E2665 v1 REV NATIONAL GANGA RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY (NGRBA) (Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India) Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) Volume I - Environmental and Social Analysis March 2011 Prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute New Delhi i Table of Contents Executive Summary List of Tables ............................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1 National Ganga River Basin Project ....................................................... 6 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 6 1.2 Ganga Clean up Initiatives ........................................................................... 6 1.3 The Ganga River Basin Project.................................................................... 7 1.4 Project Components ..................................................................................... 8 1.4.1.1 Objective ...................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1.2 Sub Component A: NGRBA Operationalization & Program Management 9 1.4.1.3 Sub component B: Technical Assistance for ULB Service Provider .......... 9 1.4.1.4 Sub-component C: Technical Assistance for Environmental Regulator ... 10 1.4.2.1 Objective .................................................................................................... 10 1.4.2.2 Four Investment Sectors ............................................................................ 11 1.4.2.3 The Framework Approach ........................................................................ 11 1.4.2.3.1 Framework Criteria .................................................................................... 11 1.4.2.4 Innovative Pilots ........................................................................................ 13 1.4.2.5 Investment Execution................................................................................. 13 1.4.2.6 Rehabilitation of existing infrastructure ................................................... 13 1.5 Environmental&Social Analysis &Management Framework (ESMF) ..... 13 Chapter 2 Environmental Profile of Ganga Main Stem........................................ 17 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 17 2.2 The Ganga Main Stem ............................................................................... 17 2.3 The River ................................................................................................... 20 2.4 Stream and Flow Characteristics of Ganga ................................................ 23 2.5 Physiography and Soil Characteristics....................................................... 25 2.6 Meteorology and Climate .......................................................................... 31 2.7 Land Use & Irrigation ................................................................................ 34 2.8 Major/ Medium Water Resources projects in the Basin ............................ 37 2.9 Groundwater .............................................................................................. 42 2.10 Water Logging and Salinity Problems ....................................................... 45 2.11 Land Degradation: Ganga main stem ........................................................ 47 2.12 Vegetation and Forests ............................................................................... 48 2.13 Biological Profile of the Ganga* ............................................................... 52 2.14 Sensitive Environmantal Habitats .............................................................. 55 2.14.1.1 Biosphere Reserves .................................................................................... 55 2.14.1.2 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries ................................................... 57 2.14 Summary .................................................................................................... 75 Chapter 3 Social Analysis ........................................................................................ 77 3.1 Socio-economic profile of Ganga main stem ............................................. 77 3.1.7.1 The Status of Women................................................................................. 89 3.1.7.2 Female Work Participation Rate and the Gender Gap in Work................. 90 3.1.7.3 Gender Disparity in Sex ............................................................................. 91 3.1.8.1 Female Literacy Rate ................................................................................. 92 3.1.9.1 Mean age of Marriage among Women ...................................................... 93 3.1.9.2 Total Fertility Rate and Anemia among Women ...................................... 94 ii 3.1.9.3 Median age of first birth for women ......................................................... 95 3.1.9.4 Couple Protection Rate .............................................................................. 95 3.1.9.5 Awareness about HIV/AIDS...................................................................... 96 3.1.9.6 Spousal Violence ....................................................................................... 96 3.1.9.7 Womens Participation in Decision-making .............................................. 97 3.1.10.1 Historical Trends ........................................................................................ 99 3.1.10.2 Recent Estimates of Income and Poverty ................................................ 100 3.1.10.3 Poverty at the State Level ....................................................................... 102 3.1.10.4 Poverty within project states .................................................................... 105 3.1.10.5 Specific Activities and Impacts on Poverty/Livelihoods ......................... 108 3.1.12.1 Economic Importance .............................................................................. 116 3.1.12.4 Tourism .................................................................................................... 116 3.2 Cultural Practices of Communities .......................................................... 125 3.3 Vulnerable Communities ......................................................................... 133 3.4 Key Stakeholders ..................................................................................... 135 3.5 Key social and cultural issues .................................................................. 136 Chapter 4 Sources of Pollution in Ganga ............................................................ 138 4.1 General ..................................................................................................... 138 4.2 Point Sources of Polution......................................................................... 140 4.2.1 Domestic wastewater discharges ............................................................. 140 4.2.2 Industrial Wastewater .............................................................................. 146 4.3 Non-Point Sources of Pollution ............................................................... 148 4.3.1 Agricultural Sources ................................................................................ 148 4.3.2 Municipal Solid Wastes ........................................................................... 148 4.3.3 Other non-point sources ........................................................................... 150 4.4 Government Initiatives in Pollution Abatement ...................................... 150 4.5 Water Quality of River Ganga ................................................................. 152 Chapter 5 Limiting Factors in Environmental&Social Analysis ...................... 158 5.1 Environmental Profile .............................................................................. 158 5.1.1 The Ganga Basin ...................................................................................... 158 5.1.2 Land use ................................................................................................... 158 5.1.3 Irrigation .................................................................................................. 159 5.1.4 Water logging, Salinity and Land Degradation problems ....................... 159 5.1.5 Vegetation and Forest .............................................................................. 159 5.1.6 Sensitive Environment Habitats ............................................................... 159 5.1.7 Socio-Economic Profile ........................................................................... 160 5.1.8 Issues of Water Quality and Pollution Sources........................................ 160 iii List of Tables Table 2.1 Catchment Area of Major River Basins of India ..................................... 18 Table 2.2 State-wise Distribution of the Drainage Area of Ganga River in India ... 20 Table 2.3 Mean Annual Flow of Streams in Ganga main stem ............................... 23 Table 2.4 Stream Characteristics along Different Sections of the Ganga ................ 24 Table 2.5 Soil Types in Ganga main stem and their Susceptibility to Erosion (Area in Square Kilometres) .............................................................................. 29 Table 2.6 Temperature Zones of India ..................................................................... 31 Table 2.7 Rainfall and Temperature Details at Selected Stations in the Ganga main stem .......................................................................................................... 33 Table 2.8 State-wise Land Use Pattern and Cropping Intensity in Ganga main stem States (2007 - 2008) ................................................................................. 35 Table 2.9 State-wise Intensity of Irrigation in the Ganga main stem (1999-2008) . 36 Table 2.10 State / Source-wise net area irrigated (2000-2001) in the Ganga main stem .......................................................................................................... 37 Table 2.11 Information on Major/Medum Irrigation projects and Catchment Area in Ganga main stem States (2009) ............................................................... 38 Table 2.12 Sources of Water for Irrigation within Ganga main stem (2000-2001) ... 39 Table 2.13 Diversion /Storage Projects for Consumptive Use located in Ganga main stem .......................................................................................................... 40 Table 2.14 Storage Projects for Hydroelectricity Generation located in Ganga main stem .......................................................................................................... 41 Table 2.15 State-wise Groundwater Usage Pattern in the Ganga main stem States .. 43 Table 2.16 State-wise Ground Water Resources Availability, Utilisation and Stage of Development in the Ganga main stem States-2008 ................................. 44 Table 2.17 State-wise Magnitude and Seasonal Variation of Water Logging in Irrigatation Command Areas of Ganga main stem States (2009) ............ 46 Table 2.18 State wise extent of Salt Affected Areas in Irrigatation Command Areas of Ganga main stem States (2009) ........................................................... 47 Table 2.19 State-wise Extent of Various Kinds of Land Degradation in Ganga main stem states (2007) .................................................................................... 48 Table 2.20 State-wise Forest Cover in Ganga main stem States (2007) .................... 51 Table 2.21 Biosphere Reserves located within the Ganga main stem ....................... 56 Table 2.22 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries located within the Ganga main stem .......................................................................................................... 59 Table 2.23 Tiger Reserves located within the Ganga main stem ............................... 61 Table 2.24 Endangered Species of Ganga main stem ................................................ 73 Table 2.25 West Bengal Mangrove Cover Data (2007)............................................. 75 Table 3.1(a) Distribution of Population by Location and Caste ................................... 85 Table 3.1(b) Distribution of Population by Class of Cities .......................................... 85 Table 3.2 Distribution of Population by Sex............................................................ 86 Table 3.3 Distribution of Population by Age Group ................................................ 86 Table 3.4 Educational Level .................................................................................... 87 Table 3.5 Female Work Participation Rate and Gender Gap in Work .................... 90 Table 3.6 Sex Ratio .................................................................................................. 91 Table 3.7 Child Sex Ratio ........................................................................................ 91 Table 3.8 Female Literacy and Gender Gap in Literacy .......................................... 92 Table 3.9 Mean Age of Marriage among Women ................................................... 93 iv Table 3.10 Total Fertility Rate and Incidence of Anemia among Men and Women . 94 Table 3.11 Median Age of First Birth of Women ...................................................... 95 Table 3.12 Sterilization among Men and Women ..................................................... 95 Table 3.13 Awareness about HIV/AIDS among Men and Women ........................... 96 Table 3.14 Percentage of Women who ever Experienced Spousal Violence ............ 96 Table 3.15 Percentage of Married Women who Participate in Decision Making at Household Level ...................................................................................... 97 Table 3.16 Historical Incidence & Concentration of Poverty: Project States and India ....................................................................................................... 100 Table 3.17 Statewise Per Capita Income and Growth Rates at Constant Prices (New Series 1999-2000) .................................................................................. 100 Table 3.18 Nos. and % of Population below Poverty Line 2004-05 (Based on URP- Consumption)......................................................................................... 101 Table 3.19 State-Specific Poverty Lines in 2004-05 ( Per Capita per Month) ........ 102 Table 3.20 State Level Estimates of Average MPCE, Head Count Ratio, and Lorenz Ratio in 2004-05 .................................................................................... 103 Table 3.21 Selected State Level Non-income Indicators of Poverty (as of 2001) ... 104 Table 3.22 Comparison of Districts within Bihar on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05)................................................................................................ 106 Table 3.23 Comparison of Districts in Uttar Pradesh on income poverty parameters (2004-05)................................................................................................ 107 Table 3.24 Comparison of Districts in Uttarakhand on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05)................................................................................................ 107 Table 3.25 Comparison of Districts in West Bengal on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05)................................................................................................ 108 Table 3.26 Life Expectancy at Birth by Sex in India 1996-2002 ............................ 112 Table 3.27 Infant Mortality Rates - 1999-2003 (State-wise and Rural / Urban-wise) (per 1000 live births) .............................................................................. 113 Table 3.28 State-wise Data on Primary Health Infrastructure ................................ 113 Table 3.29 State / UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Dengue in India 2005-2009 (provisional) ICD - 10 Code A90 - A91 ................................................ 114 Table 3.30 State / UT wise Cases and Deaths due to Malaria in India 2005-2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code B50 ­ B54 ................................................ 114 Table 3.31 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Cholera in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD-10 Code A00 ............................................................ 115 Table 3.32 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Acute Diarrheal Disease in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code A09 (State-wise Inference) ............ 115 Table 3.33 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Enteric Fever (Typhyoid) in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code A01 ................................................ 115 Table 3.34 Distribution of Population by Occupation ............................................. 117 Table 3.35 Estimated number of slums in states ...................................................... 118 Table 3.36 Type of Fuel Used (No. of Households) ................................................ 119 Table 3.37 Distribution of Households by Availability of Bathrooms and Toilets . 119 Table 3.38 Distribution of Households Connected by Drainage System ................ 120 Table 3.39 Distribution of Households by Availability of Kitchen ......................... 120 Table 3.40 Distribution of Households by Availability of Electricity and Toilets .. 121 Table 3.41 Distribution of households by availability of drinking water sources ... 121 Table 3.42 Sources of Safe Drinking Water ............................................................ 122 Table 3.43 Distribution of Households by Banking Services and Asset Ownership .............................................................................................. 122 Table 3.44 Brief Economic Profile of Ganga main stem ......................................... 123 v Table 3.45 Cultural Profile of the States .................................................................. 125 Table 3.46 SC and ST Population in the Major Districts of the Main Stem States . 133 Table 3.47 Identified Key Stakeholders ................................................................... 135 Table 4.1 Distribution of Towns and Cities in Ganga basin .................................. 139 Table 4.2 Water Supply in Class I and class II Cities in the Ganga basin ............. 141 Table 4.3 Municipal Wastewater Generation and Mode of Disposal in the Ganga basin ....................................................................................................... 143 Table 4.4 Wastewater Generation and Treatment Capacity for Class I and Class II Cities discharging Wastewater into the Ganga River ............................ 144 Table 4.5 Number of Grossly Polluting Industries discharging Effluent having BOD Load of 100 Kg/day or more in the Ganga River and its tributaries as on September 2009 ..................................................................................... 146 Table 4.6 Hazardous Waste from Industries in District along River Ganga.......... 147 Table 4.7 Waste Generation and Status of Implementation of MSW (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 in Cities along River Ganga ......................... 149 Table 4.8 Landfill Sites in Cities along River Ganga ............................................ 149 Table 4.9 Target and STP Capacities installed under Ganga Action Plan ............. 151 Table 4.10 Sewage Generation, Treatment Capacity Created / Proposed in Six Selected Towns of GAP-I ...................................................................... 152 Table 4.11 Classification of Ganga at Various Locations ....................................... 157 vi List of Figures Figure 2.1 The Ganga main stem map .................................................................. 19 Figure 2.2 Line diagram of the Ganga main stem with tributaries........................ 22 Figure 2.3 Physiography and Groundwater flow of Ganga main stem ................. 26 Figure 2.4 Soil and rainfall (isohyetal) map of Ganga main stem ........................ 30 Figure 2.5 Vegetation Types of Ganga main stem ................................................ 50 Figure 3.1 Map showing districts of Uttarakhand state which falls in the Ganga main stem ............................................................................................. 79 Figure 3.2 Map showing districts of Uttar Pradesh state which falls in the Ganga main stem ............................................................................................. 81 Figure 3.3 Map showing districts of Bihar state which falls in the Ganga main stem ...................................................................................................... 82 Figure 3.4 Map showing district of Jharkhand state which falls in the Ganga main stem ...................................................................................................... 83 Figure 3.5 Map showing districts of West Bengal state which falls in the Ganga main stem ............................................................................................. 84 Figure 4.1 BOD levels in river Ganga during year 1986 and 2009................Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4.2 DO levels in river Ganga during year 1986 and 2009 ....................... 154 Figure 4.3 Water quality of river Ganga (Uttaranchal segment) ......................... 154 Figure 4.4 Water quality of river Ganga (U.P upper segment) ........................... 155 Figure 4.5 Water quality of river Ganga (U.P lower segment) ........................... 155 Figure 4.6 Water quality of river Ganga (Bihar segment) .................................. 155 Figure 4.7 Water quality of river Ganga (West Bengal segment) ....................... 156 vii List of Appendices Appendix 2.1 Ground Water Quality of state districts under Ganga main stem ..... 163 Appendix 2.2 Environmentally Sensitive areas in the Ganga main stem................ 168 Appendix 2.3 Complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in Ganga main stem ............ 169 Appendix 4.1 Sewage Generation and treatment capacity of Class I cities in Ganga main stem (Disposal In tributaries) ................................... 172 Appendix 4.2 List of Water Quality Parameters Analyzed under National Water Quality Monitoring Programme .............................. 180 Appendix 4.3 Water Quality trends of river Yamuna (2005-2009) ........................ 181 viii Executive Summary The river Ganga has significant economic, environmental and cultural value in India. Despite its importance, extreme pollution pressures from increasing population and industrialisation pose a great threat to the biodiversity and environmental sustainability of the Ganga, with detrimental effects on both the quantity and quality of its flows. As a major first step in achieving the Ganga Clean up Initiatives, the Government of India (GoI) constituted the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA), on 20th February 2009, for the comprehensive management of the river. The World Bank has been formally requested by GOI to provide long-term support to NGRBA through several phases of substantive financing and knowledge support. The first project of several phases of support aims at i. Establishing and operationalizing central and state level NGRBA institutions capable of planning and implementing a multi sectoral river water quality improvement program ii. Reducing pollution loads into the river through selected investments. The specific investments under the first project will focus on the main stem of Ganga flowing through five basin states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal in India. Specifically, pollution abatement programs will include a range of municipal investments such as sewer networks, waste water treatment facilities, industrial pollution control measures, river front management, solid waste management and other required supportive improvements. Given the sensitive environmental nature of the project and distributed nature of proposed project investments of NGRBP over a large area in multiple states, the investments under the project are anticipated to encounter a variety of environmental and social issues, including acquisition of private land and resettlement issues. The NGRBP recognizes these issues and is preparing itself to address their mitigation through a set of management procedures elaborated in this Environmental & Social Management Framework (ESMF). The framework identifies the level of safeguard due-diligence required for all categories of sub-projects of NGRBP and provides specific guidance on the policies and procedures to be followed for environmental and social assessment along with roles and responsibilities of the implementing agencies. 1 The ESMF is broadly organized into two volumes. Volume I: Environmental and Social Analysis Volume II: Environmental and Social Management Framework Environmental and Social Analysis This report has detailed the Ganga basins economic, environmental and cultural significance. Its importance to India was underscored by a variety of statistics, including the fact that it accounts for 26 per cent of Indias landmass, 30 per cent of its water resources and more than 40 per cent of its population at a density nearly twice Indias national average. The economic importance of the Ganga basins rich water resources and fertile soil were evidenced by the fact that the basin supports about 300 million people over an area of approximately 800, 00 sq. km, of which some 100 million are directly dependent on the river and its tributaries. It was also seen that Indias holiest river, lending it a significance that cannot be captured by numbers alone. Despite the obvious importance described in this report, the biodiversity, environmental sustainability and both quantity and quality flows in the Ganga basin face extreme pollution pressures. This report identified industrial pollution as one of the priamry sources of pollution, accounting for 25% of contamination in the basin. Additionally, the fact that only one-third of the sewage generated in the main-stem towns and cities receives treatment before entering the Ganga waters represents another major threat. As was seen earlier, these problems can be viewed as the results of a failure to properly manage urbanization and industrialization, as well as the limited capacity of local water and wastewater utilities to monitor and regulate point source pollution. Other factors, such as non-point source pollution from agriculture and livestock and poor solid waste management, were identified as contributing to pollution levels contribute to the problem. Additionally, low flows, most frequently occuring in the dry season but also fueled by substantial water extraction for irrigation contributes, was seen as contributing to poor water quality in the critical middle stretch of the river. The report also presented a detailed profile of the Ganga basin, focusing on salient features such as catchment area, river hydrology, relevant tributaries, physiography, environmental features such as aquatic and terrestrial flora / fauna, natural resources, ecological 2 characteristics, sensitive environmental components. Through these descriptions, a picture emerged of an expansive area with tremndous biodiversity and extensive, if unevenly distributed water resources. The extent of the biodiversity was underscored through detailed descriptions of fauna, as well as information pertaining to the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in the Ganga basin. The report also presented information on human interentions through land use and water resources development, as well as the environmental impact of those projects in the form of, for example, water logging and salinity problems in irrigated command areas. In addition to relevant environmental data, detailed information on the socio-economic aspects of the Ganga basin are presented. The information presented revealed a large Ganga basin that is simultanously very dense and largely rural, as well as being relatievly poorer and less literate than India as a whole. On gender issues, the Ganga basin tended to fair better than the Indian average, with many key states having higher work participation and literacy rates than the country as a whole. Healthwise, the primary Ganga basin area was largely on par with India, especially in they key indicator of life expactancy. The Ganga basin is large and diverse in all aspects imaginable ­ socially, culturally, geographically, etc. As such, any intervention must manage to both match the tremendous scale of the basin, while paying close attention to each areas unique characteristics. Yet as this report has indicated, the importance of the Ganga to India cannot be understated, nor can its continued need for environmental protection and socio-economic development. The information presented in this report will prove useful in guiding the necessary interventions to help steer the Ganga basin ­ and India as a whole ­ towards a more sustainable future. Environmental and Social Management Framework The Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) document for the NGRB project outlines all the issues that the proposed project might have on the environment and the people of the Ganga main stem region. It recognizes that the implementation of the river pollution mitigation projects under the National Ganga River Basin Project (NGRBP) is anticipated to encounter a variety of environmental and social issues/problems. Further a set of management procedures are elaborated in this Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) to address these issues. 3 Initial sections of this report detail out the various types of project portfolios that are proposed, as sub-projects under the ambit of the NGRBA such as solid waste management, sewage treatment plants, industrial pollution control initiatives as well as river front development projects. For each type of project the associated environmental and social impacts have been outlined. This report also identifies the national, state and local environmental and social regulatory framework that will be applicable to these sub-projects, to ensure that the sub-projects are in compliance with these regulatory requirements. The following are the laws and regulations that are applicable to the environmental and social aspects of the projects to be implemented under NGRBA: Policy and Regulatory Framework of Government of India (GoI) Environmental Policy and Regulations of the respective State Governments Legislations applicable to construction projects Operational Policies and Directives of The World Bank The key environmental laws and regulations relevant to the projects under the NGRBP are also mentioned, along with the reason for their applicability. Among other objectives the ESMF has to ensure that best environmental practices are mainstreamed and integrated during the design, implementation and operation of the sub-projects and it strives to enhance environmental conditions wherever feasible. In addition to the detailed project portfolio, this report also categorizes the sub-projects into: · Category I ­ Sub-Projects requiring Environmental and Social Assessment and development of RAP · Category II ­ Sub-Projects requiring implementation of generic safeguard management plans As a part of the social management framework, the report discussed the issue of resettlement policy and land acquisition in great detail; since it is an important component of the social mandate of a project of this scale. The report clearly mentions that the Project Executing Agency (PEA) will inform the community well in advance about the project, its feature and likely adverse impact if any and also the positive impact of the project, followed by the social screening and preparation of resettlement action plan. Additionally, the report outlines the 4 procedure to be followed for social impact assessment (SIA) and charts out a clearly defined entitlement matrix as a part of the R&R benefits for the project affected families. A separate section on indigenous people deals with their specific issues and preparation of an indigenous people management framework, based on National Tribal Policy 2006 of Government of India and World Banks operational policy 4.10, has also been suggested in this document. Mainstreaming gender equity and empowerment is already a focus area in the project. A basic structure of the gender assessment and development framework and poverty and social impact assessment has also been outlined. The implementation, monitoring and reporting arrangements for the ESMF have been worked out within the overall institutional structure for implementation of the NGRBA program, as described in the report. Within the overall implementation framework of the NGRBA, environmental and social due diligence will be carried out by the relevant agencies at each stage of the project cycle in accordance with the guidance provided in the ESMF. The development of the ESMF is based on a consultative process that engaged key stakeholders at the national, state, and local levels and sought their feedback. Key government agencies have been consulted at the various levels to obtain their consent on the ESMF in general and specially on the land acquisition process and resettlement framework. The key insights from these public consultations have been reported in this document. 5 Chapter 1 National Ganga River Basin Project 1.1 Introduction The river Ganga has significant economic, environmental and cultural value in India. Rising in the Himalayas and flowing in to the Bay of Bengal, the river traverses a course of more than 2,500 km through the plains of north and eastern India. The Ganga main stem ­ which also extends into parts of Nepal, China and Bangladesh ­ accounts for 26 per cent of Indias landmass, 30 per cent of its water resources and more than 40 per cent of its population. The Ganga also serves as one of Indias holiest rivers whose cultural and spiritual significance transcends the boundaries of the basin. Despite its importance, extreme pollution pressures pose a great threat to the biodiversity and environmental sustainability of the Ganga, with detrimental effects on both the quantity and quality of its flows. Due to increasing population in the basin and poor management of urbanization and industrial growth, river water quality has significantly deteriorated, particularly in dry seasons. Untreated sewage and industrial wastewater represent the primary sources of pollution, with only one-third of the sewage generated in the main-stem towns and cities receiving treatment before being discharged in the river. Inadequate wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure/capacity provides the most immediate explanation for this failure, as evidenced by the fact that 25% of pollution in the Ganga comes from the industrial sector. Yet this issue is also intrinsically linked to the weak capacity of local water and wastewater utilities and inadequate environmental monitoring and regulation of point source pollution. Other factors, such as non-point source pollution from agriculture and livestock and poor solid waste management, also contribute to the problem. Decreased flow, common during the dry season but also fueled by substantial water extraction for irrigation contributes to poor water quality in the critical middle stretch of the river. 1.2 Ganga Clean up Initiatives The Government of India (GoI) has undertaken clean-up initatives in the past. The most prominent of such efforts was the Ganga Action Plan, launched in 1985 later complemented 6 by a similar plan for the Yamuna, the biggest tributary of the Ganga. These programmes have faced significant public scrutiny and, despite some gains made in slowing the rate of water quality degradation, they have been widely perceived as failure. The main shortcomings of these initiatives were: (1) inadequate attention to institutional dimensions, including the absence of a long-tem-basin planning and implementation framework; (2) little effort made in addressing systemic weakness in the critical sectors of urban wastewater, solid waste management, environmental monitoring, regulation and water resources management; and (3) inadequate scale, coordination and prioritization of investments, with little emphasis on ensuring their sustainability. These programs also did not pay sufficient attention to the social dimensions of river clean-up, failing to recognize the importance of consultation, participation and awareness-raising. The lessons drawn from these prior experiences indicate that improving water quality in the Ganga cannot be achieved by plugging the infrastructure gap alone. Rather, any effective initiative will have to adopt a three-pronged approach: Establishing a basin-level, multi-sectoral framework for addressing pollution in the river (including national/state policies and river basin management institutions); Making relevant institutions operational and effective (e.g. with the capacity to plan, implement and manage investments and enforce regulations); and, Implementing a phased program of prioritized infrastructure investments (with emphasis on sustainable operations and mobilization of community support) 1.3 The Ganga River Basin Project As a major first step in achieving the above, the Government of India (GoI) constituted the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA), on 20th February 2009, for the comprehensive management of the river. The NGRBA will adopt a river-basin approach and has been given a multi-sector mandate to address both water quantity and quality aspects. The NGRBA has resolved that by year 2020, no untreated municipal sewage or industrial effluents will be discharged into River Ganga. Building on the high-level dialogue with GOI on Ganga, The World Bank has been formally requested to provide long-term support to NGRBA, through several phases of substantive financing and knowledge support. While, the overall technical assistance and program development under the proposed project will focus on the entire Ganga main stem, the initial 7 emphasis of the specific investments under the first project will focus on main stem of Ganga flowing through five basin states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal in India. Specifically, pollution abatement programs in cities on the banks of these States which would include a range of municipal investments such as sewer networks, waste water treatment facilities, industrial pollution control measures, river front management and solid waste disposal in the river through improved management in these cities and other required supportive improvements. This is expected to be enabled through several phases of substantive financing and knowledge support. The first project of such several phases of support aims at; i) Establishing and operationalizing central and state level NGRBA institutions capable of planning and implementing a multi sectoral river water quality improvement program and; ii) Reducing pollution loads into the river through selected investments. To achieve the above, the proposed World Bank assisted National Ganga River Basin Project (NGRBP) envisages two main components. 1.4 Project Components The project will have two components relating to institutional development and priority infrastructure investments. The first component would seek to build the institutional capacity to effectively implement the overall NGRBA program, including infrastructure investments funded by the second component. 1.4.1 Component One: Institutional Development 1.4.1.1 Objective The objectives of this component are to: (i) build functional capacity of the NGRBAs operational institutions at both the central and state levels; and (ii) provide support to associated institutions for implementing the NGRBA program. The activities financed under this component are grouped under the following sub-components: (a) Sub-component A: NGRBA Operationalization and Program Management (b) Sub-component B: Technical Assistance for ULB Service Providers 8 (c) Sub-component C: Technical Assistance for Environmental Regulators 1.4.1.2 Sub Component A: NGRBA Operationalization and Program Management This sub-component is aimed at supporting the nascent operational institutions established for implementing the NGRBA program at the central and state levels on a full time basis. The operational institutions comprise the NGRBA Program Management Group (PMG) at the central level, and SGRCA Program Management Groups (SPMGs) at the state level. The following are the main NGRBA program activities included under this sub-component: (a) Insititutional Support to the PMG and the SPMGs. The sub-compoment will support the initial setup costs of office infrastructure and equipment, incremental professional staffing, as well as provision of critical consultancies, training, and operation costs, for the PMG and the SPMGs. This support would therefore enable these institutions to manage the entire NGRBA program, including the activities and investments not funded under the World Bank project. (b) Enhancing Ganga Knowledge Resources: The sub-component will support the establishment of a state-of-the-art Ganga Knowledge Center (GKC) with the objectives of: (i) serving as the global repository of knowledge resources pertaining to the Ganga; (ii) addressing critical gaps in knowledge; and (iii) improving information access for the public and decision-makers. The GKC will be an integral part of the PMG. (c) Communications and Public Participation: The sub-component will finance a dedicated communications and public participation program, undertaken in partnership with community-based organizations, school and college student groups, and the media. The communications and outreach efforts will build upon the existing vibrant discourse and grassroots campaigns on the Ganga, including those led by some of the civil society members of the NGRBA. 1.4.1.3 Sub component B: Technical Assistance for ULB Service Provider This sub-component will support the ULBs as well as local-level water and wastewater service providers, through provision of modern and efficient information and planning systems, training, equipment for managing physical systems, and technical assistance for improving revenue/cost recovery to ensure sustainability of local investments. 9 1.4.1.4 Sub-component C: Technical Assistance for Environmental Regulator This will support capacity building of the central and state pollution control boards, to address the key constraints related to their functions regarding the Ganga, focusing on improving information systems, staff skills, laboratory accreditation, and infrastructure facilities. Some of the key activities include: a) Upgradation of the Water Quality Monitoring System (WQMS) The sub-component will support a system of automatic and high quality collection of water quality data from more than 100 priority monitoring locations along the mainstem and some important tributaries of the Ganga, addressing the needs for both technical and institutional modernization. b) Comprehensive inventorying of pollution sources The location, flow and pollution loading characteristics of all large point source discharge locations on the main stem of Ganga will be mapped to create a basin-level inventory. Studies will be supported to estimate the extent and relative contributions of the non-point source pollution of various origins. This work, to be implemented in the first year, will start addressing the baseline information needs for the Ganga basin. c) Strengthening environmental compliance monitoring Surveillance for regulation compliance will be strengthened for the Central and State Pollution Control Boards, by improving information systems and support for incremental staffing. 1.4.2 Component Two: Priority Infrastructure Investments 1.4.2.1 Objective The objective of this component is to finance demonstrative infrastructure investments1 to reduce pollution loads in priority locations on the river. The investments are intended to exemplify, among other attributes, the high standards of technical preparation and implementation, sustainability of operations, and public participation envisaged in the NGRBA framework. This component will also support innovative pilots, for new and transformative technologies or implementation arrangements. 1 Given the generally large size of individual sub-projects that are needed in the priority locations on the Ganga, the available funding is expected to finance a small number of sub- projects (around 10-15 major investments in at most 10 towns/cities). 10 1.4.2.2 Four Investment Sectors This component will support demonstrative investments in all the main sectors that are key to addressing the pollution in the Ganga. The majority of investments are expected to be in the wastewater sector, particularly in wastewater treatment plants and sewerage networks. Investments will also be supported in industrial pollution control and prevention (e.g. common effluent treatment plants), solid waste management (e.g. collection, transport and disposal systems), and river front management (e.g. improvement of the built environment along river stretches, improvement of small ghats and electric crematoria, and the conservation and preservation of ecologically sensitive sites). Many investments are likely to combine elements of more than one of these sectors. 1.4.2.3 The Framework Approach In lieu of defining and appraising specific investments, the project preparation has focused on developing investments framework covering all four key sectors of intervention under the NGRBA program. This single framework will apply to all investments under the NGRBA program, including investments to be financed with the governments own resources. The objectives of the investments framework are to: a) provide a filter for all the NGRBA investments, for ensuring that the selected investments are well-prepared and amongst the most effective in reducing the pollution loads; b) make transparent the decision-making process on investments selection; and c) ensure that the investments are implemented in a sustainable manner. Given the long-term nature of the NGRBA program and the fact that universe of potential investments is large, the adoption of the framework approach effectively sets the "rules of the game", and will allow infrastructure investments to be selected on a dynamic and ongoing basis. 1.4.2.3.1 Framework Criteria The investments framework prescribes the criteria and quality assurance standards covering various aspects including eligibility, prioritization, planning, technical preparation, financial and economic analyses, environmental and social management, long term O&M 11 sustainability, community participation, and local institutional capacity. Examples of key criteria are presented below: a) Explicit Consent of ULBs No NGRBA investments will be appraised without explicit and informed consent of the relevant ULB. This consent will indicate a clear recognition of the nature, scale and cost of the investment, and the ULBs own roles and responsibilities with regards to asset ownership and long-term O&M b) Technology Selection Technology selection for wastewater treatment will be made on lowest lifecycle cost basis, specified for the local conditions and required degree of treatment. c) Environmental and Social Assessment All the sub-projects shall comply with the environmental and social management framework of NGRBA and integrate the ESA recommendations in the sub-project designs. d) Design-Build-Operate (DBO) and other Long Term Contracts All investments with significant O&M costs (such as WWTPs, pumping stations, landfills and waste processing) will be developed and managed under long term contracts (either Design-Build-Operate [DBO] or other kind) including 15 years of O&M. This will bring enhanced accountability, adequate capacity and resources, and strong performance incentives to the sector. e) Capitalization of initial O&M Costs The first 5 years of O&M costs, based on specific calculations for each investment, will be included in the total cost for each DPR and will be financed on a shared basis by the central and state governments. f) House Connections Plans and cost of providing house connections up to property line must be included in the DPRs for sewerage investments. The ULBs will implement outreach and other actions to encourage households to connect up to these points. g) Industry Commitment to O&M Industrial pollution DPRs must include appropriate affidavits from industries outlining commitment to ensure satisfactory operation of common facilities. h) Area Development Wherever possible, river front management investments must take an area development approach, both to achieve spatial scale along wider and longer stretches of the river, and to integrate across sectors. 12 1.4.2.4 Innovative Pilots The project will finance pilot investments in order to promote and demonstrate innovative technologies and implementation arrangements. The potential pilot areas identified so far include net-energy positive wastewater treatment technologies and innovative Public-Private Participation (PPP) financing models which have not been used in the Ganga basin states. 1.4.2.5 Investment Execution The investments program will be planned and managed by the NGRBA PMG and SPMGs. Execution of the infrastructure investments will be done by the Executing Agencies (EAs), selected specifically for each investment. The current choice of EAs includes the existing state-level technical agencies which have the mandate of urban infrastructure (especially wastewater) management in their respective states. Most of these agencies have been working for a few decades, and have significant expertise and experience in preparation and implementation of infrastructure projects in the four key sectors of the NGRBA program. In the medium to long term, the NGRBA program intends to promote competition with these existing EAs by facilitating the establishment of new ones in each state, including public- private joint venture infrastructure companies. In future, if a new entity (in addition to the currently defined EAs) is proposed as an EA for a specific investment, it will need to undergo assessments by the PMG/SPMGs to ascertain its capacity to manage the technical, project management, procurement, financial management and safeguards aspects of the investment. 1.4.2.6 Rehabilitation of existing infrastructure Investments involving rehabilitation of existing infrastructure will be included on priority, due to their intrinsically higher returns in terms of reductions in pollution loads entering the Ganga. 1.5 Environmental and Social Analysis (ESA) and Management Framework (ESMF) Given the sensitive environmental nature of the project and distributed nature of proposed project investments of NGRBP over a large area in multiple States, the investments under the project may entail environmental and social impacts, including acquisition of private land and resettlement issues. To help understand, environmental and social issues associated with the project NGRBA, has commissioned The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi 13 to conduct the Environmental and Social Assessment (ESA) of the project activities. The ESA formed the basis for development of the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) that ensures compliance of all project activities with the environmental regulations of GoI and the safeguard policies of the World Bank. The ESMF addresses the broader portfolio of projects to be implemented under the NGRBA, as relevant information for specific projects (i.e. their size, type and location) are either not yet available or are currently being prepared. Current ESMF document is intended to help NGRBA manage the social and environmental impacts through appropriate measures during the planning, design, construction and operation of various sub-projects of NGRBP. The framework identifies the level of safeguard due- diligence required for all categories of sub-projects of NGRBP and provides specific guidance on the policies and procedures to be followed for environmental and social assessment along with roles and responsibilities of the implementing agencies. 1.5.1 Objectives of ESA and ESMF Broad objectives of ESA and ESMF study for the project comprise the following. Determine key social and environmental issues associated with River Ganga and possible activities that could be initiated by NGRBA, both at national as well as state level; Conduct an environmental and social impact assessment of the three ,,early investments in the hot spot locations along the river, identify potential environmental and social impacts associated with such investments and recommend measures to mitigate impacts; Carry out an analysis of various stakeholders associated with the project, identify their concerns with regard to environmental and social aspects, and recommend measures to mainstream these aspects into the project; Develop an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for the project, to ensure that environmental and social issues are effectively addressed in project design and implementation. 1.5.2 Approach to the Preparation of ESA and ESMF The project followed a multi-stakeholder consultative approach for preparing the ESA and ESMF that entailed a comprehensive methodology involving various phases. The first phase 14 comprised of primary and secondary data collection and analysis, literature survey, expert consultations, and gathering inputs from a range of stakeholders (relevant authorities and government departments, external reviewers, financial institutions, local residents and communities, NGOs and interest groups). Subsequent to this, the key environmental and social issues in Ganga main stem were identified in consultation with the key stakeholders including the local communities. In the second phase, the ESMF was prepared, based on issues and challenges that emerged while preparing the ESA. The ESMF was prepared through a consultative process that engaged key stakeholders at the national, state, and local levels and their feedback was considered while preparing the document. Key government agencies have been consulted at the various levels to obtain their consent on the ESMF in general and specially on the land acquisition process and resettlement framework. The issues emerged from ESA are considered in the ESMF document to ensure that it sets out the framework for the projects, to comply with the safeguard policies and procedures of the Government of India and the World Bank. This includes the project design, the legislative framework, the consultation process, the social and environmental baseline, consideration of alternatives, prediction and evaluation of significant social and environmental impacts, mitigation or offset measures, and environmental and social management and monitoring plans. The project also attempted to review the previous projects such as GAP-I, GAP-II, YAP and NRCP and the ESMF is prepared based on the key lessons learnt from these, with regard to the knowledge gaps in environment and social impact assessments. In the third phase, following the national level consultations, public consultations have been carried out in sample sub project areas in each of the five participating states (Bihar (1), Jharkhand (1), Uttar Pradesh (2), Uttarakhand(1) and West Bengal (1)), to get stakeholders/communities feedback and suggestions on the ESMF. The dates of these consultation meetings were announced in the local newspapers in advance so that all interested parties could participate and provide suggestions. The ESMF was translated into local language and was disclosed on the websites and also made available to the offices of the nodal agencies, prior to the consultation meetings. Representatives of the State Nodal Agencies facilitated the public consultation meetings. The key concerns and suggestions raised by the communities/stakeholders during the public consultations have been included in the final ESMF. 15 1.5.3 Composition of ESMF The ESMF is broadly organized into two volumes. Volume I on Environmental and Social Analysis, based on the base line environmental and social profile of the project area, analyses the critical factors that need to be considered in the overall design and also the safeguard management strategies of the project. Further, Volume II, based on the issues / factors brought out in the ESA, presents the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for NGRBP. The present Volume I: Environmental and Social analysis (ESA) of the Ganga main stem is structured into five chapters. While the present chapter provides a brief back ground of NGRBP, chapter 2 provides the environmental profile of the Ganga main stem including the hydrological, physiological and ecological characteristics of the Ganga main stem. The third chapter provides a broad socio-economic profile of the five project states and potential project cities. The fourth chapter, based on the available information, analyses various sources contributing to the pollution of the River. The fifth chapter summarises the key environmental and social issues in the Ganga Basin and the way forward. 16 Chapter 2 Environmental Profile of Ganga Main Stem 2.1 Introduction The profile of the Ganga main stem is presented in this section, based on the available information from various agencies, on the basin and the river with regard to the catchment, hydrology, tributaries, physiography, water uses, environmental features such as aquatic and terrestrial flora/fauna, natural resources, ecological characteristics, sensitive environmental components and other features such as land use, water resources project, water logging and salinity problems, etc. 2.2 The Ganga Main Stem India is drained by more than 12 major river systems (basins) with a catchment area of more than 2,500,000 Sqkm. These river systems are grouped into four broad categories: the Himalayan rivers, the Peninsular rivers, the Coastal rivers and the Inland rivers. In addition to the Ganga, the Himalayan river system includes the Indus and Brahmaputra river basins. The Ganga River (about 2525 km long) is fed by runoff from a vast land area bounded by the snow peaks of the Himalaya in the north and the peninsular highlands and the Vindhya Range in the south. The basin encompasses an area of more than a million square kilometers (1,186,000 Sqkm) spread over four countries: India, Nepal, Bangladesh and China. With 861,404 Sqkm within India itself, the Ganga is the largest river basin in India and covers approximately 25 per cent of Indias total geographical area. The catchment area, length, total utilizable water of major river basins within India and the states that they cover are presented in Table 2.1. 17 Table 2.1 Catchment Area of Major River Basins of India S. Name of the River Length Catchment Area Total No. (km.) (Sq. km.) Utilizable Water (BCM) 1 Indus 1114 (2880) 321289 (1165500) 72.49 2 a) Ganga 2525 861404 (1186000) 420.99 b) Brahmaputra 916 (2900) 194413 (580000) 59.07 c) Barak & other rivers flowing 41723 into Meghna like Gomti, Muhari, Fenny etc. 3 Sabarmati 371 21674 4.93 4 Mahi 583 34842 7.3 5 Narmada 1312 98796 45.33 6 Tapi 724 65145 22.77 7 Brahmani 799 39033 22.35 8 Mahanadi 851 141589 66.45 9 Godavari 1465 312812 116.95 10 Krishna 1401 258948 84.41 11 Pennar 597 55213 11.79 12 Cauvery 800 81155 31.3 TOTAL 2528036 Source: Water Data: Complete book, 2005; Status paper on river Ganga, NRCD, MoEF, 2009 Note: Figures within bracket also include the total river basin in neighbouring countries The Ganga River Basin in India encompasses eleven states, where as the main stem of the river flows through the five states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The remainng six states in the basin are Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Rajasthan. The states of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand together constitute a maximum basin area of 34%, followed by Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand. The distribution of drainage area in all these basin states is presented in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.1. 18 Figure 2.1 The Ganga main stem map Source: Status paper on river Ganga, NRCD, MoEF, 2009 19 Table 2.2 State-wise Distribution of the Drainage Area of Ganga Basin in India S. State Total Geographical Area Percent of Total No. (SqKm) Geographical Area 1 Uttar Pradesh & 294364 34.2 Uttarakhand 2 Madhya Pradesh 198962 23.1 3 Bihar & Jharkhand 143961 16.7 4 Rajasthan 112490 13.1 5 West Bengal 71485 8.3 6 Haryana 34341 4.0 7 Himachal Pradesh 4317 0.5 8 Delhi 1484 0.2 Total Area 861404 100.0 Source: Status paper on river Ganga, NRCD, MoEF, 2009 2.3 The River The Ganga rises in the Garhwal Himalaya (30o 55N, 79o 7E) as the Bhagirathi. The ice cave of Gaumukh at the snout of the Gangotri glacier, at 3,892 metres above sea level, is recognized as the traditional source of the Ganga. The river cuts through the Himalayas until another head stream, the Alaknanda, joins at Devaprayag as shown in Plate 2.1 (right). It is below this confluence that the united stream of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda becomes known as the River Ganga. Plate 2.1: The point of origin of the Ganga, known as the Gangotri (left) and Devprayag, the point of confluence of the Alaknanda (from right) and Bhagirathi (from left) to form the Ganga (right). 20 After running some 250 kilometres from its source, the Ganga pierces through the Himalayas at Sukhi (near Rishikesh), before turning southwestwards for another 30 km where it finally descends into the vast Indo-Gangetic plain at Haridwar (elevation 283m). At this point, the river swells into a mighty stream of 750 metres width. Apart from its sacred significance, water from the Ganga is widely used for domestic and industrial purposes in towns and villages located on its course. The other major use of Ganga water is for irrigation. At Haridwar, where the Ganga opens to the Gangetic Plains, a barrage diverts a large quantity of its waters into the Upper Ganga Canal, to provide water for irrigation. At Bijnore, another barrage diverts water into the Madhya Ganga Canal but only during monsoon months. At Narora, there is further diversion of water into the Lower Ganga Canal. The Ganga does not receive any major tributary until the Ramganga joins at Kannauj adding some 17.79 billion cum/annum of water. At Allahabad (1020 km from the source), the Ganga is joined on the right by the River Yamuna, which actually contributes more water (57.24 billion cum / annum) than the main river itself, augmenting the flow volume of the Ganga significantly. After Allahabad, the Ganga begins to receive several major tributaries at more frequent intervals, namely, the Tons, Son, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak and Kosi. After Rajmahal, the Ganga eventually reaches the head of its delta at Farakka, in the state of Jharkhand, having increased its flow volume at each confluence. In addition to flow volume, water quality and sediment load also fluctuate depending on the composition of the contributing stream. Below Farakka, the Ganga bifurcates into the Padma and the original channel of the Ganga, known as the Bhagirathi. Therefore, the Bhagirathi is treated as the main Ganga for all purposes in West Bengal. The Padma, carrying the majority of Gangas flow, eventually turns southeastwards into Bangladesh, while the Bhagirathi (Ganga) winds southwards down the deltaic plain of West Bengal and ultimately empties into the Bay of Bengal under the name of Hugli. Nearly halfway between Farakka and Sagar Island, the hydraulic character of the Bhagirathi (Ganga) suddenly changes upon its entry into the tidal zone of the Gangetic delta. The speed and direction of water in the estuarine streams and creeks are in continual flux due to the ebb and flow of the tides. 21 Throughout the course of the Ganga, from its source at Gaumukh to its mouth at Sagar Island in Bay of Bengal, it is a common practice for Indians to take daily dips in the holy waters of the Ganga, especially at places of pilgrimage like Rishikesh, Haridwar, Garhmukteshwar, Kannauj, Allahabad, Mirzapur and Varanasi (as seen in Plate 2.2). Plate 2.2 Images of the Ganga at Haridwar during different times of the year. Line diagram of the Ganga with major tributaries is shown in Figure 2.2 below. Figure 2.2 Line diagram of the Ganga main stem with tributaries Source: Status paper on river Ganga, NRCD, MoEF, 2009 22 2.4 Stream and Flow Characteristics of Ganga Due to their high gradient and a tremendous velocity, Himalayan rivers including the Ganga have a strong erosive power. The geological fact that the Himalayan rivers run through poorly consolidated sedimentary rocks affected by folds and faults results in high rates of erosion and silt deposition. Landslide debris further adds to the silt load. Rainfall, subsurface flows and snow melt from galciers are the main sources of water in river Ganga. More than 60 per cent of the water flowing into the Ganga main stem comes from the Himalayan streams joining the Ganga from the north. The Peninsular streams combine to contribute only 40 percent of the water, despite the fact that the catchment area of the Peninsular streams extends well over 60 percent of the entire Ganga main stem. The tributaries which contribute the largest amount of water per annum are, the Ghaghara including Gomti river (113.5 billion cum), followed by Kodi-Mahananda (81.85 billion cum), the Gandak- burhi Gandak together (58.96 billion cum), Yamuna (57.2 billion cum), Sone- East of sone (44.14 billion cum), the Chambal (32.55 billion cum) and Ramganga (17.79 billion cum). The average annual flow at various gauging stations in river Ganga and tributaries is given in Table 2.3. A lack of water in streams and tributaries (other than major tributaries) increases their susceptibility to water pollution. Therefore, the Gangas minor tributaries are pollution prone, especially as their flows diminish during the dry season. As the main rivers flow rate fluctuates reach to reach, its susceptibility to pollution varies accordingly. Table 2.3 Mean Annual Flow in Ganga S. Sub-Basin Mean Annual Percentage No. Flow (BCM) Contribution 1 Ramganga 17.789 3.39 2 Yamuna (excluding Chambal) 57.241 19.9 3 Chambal 32.554 6.2 4 Tons-Kararmnasa 10.609 2.02 5 Gomti-Ghaghra 113.511 21.62 6 Sone-East of Sone 44.144 8.41 7 Gandak-Burhi Gandak 58.967 11.23 8 Kodi-Mahananda 81.848 15.59 Total (Tributaries) 416.663 79.36 9 Ganga Main Stem 84.98 16.19 Evaporation * 10 (attributable to Ground Water) 23.38 4.45 Total Ganga (Upto Indian Border) 525.023 100 Source: Status paper on river Ganga, NRCD, MoEF, 2009 23 Based on stream characteristics, the entire 2,525 km course of the Ganga can be divided into the following major five sections: (i) mountainous, (ii) upper plain, (iii) middle plain, (iv) deltaic non-tidal and (v) deltaic tidal plain. The stream characteristics of the river Ganga, from its source to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal, are given in Table 2.4. Table 2.4 Stream Characteristics along Different Sections of the Ganga S. Stretch Section Length Average Mean Annual Rate No. (Km) Slope of of Flow Land (cum / second) 1 Source to Mountainous 250 1 in 67 850 Rishikesh 2 Rishikesh to Upper plain 770 1 in 4,100 850 - 1,700 Allahabad 3 Allahabad to Middle plain 1005 I in 13,800 4,000 -10,200 Farakka 4 Farakka to Deltaic non-tidal 230 1 in 23,000 1,000 - 1,300 Nabadwip plain 5 Nabadwip to Deltaic tidal plain 240 1 in 24,000 Variable due to the outfall tides Source: Central water Commission The mountainous section stretches from the rivers source to Rishikesh. This section has an average bed slope of 1 in 67 and a mean flow rate of 850 cubic metres per second at Rishikesh. The subsequent upper plain section extends from Rishikesh downstream until Allahabad at a slope of 1 in 4,100 and a mean flow rate ranging between 850 and 1,720 cum per second before its confluence with the Yamuna. The third, middle plain section stretches from Allahabad to Farakka, with a slope of 1 in 13,800 and an increase in the mean flow rate to 10,200 cum per second at Azamabad. Following this part lies the upper deltaic non-tidal plain section, with a slope of 1 in 23,000 and a much reduced mean flow rate of 1,300 cum per second near Nabadwip. The final segment is the lower deltaic tidal plain section, with a slope of 1 in 24,000 and varying flows due to influence of the tides. The large volume and high flow of the Ganga in the middle plain section (1,005 km) between Allahabad and Farakka render this stretch relatively less vulnerable to pollution, compared to the sections on the upstream of Allahabad and downstream of Farakka. However, upstream of Allahabad the mean annual flow is less than 1,700 cum per second and, as a result, the upper plain course of the Ganga is liable to be polluted to some extent if adequate precautionary measures are not taken; this fact is especially true during the lean months. This same 24 increased susceptibility to pollution also occurs downstream of Farakka, where the mean annual stream flow again falls off drastically to a level of 1,300 cum per second at Nabadwip. Further down, especially in the estuarine section near the outfall, the up-and-down movement of the water periodically causes temporary suspension of the water current, as the tide shifts from ebb to flow and vise versa. As a result of this stagnation, removal of pollutants in the tidal section can expected to be slow and difficult. 2.5 Physiography and Soil Characteristics Physiographically, India is divided into seven major divisions: (1) Northern Mountains, (2) Great Plains (3) Central Highlands (4) Peninsular Plateaus, (5) East Coast, (6) West Coast and (7) Islands. The area in Ganga main stem is located entirely in the first three divisions. The peninsular plateau of the Gangetic trough (with an elevation of less than 300 metres) is filled with older (Pleistocene) and recent alluvia, forming nearly 4,000,000 SqKm in the states of Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, comprising 50% of basin area. The Ganga main stem can be further divided into the following eight physiographic sub-divisions, briefly described below and shown in Figure 2.3. a) Trans-Yamuna Plain This sector constitutes the western end of the Ganga main stem, covering the states of Haryana and Rajasthan. The region is characterized by thick, unconsolidated material subtly sloping down from the western watershed towards the Yamuna. On account of the flat topography, water logging and saline efflorescence has been recorded in many areas, especially since the introduction of large-scale and intensive irrigation practices through the Western Yamuna Canal. b) Ganga-Yamuna Doab East of Trans-Yamuna plain lies the Ganga-Yamuna interfluvial doab tract, which stands out as a large slab of older alluvial (bangar) terrace sloping towards the south and southeast, falling off from a level of 283 metres at Haridwar to some 95 metres at Allahabad. The twin rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, wind along the low-lying (khadar) flood-plain belts built up by the younger alluvial sediments deposited during periodical inundations. The bangar terraces, on the contrary, are thick deposits of older silts, rising high above the khadar plain ­ up to 20 metres at times - measured from the present river beds. The bangar surface of the Ganga- Yamuna Doab has a rather variegated topography interspersed by breaks of slope due to terrace formations and sand belts (Bhur), which stand out like transverse sand dunes. 25 Figure 2.3 Physiography and Groundwater flow of Ganga main stem (Source: Mukherjee and Dasgupta, 1983) Mukherjee, K. N., Dasgupta, S. P., 1983. Center for Study of Man and Environment. Graphic offset press (P) Ltd., Calcutta, India 26 c) Rohilkhand To the east of the Ganga-Yamuna doab lies the large plain of Rohilkhand, which extends from the Ganga to near Lucknow, where the land steps down to the lower alluvial plain of Avadh. Rohilkhand comprises a flight of several river terraces separated from each other by step-like breaks of slope. The highest terrace is located at the Himalayan foothills and is built up of bouldery bhabar deposits. d) Avadh Plain Further east of Rohilkhand and lying at a lower elevation is the Avadh plain. The Avadh plain comprises the extensive khadar belts of several mighty streams, the chief of which is the Ghaghara. e) North Bihar Plain Further east, the great riparian plain of North Bihar appears. The North Bihar plain is riddled with numerous old river beds which have been deserted by the Kosi in the course of its movement from the eastern end of Bihar to its present position as the main channel in the west. In addition to the depressions left by these old river beds, there also lies large marshes and waterlogged areas, known as the chorus, along the Ganga. f) North Bengal Plain At the farthest end of the Ganga main stem is the North Bengal plain, which contains Pleistocene deposits of the Barind region, terraces of coarse grained materials and tarai depressions in the piedmont plain below the Darjeeling hills. g) Bengal Basin South of the Ganga (Padma), lies the Bengal basin, which comprises much of the Gangetic delta plains recent alluvium and its western rim. The western rim is made up of Pleistocene alluvial formation (often lateritic), as the land slopes up towards the rocky Chota Nagpur plateau. 27 2.5.1 Soil Characteristics The Ganga main stem is characterized by a wide variety of soils. The soils of the high Himalayas in the north are subject to continued erosion and the Gangetic trough provides a huge receptacle into which thousands of metres of thick sediment layers are deposited to form a wide valley plain. The plateau on the south has a mantle of residual soils of varying thickness arising due to the weathering of the ancient rocks of the peninsular shield. Ten classes of soils have developed in the Ganga main stem under different Iithological, climatic and pedogenetic conditions. Some of the soils within the Ganga main stem are highly susceptible to erosion. Such soils need adequate conservation measures and appropriate land management interventions, with an eye towards preserving the soil resource and keeping the turbidity levels of the surface water within tolerable limits. The susceptibility of each of the soil groups to erosion and the areas covered in the different states within the Ganga main stem are indicated in Table 2.5. The soil classification map of Ganga main stem is given in Figure 2.4. Among the soil types within Ganga main stem, the alluvial soil covers more than 52 per cent of the basin. The alluvial deposits of the basin not only cover the great Gangetic trough, but also extend over a sizable portion of the peninsular foreland in the form of a layer less than 3 metres thick. The entire alluvial formation is endowed with rich soil nutrients. The alluvial deposits of the Ganga and its tributaries, coming down the Himalaya and the peninsular foreland, have yielded annual harvests of crops for the past thousands of years with little significant deterioration. Besides paddy, this tract produces a wide variety of crops including wheat, jowar, bajra, small millets, pulses of different kinds, maize, cotton, jute and many other food and commercial crops. If managed properly, the alluvial soils are highly fertile soils, capable of producing the highest possible yields of crops to feed the millions. However, these soils are sensitive to change and prone to rapid degradation and pollution. In certain parts of the basin, the soils are already showing signs of salinity (as in Haryana), alkalinity (as in western U.P.), calcareousness (as in north Bihar) and acidity (as in West Bengal) due to overuse, long occupation and continued application of inputs like excessive irrigation water and toxic agro- chemicals of various types. The land degradation status within Ganga main stem is given in subsequent sections. 28 Table 2.5 Soil Types in Ganga main stem and their Susceptibility to Erosion (Area in Square Kilometres) S. State Mountain Submontane Alluvial Red Red and Mixed Deep Medium Shallow Laterite Total No. Soils Soils Soils Soils Yellow Red and Black Black Black and Area Soils Black Soils Soils Soils Lateritic Soils Soils 1 Haryana - - 33516 684 - - - - - - 34200 2 Uttar Pradesh 12428 32586 209491 16457 740 4438 10502 3621 3962 188 294413 and Uttarakhand 3 Bihar and - - 91881 32338 19333 - - - - 858 144410 Jharkhand 4 West Bengal - - 57323 704 7271 - - - - 6712 72010 5 Rajasthan - - 40768 12166 16827 9810 9332 9394 9085 - 107382 6 Madhya Pradesh - - 17272 39075 5990 11168 14251 79881 33470 598 201705 Himachal 1296 4280 7 223 - - - - - - - 5799 Pradesh 8 Delhi - - 1225 260 - - - - - - 1485 Ganga Basin 13724 36866 451699 101684 50161 25416 34085 92896 46517 8356 861404 Per cent of Total 1.59 4.28 52.44 11.80 5.83 2.95 3.96 10.78 5.40 0.97 100 Area Susceptibility to Very high Very high Very high High Moderate Moderate Low Low Low Low Erosion Source: Central Pollution Control Board, National River Conservation Directorate (MoEF) (2009) 29 Figure 2.4 Soil and rainfall (isohyetal) map of Ganga main stem (Source: Mukherjee and Dasgupta, 1983) Mukherjee, K. N., Dasgupta, S. P., 1983. Center for Study of Man and Environment. Graphic offset press (P) Ltd., Calcutta, India 30 2.6 Meteorology and Climate The type of vegetation depends on edaphic, climatic and biotic factors, among which the effect of the climatic factor is most significant. The main climatic factors which control vegetative activity are temperature, sunlight and precipitation. In India, four temperature zones are distinguishable: tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine. Among these, the tropical and subtropical temperature zones are most predominant in the entire Ganga main stem. The climatic details for these temperature zones are given below in Table 2.6. Table 2.6 Temperature Zones of India Zone Mean Annual Temp (oC) Mean Temp Jan. (oC) Remarks Tropical Over 24 Over 18 No frost Sub-Tropical 17 to 24 10 to 18 Frost is rare Source: Environmental Atlas of India, CPCB 2.6.1 Temperature The Ganga basin forms an extensive bowl of warm air, especially during the day-time. The mean maximum daily temperature even in the coldest month (January) does not fall below 21°C, except in the higher hills, whereas the air temperature starts rapidly rising all over Ganga main stem from March onwards, beginning a hot season that prevails from April to June. Usually, May is the hottest month in most part of the basin, except in lower Bengal. Daily mean maximum and mean minimum air temperatures, as recorded at selected stations in the Ganga main stem, are given in Table 2.7. In the Gangetic plains, westwards of Gaya, the daily mean maximum temperature in May rises to 40°C and above. During May, the mean daily maximum air temperature shoots up as high as 42.3°C in Kota in the Central Indian upland region. The maximum air temperature in other areas are; Allahabad (41.8°C), Agra (41.6°C), Hissar (41.1°), Gaya (40.7°C), Lucknow (40.5°C and Bareilly (40.5°C). Under this high temperature regime, much of the pollutants become suspended in the air and remain aloft for a considerable period of time in the atmosphere. Some of the pollutants are brought down by rain drops where they eventually find their way into surface runoff systems. Throughout the Ganga main stem, the cold weather period extends from December to February. January is the coldest month, with the temperature often falling below 10°C; this is 31 especially true in the valley plain west of Gaya, where the daily mean minimum air temperature in January reaches 10.03°C. In January, the daily mean minimum temperature plummets as low as 5.8°C in Hissar, followed by Dehra Dun (5.96°C), Delhi (7.7°C), Agra (7.7°C), Gonda (8.3°C), Bareilly (8.25°C), Lucknow (6.9°C), Allahabad (8.9°C) and Patna (9.2°C). In the lower Gangetic plain the minimum temperature is usually higher: 10.03°C in Gaya and 12.3°C in Kolkata. Low temperatures are often associated with the intrusion of cold air from across the Gangetic plain in the months of December and January. In the cold of the winter months, the heavy cold layers of the atmosphere act as blankets upon the land surface, not allowing the suspended pollutants in the air to escape into the higher atmosphere. 2.6.2 Rainfall The weather in the Ganga main stem is characterized by a distinct wet season during the period of south west monsoon (June to September). The air temperature starts falling with the onset of the monsoon from June onwards, making the weather more humid and equable. The diurnal range between the daily mean minimum and the daily mean maximum temperature reduces progressively as the monsoon advances. Eventually, the lowest diurnal range of temperature occurs at the peak of the monsoon, which is usually in August, though sometimes in July. As soon as the monsoon is over, the diurnal range of temperature starts increasing rapidly to a maximum attained during the month of November Due to its proximity to the coast, Kolkata stands as an exception, with its highest diurnal range (13.37°C) occurring during the coldest month (January). On account of high population density and a heavy concentration of industrial units in the Kolkata Metropolitan District, the effect of this temperature is very pronounced, with frequent episodes of smog in the winter evenings followed by mist in the colder morning hours. The southwest monsoon makes landfall at the mouth of the Ganga around the first week of June and advances upstream. By the end of July the monsoon reaches the western end of the Ganga main stem. In the majority of the basin, the rainy season spreads over three months (July, August and September) and usually 70 to 80 per cent of the total annual rainfall occurs during this period. In the eastern part of the basin, such as in West Bengal and Bihar, the wet season is longer, usually starting in June and continuing until the end of September or early October. 32 The geographical distribution of the mean annual rainfall in the basin is shown by isohyetal lines on Figure 2.4. The isohyetal lines indicate that the lowest precipitation in the Gangetic plain occurs in Haryana (less than 500 mm per annum), with the rainfall increasing downstream until reaching lower Bengal, where nearly 1,600 mm of rainfall occurs. Heavier rainfall continues in the upper Himalayan region, such as in Dehra Dun, where the rainfall is as high as 2,209 millimeters per annum. The rainfall rates as recorded at selected stations in Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.7. Table 2.7 Rainfall and Temperature Details at Selected Stations in Ganga Basin S. Station and Year Mean Water July to Mean Temperature in 0 No. Annual Surplus September C Rainfall in Wet Rainfall Maximum Minimum (mm) Months: Expressed as Jul-Sep Percentage (mm) of Annual Rainfall 1 Dehra Dun (1901- 2209.0 1697.4 76.8 27.8 15.4 2000) 2 Delhi (Safdarjang) 716.2 535.2 74.7 31.3 19.0 (1901-2000) 3 Hissar (1901-2000) 490.8 336.3 68.5 32.6 17.7 4 Agra (1901-2000) 724.8 576.2 79.5 32.5 18.9 5 Allahabad (1901- 962.7 762.0 79.1 32.5 19.6 2000) 6 Gaya (1901-2000) 1130.4 847.3 75.0 32.1 20.1 7 Calcutta (Alipore) 1651.2 950.2 57.5 31.4 22.0 (1901-2000) 8 Bareilly (1901-2000) 1040.0 784.1 75.4 31.2 18.7 9 Patna (1951-1980) 1003.4 807.1 80.4 31.9 20.8 10 Kota (1951-1980) 843.4 687.4 81.5 32.9 20.5 Source: Monthly mean data of important cities, India Meteorological Department Within the Ganga main stem, every square kilometre of land surface area receives an average of one million cubic metres of water annually through rainfall. However, less than half of this total is actually available, after accounting for water lost through evapo-transpiration (30 percent) and seepage into the ground (20 percent). Rainfall distribution indicates that the greater part of the basin would be hydrologically dry if the total annual rainfall were distributed evenly over the twelve months of the year. Since the vast majority is concentrated in a three month span in most of the basin, the water available from rainfall usually exceeds what is lost through evaporation during this period, allowing some surplus water to flow down the Ganga river and its tributaries. 33 2.7 Land Use & Irrigation 2.7.1 Land Use The states in Ganga main stem are extensively cultivated, constituting approximately about 40 per cent of the total cultivated area of India. About 14 per cent of land is not available for cultivation and is put to various non-agricultural uses. Although the net sown area constitutes 50 per cent of the Ganga main stem states area, the total cropped area and cultivable land constitutes 73 percent and 65 percent of the basin states area, respectively. The cropping intensity is highest in Delhi with 189.7 per cent followed by West Bengal, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. The landuse pattern and cropping intensity of landuse within the Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.8. Land not available for cultivation and fallow land in the Ganga main stem states covers a considerable area of 183,640 and 109,450 Sqkm respectively (Table 2.8). This category of land consists of tracts which cannot be put to agricultural or silvicultural uses at an economic level due to their unproductive nature, as well all lands put to various other economic uses, such as mineral exploitation or construction of human settlements, industrial structures, roads, railways, airports and other civil works needed for providing transport, communication and similar infrastructural facilities for human habitation. A large proportion of the non- arable land is also used in urbanization and in construction of homesteads in rural areas all over the thickly populated basin of the Ganga. The states in Ganga basin have only 16.6% of their land areas covered by forest, as compared to India as a whole which has 21.2% of land under forest cover. In some states, especially Haryana, Delhi, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal, the forest cover is as low as 0.1 to 13.2 per cent of the geographical area. Most of forest tracts in the Ganga are severely degraded on account of over exploitation. As a result, the forest ecosystem in the basin is under severe stress. Even in the states of Uttarakhand (64.7 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (28.2 per cent) and Himachal Pradesh (19.8 per cent) where the forest cover is higher, the proportion of land actually under dense tree cover within the government forest tracts is very low due to extensive clear felling of trees carried out in recent decades. 34 Table 2.8 State-wise Land Use Pattern and Cropping Intensity in Ganga States (2007 - 2008) (Area in Square Kilometres) S. State Geographi Reporting Forest Land not Total Net Total Agri.land/ Cropping No -cal Area Area for Available Fallow Area Croped Cultivable Intensity Land for land Sown Area Land/ (%) Utilisation Cultivation culturable Statistics land/Arable Land 1 Bihar 94160 93600 6220 20830 6860 56650 79100 66380 139.6 2 Haryana 44210 43720 40 5610 1120 35940 64580 37460 179.7 3 Himachal 55670 45450 11010 11300 750 5430 9710 8130 179 Pradesh 4 Jharkhand 79720 79700 22390 13190 23410 15360 23910 43020 155.7 5 Madhya Pradesh 308250 307560 87030 33920 14330 146870 204160 173100 139 6 Rajasthan 342240 342700 27270 42640 38910 170960 222080 255760 129.9 7 Uttarakhand 53480 56670 34650 4720 1080 7650 12610 15090 164.8 8 Uttar Pradesh 240930 241700 16580 32680 19480 164170 249270 191790 151.8 9 West Bengal 88750 86840 11740 17830 3310 52960 97520 57210 184.1 10 Delhi 1480 1470 10 920 200 230 440 540 189.7 Ganga states 1308890 1299410 216940 183640 109450 656220 963380 848480 146.8 India 3287260 3056740 696260 432180 251480 1408610 1958350 1824420 139 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, 2008; indiastat.com 35 2.7.2 Irrigation The Gangetic plain is one of the most extensively irrigated basins in the world. As of 2008, the net irrigated area in the basin states was about 361,100 square kilometres, constituting more than 57 per cent of the net irrigated area of India as a whole. The net and gross irrigated areas are highest in Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand, which also share major drainage area of the basin. Throughout much of the basin, the fields are repeatedly irrigated for raising crops more than once within a year. When considering all these multiple irrigated areas together, the gross irrigated area in all the basin states is estimated to be of the order of 484,240 Sq.km. The intensity of irrigation in Ganga basin is presented in Table 2.9. Table .9 State-wise Intensity of Irrigation in the Ganga Basin (1999-2008) S.No. State Net area Gross Area Net Area Net irrigated Irrigated Irrigated from Sown to Net Sown from all all the Sources (SqKm) (Percent) Sources (SqKm) (SqKm) 1 Haryana 30250 53110 35940 84% Uttar Pradesh & 2 Uttarakhand 134260 196960 171820 78% Bihar & 3 Jharkhand 36460 48820 70920 51% 4 West Bengal 31360 36610 52960 59% 5 Rajasthan 62450 80880 170960 36% 6 Madhya Pradesh 65060 65670 146870 44% Himachal 7 Pradesh 1040 1870 5430 19% 8 Delhi 220 320 230 95% Ganga states 361100 484240 655130 55% India as a whole 630990 764430 1408610 44% Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 2008 As per the data compiled by department of Agriculture and Cooperation (2001), nearly 309,530 Sq Km. of land area is irrigated from all available water sources. The most extensively used water sources are the groundwater wells that irrigated nearly 205,090 Sq Km of land area during the year 2000-01 (Table 2.10). A large proportion of the water used eventually trickles into the subsoil layers through the cultivated fields, recharging groundwater supplies. The entire quantity of water used comes from the net balance of "Land Use Statistics at a Glance- State-wise" 2008, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India 36 rainwater received each year, after deducting losses through evaporation and transpiration. On average, each square kilometer of the Ganga main stem receives a million cubic meters of water as rainfall. Thirty per cent of this is lost as evaporation, while the remainder eventually exits the land surface as run off and/or seeps down into the subsoil as groundwater recharge, a portion of which often oozes out at lower levels into streams. In the course of the waters movement either overland or below the surface, various chemical compounds gets dissolved in it. Some of these extraneous chemical constituents are derived from the residues of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, which are added to the soil every year for better yield of crops. Table 2.10 State / Source-wise net area irrigated (2000-2001) in the Ganga Basin Sl. No. Name of the Canals Tank Wells Other Total Area State / UT (SqKm) (SqKm) (SqKm) Sources (All (SqKm) Sources) (SqKm) 1 Bihar 11360 1550 20930 2410 36250 2 Haryana 14760 10 14670 140 29580 3 Himachal Pradesh 30 (a) 140 1070 1240 4 Madhya Pradesh 8080 850 26510 5910 41350 5 Rajasthan 13540 380 34730 420 49070 6 Uttar Pradesh 30910 820 93840 2590 128160 7 West Bengal 2610 1730 13970 5230 23540 8 Delhi 20 - 300 20 340 Ganga states 81310 5340 205090 17790 309530 India as a whole 159890 25240 332770 28920 546820 Source: Water Data- Complete Book, Central Water Commission, GoI, 2005 Note: (a): Below 5000 Sq.Km Total may not tally due to rounding off. The net irrigated area in the Ganga basin constitutes nearly 56.6 percent of Indias 546, 820 SqKm of net irrigated area. About 41.4 per cent of the basins irrigated area lies in Uttar Pradesh alone. In fact, the three Gangetic States ­ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal ­ have between them 60.7 per cent of the basins total area irrigated. 2.8 Major/ Medium Water Resources projects in the Basin 2.8.1 Irrigation Projects In the Ganga main stem, there are several major systems of canals. The upper Gangetic main canal, taking off from Haridwar, is 230 km long and carries a discharge of about 300 cubic metres per second. Further down, the lower Gangetic canal has a discharge of more than 150 37 cubic metres per second. The total number of medium or major irrigation projects in the Basin (644 as of the latest published survey in 2009) benefits a command area of about 36.12% of the basin, or about 472,226 Sqkm. Nearly half of this command area falls in Uttar Pradesh which, at 97.13% coverage, is almost entirely blanketed by irrigation projects. Haryana achieves the second highest percentage of command area coverage with 87.5%, but its 38,683 Sqkm is bested by Bihars 59,392 Sqkm. Madhya Pradesh, despite having the most number of projects (144), has third highest total command area of about 48,628 Sqkm and mere 15.78% coverage. This is due to the fact that most of its projects are of a medium size. On the low end, a mere 0.64% of Himachal Pradeshs total geographic area is covered by irrigation. Information on the number of major/medium irrigation projects and their respective command areas as a percentage of total area in the Ganga main stem states is given in Table 2.11. Table 2.11 Information on Major/Medum Irrigation projects and Catchment Area in Ganga Basin (2009) States Total Total % of Number of Irrigation Geographical Command Geographical Commands Area (Sqkm) Area Area Major Medium Total (Sqkm) Bihar 94163 59392.55 63.07 22 110 132 Haryana 44212 38683.56 87.5 9 0 9 Himachal Pradesh 55673 358.3 0.64 1 6 7 Jharkhand 79714 3994.77 5.01 2 72 74 Madhya Pradesh 308245 48628.88 15.78 30 114 144 Rajasthan 342239 50518.9 14.76 23 68 91 Uttarakhand 53483 2517.1 4.71 0 12 12 Uttar Pradesh 240928 234007.63 97.13 62 78 140 Delhi Not available NA NA NA NA NA West Bengal 88752 34124.93 38.45 5 30 35 Ganga states 1307409 472226.62 36.12 154 490 644 Source: Central Water Comission, Regional Remote Sensing Services Centre, GoI These irrigation projects derive their water from a variety of sources. Canals cater to some 28 per cent of the net irrigated area. Wells, however, provide the nearly twice that amount, especially in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand (73%), West Bengal (59%), Madhya Pradesh (64%), Delhi (88%) and Rajasthan (71%), with net irrigated area served by wells given in parentheses. The sources of water for irrigation in percentage of net irrigated area within Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.12. 38 Table 2.12 Sources of Water for Irrigation within Ganga Basin (2000-2001) S.No. State Canals Tanks Wells Other sources 1 Haryana 50% 0% 50% 0% 2 Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand 24% 1% 73% 2% 3 Bihar & Jharkhand 39% 5% 49% 7% 4 West Bengal 11% 7% 59% 22% 5 Rajasthan 28% 1% 71% 1% 6 Madhya Pradesh 20% 2% 64% 14% 7 Himachal Pradesh 2% - 11% 86% 8 Delhi 6% - 88% 6% Ganga states 28% 2% 65% 6% India as a whole 29% 5% 61% 5% Note: All figures indicate % of net irrigated area Source: Central Water Commission 2.8.2 Projects for consumptive use All of the major projects function as conduits for irrigation water; they also provide a means of flood control by diverting or storing excess water during the monsoon season. In all, there are 12 major diversion/storage projects in the Ganga main stem for consumptive uses, representing a total of between 2556.6 to 2581.8 m3/s water diverted and 6797 MCM stored annually. The name, location, capacity and additional information on these projects are presented in Table 2.13. As evident from the table, many of these storage projects are very and only 3 new projects were developed since early 1990s. The most recent project being, the Sharda Sahayak Canal ­ represents by far the largest project in terms of water diverted and area irrigated. Renovation of older projects, as well as the construction of newer ones will likely be necessary for the Ganga main stem to meet its future agricultural demands. 39 Table 2.13 Diversion /Storage Projects for Consumptive Use located in Ganga Year of Name and Diversion/ Discharge(m3/s)/ Purpose Completion/ Location Storage Storage in (MCM) Commissioning 1854 Upper Ganga Diversion 297 m3/s Irrigation Canal, (0.924 million Haridwar Ha) 1874 Agra Canal, Diversion 30.8 m3/s during Non- Irrigation Okhla monsoon and Barrage, Delhi 56 m3/s during monsoon 1880 Lower Ganga Diversion 157 m3/s Irrigation (0.5 Canal, Narora million ha) 1960 Gandhisagar Storage 6797 MCM Live Irrigation Dam/ Storage over M.P. 0.757 million ha. 115 MW 1990-91 East Ganga Diversion 237 m3/s Irrigation Canal during Kharif Bhimgoda 0.233 million Haridwar ha In between Eastern Diversion 85 m3/s Irrigation 1719-1748 AD Yamuna during Mughal Canal Dynasty 1355 AD Western Diversion 190 m3/s Irrigation During Yamuna Ferozshah Canal Tuglaq rule 2000 Sharda Diversion 650 m3/s Irrigation Sahayak (1.674 million Canal, ha) Lakhimpur Kheri 1985 Gandak Canal Diversion 147 m3/s Irrigation 0.96 million ha) 1963 Kosi Canal Diversion 425 m3/s Irrigation (0.44 million ha) 1960 Kota Barrage Diversion 230 m3/s Irrigation (0.5 million ha) 1994 Madhya Diversion 234 m3/s Irrigations Ganga 0.306 million Canal, Bijnor ha) Source Status Paper on Ganga River, NRCD, MOEF 2009 40 2.8.3 Hydroelectric Storage Projects in the Ganga main stem With extensive monotonous regions and a multitude of tributaries, the Ganga is rich in hydroelectric potential. The 8 existing projects and 3 additional projects in construction are a testament to the regions importance to Indias overall hydroelectricity portfolio. The fact that almost half of the existing projects have been completed in the past decade and 3 more projects are currently under construction suggests that India will continue to look to the basin to meet the growing energy demands of its rapidly developing economy. The list of hydroelectric storage projects in the Ganga basin is provided in Table 2.14. Table 2.14 Storage Projects for Hydroelectricity Generation located in Ganga Year of Name and Storage Storage Purpose Completion/ Location (MCM) Commissioning 1962 Rihand Dam/ Storage 8900 MCM Hydro Electricity Sonbhadra, UP Live Storage 300 MW + Water Supply to Thermal Plants 1970-71 Obra Dam Storage 211 MCM Hydro Electricity Sonbhadra, UP Gross Storage 99 MW 1973 Chambal Valley Storage 10500 MCM 370 MW Project Live Storage Hydro Electricity (Excluding Kota Barrage) 1974 Ramganga Storage 2190 MCM- Hydroelectric (198 Multipurpose Gross MW) and Irrigation Project at Storage (.575 million Ha Kalagarh Flood Control in Bijnor 1991 Tons I at Diversion Barrage Hydro Electricity Bansagar 2001-02 Tons II & III at Storage 5410 MCM Hydro Electricity 90MW Bansagar Live Storage 2006 Tehri Dam Storage 2615 MCM 2400 MW of on Bhagirathi Live Hydropower and Irrigation to 0.27 million ha Land. Drinking water supply to Delhi @ 10 m3/s 2006 Dhauliganga Storage - Hydro Electricity Pithoragarh 280 MW 41 Year of Name and Storage Storage Purpose Completion/ Location (MCM) Commissioning Under Tapovan Run of Dhauliganga Hydro Electricity 520 construction Vishnugarh the MW Project, River Joshimath (Chamoli) Under Lakhwar Phase I Storage 333 MCM Live Installed Capacity construction and Phase II on Storage 420 MW River Yamuna Under Jamrani Storage 144 MCM Live Irrigation (0.15 Million construction Multipurpose Storage Ha) + Dam 30 MW Hydro + near Kathgodam drinking Source Status Paper on Ganga River, NRCD, MOEF 2009 2.9 Groundwater 2.9.1 Groundwater Potential and Use The Ganga main stem has a vast reservoir of groundwater, replenished every year at a very high rate. The conjunctive use of groundwater for irrigation, even within the canal command areas, not only ensures steady supply to the cultivated fields on time but also helps reduce water logging and salinization due to consequent downward movement of subsurface moisture. The groundwater usage for irrigation in the states falling under Ganga basin exceeded 104.7 billion cum per year as of 2008 and accounted for nearly 50 per cent of the groundwater irrigated area of the entire country. The net annual groundwater availability for irrigation, domestic and industrial usage in the states of the Ganga main stem has been assessed at 187.4 billion cum per year. Some 60 per cent of this potential has already been utilized. The groundwater usage pattern in the basin states is given in Table 2.15. The extent of groundwater utilization for irrigation is highest in Uttar Pradesh (45.36 BCM per year), followed by Madhya Pradesh (16.08 BCM per year), West Bengal (10.84 BCM per year) and Rajasthan (11.6 BCM per year). 42 Table 2.15 State-wise Groundwater Usage Pattern in the Ganga Basin S. State Annual Groundwater Draft Net annual Projected No. (BCM per year) Groundwater Demand for availability Domestic and Irrigati Domestic Total (BCM/year) Industrial uses on and upto 2025 (BCM Industrial per Year) uses 1 Haryana 9.1 0.35 9.45 8.63 0.60 2 Uttar Pradesh 45.36 3.42 48.78 70.18 5.30 3 Uttarakhand 1.34 0.05 1.39 2.1 0.08 4 Bihar 9.39 1.37 10.77 27.42 2.14 5 Jharkhand 0.7 0.38 1.06 5.25 0.56 6 West Bengal 10.84 0.81 11.65 27.46 1.24 7 Rajasthan 11.6 1.39 12.99 10.38 2.72 8 Madhya Pradesh 16.08 1.04 17.12 35.33 1.74 9 Himachal Pradesh 0.09 0.03 0.12 0.39 0.04 10 Delhi 0.2 0.28 0.48 0.28 0.57 Ganga states 104.7 9.12 113.81 187.42 14.99 India as a whole 212.37 18.05 230.41 398.7 29.14 Source: Central Groundwater Board, 2008 and Central water commission 2008 Apart from irrigation, groundwater resources are also being heavily tapped for industrial and domestic uses majoring both urban and rural areas. Throughout the alluvial area of the Ganga main stem, the major urban water supply schemes are dependant upon groundwater resources. Similarly, a large number of industries also withdraw significant amounts of groundwater, especially from the easily accessible aquifers in the alluvial zone. The demand for domestic and industrial uses are expected to increase to 14.99 BCM per year in the Ganga main stem states by the year 2025, as shown in Table 2.15. The mean annual replenishable groundwater in India as a whole has been assessed at 433 billion cumec per year, of which about 202.5 billion cumec per year (46.8%) lies in the states of the Ganga main stem. The annual replenishable groundwater levels, annual groundwater draft and balance of groundwater available for further exploitation for each state within the Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.16. 43 Table 2.16 State-wise Ground Water Resources Availability, Utilisation and Stage of Development in Ganga Basin S. State Annual Annual Balance Stage of No. Replenish Groundwater available Groundwater able Draft (BCM per (BCM per Development Groundwa Year) year) (%) ter (BCM per Year) 1 Haryana 9.31 9.45 -0.14 109 2 Uttar Pradesh 76.35 48.78 27.57 70 3 Uttarakhand 2.27 1.39 0.88 66 4 Bihar 29.19 10.77 18.42 39 5 Jharkhand 5.58 1.06 4.52 20 6 West Bengal 30.36 11.65 18.71 42 7 Rajasthan 11.56 12.99 -1.43 125 8 Madhya Pradesh 37.19 17.12 20.07 48 9 Himachal 0.43 0.12 0.31 30 Pradesh 10 Delhi 0.3 0.48 -0.18 170 Ganga Basin 202.54 113.81 88.73 India as a 433.03 230.59 whole Source: Central Water Commission, Govt. of India, 2008 Among the various states within the Ganga main stem, Uttar Pradesh has the largest replenishable groundwater potential, with 76.35 billion cumec per year of usable groundwater; of this total, about 48.78 billlion cumec per year is currently in use primarily for irrigation, although a large share is consumed in the major cities for domestic and industrial purposes. Madhya Pradesh has the second highest replenishable potential in the basin at around 37.19 billion cum per annum here. The stage of groundwater development is highest in Delhi with 170 per cent followed by Rajasthan with 125 per cent and then Haryana with 109 per cent, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal and Bihar. The vast Gangetic alluvial trough is characterized by not only one of the most prolific aquifers in quantitative terms, but also by the relatively high quality of the available water, though the quality deteriorates as one proceeds down the river to the outfall. Along the Himalayan foothills (bhabar and tarai belts), the water is of high quality, as these belts are under continuous recharge from the Himalayan streams. In certain localized areas of the Ganga plain, the fluoride & arcenic content in the groundwater is high enough to cause fluorosis and skin diseases when regularly consumed for long periods of time. In the central 44 alluvial trough, the groundwater has low mineral contents. The mineral content increases near the southern fringe of the alluvial formation, especially in certain parts of Agra, Aligarh, Mathura, Mainpuri and Ballia districts of Uttar Pradesh,. Near the delta area in West Bengal, the water in certain aquifers turns saline due to incursion of sea water. 2.9.2 Groundwater Quality Ground water quality of the states falling under Ganga main stem is given in Appendix 2.1. The groundwater quality is monitored by the Central Ground Water Board once a year (April/May) through a network of observation wells located all over the country. The hot spots for groundwater in districts coming under basin states are identified on the basis of six main parameters: salinity (EC>3000 micro simen/cm), chloride, fluoride (>1.5 mg/l), iron (>1.0 mg/l), arsenic (>0.05 mg/l) and nitrate (>45 mg/l). The states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal is affected by arsenic (where the concentration is greater than the permissible limit of 0.05 mg/l as per IS: 10500), fluoride, iron & nitrate. Salinity and chloride have been identified in Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. 2.10 Water Logging and Salinity Problems The total irrigation command area of major and medium projects in the Ganga basins is estimated to be about 472,226 Sqkm, or 36.1% of the 1,307,409 Sqkm of area (both figures exclude Delhi). Of that irrigated area, 1.75%, or 8,268.6Sqkm is waterlogged. The situation is clearly most dire in Bihar, where over 10.5% of its irrigated area is waterlogged. Yet percentage figures do not tell the whole story, as Uttar Pradesh, despite having a relatively low percentage of its irrigated areas waterlogged, has lost nearly 1,266.8 sqkm to waterlogging ­ far more than the other states of the Ganga main stem (excluding Bihar) combined. Quite surprisingly, Jharkhand seems to have avoided any waterlogging issues despite its proximity to Bihar, although the extent of irrigation in this region is relatively low. The breakdown in terms of perennial versus seasonal waterlogging also provides relevant insight into the problems of the Ganga basin states. Perennial waterlogging refers to the average amount of waterlogging year-round, excluding the monsoon season, whereas seasonal refers to the additional waterlogging brought about by the monsoon. In the basin, seasonal waterlogging far outweighs perennial waterlogging by a count of 7,476 Sqkm to 45 792.6 sqkm, respectively. This fact is true for all states in the basin except for Madhya Pradesh which receives no additional waterlogging as a result of the monsoon. Once more, Bihar leads the way in seasonal waterlogging, accounting for more seasonal waterlogging than all the other states combined. The vast increases seen here and throughout the basin suggest that waterlogging prevention efforts must focus on controlling the monsoon rainwaters and/or adequately protecting cropland from complete inundation. The extent and variation of waterlogging in major/medium irrigation command areas on a state-wise basis is given below in table 2.17. Table 2.17 State-wise Magnitude and Seasonal Variation of Water Logging in Irrigatation Command Areas of Ganga Basin States Total Total Breakdown of Total Waterlogged Geographic Command Area Waterlogging in Area Area (Major/Medium Command Areas Projects) Perennial Seasona Total % of l Area Comma nd Bihar 94163.0 59392.6 616.7 5662.2 6278.9 10.6 Haryana 44212.0 38683.6 32.9 131.7 164.6 0.4 Himachal 55673.0 358.3 0.1 2.6 2.6 0.7 Pradesh Jharkhand 79714.0 3994.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Madhya 308245.0 48628.9 5.4 0.0 5.4 0.0 Pradesh Rajasthan 342239.0 50518.9 7.2 76.9 84.1 0.2 Uttarakhand 53483.0 2517.1 0.8 1.5 2.2 0.1 Uttar Pradesh 240928.0 234007.6 113.0 1153.9 1266.8 0.5 Delhi Not NA NA NA NA NA available West Bengal 88752.0 34124.9 16.8 447.2 464.0 1.4 Ganga states 1307409.0 472226.6 792.6 7476.0 8268.6 1.8 Source: Central Water Comission, Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre, GoI, 2009 Salinity also represents a significant problem for the Ganga basin states, with 1% of its major/medium irrigated command areas affected by excess salt levels. Once again, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh suffer the most salt degradation, with 2.64% and 1.21% of irrigation command areas affected, respectively; however, UPs total salt affected area exceeds that of Bihars by a count of 2,831.4 Sqkm to 1,568.8 sqkm, respectively. Once more, Jharkand manages to avoid any adverse affects. Himachal Pradesh has also avoided any salinity problems, explained both by its altitude and the fact that it has the smallest irrigation command area in 46 the basin states (excluding Delhi). The magnitude of salt affected areas in the Ganga main stem states major/medium irrigation command areas is given below in Table 2.18. Continued irrigation over the years has contributed to building up of the salt and alkali levels in the cultivated soils. In the entire irrigation command area, especially in areas where the drainage is poor, the salinity level and alkali status in the soils rise to an appreciable degree not necessarily captured in state-level numbers. In certain concentrated areas, the soils have been rendered infertile (usar) and alkali-affected (reh), such as pockets of Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. From these areas there is constant subsurface seepage and the flow of wastewater here is charged with salts and alkalis, which eventually find their way to the river waters in the Ganga main stem. Table 2.18 State wise extent of Salt Affected Areas in Irrigatation Command Areas of Ganga Basin States Total Total Command Total Salt Affected Area Geographic Area (Major/ Medium Projects) Area (Major/Medium Area % of Command Projects) Bihar 94163 59392.55 1568.87 2.64 Haryana 44212 38683.56 193.93 0.50 Himachal Pradesh 55673 358.30 0.00 0.00 Jharkhand 79714 3994.77 0.00 0.00 Madhya Pradesh 308245 48628.88 44.10 0.09 Rajasthan 342239 50518.90 20.53 0.04 Uttarakhand 53483 2517.10 0.13 0.01 Uttar Pradesh 240928 234007.63 2831.46 1.21 Delhi NA Not available NA NA West Bengal 88752 34124.93 64.70 0.19 Ganga states 1307409 472226.62 4723.72 1.00 Source: Central Water Commission, Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre, GoI. 2009 2.11 Land Degradation: Ganga main stem The term land degradation refers to the decline in the productivity and quality of land resulting from natural calamities as well as human actions. Land degradation and associated loss of soil productivity is the subject of environmental concern. Within Ganga main basin states, the total land area which faces conditions of degradation is about 1,468,200 Sqkm, or 44.68% of the total geographical area. The primary causes of land degradation with corresponding afflicted areas are, in order, water erosion (almost 936,800 47 Sqkm), soil acidity (about 160,330 Sqkm) and water logging (almost 142,990 Sqkm), though these problems vary greatly by state. For example, despite being near the bottom in % of degraded area, Rajasthan leads all states in the Ganga main stem in salinity/alkalinity with about 14,180 Sqkm afflicted, with Uttar Pradesh/Uttarakhand taking a close second at 13700 Sqkm affected. The leading states in terms of % degraded area are Himachal Pradesh (75%), Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh (59.1%), Delhi (52%) and Uttar Pradesh/Uttarakhand (52%). Himachal leads because of its extensive water erosion and waterlogging problems, while water erosion alone represents by far the largest source of degradation for Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh/Uttarakhand; Delhis % numbers are inflated by its significantly smaller land area versus the other states, however water erosion is the most significant contributor there as well. The extent of land degradation problems within Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.19. Table 2.19 State-wise Extent of Various Kinds of Land Degradation in Ganga main stem states (2007) States Water Wind Water Salinity/ Soil Complex Degraded Geogra- Degraded Erosion Erosion Logging Alkalinity Acidity Problem Area graphi- Area (%) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) (Sqkm) cal area (Sqkm) Bihar + 30240 0 20010 2290 10290 0 62830 173870 36.1 Jharkhand Haryana 3150 5360 1460 2560 0 2140 14670 44210 33.2 Himachal 27180 0 13030 0 1570 0 41780 55670 75 Pradesh Madhya 178830 0 3590 460 67960 11260 262100 443450 59.1 Pradesh + Chhattisgarh Rajasthan 31370 66500 530 14180 0 1100 113680 342240 33.2 Uttar Pradesh 113920 2120 23500 13700 0 0 153240 294410 52 + Uttarakhand West Bengal 11970 0 7100 1700 5560 1190 27520 88750 31 Delhi 550 0 60 100 0 110 820 1480 55.4 Ganga Basin 936800 94830 142990 59460 160330 73810 1468200 3286020 44.68% states Source National Bureau of Soil Survey, Land Use Planning Indian Council 2.12 Vegetation and Forests The vegetation type of the Ganga main stem is largely comprised of tropical moist and dry deciduous types, but also includes a few additional varaties. The vegetation type of Ganga main stem are described below and illustrated in Figure 2.5. 48 i.Tropical Moist Deciduous Vegetation- This vegetation type thrives in areas having moderate rainfall of 1500-2000mm, a mean annual temperature of 26oC to 27oC and an average relative humidity of 60 to 80 per cent. It is also known as the monsoon forest as the trees shed their leaves during dry season. It is found on the Western Ghats, eastern coastal plain, eastern plateau, Himalayan foothills and in some parts of Sutlej-Ganga plains. Common trees are sal, teak, sandal wood, arjun, jarul, ebony mulberry, kusum siris, palas, mahua, simul and dhup. ii.Tropical Dry Deciduous Vegetation- The dry deciduous vegetation type grows in areas where rainfall is less than 150mm and the dry period is relatively long. Trees grow shorter than in tropical moist deciduous category and the undergrowth is shrubby and grassy. During the hot, dry phase (March to May months), the trees shed their leaves. This type is found in eastern Rajasthan, Kathiawar, rainshadow area of the Deccan plateau, central India and Punjab. Common plants are teak, sal, bijasal, laurel, palas, khair and kendu. iii.Sub-Tropical Coniferous Vegetation- This type is a pure association of chir pine without underwood and a few shrubs. It is found throughout the whole length of the northwest Himalaya between elevation of 1000-1800m. iv.Himalayan Dry Temperature Vegetation- This type is found in the inner dry ranges of the Western Himalaya where precipitation is below 1000mm, and is predominantly a coniferous forest with xerophytic shrubs. Epiphytes and climbers are rare. Important species are chilgoza, deodar, oak, maple, ash, celtis, parrotia, olive, etc. v.Himalayan Moist Temperate Vegetation- In the western Himalaya, between 1500m and 3000m elevation, forests of deodar, spruce, maple, walnut, poplar, cedar, chestnut, birch, oak etc. occur. These are 30 to 50m high. Undergrowth is mostly evergreen. Mosses and ferns grow freely on trees. The extent of forest cover among the various states within Ganga main stem is given in Table 2.20. 49 Figure 2.5 Vegetation Types of Ganga main stem 50 Table 2.20 State-wise Forest Cover in Ganga Basin States State Geograp Forest Cover % of Change hical Very Moderatly Open Total Geograp in Area Dense Dense Forest (Sqkm) hical Forest (Sqkm) Forest Forest (Sqkm) Area Cover (Sqkm) Cover v. 2005 (Sqkm) Bihar 94,163 231 3,248 3,325 6,804 7.23 -3 Delhi 1,483 7 50 120 177 11.94 0 Haryana 44,212 27 463 1,104 1,594 3.61 -10 Himachal 55,673 3,224 6,383 5,061 14,668 26.35 2 Pradesh Jharkhand 79,714 2,590 9,899 10,405 22,894 28.72 172 Madhya 308,245 6,647 35,007 36,046 77,700 25.21 -39 Pradesh Rajasthan 342,239 72 4,450 11,514 16,036 4.69 24 Uttar Pradesh 240,928 1,626 4,563 8,152 14,341 5.95 -5 Uttarakhand 53,483 4,762 14,165 5,568 24,495 45.80 2 West Bengal 88,752 2,987 4,644 5,363 12,994 14.64 24 Ganga Basin 1,308,892 22,173 82,872 86,658 191,703 14.65 167 states India 3,287,263 83,510 319,012 288,377 690,899 21.02 728 Source: Forest Survey of India, 2007 The Ganga basin has gained significant forest cover in between the 2007 and 2005 surveys. This increase was fueled almost entirely by the incredible surge in Jharkhand, suggesting the success of reforestation and conservation efforts there. However, Madhya Pradesh has lost more forest cover than the rest of the basin combined, and renewed conservation efforts must take hold there to protect the states 25.21 per cent of land area that is forested. The decline in forests in Haryana is also alarming, given that the state has the lowest level of forest cover in the Ganga main stem, excluding the largely urban area of Delhi. 2.12.1 Macrophytic, Marginal and Riparian Vegetation of the Ganga The Macrophytes constitute the marginal vegetation growing on the bank of rivers in or near water where it is found emergent, submergent, or floating. It provides shelter for breeding animals and fishes. Some of the soil binder plants which are found throughout the stretch of the Ganga river include Saccharum spontaneum, Ipomoea carnea, Lantana camara, Imperata Krishna Murti, C.R., Bilgrami, K. S., Das, T.M, Mathur, R. P., 1991. The Ganga, A Scientific Study. The Ganga Project Directorate, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi. 51 cylindrical, Cynodon dactylon and Dichanthium annulatum. The macrophyte vegetation changes continously in response to floods and associated changes in water level. Some macrophytes are ecologically and economically very important. The riparian vegetation acts as a significant conserver of water, nutrient, and soil, while minimizing the adverse effects of pollutants that run through the slope of the river bank. Thus, these plants help prevent river pollution, siltation, and upwelling of river beds. They also minimize the adverse effects of floods to a considerable extent. A list of the plants constituting macrophyte, marginal and riparian vegetation is given in Appendix 2.2. Industrial wastewater effluents tend to decrease the rate seed germination of macrophytes as well as the rate of survival after germination, thus significantly impacting the diversity of macrophytic vegetation on the river banks. Therefore, those plants which exhibit resistance to contamination must be employed as tools in bio-control of pollution. Furthermore, the advantages of microphytes can be exploited by testing the suitability of different tree species for the cultivation in flood prone areas. 2.13 Biological Profile of the Ganga* 2.13.1 Phytoplankton Phytoplanktons are heterotrophic autotrophic organisms, individually too small to be seen by the naked eye but when present in large cluster may appear green due to the presence of chlorophyll. They form the foundation of the food web for most aquatic life and are responsible for half of the photosynthetic activity on earth, making them important to both local and global ecosystems. In the Ganga river, the phytoplankton density varies both spatially and temporally along the different stretches of the river. Phytoplankton population is generally very high in the middle stretches of river Ganga (Mirzapur to Farakka) relative to upper (Gangotri to Garhmukteshwar) and lower stretches (Berhampur to Bally). The densities increase with the water temperature during the first half of the year (January to May). The monsoons, on the other hand, lead to an increase in the turbidity of water, leading to less solar penetration and hence less phytoplankton. The plankton population is adversely effected by human activities like pilgrims bathing, waste water discharges from domestic and industrial activities resulting in decreases of the common plankton population and increases in highly pollutant tolerant forms which further degrade the water quality. Common Algae:Oscillatoria princps, Aulosira fertillisima, Spirogyra subsalsa, Pinnularia nobilis, Navicula viridis 52 Pollution Sensitive Algae: Lyngbya magnifica, Nodularia Spumigena, Merismopedia elegans, Cosmarium tenue. 2.13.2 Zooplankton Zooplankton are organisms drifting in the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of freshwater. They generally feed upon other plankton, including phytoplankton, along with bacteria and various types of particulate plant matter. Both zooplankton and phytoplankton not only play a vital role in the stability of the marine ecosystem but also act as an indicator of water health as they are affected by slight changes in the environment. Changes in temperature, acidity or nutrient levels from farm runoff and pollution can all have dramatic effects on plankton. Similar to phytoplankton, the zooplankton population is greatest during summer and lowest during winter at various stretches of the river Ganga. Pollution tolerant zooplanktons were reported to be numerous in the pollution zones of wastewater discharge points from industries and domestic sectors. Changes in plankton can act as early warning signs of a problem in the environment. Some of the common zooplantons in the Ganga river include: Rotifer: Brachionus caudatus, B. forficula, B. calyciflorus, B.quadridentata, Filinia opoliensis Copepoda: Pseudodiaptomus annandalei, Mesocyclops hyalinus, Nauplii of Cyclopoids Cladocera: Moina micrura, Bosmina meriodionalis 2.13.3 Fish The river Ganga supports fisheries and contributes significant economic benefits to the riparian communities and the national economy. Out of the total fish landings in river Ganga, 29.8% of fishing is from a riverine source. The fisheries in the upper stretch of the river comprise only fresh water species whereas the lower stretch comprises both freshwater and estuarine species. The list of most common fishes found in various stretches of river Ganga is given in Appendix 2.3. Several species are not native to the Ganga system but isntead come from the hills and other rivers during monsoon floods. These species include Danio dangila, D. devario, Botia Dario and B. lohachata. Juvenile fishing in the post-flood period is very - Krishna Murti, C.R., Bilgrami, K. S., Das, T.M, Mathur, R. P., 1991. The Ganga, A Scientific Study. The Ganga Project Directorate, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi. - The Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), www.cifri.ernet.in/152.pdf 53 common which results in the destruction of millions of fingerlings of major carps. This practice causes incalculable loss to good quality fish like Catla, Rohu and Mrigal. Breeding for most of the Ganga fish begins at the onset of monsoon. Although there is not any marked variation in different seasons in general, the varietal diversity is greatest during winter and the post monsoon period. Ganga water affected by waste discharge from domestic, agriculture and industrial sectors becomes hazardous for the growing carp, affecting the normal food chain in the river eco- system and creating imbalances. Laboratory experiments and partially controlled field investigations conducted by Bhagalpur University* with various types of pure detergents reveal that most commonly used detergents are highly toxic to fish and fish seed, reducing growth, increasing mortality and hampering reproductive ability. Furthermore, there has been a noticeable shift in species composition in catches and even total fish catch is declining day by day due to human activities such as increased water abstraction, river course modification, and reservoirs. Hilsa, Tenualosa ilisha, which constituted a major fishery in Ganga until the 1960s, is now disappearing while exotic fishes like tilapia and common carp have started appearing in the 2000s. The systematic list of fish found in Ganga basin in given in Appendix 2.3. Along with the above mentioned species, the following species of prawns were also recorded: Macrobrachium lamarrei, M. birmanicum choprai, M. malcolmsonii, Parapenaeopsis sculptilis, P. stylifera, Metapenaeus brevicornis, M. monoceros, Penaeus mondon, P. indicus, P. semisulcatus, Expalaemon stylifera, E. tenuipes and Leptocarpus fluminicola. 2.13.4 Vertebrate Biota of the River Ganga The Ganga is a natural repositary of a different range of fauna. The vertebrates found in the river Ganga (given in Appendix 2.4) include the amphibia, reptilia, mammalia and aves (birds) classes. Killing of some birds and mammals has been observed in this region. Furthermore, pollution of the river adversely affects the general living conditions of the fauna at times causing migration to other areas. Amphibia: Rana is widely distributed in the river Ganga. R. limnocharis, R. tigrina and R. cyanophlyctes are also found in the middle and lower stretch of Ganga. Tadpole larvae are quite common during the breeding season. 54 Reptilia: Some of the important reptiles found in the Ganga river include Trionyx gangeticus, Kachuga Kachuga, Lissemys punctata, Gavialis gangeticus (Gharial) and Natrix piscator (Grass snake). Birds: The Ganga basin is a sanctuary for a large number of birds including migratory ones. A large number of migratory birds visit Gangetic belts during the onset of winter. The birds found in the Ganga river are listed in Appendix 2.4. Mammals: Gangetic dolphins (Platanista gangetica) know as Susa, Sons or Swis in various parts of the basin represent the lone member of this class in the Ganga river. These mammals are found between Kalakankar to Phaphamau. The indiscriminate killing of this aquatic mammal is threatening its very existence in the river region. 2.14 Sensitive Environmantal Habitats Environmentally sensitive areas in the Ganga basin comprise Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks and Tiger Reserves among others (rare and endangered species). These areas are are ecologically fragile zones and need to be protected from pollution and abatement of flow rates in various sections of the river. At present about 31 per cent of the National parks in India are located in Ganga basin along with 15 per cent of wild life sanctuaries protecting some of the endangered species like Bengal Tigers, Ganga Dolphins and Vultures. Mangroves which are more resilient and very unique ecosystems on the planet are also located in the basin at Sundarbans (West Bengal). The environmentally sensitive areas within the Ganga main stem are briefly summarized hereunder. 2.14.1 Protected Areas 2.14.1.1 Biosphere Reserves The Government of India has established 15 Biosphere Reserves of India, (categories correspond to IUCN Category V protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (more than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary) and often include one or more National Park and / or Reserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities which inhabit these regions and their ways of life. The Ganga basin has two Biosphere reserves, namely the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and the Sundarbans National Park, which are also a part of the World Network of Biosphere 55 reserves. The location of Biosphere reserves within the Ganga main stem are shown in Appendix 2.5. Table 2.21 Biosphere Reserves located within the Ganga main stem S. Name Location State Tributary Type Area No. (SqKm) 1 Sunderbans North and South West Bengal Ganga Gangetic Delta 9630 24-Paraganas 2 Nanda Devi Pithoragarh Uttarakhand Ramganga West Himalayas 5860.69 Source: Forest and Wildlife Statistics, India, 2004, MoEF i. Nanda Devi National Park - Nanda Devi National Park is one of the most spectacular wilderness areas in the Himalayas and is located in Pithorgarh District of Uttrakhand state. It is dominated by the 7,800m peak of Nanda Devi, Indias second highest mountain which is approached through the Rishi Ganga gorge, one of the deepest in the world. No humans live in the park, which has remained more or less intact because of its rugged inaccessibility. It has very diverse flora and is the habitat of several endangered mammals, among them the snow leopard, serow, Himalayan musk deer and bharal. The Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP) is one of the very few wilderness areas in India that has remained naturally protected. The Nanda Devi basin was declared as Nanda Devi Sanctuary in 1939. An area of 630 sq. Km. was added as Nanda Devi National Park in the year 1982 which is now a part and core zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. The Park became a world heritage site in the year 1988. Some of the important peaks encircling the National Park are Dunagiri (7066mt), Changband (6864mt), Kalnka (6931mt) Rishi pahar (6992 mt) Mangraon (6765mt), Nanda Khat (6631 mt), Maiktoli (6803 mt), Mrigthuni (6655mt), Trishul-1 (7120mt), Trishul-II (6319mt), Bethartoli Himal (6352mt) and Nandadevi East (7434 mt.). Nanda Devi National Park is an outstanding mountain wilderness area with few if any parallels elsewhere in the Himalayas on account of its concentration of high peaks and glaciers lying within range of near-pristine habitats. It lies within a bio-geographical transition zone between the Western and Eastern Himalayas and supports a variety of threatened and uncommon species of large mammals. ii. Sunderbans National Park - The Sundarbans lies across the outer deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. The park is located in North and Sourth 24- Paragnas Districts in the state of West Bengal. At 10,000 sq.km, it forms the largest mangrove forest in the world, with 40% falling in India, and 60% in Bangladesh. The forest 56 is composed of small forested islands and mud flats intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, and exemplify the ecological processes of monsoon rain flooding, delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonisation. The area has a wide range of rare fauna, including the Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, Indian python and many reptiles and birds. As part of the Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB), accepted in the general conference of the UNESCO in 1970, the Ministry of Environment of Forests, Govt. of India adopted the National MAB programme and declared the entire 9630 sq. km. of Sundarban as the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve in 1989. The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve has also been included in the World Network of Biospheres by UNESCO in November, 2001. The extent of mangrove Reserved Forest in Indian Sundarban is around 4260 sq. km., which is administratively divided into the Sunderban Tiger Reserve (2600 sq. km.) and Forest Divn. (1660 sq. km.). Out of this total recorded forest area, 55% is under vegetation cover and balance 45% is under water body/ char land. 2.14.1.2 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries a) National Park A National Park is a reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared or owned by the Government of India and set aside for human recreation and enjoyment, as well as animal and environmental protection and is restricted from most development. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and its World Commission on Protected Areas has classified National Parks under its Category II type of protected areas. At present India has 94 National Parks, spread all across the country, out of which 27 National Parks are within the Ganga basin (apart from the two biosphere reserves mentioned in the previous section). The total area cover of National Parks including biosphere reserves in the Ganga basin is about 21,197 Sqkm, with about 50% of them are located in the state of Uttarakhand. A list of 27 national parks in Ganga Basin including district, adjacent tributary and settlement information is presented in Table 2.22. It however needs mention that, the Ganga basin boundaries are not exact and hence national parks within 30 km of a Ganga tributary, have been considered to be located in the basin. b) Wildlife Sanctuaries India has 502 animal sanctuaries, commonly referred to as Wildlife Sanctuaries (IUCN Category IV protected area). Out of this 502, about 75 are located in the Ganga basin. The total area set aside for these sanctuaries is 14,086 Sqkm. An exhaustive list of wildlife 57 sanctuaries within the Ganga main basin by state is given Appendix 2.6 and locations are shown in Appendix 2.5. It however, needs mention that the sanctuaries have been identified based on their location in the Ganga basin districts and their actual location could vary based on exact boundary of the basin / sanctuary. c) Tiger Reserves Project Tiger, a wildlife conservation program initiated by Government of India in 1972 to protect the Bengal Tigers, governs these reserves, which are meant to be representative of various regions throughout India. The programme strives to maintain a viable population of this conservation-reliant species in their natural environment. The Bengal Tiger faces extinction due largely to the threat of poaching for their pelts. Out of the 28 designated tiger reserves, 10 are located in the Ganga Basin, and comprise a total "core area" of over 8838 Sqkm; core area refers to the primary protected area of the reserve, in contrast to the so-called "buffer area" in which some development activities are allowed. The list of tiger reserves in Ganga basin, with associated district and adjacent tributary information, are given in Table 2.23. Since, the Ganga basin boundaries are not exact, the tiger reserves within 30 km of a Ganga tributary, have been considered to be located in the basin. 58 Table 2.22 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries located in Ganga Basin Adjacent Name State Location (District) Adjacent Settlement* Area, SqKm Tributary* Valmiki National Park Bihar West Champaran Koshi Narkatigang Bagha 335.65 Kalesar National Park Haryana Yamunanagar Yamuna Jagadhri Yamunanagar 46.82 Sultanpur National Park Haryana Gurgaon Yamuna Gurgaon 1.43 Betla National Park Jharkhand Palamau Koel Daltongani 231.67 Sanjay National Park Madhya Pradesh Sidhi/Sarguja Son Sidhi 1938.00 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Mandla Narmada Baihar 940.00 Satpura National Park Madhya Pradesh Hoshangabad Narmada Hosangabad 585.17 Panna National Park Madhya Pradesh Panna, Chatarpur Son Satna 543.00 Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh Shandol Son Katni 105.40 Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh Shivpuri Chambal Shivpuri 337.00 Van Vihar National Park Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Narmada Bhopal 4.45 Fossil National Park Madhya Pradesh Mandla Son Katni 0.27 Desert National Park Rajasthan Jaisalmer Banas Jaisalmer 3162.00 Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan Swai Madhopur Chambal Sawai Madhopur 392.00 Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan Sirohi Banas Pali 288.00 Sariska National Park Rajasthan Alwar Banas Alwar 273.80 Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan Bharatpur Yamuna Agra 28.73 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh Lakhimpur-Kheri Ganga, Sarda Dhangadhi 490.29 Gangotri National Park Uttarakhand Uttarkashi Ganga Gangi 1552.73 Rajaji National Park Uttarakhand Haridwar, Dehradun, and Ganga 820.42 Pauri Garhwal Rishikesh Corbett National Park Uttarakhand Nainital and Pauri Garhwal Yamuna Yamunanagar 521.00 Govind Pashu Vihar Uttarakhand Uttarkashi Bhagirathi Uttarkashi 957.97 Valley of Flowers National Park Uttarakhand Pithoragrh Ramganga Joshimath 87.50 59 Adjacent Name State Location (District) Adjacent Settlement* Area, SqKm Tributary* Buxa National Park West Bengal Jalpaiguri Torsa, 117.10 Bramhaputra Alipurduar Neora Valley National Park West Bengal Darjeeling Bramhaputra Kalimpong 88.00 Gorumara National Park West Bengal Jalpaiguri Tista Jalpaiguri 79.45 Hiral National Park West Bengal Darjeeling Tista, Torsa Darjeeling 78.60 Ganga main stem Total 27 Parks 14006.45 *Note: TERI used GIS maps to estimate adjacent tributaries and settlements within 30km of a given National Park Source: Forest Statistics India 2000, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Respective State Forest Department Websites, Respective National Park Official Website 60 Table 2.23 Tiger Reserves located in Ganga main stem Adjacent Adjacent Core Area Name State Location (Distrct) Tributary* Settlement* (SqKm) Valmiki Bihar West Champaran Koshi Narkatigang Bagha 880.76 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh Shahdol and Johilla and Son Katni 716.90 Jabalpur Kanha Madhya Pradesh Mandla Narmada Baihar 940.00 Panna Madhya Pradesh Ken Panna and Son 576.13 Chhatarpur Ranthambhore Rajasthan Sawai Madhopur Chambal Sawai Madhopur 1113.36 and Karauli Sariska Rajasthan Alwar Chambal Alwar 681.11 Dudhwa-Katerniaghat Uttar Pradesh Lakhimpur-Kheri Ganga, Sarda Dhangadhi 648.00 Corbett Uttarakhand Nainital and Pauri Yamuna Yamunanagar 821.99 Garhwal Buxa West Bengal Jalpaiguri Torsa, Alipurduar 760.00 Bramhaputra Sunderbans West Bengal North and South 24- Ganga Haldia 1699.92 Paraganas Ganga main stem 10 Reserves 8838.18 Total *Note: TERI used GIS maps to estimate adjacent tributaries and settlements within 30km of a given National Park Source: Project Tiger Task Forest Reports (2004, 2010), Project Tiger Website 61 A brief description of some of the major national parks and tiger reserve within the Ganga main stem is outlined below, based on the information available from the respective State Forest Departments. i. Valmiki National Park and Tiger Reserve: Valmiki National Park is located in the northern-most part of the West Champaran district of the Indian state of Bihar. The tract is broken and undulating, often showing highly fragile geological formations. As a result, there are steep ravines, knife-edge ridges and precipitous walls formed by land slips and soil erosion. Valmiki is the 18th Tiger Reserve of the country and the second in Bihar. The core area of the Reserve was declared as a National Park in 1989. The Government of Bihar had notified 464.60 sq. km. area as Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary in 1978. Later, in 1990, an area of 419.18 sq. km. was added to the Sanctuary. Thus, the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary embraces a total area of 880.78 sq. km. ii. Kalesar National Park - Kalesar National Park is situated in the foot hills of Shiwalik ranges of mighty Himalays. It falls under Yamunanagar district of Haryana and shares a boundary with three states: Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh. The Yamuna river forms the eastern boundary with Uttar Pradesh, while the main shiwalik ridge serves as the state boundary between Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the north. The park was declared a National Park on 8th December 2003 with an area of 11570 acres. Just adjacent to the National Park is the Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary, which received thi designation on 13th December 1996 with an area of 13209 acres. Kalesar National Park is named after the Kaleshar (shiva) temple located in protected area. The whole area is full of bio-diversity, including dense Sal forest, Khair forest and patches of grass lands, which supports an amazing variety of plants and animal species. iii. Sultanpur National Park - Sultanpur National Park, located at about 50 Kms from Delhi and 15 Km from Gurgaon on Gurgaon Farukhnagar road is a bird paradise, both for local as well as migratory aves, particularly in the winter months. The National Park has an area of 359 acres, out of which about 180 acres is pondage area and the rest provides habitat for terrestrial birds. Of the recorded 250 bird species, 150 are residents or local-migratory, while others come form faraway northern regions like Siberia, Europe and Afghanistan. The 62 common resident species are Little egret, Painted stork, White ibis, Little brown dove, Indian crested lark, Myna, Red vented bulbul, Magpie robin, Weaver bird, among others. Every year about 90 species of migratory birds arrive here in search of feeding grounds and to pass the winter. In winter, the sanctuary provides a picturesque panorama of migratory birds such as Rosy pelican, Spotted sand piper, starling, Blue throat, among others. In summer, 11 species of birds such as Koel and Cuckoos can be recognised by their melodious songs. iv. Betla National Park and Palamau Tiger Reserve Palamau Wildlife Sanctuary in the state of Jharkhand was initially created over a forest area of 979.97 Sq. Km. and since then an area of 231 Sq. Km. of this sanctuary has been designated as Betla National Park. Both the areas have been included in the Palamau Tiger Reserve created under Project Tiger. The area is drained by the North Koel and its tributary, the Burha river. Forests here are of Dry and Moist Deciduous types with bamboo brakes. Besides diverse herbs, shrubs and grasses, the important tree species are Sal, Asan, Sidha, Semal, Karam, Chilbil, Kusum, Bherhul, Dhaura, Khair, Salai etc. The sanctuary is rich in flora and fauna with 47 species of mammals, 174 species of birds, 970 species of flora including 25 species of climbers, 46 species of shrubs in addition to herbs, grasses etc. Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Gaur, Sambhar, Cheetal, Barking Deer, Sloth Bear, Nilgai, Wild Dog, Wolf, Hyaena etc and varieties of reptiles and beautiful birds can be seen here without much effort. v. Sanjay National Park ­ The National Park, was established in 1983-84 and is situated in Sidhi District in the state of Madhya Pardesh. The total area of the national park is 1471 Sq.Km. The principal fauna of the Park are Tiger, Panther, Sambhar, Blue Bull, Chousingha, Cheetal, Gour, Bear, and many species of birds. The principal flora is Sal, Saja, Tendu, Dhawda, Haldu etc. vi. Kanha National Park and Tiger Reserve: Located in the "Maikal" ranges of the Satpuras, and falling in the Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya Pradesh, Kanha Tiger Reserve is internationally renowned for its typical Central Indian flora and fauna. Apart from supporting a viable population of tigers, the National Park has also distinguished itself in saving the highly endangered hard ground barasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi) from extinction, and has the unique distinction of harbouring the last world population of this deer species. 63 The Tiger Reserve, with an area of 1949 sq. km., is comprised of two divisions, namely the Core Zone (National Park) with 940 sq. km. and the Buffer Zone (Multiple Use Area) of 1009 sq. km. Besides, there is also Phen Wildlife Sanctuary (110 sq. km.), a Satellitic Micro Core under the unified control of the Field Director, Kanha Tiger Reserve. The Tiger Reserve harbours flat-hill tops, varying degree of slopes, and rolling meadows in the valleys, which offer unique settings for diverse types of wildlife habitat and form ideal niches for various species of plants and animals. Apart from the over 600 species of flowering plants, there are around 300 species of birds and 43 species of mammals. Besides, several species of reptile, arthropod and termite are also found in the Reserve. The diversity of habitats influences the local distribution of mammals. The presence of the mosaics of meadows within the woodland, and large expanses of herbage availability, also have a bearing on the aggregations of herbivores. The central meadows of Kanha, locally known as "maidans", are rich in ungulates and other fauna. This high prey density area is encompassed on three sides by the ridges of the Deccan trap, leaving a gap only in the North towards Sonf. This topographical peculiarity poses a physical barrier to animal movement from the central meadows. Likewise, the ridges extending along the eastern boundary of the reserve impede animal movement between the eastern and western portions of the park. Such topographical attributes foster pockets of high and low prey density areas within the Protected Area, resulting in an unequal concentration of tigers and co-predators in different portions of the habitat. vii. Satpuda National Park ­ This park was established in the year 1981 and is located in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. The Tiger Reserve encompasses the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and the Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary. Bori is the oldest forest reserve in India and Panchmari is the only hill station of central India. Panchmari has numerous panoramic view points and water falls and has long been a pilgrimage centre for Worshippers of Shiva, especially for people from Vidharbha region of Maharasta. The scenic splendour of the Pachmarhi hill is unmatched by any formation far and wide. The forest department of Madhya Pradesh was essentially born here when the soldier turned forester Captain James Forsyth constructed the Bison lodge in 1862. His book 'The Highlands of Central India' details his journey from Jabalpur to 64 Panchmari. Pachmarhi has unique floral formation in that sal occurs as an isolated patch, in a sea of teak forest, far away from its main distribution. Forest Department and M.P. Ecotourism Development Board are now promoting it as major trekking destinations. Principal Fauna found in the park are: Tiger, Panther, Sambhar, Chital, Bhedki, Blue Bull, Four-hornedantelope, Chinkara, Bision (Gour),Wild Boar, Wild Dog,Bear, Black buck, Fox, Porcupine, Flying squirrel, Mouse deer, Indian giant squirrel etc. and various species Birds may also be seen there. While the flora mainly consists of Sal,Teak, Tendu, Aonla, Mahua, Bel, Bamboo etc. viii. Panna National Park and Tiger Reserve ­ It is situated in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, at a distance of around 25 km from Khajuraho. The region, famous for its diamond industry, is also home to some of the best wildlife species in India and is one of the most famous Tiger Reserves in the country. This National park was established in the year 1981. The principal fauna consists of Tiger, Panther, Blue bull, Sambhar, Chinkara, Spotted deer, Bear, Wild dog, Wolf, Jackal, Monkey, Crocodiles etc. Additionally, birds of various species may also be seen here. The principal flora comprises of Dhawda, Tendu, Saja, Achar, Seja, Salai, Kullu, Aonla, Mahua, Bel etc. ix. Bandhavgarh National Park and Tiger Reserve: Bandhavgarh was declared a national park in 1968. Cradled between the Vindhyan ranges and the eastern flanks of Satpura ranges of Central Indian Highlands, Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve lies mostly in Umaria and partly in Katni districts of Madhya Pradesh. It is best known as the "tiger land" of India, for the highest density of tigers, as compared to rest of the country. The diverse mix of habitats here, consisting of rocky hills covered with dense forests as well as low-lying swampy plains, supports a corresponding plentitude of fauna. Its luxuriantly rich eco-systems provide amply for every living being ­ from tiny insects to the majestic tigers. The Bandhavgarh hill is flat-topped with gentle northerly slope. Its vertical cliffs are the ideal nesting site of now highly endangered long-billed vultures and other rare birds of prey like the Shaheen Falcon. The forest of Bandhavgarh is classified as Tropical Moist Deciduous Type and is dominated by Sal trees. Lofty Saja and Arjun (Terminalia spp.), Lendia (Lagerstroemia spp.), Salai (Boswelia spp.), Bija (Pterocarpus spp.), Mahua (Madhuca spp.) and the like contribute to the floral diversity. Bamboos are found throughout the tract. Sal 65 and Bamboo patches form an excellent habitat for the famous Bandhavgarh tigers. The open marshy grasslands or bahs have abundance of many species of grasses which support a rich herbivore population and, as a result, carnivores frequent these areas. It is believed that these swamps were once the home of swamp deer which gradually got eliminated owing to environmental changes. Woody climbers such as Butea superba and Bauhinia vahlii and lianas such as Gulheri (Spatholobus roxburghii) are found picturesquely twining through the stately Sal. There are patches of scrub-like vegetation ­ home to a large diversity of bird life. The Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve (1161.471 sq. km.) comprises of Bandhavgarh National Park (448.842 sq. km.), Panpatha Wildlife Sanctuary (245.842 sq. km.) and a Buffer Zone (466.787 sq. km.) surrounding both the Park and the Sanctuary. x. Madhav National Park - The Madhav National Park is situated on the northern fringe of the Central Highlands of India. It is a part of the upper Vindhyan hills, forming plateaus, and having small and big nallas. The slopes are generally gentle, rarely steep. Spreading over an area of almost 355 sq.kms., the Madhav National Park is fascinating mix of natural splendors of history and architectural wonders. The park, one of the oldest, is situated in the northern part of Madhya Pradesh, near the town of Shivpuri. Madhav got the status of a National Park in 1958. The park is unique in that it has both lake and forest ecosystems. Sakhya and Madhav Sagar are the two lakes in the park, which are important biodiversity support systems. These lakes not only add to the natural beauty of the area, but also provide a permanent source of water to the wildlife, and a fine wetland habitat to the aquatic fauna including thousands of migratory waterfowls. Marsh Crocodiles are in abundance in Sakhya sagar lake, creating a special attraction for tourists. The park represents the Northern Tropical dry deciduous mixed forest type, as well as dry thorn forest, typical of North- Western Madhya Pradesh. The forests here are home to antelopes like Nilgai, Chinkara and Chowsinga and Deer including Chital, Sambar and Barking Deer. One can see animals like the Leopard, Wolf, Jackal, Fox, Wild dog, Wild pig, Porcupine, Marsh Crocodile and the Python. With a varied terrain of wooded hills, dry, mixed deciduous forests, and flat grasslands around the lakes, the park offers abundant opportunities of sighting a variety of wildlife. 66 xi. Vanvihar National Park - The Van Vihar National Park is situated in the heart of Bhopal City in Madhya Pradesh. 445.21 hectare degraded hillock along with private Village land was initiated in 1980 and finally notified as a National Park in 1983. Funding from Central Zoo Authority (CZA) has started in 1993-94 and also granted Van Vihar as a medium-sized zoo on the same year. With the dedicated efforts of the park management, this area has now been transformed into an oasis of greenery. The area today serves as the green lung for Bhopal City. Although it has the status of a National Park, the Van Vihar is developed and managed as a modern Zoological Park, following the guidelines of the Central Zoo Authority. The animals are kept in their near natural habitat. Most of the animals are either orphans brought from various parts of the state or are exchanged from other zoos. Contrary to popular belief, not a single animal is deliberately captured from the forest. xii. Fossil National Park ­ It was established in the year 1983 in Mandla District of Madhya Pradesh. Fossils of various trees are found here. Eucalyptus and Tinsa are among the fossilised trees. xiii. Desert National Park: Situated in Jaisalmer City of Rajasthan, the Desert National Park is an excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert and its rich fauna. The Sudashri forest post is the most ideal place for observing wildlife in the Desert National Park. Sand dunes form less than 20 percent of the park, which consists of craggy rocks, pavements and compact salt lake bottoms, intermedial areas and fixed dunes. Its inhabitants include the Blackbuck, Chinkara, Wolf, Indian fox, Desert fox, Hare and Desert cat. Flights of sandfrouse start coming to waterholes from sunrise onwards. One also hears the morning call of the Grey partridge, Blue and Green tailed bee-eaters, Drongos, common and bush quail and Indian rollers are some of the birds which are commonly found around waterholes. The park is also home to the great Indian Bustard which is peril of extinction. xiv. Ranthambore National Park and Tiger Reserve - Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve, once a princely game reserve is the place where the celebrated Indian Tiger is best seen. Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve lies on the junction of Aravali and Vindhyas just 14 Kms from Sawai Madhopur in Eastern Rajasthan. It sprawls over a varying and undulating landscape. The scenery changes 67 dramatically from gentle and steep slopes of the Vindhyas and sharp and conical hills of the Aravali. A tenth century fort also blends amicably with the background. Pure sands of Dhok (Anogeissus pendula) interspersed with grasslands at the plateaus, meadows in valleys and luxuriant foliage around the canals make the jungle. Three big lakes ­ Padam Talab (meaning Lake), Malik Talab and Raj Bagh ­ are similar turquoises studded in the vast forest that abounds with aquatic vegetation including duckweeds, lilies and lotus. The rugged park terrain alternates between dry deciduous forest and open grassy meadow, and is dotted by several lakes and rivers that are only made passable by rough roads built and maintained by the Forest Service. The tiger is not the only attraction at Ranthambhore although it is the park resident that people most often come to see. A variety of birds including Owlets, the ubiquitous Langur (monkey), Leopard, Caracal, Hyena, Jackal, Jungle Cat, marsh Crocodiles, Wild Boar, Bears and various species of Deer are the other attractions. xv. Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary - The sanctuary situated in Rajasthan stes, comprises the oldest mountain ranges - The Aravali. It was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1960. Apart from having several sightseeing places this sanctuary is a draw for nature lovers as it has great potential for Eco-tourism. This sanctuary is long and narrow in shape but the top spreads out into a picturesque plateau which is about 19 km. in length and 5-8 km. in breadth. Altitudinally it varies from 300m at the foot in Mil to 1722m at Gurashikhar, the highest peak of the Aravali Ranges. The rocks are igneous and, due to the weathering effect of wind and water, large cavities are common. This feature is typical of Aravali and particularly of Mount Abu. Toad Rock in Mount Abu provides one such example of such these cavaties. xvi. Sariska National Park and Tiger Reserve: Sariska Tiger Reserve is situated only 200 km from Delhi and 107 kms from Jaipur. Although larger than Ranthambor, it is less commercialised and has less tigers but a similar topography. It covers an area of 800 sq km in total, with a core area of approximately 500 sq km. The Northern Aravali Hills dominate the skyline with their mixture of sharp cliffs and long narrow valleys. The area was declared a sanctuary in 1955 and became a National Park in 1979. The landscape of Sariska consists of the hills and narrow valleys of the Aravali hill range. The topography of Sariska supports scrub-thorn arid forests, dry deciduous forests, rocks and 68 grasses. The broad range of wildlife here is a wonderful example of ecological adaption and resistance, as the climate here is fairly erratic. The park is home to numerous carnivores including Leopard, Wild Dog, Jungle Cat, Civets Hyena, Jackal, and Tiger. These feed on species such as Sambar, Chital, Nilgai, Chausingha, Wild Boar and Langur. Sariska is also well known for its large population of Rhesus Monkeys, which are found around Talvriksh. The avian world is also well represented with Peafowl, Grey Partridge, Bush Quail, Sand Grouse, Tree Pie, Golden backed Woodpecker, crested Serpent Eagle and The Great Indian horned Owl. xvii. Keolada Ghana National Park - This magnificent bird haven came into being paradoxically as a duck shooting preserve for Maharaja Suraj Mull of Bharatpur. He transformed the shallow depression formed by the confluence of River Gambhir and River Banganga into a reservoir by damming the rainwater in monsoons. Flood waters created shallow wetland ecosystems, forming a perfect habitat for an astounding variety of birds. The park that continued to be a hunting preserve for the Maharaja and the British until 1964, after which hunting was banned. xviii. Dudhwa National Park - Situated on the Indo-Nepal border in District Lakhimpur-Kheri of Uttar Pradesh, the Dudhwa Tiger Reserve with an area of 614 sq. Km is one of the nations finest, serving as one of the few remaining examples of the exceedingly diverse and productive tarai eco-systems. The northern edge of the reserve lies along the Indo-Nepal border and the southern boundary is marked by the river Suheli. It is home to a large number of rare and endangered species which includes Tiger, Leopard, Swamp deer, Hispid hare, Bengal Florican, etc. From mosaic grasslands and dense sal forests to swampy marshes, the terrain of Dudhwa National Park is as diverse as the wildlife population it harbors. While the northern edge of the Park lies along the Indo- Nepal border, the River Suheli marks the southern boundary. A Tiger Reserve since 1879, Dudhwa became a National Park in 1977 and adopted the Project Tiger in 1988. Although the Tigers at the Park are numerous, sightings are rare due to the thick forest cover of the area. Besides Tigers, Leopards, Hispid Hares, Swamp Deer (Barasingha) and Rhinos thrive amidst the vegetation. Apart from Uttar Pradesh tourism, Govt. of UP, 69 the swamp deer, there are at least 37 species of mammals and 16 species of reptiles. Dudhwa Wildlife Sanctuary is said to have 101 tigers and four leopards. Recently, the hispid hare has also been spotted in the area. It was here in 1984 that a major rhinoceros rehabilitation project was started since these forests had been the habitat of the rhinoceros 150 years ago. Five rhinos were relocated from Assam but two of the females died due to the strain of transportation. These were replaced in 1985 by four more females from Nepal. Dudhwa's birds, in particular, are a delight for any avid bird watcher. The marshlands are especially inviting for about 400 species of resident and migratory birds including the Swamp Partridge, Great Slaty Woodpecker, Bengal Florican, plenty of painted storks, sarus cranes, owls, barbets, woodpeckers, minivets and many more. Much of the parks avian fauna is aquatic in nature, and is found around Dudhwas lakes- especially Banke Tal. The major vegetation types in this region are Tropical Semi-evergreen forest, Tropical Moist Deciduous forest, Riparian and Swamp forest and Dry Deciduous forest. The dominant tree species are Shorea robusta, Terminalis tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Terminalia belerica, Eugenia jambolana, Dalbergia sissoo, and Bombax malabaricum. The various types of forests throughout the park are interrupted by wide stretches of mesophyllous grasslands locally called the phantasm. xix. Gangotri National Park - The Park is situated in Uttarkashi District over a vast area of 2390.02sq.km. . Gangotri, after which the park is named, is one of the four dhamas (pilgrim sites) of Uttarakhand. The park located within the upper catchment area of the Bhagirathi river offers a panoramic view of several waterfalls. It also forms a vital link in the green corridor that extends between the Govind National Park and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary. It provides the majestic beauty of coniferous forests and the grandeur of vast glaciers, as well as lush green meadows. The forests are Himalayan Moist Temperate type. Vegetation consists of Chirpine Deodar, Fir, Spruce, Oak and Rhododendrons. The fauna includes Snow leopard, Brown bear, Black bear, Himalayan thar, Serow, Musk deer, Cheer pheasants, Partridges, Monal, Himalayan snow cock etc. xx. Rajaji National Park - Rajaji National Park is situated along the hills and foothills of Shivalik ranges in the Himalayan foothills and represents the Shivalik eco-system. Spread over an area of 820.42 sq km, Rajaji is a 70 magnificent ecosystem nestled in the Shivalik ranges and the beginning of the vast Indo­Gangetic plains, thus representing vegetation of several distinct zones and forest types like sal forests, riverine forests, board­leaved mixed forests, scrubland and grassy. On the map it is located between Haridwar and Dehradun and Chillawali. Three sancturies in the Uttarakhand Shivaliks - Rajaji, Motichur and Chila ­ were amalgamated into a large protected area and named Rajaji National Park in the year 1983 after the famous freedom fighter Late Sri C. Rajgopalachari, popularly known as "Rajaji". It possesses as many as 23 species of mammals and 315 bird species. The abundance of natures bounty heaped in and around this park compels a large number of wildlife conservationists and nature lovers to visit this most breathtaking wilderness area. The uniqueness of the Parks stands in that it is the northern most limits of the Tiger, Asian elephants, King Cobra and certain bird species. xxi. Corbett National Park and Tiger Reserve ­ The first wildlife reserve of India, Corbett National Park was established in 1936, as the Hailey National Park. Later it changed to Ramganga and finally Corbett National Park in the honor of legendary hunter-turned-conservationist, best known for hunting man-eating tigers and leopards in the Kumaon and lower Garhwal. Corbett National Park is known for its varied wildlife, as well as the launch site of Project Tiger. Corbett National Park was one of the nine tiger reserves created at the launch of the Project Tiger in 1973. The area of the Corbett National Park is 520.84 sq. km. In 1991, an area of 797.72 sq km was added as buffer area of the Corbett Tiger Reserve. Wildlife found in the Corbett National Park include the Tiger, Elephant, Chital, Sambar, Nilgai, Gharial, King cobra, Wild boar, Hedgehog, common Musk shrew, Flying fox, Indian pangolin, and nearly 600 species of birds. xxii. Govind Pashu Vihar (Govind Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park) ­ The Park is spread over an area of 472sq.km.and sanctuary in 485.89sq km. in Uttarkashi District of Uttarakhand. The forest of the park consists of Chirpine, scrub tropical Euphorbia scrub and oak species. In the Eighth Five-year plan, the Government of India set up the "Snow Leopard Project" to ensure the long-term conservation of the elusive and endangered Snow Leopard. In 1990, a team of experts chose the Govind Wildlife Sanctuary as one of the implementation sites 71 of the project and, subsequently, 472 sq. km within the upper reaches of the sanctuary (the Snow leopards preferred habitat) were designated as the Govind National Park. It lies between Longitude: 78.05ºE and Latitude: 31.00 to 31.25ºN. The wild life species found in the park are Snow leopard, Leopard cat, the brown and the black Himalayan bear, fishing Cat, Musk deer, Serow, Thar, Goral, Sambar, Wild boar, etc. The birds found are Monal, Snow pigeon, and Green pigeon. The altitude within the park ranges from 1400m to 6323m above sea level and magnificent, jaggered snow-capped peaks mesmerize all visitors. xxiii. Valley of Flowers National Park - The Valley of Flowers National Park is the second core zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. The credit for the discovery of the Valley of Flowers goes to the British mountaineers Franks S. Smythe and R.L. Holdsworth who incidentally reached this valley after a successful expedition of Mount Kamet in 1931. Fascinated by its beauty and grandeur Frank S. Smythe revisited this area in 1937 and published a book named "Valley of Flowers" (1938). However, there is no doubt that Frank S. Smythes writing made this valley world famous. The valley of Flowers lies in the main valley of Alaknanda and Laxman Ganga in the Garhwal Himalayas in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. The Pushpawati river flows through this valley from its source in the Tipra Glacier, which extends upto Ghori Parbat Peak. It is a flat valley 5km. long and 2km. wide. Its altitudinal range varies from 3200 to 6675m. The Park is surrounded by Gauri Parbat (6590m) and Rataban (6126m) in the east, Kunthal (4430m) in the west, in the west, Saptsring (5030m) in the south and Nilgiri Parvat (6479m) in the north. Valley of Flowers is a trek of about 16km from Govindghat which is 25km from Joshimath. From Govindghat one has to trek 13km to reach Ghangaria. After crossing the Alaknanda river at Govindghat, an ascending bridle path along Bhyundar Ganga leads to Ghangharia. From here the valley is situated at a distance of 3km. Almost 300 species of wild flowers bloom here in natural way. Wherein some of the species are Anemone, Geranium, March marigold. Primula, Potentilla, Geum. Asters Lilium, Himalayam Blue poppy, Aconitum, Delphinium, Ranunculus, Rhododendrons and numerous others. Most of the flowers have medicinal values too. The abundance of Asmanda fern in this valley is a rare sight than in other Himalayan valleys. Apart from the flowers some species of Butterfly, Musk deer. Blue sheep (Bharal), Himalayan birds & Snow leopard are also 72 found in the park. One fully equipped interpretation centre at Ghangaria is available. At this interpretation centre regular slide shows on Valley of Flowers and wildlife is held in the evening hours through out the season. xxiv. Buxa National Park and Tiger Reserve ­ It is situated in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal and covers and area of 117.10 square km. It was established in the year 1992. xxv. Neora Valley National Park ­ This national park is situated in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal with an area of 88 square km. It was established in the year 1986. xxvi. Gorumara National Park ­ Lying in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, this national park covers an area of 79.45 square km. It was established in the year 1994. 2.14.2 Endangered species in Ganga main stem The names, species names and location of the various endangered species of the Ganga main stem are given below in Table 2.24. Table 2.24 Endangered Species of Ganga main stem Name Species Location Vultures Gyps Bengalensis, Gyps Basin-wide Tenuirostris and Gyps Indicus Ganga Dolphin Platanista Gangetica Ganga River Bengal Florican Houbaropis Bengalensis Uttar Pradesh Bengal Tiger Panthera Tigris Thirs Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan and West Bengal Gharial Gavialis Gangeticus Ganga River (specifically Uttar (Crocidile) Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh) Source: MoEF Endangered Species Brochure, 2009 Among these, the Ganga Dolphins warrant additional focus. Ganga Dolphins are one of only four varieties of exclusively freshwater dolphins in the world, with the others residing in China, Pakistan and in the Amazon river basin, which spans multiple countries in Latin America. However, a combination of pollution and poaching for their oil has threatened their survival. As such, they are recognized by Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) as a "highly endangered" species and indeed, only an estimated 2,000 or so remain. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has 73 recently declared the Ganga Dolphin as Indias "National Aquatic Animal" ­ a clear sign of the importance of this rare species. Gharial face similar threats as the Ganga dolphins, as they mostly share the same habitat. Bengal Floricans are threatened by the continuous conversion of their grassland habitats to agricultural purposes. The various vulture species throughout India face extinction due to a number of reasons, the most significant of which is the use of diclofenac as a pain-killer for animals. The vultures absorb the diclofenac by consuming the carcasses of dead animals. The vultures are then unable to metabolize the drug, which causes a gout-like illness and eventually, death. The threats and conditions of the Bengal Tigers have been detailed above. 2.14.3 Mangrove forests and the Sunderbans Mangrove forests consist of salt-tolerant plant species and occur along the inter-tidal zones of rivers and seas. The plants form narrow strips or extensive patches in the estuarine habitats and/or river deltas of tropical and sub-tropical climates. Due to the fact that mangroves must survive the tidal fluctuations and storms surges associated with the harsh environment between land and sea, they display distinctive morphological and physiological adaptations that make them at once one of the more resilient and more unique ecosystems on the planet. These extensive adaptations allow for mangrove forests to become perhaps the most productive and diverse kind of wetland area in the world. However, mangroves provide more than just a habitat for a diverse array of species and wildlife; their ecosystem also serves as a plentiful source of firewood, timber, fodder, fruits, medicines, etc. for neighboring human settlements while providing a critical buffer zone against cyclones, sea-level rise and other natural threats. Mangroves are classified by the density of their canopy cover. The categories are "very dense" (canopy cover of more than 70%), "moderately dense" (canopy cover of between 40-70%), and "open" (canopy cover between 10-40%). Among the states within Ganga main stem, only West Bengal has mangrove forests cover, due to the fact that part of the Sunderbans mangrove forest falls within its 74 boundaries. All told, the Sunerbans is 10,000 km2, however only 40% falls in India, with the rest residing in Bangladesh. Like most mangroves, the Sunderbans consist of a number of small, forested islands floating amidst tidal streams. It is also home to a number of rare fauna, most notably, the Bengal Tiger. Table 2.25 West Bengal Mangrove Cover Data State Very Dense Moderately Dense Open Total Change Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove since 2005 West Bengal 1,038 881 233 2,152 16 India 1,405 1,659 1,575 4,639 58 Source: Forest Survey of India, 2007 As presented in table 2.25, about 43% percent of the total mangroves are found in West Bengal. The state provides nearly 74% of Indias very dense mangrove cover, and over half (53%) of Indias moderately dense mangroves. It provides a much smaller share of Indias open mangroves, as this type of cover is far less prevalent in this stretch of the Sunderbans mangrove forest. 2.14 Summary The Ganga Basin, as presented in the earlier sections of presents diverse environmental characters. With the basin spread over an area of about 861,404 km2 India, the river traverses through 2500 km in 11 states of India and houses a population of over 300 million. The mean annual flow in the river is estimated to be over 525 billion m3, with about 60 percent contributed from Himalayan Glaciers and 40 percent contribution from peninsular streams / tributaries. The three district physiographic divisions (Norethern Mountains, Great Plains and Central Highlands), present a wide variety of soils, over 52 percent of which is Alluvial Soil. Owing to the alluvial soils and availability of water, the Ganga Basin is extensively cultivated, with a good network of irrigation canals. In terms of environmental features, about 15% of the Basin is covered with forests, about 11 percent which is a dense forest, including the Mangrove rich forests of Sundarbans. These forests house a rich variety of flora and fauna and comprises number of sensitive environmental habitats including 2 biosphere reserves, 27 national parks, 75 wild life sanctuaries, 10 tiger reserves in all the elven basin states. While many of them are not exactly situatied along the river banks, the two biosphere 75 reserves (Nanda Devi in Uttara Khand and Sundarbans in West Bengal), 12 national parks, 18 wild life sanctuaries and 5 tiger reserves are located in the five main stem states (Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradeshm, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal) of NGRBP. The important endangered species in these habitats include, the Ganga Dolphin, Royal Bengal Tiger, Gavialis Gangeticus (Crocodile) and number of vultures. Presence of these environmental sensivities further substantiates the need for improving the water quality in Ganga and also improving the environmental quality of the Basin. This however also warrants careful planning of sub-projects, that ensures protection and also avoids impacts on these sensitive habitats. 76 Chapter 3 Social Analysis "The Ganga, especially, is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age long culture and civilization, ever changing, ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga." - Jawaharlal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India 3.1 Socio-economic profile of Ganga main stem Ganges mainly flows though five Indian states namely, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal. Each of the state has distinct socio-economic profile. But Jharkhand and Bihar are the worst in terms of socio-economic development. The Ganga main stem is one of the most densely populated and fertile river basins in the world. The basin supports about 300 million people over an area of approximately 800, 00 sq. km of which some 100 million are directly dependent on the river and its tributaries. The Ganges basin supports one of the world's highest densities of humans. The state of the river Ganga is significantly affected by the population living within the basin. The Ganga main stem has 1949 cities and towns, with an estimated population of 125 million. Average population density in the Ganga main stem is 520 persons per square km as compared to 312 for India (2001 census). 3.1.1 Uttarakhand Uttarakhand was formed on the 9th November, 2000 as the 27th State of India, when it was carved out of northern Uttar Pradesh. Located at the foothills of the Himalayan mountain ranges, it is largely a hilly State, having international boundaries with China (Tibet) in the north and Nepal in the east. On its north-west lies Himachal Pradesh, while on the south is Uttar Pradesh. It is rich in natural resources especially water and 77 forests with many glaciers, rivers, dense forests and snow-clad mountain peaks. Char- dhams, the four most sacred and revered Hindu temples of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri are nestled in the mighty mountains. Its truly Gods Land (Dev Bhoomi). Dehradun is the Capital of Uttarakhand. It is one of the most beautiful resort in the submountain tracts of India, known for its scenic surroundings. The town lies in the Dun Valley, on the watershed of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. It is blessed with a rare bio-diversity, inter-alia, 175 rare species of aromatic & medicinal plants are found in the State. It has almost all major climatic zones, making it amenable to a variety of commercial opportunities in horticulture, floriculture and agriculture. It has a vast tourism potential in adventure, leisure, and eco-tourism. With levels of literacy higher than the national average, the State has abundant availability of quality human resources. Within a short span of its existence, Uttarakhand has emerged as a significant destination for investments in manufacturing industry, tourism and infrastructure. Emphasis is on stimulating all three sectors of its economy (agriculture, industry and services), to their fullest potential in tandem with the geographic profile of the state. The Government of Uttarakhand has undertaken several policy measures and incentives in order to encourage inflow of investment into the various sectors of its economy2. The State of Uttarakhand has three districts which fall in the main-stem of Ganga: Haridwar, Tehri Garhwal and Uttarkashi (Figure 3.1). These districts have a total population of 2,346,947. Of that total number, only 383,779 reside in some of Uttarakhands major towns which lie in the Ganga main stem. The largest of these towns are Hardwar (MB), Tehri (MB), Uttarkashi (MB) and Dhaluwala (CT). Only 6,515 scheduled tribal people reside in Uttarakhands share of the Ganga main stem, comprising about 0.002 per cent of Uttarakhands Ganga main stem population. Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh in total have 702 towns and cities, with 54 Class I cities and 47 Class II cities. Some of the Class I cities are Hardwar, Roorkee, and Class II like Rishikesh. Refer Appendix 3.1 for more detail on population in the cities. 2 Government of Uttarakhand 78 UTTARAKHAND Indicates the districts falling in the Ganga main stem Figure 3.1 Districts of Uttarakhand State Located in Ganga Main Stem Source: http://www.mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State%20Files/uttranchal.htm as per Census 2011 3.1.2 Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is the rainbow land where the multi-hued Indian Culture has blossomed from times immemorial. Blessed with a variety of geographical land and many cultural diversities, Uttar Pradesh, has been the area of activity of historical heroes like - Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Mahavira, Ashoka, Harsha, Akbar and Mahatma Gandhi. Rich and tranquil expanses of meadows, perennial rivers, and dense forests and fertile soil of Uttar Pradesh have contributed numerous golden chapters to the annals of Indian History. Dotted with various holy shrines and pilgrim places, it plays an important role in the politics, education, culture, industry, agriculture and tourism of India.The two pious rivers of Indian mythology, Ganga and Yamuna flow through this state. Uttar Pradesh is surrounded by Bihar in the East, Madhya Pradesh in the 79 South, Rajasthan, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana in the west and Uttaranchal in the north and Nepal touch the northern borders of Uttar Pradesh, it assumes strategic importance for Indian defence. Its area of 2,36,286 sq kms. lies between latitude 24 deg to 31 deg and longitude 77 deg to 84 deg East. Area wise it is the fourth largest State of India. In sheer magnitude it is half of the area of France, three times of Portugal, four times of Ireland, seven times of Switzerland, ten times of Belgium and a little bigger than England3. The state of Uttar Pradesh (UP) has 17 districts in the Ganga main stem, namely: Ballia, Allahabad, Bulandshahar, Azamgarh, Fatehpur, Varanasi, Farrukhabad, Sant Ravidas Nagar Bhadohi, Saharanpur, Rae Bareli, Mirzapur, Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat, Kannauj, Jyotiba Phule Nagar, Ghazipur and Bijnor. These districts have an enormous combined population, totaling 45,595,698 in number. Some of the larger towns in UPs share of the Ganga main stem include Allahabad (M Corp), Saharanpur (MB), Fatehpur (MB), Varanasi (M Corp), Farrukhabad-cum-Fatehgarh (MB), Kanpur (M Corp) and Mirzapur-cum-Vindhyachal (MB), with the total large town population of UP in the Ganga main stem reaching 8,078,852. UPs tribal population in the Ganga main stem numbers only 16,621, accounting for an insignificant per cent of the total number. Some of the Class I cities in the state are Kanpur, Allahabad, Lucknow, Agra, Varanasi, Aligarh, Jhansi and some of the Class II cities in the state are, Tanda, Faridpur, Bijnor. For population details for class I and II cities refer to Appendix 3.1 3 http://upgov.nic.in/ 80 Figure 3.2 Districts of Uttar Pradesh State Located in Ganga Main Stem Source: http://www.mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State%20Files/up.htm as per Census 2011 3.1.3 Bihar Bihar is located in the eastern part of the country (between 83°-30' to 88°-00' longitude). It is an entirely land­locked state, although the outlet to the sea through the port of Kolkata is not far away. Bihar lies mid-way between the humid West Bengal in the east and the sub humid Uttar Pradesh in the west which provides it with a transitional position in respect of climate, economy and culture. It is bounded by Nepal in the north and by Jharkhand in the south. The Bihar plain is divided into two unequal halves by the river Ganga which flows through the middle from west to east4. In Bihar, there are 12 districts which fall within the Gangas main-stem namely, Begusarai, Buxar, Katihar, Khagaria, Lakhisarai, Munger, Patna, Purnia, Saran, Sheikhpura, and Vaishali with a population of about 25,543,106 (Figure 3.3). Some of the main towns which fall in the Bihar region of the basin are Patna, Begusarai, Bhagalpur, Chapra, Munger, Katihar, Hajipur and so on with a population of about 3539970 which accounts for nearly 14 per cent of the total population in the region. The scheduled tribes account for about 1.4 per cent of the people who inhabit the basin. Bihar and Jharkhand has in total 215 towns and cities. Bihar has 29 Class I cities and 24 Class II cities. Some of the class I cities are, Patna, Gaya, Bhagalpur, 4 Government of Bihar , 81 Begusarai, Darbhanga, etc. and class II cities like Buxar, Sitamarhi, Mokameh, etc. For more details on the class I and II cities population refer to appendix 3.1 Indicates the districts falling in the Ganga main Figure 3.3 stem Districts of Bihar State Located in Ganga Main Stem Source: http://mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State%20Files/bihar.htm#hp as per Census 2011 3.1.4 Jharkhand The 28th state of the Indian Union was brought into existence by the Bihar reorganization Act on November 15,2000- the birth anniversary of the legendary Bhagwan Birsa Munda. Jharkhand is famous for its rich mineral resources like Uranium, Mica, Bauxite, Granite, Gold, Silver, Graphite, Magnetite, Dolomite, Fireclay, Quartz, Fieldspar, Coal (32% of India), Iron, Copper (25%of India) etc. Forests and woodlands occupy more than 29% of the state which is amongst the highest in India5. 5 Government of Jharkhand 82 The State of Jharkhand has only one district, known as Sahibganj, which falls in the Ganga main stem (Figure 3.4). The district of Sahibganj has a population of 927,770. The two major towns of this district are Sahibganj and Rajmahal, which have a combined population of only 98,131. In sharp contrast to most other districts in the Ganga main stem, Sahibganjs tribal population of 270,423 greatly exceeds the amount of people living in its major towns and comprises 29 per cent of Jharkhands Ganga main stem population. Some of the Class I cities of the state are, Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Dhanbad, and class II like Katras, Tisra. For demographic details for the cities refer to Appendix 3.1 Indicates the districts falling in the Ganga main stem Figure 3.4 Districts of Jharkhand State Located in Ganga Main Stem Source: http://www.mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State%20Files/jharkhand.htm as per Census 2011 3.1.5 West Bengal The seven districts of West Bengal which is part of the Ganga main stem are 24 Pargana South, 24 Pargana North, Hoogli, Howrah, Kolkota, Maldah, Medinipur (Figure 3.5). In all, around 42,630,182 people reside in the West Bengal region of the Ganga main stem, with about 9,293,861 people residing in major towns like 83 Maheshtala, Rajpur Sonarpur, Serampore, Hugli-Chinsurah, Chandannagar, Haora, Kolkota, Bhatpara, South Dum Dum and so on. Around four per cent of the population in the basin belongs to the scheduled tribe class. . Bengal has 160 towns and cities, out of which 27 are class I and 27 are class II cities. Some of the Class I cities are, Kolkatta, Haora, Siliguri, South Dumdum and some of class II cities are, Ranaghat, Bolpur, etc. Refer to Appendix 3.1 for city wise population statistics. Indicates the districts falling in the Ganga main stem Figure 3.5 Districts of West Bengal State Located in Ganga Main Stem Source: http://www.mohfw.nic.in/NRHM/State%20Files/wb.htm as per Census 2011 3.1.6 Demographic profile of Ganga main stem Basic demographic characteristics of the states are described in the table below. 84 Table 3.1(a) Distribution of Population by Location and Caste Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West India Pradesh Bengal Total 8,489,349 166,197,921 82,998,509 26,945,829 80,176,197 1,028,610,328 Population % urban 25.67 20.78 10.46 22.24 27.97 27.82 population % rural 74.33 79.21 89.54 77.76 72.03 72.18 population Number of 2,566,282 34,301,455 16,316,527 5,838,522 20,140,157 193,579,954 households Household 5.3 6.5 6.1 5.6 5.1 5.3 size % SC 17.87 21.15 15.72 11.84 23.02 16.2 Population % ST 3.02 0.01 0.91 26.30 5.50 8.2 Population % NA 31.15 42.6 NA 27.02 Population below poverty line Source: Census of India 2001 Majority of the population in all the five states falls in rural category (72 %-89 %). Out of the five states, Jharkhand has the maximum population of Scheduled Tribes, the indigenous people. In all the states, tribes are present in all the districts along the river Ganga except for two districts in Uttar Pradesh, though the spatial distribution varies from state to state. Table 3.1(b) Distribution of Population by Class of Cities State Number of cities Total Population Uttarakhand Class I 5 1,141,150 Class II 1 69,460 Uttar Pradesh Class I 60 25,205,180 Class II 46 3,382,520 Bihar Class I 23 5,783,554 Class II 14 1,113,800 Jharkhand Class I 14 4,964,171 Class II 10 826,300 West Bengal Class I 59 19,699,751 Class II 27 2,004,440 (Source: Central Pollution Control Board, 2008 85 The major proportion of the population in all the five states reside in Class I cities. Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of Class I (60) and Class II (46) cities, while Uttarakhand has the least number of Class I (5) and Class II (6) cities, amongst the five states. Table 3.2 Distribution of Population by Sex Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West India Pradesh Bengal Total 8,489,349 166,197,921 82,998,509 26,945,829 80,176,197 1,028,610,328 Population % male 50.95 52.68 52.10 51.52 51.71 51.73 % female 49.04 47.31 47.89 48.47 48.28 48.26 Sex Ratio 964 898 921 941 934 933 (Number of females per 1000 males) Sex ratio 908 916 942 965 960 927 (0-6 years) Source: Census of India 2001 All the five states have comparable sex ratio. Though the average number of females per 1000 males is less, and Uttar Pradesh is the worst state in terms of the sex ratio. The state of Uttarakhand is the best amongst the five states in sex ratio and even better than the national average of 933 females per 1000 males. While in sex ratio categorization for the age group of 0-6 years, state of Jharkhand fares well and has sex ratio even more than national average. Table 3.3 Distribution of Population by Age Group Uttarakh Uttar Bihar Jharkhan West India and Pradesh d Bengal 0-9 years 1,993,446 45,612,898 23,810,374 7,173,741 17,106,869 238,763,954 % 23.53 27.57 28.75 26.66 21.37 23.27 10-14 years 1,093,530 22,310,434 11,063,777 3,534,953 9,538,536 124,846,858 % 12.91 13.48 13.36 13.13 11.91 12.17 15-59 years 4,730,247 85,888,210 42,445,259 14,625,165 47,718,976 585,638,723 % 55.84 51.91 51.25 54.34 59.60 57.09 60 years and 654,356 11,649,478 5,501,274 1,578,662 5,700,099 76,622,321 above % 7.72 7.04 6.64 5.87 7.12 7.47 Source: Census of India 2001 86 All the states witness the maximum number of population (55%-60%) in the age group ranging from 15-59 years. In the age group of 0-9 years, maximum population is present in Bihar and the minimum is in West Bengal. In the age group of 60 years and above the same trend is seen that is maximum population in Uttarakhand and minimum in Jharkhand. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state. Table 3.4 Educational Level Uttarakh Uttar Bihar Jhar- West India and Pradesh khand Bengal Literacy Rate 72.28 57.36 47.53 54.13 69.22 64.8 % male 83.28 68.82 59.68 63.83 77.02 75.26 % Female 59.63 42.22 33.12 38.87 59.61 53.67 Education Level among literates Informal NA NA NA NA NA NA Below primary 41,107 10,922 53,108 714,953 790,284 12,503,8 32 Primary 39,240 7,433 47,909 668,489 386,445 8,566,71 7 Middle 25,963 4,737 24,540 414,740 225,054 4,561,03 5 Secondary and Sr. 11,550 1,954 20,315 282,720 85,454 2,891,82 Secondary 5 Graduate and above 5,779 830 6,463 81,619 20,566 761,179 Source: Census of India 2001 Uttarakhand state shows highest literacy rate while Bihar shows the lowest literacy rate amongst the five states in terms of both male and female literacy rate. Literacy rate of Bihar is (47.53 %) less than National literacy rate while literacy rate of Uttarakhand is much better than the national literacy rate of 64.8%. Literacy rate is an indicator of development and the level of awareness about the cleanliness, hygiene and healthy lifestyle amongst the natives. Women in all the five states have lesser rate of literacy as compared to males, reflecting the poor importance given to the education of women. 3.1.7 Gender Analysis For the successful implementation of any project, it is important that both men and women are made equal partners in all stages of the project. This section examines the status of women in the five project states of Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar 87 Pradesh and West Bengal using selected demographic, educational, socio-cultural, health-related and economic indicators. There are two demographic variables that include sex ratio and child sex ratio pertaining to the 0-6 years age group. Effective female literacy, that is, number of female literates in the population above six years and gender gap in literacy rates are the two educational indicators used in this section. The four health-related educational indicators used in this section. The four health- related variables are the female infant and child mortality rates, along with gender differences in the two rates. The socio-cultural variables are mean age at marriage among females and the total fertility rates. Female work participation rates along with the gender gap in participation levels are the twin economic variables considered in this analysis. The indicators used here include both attainment levels as well as gaps between men and women in selected spheres. For any planned development to be effective and for replication of successful experiments, there is a need for more specific details that can be provided by gender related development indicators. However, the variables and indicators for womens status need to be simple and disaggregated. The gender development indicators can generate specific sets of information that can be usefully utilized for identification of and intervention for the amelioration of the status of women. Individual, disaggregated indicators provide statistical data in a format that is amenable to the identification of problem areas as well as for intervention, thereby making it a better tool in comparison to any composite index. The projects undertaken over the past few decades have suggested a strong positive link between a focus on gender and womens participation, on the one hand, and the degree of project success, sustainability, on the other. The lesson learned from these projects suggests that though women are the primary users and managers of domestic as well as community-based activities, they and their views are not systematically represented in decision-making bodies. Focusing on gender leads to benefits that go beyond good project performance as manifested in such aspects as better procurement, O & M, cost recovery, and hygiene awareness. Focus on gender has multiplier effects and Gender should be addressed through an approach that is participatory and responsive to the needs of the poor. The participation of beneficiaries and focus on poverty reduction are two other key determinants of the 88 effectiveness and sustainability of the project. Based on the latest information available from secondary sources, indicators have been selected to reflect the levels of womens status. 3.1.7.1 The Status of Women Women work both for the labour market and for the household. Some of this work is recognized and remunerated, while most of it is not enumerated and remains unpaid. Womens contribution to the household, economy and society goes unrecognized since most of the activities females are involved in do not enter the sphere of the market and remain non-monetized. Most of the work undertaken by women is often interspersed with other household chores, making it difficult to separate the various tasks performed. The perpetuation of gender stereotypes and the social division of labour that typecasts women mainly as workers in the domestic sphere has been the chief barrier to the recognition of womens economic work participation. Non- recognition of womens participation in economic activities is not only an outcome of (a) their work being intertwined with household activities; and (b) being unpaid, making it difficult for enumerators to identify women as workers, but also stems from flawed definitions and the limited scope of economic activity. The role played by women in the care sector, predominantly their reproductive work (bearing, rearing, nurturing children and household maintenance), falls outside the national accounting systems. Many of the tasks non-working women are involved in would be considered work if performed by a person hired for the purpose or unrelated to the household. Because women perform roles, which are not statistically counted as economic and hence not monetarily valued, womens roles and their contribution are assigned a lower status. The role fulfilled by women in household maintenance and care activities is often trivialized. Assigning monetary value to all the tasks undertaken by them, however, is not very easy. Some efforts have been made to study the manner in which time is spent by women in the course of the day through time use surveys (Government of India, 2000). 89 3.1.7.2 Female Work Participation Rate and the Gender Gap in Work The female work participation rate (FWPR) is measured by calculating the proportion of female main plus marginal workers among the female population. Standard definitions of economic activity indicate low rates of FWPR. At the all-India level, only 30 per cent of women are defined as workers, main or marginal. Among the states along the river Ganga, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar are the states where the female work participation rate is lower than the national figure and the gender gap in work is higher. In female work participation rate, Uttar Pradesh is ranked 2 in the entire country with a participation rate of 31.9 and West Bengal is ranked first with a gender gap of 41.8 in work. Table 3.5 Female Work Participation Rate and Gender Gap in Work State Female work Rank Gender gap in Rank participation rate work Bihar 23.5 5 35.7 6 Jharkhand 32.2 14 26.3 15 West Bengal 21 3 41.8 1 Uttarakhand 31.9 12 23.5 18 Uttar Pradesh 20 2 37.8 4 India 30.3 31 Source: Rustagi Preet 2004) Notes: Work participation rates are calculated as the proportion of total workers (main + marginal) among respective populations above six years. On the other hand, female work participation rate is high in tribal state of Jharkhand and hilly state of Uttarakhand. These are also the states where there are low gender disparities in terms of work participation. Higher FWPR can be partially explained by the fact that community-based organization of subsistence production requires a high level of womens labour participation. On the whole, FWPR is low, partly as a result of the poor coverage given to womens work, especially in the unorganized sector and partly due to heavy domestic responsibilities that inhibit womens economic activities. Nearly 50 % of women who are principally involved in home-making reported that there was no other household member to undertake these responsibilities. 90 3.1.7.3 Gender Disparity in Sex Sex Ratio Table 3.6 Sex Ratio States Sex Ratio 1991 2001 Bihar 895 916 Jharkhand NA 941 West Bengal 907 929 Uttarakhand NA 964 Uttar Pradesh 872 898 India 923 934 Source: Census of India, 1991 and 2001 The gender composition in the population, that is, the sex ratio defined as the number of women per 1000 men, though has increased as compared to 1991 is not favourable to women in any of the five states. However, the ratio is higher than the national figure in Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. Uttar Pradesh has the lowest sex ratio followed by Bihar and West Bengal. Till 1981, undivided Bihar had the sex ratio higher than the all India gender balance, but its sex ratio declined to 911 in 1991. This drastic fall from a ratio of 946 in 1981 reflects the deteriorating situation of women in the state. In addition to the worsening mortality conditions, some of the reasons for this decline lie in increasing economic pressure for survival and sex selective migration. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have always recorded sex ratios below the all-India levels. Male migration from these states is part of the explanation. Child Sex Ratio Table 3.7 Child Sex Ratio State Sex Ratio of Children in the Age Group of 0-6 Years 1991 2001 Bihar 953 938 Jharkhand NA 965 West Bengal 967 963 Uttarakhand NA 908 Uttar Pradesh 878 916 India 945 927 Source: Census of India, 1991 and 2001 The scenario in the next decade ending in 2001 reflects a worsening gender balance among children. Child sex ratios dropped by 18 points for the country as a whole, and 91 as were in the states of Bihar and West Bengal. However, the figures are much higher than the national figure of 927 in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Though there has been an increase in Uttar Pradesh, the figures in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh is much lower than the national figure. 3.1.8 Education 3.1.8.1 Female Literacy Rate Will improvement in female literacy ensure greater gender equality can be stated with a certain degree of certainty that improving the education of women will lead to gender development; it is difficult to affirm that improvements reflected through this variable of female literacy alone will be sufficient to bring about womens equality. Use of this or other education-related indicators reflects attainment/achievement levels and highlights the gap or extent of parity between men and women. Existing levels of discrimination and biases are an outcome of socio-cultural factors and patriarchal structures which are not easily overcome by introduction of literacy alone. Nevertheless, the benefits of education cannot be trivialized as these would have a long-term impact upon the empowerment of women. Table 3.8 Female Literacy and Gender Gap in Literacy State Female Literacy Rank Gap in Literacy Rank in % in % Bihar 33.57 1 26.75 4 Jharkhand 39.38 2 28.56 2 Uttar Pradesh 42.98 4 27.25 3 Uttarakhand 60.26 17 23.75 9 West Bengal 60.22 16 17.3 19 India 54.16 21.69 Source: Census of India, 2001 As the table 3.8 above shows, female literacy is extremely poor in Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh and all the three states are ranked among the top 5 worst states in terms of womens literacy. These are also the states with higher gender gap in literacy. This could be because of low enrolment of girl child in primary schools coupled with high dropout rate (Rustagi, 2004). In Uttarakhand, though women literacy rate is higher than the national female literacy rate, the gender gap is more than the national figure. West Bengal is the only state among the five, where literacy 92 rate is higher than the national literacy rate and even the gender gap is lower than the national figure. 3.1.9 Women's Health In the governments approach to the issue of womens health there is an excessive focus on reproductive health6. Women are viewed mainly as the means of reproduction, often at the cost of their own personal, individual identity. Even now, despite some efforts to widen womens health concerns to include the issues of nutrition, sexuality and control over their bodies, state policies and programmes still emphasize and concentrate on family welfare and reproductive health. A major share of the budgetary allocations is under these heads7. 3.1.9.1 Mean age of Marriage among Women The NFHS-III (2005-2006) states that 47 per cent of married women surveyed between the ages of 20 to 24 years were married before the age of 18 and 32 percent of married men surveyed between the ages of 25 to 29 were married before the age of 21. Despite the legally stipulated minimum age of 18 years at marriage, majority of the girls still get married before attaining this age in all the states except Uttarakhand (Table 3.9). Early marriage often accompanies early pregnancy, with young unprepared mothers being saddled with responsibilities beyond their capacities. Pregnancies at young ages are more likely to result in underweight babies, stillbirths or abortions, especially where mothers suffer from poor health and deficiencies. Table 3.9 Mean Age of Marriage among Women State % Women in the Age Group of 20 to 24 % Men in the Age Group of 25 to Years who got Married by the Age of 18 21 Years who got Married by the Years Age of 21 Years Uttarakhand 23 21 Jharkhand 63 47 Bihar 69 43 West Bengal 54 27 Uttar Pradesh 58.6 51 India 47 32 Source: NFHS- III 2005-2006 6 Datta, Anindita. (2003):Articulation of an Integrated Womens Health Policy Using the Life Cycle Approach; Indian Journal of Gender Studies, pp. 25-43;10(1) 7 Rastogi P. (2004): Significance of Gender-related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States; Indian Journal of Gender Studies, pp. 291-343; 11(3) 93 3.1.9.2 Total Fertility Rate and Anemia among Women The fertility rate as per the NFHS-II and III is an average of three babies per woman for the country as a whole, which is little less than the average of 3.4 in NFHS ­I. The number of childbirths among women from the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand is even higher (Table 3.10). Frequent childbearing, often an offshoot of the predominant preference for a son in our society, takes a heavy toll on women. Among resource poor households, it is distressing to note that women breastfeed more than one child simultaneously due to lack of money to feed the older child with an alternative or supplementary diet. During childbirth, several serious complications are commonly reported, such as hemorrhage, excessive bleeding, anemia, toxicity, premature babies and associated problems and among these, anemia is a prominent cause leading to maternal deaths, apart from resulting in physically weak children. Table 3.10 Total Fertility Rate and Incidence of Anemia among Men and Women State Number of % Reported Anemic in the Age Group Children per of 15 to 49 Years Woman Women Men Uttarakhand 2.6 54.7 30.5 Jharkhand 3.3 70.6 37.8 Bihar 4 68.3 32.6 West Bengal 2.3 63.8 33.1 Uttar Pradesh 3.8 50.9 24.7 India 2.7 56.2 24.3 Source: NFHS-III-2005-2006 Every second woman in India suffers from some degree of anemia according to NFHS-III. The majority of ever married women in the age group of 15 to 49 years in all the five states along the river are anemic as compared to one third of the men in the same age group (Table 3.10). Iron deficiency is particularly pronounced among women inhabiting the eastern states (Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal) as compare to the northern state of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. 94 3.1.9.3 Median age of first birth for women Table 3.11 Median Age of First Birth of Women States Median Age of First Birth % Women Already Mother / for Women Pregnant In The Age Group Of 15 ­ 19 Years Uttar Pradesh 19.4 14.3 Uttarakhand 20.5 6.2 Bihar 18.7 25 Jharkhand 18.9 27.5 West Bengal 19 25.3 India 19.8 16 Source: NFHS-III As per NHFS ­III, the percentage of women giving birth to a child even before the age of 18 years is quite high in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal as compared to national figure of 16 percent (Table 3.11). The median age of first child birth for a woman is about 20 years that again show that in most of the cases, a girl gets married even before attaining the age of 18 years. Among the states, Uttarakhand is slightly better off where the median age is above 20 years and little over 6 percent of women in the age group of 15 to 19 have already become mother. 3.1.9.4 Couple Protection Rate Table 3.12 Sterilization among Men and Women States Percent of Men and Women those who have Undergone Sterilization for Family Planning Women Men Uttar Pradesh 17.5 0.2 Uttarakhand 32.1 1.8 Bihar 23.8 0.6 Jharkhand 23.4 0.4 West Bengal 32.2 0.7 India 37.3 1.0 Source: NFHS ­ III, 2005-2006 Women apart from being anemic and bearing the strain of maternity and childcare, the additional burden of contraception also falls overwhelmingly on women. The adoption of contraceptive measures among the women is higher. Male contraception is still poor, with very few men agreeing to vasectomy. It is as if to emphasize that since women conceive and bear children, it is their sole responsibility to control or 95 protect themselves against further reproduction8. As the table 3.12 above shows, over one third of the women have undergone sterilizations as compared to just 1 percent of men. In the states, apart from Uttarakhand where men sterilization is close to 2 percent, in all other states men sterilization is less than a percent. 3.1.9.5 Awareness about HIV/AIDS Table 3.13 Awareness about HIV/AIDS among Men and Women States % aware of HIV/AIDS in the Age Group of 15 to 49 Men Women Uttarakhand 91 64 Uttar Pradesh 74 40 Bihar 70 35 West Bengal 74 50 Jharkhand 53 29 India 80 57 Source: NFHS-III, 2005-2006 Barring Jharkhand where awareness is low among both men and women, more than 70 percent men are aware of HIV/AIDS. However percentage of women being aware is less than 50 percent except in Uttarakhand where the figures are better than the national figures (table 3.13). 3.1.9.6 Spousal Violence Table 3.14 Percentage of Women who ever Experienced Spousal Violence States % Women who ever experienced Spousal Violence Uttarakhand 28 Uttar Pradesh 42 Bihar 59 West Bengal 40 Jharkhand 37 India 37.2 Source: NFHS-III, 2005-2006 Women often face violence at the hands of their protectors. Among crimes against women, cruelty by the husband and his relatives as defined by Section 498A of the 8 Adapted from Rastogi P. (2004): Significance of Gender-related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States; Indian Journal of Gender Studies, pp. 291-343; 11(3) 96 Indian Penal Code (IPC) consistently tops the list. The NFHS ­III data shows that over one third of the ever married women in India have experienced spousal violence. Among the states, the situation is worse in Bihar where nearly three fifths of the total surveyed women have reportedly faced spousal violence followed by Uttar Pradesh (42%) and West Bengal (40%). The spousal violence in Bihar has drastically increased since 1999 when Bihar was ranked 22nd after Uttar Pradesh (14) and West Bengal (17) in the country wide ranking of states9. 3.1.9.7 Women's Participation in Decision-making Since women are located in different households, castes, communities and regions and are bound by distinct rituals, practices and structures of power, they rarely view themselves as a group with similar demands and needs. They are often governed by decisions that others take on their behalf which are unquestioningly followed. Little over one third of the married women in India participate in decision making at the household level. The percentage however is higher in Jharkhand, probably because of largely matriarchal society. Table 3.15 Percentage of Married Women who Participate in Decision Making at Household Level States % Married Women who Participate in Decision Making at Household Level Uttarakhand 36.0 Uttar Pradesh 33.7 Bihar 32.7 West Bengal 23.9 Jharkhand 41.8 India 36.7 Source: NFHS-III, 2005-2006 As the analysis above indicates that women though play an important role in the society, yet they have a very low status in the society coupled with little control over household resources; considerable health hazard; and poverty. It has been recognized 9 Adapted from Rastogi P. (2004): Significance of Gender-related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States; Indian Journal of Gender Studies, pp. 291-343; 11(3) 97 therefore that any sub project developed as part of the NGRBA programme should address and integrate such gender issues and inequalities. Mainstreaming gender equity and empowerment is already a focus area in the NGRBA programme preparation. Based on identified gender issues through socio- economic survey of every sub project activities will be integrated under each proposed investment to address womens needs. 3.1.10 Poverty Analysis The project will support several activities of the recently constituted NGRBA through this project. These will cover a range of interventions: i) building the institutional capacity of the NGRBA, participating entities, and regulators such Pollution Control Boards at the Centre and State levels, ii) a selection of activities that will help accomplish its Mission Clean Ganga, which aims to prevent any untreated waste going into the over 2500 km long river by year 2020. Therefore, the selection of interventions would primarily focus on characteristics of the candidate discharges / location ­ quantum of generation, concentration of pollution, etc. While the overall impact of these activities would be broadly positive, especially as these improvements would improve quality of the ambient environment in the basin as a whole, some of the activities / interventions could potentially adversely impact some poor people dependent on the current status of the river, its surrounding areas, and the settlements that are located along/very close to the River. The Gangetic plain covering about 287,000 km2 of area across 5 states ­ Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, is a monotonous plain formed by the fine grained soil carried down by the Ganga over millennia. It is one of the most fertile areas in the country. Physiographically, the 2250 km reach in the plains is divided into 3 parts ­ Upper Gangetic Plains (about 770km) in Uttarakhand and UP; Middle Gangetic Plain (1005 km) in UP, Bihar, with a sliver in Jharkhand; and Lower/Deltaic plain (470 km) almost entirely in West Bengal. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand have been part of a group of states lagging persistently in terms of overall growth and development as measured across a variety of indicators. While West Bengal has not been traditionally identified with this group, its recent decelerating performance is a cause of a rising concern. 98 This annex provides an overview of some historical as well as recent estimates on income poverty for the 5 project states. As will be described later, high levels of rural poverty are a particular concern in the Middle Gangetic Plain where despite access to highly fertile soil and abundance of water, people are not able to quickly and permanently move out of poverty. Starting with a comparison of these with the country-wide poverty / income scenario, this annex then briefly describes the current poverty situation in the districts along the River Ganga vis-à-vis that within the respective states. Additional information in the last section has been included to provide anecdotal evidence of some of the key issues that would be further explored as part of the Poverty and Social Impact Assessments (PSIAs) to be taken up during project implementation. 3.1.10.1 Historical Trends The project states have had a disproportionately high incidence of income poverty for decades. As can be seen from Table 3.16, their efforts to increase the income their residents have shown mixed results. In most cases, they have lagged the average for the country as a whole. These numbers can be put into perspective by noting that Indias population rose from 528 million in 1971 to 1027 million in 2001. In the same period, total population of the project states increased from 189 million to just over 329 million. Slightly under half (~45%) of all poor people in India lived in these states at the beginning of the current millennium. Though the proportion of poor people continued to decline in these states, the rate of reduction had not been able to keep pace with the overall rate for India, except for West Bengal, where again it seemed to have slowed down towards the end of 1990s. Another significant feature of income poverty that period, not reflected in Table 3.16, pointed out in Mehta and Shah (2003), is that its incidence in the low income states(then 510 ­ Bihar, MP, Orissa, Rajasthan, and UP), which include 4 project states except West Bengal was over 50% higher than poverty in other large states. 10 In end-2000 Uttarakhand was created out of UP, Jharkhand out of Bihar, and Chhattisgarh out of MP. 99 Table 3.16 Historical Incidence & Concentration of Poverty: Project States and India11 State Percentage of India's Percentage of poor population in Population the State Total Poor Population 2001 1999-2000 1973-74 1993-94 1999-2000 Bihar (Bihar + 10.69 16.36 61.91 54.96 42.6 Jharkhand) UP (Uttar Pradesh + 17.00 20.36 57.07 40.85 31.15 Uttarakhand) West Bengal 7.81 8.20 63.43 35.66 27.02 INDIA 100 100 54.88 35.97 26.1 3.1.10.2 Recent Estimates of Income and Poverty The last decade has seen a sustained increase in the growth rate for the entire country in which the 8% threshold has been crossed in almost half the years. This unparalleled increase in incomes of the states has resulted in increased income for the average person in each state. Since the creation of the smaller states ­ Jharkhand and Uttarakhand, there has been some improvement with their average rate of growth of per capita income being higher than the India has a whole for the period 2001-2008. However, the larger ones Bihar and Uttar Pradesh ­ continue to lag behind India, as well as their newest off-shoots. As can be seen from Table 3.17, Bihar also followed a very volatile growth pattern with 2 years of negative growth. West Bengal seems to be losing the early advantage it had gained in terms of per capita income until 2003 and lately it seems to have slowed down substantially compared to national rate. Table 3.17 Statewise Per Capita Income and Growth Rates at Constant Prices (New Series 1999-2000) Year Bihar Jharkhand Uttar Uttarakhand West Bengal INDIA Pradesh Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (% e (`) (%) ) 2000- 6554 9980 9721 14932 16244 16172 01 2001- 5994 -8.5 10451 4.7 9672 -0.5 15364 2.9 17225 6.0 16764 3.7 02 2002- 6658 11.1 10563 1.1 9806 1.4 16530 7.6 17567 2.0 17101 2.0 11 Adapted from Mehta A. and A Shah (2003): Chronic Poverty in India: Incidence, Causes and Policies; World Development pp491-511; doi: 10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00212-7; Elsevier Science Limited 100 Year Bihar Jharkhand Uttar Uttarakhand West Bengal INDIA Pradesh Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR Incom GR e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (%) e (`) (% e (`) (%) ) 03 2003- 6117 -8.1 11173 5.8 10120 3.2 17542 6.1 18374 4.6 18301 7.0 04 2004- 11. 6772 10.7 12869 15.2 10421 3.0 19524 19367 5.4 19331 5.6 05 3 2005- 6719 -0.8 12950 0.6 10758 3.2 20355 4.3 20212 4.4 20868 8.0 06 2006- 8167 21.6 14252 10.1 11334 5.4 22178 9.0 21753 7.6 22580 8.2 07 2007- 8703 6.6 15303 7.4 11939 5.3 23477 5.9 23229 6.0 24295 7.6 08 Mean Growt 4.6 6.4 3.0 6.7 5.3 6.0 h Source: http://planningcommission.nic.in/data/datatable/Data0910/tab%2061.pdf + TT calculations This increased income has translated into the reduction in poverty at the aggregate level. The latest figures available for the entire country are from the 61st Round of NSSO survey of Consumer Expenditure carried out in 2004-05. The Planning Commission has used this survey and calculated the percentage of poor people and their numbers for the project states as reproduced in Table 3.18. While not strictly comparable, as the new states were created only in 2000, it indicates that the incidence of poverty has fallen in Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal. In this period, project states share of poor people of India has increased from just less than 45% (see Table 3.18) to slightly more than 54%. The sharply increased rate of poverty in Uttarakhand, where the rate of increase of per capita income has been faster than India as a whole, and in Uttar Pradesh, due to its size, are disconcerting developments for the states and India. Table 3.18 Nos. and % of Population below Poverty Line 2004-05 (Based on URP-Consumption) State Rural Urban Combined % of No. of % of No. of % of No. of Population persons Population persons Population persons (00,000) (00,000) (00,000) Bihar 42.1 336.72 34.6 32.42 41.4 369.15 Jharkhand 46.3 103.19 20.2 13.2 40.3 116.39 Uttar Pradesh 33.4 473 30.6 117.03 32.8 590.03 Uttarakhand 40.8 27.11 36.5 8.85 39.6 353.96 101 State Rural Urban Combined % of No. of % of No. of % of No. of Population persons Population persons Population persons (00,000) (00,000) (00,000) West Bengal 28.6 173.22 14.8 35.14 24.7 208.36 India 28.3 2209.24 25.7 807.96 27.5 3017.2 Source: Table 2 of Poverty Estimates for 2004-05 - Press Note dated March 2007, Press Information Bureau, GoI One possible explanation for the increase level of poverty can be from the definition of the poverty line. As can be seen from Table 3.19, the poverty line for rural areas Uttarakhand is about 34% higher than weighted average for India; and in urban areas, the corresponding number is about 18% higher. For other states, for rural areas, the notional all-India poverty line is higher but difference is less than 10%. In case of the urban areas, all 4 states have defined their poverty lines 10-20% below the implicit level for India. Table 3.19 State-Specific Poverty Lines in 2004-05 ( Per Capita per Month) State Rural Urban Bihar 354.36 435.00 Jharkhand 366.56 451.24 Uttar Pradesh 365.84 483.26 Uttarakhand 478.02 637.67 West Bengal 382.82 449.32 India* 356.30 538.60 *The poverty line (implicit) for all-India level is worked out from the expenditure class-wise distribution of persons (based on URP consumption, that is, consumption data collected from 30-day recall period for all items) and the poverty ratio at all-India level. The poverty ratio at all-India level is obtained as the weighted average of the state-wise poverty ratio. Source: Table 1in PIB, GoI ibid. 3.1.10.3 Poverty at the State Level This section delves into the differences among the states ­ rural and urban to present the latest available situation analysis for the project states. It has been compiled from the 61st round of NSSO survey mentioned above and draws heavily on Chaudhari and Gupta (2009)12. Other sources of information used for the analysis include the Census of India, 2001. The following additional indicators of poverty have been identified 12 Chaudhari S. and N. Gupta (2009): Levels of Living and Poverty Patterns: A District-wise Analysis for India, Economic and Political Weekly Vol. XLIV No. 9 pp94-110. 102 from the state-level profiles: i) % of households with no assets; ii) % of households cooking in the open; iii) % of households with drinking water source outside premises; iv) % of households using crop residue/firewood as fuel; v) of households having no drainage in the house; and vi) % of households with no latrine within the house. As can be seen from Table 3.20, the lowest average Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) in the rural areas is for Bihar while the highest is in Uttarakhand. However, Uttarakhand is also the most unequal and Bihar emerges with the lowest Lorenz ratio highlighting a more equitable society, at least in terms of expenses incurred. In urban areas, West Bengal has the highest MPCE and highest inequality as measured by the Lorenz Ratio (LR), however, though Bihar has the lowest MPCE, Uttar Pradesh has the most equitable distribution among the project states. It is also striking that the average MPCE in rural Bihar is only over 17% of the poverty line in Table 3.19, while in West Bengal the corresponding average MPCE is more than 45% higher than its own poverty line even though each is home to a similar proportion of Indias rural population. Table 3.20 State Level Estimates of Average MPCE, Head Count Ratio, and Lorenz Ratio in 2004-05 Rural Urban % of All- Average RSE of % Lorenz % of All- Average RSE % Lorenz India MPCE MPCE Poor Ratio India MPCE of Poor Ratio Population (`) Population (`) MPCE State Bihar 9.1 417 0.95 42.6 0.2054 2.7 696 5.76 36.1 0.3289 Jharkhand 2.8 425 1.61 46.2 0.2247 1.6 985 5.58 20.3 0.351 Uttar 18.1 533 1.23 33.3 0.2807 13 857 4.96 30.1 0.323 Pradesh Uttarakhand 0.9 647 4.49 40.7 0.2859 0.8 978 6.00 36.5 0.364 West 8.1 562 2.02 28.4 0.2696 7.8 1124 3.10 13.5 0.3786 Bengal India 100 559 0.54 28.3 100 1052 1.14 25.6 Source: Table 4 in Chaudhari and Gupta ibid. Table 3.21 provides a snapshot of performance of the project states on the key indicators that may be pointers to poverty. In terms of the material possessions, Bihar has the least with about 50% of all households owning none of the specified assets. On this count, rural areas of Uttar Pradesh and urban areas of Uttarakhand are the best performers in each setting. While one would expect open cooking to be less in the hill 103 areas of Uttarakhand, the low numbers is Jharkhand are slightly unexpected and may warrant further inquiry. While sourcing drinking water from outside premises is a reality for uniformly large proportion in urban and rural population of Jharkhand, it is a situation that is also faced by over 75% of rural households in West Bengal. The use of biomass based fuel for cooking may indicate limited access to clean fuel and therefore moving away to kerosene or gas may be a clear signal of reduced poverty. In Jharkhands case, low figures can be easily traced to coal use, especially in the urban areas. Together with the low numbers of cooking in the open, this points to a potential risk of damage due to indoor air pollution that can adversely affect the health, especially among the women in Jharkhand. The most surprising data pertains to drainage as one would have expected that with the flat slopes in the plain regions, drainage would be a very important feature of the areas dwellings. However, almost 70% of all households in West Bengal and almost 85% of rural households do not have drainage for carrying away wasted water, the risks of water-related illnesses may always be lurking. On the provision of latrine within the house, Uttarakhand is the best performer, followed by West Bengal, and Bihar is worst overall with over 80% of houses not having such a facility. Among the rural areas, Jharkhand is the worst performing state, with only 10% of houses with a latrine within the house. Improved provision of drainage from houses and household latrines can have beneficial impacts for the households and also help to achieving the project goal of reduction/elimination of untreated waste going into the river. Table 3.21 Selected State Level Non-income Indicators of Poverty (as of 2001) State % owning % % with % using % % with Out of none of cookin drinking crop with no Million the g in water residue / no latrine Household 'specified' the source firewood draina within s assets open outside / cow ge in the premises dung as the house fuel house Total 49.5 21.6 61.4 91.1 62 80.8 13.983 Bihar Rural 51.3 22.5 63.7 96.0 65.1 86.1 12.660 Urban 32.2 13.8 29.5 43.8 31.4 30.3 1.323 Total 39.6 8.4 80.0 69.1 70.4 80.3 1.282 Jharkhand Rural 44.3 8.8 90.3 84.6 82.3 93.4 0.895 Urban 22.6 7.0 42.8 14.2 27.6 33.3 0.387 Total 20.3 16.8 54.0 85.3 29.5 68.6 25.761 Uttar Rural 21.4 18.4 61.8 96.3 35.0 80.8 20.590 Pradesh Urban 15.7 10.6 23.0 41.8 7.6 20.0 5.171 104 State % owning % % with % using % % with Out of none of cookin drinking crop with no Million the g in water residue / no latrine Household 'specified' the source firewood draina within s assets open outside / cow ge in the premises dung as the house fuel house Total 25.7 6.9 54.7 60.7 51.9 54.8 1.586 Uttarakhan Rural 30.1 7.7 67.3 74.7 65.0 68.4 1.196 d Urban 12.0 4.3 17.9 17.4 11.8 13.1 0.390 Total 30.1 14.6 67.9 64.6 69.2 56.3 15.716 West Rural 34.0 17.1 76.5 84.2 84.1 73.1 11.162 Bengal Urban 20.4 8.3 46.6 16.6 32.9 15.2 4.554 Source: Housing Profile from Census of India 2001 3.1.10.4 Poverty within project states Since the 61st round of the NSSO used districts as the units of reporting, it is possible to compare the distribution of poor people within the state across districts. Since the Ganga flows through some of the districts in each state, in Jharkhand only 1 district ­ Sahibganj, a comparison is presented below of the incidence of poverty in districts that line the Ganga vis-à-vis those that do not share any part of their land with the flowing main stem of the mighty river in each state. During subsequent stages of the project, the detailed PSIAs could focus on the variables listed in Table 3.21 in addition to the classical poverty indicators that are being compared in the following portion of this analysis. This would help in better targeting of interventions in line with project objectives. Bihar In Bihar, the Ganga flows through around 1/3rd of the states districts. As can be seen from Table 3.22, there is little difference between the MPCE and incidence of poverty in rural areas between the 12 districts that line the Ganga and the 25 districts that do not. However, in urban areas, the situation is markedly different. The percentage of urban poor is far less (> 50% less) in the districts where the Ganga flows. It also compares favorably with the overall 34.6% poverty ratio for the entire state. The MPCE is also more than `217 higher in urban areas of these districts compared to urban areas of other districts in Bihar. This would mean that urban areas in non-Ganga districts would need to increase MPCE by about 45% to match the performance of the districts bordering the river. 105 Table 3.22 Comparison of Districts within Bihar on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05) Number RURAL URBAN of Proportional MPCE % Median Proportional MPCE % Median Districts population (`) Poor LR population (`) Poor LR Ganga 12 30 418.38 42.23 0.19 53.7 796.55 28.0 0.251 Bank Non- 25 70 416.06 42.8 0.179 46.3 579.24 45.56 0.24 Ganga Source: Chaudhari and Gupta ibid + TT calculations Jharkhand In Jharkhand, Ganga flows along a 50km stretch lining just Sahibganj district. The district is home to about 3.6% of rural population and about 1% of urban population of the state. It is worse off than the rest of the state on MPCE ­ in both rural and urban areas. The incidence of poverty is also higher than the state as a whole (63.7% in rural areas compared to 46.2% for Jharkhand; 29.95 for urban areas in Sahibganj compared to 20.3% for the entire state). Its economy is built around the coal business and river seems to be playing little part in its economy. Uttar Pradesh Out of UPs 70 districts, 17 are physically connected to the Ganga. As can be seen from Table 3.23, while there is little (~0.2%) in the MPCE values for rural areas in the two groups of districts, in urban areas the MPCE in Ganga districts is higher by slightly over 5%. This contrasts with the situation in Bihar (Table 3.22) where even after an increase of about 25% only a small change in the Lorenz ratio is anticipated. Another contrast with Bihar appears in the incidence of poverty in urban areas. As groups, difference is very small between Ganga and Non-Ganga districts only about 4.3%. 106 Table 3.23 Comparison of Districts in Uttar Pradesh on income poverty parameters (2004-05) Number RURAL URBAN of Proportional MPCE % Median Proportional MPCE % Median Districts population (`) Poor LR population (`) Poor LR Ganga Bank 17 26.7 523.52 31.82 0.239 28.5 895.96 27.511 0.304 Non-Ganga 53 73.1 536.30 33.82 0.251 71.8 842.08 31.85 0.283 Source: Chaudhari and Gupta ibid + TT calculations Uttarakhand In Uttarakhand, the rural MPCE for districts where the Ganga flows is about 6% lower than in rural areas of other districts of the state. However, the situation is quite different in urban areas as can be surmised from Table 3.24. In urban areas, MPCE increases over 85% and the incidence of poverty is reduced by more than 10%. It should be noted that the difference between the incidences of poverty in two groups of districts is the largest in Uttarakhand. Table 3.24 Comparison of Districts in Uttarakhand on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05) Number RURAL URBAN of Proportional MPCE % Median Proportional MPCE % Median Districts population (`) Poor LR population (`) Poor LR Ganga Bank 3 29.4 604.37 28.19 0.251 27.2 1136.82 17.7 0.234 Non-Ganga 10 70.4 643.63 38.83 0.231 72.7 918.45 43.6 0.261 Source: Chaudhari and Gupta ibid + TT calculations West Bengal West Bengal has the highest concentration of urban population of all the project states. The urban areas in 7 districts along the Ganga have distinction of having the least % of poor people in all project states. Along the river, moving from rural to urban area would more than double MPCE, and the % of poor persons would be reduced by 50% whereas for the non-Ganga districts, this would result in a 50% increase as shown in Table 3.25. The increase in the Lorenz ratio is also comparatively larger for the increase in MPCE. 107 Table 3.25 Comparison of Districts in West Bengal on Income Poverty Parameters (2004-05) Number RURAL URBAN of Proportional MPCE % Median Proportional MPCE % Median Districts Population (`) Poor LR Population (`) Poor LR Ganga Bank 7 46.9 610.75 23.38 0.256 68 1269.38 9.07 0.365 Non-Ganga 11 53.1 518.95 32.85 0.233 31.9 813.64 25.59 0.309 Source: Chaudhari and Gupta ibid + TT calculations 3.1.10.5 Specific Activities and Impacts on Poverty/Livelihoods In the preceding data and its brief analysis, several dimensions of poverty of the population within project states at the district level have been described. Under the project, in context of the presence of vulnerable/poor people, three distinct situations (and many in the continuum that connects these), each requiring a different approach to handle the potential impacts can be: a) where the objectives of project activity also yield direct benefits to the poor and/or vulnerable people in the project area; b) some adjustment in the design of the project activity would lead to direct benefit/ positive impact for the vulnerable section; and c) where the project activities, if implemented without any regard for the local / present vulnerability, could result in negative impacts and would therefore require planning for specific mitigation measures in advance. In the following paragraphs, each of the three situations is briefly presented and analyzed. It should provide the basis for developing consistent approaches for handling such situations as the program evolves and more site-specific information regarding the nature and extent of poverty and other vulnerabilities becomes clearer. a) Enhancing Farm produce and Farmers benefits in Urban/Fringe Areas Peri-urban agriculture is crucial for the supply of fresh produce to Indian cities, and for local livelihoods and the economy. However, there is little understanding or support for the particular opportunities and threats associated with farming these areas, especially when untreated/partially treated wastewater is used for irrigation. As part of an India-wide evaluation for IWMI13, wastewater irrigation and its impacts on livelihoods in Kanpur were assessed. The study noted the 13 Winrock International (2006):Urban Wastewater: Livelihoods, Health and Environmental Impacts in India; submitted to International Water Management Institute, Colombo. 108 perceived advantage of added income (about doubling of income from same sized plot using fresh water) as a key driver of this practice. The study covered 2770 farmers with average holding for lessees and land owning farmers are 1.25 ha and 0.81 ha, respectively in the Jajmau area, within the Kanpur city limits that are using the wastewater as irrigation water for the last five decades. The villages are spread over an area of approximately 2,500 ha, with a population of approximately 50,000. Scheduled Castes and backward castes of Mallahs/Nishads and Yadavs dominate the villages. Most of the population is engaged in farming on small and marginal land holdings or riverbeds, cattle rearing, and fishing in the Ganga. Within this context, the following observations are particularly relevant: Flood irrigation is used in wastewater-irrigated areas. Wastewater flows by gravity and this irrigation method requires no distribution network but introduces a considerable level of personal contact with the effluent and increased threat of infection by pathogens. The wastewater provides benefits of irrigational support and minor values of nitrogen, phosphorous, organic carbon, etc. But this method also contaminates soil, vegetable crops or root crops, and exposes farmers to wastewater more than any other method of irrigation. The inadequately treated wastewater from the STPs and CETP are utilized for irrigation by adjoining farmlands in Jajmau area; the sludge generated from the sewage treatment plants is disposed to wastewater-irrigated villages. Several hectares of land are degrading due to unscientific use of treated/untreated and heavily contaminated wastewater. The critical levels of the heavy metals in soils displaying negative impacts on agricultural crops are high. Almost all the farmers reported that crop yield has declined by 40-50 percent over the past few years due to wastewater irrigation. Since the current irrigation practice began in the early 1990s, wheat production has decreased by 30-35 percent and rice by 40-45 percent. Anecdotal references to spontaneous abortion in 10-40 percent of their cattle and lower milk production by five to six liters a day per buffalo was also reported. 109 This shows that even when there are real livelihood benefits, irrigation with partially treated wastewater needs to be handled with care. Given that there is potential contamination with heavy metals such as chromium and cadmium in the area, the priority should be to treat completely to ensure that the concentrations are safe for contact with humans, consumption, and irrigation. Project activities that help achieve these objectives simultaneously ­ enhancing / preserving livelihoods while improving living conditions / health of such vulnerable groups may be given a higher priority. b) Engaging marginalized fisherfolk in conservation of Flagship Species Fishing activity in Ganga becomes increasingly important as the river flows towards the sea. A recent policy paper14 from CIFRI (2007) notes that the gangetic system is home to about 265 species of fish. Catch statistics over the years indicate some disturbing trends in the riverine sector, the total average fish landing in the Ganga River system declined from 85.21 t during 1959 to 62.48 t during 2004. This contrasts sharply with the rest of the country since India's inland fish yield went up by eight times in the last four decades. Traditional riverine fisherfolk lose out on this rapid rise which has been attributed to aquaculture. CIFRI carried out a study15 regarding status of fishers along the Ganga and found that MPCE for the group ranged between `251and `383. Its analysis further showed that on average, fishers spent 66% on food and 34% on non-food items. The major food item of the expenditure was cereals (37%) followed by vegetables (7%). Among non-food items highest expenses were on medical (9%) followed by intoxicants (8%). Several other limitations also contribute to their current neglect. For instance, the Census of India does not have clear classification of the riverine fisherfolk. Neither do they exist in the livestock 14 Das M. K., Samanta S, and Saha P.K. (2007): Riverine Health and Impact on Fisheries in India; Policy Paper No. 01; Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute; Barrackpore 15 "Techno-Socio-economic status of Fishers of River Ganga" (2006) Report of ICAR AP Cess Fund Scheme Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore. 80 p. cited in Current Status of River Ganges 110 census. A large chunk of the 387 communities of fisherfolk, which the Anthropological Survey of India has identified, is involved in inland fishing16. Conflicts also begin to emerge with the other concerns such as conservation of important species at the top of the food webs ­ such as the Gangetic Dolphin, locally known as Susu, after the river enters the plains at the Uttarakhand/Uttar Pradesh border. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has been working very closely with the local fisherfolk in the stretch between Anupshahr and Narora for protecting the Gangetic Dolphin for several years. One of its recent studies17 inferred that poverty compels the fishermen to fish but the harassment by fish contractors forces them towards excessive fishing. Since most fishermen use large meshed gill-nets they are focused on catching large sized individuals and therefore assumed to be conducting commercial fishing (55%). The study also found that excessive fishing and dolphin-poaching were found to be interrelated which led them to recommend that if fishing can be more effectively managed poaching may automatically decline. 41% of the fishermen interviewed were found to be willing to stop fishing providing adequate alternative livelihoods are provided by the government. Such information, for other areas that are rich in biodiversity, could provide some initial pointers on how the project activities should be aligned with poverty reduction objectives to provide a sound basis for all-round development for these relatively backward communities while furthering conservation efforts. c) Protecting the most vulnerable and disadvantaged social groups The age-old practice of depositing human remains in the Ganga also poses health threats because of the unsustainable rate at which partially cremated cadavers are dumped. In Varanasi, some 40,000 cremations are performed each year, most on wood pyres that do not completely consume the body18. Along with the remains of these traditional funerals, there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies are simply thrown into the Ganga. These inadequate cremation procedures contribute to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt 16 Down To Earth (2002): February 2002; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi - Article titled: ,,Orphans of the river has a more detailed and passionate account of their conditions 17 Bashir T., Khan A., Behera S., Gautam P. (2010): Socio-economic factors threatening the survival of Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica in the upper Ganges River, India; Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2010 | 2(8): 1087-1091 18 http://www.gits4u.com/water/ganga.htm#Pollution%20in%20Ganga%20River accessed on 16th October 2010. 111 corpses floating down the Ganga. Soot-covered Dom (the custodians of the burning ghats, the funeral ground known as smashan) men carry out the most menial and morose task of raking in the still-glowing ashes, sweeping them into the river. Doms usually represent the lower most level of socio-economic fabric of the society. They have few other skills that can be useful in providing them with income if such activity ­ open cremation on wood piles, is ceased or restricted as part of the project efforts to reduce the inflow of waste material into the river. Alternative livelihood arrangements such as training into other vocations would need to be blended into the project design in such cases. 3.1.11 Health Health is an important indicator of human wellbeing. Life expectancy, IMR and maternal mortality rate are some of the important indicators of the health status. Table 3.26 Life Expectancy at Birth by Sex in India 1996-2002 States/India 1996-00 1997-01 1998-02 Male Female Male Female Male Female Bihar 60.9 59.1 61.1 59.3 61.4 59.5 Haryana 64.4 65.1 64.6 65.2 64.7 65.4 Himachal 65.4 66 65.5 66.1 65.7 66.3 Pradesh Madhya 56.6 56.3 56.7 56.4 57 56.7 Pradesh Rajasthan 60.1 61.1 60.3 61.3 60.5 61.6 Uttar Pradesh 59.1 57.9 59.2 58.1 59.4 58.5 West Bengal 63 64.5 63.2 64.6 63.3 64.8 Delhi N.A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Uttarakhand N.A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Jharkhand N.A N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. India# 61 62.7 61.3 63 61.6 63.3 Ganga main 61.35714 61.42857 61.51429 61.57143 61.71429 61.82857 stem (avg) NA= Not Available (Sources: Registrar General of India) Average life expectancy has shown increasing trend from year 1996 to 2002 in all the five states as with the trend shown by the country as well as for the Ganga main stem. Out of the all the basin states, Himachal Pradesh has the highest life expectancy at birth for both sexes (males, females). 112 Table 3.27 Infant Mortality Rates - 1999-2003 (State-wise and Rural / Urban-wise) (per 1000 live births) State Rural Urban Combined 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Bihar 64 63 63 62 62 51 53 52 50 49 63 62 62 61 60 Haryana 70 69 68 64 61 59 57 55 51 49 68 67 66 62 59 Himachal Pradesh 63 62 56 53 51 38 37 32 28 26 62 60 54 52 49 Madhya Pradesh 96 93 92 89 86 56 54 53 56 55 90 87 86 85 82 Rajasthan 85 82 84 81 78 60 58 57 55 53 81 79 80 78 75 Uttar Pradesh 88 87 86 83 79 65 65 62 58 55 84 83 83 80 76 West Bengal 55 54 54 52 48 41 37 37 36 34 52 51 51 49 46 Uttarakhand N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Delhi N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Jharkhand N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Ganga main stem 521 510 503 484 465 370 361 348 334 321 500 489 482 467 447 TOTAL Source: Sample Registration system, Registrar General of India Latest as provided by RGI Infant Mortality rates have shown decreasing trends in all the states and Ganga main stem in general from 1999 to 2003. Highest IMR is found in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The same trend is seen in both rural and urban areas that the state of Uttar Pradesh has the maximum cases of IMR. On an average in 2003 the cases of IMR reported in Uttar Pradesh were 76 per 1000 live births. Table 3.28 State-wise Data on Primary Health Infrastructure State Required PHC In place PHC Bihar 2489 1641 Uttar Pradesh 4390 3690 Uttarakhand 214 239 Jharkhand 806 330 West Bengal 1993 924 Source: RHS Bulletin, March 2008, M/O Health & F.W., GOI West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand clearly reflects the poor health facility available in the states, the required number of primary health centers is far behind the present 113 number of primary health centers in the state. The status of health facilities is not satisfactory in all the four states, Uttarkhand only have more than the required number of facilities. Poor health facilities hamper the development and progress of the states. Table 3.29 State / UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Dengue in India 2005-2009 (provisional) ICD - 10 Code A90 - A91 S. State / UT 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 No. Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death 1 Bihar 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Uttar 2 Pradesh 121 4 639 14 132 2 51 2 168 2 West 3 Bengal 6375 34 1230 8 35 4 1038 7 399 0 4 Uttarkhand 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 5 Jharkhand N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Source: Directorate of national Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Dte. GHS/ MOHFW, GOI State of West Bengal shows the maximum number of cases due to dengue and hence the cases of deaths due to dengue are also reported high in West Bengal. While in the latest available data of year 2009 there has been no cases of death though the numbers of cases reported due to dengue were 399. Table 3.30 State / UT wise Cases and Deaths due to Malaria in India 2005-2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code B50 ­ B54 S. State / UT 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 No. Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death Cases Death 1 Bihar 2733 1 2744 1 1595 1 2541 0 2853 20 2 Uttar Pradesh 105303 0 91566 0 82538 0 93383 0 54488 0 3 West Bengal 185964 175 159646 203 87754 96 89443 104 137768 74 4 Uttarakhand 1242 0 1108 0 953 0 1059 0 1264 0 5 Jharkhand 193144 21 193888 4 184878 31 214299 25 228116 28 (Source: Directorate of national Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Dte. GHS/ MOHFW, GOI) State of Jharkhand shows the maximum number of malaria cases; however the cases of deaths due to malaria are reported highest in West Bengal. 114 Table 3.31 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Cholera in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD-10 Code A00 S.No. State / UT Cases Deaths 1 Bihar 0 0 2 Jharkhand 0 0 3 Uttarkhand 1 0 4 Uttar Pradesh 0 0 5 West Bengal 486 0 Source: Directorate of national Vector Borne Disease Control Programme, Dte. GHS/ MOHFW, GOI For cholera, the data available is only for the state of West Bengal, where in 486 cases were reported in the year 2009 and the cases of deaths due to this disease is zero. While all the rest four states shows zero cases in cholera. Table 3.32 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Acute Diarrheal Disease in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code A09 (State-wise Inference) S. State / UT Male Female Total Reference No. Cases Deaths Cases Deaths Cases Deaths Period up to 1 Bihar 0 0 0 0 0 0 NR 2 Jharkhand 28912 2 26235 2 55147 4 Oct., 09 3 Uttarkhand 59040 41 52200 29 111240 70 Dec., 09 4 Uttar Pradesh 227503 97 181453 54 408956 151 Dec., 09 5 West Bengal 1231941 370 1211343 355 2443284 725 Dec., 09 Source: Monthly Health condition reports from Directorate of Health Services of States / UTs Diarrheal disease is mainly attributed to poor sanitation and drinking untreated polluted water. West Bengal shows the maximum number of cases of diarrhea disease. While Uttar Pradesh bags the second rank among the data available for four states. In West Bengal females are more prone to diarrhea as compared to males as indicated by the data. And hence the number of deaths due to diarrhea is higher in females of Bengal as compared to males. This clearly reflects the vulnerable and poor status in the society. Table 3.33 State/UT-wise Cases and Deaths due to Enteric Fever (Typhyoid) in India 2009 (Provisional) ICD - 10 Code A01 S.No. State / UT Male Female Total Reference Cases Deaths Cases Deaths Cases Deaths period up to 1 Bihar 0 0 0 0 0 0 NR 2 Jharkhand 17225 3 11235 2 28460 5 Oct., 09 115 3 Uttarkhand 12556 34 10453 15 23009 49 Dec., 09 Uttar 4 Pradesh 34024 46 27192 21 61216 67 Dec., 09 West 5 Bengal 71504 49 61591 29 133095 78 Dec., 09 Source: Monthly Health condition reports from Directorate of Health Services of States / UTs High cases of water borne diseases are reported in the states, but they are averted by treatment and fewer numbers of deaths happen due to water borne diseases. High number of water borne diseases could be attributed to inaccessibility to safe drinking water and poor sanitation and hygiene surroundings. Moreover the use of untreated water is also one of the important reasons for such diseases. 3.1.12 Economic Profile 3.1.12.1 Economic Importance The Ganga main stem with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganga main stem is one of the most populous regions on Earth, home to 450 million people at an average density of over 550 individuals per square kilometre. In the delta zone this rises to over 900 per square kilometre. As a result, there is strong demand and competition for natural resources, especially water for domestic use and irrigation, and most of the basin tributaries are regulated by barrages. 19 3.1.12.4 Tourism Tourism is another related economic activity. Three towns holy to Hinduism ­ Haridwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi ­ attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters. Thousands of Hindu pilgrims arrive at these three towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges in Rishikesh also are popular for river rafting, attracting hundreds of adventure seekers in the summer months. During festival of Chatth, Ganga ghats at Bihar attracts thousabd sof devotes and tourists. So, the Ganga main stem is a source of economy to the states and country through tourism related activities.20 19 http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/rivers/ganga/ 20 http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/rivers/ganga/ 116 Plate 3.6 Pilgrims and tourists taking holi dip Plate 3.7 Picture showing navigational activity 3.1.13 Work force participation Table 3.34 Distribution of Population by Occupation Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West India Pradesh Bengal Total 3,134,036 53,983,824 27,974,606 10,109,030 29,481,690 402,234,724 Workers Main 2,322,347 39,337,649 21,052,875 6,446,782 23,023,583 313,004,983 workers Marginal 811,689 14,646,175 6,921,731 3,662,248 6,458,107 89,229,741 workers Non 5,355,313 112,214,097 55,023,903 16,836,799 50,694,507 626,375,604 workers Number of 259,683 13,400,911 13,417,744 2,851,297 7,362,957 10,675,330 Agricultural Labourers Household 72,448 3,031,164 1,100,424 430,965 2,172,070 16956942 Industry workers Source: Census of India 2001 117 32-38 % population in the five states is falls in category of main or marginal workers out of which U.P is at 32 % and Jharkhand at 38%. In Uttar Pradesh, Agriculture is the main occupation of 66 per cent of the population of the State21. Around 90 % of the total population at Uttarakhand is engaged in the occupation of agriculture.22 Agriculture is the backbone of Bihar's economy with 81% of workforce and generating nearly 42% of the State Domestic Product. 23 Agriculture and allied activities are the major source of Jharkhand's economy also24. It plays a pivotal role in the West Bangal state's economy and nearly three out of every four persons is directly or indirectly involved in agriculture.25 For all agricultural activities, farmers are dependent on the river water from Ganga. 3.1.14 Housing profile The table below shows the number of notified and non-notified slums in three main stem states of Ganga. Table 3.35 Estimated Number of slums in states Estimated Number Of Households Number Of Slums dwelling in slums State/UT Non Non Notified Notified Notified All Notified All Slums Slums Slums Slums Uttar 775 1,868 2,643 115,162 112,637 227,799 Pradesh Bihar 349 977 1,326 26,194 43,168 69,363 West 2,871 5,253 8,125 797,946 732,975 1,530,920 Bengal All India 26,166 25,522 51,688 5,358,272 2,871,472 8,229,744 Source: Ministry of housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation 21 http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st_uttarpradesh.php 22 http://www.mapsofindia.com/uttarakhand/information/population.html 23 http://krishi.bih.nic.in/defolt1.html 24 http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st_jharkhand.php 25 http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st_westbengal.php 118 West Bengal has the highest number of slums compared to Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Consequently the households dwelling in slums are also highest in West Bengal. Number of non-notified slums is also highest in West Bengal compared to the other two states. Tables appended below provide description about the housing profile of the five states of Ganga main stem: Table 3.36 Type of Fuel Used (No. of Households) Uttarakh Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West Bengal and Pradesh Total 1,586,321 25,760,601 13,982,590 4,862,590 15,715,915 Fire wood 865,411 11,401,917 3,984,372 2,720,270 4,746,205 Crop residue 40,995 3,541,376 4,829,522 210,105 3,506,003 Cow dung 55,141 7,043,989 3,923,341 434,454 1,899,208 Coal 565 99,898 284,855 1,031,321 1,951,304 Kerosene 69,903 587,795 156,263 46,078 774,388 LPG 531,076 2,913,579 529,069 327,624 1,962,540 Electricity 1,456 36,228 13,401 32,365 31,501 Biogas 15,452 55,459 16,179 6,722 32,457 Any other 847 35,192 229,499 41,314 663,394 Source: Census of India 2001 Table 3.36 indicates that fire wood, crop residue and cow dung are the major fuel used in all the five states. All five states reflect the same point of excess usage of fuel wood, crop residue by the households. LPG is still not used as a major fuel in all the states except Uttarakhand. While negligible number of households in all the five states uses electricity as fuel. This shows poor development in the area as the cleaner fuel technologies are not widely used. Lower grade fuels are mostly used by the households. Sanitation infrastructure, is depicted through the data described in the tables below indicating the overall status of sanitation and hygiene in the states Table 3.37 Distribution of Households by Availability of Bathrooms and Toilets Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West Pradesh Bengal % households having 38.8 28.7 9.6 15.1 23.6 Bathrooms % urban 77.9 63.8 43.1 54.5 58.6 % rural 26.0 19.9 6.1 4.1 9.4 % households with toilets 45.2 31.4 19.2 19.7 43.7 Pit latrine 18.7 10.3 6.5 3.3 17.5 Water closet 15.4 8.0 7.9 10.7 20.9 119 Other latrines 11.0 13.2 4.8 5.7 5.2 No latrines 54.8 68.6 80.8 80.3 56.3 Source: Census of India 2001 Less than 50 % of households in all the states have bathrooms in their households, especially the scenario is very poor in rural areas. Majority of the households in all the states have no access to the toilets. The figures presents that rural areas in the states have lack of basic amenities and infrastructure related to sanitation. States of Bihar and Jharkhand are the worst in terms of the household coverage. Poor sanitation facilities impact the socio-economic life of the residents and it also impacts the water quality. Poor sanitation coverage is a cause of serious concern for the quality of River Ganga. Table 3.38 Distribution of Households Connected by Drainage System Uttarakhand Uttar Pradesh Bihar Jharkhand West Bengal Number of households connected by Closed drains 164,438 2,456,926 623,258 309,494 1,148,754 Open drains 597,929 15,700,507 4,697,088 1,131,148 3,685,306 No drains 823,954 7,603,168 8,662,244 3,421,948 10,881,855 Source: Census of India 2001 High numbers of households are without any drainage system, which is another indicative of poor sanitation coverage in all the states, which show that all the waste water is drained into open areas, which may run into nearby water bodies, and ground water causing pollution and inviting serious health implications. Table 3.39 Distribution of Households by Availability of Kitchen Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West Pradesh Bengal Number of households 1,131,016 13,127,343 5,429,945 2,915,082 10,616,983 having separate kitchen Not available 340,597 8,253,707 5,511,958 1,528,371 2,659,334 Cooking in Open 109,233 4,334,383 3,024,598 406,800 2,290,683 Source: Census of India 2001 Uttarakhand has the maximum number of households having separate kitchen (72%), while Bihar is the state without separate kitchen. (39%) and also takes the lead in having the maximum number of households where kitchen is not available. Hence in 120 Uttar Pradesh there are maximum number of households where in cooking is done in open. Kitchen availability is an indication of better hygiene practice. Table 3.40 Distribution of Households by Availability of Electricity and Toilets Uttarakh Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West and Pradesh Bengal Electricity and toilets 38.6 20.0 7.9 15.8 30.1 both available Electricity available 21.7 11.9 2.4 8.5 7.4 but no toilet Toilet but no electricity 6.6 11.4 11.3 3.8 13.6 Both not available 33.1 56.7 78.4 71.9 48.9 (Source: Census of India 2001) Electricity and toilets are indicative of the access to basic services of the households, all the states show low coverage in terms of availability of both essential infrastructure. Bihar and Jharkhand shows the worst coverage with only 7.9% of households in Bihar and 15.8% of households in Jharkhand have access to both toilets and electricity. Table 3.41 Distribution of households by availability of drinking water sources Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West Pradesh Bengal % households having 44.8 46.0 39.6 20.0 32.1 drinking water facility within the premises % households having 38.5 44.0 48.2 55.5 49.9 drinking water facility near the premises % households having 16.7 10.1 12.2 24.5 18.0 drinking water facility away from the premises (Source: Census of India 2001) Jharkhand has very low percentage of households (20%) which have drinking water facility within their premises. While the majority of the households in the state have water facilities near the premises. While compared to all five states, Uttarakhand indicates best of statistics in terms of percentage coverage of households having drinking water facility within the premises. 121 Table 3.42 Sources of Safe Drinking Water % households Uttarakha Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West nd Pradesh Bengal Tap 65.9 23.7 3.7 12.6 21.4 Hand pump 19.8 63.4 77.9 27.0 55.8 Tube well 1.0 0.7 5.0 3.1 11.3 Well 1.2 11.6 12.6 51.8 10.0 Tank / Pond 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.2 River / Canal 1.9 0.1 0.2 2.7 0.3 Spring 2.1 0.1 0.1 1.4 0.7 Others 6.9 0.4 0.5 1.1 0.4 Source: Census of India 2001 The importance of safe drinking water for health and development has been reflected in the outcomes of many international policy forums. States of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal have majority of households having access to safe drinking water from handpump, while tap is major source in Uttarakhand and well in Jharkhand. Very few households in all the five states rely on the river water directly for drinking purpose. Table 3.43 Distribution of Households by Banking Services and Asset Ownership Uttarakhand Uttar Bihar Jharkhand West Pradesh Bengal % households 59.8 44.1 21.3 30.1 36.8 availing banking services % households owning following assets Radio 49.7 39.6 27.8 26.4 38.6 Television 42.9 25.0 9.1 17.2 26.6 Telephone 9.9 5.6 2.2 3.3 6.7 Refrigerator Bicycle 30.9 69.5 40.6 50.3 52.6 Scooter / 11.9 10.4 3.6 9.3 5.0 Motorbike/ Moped Car / Jeep 2.7 2.2 0.9 1.5 1.9 Source: Census of India 2001 Asset ownership and banking services of the households in the states indicate the basic socio-economic status of the households in the states. Bihar has low percentage 122 of households having access to banking services and even the asset ownership by the households in the state is poor as compared to rest four states. Table 3.44 Brief Economic Profile of Ganga main stem State Economic issues Uttarakhand Essentially a religious centre, Haridwar is also known as a centre of herbal medicine, and traditional studies at Gurukul Kangri and today, Haridwar is a bustling urban centre of the new state of Uttarakhand. Tourism industry is based on these festivals and religious importance of the holy Ganges at this pious site. Livelihood of many people depends on the tourist inflow in the city of Haridwar.26 Uttar Uttar Pradesh encompasses a huge part of the superiorly fertile upper Pradesh Gangetic plain which is instrumental to the predominantly agriculture based economy of Uttar Pradesh. Agriculture is the main occupation of 66 per cent of the population of the State. Use of the Ganges water for irrigation, either when the river is in flood or by means of gravity canals, has been common since ancient times. The cultivated area of the Ganges valley in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar benefits from a system of irrigation canals that has increased the production of such cash crops as sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 225359/Ganges- River/48081/Economy). Fisheries along the river are also of considerable economic value and their output makes a major contribution to regional nutritional needs (http://assets.panda.org/ downloads/ mrwgangacasestudy.pdf). Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, over the years has experienced an economic boom. And today, the city has become one of the fastest developing urban cities of India. Kanpur is the largest city of Uttar Pradesh, and is the principal industrial base of the state (http://india.mapsofindia.com/top-10-cities/in-uttar-pradesh.html). Bihar Agriculture is the bedrock of Bihars economy, employing 80% of the workforce and generating nearly 40% of its gross domestic product (Bihar; Towards a development strategy, A World Bank report, http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDIA/Resources/Bihar_report_final_June 2005.pdf). Agriculture has been the sole source of wealth in Bihar. The cultivated area of the Ganges valley in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar benefits from a system of irrigation canals that has increased the production of such cash crops as sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds (http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/225359/Ganges-River/48081/Economy). Commercial fisheries in the Ganga River System are an important source of economic revenue for Bihar as well. The river Ganga is also the main source of 26 www.discoverindia.net/yoga-meditation-tours.html 123 State Economic issues electricity supply in the many parts of Bihar. The Ganga flowing through the town of Gaya in Bihar is considered to be the most auspicious and holy after Varanasi and Allahabad. Thousands of devout Hindus come to the ghats of Gaya to pray for their ancestors (http://www.holidayiq.com/states/experiences/Bihar-Hindu-Pilgrimage- Ganga-Gaya-Holiday-Experiences-Travel-Themes-5-177) Pilgrimage and the associated tourism it brings along is a major source of revenue for this religious town and its people. Jharkhand Ganga of Jharkhand is intrinsically linked to the economy of the state. It provides the necessary silt in much of the land around it, increasing its fertility. Paddy is the greatest crop of the region. Therefore, the significance of Ganga in the state increases manifold. Many towns in Jharkhand are primarily industrial. Ganga provides the necessary infrastructure for the factories to perform. Thus, the importance of Ganga at Jharkhand cannot be fathomed. It is not surprising that the inhabitants consider Ganga as the reigning deity and worship it with all devotion and faith.27 West The Bhgirathi-Hooghly river system is an essential lifeline for the people of Bengal West Bengal. It is through this river that the East India Company sailed in to Bengal and established their trade settlement - Calcutta, which later grew up to be one of the greatest cities of the world and capital of the erstwhile British India. People from other countries like French, Dutch, Portuguese, etc. all had their trade settlement by the banks of this river. The river provides perennial supply of water to the plain of West Bengal for irrigation and human & industry consumption. The river is navigable and the major transport system in the region with a huge traffic flow. For a long time, the Calcutta Port was the biggest port of India. Though in the past its significance had gone down, but recently it had again came up to the 3rd position in the list of Indian Ports. The fish from the river are important to the local economy. The modern container port of Haldia, on the intersection of lower Hooghly and Haldi River, now carries much of the region's maritime trade. One new port will be built in the deep sea to reduce load on Calcutta port. Hooghly river valley was the most important industrial area of erstwhile state of Bengal. Due to declining jute industry, the prime industry of this region, it lost its glory and partitioning of Bengal. But still it is one of the biggest industrial areas of India. Except Kolkata and Howrah it has number of small cities which forms the Greater Kolkata Agglomeration, the second biggest Indian city and former capital28 27 moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Vol-1.pdf 28 www.westbengaltourism.gov.in/.../dream_river_westbengal.html 124 3.2 Cultural Practices of Communities The river Ganga is also mentioned in the Rig-Veda, the earliest of the Hindu scriptures. Hindus treat Ganga like a Goddess rather than a river and it is considered highly sacred. It is worshipped in India and holds an important place in the Hindu religion. Hindu belief holds that bathing in the river on certain occasions causes the forgiveness of sins and helps attain salvation. People travel from distant places to immerse the ashes of their kin in the waters of the Ganga; this immersion also is believed to send the ashes to heaven. Several places which lie along the banks of the river Ganga are considered sacred for Hindus, including Haridwar and Kashi. The religious importance of the Ganges may exceed that of any other river in the world. It has been revered from the earliest times and today is regarded as the holiest of rivers by Hindus. While places of Hindu pilgrimage, called tirthas, are located throughout the subcontinent, those that are situated on the Ganges have particular significance. Table 3.45 below describes in brief for each state the social, cultural and economic issues related to the river Ganga. It presents significance as well as the issue related to the contamination of the pious river. Table 3.45 Cultural Profile of the States State General Information Social and Cultural Significance Uttarakhand Uttarakhand is located at the Also known as Dev Bhumi, foothills of the Himalayan Uttaranchal is a boon for the mountain ranges; it is largely a pilgrim tourists. The Maha hilly State (93% of its total Kumba Mela, the Char Dham geographic area is mountainous), Yatra and the Kailash having international boundaries Mansarovar Yatra give with China (Tibet) in the north Uttaranchal an international and Nepal in the east. On its recognisance. The major pilgrim north-west lies Himachal places include Haridwar, Pradesh, while on the south is Rishikesh, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Uttar Pradesh. It is rich in Gangotri, Yamunotri, natural resources especially Devprayag, Nandadevi and water and forests with many Purnagiri. Haridwar is also the glaciers, rivers, dense forests and second most populated district of snow-clad mountain peaks Uttarakhand, after Dehradun (http://ua.nic.in/uk.gov.in/pages/ (http://www.euttaranchal.com/ut display/115-about-us). taranchal/explore_uttaranchal.ph The provisional capital of p). 125 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance Uttarakhand is Dehradun which The culture of the present is also a rail-head and the largest Kumaon, a division of city in the region. Uttarakhand, is a blend of There are 13 districts in influences from the indigenous Uttarakhand which are grouped population as well as from the into two divisions, Kumaon immigrants to this region. division and Garhwal division. Consequently, the myths, Garhwal division comprises of 7 dialects, languages, folk districts while Kumaon division literature, festivals, fairs and has 6 districts. forms of artistic expression are (http://ua.nic.in/uk.gov.in/) examples of the creative Garhwal, or Gadhwal, is a influences of the different region and administrative cultural groups that constitute division of Uttaranchal, lying in Kumaon the Himalayas. It is bounded on (http://www.euttaranchal.com/cu the north by Tibet, on the east by lture/kumaon/). Kumaon region, on the south by The city of Haridwar is Uttar Pradesh, and on the west associated as the Gateway to by Himachal Pradesh. It includes both Lord Shiva and Lord the districts of Chamoli, Vishnu, as ,,Hardwar and Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri ,,Haridwar respectively. (Pauri Garhwal), Rudraprayag, Haridwar is also rightfully called Tehri (Tehri Garhwal), and ,,Gangadwar, as the holy river Uttarkashi. The administrative Ganga which flows down the center for Garhwal division is Himalayas, enters the plains at the town of Pauri Haridwar and spreads over the (http://www.euttaranchal.com/cu northern plains. lture/garhwal/). Haridwar is among the seven sacred cities of Hindu culture in India. Hardiwar is also one of the four venues in the country for the Kumbh Mela and Ardh Kumbh Mela, held every twelve and six years respectively. Haridwar is known for its temples, bathing ghats and tanks. Uttar Pradesh The state of Uttar Pradesh shares The history of Uttar Pradesh is its borders with Nepal and the very ancient and interesting. It is Indian states of Bihar, recognised in the later Vedic Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Age as Brahmarshi Desha or Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Desha. Many great Haryana, Uttarakhand and Delhi. sages of the Vedic times like Uttar Pradesh is India's most Bhardwaja, Gautam, populous state with a population Yagyavalkaya, Vashishtha, of over 190 million people. The Vishwamitra and Valmiki state covers total area of 243,286 flourished in this state. Several km2 with population density of sacred books of the Aryans were 792 per km2 . also composed here. Two great 126 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance Lucknow is the administrative epics of India, Ramayana and and legislative capital of Uttar Mahabharata, appear to have Pradesh whereas Kanpur is the been inspired by Uttar Pradesh financial and industrial capital. (http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st Few other big cities of Uttar _uttarpradesh.php). Pradesh are Meerut, Agra, In the sixth century B.C., Uttar Aligarh, Bareilly, Allahabad, Pradesh was associated with two Ghaziabad and Noida. new religions - Jainism and The 70 districts of Uttar Pradesh Buddhism. are clubbed under 18 divisions Besides ancient places of which are Agra, Aligarh, pilgrimage like Varanasi, Allahabad, Azamgarh, Bareilly, Vindhyachal, Ayodhya, Basti, Chitrakoot, Devipatan, Chitrakoot, Prayag, Faizabad, Gorakhpur, Jhansi, Naimisharanya, Mathura, Kanpur , Lucknow , Meerut, Vrindavan, Dewa Sharief, Mirzapur, Moradabad, Dargah of Sheikh Saleem Chisti Saharanpur, Varanasi in Fatehpur Sikri, Sarnath, (http://www.mapsofindia.com/m Shravasti, Kushinagar, Sankisa, aps/uttarpradesh/uttar-pradesh- Kampil, Piprahwa and district.htm). Kaushambi, places like Agra, Uttar Pradesh forms a major area Ayodhya, Sarnath, Varanasi, of the Northern fertile plain or Lucknow, Jhansi, Gorakhpur, the Indo-Gangetic plain. Jaunpur, Kannauj, Mahoba, The city of Allahabad is among Devgarh, Bithur, and the largest cities of Uttar Vindhyachal have rich treasures Pradesh and situated at the of Hindu and Islamic confluence of three rivers- architecture and culture. Ganga, Yamuna and the Nestled on the banks of the river invisible Saraswati. It has 8 Ganga, Kanpur stands as one of tehsils, listed as following: North Indias major industrial Koraon, Soraon, Meja, Handia, centres with its own historical, PhulPur, Bara, Sadar, religious and commercial Karchhana. importance. "Sangam" or "Triveni" at Allahabad, is the holy confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati and it is revered by millions. The biggest congregation, perhaps of the world, Kumbha Mela is held at this Sangam every twelfth year and Ardh kumbh Mela every sixth year. Magh Mela is also held at Allahabad in January during which people come in large number to have a dip in the holy Sangam. Among other 127 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance festivals, Ganga Mela is a unique festival that is celebrated only in Kanpur, 7 days after the festival Holi (http://india.gov.in/knowindia/st _uttarpradesh.php). The major polluting industries on the Ganga main stem in Uttar Pradesh are the leather industries, especially near Kanpur, which use large amounts of Chromium and other toxic chemical waste, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. People near the river bank have developed yellow spots all over their bodies (http://ibnlive.in.com/news/kanpurs -ganga-is-an-unholy-mess/26303- 3.html) Bihar Bihar is located in the eastern Chhath is an ancient Hindu part of the country. It is an festival dedicated to the worship entirely land­locked state, of the Lord Sun and is mainly although the outlet to the sea celebrated in the northeast through the port of Kolkata is region of India chiefly in Bihar, not far away. Bihar lies mid-way Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, between the humid West Bengal some parts of Chhattisgarh, in the east and the sub humid Jharkhand on the banks of Uttar Pradesh in the west which Ganga. It goes without mention provides it with a transitional that the river Ganges is one of position in respect of climate, the most important rivers of economy and culture. It is Jharkhand: the other rivers in bounded by Nepal in the north Jharkhand flow as tributaries to and by Jharkhand in the south. the river Ganga. The Bihar plain is divided into (http://www.mapsofindia.com/jh two unequal halves by the river arkhand/geography-and- Ganga which flows through the history/rivers.html). middle from west to east Bihar finds mention in the (http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/defa Vedas, Puranas, Epics etc and ult.htm) was the main scene of activities Patna district is one of the thirty- of the Buddha and the 24 Jain eight districts of Bihar state, Tirthankaras. with Patna as the district The festivals in Bihar can be headquarters. Patna district is a divided as religious festivals and part of Patna division Tribal Festivals. Known as the cradle of Buddhism, Bihar has . an immense Hindu majority Sub Divisions: (6 Nos) : Patna (http://www.webindia123.com/B Sadar, Patna City, Barh, ihar/festivals/index.html). 128 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance DanaPur, Masaurhi, Paliganj. The river Ganga is of great Blocks: Patna Sadar, Phulwari importance to Bihar. Most of its sharif, Sampatchak, Fatuha, streams flow through Bihar. It Khusrupur, Daniyawaan, Barh, has a historical importance for Bakhtiarpur, Belchi, Bihar. The Patliputra (now Athmalgola, Mokama, Pandarak, Patna), which is the state capital Ghoswari, Bihta, Maner, of Bihar has been located on its Danapur, Naubatpur, Masaurhi, banks. Other cities are also Dhanarua, Punpun located on its banks, such as (http://www.biharonline.gov.in/ Hazipur, Munger, etc. River Site/Content/General/Dist.aspx?t Ganga supports Bihar in yp=B&id=24&AspxAutoDetect agriculture, mostly. CookieSupport=1). River Kosi also called the Bihar has a network of rivers. sorrow of Bihar is one of the This is the most striking feature largest tributaries of river about the geography of Bihar. Ganga. After flowing 58 km in Among the rivers flowing Nepal, it enters the north Bihar through Bihar, the Ganges river plains near Bhimnagar and after is most dominant and is joined another 260 km, flows into the by the three mighty rivers, Ganges near Kursela. The river Ghagra, Gandak, and Sone. travels a distance of 729 km One of the most striking feature from its source to the confluence of the river system of Bihar is with the Ganga. Kosi is prone to the dominant role of Ganga. The flood the Bihar region almost important rivers that join the every year, hence this name "the Ganga from the north are, from sorrow of Bihar". west to east, Ghaghra, the Sonpur, which is situated along Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Ganga's bank in Bihar, is famous Kosi, the Mahananda and its for the great bathing festival tributaries which is the occasion for the (http://www.bihardiary.com/biha greatest cattle and elephant fair r/geography.asp). in the world (http://www.bihardiary.com/biha r/geography.asp). Jharkhand It has 18 districts: Garhwa, Ganga played a very important Palamau, Lohardaga, Chatra, role in the formation of the very Hazaribagh, Kodarma, Bokaro, structure of Jharkhand. It can be Giridih, Deogarh, Dhanbad, said to be the very source of the Dumka, Pakaur, Godda, riverine civilization that grew Sahibganj, Ranchi Gumia, West around the Gangetic plains. Singhbhum, East Singhbhum Ganga divides, what was In Jharkhand, the river passes previously, Bihar into two clear through Sahibganj and halves. The Southern part Rajmahal. became Jharkhand and the More than 80 km of the river Northern part remained Bihar. Ganga flows through Jharkhand. Because of the fertile lands that Wastes generated by towns in it creates through its silt 129 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance Sahibganj, cremation of bodies deposits, Ganga in Jharkhand is on the riverbank, industrial and appropriately revered and mining waste are the major respected by the inhabitants of polluters. the state. The districts that are While the population of lined by the Ganga in its course Sahibganj is about five lakh, that are Sahebganj, Bokaro and of Raj Mahal is about 50,000. Hazaribagh. (http://www.mapsofindia.com/jh arkhand/geography-and- history/ganga.html). River Ganga girdles the state, which lies in its lap, as it flows across the region. Situated on the right bank of the river Ganges, Rajmahal is a small but historically important town. It was the seat of Government during the Mughal period when Raja Man Singh, general of Emperor Akbar made Rajmahal the capital of Bengal in 1592. Even today relics of the old and prosperous Rajmahal are visible in this one time capital of Bengal (http://sahibganj.nic.in/tourism.h tm). West Bengal West Bengal is now divided into Ganga Sagar Mela, also known nineteen districts under three as Ganga Dussehra Mela is held divisions. in the month of January, on the The urban agglomeration of occasion of Makar Sankranti at Kolkata comprises 72 cities and Sagardwip, about 105 km. south 527 towns and villages.[47] The of Kolkata. Sagardwip is the suburban areas of Kolkata island situated at the mouth of metropolitan district Ganga where the Hooghly river incorporates parts of the districts joins the sea. This is the largest North 24 Parganas, South 24 fair of the West Bengal and Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly and celebrated for three days. On this Nadia. day, a large number of Hindu The river Ganga was an pilgrims collect here and take important transportation channel bath in the holy waters and visit in the early history of Bengal, the Kapil Muni Temple. and later with the colonial (http://www.indovacations.net/e trading ports. The river's nglish/BengalFestival.htm) presence is one of the reasons Like the rest of the Ganges, the chosen by the British to settle Bhgirathi-Hooghly is there at Calcutta. The considered sacred to Hindus, and Dutch/French colony at its water is considered holy. Chandannagar on the Hooghly About 150 large industrial plants 130 State General Information Social and Cultural Significance was once the rival of British are lined up on the banks of the Calcutta, but was eclipsed by Hooghly River around Kolkata. Calcutta in the colonial wars of Together, these plants contribute the 18th century. The river banks 30 percent of the total industrial hosted several battles and effluent reaching the mouths of skirmishes towards the start of the Ganga. Of this, half comes the colonial era, including the from pulp and paper industries, Battle of Plassey Palashi, as well which discharge a dark brown, as earlier wars against Maratha oxygen-craving slurry of bark raiders. On eastern bank lie and wood fiber, mercury and many historic and wealthy towns other heavy metals which like Murshidabad, Jangipur and accumulate in fish tissues, and Ziaganj. chemical toxins like bleaches and dyes, which produce dioxin and other persistent compounds. CNN-IBN-Outlook State of the Environment Poll has found that 77 per cent people have voted cleaning of rivers by government as the top priority. The findings are especially significant in Kolkata as its main river Hooghly is congested with solid waste and effluents. It is said that the character of a city is best judged by how well it maintains its sea or river front. Several bridges run over the Hooghly at Kolkata ­ Howrah Bridge, Vidyasagar Setu, Vivekananda Setu, Nivedita Setu (second Vivekananda Bridge), Jubilee Bridge(chinsurah) and Iswar Gupta Setu (chinsurah). 3.2.1 Fest and Festivals Most of the places along the Ganga main stem witness festivals through out the year. Ther major ones are Kumbh festival which takes place on Allahabad and Haridwar. Fest and Festivals happening at the ghats and river basin at different time periods of the year attracts millions of tourist and pilgrimages. With improper sanitation facilities and poor river front management, these activities add to the load of contamination in the river thus degrading the river water quality. The pious refuses and the customs of disposing unburnt and partially burnt increase the woes of water 131 quality of the Ganga main stem. The beliefs of people are tied with the sacredness of the Ganges, and over the years it is growing in terms of the people coming during these festivals. The Allahabad witnessed around 13 million pilgrims in 1977 and over 18 million in 1989 and then 60 million in 2001 during Mahakumbh, a major festival along the Ganga. 29 Special provision of sanitation facilities should be arranged during the festivals when thousands of pilgrims visit holy places along the banks to take dip in sacred river. At present the facility of sanitation for pilgrims is not up to the mark. Better management of the basin with proper facilities should happen in coordination with the local communities. Plate 3.8 Festivals at Ganga Ghat 29 (www.kumbhmela.net/). 132 3.2.2 Sanitation Less than 50 % of households in all the states have bathrooms in their households; especially the scenario is very poor in rural areas. Majority of the households in all the states have no access to the toilets. The figures presents that rural areas in the states have lack of basic amenities and infrastructure related to sanitation. Poor sanitation, open defecation are important factors contributing to the pollution of water. Some of the cultural beliefs in people dont permit them to use toilet, they prefer going out for defecation generally near the drains. Table 15 and 16 in the previous section reflects on the status of households having access to bathrooms, toilets and connection to drains. The results are not promising and it is severely affecting the water quality of Holy Ganges. With the rising awareness communities have started understanding the importance of river water quality and how poor quality can affect their health also. But still, large section of society needs to be trained about the environmental and economical significance of the river water, besides social and cultural significance. 3.3 Vulnerable Communities Society is witness of the poor development and indiscrimination cause against the marginalized sections of the society generally classified as ,,Scheduled Tribes. As identified by the demographic tables all the five states have tribal population, which are regarded as the indigenous group. Jharkhand has the maximum number of ST natives living in the state. Table below describes the number of different scheduled castes and scheduled tribes residing in major districts of all the five states of Ganga main stem. Table 3.46 SC and ST Population in the Major Districts of the Main Stem States Site Scheduled Castes (SC) Scheduled Tribes (ST) Jharkhand Total: 59,750 Total: 270,423 (District Sahibganj) Chamar etc: 12,030 Santhal: 205,209 Dusadh etc: 9,960 Mal Pahariya: 20,020 Rajwas: 6,731 Sauria Paharia: 16,298 West Bengal (Kolkata) Total: 274,835 Total: 9 ,810 Namasudra: 60,912 Generic Tribes: 1,989 Pod etc.: 40,756 Santal: 1,967 Chamar etc. 37,157 Oraon: 1 ,351 133 Site Scheduled Castes (SC) Scheduled Tribes (ST) Bihar (Patna) Total: 729,988 Total: 9 ,236 Dusadh etc.: 277,756 Oraon: 2,341 Chamar etc.: 199,423 Munda: 1,889 Pasi: 93,200 Gond: 1 ,556 Uttarakhand (Haridwar) Total: 313,976 Total: 3, 139 Chamar etc.: 268,489 Buksa: 2,890 Balmiki: 24,360 Generic Tribes: 122 Generic Castes: 4,231 Bhotia: 64 Kanpur Dehat Total: 685,809 Total : 2, 051 Chamar etc.: 304,424 Tharu : 1,248 Kori : 95,008 Generic Tribes : 433 Pasi : 89,895 Buksa : 237 Kanpur Dehat Total: 388,419 Total : 382 Chamar etc.: 234,591 Tharu : 267 Kori : 44,780 Generic Tribes : 111 Dhanuk : 37,732 Raji : 4 Uttar Pradesh Allahabad Total: 1,065,097 Total: 4, 273 Pasi etc.: 412,466 Generic Tribes: 3,322 Chamar etc.: 402,347 Tharu: 870 Kol: 106,164 Jaunsari: 57 Source: Census of India 2001 3.3.1 Health indicators in Five States As per the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, Health indicators of West Bengal show that the Total Fertility Rate of the State is 1.9. The Infant Mortality Rate is 35 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 141 (SRS 2004 - 2006) which are lower than the National average. Health indicators of Uttar Pradesh indicate that the Total Fertility Rate of the State is 3.8. The Infant Mortality Rate is 67 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 440 (SRS 2004 - 2006) which are higher than the National average. Health indicators of Uttarakhand depicts that the Total Fertility Rate of the State is NA. The Infant Mortality Rate is 44 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 440 (SRS 2004 - 2006) which are higher than the National average. Health indicators of Bihar reflect that the Total Fertility Rate of the State is 3.9. The Infant Mortality Rate is 56 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 312 (SRS 2004 - 2006) which are higher than the National average. 134 Health indicators of Jharkhand infer that the Total Fertility Rate of the State is 3.2. The Infant Mortality Rate is 46 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 312 (SRS 2004 - 2006) which are higher than the National average. Maternal mortality ratio also indicates that women are not given proper care and their chances of development are also very poor. Table 3.32 in the previous section also indicates that in West Bengal more number of females are getting diarrhea as compared to males and hence more females are dying because of diarrhea as compared to men. This could be attributed to poor sanitation facilities available to women in the society. Thus women and indigenous people are the most vulnerable groups who are deprived of education, proper health facility and basic needs like access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation Moreover proper education to these groups can help in better community sensitization for the issues related to maintaining river health and water quality. Educated mothers help in educating children better, and educated children are the torch bearers of the future, who can bring significant changes. Health and educated females and indigenous group is important to bring about any change in the river basin. 3.4 Key Stakeholders Table 3.47 Identified Key Stakeholders S No State Key stakeholders identified 1 Uttarakhand Government officials including representatives from Uttarakhand Payjal Nigam, PHED, ward members Research institutes like IIT Roorkee, WWF-India, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development NGOs and CSOs like Peoples Science Institute, Dehradun, Disha Foundation, Shree Hari Ganga Samiti, Samaj Sewa Sansthan, Dharam Gramin Uthan Sansthan, Himalayan Orginasation For Progress And empowerment 2 Uttar Pradesh Government officials including representatives from Ganga Pollution Control Unit, U.P Jal Nigam, U.P Jal Nigam, PHED 135 Research institutes like IIT Kanpur, WWF-India NGOs and CSOs like Ganga Sewak Samaj - Allahabad, Maa Shakuntla Devi Shikhsha evam Vikas Samiti, Kanpur, Eco Friends Kanpur, 3 Bihar Government officials including representatives from Urban Development Department, PHED, ward members Research institutes like WWF-India, Centre for Flood Management Studies (National Institute of Hydrology) NGOs and CSOs like Institute of Environment and Eco Development, Centre for Environment Education 4 Jharkhand Government officials including representatives from Urban Development Department, PHED, ward members Research institutes like WWF-India NGOs and CSOs like Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra 5 West Bengal Government officials including representatives from Urban Development Department, PHED, ward members Research institutes like IIT Kharagpur, WWF-India, Calcutta University, Indian Institute of Bio-Social Research and Development, Indian Institute of Environmental Studies and Wetland Management NGOs and CSOs like Peoples Green Society, Ramakrishna Mission The key stakeholders insisted on the important fact of coordination amongst all the important stakeholders at different levels to ensure proper and sustainable implementation of various projects. Management of the river is a joint and coordinated responsibility; hence transparency and proper coordination is necessary. 3.5 Key social and cultural issues Ganga is an issue of national importance it is a national heritage and all the concerned stakeholder should work jointly to make Ganges pollution free. Many Hindus keep water from the Ganga in glass bottles as a sacred relic, or for use in religious ceremonies. The river becomes the final resting place for thousands of Hindus, whose cremated ashes or partially burnt corpses are placed in the river for spiritual rebirth. Cultural aspects like celebrating festivals can be well managed through development of better river front development project. All the states should coordinate their 136 activity. Upstream states should be responsible in their activities which might impact the water received by downstream states through the river flow. Some of the key issues identified by the stakeholders are ; Involvement of community in all the projects related to River Ganga. Making Ganga pollution free and maintaining minimum environment flows in the river. Environment benign cultural rituals and practices on banks of Ganga Maintaining minimum water quality and quantity of the river for meeting community requirements Provision of basic amenities like safe drinking water and proper sanitation facilities to the communities especially women and children. Inclusion of social development plan with the emphasis on vulnerable group in the portfolio of projects. Planning project by taking future socio-economic scenarios well into consideration Community monitoring of disposal of any kind of refuse into the river water Creating mass awareness through different medias like street plays, advertisements etc and using school children as a vehicles of change Plate 3.9 Disposal of pious refuse into the river water 137 Chapter 4 Sources of Pollution in Ganga 4.1 General The economic significance of river Ganga and its religious and cultural value demand that sustained efforts be made to preserve the river water quality. The river provides water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use to the numerous settlements along its course, and is used by millions of people for their cultural and spiritual needs, including ritual bathing and other religious practices. Protecting the river water quality from sources of pollution is therefore essential not only for maintaining its designated best use along different stretches but also for assuring the ecological sustainability of the riverine system. Increasing population, urbanization, industralisation, and the use of agricultural chemicals, continue to pose a significant threat to water quality in the Ganga basin today. Among the major sources of pollution are both point sources such as domestic and industrial wastewater discharges; and non-point sources such as run-off from agricultural fields and uncontrolled solid waste dump sites, and river front activities like dhobi ghats, cremation grounds, bathing ghats, sacred offerings and other rituals. 138 The population and urban pressures are evident from the fact that the urban population in the Ganga basin has increased from 88 million in 1991 to 125 million in 2001 (a growth of about 42 percent in a decade). As shown in Table 4.1, 27 percent of the urban population in the basin resides in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, followed by 17% of the population in West Bengal. Detailed information on population of class I and class II cities in the Ganga basin is presented in Appendix 3.1. Major cities located along the mainstem of the Ganga include Rishikesh, Haridwar, Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Howrah and Kolkatta. Table 4.1 Distribution of Towns and Cities in Ganga basin S. State Total Total Per cent of Number of Class I and No. Number Population Total Class I and Class II Cities of in 2001 Population Class II Population in Towns in Basin Cities in Year 2001 and Year 2001 Cities in 2001 1 Haryana 97 6115304 4.8 25 4790801 Uttar 2 Pradesh & Uttarakhand 670 34539582 27.0 106 24908554 3 Bihar & Jharkhand 215 14675541 6.8 51 11031546 4 West Bengal 239 22427251 17.6 43 19704870 5 Rajasthan 216 13214375 20.8 46 9402940 Madhya 6 Pradesh incl. Chattisgarh 452 20152892 12.5 64 13791699 7 Himachal Pradesh 56 595581 0.5 1 144975 8 Delhi 4 12905780 10.1 1 12877470 Ganga basin 1949 124626306 100 337 96652855 Source: Census 2001 The following sections briefly present an analysis of the pollution sources of significance in the Ganga basin. 139 4.2 Point Sources of Polution 4.2.1 Domestic wastewater discharges Water consumption in the basin for domestic and industrial purposes has a direct impact on the river water quality, as a large proportion of the wastewaters from urban areas are discharged directly into the Ganga River and its tributaries. As presented in Table 4.2, the 232 Class I cities and 149 Class II cities in the Ganga basin are supplied about 19000 MLD and 1300 MLD of water respectively. The total water supply in the five states in the main stem accounts to about 10,600 MLD in Class I cities (about 55 percent of the total) and 900 MLD (about 69 percent of the total) in Class II cities. Considering the fact that the population coverage is only about 3-6% in these states (excluding West Bengal), and the per capita supply is below the norms in many cities, the water supply volumes are expected to increase further, as many ongoing urban infrastructure development programs are expected to improve the water supply situation in these states. With regards to the wastewater generatation, information is available for about 179 class I cities and 147 class II cities of the Ganga basin. As presented in Table 4.3, 36 class I cities and 14 class II cities discharge their wastewater directly into the Ganga river and 113 class I cities and 18 class II cities discharge the wastewater into the tributaries of the Ganga. The remaining 30 class I cities and 115 class II cities have land disposal. 140 Table 4.2 Water Supply in Class I and class II Cities in the Ganga basin State/UT No. of Municipal Water No of Cities in Different Categories Percent Cities Population Supply of Per Capita Water Supply (lpcd) Population in Year (MLD) covered by 2008 <100 Between Between >300 Organised 100-200 200-300 Water Supply Class I cities Bihar & 37 10747725 2300.25 - 11 26 - 3% Jharkhand Delhi 1 14701150 4346 - - 1 - 100% Haryana 20 5494110 783.39 2 16 1 1 12% Himachal 1 163490 36.18 - - 1 - - Pradesh Madhya 25 10795000 1560.91 10 14 1 - 41% Pradesh Rajasthan 24 9611490 1727.96 9 14 1 - 20% Uttar 65 26346330 4613.8 7 52 5 1 6% Pradesh & Uttarakhand West Bengal 59 19699751 3702.6 17 38 1 3 56% Ganga basin 232 97559046 19071.1 Class II cities Bihar & 24 1940100 232.04 - 24 - - 2% Jharkhand Haryana 7 544040 49.68 7 - - - 10% Madhya 23 1745050 163.64 18 4 1 - 31% Pradesh Rajasthan 21 1599260 184.76 18 2 - 1 47% Uttar 47 3451980 443.53 3 44 - 1 23% Pradesh & Uttarakhand West Bengal 27 2004440 225.56 4 21 2 - 35% Ganga basin 149 11284870 1299.21 Source: Status of water supply, wastewater generation and treatment in class-I cities and class-II towns of India, CPCB, 2010 In terms of volume, the 179 class I cities generate about 11100 MLD of wastewater, and the 147 class II cities generate about 1000 MLD of wastewater. Overall, nearly 2760 MLD of wastewater is being generated by class I and class II cities discharging directly into the river Ganga. 141 The city-wise wastewater generation data for class I and class II cities discharging directly into the river Ganga is presented in Table 4.4 below. As seen from the Table, 23 class I cities of West Bengal generate 47 percent (about 1300 MLD), and 7 class I cities of Uttar Pradesh generate 30 percent (about 835 MLD) of the total sewage generated by cities discharging into the Ganga. Table 4.4 also shows the wide gap that exists in the wastewater generation and available treatment capacity. Out of the 36 class I cities discharging wastewater into the Ganga, only 7 are fully covered, whereas 8 do not have any treatment capacity and of the remaining 21, only 10 cities have more than 50% treatment capacity coverage. Among the class II cities, 11 out of 14 are discharging wastewater into the Ganga river without treatment. Review of city-wise data further reveals that the highest generators of domestic wastewater along the river Ganga are Kolkatta (618 MLD), Kanpur (339 MLD), Patna (249 MLD), Allahabad (208 MLD), Varanasi (187 MLD), Howrah (136 MLD). The sewage generation in the remaining cities is below 100 MLD. The gap in treatment capacity is also maximum in Kolkatta (446 MLD), Kanpur (168 MLD), Patna (180 MLD), Allahabad (119 MLD) and Howrah (72 MLD). Although sewage generation in Varanasi is more than the remaining cities, Bhagalpur and Maheshtal have a higher treatement capacity gap, that is, 50 and 48 MLD respectively, as compared to 46 MLD for Varanasi. When carrying out an assessment of point sources of pollution such as domestic wastewater, attention also must be given to cities and towns of pilgrimage and cultural significance that may not figure as the highest sewage generators. For example, towns such as Rishikesh and Haridwar are of great religious significance. Of these, Haridwar is a class I city with sewage generation of 39.6 MLD and a treatment capacity gap of 21 MLD, wheareas Rishikesh is a class II town with sewage generation of 10.7 MLD and treatment capacity of 6.3 MLD. Wastewater generation data for class I and class II cities discharging into the tributaries of the Ganga and on land is given in Appendix 4.2. 142 Table 4.3 Municipal Wastewater Generation and Mode of Disposal in the Ganga basin S. State/UT No. of Municipal Total Wastewater generation No. of Cities with Various Mode No. Cities Population Volume of (MLD) and mode of disposal of Disposal Waste Water Ganga Other Rivers Land Ganga Other Rivers Land Generated River (Tributaries) River (Tributaries) (MLD) A Class I cities 1 Bihar & Jharkhand 24 7399891 1045.6 376.5 562.8 106.3 4 16 4 2 Haryana 18 4952990 389.6 - 250.3 139.3 - 8 10 4 Madhya Pradesh 18 8415820 898.9 - 877.4 21.5 - 17 1 5 Rajasthan 7 5148920 696.5 - 313.3 383.2 - 5 2 6 Uttar Pradesh & 55 25620720 3017.5 950 2051.3 16.2 9 45 1 Uttarakhand 7 West Bengal 56 19422911 2197.2 1311.3 644.7 241.2 23 21 12 8 Delhi 1 14858800 2948 - 2948 - - 1 - Ganga basin 179 85820052 11193.3 2637.8 7647.8 907.7 36 113 30 B Class II cities 9 Bihar & Jharkhand 27 2354872 191.6 30.7 14.8 146.1 4 2 21 10 Haryana 2 180550 10.1 - - 10.1 - - 2 11 Madhya Pradesh 18 1513530 124.1 - 40.4 83.7 - 5 13 12 Rajasthan 13 1460740 122.5 - 37.5 85 - 6 7 13 Uttar Pradesh & 59 4621792 411.1 85.2 36.5 289.4 9 4 46 Uttarakhand 14 West Bengal 28 2095384 164.3 6 5.3 153 1 1 26 Ganga basin 147 12226868 1023.7 121.9 134.5 767.3 14 18 115 Source: Status of water supply, waste water generation and treatment in class-I cities and class-II towns of India, CPCB, 2010 143 Table 4.4 Wastewater Generation and Treatment Capacity for Class I and Class II Cities discharging Wastewater into Ganga River Class I cities S. No. City/Town State/UT Population Total Sewage Treatment Percentage Treated sewage generation Capacity covered Disposal ( in MLD) ( in MLD) 1 Bhagalpur Bihar 381190 61.6 11 18 Ganga river basin 2 Patna Bihar 1542184 249.2 109 44 Ganga river basin 3 Munger Bihar 209790 34 13.5 40 Ganga river basin 4 Katihar Bihar 196190 31.7 31.7 100 Ganga river basin 5 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 3114530 339.3 171.1 50 Ganga river basin 6 Varanasi Uttar Pradesh 1353920 187.1 141 75 Ganga river basin 7 Allahabad Uttar Pradesh 1218070 208 89 43 Ganga river basin 8 Farrukhabad-cum-Fatehgarh Uttar Pradesh 280290 30.5 8.3 27 Ganga river basin 9 Mirzapur-Vindhyachal Uttar Pradesh 252470 27.5 14 51 Ganga river basin 10 Unnao Uttar Pradesh 178250 23.9 19.4 81 Ganga river basin 11 Ballia Uttar Pradesh 125740 18 - 0 Ganga river basin 12 Dehradun Uttarakhand 550800 76.1 - 0 Ganga river basin 13 Hardwar Uttarakhand 215260 39.6 18 45 Ganga river basin 14 Kolkata West Bengal 5267630 618.4 172 28 Ganga river basin 15 Haldia West Bengal 196300 24.5 24.5 100 Ganga river basin 16 Santipur West Bengal 158920 18.7 18.7 100 Ganga river basin 17 Nabadwip West Bengal 132290 15.5 10 65 Ganga river basin 18 Basirhat West Bengal 130090 15.3 - 0 Ganga river basin 19 Bangaon West Bengal 117430 13.8 - 0 Ganga river basin 20 South Dumdum West Bengal 450970 53 52.9 100 Ganga river basin 21 Rajpur Sonarpur West Bengal 386850 33.6 45.4 100 Ganga river basin 22 Kamarhati West Bengal 361480 48.8 40 82 Ganga river basin 23 North Dumdum West Bengal 253040 29.7 - 0 Ganga river basin 25 Ulberia West Bengal 232410 27.3 24 88 West Bengal 26 Kanchrapara West Bengal 145040 17 - 0 Ganga river basin 27 Halisahar West Bengal 143150 16.8 - 0 Ganga river basin 28 North Barrackpur West Bengal 142050 19.2 16.7 87 Ganga river basin 144 29 Rishra West Bengal 130250 13.5 15.3 100 Ganga river basin 30 Ashoknagar Kalyangarh West Bengal 128200 17.3 15 87 Ganga river basin 31 Haora West Bengal 1160010 136.2 63.9 47 Ganga river basin 32 Bhatpara West Bengal 508250 59.7 28.5 48 Ganga river basin 33 Maheshtala West Bengal 447600 52.5 3.9 7 Ganga river basin 34 Serampore West Bengal 227650 26.7 18.9 71 Ganga river basin 35 Chandannagar West Bengal 186490 16.1 22.7 100 Ganga river basin 36 Habra West Bengal 146850 17.2 - 0 Ganga river basin Total 2,09,19,384 2637.7 1174.4 Class II cities S. No. City/Town State/UT Population Total Sewage Treatment Percentage Treated Sewage ( in MLD) Capacity Covered Disposal ( in MLD) 1 Buxar Bihar 82975 7.6 2 26 Ganga river basin 2 Sitamarhi Bihar 56769 6.5 - 0 Ganga river basin 3 Begusarai Bihar 93378 8.6 - 0 Ganga river basin 4 Mokameh Bihar 56400 8 - 0 Ganga river basin 5 Najibabad Uttar Pradesh 79087 7.6 - 0 Ganga river basin 6 Bijnor Uttar Pradesh 79368 7.6 8.1 100 Ganga river basin 7 Mughalsarai Uttar Pradesh 88386 16 - 0 Ganga river basin 8 Ghazipur Uttar Pradesh 95243 10.7 - 0 Ganga river basin 9 Kannauj Uttar Pradesh 71530 7 - 0 Ganga river basin 10 Deoband Uttar Pradesh 81706 7.8 - 0 Ganga river basin 11 Gangaghat Uttar Pradesh 70817 6.8 - 0 Ganga river basin 12 Rishikesh Uttarakhand 59671 10.7 6.3 59 Ganga river basin 13 Roorkee Uttarakhand 97064 11 - 0 Ganga river basin 14 Ranaghat West Bengal 68754 6 - 0 Ganga river basin Total 122 16.4 13 Ganga river basin Source: Status of water supply, waste water generation and treatment in class-I cities and class-II towns of India, CPCB, 2010 145 4.2.2 Industrial Wastewater According to a recent survey by CPCB, there are 478 grossly polluting industries in the Ganga basin, discharging effluent BOD of 100kg/ day or more into the Ganga river and its tributaries. Presently, 155 grossly polluting industries are identified on the main stem of the river Ganga. These industries contribute about 20% of the total pollution load by volume; however their impact on river water quality is much greater due to the higher strength of the industrial wastewaters. As shown in Table 4.5, 95 of these units have effluent treatment plants (ETPs) operating satisfactorily, 22 have ETPs that were not operating satisfactorily, and 38 have closed down. Table 4.5 Details of Grossly Polluting Industries discharging Effluent in to Ganga and its tributaries as on September 2009 Status of Effluent Treatment Plants Operating Not operating Rivers satisfactorily satisfactorily Unit closed Total Betwa 0 1 0 1 Chambal 0 0 0 0 Damodar 3 0 0 3 Gandak 0 0 0 0 Ganga 95 22 38 155 Ghaghra 2 0 1 3 Gomti 21 5 4 30 Hindon 26 0 4 30 Kali 45 0 10 55 Khan 0 0 0 0 Kosi 1 3 0 4 Kshipra 0 0 0 0 Ramganga 30 17 4 51 Yamuna 125 8 13 146 Total 348 56 74 478 Source: MoEF 146 Industries in the Ganga main stem also generate significant quantities of hazardous waste. As shown in Table 4.6, the hazardous waste generation in districts located along the Ganga mainstream is 109357 MTA. If this waste finds its way into the river due to improper handling and management, it could be highly toxic to humans and aquatic organisms and significantly affect the ecology of the river. Table 4.6 Hazardous Waste from Industries in District along River Ganga S. No. State/Districts Hazardous Waste Generation in MTA Land Incinerable Recyclable Total Waste Disposable Waste Waste Waste Uttar Pradesh 1 Kanpur & Kanpur 14471 499 0 14971 Dehat 2 Farrukhabad 0 0 0 0 3 Kannauj 0 0 0 0 4 Allahabad 46 0 5414 5460 5 Mirzapur 697 0 2112 2809 6 Fatehpur 860 0 19844 20704 7 Saharanpur 878 16 23000 23894 8 Bulandshahar 483 10 53 546 9 Varanasi 9 0 6 15 10 Ghajipur 0 0 200 200 11 Ajamgarh 0 2 0 2 12 Ballia 1 2 0 3 13 Raebareli 1 1885 593 2479 14 Bijnor 126 27 10 163 Total 17572 2441 51232 71246 West Bengal 15 24 Pgs (N) 776 7500 28 776 16 24Pgs (S) 24301 1407 67 24301 17 Hooghly 7329 551 333 7329 18 Howrah 2287 7324 258 2287 19 Malda - - 11 - Total 34693 16782 686 34693 Bihar 20 Begusarai 2790 8 - 2798 21 Munger - 2 5 7 22 Bhagalpur - 21 - 21 23 Patna 556 33 - 589 24 Katihar - 2 - 2 25 Vaishali 1 0 - 1 Total 3347 66 5 3418 Jharkhand NA NA NA NA Uttarakhand NA NA NA NA Ganga main stem 55612 19289 51923 109357 Source: National inventory of hazardous waste generating industries & hazardous waste management in India, CPCB, 2009 147 4.3 Non-Point Sources of Pollution 4.3.1 Agricultural Sources Besides municipal and industrial wastewater, another source of pollution in the Ganga basin is the application of agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers, and pesticides. As discussed in the previous chapter, the Ganga basin states consume nearly 10 million tonnes of chemical fertilizers per year, which constitutes 45 percent of the total chemical fertilizer consumption in the country. Of this, Uttar Pradesh alone consumes 38% of the fertilizer used. The problem with such intensive use of fertilizer is that agricultural runoff into surface water bodies may carry high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. It has been estimated that 10 to 15 per cent of the nutrients added to the soils through fertilizers eventually find their way to the surface water systems. Runoff from arable lands may contain nitrogen up to 70 mg/l and phosphorus ranging from 0.05 to 1.1 mg/l, with potential to raise the nutrient level to a considerable degree in stream waters. Similarly, pesticide consumption in the Ganga basin states is about 21,000 tonnes per year (47.6% of the total pesticide consumption in the country). Although the quantity of pesticides used is much less than the total amount of the chemical fertilizers used, pesticides are highly toxic and chemically more stable than the fertilizer residues. Pesticide residues in water, even in trace(s), could potentiallty affect human health adversely when used as a drinking water source. Presence of pesticides in water even at trace levels is highly toxic to aquatic fauna. Unfortunately, the available data relating to the pesticide and nutrient levels in the Ganga water are not sufficient to draw any definitive conclusions at present; however, given the extensive use of agricultural chemicals in the region, a continued focus and further study in this area is warranted. 4.3.2 Municipal Solid Wastes Cities along the river Ganga, as elsewhere in India, are unable to cope with the increasing levels of solid waste generation. Inadequate collection and disposal results in numerous uncontrolled dump sites, and solid wastes 148 can be seen strewn along the bathing ghats of the river. Runoff from these solid waste dumps constitutes another significant source of river pollution. Table 4.7 provides information on solid waste generation and mode of disposal in five major cities along the river Ganga. As seen from the Table, Kolkatta produces the maximum quantity of waste (2653 TPD). None of these major cities have any waste processing facilities. The number of landfill sites is presented in Table 4.8. No sanitary landfills exist, though, in any of these cities, although new sites are proposed in some cases. Table 4.7 Waste Generation and Status of Implementation of MSW (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 in Cities along River Ganga S.No. Name of City Population Area Waste Quantity Waste Generation (as per 2001 (sq. km.) (TPD) Rate (Kg / c/d) census) Cities having Population between 5-10 lakhs 1 Allahabad 9,75,393 71 509 0.52 2 Varanasi 10,91,918 80 80 0.39 3 Patna 13,66,444 107 511 0.37 4 Kanpur 25,51,337 267 1100 0.43 5 Kolkata 45,72,876 187 2653 0.58 Source: Assessment of status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities and state capitals, CPCB, 2006 Table 4.8 Landfill Sites in Cities along River Ganga S. No. Name of City No. of Area of Life of New Site Landfill Sites Landfill (ha) Landfill Proposed (Years) 1 Patna - - - Yes 2 Allahabad 2 - - No 3 Varanasi 1 2.00 - Yes 4 Kanpur 1 27.00 - No 5 Kolkata 1 24.70 35 Yes - Data not available Source: Assessment of status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities and state capitals, CPCB, 2006 149 4.3.3 Other non-point sources Other non-point sources which need consideration are river front activities such as on dhobi ghats, cremation grounds, and numerous ghats where religious bathing and other rituals are performed. Dumping of carcasses into the river and open defecation also affect the water quality. The issues pertaining to these are often closely tied with the social and cultural fabric and therefore need to be addressed in a manner that preserves the sacred practices while improving the environmental conditions on the river front. 4.4 Government Initiatives in Pollution Abatement 150 Recognizing the critical need to address pollution in the river Ganga, the GOI launched the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in the year 1985, with objectives to abate pollution from point as well as non-point sources and thus to improve the water quality in river Ganga. The main focus of GAP I was on interception, diversion, and treatment municipal sewage draining into the river. In addition to the core works relating to sewerage and sewage treatment, non-core works like afforestation, crematoria, low cost sanitation and river front development, were also taken up. The plan was later extended to Ganga Action Plan Phase II (launched in 1993). Besides the Ganga, GAP II included its major tributaries viz. Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda. As shown in Table 4.9, under the Ganga Action Plan (Phase I & II), the target was to install a cumulative sewage treatment plant capacity of 1098 MLD. Out of this, 1017 MLD has been installed in the five GAP states, namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Uttarakhand. Table 4.9 Target and STP Capacities installed under Ganga Action Plan STP Created (MLD) Cost (Rs. Lakh) S. State Phase No. Completion Target Actuals Actual Cost GAP I 111 111 1467.18 1420.38 1 Bihar GAP II 24.5 11 434.44 184.7 GAP I ­ ­ ­ ­ 2 Jharkhand GAP II ­ ­ ­ ­ GAP I 349.5 349.5 9367.6 9701.35 3 Uttar Pradesh GAP II 80.67 35.56 2536.28 2079.7 GAP I 376.6 372.6 7179.99 6913.79 4 West Bengal GAP II 117.34 108.47 2435.25 1584.36 GAP I 24.33 24.33 857.6 921.88 5 Uttarakhand GAP II 13.95 4.17 473.49 27.06 Total 1097.89 1016.63 24751.83 22833.22 The estimated sewage generation / projections, treatment capacity created and/or proposed to be created under different schemes in the six major cities of GAP states are given in Table 4.10. It can be seen from the table that the STP capacity in these six cities is 664 MLD, which constitute only 52% of the total needed capacity as of 2008. Even if all the projects considered under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) become operational ­ a very unlikely prospect ­ the STP capacity created would still be inadequate to meet the needs of these cities beyond 2010 and therefore these cities will continue to discharge untreated sewage in River Ganga. 151 Table 4.10 Sewage Generation, Treatment Capacity Created / Proposed in Six Selected Towns of GAP-I S. State City / Sewage Generation Treatment Treatment Treatment No. Town (MLD) Capacity Capacity Capacity Created so Being Under 1985 2008 2010* 2020* far Under Created JNNURM GAP I& II Under (MLD) (MLD) GAP II (MLD) 1 Uttarakhand Rishikesh, 24.33 65 75 94 28.5 43 ­ Haridwar 2 Uttar Kanpur 205 400 411 555 171 ­ 268 Pradesh (Sanctioned) 3 Uttar Allahabad 110 210 213 242 89 ­ 60 (Projects Pradesh under consideration of MoUD) 4 Uttar Varanasi 147 292 317 350 101.8 37 120 Pradesh (Sanctioned) 5 Bihar Patna 100 210 236 316 109 ­ 246 (Projects under preparation) 6 West Bengal Howrah 75 111 121 142 85 ­ ­ Total 661.33 1288 1373 1699 584.3 80 694 * Projected Source: MoEF 4.5 Water Quality of River Ganga Various sources of pollution described above, have a significant impact on the water quality. As presented in Figure 4.1, in the year 2009 the average BOD concentration (5 to 7 mg /l) in the mainstream of the Ganga exceeded the bathing water quality standard (3mg/l) at several locations such as Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. The BOD concentration however, is much lower than the BOD concentrations (7 to 17 mg/l) in 1986 (pre-GAP), and several locations record acceptable values. These mainly appear at the upper and lower reaches, whereas the middle reaches (from Kannuaj to Varanasi) continue to show evidence of organic pollution. In the down stream reaches such as Patna in Bihar and beyond, the water quality improves substantially due to the high river discharge and associated dilution of wastewater. Based on a more detailed perusal of station wise and year wise data, the MoEF has reported that the BOD values have exceeded the acceptable standard (3.0 mg/L) at Rishikesh and haridwar only once or twice, whereas between Kannauj and Kanpur, the values have exceeded the acceptable level frequently. The most critical stretch is between Kannauj and 152 Allahabad downstream. The highest value of BOD (65.8 mg/L) was recorded at Kanpur during lean flow. Figure 4.1 BOD levels in river Ganga during year 1986 and 2009 Source: http://moef.nic.in/ As regards the DO levels in river Ganga, the concentrations at various locations are observed to be largely within the acceptable limits. As seen from Figure 4.2, the DO levels are above 5.0 mg/L at all locations. Further, the DO levels between Kanpur and Patna are seen to have improved over the years. As per the Status of River Ganga reported by the MoEF, in 22 years of monitoring at 16 stations, DO levels below 5.0 mg/L were recorded only in 2.6% cases. In these cases, the values were between 3.2 and 4.9 mg/L, and these were observed between Kannauj and Kanpur. 153 Figure 4.2 DO levels in river Ganga during year 1986 and 2009 Source: http://moef.nic.in/ Figures 4.3 to 4.7 present the fecal coliform levels along the Ganga progressively from the upstream to the downstream reaches. As seen from the Figures, the coliform levels have exceeded the standard more frequently than BOD and DO at almost all locations except Uttarakhand. The fecal coliform concentrations complied with the standard only at one location (Narora) at Uttar Pradesh. At Bihar and West Bengal, fecal coliform concentrations do not confirm to the standard at any location. Figure 4.3 Water quality of river Ganga (Uttaranchal segment) 154 Figure 4.4 Water quality of river Ganga (U.P upper segment) Figure 4.5 Water quality of river Ganga (U.P lower segment) Figure 4.6 Water quality of river Ganga (Bihar segment) 155 Figure 4.7 Water quality of river Ganga (West Bengal segment) Source: CPCB annual report 2008-09 When the pollution levels at different locations along the Ganga are compared with the designated best uses, it is observed that at nearly all locations the parameters exceed the water quality criteria, rendering the water unsuitable for its designated best use, that is, outdoor bathing. The observed class and critical parameter at different locations on the river is given in Table 4.11. At several locations observed class is found to be class D, which is suitable only for propagation of wildlife and fisheries, and not fit for human consumption or bathing. 156 Table 4.11 Classification of Ganga at Various Locations Locations Desired Observed Class and Critical Parameter Class 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2008 Ganga at Rishikesh A D (CF) B (CF) C (CF) NA C (CF) B Haridwar B C (CF) C (CF) C (CF) NA C (CF) B Garhmuktesar (UP) B B (BOD) -- D NA D NA (BOD) (BOD, CF) Kannauj U/s U.P B D (BOD, D (BOD) D (CF) D (BOD, D C (CF) CF) CF) (BOD, CF) Kannuaj D/S UP B D (BOD, D (BOD) D (CF) D (BOD, D C (BOD, CF) CF) (BOD, CF) CF) Kanpur U/S UP B D (BOD, NA D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) CF) Kanpur D/S U.P B D (BOD, D (BOD) D (CF) D (BOD, D D (BOD, CF) CF) (BOD, CF) CF) Raibareilly U.P B D (CF) D (CF) C (CF) NA NA NA Allahabad U/S UP B D (BOD, E (CF) D (CF) NA NA C (BOD, CF) CF) Allahabad D/S UP B D (BOD, E (CF) D (CF) NA NA D (BOD, CF) CF) Varanasi U/S U.P B D (BOD, D (BOD) D (CF) - D (CF) D (BOD, CF) CF) Varanasi D/S U.P B E (DO, E (BOD, D NA NA D (BOD, BOD, CF) DO) (BOD) CF) Gazipur U.P. B D (BOD, D (BOD) D D (CF) NA NA CF) (BOD) Buxar B D (BOD) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) C (CF) Patna U/S B D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) NA Patna D/S B D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) NA Rajmahal B D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) D (CF) Palta (WB) B D (BOD) B NA D (BOD, D D (CF) CF) (BOD, CF) Uluberia (WB) B D B NA D D D (BOD, (BOD, CF) CF) Source: MoEF Overall, the trends for key water quality parameters in Ganga indicate that the BOD levels are broadly non-compliant in the river stretch between Kannauj to Varnasi, DO levels are generally compliant and the fecal coliforms are high in almost all the stretches except at Gangotri, Devprayag, Haridwar and Narora. 157 Chapter 5 Limiting Factors in Environmental and Social Analysis of Ganga Basin 5.1 Environmental Profile The environmental profile of the river Ganga has been prepared based on the latest available secondary information from various government agencies associated with water resources development, irrigation, agriculture, forest, meterology, etc. Based on the analysis of current environmental aspects of Ganga basin, a brief summary of issues is been highlighted below. 5.1.1 The Ganga Basin The Ganga basin, which is the largest river basin in India, is described in terms of its catchment area, state wise distribution of the river, its tributaries and stream flow characteristics, along with a basin map depicting the river course. Issues: The mean annual flow of only a few streams of river Ganga is available, but the details of annual flow along with catchment details of major streams/ tributaries were not available. Information about the seasonal variation of the streams flow and the annual flow at 90, 50 and 10- percentile level in Ganga basin was also not available. The flow variation details helps in understanding water availability in the streams which is an important factor not only for water management but also for planning and implementing any pollution control and prevention management programme in the basin. Data on these aspects of flow and its variations need to be generated / collated in order to better understand the hydrologic characteristics of the river and also the basin. 5.1.2 Land use State-wise land use pattern in the Ganga basin has been used for analyzing the land use patterns including forest, agriculture, fallow and non-arable land. However, in many cases including the state of Uttar Pradesh, not the entire state is located in the Ganga Basin. A more detailed analysis of the land use data, in terms of specific district and geographical area 158 located in the Ganga Basin, is hence required to anlayse the land use characterstics and its changes in the Basin. Such analysis could not be done in the current document, owing to lack of adequate data. 5.1.3 Irrigation Ganga basin is one of the most extensively irrigated basins in the world, constituting nearly 57 percent of the net irrigated area of India as a whole. However, data on water consumption requirements for various uses including irrigation use could not be analysed due to the factors. absence of basin specific information on intensity of irrigation and sources of irrigation details of irrigation requirement in the basin for various regions, along with usage of surface and groundwater resources 5.1.4 Water logging, Salinity and Land Degradation problems The extensively irrigated Ganga basin also suffers from water logging and salinity problems mainly due to increased irrigation practices and high groundwater extraction. Further other types of land degradation may be due to natural calamities or from human actions. The details of various kinds of land degradation have been described based on the available information. However, a detailed analysis is required to better understand the magnitude of these problems and establish the factors to contributing to the degradation especially in the Ganga Basin 5.1.5 Vegetation and Forest The vegetation type of the basin has been analysed based on the lateset available information. However, the analysis is based on the state wide information and not specific to the basin. Similarly, the Macrophytic and Riparian Vegetation is historic and represents the ideal base line scenario of Ganga Basin. This data needs to be updated to understand the flora and fauna characteristics of the basin, which can further help desgning environmental management strategies in the basin. 5.1.6 Sensitive Environment Habitats The Ganga Basin has number of environmentally sensitive areas such as biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and tiger reserves. While these habitats are located in the 159 basin, the exact location of these habitats and possible impacts of NGRBA activities could not be established in the analysis, for want of exact details such boundary of the habitiat, profile of various flora / fauna, etc. Such an analysis would be very important for planning various NGRBA activities and also suitable management strategies for these sensitive habitats. 5.1.7 Socio-Economic Profile Similar to the other base line parameters, the socio-economic profile of the basin is prepared by obtaining the available state level and district level information available in the respective states. However, a more focused analysis especially on the economic, religious and cultural importance of Ganga and its linkages with the the local communities is essential to integrate these aspects in to overall NGRBA program. 5.1.8 Issues of Water Quality and Pollution Sources The analysis of base line data in the earlier sections also brings out the absence of an inventory of pollution sources, contribution from each source, magnitude of pollution, for important source such as industries, hazardous waste, solid waste and non-pont sources across the basin. In the absence of such data, development of an integrated approach to the improvement of water quality of the basin becomes very difficult. This further gets complicated with inconsistent base line water quality data, which doesnt reflect the seasonal changes and also interrelationship between BOD and DO levels. Condiering this fact, a detailed inventory of pollution sources, detailed and continous monitoring of rivers flows and water quality needs to be carried out to establish the quantitative and qualitative aspects of pollution in the river. In order to provide a meaningful input to overall program, the assessment shall be carried out (i) at city level; (ii) at tributary level within basin; and iii) at seasonal level. 160 Appendices 161 Appendix 2.1- Ground Water Quality of state districts under Ganga main stem Sl. States Affected districts No Fluoride (>1.5 Iron (>1.0 mg/l) Nitrate (>45 mg/l) Arsenic (>0.05 Salinity (EC > Chloride mg/l) mg/l ) 3000 µS/cm at (> 1000 25 ° C) mg/l) 1 Bihar Aurangabad, Aurangabad, Begusarai, Aurangabad, Banka, Begusarai, Banka, Buxar, Bhojpur, Buxar, Bhagalpur, Bhojpur, Bhagalpur, Bhabua(Kaimu Bhabua(Kaimur), East Bhabua, Patna, Bhojpur, Buxar, r), Jamui, Champaran, Gopalganj, Rohtas, Saran, Darbhanga, Katihar, Munger, Katihar, Khagaria, Siwan Khagaria, Nawada, Kishanganj, Lakhiserai, Kishanganj, Rohtas, Supaul Madhepura, Lakhiserai,Munger, Muzafferpur, Nawada, Patna, Purnea, Rohtas, Saharsa, Samastipur, Saran, Samastipur, Siwan, Vaishali Supaul, West Champaran 2 Jharkhand Bokaro, Chatra, Deoghar, East Chatra, Garhwa, Giridih, Godda, Singhbhum, Giridih, Godda, Gumla, Gumla, Ranchi, West Lohardega, Pakur, Palamu, Ranchi Singhbhum Palamu, Paschimi Singhbhum, Purbi Singhbhum, Ranchi, Sahibganj 3 Delhi East Delhi, Central Delhi, New North West, North West, North West Delhi, North Delhi, West, South West, South Delhi, South North West Delhi, West West Delhi, South South Delhi, South West Delhi, West Delhi, West West Delhi Delhi 4 Haryana Bhiwani, Ambala, Bhiwani, Ambala, Bhiwani, Bhiwani,Farida Rohtak, 163 Sl. States Affected districts No Fluoride (>1.5 Iron (>1.0 mg/l) Nitrate (>45 mg/l) Arsenic (>0.05 Salinity (EC > Chloride mg/l) mg/l ) 3000 µS/cm at (> 1000 25 ° C) mg/l) Faridabad, Faridabad, Fatehabad, Faridabad, bad, Fatehabad, Bhiwani, Gurgaon, Gurgaon, Hissar, Jhajjar, Fatehabad, Gurgaon, Gurgaon, Gurgaon,Jha Hissar, Jhajjar, Jind, Kaithal, Karnal, Hissar, Jhajjar, Jind, Hissar, Jhajjar, jjar,Mahend Jind, Kaithal, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal, Kaithal, ragarh,sirsa, Kurushetra, Mahendergarh, Panipat, Kurukshetra, Mahendergarh, Sonipat. Mahendergarh, Rohtak, Sirsa, Sonepat, Mahendergarh, Panipat, Panipat, Yamuna Nagar Panchkula, Panipat, Rewari, Rohtak, Rewari, Rewari, Rohtak, Sirsa, Rohtak, Sirsa, Sirsa, Sonepat, Sonepat,yamun Sonepat Yamuna Nagar anagar. 5 Himachal Una Mandi Pradesh 6 Uttarakha Dehradun, Hardwar, nd Udhamsinghnagar 7 West Bankura, Bankura, Bardhaman, Bankura, Bardhaman, Bankura,Haora, Bengal Bardhaman, Birbhum, Bardhaman Hooghly, Howrah, Medinipur,N-24 N-24 Birbhum, Dakhindinajpur, E. Malda, pargana, S- 24 pargana, S- Dakhindinajpur Midnapur, Howrah, Murshidabad, Parganas, 24 , Malda, Nadia, Hugli, Jalpaiguri, Nadia, North 24 Parganas, Purulia, Kolkatta, Murshidabad, Praganas, South 24 Haora. Uttardinajpur N-24praganna, Nadia, Pragannas S-24pragannas, Uttardinajpur, West Midnapur 8 Uttar Agra, Aligarh, Azamgarh, Balia, Agra, Aligarh, Agra, Aligarh, Agra,Allahabad Aligarh,Hat Pradesh Etah, Balrampur, Etawah, Allahbad, Ambedkar Balia, Balrampur, ,Aligarh,Hamir hras,Mathur Firozabad, Fatehpur, Gazipur, Nagar, Auraiyya, Gonda, Gorakhpur, pur,Hathras,Jyo a, Agra 164 Sl. States Affected districts No Fluoride (>1.5 Iron (>1.0 mg/l) Nitrate (>45 mg/l) Arsenic (>0.05 Salinity (EC > Chloride mg/l) mg/l ) 3000 µS/cm at (> 1000 25 ° C) mg/l) Jaunpur, Gonda, Hardoi, Kanpur Badaun, Baghpat, Lakhimpur Kheri*, tibaphulenagar, Kannauj, Dehat, Kanpur Nagar, Balrampur, Banda, Mathura, Mathura. Mahamaya Lakhimpur, Lalitpur, Barabanki, Bareilly, Muradabad Nagar, Mau, Siddartnagar, Basti, Bijnour, Mainpuri, Unnao Bulandsahar, Mathura, Mau. Chitrakoot, Etah, Etawa, Fatehpur, Firozabad, GB Nagar, Ghaziabad, Ghazipur, Hamirpur, Hardoi, Jaunpur, Jhansi, Kannauj, Kanpur Dehat, Lakhimpur, Mahoba, Mathura, Meerut, Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar, Raibarelli, Rampur, Sant Ravidas Nagar, Shajahanpur, Sitapur, Sonbhadra, Sultanpur, Unnao 9 Rajasthan Ajmer, Alwar, Ajmer, Alwar, Ajmer, Alwar, Ajmer, Alwar, Barmer, Banaswara, Banswara, Baran, Banaswara, Baran, Barmer, Bharatpur, Barmer, Bharatpur, Bhilwara, Barmer, Bharatpur, Bharatpur, Bikaner, Bharatpur, Bikaner, Chittaurgarh, Bhilwara, Bikaner, Bhilwara, Bundi,Chur Bhilwara, Churu, Dausa, Chittaurgarh, Churu, Bundi, Bikaner, u, Bikaner, Bundi, Dhaulpur, Dungarpur, Dausa, Dhaulpur, Churu, Chittaurgarh 165 Sl. States Affected districts No Fluoride (>1.5 Iron (>1.0 mg/l) Nitrate (>45 mg/l) Arsenic (>0.05 Salinity (EC > Chloride mg/l) mg/l ) 3000 µS/cm at (> 1000 25 ° C) mg/l) Chittaurgarh, Ganganagar, Dungarpur, Chittaurgarh, , dausa, Churu, Dausa, Hanumangarh, Jaipur, Ganganagar, Dhaulpur, Ganganagar, Dhaulpur, Jaisalmer, Jhalawar, Hanumangarh, Dausa, Hanumanga Dungarpur, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Ganganagar, rh, Jaipur, Ganganagar, Karauli, Kota, Nagaur, Jalor, Jhalawar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Hanumangarh, Pali, Rajasamand, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Jalor, Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Tonk, Karauli, Kota, Jaisalmer, Jhunjhunun, Jaisalmer, Udaipur Nagaur, Pali, Jalor,Jhunjhunu Jodhpur Jalor,Jhunjhunu Partapgarh, n, Karoli, ,Karauli, , Jodhpur, Rajasamand, Sirohi, Nagaur, Nagaur,Pali, Karauli, Kota, Sikar, Swai Neemuch,pali, Sirohi, Nagaur, Pali, Madhopur, Tonk, Raja Samand, Sawai Rajasamand, Udaipur Sirohi, Sikar, Madhopur, Sirohi, Sikar, Sawai Nagaur, SawaiMadhopu Madhopur, Sikar, Tonk, r, Tonk, Tonk, Udaipur Udaipur Udaipur 10 Madhya Bhind, Balaghat, Betul, Bhind, Anuppur, Ashok Bhind, Indore, Bhind, Pradesh Chhatarpur, Chhatarpur, Nagar, Balaghat, Jhabua, Ujjain Chhindwara, Chhindwara, Guna, Barwani, Betul, Sheopur, Ujjain Datia, Dewas, Gwalior, Hoshangabad, Bhind, Bhopal, Dhar, Guna, Narsinghpur, Panna, Burhanpur, Gwalior, Raisen, Rajgarh, Rewa, Chhatarpur, Harda, Sagar, Satna, Sehore, Chhindwara, Jabalpur, Seoni, Shahdol, Damoh, Datia, Jhabua, Shajapur, Sidhi, Ujjain, Dewas, Dhar, Khargaon, Umaria, Vidisha, Gwalior, Harda, Mandsaur, Dindori, East Nimar Hoshangabad, 166 Sl. States Affected districts No Fluoride (>1.5 Iron (>1.0 mg/l) Nitrate (>45 mg/l) Arsenic (>0.05 Salinity (EC > Chloride mg/l) mg/l ) 3000 µS/cm at (> 1000 25 ° C) mg/l) Rajgarh, Satna, Indore, Jabalpur, Seoni, Jhabua, Katni, Shajapur, Khandwa, Sheopur, Sidhi Khargaon, Mandla, Mandsaur, Morena, Narsimhapur, Neemuch, Panna, Raisen, Rajgarh, Ratlam, Rewa, Sagar, Satna, Sehore, Seoni, Shahdol, Shajapur, Sheopur, Shivpuri, Sidhi, Tikamgarh, Ujjain, Umaria, Vidisha Source: Groundwater Quality in Shallow Aquifers of India, CGWB, 2010 167 Appendix 2.2: Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Ganga Basin 168 Appendix 2.3 Wildlife Sanctuaries in Ganga Basin State Wildlife Sanctuary District Area (Sq. Km.) Bihar Barela S.A.Z.S. Vaishali 1.96 Bihar Bhimbandh Munger 681.99 Bihar Kanwarjheel Begusarai 63.11 Bihar Valmiki Pashchim Champaran 544.67 Bihar Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Bhagalpur 0.5 Delhi Indira Priyadarshani (Asola) Delhi 13.2 Haryana Abubshehar Sirsa 115.3 Haryana Bhindawas Rohtak 4.12 Haryana Bir Bara Ban Jind 4.19 Haryana Chhilchila Kaithal 0.29 Haryana Kalesar Yamuna Nagar 100.28 Haryana Khaparwas Jhajjar 0.83 Haryana Nahar Rewari 2.11 Haryana Saraswati Plantation Kurukshetra, Kaithal 44.53 Himachal Chail Solan 108.54 Pradesh Himachal Churdhar Sirmaur 56.15 Pradesh Himachal Daranghati Shimla 167 Pradesh Himachal Darlaghat Solan 140 Pradesh Himachal Majathal Solan 40 Pradesh Himachal Renuka Sirmour 4.02 Pradesh Himachal Shilli Solan 2.13 Pradesh Himachal Shimla Water Catchment Shimla 10.25 Pradesh Himachal Simbalbara Sirmour 19.03 Pradesh Himachal Talra Shimla 26 Pradesh Jharkhand Udhwa Lake Sahebganj 0.57 Madhya Bagdara Sidhi 478 Pradesh Madhya Gandhi Sagar Mandsaur 368.62 Pradesh Madhya Ghatigaon Gwalior 511 Pradesh Madhya Karera Shivpuri 202.21 Pradesh Madhya Ken Gharial Panna, Chhatarpur 45.2 Pradesh Madhya National Chambal Morena, Bhind 435 169 State Wildlife Sanctuary District Area (Sq. Km.) Pradesh Madhya Narsinhgarh Raigarh 59.19 Pradesh Madhya Nauradehi Damoh, Sagar, 1194.67 Pradesh Narsimhapur Madhya Orcha Tikamgarh 44.91 Pradesh Madhya Palpur-Kuno Morena 344.68 Pradesh Madhya Panna (Gangau) Panna 68.14 Pradesh Madhya Panpatha Shahdol 245.84 Pradesh Madhya Ralamandal Indore 2.34 Pradesh Madhya Sailana Ratlam 12.96 Pradesh Madhya Sanjay Dubri Sidhi 364.59 Pradesh Madhya Son Gharial Sidhi, Shahdol, Satna 41.8 Pradesh Madhya Veerangna Durgawati Damoh 23.97 Pradesh Rajasthan Bandh Baratha Bharatpur 192.76 Rajasthan Bassi Chittaurgarh 152.9 Rajasthan Bhensrodgarh Chittaurgarh 229.14 Rajasthan Darrah Kota 265.8 Rajasthan Jaisamand Rajsamand 52 Rajasthan Jamwa Ramgarh Kaipur 300 Rajasthan Jawahar Sagar Kota 100 Rajasthan Kela Devi Sawai Madhopur 676.38 Rajasthan Kesarbagh Dholpur 14.76 Rajasthan Kumbhalgarh Udaipur, Plai 578.25 Rajasthan Nahargarh Jaipur 50 Rajasthan National Chambal Kota 280 Rajasthan Mount Abu Sirohi 288.84 Rajasthan Phulwari Ki Nal Udaipur, Plai 511.41 Rajasthan Ramgarh Vishdhari Bundi 301 Rajasthan Ramsagar Dholpur 34.4 Rajasthan Sajjangarh Udaipur 5.19 Rajasthan Sariska Alwar 492 Rajasthan Sawai Man Singh Sawai Madhopur 103.25 Rajasthan Shergarh Kota 98.71 Rajasthan Sitamata Chittaurgarh, Udaipur 422.94 Rajasthan Tadgarh Raoli Ajmer, Rajsaman, Plai 495.27 Rajasthan Van Vihar Dhaulpur 59.93 Uttar Pradesh Kaimur Mirzapur, Sonbhadra 500.73 170 State Wildlife Sanctuary District Area (Sq. Km.) Uttar Pradesh Lakh Bahosi Farrukhabad 80.24 Uttar Pradesh Samaspur Rae Bareli 7.99 Uttar Pradesh Surha Tal Ballia 34.32 Uttar Pradesh Turtle Varanasi 7 Uttarakhand Govind Pashu Vihar Uttarkashi 481 West Bengal Buxa Jalpaiguri 268.99 West Bengal Bihutibhusan North 24-Paraganas 0.64 West Bengal Haliday Island South 24-Paraganas 5.95 West Bengal Lothian Island South 24-Paraganas 38 West Bengal Narendrapur South 24-Paraganas 0.1 West Bengal Sajnekhali South 24-Paraganas 362.4 Ganga Basin 75 Wildlife Sanctuaries 14086.18 Total 171 Appendix 4.1 Sewage Generation and treatment capacity of Class I cities in Ganga Basin (Disposal In tributaries) S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 1 Muzaffarpur Bihar 342120 55.3 - 0% Budhi Gandak 2 Bihar Sharif Bihar 259810 42 - 0% Phalgun 3 Gaya Bihar 429180 69.4 - 0% Phalgun 4 Bettiah Bihar 130700 21.1 - 0% Budhi Gandak 5 Motihari Bihar 113690 18.4 - 0% Budhi Gandak 6 Hajipur Bihar 133590 21.6 - 0% Gandak 7 Darbhanga Bihar 298850 48.3 - 0% Ghughri 8 Chapra Bihar 200300 32.4 2 6% Ghaghara 9 Sasaram Bihar 146770 23.7 - 0% Chandrabhaga 10 Siwan Bihar 121150 19.6 - 0% Daha 11 Arrah Bihar 227800 36.8 - 0% Son 12 Dehri Bihar 133290 21.5 - 0% Son 13 Saharsa Bihar 138900 22.4 - 0% Simrahi Stream 14 Yamunanagar Haryana 250250 18.6 35 100% WJC 15 Bokaro Jharkhand 484830 71.3 - 0% Damodar 16 Dhanbad Jharkhand 1064357 36 - 0% Damodar 17 Hazaribagh Jharkhand 156510 23 - 0% Damodar Madhya 18 Morena Pradesh 197670 17.4 - 0% Kunwari Madhya 19 Indore Pradesh 1885510 212.5 90 42% Khan, Shipra Madhya 20 Sagar Pradesh 304340 26.7 - 0% Dhasan Madhya 21 Bhind Pradesh 201440 17.7 - 0% Chambal Madhya 22 Neemuch Pradesh 140820 12.4 - 0% Chambal Madhya 23 Mandsaur Pradesh 152590 15.8 - 0% Chambal Madhya Chhoti Kali 24 Dewas Pradesh 302160 26.5 - 0% Sindh Madhya 25 Vidisha Pradesh 164350 14.4 9 63% Betwa Madhya 26 Bhopal Pradesh 1878380 255.2 17.64 7% Betwa Madhya 27 Rewa Pradesh 240030 21.1 - 0% Baichaiya Madhya 28 Guna Pradesh 179640 15.8 - 0% Sindh Madhya 29 Damoh Pradesh 146930 14.1 - 0% Sonar, Bearma Madhya 30 Satna Pradesh 295360 26 - 0% Tons Madhya 31 Shivpuri Pradesh 192390 17 - 0% Sindh Madhya 32 Singrauli Pradesh 243110 21.3 - 0% Gopad,Sone Madhya 33 Gwalior Pradesh 1083260 114.1 - 0% Vaishali Madhya 34 Ujjain Pradesh 563210 49.4 - 0% Shipra 172 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 35 Tonk Rajasthan 166870 21.4 - 0% Banas 36 Kota Rajasthan 855960 145 - 0% Chambal 37 Udaipur Rajasthan 478860 61.5 - 0% Banas/Berach 38 Bhilwara Rajasthan 344630 44.3 - 0% Banas 39 Alwar Rajasthan 320100 41.1 - 0% Arvari Uttar 40 Moradabad Pradesh 788730 86 - 0% Ramganga Uttar 41 Deoria Pradesh 128190 14 - 0% Lttle Gandak Uttar 42 Rampur Pradesh 346310 37.7 - 0% Kosi Uttar 43 Banda Pradesh 165830 18.1 - 0% Ken Uttar 44 Aligarh Pradesh 821310 89.5 - 0% Karwan Uttar 45 Meerut Pradesh 1321300 144 - 0% Kali Uttar 46 Muzaffarnagar Pradesh 389040 58 32 55% Kali Uttar 47 Gonda Pradesh 150260 16.4 - 0% Ghaghara Uttar 48 Hapur Pradesh 260740 28.4 - 0% Kali Uttar 49 Bulandshahr Pradesh 216790 23.6 - 0% Kali Uttar 50 Modinagar Pradesh 148300 15.1 - 0% Kali Uttar 51 Ghaziabad Pradesh 1191280 129.8 126 97% Hindon River Uttar 52 Saharanpur Pradesh 557100 60.7 38 63% Hindon River Uttar 53 Gorakhpur Pradesh 768220 83.7 - 0% Haldi, Rapti Uttar 54 Sultanpur Pradesh 123100 13.4 6.4 48% Gomti River Uttar 55 Lucknow Pradesh 2715030 295.8 417 100% Gomti River Uttar 56 Jaunpur Pradesh 196800 21.4 - 0% Gomti Uttar 57 Bahraich Pradesh 207100 22.6 - 0% Ghaghara Uttar 58 Faizabad Pradesh 178260 19.4 - 0% Ghaghara Uttar 59 Basti Pradesh 131590 14.3 - 0% Ghaghara Uttar 60 Lakhimpur Pradesh 148300 16.2 - 0% Ghaghara Uttar 61 Shahjahanpur Pradesh 366460 40 - 0% Deoha Uttar 62 Pilibhit Pradesh 152620 16.6 - 0% Deoha Maunath Uttar 63 Bhanjan Pradesh 258390 28.2 - 0% Chhoti Saryu Uttar 64 Azamgarh Pradesh 129080 14.1 - 0% Chhoti Saryu 65 Jhansi Uttar 471400 51.4 - 0% Betwa 173 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) Pradesh Uttar 66 Lalitpur Pradesh 137530 15 - 0% Betwa Uttar 67 Chandausi Pradesh 127620 14 - 0% Badaun Streatm Uttar 68 Sambhal Pradesh 225000 24.5 - 0% Badaun Stream Uttar 69 Amroha Pradesh 202810 22.1 - 0% Badaun Stream Uttar 70 Budaun Pradesh 182210 20 - 0% Badaun Stream Uttar 71 Sitapur Pradesh 186750 20.3 - 0% Sarangan Uttar 72 Bareily Pradesh 860800 93.8 - 0% Ramganga Uttar 73 Rae Bareli Pradesh 208220 22.7 - 0% Sai Uttar 74 Etah Pradesh 131730 15.8 - 0% Sirsa Uttar 75 Hardoi Pradesh 138340 15.1 - 0% Sai Kathgodam- 76 Haldwani Uttarakhand 158840 17.3 - 0% Ramganga 77 Kharagpur West Bengal 239180 28.1 - 0% Kosai 78 Medinipur West Bengal 176350 20.7 - 0% Kosai 79 Krishnanagar West Bengal 159930 18.8 - 0% Jalangi 80 Puruliya West Bengal 130830 15.4 - 0% Haldi 81 Asansol West Bengal 1090171 65.7 - 0% Damodar 82 Durgapur West Bengal 566950 66.6 - 0% Damodar 83 Raniganj West Bengal 190010 16.6 - 0% Damodar 84 Baharampur West Bengal 184190 21.6 8 37% Beel 85 Bankura West Bengal 148130 17.4 - 0% Roopnarayan 86 Barasat West Bengal 266240 31.3 - 0% Bidyadhari 87 Kulti West Bengal 333570 39.2 - 0% Damodar 88 Jamuria West Bengal 148870 17.5 - 0% Damodar 89 Bardhaman West Bengal 328750 38.6 - 0% Damodar Irrigation , 90 Panihati West Bengal 400640 47 16.5 35% Pissic,Canal Irrigation, 91 Bally West Bengal 300810 35.3 45 100% Pissic,Canal Irrigation, 92 Titagarh West Bengal 142830 16.8 23 100% Pissicult, Khal 93 Siliguri West Bengal 540820 63.5 - 0% Mahananda Hugli- 94 Chinsurah West Bengal 195730 23 - 0% Mahananda 95 Raiganj West Bengal 190010 22.3 - 0% Mahananda 96 Balurghat West Bengal 155840 18.3 - 0% Padma 97 Madhyamgram West Bengal 178830 21 - 0% Sunti 98 Delhi Delhi 14858800 2948 2330 79% Yamuna 99 Palwal Haryana 132700 10 9 90% Yamuna 100 Faridabad Haryana 1392570 118.2 115 97% Yamuna 101 Panipat Haryana 345400 26.7 45 100% Yamuna 102 Sonipat Haryana 285400 21.2 30 100% Yamuna 174 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 103 Karnal Haryana 277830 28.6 48 100% Yamuna 104 Gurgaon Haryana 229080 17 30 100% Yamuna 105 Jagadhri Haryana 133720 10 - 0% Yamuna Uttar 106 Agra Pradesh 1549770 211.7 90.25 43% Yamuna Uttar 107 Mathura Pradesh 367560 40 27 68% Yamuna Uttar 108 Noida Pradesh 361510 39.4 70 100% Yamuna Uttar 109 Firozabad Pradesh 242930 37.4 - 0% Yamuna Uttar 110 Etawah Pradesh 260100 28.3 10.45 37% Yamuna Uttar 111 Fatehpur Pradesh 186660 20.3 - 0% Yamuna Uttar 112 Hathras Pradesh 151590 16.5 - 0% Yamuna Uttar 113 Orai Pradesh 171520 18.7 - 0% Yamuna Total 7841.5 Sewage Generation of Class I cities in Ganga main stem (Disposal In Land) Dinapur 1 Nizamat Bihar 191780 31 - 0% Land 2 Rohtak Bihar 145980 23.6 - 0% Land 3 Hisar Haryana 378540 28.1 - 0% Land 4 Bhiwani Haryana 338990 25.2 - 0% Land 5 Hansi Haryana 223640 17.6 - 0% Land 6 Narnaul Haryana 99210 5.6 - 0% Land 7 Thanesar Haryana 81340 4.5 - 0% Land 8 Jind Haryana 158500 11.8 - 0% Land 9 Bahadurgarh Haryana 179640 13.3 - 0% Land 10 Rewari Haryana 158190 11.7 - 0% Land 11 Kaithal Haryana 133250 10 - 0% Land 12 Mango Haryana 154740 11.5 - 0% Land 13 Adityapur Jharkhand 204290 30.1 - 0% Land 14 Murwara Jharkhand 146640 21.6 - 0% Land Madhya 15 Katni) Pradesh 244630 21.5 - 0% Land 16 Jaipur Rajasthan 2858910 367.2 54 15% Land 17 Jhunjhunun Rajasthan 123590 16 - 0% Land Uttar 18 Loni Pradesh 148410 16.2 - 0% Land 19 Baranagar West Bengal 288210 33.8 44.5 100% Land Rajarhat 20 Gopalpur West Bengal 312550 36.7 - 0% Land 21 Bidhan Nagar West Bengal 193030 22.7 - 0% Land 22 English Bazar West Bengal 185670 21.8 - 0% Land Uttarpara 23 Kotrung West Bengal 172730 20.3 - 0% Land 24 Dumdum West Bengal 116520 13.7 - 0% Land 25 Barrackpur West Bengal 165980 19.5 22.15 100% Land 26 Khardaha West Bengal 133690 15.7 3 19% Land 175 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 27 Baidyabati West Bengal 124470 14.6 2 14% Land 28 Bhadreswar West Bengal 121840 14.3 6 42% Land 29 Bansberia West Bengal 120120 14.1 2.8 20% Land 30 Champdani West Bengal 118720 14 12 86% Land Total 907.4 146.45 16% Sewage Generation of Class II cities in Ganga main stem (Disposal In tributaries) 1 Jehanabad Bihar 98070 7.5 - 0% Punpun 2 Aurangabad Bihar 95220 7.3 - 0% Punpun Madhya 3 Dhar Pradesh 77740 5.4 - 0% Chambal Madhya 4 Nagda Pradesh 99420 7 9 100% Chambal Madhya 5 Sehore Pradesh 93660 7 - 0% Kali Sindh Madhya 6 Chhatarpur Pradesh 102500 7.2 - 0% Ken Madhya 7 Mhow Cantt. Pradesh 87570 13.8 - 0% Khan River 8 Chittaurgarh Rajasthan 109470 6.4 - 0% Berach 9 Baran Rajasthan 89340 5.3 - 0% Chambal 10 Gangapur City Rajasthan 110350 6.4 - 0% Chambal 11 Bundi Rajasthan 100680 6.2 - 0% Chambal 12 Dhaulpur Rajasthan 105040 6.8 - 0% Chambal Sawai 13 Madhopur Rajasthan 111140 6.4 - 0% Chambal Uttar 14 Khurja Pradesh 114550 9.4 - 0% Kali Uttar Kasganj 15 Pradesh 107650 9.2 - 0% Kali Kashipur 16 Uttarakhand 108230 9.4 - 0% Kosi Rudrapur 17 Uttarakhand 103270 8.5 - 0% Yamuna Bishnupur 18 West Bengal 70180 5.3 - 0% Damodar Total 1592206 134.6 9 7% Sewage Generation of Class II cities in Ganga main stem (Disposal In Land) 1 Lakhisarai Bihar 93410 7.2 - 0% Land 2 Madhubani Bihar 79540 6.1 - 0% Land 3 Jamalpur Bihar 115990 9 - 0% Land 4 Nawada Bihar 98750 7.6 - 0% Land 5 Bagaha Bihar 109660 8.4 - 0% Land 6 Samastipur Bihar 66710 5.1 - 0% Land 7 Araria Bihar 72710 5.6 - 0% Land 8 Gopalganj Bihar 65300 5 - 0% Land 9 Jamui Bihar 80100 6.1 - 0% Land 10 Kishanganj Bihar 102590 9.6 - 0% Land 11 Phulwari Sharif Bihar 63800 5 - 0% Land 12 Supaul Bihar 64820 5 - 0% Land 13 Ambikapur Chhatisgarh 74580 4.8 - 0% Land 14 Hansi Haryana 99210 5.6 - 0% Land 15 Narnaul Haryana 81340 4.5 - 0% Land 16 Phusro Jharkhand 100160 7.7 - 0% Land 17 Daltonganj Jharkhand 85570 6.6 - 0% Land 176 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 18 Ramgarh Cantt. Jharkhand 88150 7.2 - 0% Land 19 Juumri Tilaiya Jharkhand 83330 7.3 - 0% Land 20 Giridih Jharkhand 118280 9.1 - 0% Land 21 Deoghar Jharkhand 118050 9.1 - 0% Land 22 Sindri Jharkhand 92190 7.1 - 0% Land 23 Jharia Jharkhand 98370 7.5 - 0% Land Madhya 24 Bina Etawa Pradesh 52720 7.2 - 0% Land Madhya 25 Datia Pradesh 85220 6 - 0% Land Madhya 26 Shahdol Pradesh 80940 5.7 - 0% Land Madhya 27 Tikamgarh Pradesh 70630 4.9 - 0% Land Murwara Madhya 28 (Katni) Pradesh 244630 21.5 - 0% Land Madhya 29 Pithampur Pradesh 70090 5 - 0% Land Madhya 30 Ashok Nagar Pradesh 59410 4.2 - 0% Land Madhya 31 Dabra Pradesh 58360 4.1 - 0% Land Madhya 32 Jaora Pradesh 65650 4.6 - 0% Land Madhya 33 Seoni Pradesh 92490 8.4 - 0% Land Madhya 34 Shajapur Pradesh 51590 3.6 - 0% Land Madhya 35 Sheopur Pradesh 56680 4 - 0% Land Madhya 36 Basoda Pradesh 64230 4.5 - 0% Land 37 Jhunjhunun Rajasthan 123590 16 - 0% Land 38 Kishangarh Rajasthan 142870 18.4 - 0% Land 39 Bharatpur Rajasthan 251480 32.3 - 0% Land 40 Makrana Rajasthan 94950 5.5 - 0% Land 41 Nawalgarh Rajasthan 64390 3.7 - 0% Land 42 Hindaun Rajasthan 96650 5.6 - 0% Land 43 Nimbahera Rajasthan 60790 3.5 - 0% Land 44 Tanda Uttar Pradesh 96700 8 - 0% Land 45 Baraut Uttar Pradesh 99900 8.2 - 0% Land 46 Balrampur Uttar Pradesh 84060 7 - 0% Land 47 Shahabad Uttar Pradesh 78760 6.5 - 0% Land 48 Chandpur Uttar Pradesh 79570 6.6 - 0% Land 49 Nagina Uttar Pradesh 83000 6.8 - 0% Land 50 Sahaswan Uttar Pradesh 67740 5.6 - 0% Land 51 Sikandrabad Uttar Pradesh 81370 6.7 - 0% Land 52 Shikohabad Uttar Pradesh 102520 8.5 - 0% Land 53 Mubarkpur Uttar Pradesh 59460 6.3 - 0% Land 54 Pilkhua Uttar Pradesh 78210 6.5 - 0% Land 55 Mahoba Uttar Pradesh 91730 7.6 - 0% Land 56 Mainpuri Uttar Pradesh 104220 10 - 0% Land 177 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) 57 Mawana Uttar Pradesh 80550 6.6 - 0% Land 58 Kairana Uttar Pradesh 85030 7 - 0% Land 59 Shamli Uttar Pradesh 104600 8.6 - 0% Land 60 Tanda Uttar Pradesh 96700 8 - 0% Land 61 Bela Pratapgarh Uttar Pradesh 83620 8 - 0% Land 62 Bhadohi Uttar Pradesh 86650 7.1 - 0% Land 63 Agga Cantt. Uttar Pradesh 65410 5.4 - 0% Land 64 Auraiya Uttar Pradesh 75190 6.2 - 0% Land 65 Nawabganj Uttar Pradesh 87400 7.2 - 0% Land 66 Baheri Uttar Pradesh 68180 5.6 - 0% Land 67 Faridpur Uttar Pradesh 71030 6 - 0% Land 68 Sherkot Uttar Pradesh 61540 5.1 - 0% Land 69 Kiratpur Uttar Pradesh 64380 5.3 - 0% Land 70 Ujhani Uttar Pradesh 59420 5 - 0% Land 71 Jahangirabad Uttar Pradesh 59790 5 - 0% Land 72 Dadri Uttar Pradesh 66880 5.5 - 0% Land 73 Muradnagar Uttar Pradesh 86230 7.1 - 0% Land 74 Behta Hajipur Uttar Pradesh 119900 9.1 - 0% Land 75 Rath Uttar Pradesh 65110 5.4 - 0% Land 76 Jalaun Uttar Pradesh 58240 4.8 - 0% Land 77 Konch Uttar Pradesh 59050 5 - 0% Land 78 Mauranipur Uttar Pradesh 59230 5 - 0% Land 79 Hasanpur Uttar Pradesh 62090 5.1 - 0% Land 80 Chhibramau Uttar Pradesh 58520 4.8 - 0% Land Gola 81 Gokarannath Uttar Pradesh 62660 5.2 - 0% Land 82 Khatauli Uttar Pradesh 68090 5.6 - 0% Land 83 Bisalpur Uttar Pradesh 70630 5.8 - 0% Land 84 Gangoh Uttar Pradesh 62790 5.2 - 0% Land 85 Tilhar Uttar Pradesh 61590 5.1 - 0% Land 86 Laharpur Uttar Pradesh 58290 4.8 - 0% Land 87 Obra Uttar Pradesh 60990 5 - 0% Land 88 Renukoot Uttar Pradesh 62300 5.1 - 0% Land 89 Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh 65900 5.4 4.5 83% Land 90 Katwa West Bengal 81090 6.2 2.3 37% Land 91 Suri West Bengal 70040 6 - 0% Land 92 Contai West Bengal 87800 6.7 - 0% Land 93 Bolpur West Bengal 74390 5.6 - 0% Land 94 Arambag West Bengal 63590 4.8 - 0% Land 95 Jangipur West Bengal 84370 6.4 - 0% Land 96 Chakdaha West Bengal 98530 8.3 - 0% Land 97 Kalna West Bengal 59120 4.5 - 0% Land 98 Rampurhat West Bengal 57340 4.4 - 0% Land 99 Gangarampur West Bengal 60670 4.6 - 0% Land 100 Alipurduar West Bengal 82760 6.3 - 0% Land 101 Koch Bihar West Bengal 87030 9.5 - 0% Land 102 Old Maldah West Bengal 71320 5.4 - 0% Land 103 Ghatal West Bengal 58450 4.4 - 0% Land 104 Jhargram West Bengal 60230 4.6 - 0% Land 178 S. City/Town State/UT Population Total Treatment Percentage Treated sewage No. Sewage ( Capacity ( covered Disposal in MLD) in MLD) Kharagpur Rly. 105 Settlement West Bengal 100090 7.6 - 0% Land 106 Kandi West Bengal 57040 4.3 - 0% Land 107 Dhulian West Bengal 82600 6.3 - 0% Land 108 Phulia West Bengal 56940 4.3 - 0% Land 109 New Barrackpur West Bengal 94250 7.2 - 0% Land 110 Islampur West Bengal 59780 4.5 - 0% Land 111 Konnagar West Bengal 81820 6.2 22 100% Land 112 Gayespur West Bengal 62350 4.7 - 0% Land 113 Kalyani West Bengal 92890 7.1 17 100% Land 114 Garulia West Bengal 86460 6.6 7.9 100% Land 115 Budge Budge West Bengal 85500 6.5 0.18 3% Land Total 767.3 53.88 7% Source: Status of water supply, waste water generation and treatment in class-I cities and class-II towns of India, CPCB, 2010 179 Appendix 4.2 List of Water Quality Parameters Analyzed under National Water Quality Monitoring Programme S. S. Parameters Parameters No. No. Core Parameters (9) Field Observations (7) 1 PH 1 Weather 2 Temperature 2 Depth of main stream/depth of water table 3 Conductivity, mhos/cm 3 Color and intensity 4 Dissolved Oxygen, mg/L 4 Odor 5 BOD, mg/L 5 Visible effluent discharge 6 Nitrate ­ N, mg/L 6 Human activities around station 7 Nitrite ­ N, mg/L 7 Station detail 8 Fecal Coliform, MPN/100 ml Trace Metals (9) 9 Total Coliform, MPN/100 ml 1 Arsenic, g/L General Parameters (19) 2 Cadmium, g/L 1 Turbidity, NTU 3 Copper, g/L 2 Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, as CaCO3 4 Lead, g/L 3 Total Alkalinity, as CaCO3 5 Chromium (Total), g/L 4 Chlorides, mg/L 6 Nickel, g/L 5 COD, mg/L 7 Zinc, g/L 6 Total Kjeldahl - N, as N mg/L 8 Mercury, g/L 7 Ammonia - N, as N mg/L 9 Iron (Total), g/L 8 Hardness, as CaCO3 Pesticides (15) 9 Calcium, as CaCO3 1 Alpha BHC, g/L 10 Sulphate, mg/L 2 Beta BHC, g/L 11 Sodium, mg/L 3 Gama BHC (Lindane), g/L 12 Total Dissolved Solids, mg/L 4 O P DDT, g/L 13 Total Fixed Dissolved Solids, mg/L 5 P P DDT, g/L 14 Total suspended Solid, mg/L 6 Alpha Endosulphan, g/L 15 Phosphate, mg/L 7 Beta Endosulphan, g/L 16 Boron, mg/L 8 Aldrin, g/L 17 Magnesium, as CaCO3 9 Dieldrin, g/L 18 Potassium, mg/L 10 Carboryl (Carbamate), g/L 19 Fluoride, mg/L 11 2-4 D, g/L Bio-Monitoring (3) 12 Malathian, g/L 1 Saprobity Index 13 Methyl Parathian, g/L 2 Diversity Index 14 Anilophos, g/L 3 P/R Ratio 15 Chloropyriphos, g/L Source: Central Pollution Control Board 180 Appendix 4.3 Water Quality trends of river Yamuna (2005-2009) Water Quality Data of River Yamuna (Year 2005-2009) pH B.O.D (Mg/l) DO (mg/I) FECAL COLIFORM (MPN/100 ml) TOTAL COLIFORM (MPN/100ml) Location 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Yamuna at Yamunotri 7.0 - 7.2 7.2 7.0 1.0 - - 1.0 1.0 8.4 - 11.4 9.1 8.1 80 - 37000 1300 1750 18 - - 66000 16100 Shyama Chatti. UT 7.0 - 7.2 7.6 7.1 1.0 - - 6.0 2.0 10.2 - 9.0 9.2 8.7 1650 - 82500 23000 3300 360 - - 87000 22000 Yamuna at U/S of Lakhwar Dam. UT 7.8 7.7 7.4 7.6 8.0 0.9 1.0 0.7 1.2 0.7 9.9 10.4 9.8 8.7 8.2 3925 1254 86333 50910 10100 1155 730 1275 366600 63500 Yamuna at U/S of DAK Patthar UT 7.9 7.6 7.3 7.3 8.3 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.8 1.7 9.3 9.6 8.5 8.3 7.8 104946 2033 363000 109200 14750 2445 206 12550 723670 73256 River Yamuna, U/S Paonta Sahib, H.P. 8.3 9.1 7.7 7.9 7.7 2.5 4.6 0.9 1.2 1.2 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.5 7.3 53 17 2821500 29088 157733 18 11 46582 984586 1615833 River Yamuna, D/S Paonta Sahib, H.P. 8.3 9.2 7.8 8.2 8.2 4.3 4.3 0.5 2.3 1.0 7.0 8.1 8.2 7.9 7.8 49 21 - 1200 14 29 15 - 2233 27 Yamuna at Hathnikund Haryana 7.5 7.9 7.7 7.9 7.7 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.2 9.2 8.6 9.2 9.6 9.1 619673 67250 3909667 25360 97055 9023 1113 44770 395545 829727 Yamuna at Kalanaur, Yamuna Nagar 7.9 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.7 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.1 8.1 8.5 7.6 7.6 7.8 616125 259000 2702333 66476 154350 12881 3145 147880 873455 1407300 Yamuna at Sonepat 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.8 7.8 2.8 4.0 2.8 2.7 3.8 7.5 7.1 7.1 7.2 6.9 910783 329000 691250 152033 173483 14309 3948 26165 1220000 7401833 Yamun at Wazirabad, Delhi 7.6 7.6 7.8 7.9 7.9 1.9 3.5 3.0 1.5 2.3 8.4 7.1 8.3 8.1 7.3 40842 112250 1643667 18600 16117 2930 4025 5617 146727 311167 Yamuna at Nizamuddin, Delhi 7.4 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.6 23.0 36.0 23.8 25.7 23.4 2.1 - 0.3 0.5 0.0 31786556 36225000 50172000 1064545 5799167 2351938 1772500 3757583 8918182 97191667 Yamuna at Okhla Bridge (inlet of Agra Canal), Delhi 7.3 7.4 7.2 7.7 7.7 14.8 30.5 1.9 12.8 14.5 1.5 - 7.4 0.2 0.1 13986000 11150000 300 709900 3094546 943273 1670000 - 6512000 38727273 Yamuna at Okhla after meeting of Shahdara Drain 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.3 29.7 94.8 47.7 61.8 51.3 2.9 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 51313636 62640000 62640000 4788333 216378000 1691455 4068000 7441667 48683333 2475240000 Yamuna at Mazawali 7.8 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.8 17.0 33.8 17.8 16.3 18.2 3.6 2.4 2.5 1.3 2.1 4924000 9117500 4942500 427818 540917 822300 2110250 384742 8772727 9210909 Yamuna at Mathura U/S U.P. 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.8 10.0 16.8 10.8 8.9 9.2 6.4 4.9 5.8 4.9 5.7 759300 2017500 520333 178100 89950 60682 74750 17550 2895091 2389182 Yamuna at Mathura D/S U.P. 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.7 8.0 15.3 9.3 10.6 9.4 5.7 5.9 5.8 5.8 6.0 1262727 1880000 1469167 311109 182417 334200 821000 50692 2831818 664333 Yamuna at Agra U/S 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.8 7.9 9.0 12.0 10.2 7.7 8.1 8.5 5.3 7.0 5.9 6.3 5892364 5114250 1184000 205718 232818 246909 132275 70475 1285455 6380636 Yamuna at D/S of Agra, U.P. 7.7 7.7 7.8 7.8 7.8 13.0 19.7 16.7 14.0 14.5 5.3 2.9 4.9 5.3 4.1 10313750 30225000 9425000 459364 1403546 1758182 759500 1483675 7672727 31799091 Yamuna at Bateswar 8.1 7.7 7.8 8.0 7.8 11.0 15.5 11.4 12.2 12.3 10.2 7.5 8.2 8.8 8.9 16838333 596000 1920333 83727 236530 23858 27333 43167 694091 2920300 Yamuna at Etawah, U.P. 8.3 8.4 7.8 8.0 7.9 14.0 18.3 10.2 11.2 13.2 11.6 16.5 10.1 9.6 11.5 14492750 613000 917333 80018 273273 17983 31875 38417 824455 2270909 Yamuna at Juhika B/C with Chanbal, Etawah, U.P. 8.1 8.4 7.8 8.0 7.9 5.0 6.5 4.2 4.2 4.4 8.4 11.0 9.3 10.5 9.8 232800 139250 567917 193909 248700 9897 4475 21692 1349364 1819546 Yamuna at Hamirpur - - - 7.8 8.0 - - - 2.0 2.5 - - - 6.6 7.6 - - - 49050 266250 - - - 782500 1876667 Yamuna at Allahabad U.P. 8.0 7.9 8.0 - - 2.0 5.0 2.2 - - 7.3 6.7 8.7 - 1299000 161000 1700 - - 17050 47000 1100 - - Yamuna at Allahabad D/W (Balua Ghat), U.P. 7.7 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.1 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.2 1.8 7.6 7.6 8.5 7.9 7.3 1842 1988 3158 2250 1167 1166 1288 1775 3925 1933 Source: CPCB 181