission grid by 40 percent, coupon to the subloan (in order to underline EEPCo's and increasing its customer base by 50 percent (see table responsibility to operate commercially), and the rate is F-5). Table F-3 shows the profile of EEPCo's borrowings. finally agreed following negotiations between EEPCo and During the years from 1996/97 to 2004, and including the Ministry of Finance. In the case of rural electrification 2004's projected borrowing, drawdowns have amounted projects, for example, EEPCo seeks an interest rate of to ETB 5 billion (roughly $600 million), approximately the zero or as close to zero as possible; it often succeeds in same as the company's contribution to its investment securing such rates. program from its own resources. The company has been able to access credit from multilateral and bilateral lenders The governance of EEPCo is characterized by tight and has an unimpeachable credit record. Its total level governmental control rather than by commercial of system losses is about 20 percent, and its collection independence. This reflects the special nature of the job ratio in 2004/05 was 97.4 percent. The company is 96 the company is being asked to do--to provide essential well regarded internationally as a well-run and focused national infrastructure rather than to operate in a organization. The 2006 Project Appraisal Document of competitive marketplace. In the circumstances, the model the World Bank (2006b) describes it as "one of the is not a bad one, and it seems to work well. However, strongest utilities in the continent." These are significant there is a striking disparity between the small scale of achievements (see tables F-4, F-5, and F-6 attesting the EEPCo and the enormity of Ethiopia's infrastructural good financial performance of the company). deficit in the power sector. How was Ethiopia able to do this? What special factors helped EEPCo? The primary factor was a certain Public Sector Reform consistency of focus by the government. The fact that the same government has been in power in Ethiopia since In 2002 the government embarked upon a major civil 1991 has helped to maintain focus and policy consistency. service reform program aimed at reforming public The health of a democracy usually demands changes in institutions to make them more responsive to the demands government from time to time. However, 14 years with of customers and citizens generally. Apart from central one party in government is not exceptional. There is no government agencies, such as the passport office and doubt that on achieving power in 1991, the ruling party customs, the program is also being piloted in EEPCo correctly identified the developmental challenges facing and Ethiopian Telecom. It seems that this initiative is Ethiopia, and it has stuck religiously to this agenda ever helping the cause of modern management in the power since. Such consistency and integrity is associated all sector, by encouraging an alignment of management over the world with solid economic results. culture and ethos between EEPCo and the other official agencies it deals with. The fact that management in EEPCo embraced change, rather than resisting it, was also a major factor. The impressive number of management development The Business Climate initiatives taken over the years is testimony to a management culture that puts a high value on results. The evidence from studies of the factors constraining This has not been the case in every utility starting out in business in Ethiopia is mixed. According to the latest World similar circumstances. Bank Investment Climate Survey, 74 percent of businesses regarded high tax rates as a major constraint to investment The extraordinarily close relationship between EEPCo in Ethiopia, while 39 percent regarded corruption as a and the government, exemplified in the composition of major constraint. However, other areas, such as crime, the EEPCo Board, has been a strength, even though in bureaucracy, labor skills, and labor regulation, were not highly developed countries, it would be considered a so widely regarded as major constraints.9 weakness. It has permitted, for example, a fairly Access to electricity was seen as a major constraint by 42 percent of those interviewed. 9 seamless integration of EEPCo's activities with the average GCF for which was 19 percent in 2003). This government's wider UEAP agenda. (It is notable that, implies GCF of $1.4 billion in 2003, of which about 12 as far as we know, this close relationship is not being percent would have been spent by EEPCo. In 2004/05, abused, for example, by seeking more favorable treatment this percentage is likely to be a multiple of the 2003 for privileged customers in the matter of collections and figure. disconnections, which is common in some other countries.) Given this fact, to focus on EEPCo and its performance The consequent achievement of a reputation for thoughtful since 1997 is, in a sense, like looking at the tree rather strategic analysis and prudent financial management gave than the forest. EEPCo is a major corporate entity in encouragement to donors and lenders. Nothing more Ethiopia, probably the largest cash generator in the eases the path to a financier's door than his knowledge country. However, of the more than 70 million people that money is well spent and investments well maintained. in Ethiopia, upwards of 60 million have no relationship with EEPCo, no realistic chance of becoming EEPCo customers, and little likelihood of experiencing the benefits Could Ethiopia Have Done Better? of electricity in their lifetime. No matter how well managed EEPCo is, no matter how efficiently it spends its investment Ethiopia could have done better. In the first place, it seems funds, it will never--short of a radical rethink about the to be clear that a certain control mentality on the part of way the power sector is to be organized--catch up with the government has hindered the development of a vibrant Ethiopia's growing need for electricity infrastructure. 97 private sector presence in the power sector which, This was specifically acknowledged by the government given the enormity of the job to be done, should have and the World Bank in preparing the Energy Access Project been seen as absolutely essential. There is work for in 2002. If Ethiopia had 10 EEPCos, each one as well everyone to do in this sector, public or private. resourced as the existing company, and each responsible for the supply of electricity in a region, there might be a Second, Ethiopia could have spread the benefits of chance of developing the necessary power infrastructure electricity to a significantly greater proportion of its during the next decade. population, but only if the country had been in receipt of much greater foreign aid. Given the limited fiscal It follows that the concept of a single, largely centralized resources available, Ethiopia has made the best use utility, with tight governmental control of power generation possible of the (quite large) share of these resources and rural electrification, is counter-productive. A centralized allocated to the development of the power sector. power company is a way to ration development, not to However, as has been pointed out, the substantial and drive it. Even under the most optimistic assumptions, it is admirable efforts that have been made are only scratching impossible to imagine that EEPCo could deploy sufficient the surface of Ethiopia's infrastructural deficit, barely managerial and technical capacity to achieve what is keeping pace with the growth in population. needed over such a large country. To regard the power sector issue in Ethiopia in recent For the future, a way forward could be to ask several years as a question of reform and restructuring would be donors to sponsor (through power utilities in their own misleading at best. Equally, to focus on the performance countries) the development of networks in specific of EEPCo as a utility would be to miss the point. Ethiopia areas of the country. This could be done on a "funded is desperately poor and grievously lacking in all the concession" basis (probably with World Bank participation), elements of infrastructure that are essential for self- with EEPCo (or successor regional distribution companies) sustaining economic growth. The provision of electricity, taking over responsibility after a period of years. or at least the possibility of access to electricity, is not a Generating capacity could be added in a similar manner, policy option--it is a necessity. The normal standards of with EEPCo retaining responsibility for the transmission investment analysis, as applied by fiscal authorities, and system operation functions (and perhaps its existing cannot be used here. And Ethiopia is already spending generating and distribution assets). The purpose of this much of its national product on investments in the electricity approach would not be to move toward privatization, sector. Gross capital formation (GCF) has grown from but to bring many more players onto the field. 12 percent of GDP in 1990 to 21 percent in 2003, with a growth rate of 6.5 percent per year, which is almost twice the average for Sub-Saharan Africa (the Lessons from the Ethiopian Experience The fourth relates to the investment in good financial management systems and the staffing of the financial The first lesson from the Ethiopian experience relates to function with strong staff as a key to gaining the the importance of integrity at top governmental levels-- confidence of financiers. not only in the sense of personal integrity, but integrity in the sense of unremitting adherence to an agreed The fifth relates, on the negative side, to the need to strategy. eliminate regulatory or doctrinaire barriers to private sector involvement in the power sector of a country The second relates to getting a rational policy, legal, and where fewer than 15 percent of the population have regulatory framework in position--as Ethiopia did in access to electricity. 1997--to obtain clarity to all stakeholders, including managers and financiers. The third lesson relates to the benefits that flow from a commitment to serious planning exercises that realistically estimate the challenge ahead and what the utility can achieve in the face of these. 98 TABLE F-4. EEPCo Summary Financial Results--Income Statements, 1996/97­2004/05 (YEARS TO JULY 7--MILLIONS OF BIRR) 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL Sales (GWh) 1,324 1,358 1,333 1,374 1,413 1,625 1,704 1,847 2,250 Average tariff (birr/kWh) 0.252 0.384 0.456 0.457 0.462 0.458 0.458 0.463 0.463 Electricity sales revenue 399 597 658 681 747 797 789 930 1,235 Interest income 34 63 65 57 9 9 18 5 7 Total revenue 433 659 723 738 756 805 807 935 1,242 Fuel and material costs 63 64 50 55 58 56 84 102 146 Personnel costs 86 93 97 104 109 116 124 135 132 Depreciation 82 79 81 112 118 129 314 369 385 Other operating costs 14 17 20 14 24 24 18 31 44 Total operating costs 245 253 247 285 309 326 539 637 708 Gross profit (loss) 188 407 476 453 447 480 267 298 534 Interest expense 51 48 37 30 25 21 18 36 182 Amortization of 52 57 31 28 27 24 24 24 24 devaluation loss Other nonoperating 10 7 86 2 2 11 52 133 70 expenses Profit (loss) before tax 74 294 321 394 393 424 173 105 257 TABLE F-5. EEPCo Summary Financial Results--Cash Flow Statements, 1996/97­2004/05 (years to July 7­­millions of birr) CASH FLOW STATEMENTS 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL PRELIMINARY PROJECTED Profit (loss) before tax 74 294 321 394 393 424 173 105 257 Tax -- -62 -51 -82 -63 -56 -72 -- -- Add-back depreciation 133 136 112 140 145 153 339 394 409 Sale of Government -- 122 122 122 122 122 91 152 57 bonds Decrease (Increase) in -17 -304 -147 201 165 278 -138 -530 172 working capital Consumer deposits or 29 -14 48 34 31 66 70 96 157 prepayments Other internal sources -- 2 0 0 -- -- -- 29 2 Funds from internal 219 173 404 808 792 987 462 245 1,055 sources 99 Borrowings 101 152 360 232 294 459 613 934 1,807 Grants 1,722 247 65 53 117 11 3 0 1 Other sources -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,321 Total sources 2,042 571 829 1,093 1,203 1,456 1,079 1,179 4,184 Investments 329 415 446 480 1,210 943 1,777 1,089 4,098 Loan repayments 3 3 2 313 83 157 159 205 500 Deferred charges -- -- 99 -- 8 4 6 -- -- Treasury bills 275 156 142 1 -- -- -- -- -- purchased Government bonds 908 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- purchased 689 Total applications 1,515 574 794 1,302 1,105 1,943 1,294 4,598 Increase or decrease 527 -3 140 299 -99 351 -864 -115 -414 in cash Cash at start of year 372 900 897 1,037 1,336 1,238 1,589 725 611 Cash at end of year 900 897 1,037 1,336 1,238 1,589 725 611 196 -- Not available. TABLE F-6. EEPCo Summary Financial Results--Balance Sheets and Ratios, 1996/97­2004/05 (years to July 7­­millions of birr) BALANCE SHEETS 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL ACTUAL PRELIMINARY PROJECTED Long-term assets 4,334 4,536 4,735 5,100 5,985 6,541 10,274 11,268 14,623 Cash 900 896 1,037 1,336 1,238 1,589 726 611 196 Other current assets 1,040 1,555 1,841 1,537 1,436 1,410 1,534 1,941 1,665 Total current assets 1,939 2,451 2,878 2,873 2,674 2,999 2,260 2,552 1,861 Total assets 6,273 6,988 7,613 7,973 8,659 9,539 12,534 13,820 16,896 Current liabilities 1,205 1,415 447 344 408 570 557 908 442 Net current assets 735 1,036 2,431 2,529 2,266 2,429 1,703 1,644 1,419 Net assets 5,068 5,573 7,166 7,630 8,251 8,969 11,978 12,912 16,043 Capital and reserves 3,422 3,900 4,530 4,904 5,359 5,712 8,195 8,315 9,429 Long-term liabilities 1,647 1,673 2,637 2,725 2,892 3,257 3,782 4,597 7,024 Total capital and 6,273 6,988 7,613 7,973 8,659 9,539 12,534 13,820 16,896 100 liabilities RATIOS Self-financing ratio 0.66 0.41 0.90 1.03 0.59 0.88 0.17 0.04 0.14 (simple) Self-financing ratio 0.58 0.43 0.90 0.70 0.81 0.63 0.24 0.02 0.21 (World Bank method) Debt service coverage 78.8 68.0 206.9 2.6 9.5 6.3 2.9 1.2 2.1 ratio Current ratio 1.6 1.7 6.4 8.4 6.6 5.3 4.1 2.8 4.2 Pretax profit ratio 17% 45% 44% 53% 52% 53% 21% 11% 21% CASE STUDY G: LITHUANIA General Background Lithuania's trade balance and current account balance were both negative at 11.2 percent and 7.0 percent of Lithuania is situated on the eastern coast of the Baltic GDP in 2005. Total gross external debt of the country Sea and has land borders with Latvia to the north, had risen from 39.5 percent of GDP to 50.8 percent of the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation to the GDP during 2002­05. Net foreign direct investment, southwest, Poland to the south, and Belarus to the east. which was at 8 percent of GDP in 2002, hovered around The country has an area of 65,300 square kilometers 2.5 percent of GDP during 2004­05. and is generally low-lying. It is situated in a temperate continental climate zone, with average annual air The government's fiscal deficit had narrowed down to a temperatures of 5.5 degrees Celsius, with 17.8 degrees negative 0.5 percent of GDP in 2005. Public debt as a Celsius in June and -6.5 degrees Celsius in January. percentage of GDP declined from 22.3 percent in 2002 The western part of the country, influenced by the Baltic to 18.7 percent in 2005. Sea, has smaller temperature variations than the eastern part. For about 10 years, the Lithuanian currency, litas, was pegged to the dollar ($1= LTL 4). In 2002 it was pegged The population of Lithuania was estimated at 3.4 million to the euro (1 = LTL 3.4528). In 2004 Lithuania joined 101 people in the fourth quarter of 2004 and is believed to the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, and during be declining at the rate of 0.33 percent per year. The total 2006­07 the country will adopt the euro as its currency. population peaked at around 3.7 million in 1990 following a period of immigration from other Soviet republics. Unemployment has come down from 13.8 percent to 8.3 The urban proportion of the population has been growing percent during 2002­05. About 16 percent of the and is currently estimated to be around 67 percent, population is estimated to live under the national poverty similar to the level in Switzerland and Austria. line. Lithuania is a functioning parliamentary democracy. Since The good economic performance of recent years has led the restoration of national independence in 1990, there to improved sovereign credit ratings. Standard and Poor's have been several presidential, parliamentary, rated Lithuania as A- with a positive outlook in the fourth and local elections, and power has shifted between several quarter of 2005. A possible upgrade is currently under coalitions and alliances, including former Communists, consideration. The issue of 10-year bonds worth 600 as well as Liberals and Conservatives. However, the general million was successfully placed a year ago at an annual thrust towards Western European­style market policies interest rate of 4.5 percent, the lowest coupon since has been fairly steady. Lithuania has become a member Lithuania began borrowing overseas. of NATO since March 2004 and a member of the European Union since May 1, 2004. The Legal and Business Environment The per capita gross national income (GNI) in Lithuania was estimated at $5,470 in 2004 based on World Bank Lithuania has made substantial progress in adapting its Atlas methodology (World Bank 2004b). It is one of the legal system to the demands of a liberal, internationally fastest-growing economies within the European Union. oriented market economy. In several important areas-- The growth rate in real GDP was 6.8 percent and 10.5 property rights, the registration and legal recognition percent, respectively, in 2002 and 2003. In the subsequent of property purchases and sales, the enforcement of two years, the growth rates were 7.0 percent and 7.5 contracts, bankruptcy law, the enforcement of debt percent. The growth rate is expected to be somewhat collection, the removal of barriers to foreign investment, lower at 6.0 percent and 5.3 percent, respectively, in 2006 the transparency and fairness of tax laws, and privatization and 2007. law--the problems facing businesses wishing to operate in Lithuania, or to acquire Lithuanian assets, are close to The inflation rate (CPI), which was at 2.7 percent in 2005, Western European norms. That is not to say that some is expected to remain in the range of 2.1­2.8 percent in problems do not persist. The World Bank's (2004a) the next two years. "Lithuania: Investment Climate Assessment" noted in This case study was prepared by Peter Kelly, Consultant. It has been revised slightly by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy based on comments received from World Bank staff. particular the need to streamline business registration Policy and Institutional Aspects procedures, to overhaul company law to allow for reconstruction in the face of company difficulties, An updated National Energy Strategy was adopted by to simplify land usage law, and to improve tax the parliament (Seimas) in October 2002. The aims of legislation in order to place an unequivocal obligation the strategy include the following: on the State Tax Inspectorate to issue binding rulings. · Liberalization of the electricity and natural gas sectors However, Lithuania's progress has been more impressive by opening the market pursuant to the requirements of than its failures in this area. The World Bank's (2005) EU directives. publication, Doing Business in 2005, ranks Lithuania at 17th position in the world's economies for its global · Privatization of specific electricity and natural gas business environment--the ease of doing business in the enterprises. country--ahead of all other Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries. And in three crucial legal areas-- · Preparation for the decommissioning of the Ignalina starting a business, closing a business, and enforcement Nuclear Power Plant and the disposal of radioactive of contracts--Lithuania is identified as one of the world's waste and long-term storage of spent fuel. top 10 reformers. · Integration of energy systems into EU energy systems 102 within the next 10 years. Energy in Lithuania · Development of regional cooperation and collaboration Total primary energy consumption in 2002 was 349,000 with a view to creating a common Baltic electricity TJ, or almost exactly 100 GJ per capita. This puts Lithuania market (CBEM) within the next five years. in the middle of the spectrum of CEE countries, which range from less than 50 GJ per capita in some of the · To raise the proportion of electricity generated in Balkan countries to almost 200 GJ per capita in Russia. combined heat and power (CHP) mode to at least At purchasing power parities primary energy intensity was 35 percent of total electricity generation by the end about 1.25 toe per $1,000 in 1999, representing a 12 of the period. percent decline in intensity since 1995. A new energy law that regulates general energy activities The primary energy demand in 2002 was met by nuclear (such as electricity), energy development and management, energy (41.8 percent), oil (27.6 percent), gas (22.2 and energy and energy resource efficiency came into percent), biomass (7.4 percent), coal (0.8 percent), force in July 2002. and hydropower (0.2 percent). Apart from abundant supplies of timber, Lithuania has virtually no indigenous In January 2002 a new electricity law came into effect, sources of energy. Total oil production is around 500,000 which provides the basic principles regulating generation, metric tons, about 6 percent of requirements, and all other z with EU law. It formulates the relations between electricity oil supplies are imported from Russia and refined at the and service suppliers and their customers, and sets out Mazeikiai refinery. However, the construction of a new the conditions for the development of competition in the oil terminal at Butinge allows Lithuania the possibility electricity sector. The law set out the stages for market of diversifying its sources of oil imports. All natural gas liberalization and for the recognition of consumers who is imported from Russia. Because of the country's are eligible to conclude direct electricity purchase topographical profile, the potential for further exploitation contracts with power producers or independent suppliers. of hydropower is low. The native energy source with the Following successive extensions of eligibility, since January greatest potential is biomass from waste wood and straw. 1, 2004 customers consuming more than 3 million kWh An increasing number of municipal district heating boilers have been so eligible, and it is planned to extend are being converted to use biomass. eligibility to all customers by 2007. Final consumption of energy in 2002 was met by oil products (35 percent), gas (23 percent), heat (16 percent), biomass (13 percent), electricity (12 percent) and solid fuels (1 percent). The principal entities active in the electricity sector are as · The Lithuanian Energy Institute, which carries out follows: fundamental and applied research in energy technology and economics. · The Ministry of Economy is responsible for energy policy and for the supervision of the main regulatory agencies in the energy field. The Power Sector · The ministry is assisted in the implementation of these Electricity supplies 12 percent of Lithuania's final energy tasks by the Energy Agency, which has particular needs. Final net consumption in 2002 was 6,530 GWh. responsibilities in the areas of energy efficiency, Sixty-three percent of final consumption is used in the renewable energy, and the updating of policy. household and service sectors and 37 percent in industry and transport. Peak domestic demand was 1,952 MW in · Regulation of the sector is accomplished by the 2004. National Control Commission for Prices and Energy, commonly known as the Energy Prices Commission. The current structure of power generation capacity in Lithuania is as shown in table G-1. · The Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant is owned and controlled directly by the government. Lithuania has 1,598 km of 330 kV and 4,419 km of 110 kV transmission lines and is interconnected through 330 103 · The State Nuclear Inspectorate, VATESI, is responsible kV lines with Belarus (4 lines), Latvia (4 lines), and Poland. for supervising Ignalina. There is also a 750 kV line from Ignalina to Belarus. The Lithuanian power system operates in parallel with · Lietuvos Energija (Lithuanian Power Company), which is the Belarussian, Estonian, Latvian, and Russian systems. also state-owned, is the transmission system operator and A 400 kV high-voltage line is planned with Poland as market operator. It also owns a hydro station (Kaunas), part of the Baltic Ring. There is also a plan for a 1,000 which was regarded as being too small to privatize, and MW interconnector with a Swedish off-shore wind farm. a pumped storage station (Kruonis), which plays a vital Realization of these projects will depend on their economic role in system regulation and exports. viability and the availability of funding, from the EU and other sources. · The Lithuanian Power Plant, commonly known as Elektrenai, is the largest non-nuclear generator and is Lithuania is a member of the Union for the Co-ordination in separate state ownership. of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE) and the Baltic Ring Electricity Co-operation Committee (BALTREL). · Vilnius CHP, which is owned by Vilnius District Heating Company, a municipal enterprise, is being operated The electricity subsector is notable for its structure and under a 15-year lease-concession arrangement by a capacity-demand imbalance. The restoration of national local subsidiary of the French company, Dalkia. independence found Lithuania in possession of two very large generating assets--the 1,800 MW thermal · Kaunas CHP is owned by Gazprom. power station at Elektrenai, commissioned in the 1960s, and the 3,000 MW nuclear power station at Ignalina, · Mazeikiai CHP is in state ownership awaiting privatization. whose two units were commissioned during the 1980s. Both of these stations were constructed to serve the · Eleven other small CHP plants, mainly associated with electricity needs, not of Lithuania, but of the northwest industrial enterprises, are licensed electricity producers region of the former Soviet Union, and either was and sellers. capable of serving Lithuania's entire electricity needs virtually unaided. Indeed, even after 1990, Lithuania · Two electricity distribution companies, Rytu Skirstomieji continued to be a major source of power for neighboring Tinklai AB (eastern) and Vakaru Skirstomieji Tinklai AB countries, particularly Belarus, Russia's Kaliningrad oblast, (western): the latter company has been privatized, and Latvia. Because of the relative operating cost structures, while RST currently remains in state ownership. Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant has been the base load TABLE G-1. Installed Capacity and Power Generated, 2004 POWER PLANT INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW) POWER GENERATED (GWH) Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant 3,000 15,102 Elektrenai Thermal Power Plant 1,800 745 Vilnius CHP 384 1,211 Kaunas CHP 178 689 Mazeikiai CHP 194 179 Other municipal CHPs 14 -- Industrial CHPs 88 -- Kruonis Hydropower Plant 800 522 Kaunas Hydropower Plant 101 359 Other hydropower plants 15 -- Total nuclear 3,000 15,102 Total thermal 1,800 745 Total CHP 858 2,079 Total hydropower plants 916 881 104 Total all generation 6,570 18,808* -- Not available. *Excluding small independent power plants connected to the distribution networks. plant at all times that it has been available, contributing Ignalina's Unit 2, which will remain in production until about 80 percent of total electricity output, with the January 1, 2010, is capable of meeting Lithuania's balance of requirements being provided by the CHP domestic electricity demand on its own, except at times plants at Vilnius, Kaunas, and Mazeikiai. Elektrenai has of peak winter demand or during maintenance or served primarily as reserve capacity. Overall, the excess of unplanned shut-downs. The CHPs will continue to sell capacity over demand is 2,952 MW. power to the system at times of the year when cogeneration yields sufficiently low unit costs. Elektrenai will continue This situation, which has remained stable for almost 20 to provide mainly reserve capacity, although in the years, is now changing. Under pressure from the EU, nature of things, the very low utilization levels recorded and particularly neighboring Nordic countries, the first in recent years are likely to rise. RBMK-type unit of Ignalina was permanently shut down on 31 December 2004, and the second unit is scheduled However, the closure of Ignalina Unit 1 may reduce or to close in 2010.1 The EU has undertaken to finance the costs of closure, estimated at 2­3 billion. More than 200 the last three years have averaged over 7,000 GWh eliminate Lithuania's ability to export power. Exports in million has been allocated to the decommissioning of the annually and have earned substantial revenue for Ignalina first unit, and a contract has been signed with a German and for the Kruonis pumped storage hydro station. consortium for the construction of a spent fuel storage Although a proportion of exports is bartered against facility. The government has expressed a desire to replace purchases of nuclear fuel from Russia, there have been Ignalina with new nuclear capacity, which would supply some question marks over the profitability of other exports, all three Baltic states and also allow continued exports to but Lithuanian officials maintain that they are profitable. other neighboring states. There have been discussions with When both Ignalina units are shut down, export potential representatives of the French government and Électricité will depend on the extent to which the older units at de France about the use of French technology to build a Elektrenai have been rehabilitated and on the extent of 1,400 MW replacement for the first reactor at an estimated cost of 1.5­2 billion. However, there is also a view in construction of new, modern generating capacity. some circles that if new nuclear capacity is provided, it should consist of two much smaller reactors. In fact, serious doubts remain about the economic justification for any new nuclear investments at all. RBMK (reactor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy) refers to a now obsolete class of graphite-moderated nuclear power reactor that was built only in 1 the Soviet Union. TABLE G-2. Generation Forecast for 2011 with and without a Common Baltic Electricity Market PROJECTED 2011 PRODUCTION GWH 2004 PRODUCTION STATION GWH WITH CBEM WITHOUT CBEM Ignalina 15,102 0 0 Elektrenai 745 4,974 5,540 Vilnius CHP 1,211 1,930 2,247 Kaunas CHP 689 540 415 Mazeikiai CHP 179 274 230 Hydropower plant or 881 206 321 pumped storage New combined-cycle -- 2,275 1,054 gas turbine New combined-cycle -- -- 2,071 gas turbine CHP Total 18,808 10,199 11,878 105 Peak load (MW) 1,952 2,378* 2,378 * This is the base case. High case peak load is 2,607 MW, and low case peak load is 2,148 MW. Demand and Supply produced as shown in table G-2. The CBEM scenario includes the assumption that in 2011 the balance of Net demand (final consumption) in Lithuania in 2003 Lithuania's needs (to meet domestic demand of 11,876 was 7,179 GWh. Electricity intensity, measured in terms GWh) would be imported from Estonia. of kilowatt-hours per capita in relation to GDP per capita, is the lowest of any CEE country, at 0.38 kWh This study indicated a need for substantial new capacity per dollar in 2003. Recent studies suggest annual in the coming five years. If, however, the CBEM does not growth rates in the next few years of 2.5­3.5 percent per proceed, Lithuania's generation needs (to meet domestic year, yielding a 2010 final consumption level of between demand only) would be 11,876 GWh, identical to 8,500 and 9,100 GWh. The implications of such a level domestic demand, and would most economically be of consumption for Lithuania's power infrastructure will produced as shown in table G-2. Thus, the absence of a depend to a considerable extent on the progress made wider market for electricity in the Baltic region would in establishing a CBEM, as well as on the decisions compel Lithuania to fund very substantial additional reached in relation to the various interconnector projects investments in CCGT technology. being considered. In 2002 a memorandum was signed by the authorities of the three Baltic countries laying down the principles of market regulation, and a draft Investments Baltic Grid Code was developed. Consultants engaged for this purpose have estimated Lithuania's gross The entities in the power sector are all profitable, domestic electricity demand in 2011 (the year following and they have been able to fund the investments needed the closure of Ignalina Unit 2) at 11,876 GWh. On the to meet market needs. In 2004, the Lithuanian Power assumption that CBEM would be functioning and that Company (LPC) earned a pretax profit of LTL 109 million Ignalina would be shut down totally by 2010, the (compared with LTL 89 million in 2003) on revenues of consultants' economic analysis suggest that in 2011, LTL 958 million (2003: LTL 941 million) including LTL Lithuania's gross generation requirements would be 299 million in export revenues. In the three years ending 10,199 GWh (compared with the generation of 18,808 December 31, 2003, the LPC invested LTL 572.5 GWh in 2004), which would most economically be million. This was broken down as follows: · Transmission grid: LTL 198 million. · In 1993 the World Bank first engaged with the Lithuanian energy sector when it carried out an Energy Sector · Distribution network: LTL 121 million.2 Review and preparation of the Power Rehabilitation Project (the subject of a $26 million World Bank loan) · Hydropower plants: LTL 46 million. commenced. The latter project included a commitment to support the restructuring and · Thermal power plant: LTL 18 million. commercialization of the Lithuanian State Power System, as the Lithuanian Power Company was then · Buildings and so forth: LTL 40 million. known. · Communications and dispatch control: LTL 29 million. · In 1995 the government adopted a National Energy Strategy, which set out the main parameters for all · Metering: LTL 16 million. subsequent reforms. · Information technology: LTL 65 million. · From 1996 the LPC started to improve its management structures and systems, including the establishment of · Other items: LTL 40 million. a treasury function. 106 During this period, the LPC reduced its total borrowings · Starting in 1997 the government implemented (long-term and short-term) from LTL 479 million in changes in the governance of the LPC at board and December 2000 to LTL 171 million in December 2003. management levels, and since 2000 an effective The LPC's investment program for 2005 was LTL 164 nonexecutive board has been in place. million, and indicative figures for the next three years (to 2008) are for a total investment of LTL 442 million--all · Also in 1997 the Energy Prices Commission was excluding the proposed Lithuania­Poland 400 kV reestablished on the basis of independence: the interconnector. members are appointed by Lithuania's president and can be dismissed only for a stated misdemeanor or The eastern distribution company (information is not other similar reason, and financing of the commission available for the western one) envisaged investments is provided in the state budget. The commission has totaling more than LTL 870 million in the years achieved a reputation for authoritative analysis and 2003­06. They would be in network development, transparent decision making, which has been critical communications and control, accounting systems, to reform in the sector and to the achievement of and information technology implementation. economic pricing. · At the same time, the government provided decisive The Reform Process assistance to the LPC in the collection of overdue receivables and imposed payment discipline on state The profile of the Lithuanian electricity sector in 2005 and budgetary consumers of electricity (and heat). is unrecognizable from what it was in the early 1990s. In 1993/94, when the World Bank first engaged with · Also in 1997 the six major district heating networks the sector, there was a single, state-owned, vertically owned by the LPC were transferred to municipal integrated monopoly responsible for every aspect of ownership. electricity production and delivery (aside from nuclear generation), as well as most heat generation and delivery, · In 2000 the law on the reorganization of the LPC was a weak regulatory agency, and a Ministry of Energy, adopted, and accounting unbundling of generation, which struggled to assert its authority in the face of an transmission, and distribution commenced, while entrenched institutional structure. Prices were uneconomic, noncore activities were corporatized and the and subsidies were rife throughout the system. Since then, Lithuanian electricity market started operating. despite occasional temporary setbacks, progress has been surprisingly steady. There have been a number of · A new electricity law was adopted in 2001 (and key landmarks: amended in 2004). 2001 only (after 2001 the distribution networks were the responsibility of the two new regional distribution companies). 2 · A new energy law was adopted in 2002. Why Lithuania Succeeded · On January 1, 2002, the LPC was divided into five In the early 1990s, most observers rated Lithuania's independent companies: the LPC (transmission, market chances of achieving major reforms in the energy sector operation, Kaunas and Kruonis); Lithuanian Power within 10 years as being very low. In the wider economic Plant (Elektrenai); Mazeikiai CHP; Eastern Distribution and political context, EU membership was seen to be so Company; and Western Distribution Company. far off as to be not worth including in practical planning. Yet now Lithuania is an example to other countries in · On April 1, 2002, customers purchasing more than 20 transition, including some of its closest neighbors. What GWh per year were given the freedom to contract went right? Several important factors can be identified in directly with suppliers of power. the electricity sector: · In 2003 there were 25 eligible consumers accounting · Lithuania is culturally and historically closer to Western for about 26 percent of the market. Europe (and particularly to the Scandinavian countries) than most CEE countries and takes many of its models · In 2004 the status of eligible consumer was extended (for example, for legal instruments) from these countries. to all consumers (except residential customers). · The Ignalina issue, and the fears of neighboring · The Western Distribution Company was privatized in countries concerning it, lent an urgency to reform. 107 2004; the new owners are Lithuanian businessmen. The Eastern Distribution Company is 80 percent state · In 1995/96, for a short but critical period, Lithuania was owned, with 20 percent held by E.ON Energy. The two fortunate to have a Minister of Energy (at that time the distribution companies are very similar in size, the Ministry of Energy was a separate department of state) main difference being that the western company has who was business-oriented, modern in his thinking, more industrial customers. and not afraid to stand up against opposition to reforms. · Prices have been cost-covering for several years. · Then, and at all critical times, there was a small Average prices in the second quarter of 2004 were (perhaps very small) cadre of advisors and senior officials (cents/kWh, including taxes): in the Ministry of Energy and in the Ministry of Economy who were advocates of reform and who were self- · Producer: 3.41 confident enough to maintain their intellectual and practical positions on critical policy areas. · Wholesale: 4.81 · A surprising number of young people who were in · End user: 8.37 important positions in the Ministry, in the Energy Agency, and in the LPC were ambitious (perhaps for · Residential: 9.51 themselves as well as for the country), and they saw that reform would either be embraced by the main · Nonresidential: 7.84 entities or would have it forced upon them. These prices are at the higher end of the range for · Again at a crucial time, in 1995­98, the LPC had a CEE countries. general director who, although reared in the old tradition, saw the need for change. · A three-year price cap starting January 1, 2005, is now in force. This sets the maximum price for residential · The World Bank and other international agencies, consumers at LTL 0.31/kWh (about 11.7 cents/kWh). notably the EU-PHARE program, engaged early with the reform process and stuck doggedly with it. The EBRD was also involved in financing the LPC in 1994/95. · Partly as a result of the work of these agencies, Lessons from Lithuania for Bank Operations in the government (and perhaps the president deserves other Transition Economies some of the credit) decided to establish an independent regulatory commission for energy, with which they It is difficult to draw universal lessons from the particular could not subsequently interfere. experiences of one country, although some things are common in every cultural and political environment: · The government (again with the agreement of the World Bank) wisely avoided tackling the privatization · It is not necessary for the entire political and sectoral issue head on, but rather sought major economic establishment to be reform-oriented for progress to be gains from industry restructuring and efficiency made. Every entity or individual manager who secures improvement. By the time privatization started, it was an improvement in efficiency, in structures, or in no longer a hot political issue (and, not coincidentally, governance plays a part in preparing the ground for the government's financial returns from privatization further reform. were augmented by the delay). · In early 1997 a middle manager in the LPC attended · A small but significant number of Lithuanian émigré a course in treasury management, which led him to lawyers and other professionals returned to Lithuania negotiate a $125 million syndicated loan from a and helped the local political and economic reformers consortium led by Merrill Lynch (term 3 years, coupon 108 enthusiastically. LIBOR +3.75 percent). This transformed the company's liquidity and made the LPC the focus of · The Russian economic crisis of 1998 had a devastating attention by international capital markets. This effect on the Lithuanian economy (which was much provided an additional and crucial force for reform. more dependent on trade with Russia than most countries) and compelled fresh thinking by key people. · Privatization is not the goal of reform. If it is likely to be politically controversial in a country, it should be · Lithuania's EU candidacy led to the systematic adoption kept well off the table. World Bank experience shows of EU directives and market principles (although, that most of the benefits associated with privatization interestingly, this doesn't seem to have had the same can be secured through independent regulation, effect in Latvia and Estonia, where the pace of reform unbundling, and good governance. in the electricity sector has been much slower). · Consistent engagement by the World Bank and other · The Lithuanian energy and electricity infrastructures agencies, especially during the years when structural were in comparatively good condition to start with. The adjustment and other budgetary support programs are prime minister and the Minister of Economy in important to a government, can provide a continuous 1999­2000 took the initiative of appointing as weight to make the reform impetus almost irresistible. members of the Supervisory Board of the LPC reputable private sector representatives, which served the company well. CASE STUDY H: TURKEY Political and Economic Background The economy recovered strongly during 2002, despite continuing volatility in the financial markets, and GNP Turkey has a population of 71.7 million and a per capita growth reached 7.8 percent, more than double the rate GDP of $4,114 (2004). It is a candidate for accession to originally targeted. In February 2002 Turkey signed a the EU in the near future. Its economy has faced many new, three-year standby agreement with the IMF. ups and downs in the past. At the beginning of the current In November 2003 Turkey held parliamentary elections, decade, in order to stabilize the economy and reduce which resulted in the Justice and Development Party (AKP) inflation, Turkey adopted an IMF program with a currency forming the government replacing the previous three- peg regime to serve as an anchor to the program. In party coalition. early 2001 a financial crisis erupted, in the context of which the currency peg regime became unsustainable, Structural reforms undertaken by the previous governments and the Central Bank of Turkey announced (in February and continued by the current AKP government in all sectors 2001) that the country would switch to a floating of the economy, combined with monetary and fiscal exchange rate regime. discipline, institutional reform, and recent political stability have had positive outcomes, resulting in strong economic The main response to the crisis, however, came in the growth and declining inflation. form of a new economic program introduced in May 109 2001. The economic program was designed to restore In a setting of political stability, the government maintained financial stability and ensure public debt sustainability its tight grip on public finances. The budget deficit fell through (a) fiscal tightening, (b) rapid restructuring of below 10 percent of GNP, and the gross central the banking sector, (c) significant public sector reforms, government debt appeared to stabilize at around 75 (d) a renewed privatization drive combined with further percent of GNP. The year of 2004 marked the first time liberalization (particularly in energy, telecommunications, in 30 years that Turkey experienced a single-digit inflation and agriculture), (e) strengthening of the role of rate (see table H-1). In 2004, the consumer price index independent regulatory bodies to improve the climate grew by 9.32 percent over the previous year and the for private investment, and (f) strengthening of social Wholesale Price Index by 13.8 percent. assistance programs to help low-income groups adversely affected by the crisis. Concerning poverty, a recent analysis by Morgan Stanley suggests that "to [the] surprise of many, the country's Monetary policy after the crisis focused on financial stability remarkable growth has been an egalitarian phenomenon. as its primary objective. The Central Bank chose to That is, the rich are not getting disproportionately richer, implement a gradual strategy instead of immediate outright and the poor are actually getting better off in today's inflation targeting, in light of the constraints placed on Turkey."2 This analysis was based on the results of monetary policy by the post-crisis environment characterized household surveys from 1994 and 2003, where a by the loss of credibility and the dominance of public comparison between the aggregate shares of household debt in the economy. TABLE H-1. Economic Indicators, 1999­2004 ITEM 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20041 GDP (billion $) 199.2 204.9 153.5 184.8 239.8 295.1 GDP per capita ($) 3,092 3,199 2,360 2,774 3,452 4,114 GDP (annual % change) -4.7 7.4 -7.5 7.9 5.8 8.0 Current account balance (billion $) -1.3 -9.8 3.4 -1.5 -6.9 -15.5 Current account balance (% of GDP) -0.7 -4.8 2.2 -0.8 -2.9 -5.2 Inflation (annual % change) 64.9 54.9 54.4 45 25.3 9.3 Sources: Internal documents of the IMF, World Bank, and Turkish Treasury. This case study was prepared by James Sayle Moose. It has been revised slightly in the light of comments received from the World Bank staff. GDP figures for 2004 are World Bank estimates. Later data seem to indicate an actual GDP growth rate of 10 percent in 2004 and about 7.6 1 percent in 2005. Inflation fell further to 7.7 percent in 2005. Cevik 2004. 2 income received by each quintile of the income distribution The program is broadly a continuation of the policies in these periods shows a visible improvement in the followed since 2001. Analysts expect further improvement distribution of income in Turkey. of the Turkish economy and financial markets, in light of political stability, EU accession prospects, and the new One outcome of the inflationary process experienced in economic program with an IMF backing. the Turkish economy between 1980 and 2002 was the increased volume of currency issued, with the amount of Despite the positive performance of the economy, currency in circulation in 2002 reaching 27,407 times concerns remain with respect to the magnitude of the the 1980 levels, that is, from TL 278.6 billion in December current account deficit, interest rates, and inflation, 1980 to almost TL 7.6 quadrillion in December 31, which remain high by international and EU standards. 2002. A new Turkish Lira (YTL) was adopted on January Other risks associated with the sustainability of Turkey's 1, 2005, as the currency unit of the country.3 economic performance include the problems in the social security system and the sizeable government debt. In October 2004, the European Commission, in a Analysts warn that further price increases related to the communication to the European Council and the higher oil prices, indirect tax increases, or a weaker Parliament, stated that it "considers that Turkey sufficiently exchange rate could pose a threat to the realization of fulfils the political criteria and recommends that accession the inflation targets. negotiations be opened." Following an EU summit in 110 Brussels, the European Council and Turkey agreed to begin accession negotiations on October 3, 2005. The Turkish Electricity Sector The main driver of political and economic reform in the coming years will likely be this EU accession process. Turkey operates a power sector with an installed generating capacity of about 36,856 MW, a peak demand of At the end of 2004, the government announced further 23,199 MW, and an energy demand of 149 TWh economic measures, including raising retirement benefits (2004). Turkey has a well-developed electricity system and public sector pay, and cutting personal, corporate, with almost 100 percent electrification. The country's and value added taxes. In a December 2004 policy main demand centers lie in the western and northwestern statement, the Central Bank of Turkey announced that it parts of the country, while a significant amount of would take measures to enhance transparency and generating capacity is in the east and southeast. This calls predictability of its decision-making process and that for long transmission lines. Its transmission assets include formal inflation targeting would begin in 2006. The nearly 14,000 km of 380 kV lines and 31,500 km of economic program includes a commitment to continued 154 kV lines. The transformer capacities at these voltages fiscal discipline, through maintaining a primary surplus amounted about 20,110 MVA and 46,240 MVA.4 target amounting to 6.5 percent of GNP, in order to The medium-voltage (33 kV) and low-voltage (0.4 kV) bring public debt down by about 10 percent of GNP distribution lines and transformers in the system amounted over the course of three years. To this end, the government to 818,500 km and 81,000 MVA, respectively.5 reportedly plans to set targets for social security deficits, undertake reforms of public expenditure, tax administration, Transmission and distribution losses combined accounted and tax policy. Other components of the economic for about 22 percent of electricity generated by Turkey's program include strengthening the Central Bank's power plants in 2004. monetary policy framework and further improvement of the banking sector through the passage of a The transmission system is in much better shape than comprehensive financial services law. The financial the distribution system, since investments in transmission services law addresses controversial issues relating to have remained relatively much higher than those in bank owners and managers, licensing, and related party distribution (in part because of World Bank financing of lending. It also allows for more effective government transmission). Losses in the transmission system, at 2.4 monitoring of the sector. percent, are at or near the operating norms of OECD countries (see figure H-1).6 Losses in distribution, which In May 2005 Turkey and the IMF agreed on the terms of are currently in the range of 15­18 percent, are high a new $10 billion three-year standby arrangement to because of theft, but also because the system has suffered support the country's economic program during 2005­07. from a lack of adequate investments during the last The new Turkish lira (YTL) is equivalent to 1 million old lira (TL). 3 TEIAS 2003. 4 TEDAS 2003. 5 This figure excludes losses in power plants, but includes all system losses, with transmission being defined as voltages above 34.5 kV, although 6 almost all transmission lines are 154 kV or 380 kV. FIGURE H-1. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LOSSES 25.0 )kro Transmission wten 20.0 Distribution ot Total deil p 15.0 sessoL pus yticirtcelefo 10.0 % sa( 5.0 111 0.04791 6791 8791 0891 2891 4891 6891 8891 0991 2991 4991 6991 8991 0002 2002 Source: TEIAS 2003. eight or nine years because of financial crises, as well as National uniform tariffs apply across the country. uncertainty over whether distribution would or would not Cross-subsidies exist both between regions and between be privatized. The percentage of losses is higher consumer groups. As can be seen from figure H-2, in the eastern and southeastern parts of the country. the cross-subsidy of residential consumers by industrial However, in terms of kilowatt-hours lost, losses are consumers has greatly diminished during the last 10­12 highest in Istanbul--the main load center. years. Still, however, industrial users subsidize residential users, and further adjustments are needed in the future. As a result, prices paid by industrial users for electricity Electricity Prices in Turkey have been much higher than the prices paid by their OECD counterparts over the recent years (see In keeping with high inflation and the change in the value figure H-3). of the Turkish lira and as part of the efforts to restore the financial situation of the electricity sector, electricity prices Billing and collection efficiencies that were reasonable have been raised considerably since 1998. Retail tariffs until then faced a severe stress during the financial crisis (charged by TEDAS, the distribution and retail company) of the 2001­02. Significant arrears accumulated in the approximately doubled during the course of 2001 in sector. This was also exacerbated to some extent by the Turkish lira terms. This compares with inflation of 88.6 uncertainties surrounding the privatization of the distribution percent and thus represents a significant increase in real companies. However, some improvements have since prices from 2001 to 2002 that was needed to restore been achieved, and the collection-to-billing ratio is financial balance to TEDAS operations. Prices rose presently at 90 percent. The task of dealing with past somewhat further later in 2002, but they have been arrears and of ensuring payment discipline of stable since early 2003. The retail electricity price averaged municipalities and other government agencies is at around 8.5 cents/kWh in 2003, excluding VAT. engaging the attention of the authorities. FIGURE H-2. RESIDENTIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PRICES 0.120 0.100 )h Wk/$ Industry 0.080 S U( Households secir 0.060 P yticirtcel 0.040 E 0.020 112 0.000 0991 1991 2991 3991 4991 5991 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002 1002 2002 3002 Years Source: IEA (year not available). FIGURE H-3 COMPARISON OF INDUSTRIAL PRICES WITH OECD AVERAGE 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 Turkey h Wk/$ 0.06 S OECD U 0.05 Total ecir PlatoT 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0991 1991 2991 3991 4991 5991 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002 1002 2002 3002 Source: IEA (year not available). Electricity Supply and Demand Demand growth slowed down as a result of the earthquakes of 1999 and the 2001 economic crisis, both of which Electricity demand in Turkey has grown rapidly in the had a significant impact on GDP growth. As a result, recent decades. During the period from 1971 to 2001, the projections of severe supply shortages did not the average electricity demand growth rate was 8.92 materialize. In fact, when the contracted new generation percent. Actual annual growth rates in peak demand capacities came on line, Turkey had an excess capacity and energy demand during 1990­2004 are summarized situation. in table H-2. The relationship between GDP growth rates and the energy growth rates is presented in figure H-4. In 2004, total electricity consumption reached 149.2 The rapid growth in demand led to supply quality problems TWH, a 6 percent increase over 2003. Electricity and limited power cuts in the late 1990s.7 Further demand consumption by industrial users accounted for 48 growth, combined with delays in attracting new private percent of total consumption, followed by residential investment in generation, led to grim forecasts about the consumers at 23 percent, commercial consumers at 12 supply-demand balance and expectations of shortages percent, government offices at 4 percent, and another 13 as early as 2001.8 percent by others, including irrigation and street lighting. The government responded to existing and imminent supply All electricity is now supplied domestically, since imports shortfalls by taking various demand-side measures that from Bulgaria were stopped. The share of electricity included reducing street lighting and combating electricity generated by state-owned power plants is currently 45.4 113 pilferage. Other short-term measures the government percent of the gross generation (see table H-3). resorted to included increasing electricity imports from Bulgaria and using modular plants or the "mobile" The breakdown of the 2004 gross electricity generation power plants.9 according to primary resources is presented in figure H-5 and in table H-4. TABLE H-2. Peak Demand and Electricity Consumption, 1990­2004 PEAK DEMAND CHANGE OVER ENERGY DEMAND CHANGE OVER PREVIOUS YEAR (MW) PREVIOUS YEAR (TWh) YEAR (%) 1990 9,180 7.3 56,812 8.0 1991 9,965 8.5 60,499 6.5 1992 11,113 11.5 67,217 11.1 1993 11,921 7.3 73,432 9.2 1994 12,760 7 77,783 5.9 1995 14,165 11 85,552 10 1996 15,231 7.5 94,789 10.8 1997 16,926 11.1 105,517 11.3 1998 17,799 5.2 114,023 8.1 1999 18,938 6.4 118,485 3.9 2000 19,390 2.4 128,276 8.3 2001 19,612 1.1 126,871 -1.1 2002 21,006 7.1 132,500 4 2003 21,729 3.4 141,151 6.5 2004 23,199 6.8 149,239 5.7 Source: Internal document of TEIAS (2005). This problem is cited as an important factor that induced large industrialists to self-generate, along with the fact that self generation (auto- 7 production) is cheaper. Forecasts prepared by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources at that time estimated 8 percent annual electricity demand growth rate. A 8 review of these forecasts by the State Planning Organization argued that these projections were too high and the new capacity contracts that TEAS entered into based on them were too much. IEA 2001. 9 According to the current figures, about 49 percent of the In 2004 a "Report on Long Term Electricity Demand" electricity generated in Turkey in 2004 was generated was prepared as a joint effort by the Ministry of Energy from indigenous resources and 43 percent from and Natural Resources (MENR), the Energy Market imported gas. Regulatory Authority (EMRA), the State Planning Organization, and the Treasury. The report provides FIGURE H-4. GDP-ELECTRICITY DEMAND RELATIONSHIP 300 250 GDP 200 001 Electricity = 150 Demand 114 0991 (GWh) xe dnI 100 50 00991 1991 2991 3991 4991 5991 6991 7991 8991 9991 0002 1002 2002 3002 4002 Years Source: Demand Data from MENR (year not available) and GDP data from the IMF WEO Database. TABLE H-3. Breakdown of Electricity Generation by Ownership, 2004 PLANT TYPE SHARE IN GENERATION (%) EUAS 39 EUAS affiliates 2.8 Plants in privatization scope 3.6 Total public sector share 45.4 Build-operate-own (BOO) 24 Auto-producers 15.1 Build-operate-transfer (BOT) 9.6 Generation licensees 2.4 Transfer of operating rights (TOOR) 2.6 Mobile plants 0.9 Total private sector share 54.6 Note: State electricity generating company. Source: Internal reports from the TEIAS Dispatch Center. FIGURE H-5. GENERATION MIX, 2004 100% 80% Thermal erah 60% Hydro S noitarene 40% G 20% 115 0% Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Source: Internal reports from the TEIAS Dispatch Center. TABLE H-4. Breakdown of Generation by Primary Resource, 2004 (percent) PRIMARY RESOURCE TYPE SHARE IN GENERATION (%) Thermal 69.2% of which natural gas 43% Hydro 30.7% Wind 0.1% Source: Internal reports from the TEIAS Dispatch Center. updated forecasts of electricity demand that were prepared the government's targets and programs. Scenario II based on the Model for Analysis of Energy Demand attempts to demonstrate the sensitivity of electricity (MAED) and associated sensitivity analyses. The study demand to changes in the subsectors of the manufacturing focuses on three different scenarios for electricity demand sector. The "old scenario" uses older GDP projections growth and three sensitivity analyses based on one of and sectoral breakdowns, which were determined by the the scenarios (see table H-5). State Planning Organization for 2001­20. Moreover, four sensitivity analyses were carried out based on Scenario Scenario I is based on the State Planning Organization's I, by changing the GDP-related assumptions for that projections of GDP growth rates and the relative particular scenario (see table H-6).10 contributions of the agriculture, mining, manufacturing, energy, construction, transport, and other service sectors The Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEIAS) to the GDP. The projections of GDP growth and its prepared an Electricity Generation Planning Study in sectoral breakdown were in turn determined based on order to provide information and guidance to decision Sensitivity Analysis I-A assumes a 5 percent increase in the GDP growth rate after 2008. Analysis I-B assumes a 10 percent decline in the GDP 10 growth rate after 2008. Analysis II assumes a 5 percent decline in total GDP for the period 2010­20, with a smaller decline during 2005­10. Analysis III is based on a 4.5 percent increase in total GDP for the period 2008­20. makers, investors, and market participants on the likely · Firm generation (under dry hydrological conditions) availability of power from existing plants and those will cover energy demand only until 2009. under construction and licensed, as well at the timing, amount, and composition of the new generation capacity Thus, it is clear that new generation capacity will be that will be needed to meet electricity demand for the required and that this capacity needs to be started in period 2005­20. The main results of the study are the next year or two in order to meet forecast demand presented in table H-7. for 2009. The study builds on the demand projections (Scenario A study commissioned by the World Bank for the I and Scenario II) of the Joint Study on Long Term government of Turkey concluded that there would be a Electricity Demand discussed above, and uses the WASP surplus electricity generating capacity until 2007­08 and IV generation--investment optimization model. The energy that there would be no need for new generating capacity generation projections in table H-7 include generation in Turkey before 2007 or 2008. The study also noted from existing power plants, those under construction, that with substantial licensed capacity additions or lower and those that have obtained licenses as of July 2004. economic growth, the capacity surplus could extend well Figure H-6 shows the same information related to beyond 2010.11 meeting peak demand. The study finds that, if demand keeps growing at an Additional assessments carried out by the same consultants 116 average 7.9 percent per year, as foreseen under Scenario in September 2006 indicate a greater level of supply I of the Joint Study on Long Term Electricity Demand and uncertainties, making it possible for capacity and energy if, in addition to the power plants currently under operation, shortages to emerge as early as 2009. Short-term power plants under construction and those power plants measures under consideration include demand-side that were licensed by EMRA as of July 2004 are completed management, which could delay the emergence of and become operational on time, the following will be true: shortage at least by two years, and market-oriented load reduction strategies. Medium-term measures under · Installed capacity will be able to cover peak demand consideration include capacity incentive mechanisms only until 2012. that would help the emergence of a capacity market to complement the energy market. This could help in the · Generation under average hydrological conditions will materialization of private investments in the more rapid cover energy demand only until 2010. creation of additional capacities. TABLE H-5. GDP Growth Rate Assumptions for the Three Scenarios SCENARIO 2005­10 2010-15 2015-20 Old scenario 8 7.5 6.1 Scenarios I and II 5.5 6.4 6.4 TABLE H-6. Electricity Demand Forecast Scenarios SCENARIO I SCENARIO II OLD SCENARIO GROWTH GROWTH GROWTH ELECTRICITY DEMAND RATE (%) GWh RATE (%) GWh RATE (%) GWh 2005 159,650 159,650 168,262 2010 8.3 242,020 6.3 216,750 9.6 269,842 2015 7.8 356,202 6.4 294,563 7.8 409,531 2020 6.4 499,489 6.8 406,530 6.6 570,521 Source: Internal Report on Long Term Electricity Demand from MENR. Economic Consulting Associates 2003. 11 TABLE H-7. TEIAS 10-Year Projection Based on Average Hydro Conditions, 2005-14 (GWh) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Generation from existing capacity Thermal 157,436 159,223 164,523 163,885 168,438 168,979 168,167 168,466 168,466 168,466 Hydro + wind 44,305 42,760 42,591 42,466 43,766 43,766 43,766 43,766 43,766 43,766 Total 201,742 201,983 207,114 206,351 212,204 212,745 211,934 212,232 212,232 212,232 New generation--under construction and licensed Thermal 14,952 17,039 20,169 20,169 22,569 22,569 22,569 22,569 22,569 22,569 Hydro + wind 5,677 9,490 13,143 14,344 14,505 14,555 14,555 14,555 14,555 14,555 Total 20,629 26,529 33,312 34,513 37,074 37,124 37,124 37,124 37,124 37,124 Total generation Thermal 172,388 176,262 184,692 184,054 191,007 191,548 190,736 191,035 191,035 191,035 Hydro + wind 49,982 52,250 55,734 56,810 58,271 58,321 58,321 58,321 58,321 58,321 Total 222,370 228,512 240,426 240,864 249,278 249,869 249,057 249,356 249,356 249,356 Electricity Demand Demand 159,650 176,400 190,700 206,400 223,500 242,020 262,000 283,500 306,100 330,300 Margin of Available Generation 117 62,720 52,112 49,726 34,464 25,778 7,849 -12,943 -34,144 -56,744 -80,944 Source: TEIAS 2004. FIGURE H-6. PEAK DEMAND VERSUS INSTALLED CAPACITY, 2005­14 20,000 15,000 ) W M( nigra 10,000 M evrese 5,000 R ytica 0 pa 5002 6002 7002 8002 9002 0102 1102 2102 3102 4102 C -5,000 -10,000 Source: Internal document on Turkey Electricity Generation Planning Study from TEIAS. Government Strategy The main thrusts of the government policy are to the following: The government's strategy is laid out in the "Electricity Sector Reform and Privatization Strategy Paper" issued in · To privatize a large portion of the existing public March 2004.12 The strategy paper lays out the principles generation assets, mainly the thermal plants, but also and objectives of privatization, discusses the necessary some of the hydropower plants. It is thought that this steps to ensure successful privatization, and confirms the would improve their efficiency, at least for the thermal government's commitment to the competitive market plants. This was tried first through the TOOR model structure introduced in 2001, based on bilateral (see below), but this model, as implemented in Turkey, contracting, together with a balancing and settlement required that the Turkish Treasury guarantee sales price system. This strategy relies largely on the private sector and sales by these plants, which created large contingent to provide the needed investments. liabilities that the Treasury did not like. The Council of State (Danistay), the highest level administrative court, The main problem the government had faced in the also did not like this approach. Therefore, this approach electricity sector had been the one indicated in the has been abandoned. The current approach is to try section, The Turkish Electricity Sector, above--how to to sell portfolios of generation assets. meet the continuing substantial increases in electricity demand. The total cost of meeting this demand is · To keep the transmission system and the largest 118 estimated to be about $3.0 billion per year with most of hydropower plants (which have multiple uses) in the required investment in generation (around $2.2 government hands. The transmission system operator billion per year). Substantial investments are needed in is also the market operator. distribution (around $500 million per year) and transmission (around $200 million per year). · To privatize distribution assets in order to reduce distribution losses. This was initially attempted using Government strategy for the electricity sector has been the TOOR model. However, there were flaws in the relatively stable for a number of years, with both the AKP approach, as well as opposition from the Council of and its predecessors following the same general approach. State, so it was abandoned. The option of the outright This approach has focused on trying to attract the private sale of the regional distribution companies also met sector into improving the operations of the existing with opposition. The government therefore is trying a generation and distribution assets (thus increasing efficiency modified TOOR model and has invited bids for the and lowering costs) and also trying to attract it into operating rights for the distribution companies for a investing in new generation capacity. period of 49 years. Earlier attempts for outright privatization did not succeed · To attract private funds into building new generation because of constitutional limitations that led to the view capacity. A number of arrangements have been used that the provision of electricity was a public service to be to do this, which are described in the section, Private supplied by the government. Ways to work around this Investment in Electricity Generation, below. On the constraint were created through the introduction of other whole, these arrangements have been successful and models of private participation. These were Law No. 3096 there have been no major shortages of electricity. enacted in 1984 and Law No. 3996 enacted in 1994. However, the results are very mixed with some Law No. 3096 created the build-operate-transfer (BOT), approaches quite successful and others marginally transfer of operating rights (TOOR), and auto-producer successful if at all. models for private participation, whereas Law No. 3996 aimed at increasing their attractiveness through providing · To create a regulatory authority to regulate the sector and government guarantees and tax exemptions. Law No. 4283 set electricity prices. This was successfully accomplished enacted in 1997 introduced the build-operate-own (BOO) with the Electricity Market Law of 2001 (Law 4628), and model and provided for the relevant guarantees. EMRA is now functioning reasonably well. Republic of Turkey 2004. 12 · To establish competition in the sector to bring down industry. Private sector investment in power generation prices. This process is just getting under way, with the has been considerable during the past eight years, market rules and procedures having largely been with privately operated power plants now providing established and the balancing wholesale market about 55 percent of the electricity supply for Turkey. having begun trial operations recently. Retail competition Various arrangements have been used to attract these is also gradually deepening, with an estimated 30 private plants with differing results. The main such percent of the market now considered "eligible." arrangements are the BOTs, the BOOs, the TOORs, auto-producers, and the so-called mobile plants. · To develop renewable energy resources. Turkey has Overview information on these different types of considerable renewable energy resources, mostly arrangements is given in table H-8. These arrangements hydropower. Many of the larger hydropower sites have are then described in more detail further below. been developed by the government water resources institute, and others are being developed. There is The BOTs are the oldest financing model used in Turkey. also a major effort currently, assisted by the Bank, to These plants had a power sales agreement (PSA) initially enable the development of small and medium-sized with the government-owned Electricity Generation and hydropower projects developed by the private sector. Transmission Company (TEAS), but after the restructuring The Renewable Energy Law of June 2005 provides the of TEAS, the contracts were transferred to the government- enabling framework for private investments in such owned Turkish Electricity Trading and Contracting Company projects. Consequently, an increase in private sector (TETAS). These PSA contracts are take-or-pay contracts 119 interest in this activity is being witnessed. usually valid for 20 years, after which the plant returns to government ownership. The sale price consists largely · To energy efficiency and demand-side management. of a fixed charge or charges plus the cost of fuel (usually Efforts have been made to develop demand-side natural gas). The fixed charges are very high in the initial management and energy efficiency in Turkey, although years and then drop over time with charges often little information is available on whether these efforts remaining quite high for the first 10 years. As a result, have produced significant savings in electricity usage. the power produced by these plants has been extremely These efforts have been largely carried out by the expensive, substantially higher than the wholesale Electric Power Resources Survey and Development electricity prices in Turkey. The PSA contracts normally Administration (EIE), which is part of the MENR. call for TEAS/TETAS to take the power that can be A draft law on energy efficiency is currently under produced by the plants or pay for it (take or pay). consideration in Parliament. Most of the capacity in the BOT plants is in gas-fired combined cycle plants. However, there is one large Private Investment in Electricity Generation hydropower plant built under this arrangement (Birecik), as well as a number of small hydropower plants and two As indicated above, Turkey has managed largely to avoid small wind farms. These plants currently produce about any electricity sector investment gap, because of the large 14 TWh of electricity per year or about 10 percent of investment by the private sector in the Turkish power Turkish electricity usage. TABLE H-8. Private Electricity Generation, 2004 TYPE OF ARRANGEMENT CAPACITY (MW) GENERATION (TWh) BOT 2,349 14.3 BOO 6,102 35.9 TOOR 650 3.9 Mobile 780 1.2 Auto-producer 4,416 22.5 Private companies 735 3.7 Total private 15,032 81.5 Private share of Turkey's total 41% 54.6% The BOT contracts were individually negotiated with Although the price of power provided by these plants developers. These developers made proposals to the is relatively reasonable, the PPAs with them still represent government to build a generating plant at a site they a major contingent liability for the government. had obtained. For the major gas-fired power plants This contingent liability has been estimated by outside (see table H-9), the developers were mainly foreign, consultants at about $2 billion per year currently and including Enron (Trakya), whereas for the hydropower continuing at this level through about 2017. The likelihood plants the developers are mainly Turkish, except for that this contingent liability would become an actual liability Birecik. The MENR negotiated most of the concession is, however, extremely low, since these plants face a very arrangements with the developers. TEAS negotiated low dispatch risk because of their relatively attractive the PSAs under orders from the ministry. The Turkish power prices. This was demonstrated by OYAK's decision Treasury provided a government guarantee for the legal to buy into one and pay a premium. agreements between MENR, TEAS, and the developer. These arrangements were generally not transparent, TOOR was an arrangement whereby the government tried and there are allegations of corruption. An investigation to improve the operation of existing government-owned of some of them is ongoing in Turkey. plants. Under this arrangement, the government transferred the operating rights to a power plant to a private Although the BOT plants provide reliable power, they have developer for a period of typically about 20 years. been expensive for Turkey in the shorter term (high The developer signed a PSA with TEAS at an agreed 120 electricity prices) and have created major contingent price again with a high off-take requirement. The developer liabilities. The contingent liabilities to the government is responsible for rehabilitating the plant and completing (the Treasury) from the BOTs have been estimated by an the agreed investments, and is generally expected to outside consultant to be about $1.3 billion per year increase the capacity of the plant (which often had presently and to remain at more than $1 billion for the deteriorated) to the level indicated in his bid. Two plants rest of this decade. were "privatized" under this TOOR arrangement to Turkish developers. Agreements were reached between MENR BOO bids to the developers were also launched by the and other developers to privatize a large number of government, even while the government was trying to other plants. However, this did not occur, because the develop generation capacity through the BOT model. Treasury refused to guarantee the PSA contracts, because The general locations for these plants were determined of concern over its contingent liabilities. (The two TOORs by the government (TEAS), and the developers were that were finalized (see table H-11) do not have Treasury selected on a competitive basis, largely by TEAS. Five guarantees.) plants were financed using this model, four of them being gas-fired plants and the fifth being an imported On the whole, this has been a fairly satisfactory coal-fired plant (see table H-10). For these plants, the arrangement. The plants appear to be better operated, developers (mostly foreign) receive an agreed price for and needed investments have been made in them, generation plus the cost of fuel. TEAS also signed a which TEAS could not undertake because of budgetary take-or-pay contract for 80 percent of their power output, constraints and uncertainties about the future of these and the Treasury provided a guarantee for the PSAs. plants. The government did not assume any contingent At the end of the contract, the plant remains with the liabilities, because it did not guarantee the PSA between developers. Since there was considerable competition to the Turkish developers and TEAS for the Çayirhan or Hazar build the plants and they remained with the developer, Plants. However, there is an implicit guarantee, since the the spread over fuel costs for these plants is relatively government would be unlikely to allow a state-owned modest. The prices of the power produced by these company to default on major contracts of this sort. plants are therefore fairly close to the average wholesale price of power in Turkey, although this depends heavily The mobile plants are smaller, privately owned power on the price that these plants pay for gas. There have plants that are hired to the state-owned generation been no serious allegations of corruption. Three of the company, EUAS (formerly TEAS), and operated by the gas-fired plants belong to one group, and the fourth owners of the plant under service agreements with EUAS. gas plant belongs to a second group, whereas the The electricity generated by these power plants belongs imported coal fired plant is now partially owned by the to EUAS, and EUAS supplies electricity to TETAS on Turkish military pension fund (OYAK). relatively shorter-term contracts of about five years. TABLE H-9. BOT Power Plants POWER PLANT FUEL CAPACITY (MW) Ova Natural gas 258 Trakya Natural gas 499 Uni-Mar Natural gas 504 Esenyurt Natural gas 188 Birecik Hydro 672 Small hydro (12) Hydro 211 Small wind (2) Wind 17 Total 2,349 TABLE H-10. BOO Power Plants POWER PLANT FUEL CAPACITY (MW) Adapazari Natural gas 798 Gebze Natural gas 1,545 121 Izmir Natural gas 1,540 Ankara Natural gas 899 Iskenderun Imported coal 1,320 Total 6,102 TABLE H-11. TOOR Power Plants POWER PLANT FUEL CAPACITY (MW) Çayirhan Lignite 620 Hazar 1,2 Hydro 30 Total 650 These contracts are guaranteed by the Turkish Treasury. The auto-producer model is similar to the concept of There is a fixed capacity payment plus a variable price captive plants, although it has been modified to suit the for fuel. The prices for these power plants are higher Turkish requirements, and it had been successful in than the prices charged by the BOOs and are above increasing the generation capacity. Under this model, retail or industrial levels. a developer builds a power plant and finds his own customers who become shareholders in the auto-producer The developers who have built these plants are all group. In some cases, the plant is developed entirely or Turkish. A total capacity of 780 MW is spread over a largely for captive consumption. The auto-producer number of plants, each with a high off-take requirement. group plants tend to sell power slightly below market Currently contingent liabilities by the Treasury for these rates in order to obtain customers. The government has plants are about $120 million per year. However, a very limited role and does not provide any guarantees they disappear by 2007 when the contracts expire. for the developer. This model has grown very fast and When their contract with EUAS ends, these units will there are now a large number of these plants--mostly enter the market as independent power producers (IPPs) gas-fired, but also hydropower plants. The total capacity will probably following the auto-producer model of the auto-producers and auto-producer groups, at discussed below. about 4,400 MW, is second only to the BOO plants. The auto-producers can provide electricity at lower retail This strategy is laid out in the Electricity Sector Reform prices than the grid, since (a) the auto-producer groups and Privatization Strategy Paper issued by the government or auto-producers do not have the high stranded costs in March 2004.13 The strategy paper lays out the principles that TETAS needs to recover as a result of its purchase and objectives of privatization, discusses the necessary contracts with the BOTs and to a lesser extent the mobile steps to ensure successful privatization, and confirms the units; (b) they do not have the losses in distribution and government's commitment to the competitive market nonpayment problems faced by TEDAS, the state structure introduced in 2001, based on bilateral distribution company; and (c) the auto-producers can contracting, together with a balancing and settlement cherry pick their customers--and they do. However, system. This strategy relies largely on the private sector after the enactment of the Electricity Market Law of to provide the needed investments. 2001, no new auto-producer groups have been established because of the possibility of establishing generation companies instead. Also current auto- Lessons Learned producer group companies are changing their status to generation companies with the support of EMRA. The main lesson learned from the Turkish experience is that private investors can be attracted to investing in Private generation companies are privately owned power generation and can provide the incremental "merchant" power plants. They tend to be smaller plants generation needed to meet rising electricity demand. 122 that have not set up an auto-producer group arrangement However, some ways of doing this are much better than or that have terminated this arrangement. The total others. In the case of Turkey, the auto-producer group capacity in this category so far is relatively small (735 model, which was largely developed by private Turkish MW), but it may represent the wave of the future. entrepreneurs, has worked best. The government does not take on any contingent or other liabilities for these The various private financing arrangements discussed plants, but simply gets out of the way and lets the above have provided the great majority of the increase entrepreneurs build and operate them. The BOO has in Turkish electricity generating capacity since the early also worked well in Turkey primarily because the concession 1990s. They are the main reason why electricity generation arrangements were competitively bid, resulting in low has kept up with the increase in electricity demand, and fixed prices, and the electricity from these plants is shortages of electricity have been limited and transitory. economically attractive. However, the government does have large contingent liabilities associated with these plants, With the elimination of government guarantees, future having guaranteed off-take and prices, although these additional generating capacity will come largely from liabilities are highly unlikely to be realized. The TOOR private generation companies selling to distribution model was barely tried, but the two examples where it companies and other potential customers, as well as was tried were successful, with the government assuming from the auto-producer model. Further recent amendments no contingent liabilities, although TEAS/TETAS did. allow distribution companies to set up their own generation facilities, and it is likely that after their privatization, The BOT model in Turkey did not work well. However, some of these companies will do so. this was not the result of the model so much as because (a) contracts were negotiated in a nontransparent manner In addition, Turkey, like a number of other countries, and were not competitively bid; (b) these contracts took is establishing an electricity market in order to foster a very long time to finalize, but were subject to escalation competition and facilitate private participation in the all the time that they were being negotiated. As a result, electricity sector. This electricity market will be operated the prices of electricity sold by the BOT plants are high by an autonomous department within TEIAS, the and will remain high for some time. The sales contracts government-owned transmission company, but the for these plants are basically stranded assets in that the market will consist of numerous private generation cost of the power is more than it can be sold for. companies, the government-owned generation company (TETAS, the Turkish trading company that has these contracts, (EUAS), and numerous private customers, including the largely offsets them by buying cheap hydropower from privatized distribution companies. EUAS, the state generating company.) Republic of Turkey 2004. 13 A second lesson is that privatization of distribution is difficult, at least in Turkey. The government has not so far been successful in its efforts to privatize distribution assets. Although it can in theory be done, the legal and political hurdles have been very significant. However, distribution privatization is the next major step in Turkey's development of an electricity market, and the government realizes this. Without some sort of privatization of distribution (whether asset sale or an improved TOOR arrangement), the high losses in distribution will not be significantly reduced. In addition, without distribution privatization, it will be difficult to attract new private generators to supply the market, since they would not have creditworthy private distribution companies to sell to. Instead, any such generators would want government guarantees. Fortunately, the Government of Turkey is now making a major effort to privatize distribution. It has transferred the distribution company, TEDAS, to the privatization agency. The privatization agency has restructured TEDAS into a 123 number of regional distribution companies and has issued bids for their long-term operating rights. Finally, the whole process of creating a largely private electricity sector that is competitive--the goal of the Electricity Market Law--it has taken longer and been more difficult than anticipated. This is a result of both the pre-existing conditions, including large stranded assets (BOT and mobile plant contracts), and resistance from parts of the bureaucracy. However, progress continues to be made, and the goal should eventually be achieved. CASE STUDY I: VIETNAM Economic Background In 2001 the government announced a plan for reforming state enterprises, which involved the divestiture of one Vietnam's population was 82 million in 2004, and its third of the 5,600 state-owned enterprises and efforts to population growth rate was about 1.4 percent per year. increase the competitiveness of the ones retained by the Its annual per capita income in 2003 was about government. As part of this effort, enterprises that were US$480. Per capita real GDP growth had averaged at 6 previously under provincial and city people's committees, percent per year during the previous 12 years. The line ministries, and general state corporations were general poverty rate had fallen from 58.1 percent in partially or wholly divested, liquidated, assigned to other 1993 to 19.5 percent in 2004 at an average annual entities, or their operations were transferred under rate of about 3.5 percent. management contracts. In the mid-1980s Vietnam began its shift from a The financial sector reform program of the government centrally planned economy to a more market-driven one. involved (a) restructuring the joint stock banks, (b) As part of the 1986 policy of Doi Moi (Renovation), restructuring and commercialization of the state-owned the government undertook a series of comprehensive banks, and (c) improving the regulatory framework and macroeconomic reforms. The measures taken as part of enhancing transparency. Moreover, the first stock market the reform effort included the removal of subsidies, was set up in Ho Chi Minh City in 2000. 125 liberalization of prices, adoption of a floating exchange rate, liberalization of domestic trade. and reduction of Over the course of the last decade, the government tariffs on commercial and noncommercial imports. made significant progress in fiscal reform, largely through the establishment of institutions that have strengthened its The transition to a market-driven economy was supported control over public finances (see table I-1). Government by the development of a legal framework that involved fiscal control was quite loose in the early 1990s, with no the adoption of several important pieces of legislation, unified national budget and a multiplicity of institutions such as the Law of Enterprise, as well as amendments to involved that were in charge of revenue collection and the Law of Foreign Investment, Trade Law, Law on Export- expenditures. The government worked to address this Import Duties, and Labor Code, among others. These issue through the introduction of unified tax laws, state moves were designed to create a stable and favorable budget laws, and the creation of a State Treasury, business environment, and they attracted both foreign which would be directly under the control of the Ministry and domestic investment. of Finance. Vietnam's 1993­2003 economic growth rates averaging Recent economic growth was driven by export growth, 7.2 percent have been among the highest in the world. domestic investment, including infrastructure spending, Such growth rates are expected to be maintained at and industrial growth. Despite strong exports, the trade about the same levels in the near term. deficit rose to nearly 7 percent of GDP in 2003. The TABLE I-1. Economic Indicators, 2000­05 INDICATOR 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 GDP 5.5 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.7 8.4 Industrial production index 15.7 14.6 14.5 15.5 16.0 17.2 Consumer price index -0.6 0.8 4.0 3.0 9.5 8.4 Fiscal balance as a % of GDP -2.8 -2.9 -1.9 -2.0 -1.4 -1.4 Trade balance -1,187 -1,135 -3,027 -5,107 -5,451 OR 5% -4,648 OR (US$ million) .. 2.1 -1.2 -4.9 OF GDP <2% OF GDP Current account balance as -3.8 -0.9 a % of GDP Source: World Bank 2006. The initial draft of this case study was prepared by Ms. Defne Gencer and Gary Stuggins. It was updated and revised later by Venkataraman Krishnaswamy. contribution of agriculture to the GDP is still around 37 Generation Assets percent. Domestic saving and investment amount to about 27 percent and 35 percent of GDP, respectively.1 The installed generating capacity, which was around 100 In 2004, the economy grew 7.7 percent, and growth MW in 1954, was expanded to about 11,340 MW by was broad-based, with expansion in the industry, the beginning of 2005. Of this, a capacity of 2,518 MW construction, and services sectors. Analysts surmise that (or 22 percent) was with independent power producers this expansion may have been fueled by the (IPPs), and the balance of 8,822 MW (or 78 percent) government's acceleration of its privatization efforts and was in the public sector. Of the capacity in the public its moves to restructure the financial sector. Prospects of sector, 47 percent was hydroelectric, 33 percent was accession to World Trade Organization (WTO) may gas-fired, 14 percent was coal-fired, and the rest was have motivated the government and the body politic to fired by fuel oil and diesel. The IPP units were mostly pursue the reforms, since such accession offers good gas-fired. At the end of 2000, the system had a total prospects for the economy.2,3 installed power generation capacity of 6,195 MW (including two IPP plants with a total capacity of 425 An analysis by the IMF in January 2005 projected that MW), of which about 53 percent was hydroelectric and Vietnam's economic growth would remain strong in the rest were fossil fuel­fired thermal plants. The available 2005 and beyond, with real GDP growing at about 7 capacity was estimated at 5,814 MW, which met a peak percent per year.4 The IMF cautioned that the realization demand of 4,890 MW6 Thus, during 2000­04 the capacity 126 of that outlook would depend on continued progress in nearly doubled, and the share of hydropower capacity private sector development and structural reforms, fell, indicating a more rapid expansion of gas-fired especially in the areas of state-owned banks and capacity, as well as an increase in the IPP capacity. enterprises, and the WTO accession process, which is The peak demand in 2004 was about 8,300 MW essential for sustained strong export growth. compared to an installed capacity of about 11,340 MW. Despite this, the actual available reserve margin for the power system proves very thin in years of drought (such Energy Resources as 2004), especially during the summer, because of poor water flow in the rivers and into the reservoirs. Vietnam is moderately well endowed with natural resources. Rolling power outages take place in such years. Its hydropower potential exceeds 17,000 MW, and its proven high-quality coal reserves are estimated at 165 million metric tons. Its proven natural gas reserves amount Network Assets to 6.8 Tcf, but soon it may be proved to exceed 10 Tcf. Its proven oil reserves are believed to exceed 600 million The transmission and distribution systems of the country barrels.5 The northern part of Vietnam is rich is hydro have grown rapidly during the last decade as they try and coal resources, while the southern part is rich in oil to keep up with rapidly growing electricity demand. and gas resources. The central region has a small amount The interconnection in May 1994 of the north and of hydropower capacity. Because hydropower delivers south networks, with a 1,500 km long 500 kV line, nearly 40­50 percent of the total electricity produced, contributed to the improvement of the power supply in the supply side has a seasonal and regional character. the south. The second circuit of this important transmission Hydropower is a particularly dominant source of energy line is about to be completed. In addition, a second 500 in the north. In wet seasons, hydropower is transferred kV north­south transmission line is also under construction. from the north to the south. In the dry seasons this flow is reversed, with thermal power generated from the natural Electric power transmission is provided at the high- gas­fired units in the south meeting part of the energy voltage network at 500 kV, 220 kV, and 110 kV levels, needs of the north. A strong north­south transmission and distribution is provided at the medium-voltage link enables these electricity flows. The investments rose to 38.9 percent of GDP in 2005. 1 The accession to WTO appeared likely to take place in 2006. 2 The economic background section draws heavily from World Bank (2006). 3 IMF 2005. 4 See EIA 2005. The reserves data are very conservative. Substantial new deposits of oil, gas, and coal are being discovered in ongoing 5 explorations. The ADB mentions a substantially larger resource base (see ADB 2005). ADB 2003. 6 TABLE I-2. Electricity Transmission Assets VOLTAGE LEVEL TRANSMISSION LINES (km) TRANSFORMER CAPACITY (MVA) 500 kV 2,469 4,050 220 kV 4,794 11,190 110 kV 9,820 14,998 Total 17,083 30,238 Source: EVN website. TABLE I-3. Breakdown of Electricity Consumption by Sector, 2004 SECTOR CONSUMPTION (TWh) SHARE OF TOTAL (%) Industry and Construction 17.89 45.2 Households 17.61 44.5 Agriculture & Forestry 0.55 1.4 Commerce & Services 1.79 4.5 127 Others 1.75 4.4 Total 39.59 100.0 Source: EVN website. network at 35 kV, 22 kV, 10 kV, and 6 kV. The low-voltage Electricity Demand supply is at 220 volts. The size of the transmission assets can be gauged from table I-2. In 2004 there were Vietnam's per capita annual electricity consumption at 115,308 km of medium-voltage lines and 109,199 km around 497 kWh is about half the average for all East of low-voltage lines. The total medium- and low- voltage Asia and Pacific countries. Electricity demand grew by transformer capacity amounted to about 28,604 MVA. an average of 15 percent per year during 1995­2004 at a rate nearly twice the GDP growth rate. This is not Network losses are reportedly high, but not excessive. uncommon among countries that start from a very low Progress was made in lowering losses from 22.5 percent base. Furthermore, the economy is undergoing a structural in 1995 to 15.6 percent in 1998 and to 13.4 in 2003. change from an agricultural base to one that is more The losses in 2004 were reported at 12.09 percent, but industrial, with the concomitant increases in energy intensity. were probably somewhat understated. The losses are Industry (including construction) and households accounted mostly related to technical reasons and can be reduced for the biggest shares of electricity consumption in 2004. only by further distribution network rehabilitation and The combination of these two consumer categories make reinforcement. Nontechnical losses in the form of theft and up nearly 90 percent of total electricity consumption in illegal connections form only a minor part of these losses. Vietnam (see table I-3). Electricité du Vietnam (EVN) is making large new network Access to electricity by household has increased from investments with its own funds and with support from 51 percent in 1996 to more than 80 percent by 2003. various donor agencies. EVN has already converted most Still there were about 3.5 million households (about 16 of its old 66 kV lines into 110 kV lines and is working to million people) without access to electricity. By the end gradually harmonize the medium-voltage network to 22 of 2005 EVN reported in its website that 97.95 percent kV. It has also started moving the overhead systems of the provinces, 95.9 percent of the communes, and underground in major cities, such as Hanoi and Ho Chi 90.4 percent of the households had been electrified. Minh City. FIGURE I-1. EVOLUTION OF GENERATION FUEL MIX, 1972­2002 40,000 35,000 Hydro Gas 30,000 Oil 25,000 h Coal W G 20,000 15,000 10,000 128 5,000 0 2791 4791 6791 8791 0891 2891 4891 6891 8891 0991 2991 4991 6991 8991 0002 2002 Source: International Energy Agency 2004. Electricity Generation an estimated cost of US$274 million. The construction commenced in April 2006, and the commercial operation Gross power generation had increased from 8.7 TWh in of the units is scheduled for 2009. Vietnam expects to 1990 to about 46.4 TWh in 2004, an annualized growth import at least 0.98 TWh of energy annually from this rate of about 12.7 percent. By December 2005, source in Laos. This company is also conducting a electricity output exceeded 53 TWh, amounting to a feasibility study for Sekaman-1 project with a capacity year-on-year increase of 14.2 percent. Hydropower's of 460 MW.7 share in total electricity generation reached 75 percent in the mid-1990s, but has been declining since then with the growing use of natural gas for power generation Electricity Prices (see figure I-1). The share of hydropower in 2004 fell to 38.2 percent, and the rest came from fossil fuel­powered Retail electricity tariffs are uniform across the entire country. plants. In December 2004 Vietnam started buying electricity Electricity tariffs were developed until recently by the from China (about 100 GWh in 2005) to meet increased vertically integrated state-owned power company EVN, demand in the north. In the future, Vietnam may also reviewed by the Ministry of Industry and the State import power from Cambodia and Laos, so the related Planning Committee, and finally approved by the prime transmission links are being strengthened. A Vietnamese minister. Electricity tariffs had been increased several state-owned construction corporation (Song Da), EVN, times since 1992 to meet the cost of supply and to and four other Vietnamese state-owned corporations produce adequate net internal resources to finance have formed Vietnam-Laos Electricity Development and about 30 percent of the capital costs of system Investment Joint Stock Company to construct on a build- expansion, while maintaining the debt service ratio and operate-transfer (BOT) basis Sekaman-3 hydropower debt-to-equity ratio at healthy levels. The weighted project in Laos with an installed capacity of 250 MW at average retail price of electricity in 2004 amounted to Power in Asia, Issue 451, dated April 13, 2006. 7 5.1 cents/kWh excluding a VAT of 10 percent. Average power provider in the country, operating a majority of price for private producers is around 4 cents/kWh. the power plants, as well as the transmission system. Average retail prices may have to be raised by 2007 EVN is responsible for executing the power system plan and again by 2010 moderately by about 6 percent developed by the Ministry of Industry and for implementing (based on the current exchange rates) to maintain the the investment programs in the electricity sector either self-financing ratio, debt service ratio, and debt-to-equity by itself or through joint ventures. EVN operates the ratio of EVN at the present healthy levels. As in many transmission and subtransmission system for the entire developing economies, the residential consumers are country. The distribution systems in all major urban areas cross-subsidized by industrial and commercial and some rural areas are operated by the subsidiary consumers. Although the levels of average tariff are distribution companies of EVN (called PCs).8 EVN is adequate, the structure needs reform to reflect cost of organized as a general company with a series of wholly supply to the various classes of consumers. Further, the owned subsidiary companies for generation, transmission, bulk supply tariff adopted by EVN to sell power to the and distribution. Three of the nine distribution subsidiaries nine distribution companies is governed by the cover the north, central, and south regions, and the obligation of these companies to maintain healthy remaining six cover major urban areas Hanoi, Haiphong, financial ratios based on the countrywide uniform retail Ho Chi Minh City, Dong Nai, Ninh Binh, and Hi Duong. tariffs rather than on actual costs of supply to each EVN's subsidiaries also include those for load dispatch, distribution entity. consulting, and telecommunications.9 The consultancy services provided by the company include survey, 129 investigation, and design and construction supervision Institutional and Regulatory Framework for various in generation and high-voltage distribution projects. Low-voltage distribution in rural areas is primarily The Ministry of Industry oversees the power sector and the responsibility of provincial authorities, and is undertaken has the primary responsibility for policy and planning. Its by about 8,800 rural communes, of which only 19 percent responsibilities since May 2003 include the following: are supplied directly by the power companies of EVN. The Ministry of Science Technology and Environment is · Organizing, directing, and monitoring implementation the agency in charge of implementing the Master Plan of the country's national energy policy, including the for Energy Conservation and Energy Use Efficiency. development of nuclear power, new energy, and renewable energy. In October 2005 the Electricity Regulatory Authority of Vietnam was established as a unit of the Ministry of Industry · Preparing a power system master plan (in in the context of sector reform, unbundling of the sector, collaboration with the Ministry of Planning and and the proposed gradual move toward competitive Investment and EVN in order to guide and manage markets. Its primary concerns for the present are to investments in the sectors. develop tariff setting methodologies and recommend tariff schedules. · Approving and monitoring the master plans of the provinces and cities. Finances · Reviewing electricity tariff proposals and submitting them with recommendations to the prime minister's Based on the consolidated financial statements of EVN office for approval. and its subsidiaries, EVN had been operating as a profitable entity during the entire decade (see table I-4). · Preparing regulations on network and equipment safety Its operational efficiency is notable. It had been able to and submitting them to the government and the prime contain its system loss levels to about 12 percent by minister's office. 2004, and its accounts receivables are maintained at approximately 20 days' sales equivalent. Its average EVN is the vertically integrated state-owned corporation tariffs had been adjusted to make up for changes in its that generates, transmits, distributes, and sells electricity. cost structure and exchange rate. Its revenues had been Established in 1995 as a state-owned corporation under adequate to finance 30­40 percent of the capital costs the State Enterprise Law, EVN is the dominant electric of the massive system expansion it has carried out after In most rural areas, EVN provides a medium-voltage connection to the commune center, and the local commune mobilizes funds and installs 8 low-voltage distribution to households and others in the commune. These are rudimentary systems with high loss levels and low reliability. The end-user tariff in such areas is exempt from uniform national tariffs and is often substantially higher than the national urban residential tariff. Technical losses in such rural systems are not captured in EVN's system loss statistics. In addition, EVN has subsidiary enterprises for noncore activities, such as telecoms (including a mobile telephone company). 9 TABLE I-4. Financial Performance of Electricité du Vietnam INDICATOR 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Average revenue 4.7 4.9 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.6 4.5 5.1 5.1 cents/kWh Average revenue 516 566 595 645 675 678 687 790 800 dong/kWh Debt-to-equity 11:89 18:82 34:66 41:59 47:53 50:50 50:50 53:47 55:45 ratio Debt service ratio 13 31 37.7 8.6 2.6 1.6 3.6 3.4 3.7 (times) Self-financing ratio 51 30 26 34 42 26 42 49 55 (%) Operating margin 26 11 13 16 12 10 12 12 13 as % net sales Return on average .. 1.9 3.6 3.3 2.1 3.7 4.4 4.4 3.7 net fixed assets (%) 130 Source: World Bank 2004b and 2005. meeting its operational expenses and debt service range of other OECD countries.12 On the strength of its obligations. Its operations are carried out with no balance sheet, it had also been able to raise lines of notable explicit subsidy from the government. credit from the local state-owned commercial banks. In the early days following its establishment in 1995, The government's policy is to refrain from making any EVN's fixed assets were largely financed from government new equity contributions to EVN, except for socially equity, without incurring any significant long-term debt. oriented projects, such as rural electrification, and to This financing arrangement changed over time. Between make EVN financially autonomous. This has led to a 1996 and 2000, foreign loans reportedly provided the better leveraging of the assets and a steady rise in the largest proportion of EVN's total investment, averaging debt-to-equity ratio from 1996 to 2004. Given the industry 54 percent. The company's own funds and other practice, EVN still has head room to borrow, since the sources accounted for 28 percent, while domestic credit debt-to-equity ratio in the power sector can go up safely lines accounted for 18 percent of the total investments.10 to 70:30, provided the borrowing is on prudent terms. It is interesting to note that EVN launched a domestic EVN has been successful in establishing a corporate bond issue of D 350 billion (US$22 million) in March culture and commercial orientation, especially in the 2006 with a term of five years and an initial coupon recent years. Its financial accounts are strictly separate rate of 9.6 percent. From the second year onward, from the government budget, and EVN receives no the interest will be adjusted to be 1.2 percent higher government subsidy for its investments or operations, than the average of the rates offered by the four large except for resettlement expenses related to a few Vietnamese banks.13 The proceeds will finance part of multipurpose hydropower projects. It faces commercial the investment program for 2005­10. terms for most of its borrowings.11 On account of its operational efficiency and prudent Evolution of the New Strategy for the Sector financial performance, EVN had been able to attract Investments significant amounts of official development assistance by way of loans and grants from various international Given the economic dynamism of the country, demand financial institutions, including the World Bank and Asian for electricity is growing even faster than in the past. Development Bank (ADB), and from bilateral foreign aid Demand growth through 2010 is projected at around sources, especially from France, Japan, Sweden, and a 15 percent per year and at a slightly lower rate thereafter U.S. Commercial Service 2003. 10 For further details, see World Bank 2006b. 11 The Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) had been the biggest lender, followed by the International Development Association (IDA) 12 and ADB. Power in Asia, Issue 450, dated March 30, 2006. 13 TABLE I-5. Expansion Targets for Generation Capacity INSTALLED GENERATION CAPACITY (MW) GENERATION CAPACITY BY FUEL 1996 1997 1998 Hydro 4,199 8,601 12,519 Gas- and/or oil-fired 4,350 6,724 12,467 Coal-fired 1,205 4,965 5,560 Diesel-fueled 202 345 346 Total 9,956 20,636 30,892 Source: World Bank documents. through 2015. To meet this demand in a reliable manner, In addition, the government enacted a new Electricity the generation capacity needs to become nearly three Law (2004), unbundled EVN by function, and introduced times larger than at present. Government plans envisage initially a market structure under which EVN (primarily generation capacity increases, as shown in table I-5. responsible for transmission and load dispatch) would Corresponding transmission and distribution investments act as a single buyer and purchase all the generated 131 would be needed to deliver the additional power to the electricity from all the generating units in the country customers. It has been estimated that annual investments (whether state-owned or IPP-owned) and sell it to the of the order of US$1.5­2.0 billion will be needed distribution entities on the basis of regulated prices or through 2010. contracted prices, as the case may be. This structure has enabled the entry of the above range of investors in The government realized that it would be difficult to generation. In stages, the structure will evolve into a put through a system expansion of this order in the given market where there will be multiple generators and time frame on the basis of reliance on official development multiple distribution companies, and large buyers would assistance alone and with EVN as the only player. be buying and selling electricity in the wholesale market The domestic banks have already exhausted their lending on the basis of competition. Regulatory authority would limits in relation to EVN (about 15 percent of their legal also evolve in a manner to support and oversee capital).14 It therefore decided to open power sector these developments. investments to other players. A target of 20 percent of the total capacity was set for construction by adopting the In a move with a focus broader than the electricity sector, BOT for the period 1997­2005. It has largely succeeded the government enacted several laws in 2000 to attract in this. Overall, the government decided the following: foreign investors by facilitating business activities in the country.15 The laws provided incentives to foreign investors · To encourage the establishment of IPP-type generation through a number of measures, including import tariff projects on the basis of BOT, build-own-operate exemption and reduction, as well as reduced withholding (BOO), and build-transfer-operate (BTO). tax rates, and allowed 100 percent foreign-owned enterprises to invest in the country. These incentives were · To encourage EVN to form joint ventures with other accompanied by a reaffirmation that foreign investors enterprises producing coal, oil, or gas to establish would continue to enjoy those benefits even if changes such IPPs. were made in the Vietnamese laws. A list of IPP projects thus developed is given in table I-6. With Phu My 3 · To encourage foreign-funded IPPs prudently. becoming operational in March 2004, the installed generation capacity under private operation reached · To authorize EVN to sell minority shares in its generation 2,239 MW.16 The development of all these projects and distribution subsidiaries (a process called equitization) relied on the provision of government guarantees.17 to generate cash to finance new investments. For example, in respect of the 280 MW Buon Kuop Hydropower Project costing US$290 million, four domestic banks have lent to EVN US$133 14 million (12 year term including 4 years of grace). See Power in Asia, Issue 438, dated October 13, 2005 Some of these laws have been replaced by the Unified Law on Investment (2005). 15 The EVN website, however, gives the total IPP capacity at the end of 2004 as 2,518 MW. 16 The Phu My 2.2 project was financed under a World Bank Partial Risk Guarantee, which backstopped government guarantees to the project 17 sponsors' lenders. The Phu My 3 project was financed by the sponsors and commercial borrowing. TABLE I-6. Private Participation in Power Generation, 2004 FINANCIAL CLOSURE YEAR TOTAL PROJECT CAPACITY AND CONTRACT INVESTMENT % NAME TYPE OF PPI (MW) PERIOD FUEL MODEL (US$ MILLIONS) PRIVATE Amata Power Bien Greenfield 20 1997 Diesel BOT 110 100 Hoa Ltd. 30 years Can Don Greenfield 72 1999 Hydro BOT 81 100 25 years Hiep Phuoc Concession 675 1996 Diesel ROT 205 70 Power Company 50 years Phu My I Power Greenfield 40 (?) 1999 Natural BOT 39.5 100 Plant 20 years Gas Phu My 2.2 (with Greenfield 715 2002 Natural BOT 480 100 partial risk guarantee 20 years Gas from ADB) 132 Phu My 3 Greenfield 717 2003 Natural BOT 412 100 (with MIGA cover) 23 years Gas Source: World Bank 2004a. TABLE I-7. The Phu My Complex PLANT CAPACITY DETAILS Phu My 1 1,090 MW Three 240 MW gas turbines and one 370 MW steam turbine Phu My 2.1 450 MW Two 145 MW gas turbines and one 160 MW steam turbine will be extended by two more 138 MW gas turbines Phu My 2.2 720 MW Two 280 MW gas turbines and a 160 MW steam turbine Phu My 3 720 MW Two 235 MW gas turbines and one 250 MW steam turbine Phu My 4 440 MW Two 145 MW gas turbines and a 150 MW steam turbine Source: Power Engineering International 2003. An important area of development is the Phu My complex The private sector would be encouraged to invest in in the southeastern part of the country. This complex, power distribution segment also.18 supplied by the natural gas from the Nam Con Son offshore field, will be the host to a big part of the country's An example of the joint venture mode of constructing an installed capacity, when all projects are completed (see IPP power station is the new 600 MW coal-fired power table I-7). The other two major evolving power complexes station in Hai Phong by a joint venture in which ENV are at Nhon Trach and O Mon. The development of holds 77.5 percent, Vietnam Coal Corporation 10 percent, natural gas­fired plants in these complexes would help Vietnam Machinery Installation Corporation 5 percent, to offset Vietnam's heavy reliance on hydropower. Vietnam Exim-Bank 5 percent, and Vietnam Insurance Corporation 2.5 percent of the shares. It will cost The Deputy Minister of Industry announced in September/ US$640 million and produce 3.6 TWh of electricity October 2005 that the government would encourage annually, and is expected to be commissioned by 2007. local private enterprises to invest in 14 IPP power generation On reaching commercial production, an initial public projects (a total of 10,000 MW) and encourage foreign offering (IPO) would be issued to recoup part of the investors in seven BOT projects (a total of 11,000 MW). investment.19 Another example would be the 2,640 MW Power in Asia, Issue 438, dated October 13, 2005. 18 Power in Asia, Issue 434, dated August 4, 2005. 19 gas-fired combined cycle plant at Nhon Trach, which is and poor reliability, and often at residential electricity being developed by a joint venture among EVN, price levels significantly higher than the national uniform PetroVietnam, and the United Kingdom's BP Exploration residential tariffs in urban areas. The challenges to Operating Company in Vietnam. achieving a more satisfactory and widespread rural service include a lack of resources, institutional capability, Equitization program commenced with the sale of 35 and the ability of the people to pay, apart from the inherent percent of the shares in two hydroelectric power stations problem of low density of demand applicable to rural (Vinh Son--60 MW and Song Hinh--70 MW) in March load all over the world. 2005. This raised US$29.5 million from 215 individual and institutional investors. Another 5 percent of the In 2004 Vietnam's prime minister outlined plans to shares were sold to the employees, and EVN retained extend the power grid and to provide access to all the 60 percent share and management operational communes and rural areas in the country by 2010. control. Similar sales of shares in the electricity distribution The World Bank and other donors are providing substantial business in Khanh Hoa province brought in another assistance to the government in this regard. US$1.3 million.20 Encouraged by these sales, EVN is pursuing the sale of minority shares (49 percent) in five more hydropower stations (total 905 MW), three coal- Conclusion fired stations (total 1,240 MW), and one gas-fired thermal plant (380 MW). EVN will retain 51 percent of the shares.21 Vietnam was chosen for the case study because of the 133 While privatization of EVN as a whole is not envisaged, high economic growth rates and the high electricity an equitization program involving the sale of up to 49 demand growth rates experienced over the last 10­15 percent of the shares in various generating and distribution years and the even higher growth rates forecast for the companies would be pursued by prudently timing the coming decade. Vietnam has demonstrated that despite sale. A substantial portion of the distribution companies being a low-income country, it can successfully meet are expected to be equitized in 2006­07.22 such rising demand because of the following: · The high levels of operational and financial efficiency Rural Electrification Challenges maintained by its power utility EVN. It contained the system losses at around 12.5 percent, and its low By the end of 2005 EVN reported in its website that accounts receivable level (of about 20­30 days' sales 97.95 percent of the provinces, 95.9 percent of the equivalent) attests to its high billing and collection communes, and 90.4 percent of the households had efficiency. Throughout the period, EVN had been able been electrified. Of the 8,524 communes that have to meet its full operational expenses and debt service access to power, 2,913 communes are directly served obligations and still produce internally generated cash by EVN, and the rest are clients of local power service adequate to finance 30­40 percent of the system cooperatives or state-owned enterprises.23 Rural areas expansion costs. are served by electricity management systems in the form of power service cooperatives, multiservice cooperatives, · The high levels of operational and financial efficiency district or commune level private enterprises, and private of EVN that enabled it to access a significant amount entrepreneurs organized at the commune or province of official development assistance and domestic bank level. The majority of the communes are served under credit for its capital expenses. the power service cooperative model. The Ministry of Industry and EVN have been providing support to the · The ability of the government to adapt to changing cooperatives, assisting with accounting and other basic circumstances by a change of its policy stance. required skills, and organizing training camps for members When it became clear that the rapid growth in demand of cooperatives. In most cases, EVN provides a medium- called for massive capacity additions in a short time voltage connection to the commune center and local frame, the government adopted an approach to enable organization constructs and handles the low-voltage the entry of domestic enterprises and foreign private distribution to the consumers. These systems provide investors into the power sector and undertook sector rudimentary initial connections to the local population, reform and reforms to the investment regimes to usually with a low quality of service, including low voltage enable such entry. This was actually a provincial branch of the distribution company PC3. 20 Power in Asia, Issue 434, dated August 4, 2005. 21 Power in Asia, Issue 438, dated October 13, 2005. 22 Vietnam Economy Times 2005. 23 · The ability of the government and the utility to work in a cohesive and coordinated manner, which helped to overcome possible institutional weaknesses. Human resources appear to be a major strength of EVN. Successive boards of directors, management, and staff of EVN appear to be important components of the success of the sector. They clearly appear to have brought enthusiasm and commitment to their jobs, along with a good understanding of the operation of their sector and a ready access to data and analytical work. The critical challenge is to put in place the regulatory system that will encourage further private investment in generation and distribution, which will enable further efficiency gains. Although the private sector investments have helped EVN considerably, it has done so at a cost. The market risk remains with the government, which faces considerable 134 contingent liabilities. Given the relentless rise in demand and the prudence exercised in contracting new capacity under government-guaranteed BOT arrangements, this risk may not prove onerous. To date, electricity prices have been adequate to cover costs, but the margins would become thin as the share of power purchased from IPPs rises.24 The questions that will be interesting to follow as Vietnam goes forward are (a) the assignment of risks, presumably gradually moving away from the government to private investors; and (b) the need to address both financial viability of the sector initially through regulated tariffs and later through competitive wholesale market, while protecting the poor through targeted safety nets. 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"Memórias do Projeto RE-SEB: ANEEL website: A história da concepção da nova ordem institucional do http://www.aneel.gov.br/aplicacoes/english/start.html. setor elétrico brasileiro." São Paulo: Massao Ohno Editor. Bourdaire, J. M. 2003 "Brazilian Electricity Reforms: A View from Sirius." Speech to the World Energy Congress de Martino Jannuzzi, Gilberto. 2004. Power Sector by J. M. Bourdaire of ANEEL, November 14. Reform in Brazil and Its Impacts on Energy Efficiency and Research and Development Activities. IEI Energy Kessides, I. N. 2004. Reforming Infrastructure; Discussion Paper No. 2.62-01/04. Campinas: Privatization, Regulation, and Competition. Washington, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, January. D.C.: World Bank. Case Study C: Bulgaria Charles River Associates. 2005. "Applications of EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Dynamic Pricing in Developing and Emerging Development). 2004. Transition Report 2004. London: Countries." Washington, D.C.: World Bank. EBRD. 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Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Koutintchev, Vasil. 2003. "The Distribution Networks of USDOE (U.S. Department of Energy). 2005. An Energy the Republic of Bulgaria--Electricity." A presentation in Overview of the Republic of Bulgaria. Office of Fossil Newark, N.J., during January 27­31, by Vasil Energy. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. Koutintchev of SERC. Available at www.doe.gov. Krishnaswamy, Venkataraman. 1999. Non-Payment in World Bank. 2003. Bulgaria: Programmatic Adjustment the Electricity Sector in Eastern Europe and the Former Loan. Program Document-Report 25374-BUL. Soviet Union. World Bank Technical Paper No. 423, pp. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 58­65. World Bank. 2004. Bulgaria: Second Programmatic Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources website: Adjustment Loan. Program Document-Report 27473- www.doe.bg. BUL. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources. 2004. World Bank. 2005a. Bulgaria: The Road to Successful "Electricity Distribution Companies--An Opportunity to EU Integration. The Policy Agenda. Country Economic Invest in the Electricity Distribution Sector in Bulgaria." Memorandum, Report No. 34233-BG, Washington, Sofia: Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources, D.C. Republic of Bulgaria. http://www.doe.bg/download/ default/BNP2.pdf or http://www.doe.bg/download/ World Bank. 2005b. Bulgaria: Third Programmatic 137 default/ppp2.pdf. Adjustment Loan. Program Document-Report 30696-BG. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. NEK (Natsionalna Elektricheska Kompania EAD). 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2004. "Annual Report of NEK." Sofia: World Bank. 2006. Bulgaria: Implementation NEK. Available at www.nek.bg. Completion Report for a Series of Three Programmatic Adjustment Operations. Report No. 36603. Washington. New Builds--Nuclear as an Option. A presentation in D.C.: World Bank. Sofia by the Minister of Energy on July 13, 2004. Case Study D: Delhi Electricity Board, India Price Waterhouse Coopers and Atkins International. Agarwal, Manish, Ian Alexander, and Bernard South East European Generation Investment Study. Tenenbaum. 2003. The Delhi Discom Privatizations: Some Observations and Recommendations. Energy and Reforms and Investments in the Energy Sector, Bulgarian Mining Sector Board Discussion Paper No. 8. Case, A presentation in Sofia by the Minister of Energy Washington, D.C.: World Bank. on July 13, 2004. Bhatia, Bhavna, Manish Aggarwal, Sambitosh Republic of Bulgaria. 2003. Law on Energy. Available at Mohapatra, and Sidharath Sen. 2004. "Case Study: http://www.doe.bg/cgi-bin/i.pl?l=2&p=623. Distribution Privatization in Delhi." Energy and Mining Sector Board Paper. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Republic of Bulgaria. 2004. Energy Efficiency Act. 2004. February 19. http://www.doe.bg/cgi- Central Electricity Authority of India. 2005. "All India bin/i.pl?l=2&p=637 Electricity Statistics 2005." New Delhi: Central Electricity Authority of India, January. SERC. 2003. "Electrical Power Sector in Bulgaria." A presentation in Sofia during September 23­27. Delhi government website. http://delhigovt.nic.in/power.asp. Standard and Poor and Fitch Investment. 2004. DERC (Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission). Various State Energy Regulatory Commission website: years. "Tariff Orders of the Delhi Electricity Regulatory www.dker.bg. Commission." Available at DERC website: http://www.dercind.org/. DTL website: http://www.delhitransco.gov.in/ Tribune On Line. 2005. "Sheila rules out rollback, defends privatisation of power in Capital." August 26 DVB website: http://delhigovt.nic.in/power.asp edition. New Delhi. Available at http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050827/delhi.ht Gencer, Defne. 2005. Interview notes communicated m#1 from Delhi in May. World Bank. 2004. India: State Fiscal Reforms in India, Government of Delhi website: http://delhigovt.nic.in/ Progress and Prospects. Report 28849-IN. Washington, index.asp. D.C.: World Bank. ICRA and CRISIL. 2004. "Power Sector Rating." Yamuna Power website: January. Reports available at http://powermin.nic.in/ http://www.bsesdelhi.com/default.asp. SP_SERVLETS/internal.jsp Case Study E: The Dominican Republic Lal, Sumir. 2005. "Can Good Economics Ever Be Good Blanlot, Vivianne. 2004. "Republica Dominicana: Politics? Case Study of Power Sector in India." Economic Estrategia y Plan de Acción Para el Sector Eléctrico." and Political Weekly, Bombay, February 12. Washington, D.C.: USAID, November. 138 North Delhi Power website: Coady, David, Margaret Grosh, and John Hoddinott. http://www.tata.com/ndpl/index.htm. 2004. Targeting of Transfers in Developing Countries: Review of Experience and Lessons. Washington, D.C.: Planning Commission. 2002. "Annual Report 2001­02 World Bank. on the Working of the State Electricity Boards and Electricity Departments." New Delhi: Planning ENGIH (Encuesta Nacional de Gastos e Ingresos de los Commission, Government of India, May. Hogares). 1998. Reported in World Bank, Dominican http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/reports/publicatio Republic Poverty Assessment (Washington, D.C.: World ns/pubf.htm Bank, 2001). Power in Asia. 2004, 2005, and 2006. Various issues. Listín Diario. 2003. August 12 edition of Santo London: Platts, a Division of McGraw-Hill Companies. Domingo, Dominican Republic. http://www.platts.com/ Organismo Coordinador. 2003­04. "Estadísticas de Power Sector Reforms in Delhi--What Can We Learn Operación 2001" and "Programa de Operación de from the Experience So Far? A Presentation by Jagadish Mediano Plazo" Santo Domingo: Organismo Sagar Investment Climate Workshop, Dhaka, September Coordinador. July 2003­June 2004. 2003. http://www.oc.org.do/ Prayas website: http://www.prayaspune.org/. World Bank. 2002. "Dominican Republic: Diagnostic of the Investment Environment." Foreign Investment Prayas. 2006. A Critical Review of the Performance of Advisory Services (FIAS), World Bank, Washington, D.C., Delhi's Privatized Distribution Companies and the April. Regulatory Process. Prayas Occasional Report No. 1/2006. Pune, India: Prayas (Energy Group), May. Case Study F: Ethiopia University of Passau and Transparency International. Rajdhani Power website: 2005. Transparency International 2004 Corruption http://www.bsesdelhi.com/default.asp. Perceptions Index. Passau, Germany: Internet Center for Corruption Research. http://www.icgg.org/ Sagar, Jagadish. No date given. "Achievements since corruption.cpi_2005.html Privatization." Presentation. World Bank. 2004. World Bank Atlas. Washington, D.C.: MENR (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources). World Bank. http://publications.worldbank.org/ Demand Data. ecommerce/catalog/product?item_id=3426524 ------. No date available. "Report on Long Term World Bank. 2006a. "Ethiopia: Implementation Electricity Demand." Completion Report of the Energy II Project." Report No. 35573. Washington. D.C.: World Bank. MENR, EMRA (Energy Market Regulatory Authority), State Planning Organization, and the Treasury. 2004. "Report World Bank. 2006b. "Project Appraisal Document of the on Long Term Electricity Demand." Ankara: Government Electricity Access (Rural) Expansion Project." of Turkey. Infrastructure Group, Africa Region, World Bank, Washington, D.C., May. Republic of Turkey. 2004. Electricity Sector Reform and Privatization Strategy Paper. High Planning Council, Case Study G: Lithuania Privatization Administration, Prime Ministry, Republic of World Bank. 2004a. "Lithuania: Investment Climate Turkey, Ankara, March 17. Assessment." Sector Unit for Private and Financial Sector http://www.oib.gov.tr/program/2004_program/2004_el Development, Europe and Central Asia Region (ECSPF), ectricity_strategy_paper.htm. World Bank, Washington, D.C., December. http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/EnterpriseSurveys/I TEDAS (Turkish Distribution Company). 2003. TEDAS 139 CA/LithuaniaICA.pdf Statistics 2003. Ankara: TEDAS. ------. 2004b. World Bank Atlas. Washington, D.C.: TEIAS (Turkish Transmission Company). 2003. "Activity World Bank. http://publications.worldbank.org/ Report 2003." Ankara: TEIAS. http://www.teias.gov.tr/ ecommerce/catalog/product?item_id=3426524 ------. 2004. "Turkey Electricity Generation Planning ------. 2005. Doing Business in 2005: Removing Study (2005­20)." Ankara: TEIAS, October. Internal Obstacles to Growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. document. http://www.teias.gov.tr/ http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/DoingBusiness/Intr o.pdf and http://www.doingbusiness.org/ ------. No date available. TEIAS Dispatch Center reports. Ankara: TEIAS. Internal document. Case Study H: Turkey http://www.teias.gov.tr/ Cevik, Serhan. 2004. "Turkey: Getting the `Gini' Out of the Bottle." Morgan Stanley, December: ------. Turkey Electricity Generation Planning Study. http://www.morganstanley.com/. Detailed analysis is Ankara: TEIAS. Internal document. available at http://www.morganstanley.com/ http://www.teias.gov.tr/ GEFdata/digests/20041201-wed.html#anchor1. TEDAS website: http://www.tedas.gov.tr/1.html. Economic Consulting Associates. 2003. "Turkey Power Sector Review Study." Final Report, August. London. TEIAS website: http://www.teias.gov.tr/eng/. IEA (International Energy Agency). 2001. Energy Policies Case Study I: Vietnam of IEA Countries: 2001 Turkey Review. Paris: IEA. ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2003. Cost Recovery in the Power Sector of Asia Pacific Countries--A Special ------. Year not available. Energy Prices and Taxes: Evaluation Report. Manila: ADB. End-Use Prices. Paris: IEA and OECD. http://www.oecdwash.org/PUBS/PERIOD/per-ept.htm ------. 2005. Vietnam: Northern Power Transmission Expansion Project. Report and Recommendation of the IMF (International Monetary Fund). WEO Database President. Report No. 38196. Manila: ADB. (GDP Data). World Economic Outlook Databases (GDP Data). Washington, D.C.: IMF. http://www.imf.org/external/ns/cs.aspx?id=28 EIA (Energy Information Administration). 2005. "Vietnam World Bank. 2004a. Private Participation in Country Brief." Official Energy Statistics from the U.S. Infrastructure (PPI) database. http://ppi.worldbank.org/ Government, May. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Vietnam/Backgroun ------. 2004b. Project Appraisal Documents of Rural d.html. Energy II Project, October. EVN website: http://www.evn.com.vn/default_e.asp ------. 2005. Transmission and Distribution Project II, July. IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2005. IMF Executive Board Concludes 2004 Article IV Consultation with ------. 2006a. East Asia Update: Managing through a Vietnam. Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 05/01, Global Downturn. Washington, D.C. January 5. www.imf.org. ------. 2006b. Vietnam Power Strategy: Managing International Energy Agency. 2004. Growth and Reform. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/countryresults.asp?CO http://intranet.worldbank.org/WBSITE/INTRANET/INTC UNTRY_CODE=VN&Submit=Submit OUNTRIES/INTEASTASIAPACIFIC/INTVIETNAM/0,,conte ntMDK:21038885~menuPK:1088427~pagePK:14589 Power Engineering International. 2003. Several articles 7~piPK:147055~theSitePK:387319,00.html) 140 from the website, http://pepei.pennnet.com/home.cfm, including http://pepei.pennnet.com/articles/ article_display.cfm?Section=ARCHI&C=INDUS&ARTICL E_ID=177568&KEYWORDS=EVN&p=6 and http://pepei.pennnet.com/articles/article_display.cfm?Se ction=ARCHI&C=INDUS&ARTICLE_ID=236074&KEYW ORDS=EVN&p=6. Power in Asia. 2005 and 2006. Various issues. London: Platts, a Division of McGraw-Hill Companies. http://www.platts.com/ U.S. Commercial Service. 2003. Power Transmission and Distribution in Vietnam, May. Vietnam Economy Times. 2005. "EVN Wants Power for the People." March 16. http://www.vneconomy.com.vn/eng/. THE WORLD BANK GROUP Energy and Mining Sector Board The World Bank 1818 H Street N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 USA