WTP ol1 6 2, WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 162 ASIA TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT SERIES Non-Motorized Vehicles in Asian Cities Michael Replogle -~~~~~~~LL RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 99 International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Planning the Management, Operation, and Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems: A Guide for the Preparation of Strategies and Manuals (also in French, 99F) No. 100 Veldkamp, Recommended Practices for Testing Water-Pumping Windmills No. 101 van Meel and Smulders, Wind Pumping: A Handbook No. 102 Berg and Brems, A Case for Promoting Breastfeeding in Projects to Limit Fertility No. 103 Banerjee, Shrubs in Tropical Forest Ecosystems: Examples from India No. 104 Schware, The World Software Industry and Software Engineering: Opportunities and Constraints for Newly Industrialized Economies No. 105 Pasha and McGarTy, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Pakistan: Lessons from Experience No. 106 Pinto and Besant-Jones, Demand and Netback Values for Gas in Electricity No. 107 Electric Power Research Institute and EMENA, The Current State of Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Combustion Technology No. 108 Falloux, Land Information and Remote Sensing for Renewable Resource Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Demand-Driven Approach (also in French, 108F) No. 109 Carr, Technology for Small-Scale Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Experience with Food Crop Production in Five Major Ecological Zones No. 110 Dixon, Talbot, and Le Moigne, Dams and the Environment: Considerations in World Bank Projects No. 111 Jeffcoate and Pond, Large Water Meters: Guidelines for Selection, Testing, and Maintenance No. 112 Cook and Grut, Agroforestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Farmer's Perspective No. 113 Vergara and Babelon, The Petrochemical Industry in Developing Asia: A Review of the Current Situation and Prospects for Development in the 1990s No. 114 McGuire and Popkins, Helping Women Improve Nutrition in the Developing World: Beating the Zero Sum Game No. 115 Le Moigne, Plusquellec, and Barghouti, Dam Safety and the Environment No. 116 Nelson, Dryland Management: The 'Desertification " Problem No. 117 Barghouti, Timmer, and Siegel, Rural Diversification: Lessons from East Asia No. 118 Pritchard, Lending by the World Bank for Agricultural Research: A Review of the Years 1981 through 1987 No. 119 Asia Region Technical Department, Flood Control in Bangladesh: A Plan for Action No. 120 Plusquellec, The Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan: Objectives, Design, and Performance No. 121 Listorti, Environmental Health Components for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Urban Projects No. 122 Dessing, Support for Microenterprises: Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa No. 123 Barghouti and Le Moigne, Irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Public and Private Systems No. 124 Zymelman, Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 125 van de Walle and Foster, Fertility Decline in Africa: Assessment and Prospects No. 126 Davis, MacKnight, IMO Staff, and Others, Environmental Considerations for Port and Harbor Developments No. 127 Doolette and Magrath, editors, Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies No. 128 Gastellu-Etchegorry, editor, Satellite Remote Sensing for Agricultural Projects No. 129 Berkoff, Irrigation Management on the Indo-Gangetic Plain No. 130 Agnes Kiss, editor, Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participation in Africa (List continues on the inside back cover) WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 162 ASIATECHNICAL DEPARTMENT SERIES Non-Motorizedi Vehicles in Asian Cities Miichael Replogle World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright C 1992 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing January 1992 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 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Permission to photocopy portions for classroom use is not required, though notification of such use having been made will be appreciated. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'I6na, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0253-7494 Michael Replogle is president and founder of the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, a Washington, D.C. based nonprofit organization that promotes sustainable transportation strategies, and a consultant to the Technical Department, Asia Region of the World Bank. For the past eight years he has been Transportation Coordinator for the Montgomery County (Maryland) Planning Department. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Replogle, Michael A. Non-motorized vehides in Asian cities / Michael Replogle. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; no. 162. Asia technical department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-1963-9 1. Bicycle commuting-Asia. 2. Human powered vehicles-Asia. 3. Carriages and carts-Asia. 4. Urban transportation-Asia. 5. Choice of transportation. I. Title. II. Series: World Bank technical paper. Asia technical department series. HE5739.A78R47 1991 388.3'41'095091732-dc2O 91-36483 CIP AbstractL what future for non-motorized vehicles in Asia? Non-motorized vehicles-bicycles, three-wheelers, energy use, urban sprawl, and the employment and and carts-play a vital role in urban transport in mobility of the poor. much of Asia. NwVs account for a larger share of As cities in Japan, the Netherlands, Germany, and vehicular trips in many Asian cities than anywhere several other European nations demonstrate, the in the world. With increasing income, ownership of modernization of urban transport does not require all vehicles, including NMVs, is growing rapidly total motorization, but rather the appropriate integra- throughout Asia. tion of walking, NMV modes, and motorized trans- However, the future of NMVs in many Asian cities port. As in European and Japanese cities, where a is threatened by growing motorization, loss of street major share of trips are made by waLking and cycling, space for safe NMV use, and changes in urlban form NMVS have an important role to play in urban trans- prompted by motorization. Transport planning and port systems throughout Asia in coming decades. investment in most of Asia has focused principally This paper provides an overview of the current on the motorized transport sector and has often ig- use of NMVs in Asian cities, environmental and nored the needs of NMVS. economic aspects of NMVs, the characteristics of Without changes in policy, NMVs may decline pre- NMVS and facilities that serve them, and policies that cipitously in many Asian cities in the coming decade. influence their use. The paper identifies conditions Large-scale replacement of NMVS with motorized under which NMVs should be encouraged for urban transportation would have major negative impacts transport, obstacles to the development of NMVs, and on air pollution, traffic congestion, global warming, makes recommendations for action by the World Bank and other donors. iii Acknowledgments The author wishes to acknowledge his appreciation to Peter Midgley, Senior Urban Planner for AST, for his support and direction to this study. The author also wishes to acknowledge and thank Dr. Setty Pendakur of the University of British Columbia and Marcia Lowe of Worldwatch Institute for extensive contributions of research materials, ideas, and comments, which greatly enhanced this study. Special thanks are offered also to 'Zerhard Menckhoff, Christian Diou, other staff of ASTIN, PRE, AFrm, and other divisions of the World Bank, to Andre Pettinga of Grontmij Consultants, and to Ralph Gackenheimer of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for their comments on early drafts of this report and for assistance in data and research material collection. F'oreword Asia has the widest variety and greatest number of ing non-motorized vehicle use where it is appropri- non-motorized fonrms of transport in the wVorld. They ate within urban transport systems. As part of the provide the backbone of the transport system for the Asia Technical Department's review of the urban poor in many cities for both personal and goods transport sector in Asia, this technical paper demon- movements. The potential for the development of strates how this can be achieved and how develop- non-motorized transport and its integration within ment agencies suc-h as the World Bank can assist in city transport systems has been an area of growing the development of non-motorized transport as an concemn within the development community for sev- attractive form of transport in an environmentally eral years. A more concerted effort is nLeeded now conscious world. and in the future throughout Asia toward encourag- Daniel Ritchie Director Asia Technical Department V C ontents Abstract iii Foreword v Acronyms and credits x Summary xi Introduction xi Extent of ownership and use xii Conditions under which NMvs should be encouraged xiii Key barriers to NMVs xvi Formulation of a non-motorized transport strategy xvi Recommended action program for the Bank xvii 1 Ownership and use of NMVS 1 Different types of non-motorized vehicles I Factors influencing modal mix of cities 2 Modal orientation of cities 3 Growth of NMVs 4 NMV mode share 7 Relationship of income and bicycle use 9 Affordability of NMVs 11 Cycle-rickshaws and other public transport modes 13 Other types of NMVs 14 vii 2 Economic and enviromnental aspects of NMVs 16 Production of NMVS 16 Employment generation by NMVS 17 Macroeconomic impacts of NMVs 18 Energy use, global warming, and NMvs 21 NMVs and local air pollution 22 3 Characteristics of urban NMV transportation 24 Variation in NMV transport depending on city type 24 Variations in techmology 25 NMV facilities 26 Capacity of NMV facilities 27 Allocation of road space between MVs and NMVs 28 Security, parking, and theft 30 4 Traffic safety and NMVs 32 Alternative measures of traffic safety 32 Effect of cycle networks on safety 34 Motorcydes, motorbikes, and scooters 34 5 Inter-modal integration 36 Integration of bicycles with public transportation 37 Integration of NMVS with motorized goods movement 39 6 Policies and regulations 41 Regulations and policies influencing NMVs use 41 Land use, investment patterns and NMVs 42 Credit systems and NMVs 44 7 Recommendations for action 46 Conditions under which NMvs should be encouraged 46 Barriers to development of NMVs 48 Formulation of non-motorized transport strategy 49 Recommended action program for the World Bank 50 Appendix 55 Table sources 58 Boxes 1.1 Kanpur: a walking and cycling city 9 2.1 Bicyde manufacturing in Malaysia 17 2.2 Tianjin: bicycle megacity 20 2.3 Air quality, energy, and motorization in Jakarta and Mexico City 21 3.1 Bicycle parking technology and costs in Japan 31 5.1 Primary reasons for use of the bicycle to reach Japanese rail stations 39 viii Text Figures 1.1 Reasons given by cyclists for nct using public transport 11 1.2 Vehicle ownership vs. household income in Delhi 13 3.1 Bicycle trip length in three Indian cities 25 3.2 Bicycle travel time in three Indian cities 25 3.3 Bicycle mode share by trip length and purpose in Japanese cities, 1975 25 4.1 Traffic accident rates, selected countries and years 32 Text Tables 1.1 Vehicles in selected cities and countries 5 1.2 Increase in vehicles in Delhi, India, 1970-84 6 1.3 Occupation and income of cyclists in three Indian cities, 1979 6 1.4 Occupancy, residency, and bicycle ownership in Shanghai, China, 1986 6 1.5 Estimated number of cycle rick,haws worldwide, 1988 7 1.6 Number of cycle rickshaws in selected cities 7 1.7 Vehicular mode shares in Tianjin, China, 1950s to 80s 8 1.8 Share of vehicle traffic on main roads by bicycles and cycle rickshaws in selected cities, 1981 8 1.9 Mode shares by income for selected Indian cities 10 1.10 Number of buses per 1,000 people, 1985 11 2.1 Bicycle production in selected countries 16 2.2 Traditional and motorized transport sector characteristics in Bangladesh 19 2.3 Per capita energy use in the transport sector, 1985 22 3.1 Typical operational characteristics of selected urban public transport modes in developing countries 28 4.1 Traffic accidents, injuries, and Xfatalities for Beijing and Tianjin, 1985 33 4.2 Estimated fatal accident rates for vehicle users in Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1986-87 34 Appendix tables A.1 Percent of person trips by various travel modes 55 A.2 Percent of vehicle trips by travel modes, selected cities 56 A.3 Bicycle trip length distribution in three Indian cities 56 A.4 Bicycle trip travel time distribution in three Indian cities 56 A.5 Bicycle trip frequency in three :ndian cities 56 A.6 Travel mode by trip length and purpose in Japanese cities, 1975 57 A.7 Traffic accident rates, selected countries and years 57 ix Acronyms and credits ADB Asian Development Bank NMTS Non-Motorized Transport Strategy ASTIN Asia Technical Infrastrucure Division NMV Non-Motorized Vehicle (World Bank) PRE Policy, Research, and External Affairs EDI Economic Development Institute (World Bank) ESCAP Economic and Social Comnmission on UNCTAD United Nations Commission on Trade Asia and the Pacific and Development IFC hintemnational Finance Corporation UNDP United Nations Development Program NMT Non-Motorized Transport Photo credits All photographs by author except: page xvi Matteo Mattegnoni page 2 UN Photo/John Isaac page 18 Ricardo Navarro pageS37 Japan Bicyde Parking Association page 40, left Japan Bicyde Parking Association page 40, top right Ricardo Navarro page 44 Ricardo Navarro x Smumuary This paper provides an overview of the current use investment in most of Asia has focused principally of non-motorized vehicles (NMvs) in Asian cities. It on the motorized transport sector and has often ig- discusses environmental and economic aspects of nored the needs of non-motorized transport. With- NMVs, the characteristics of NMVs and facilities that out changes in policy, NMV use may decline serve them, and policies that influence their use. The precipitously in the coming decade, with major nega- paper identifies conditions under which NMV use tive effects on air pollution, traffic congestion, global should be encouraged for urban transport, obstacles warming, energy use, urban sprawl, and the employ- to the development of NMVs, and makes recommen- ment and mobility of low income people. dations for action by the World Bank and other do- As cities in Japan, the Netherlands, Germany, and nors in this area. several other European nations demonstrate, the N?mvs offer low cost private transport, emit no modernization of urban transport does not require pollution, use renewable energy, emphasize use of total motorization, but rather the appropriate integra- labor rather than capital for mobility, and are well tion of walking, NMV modes, and motorized trans- suited for short trips in most cities regardless of port. As in European and Japanese cities, where 30 to income, offering an alternative to motorized trans- 60 percent of trips are made by walking and cycling, port for many short trips. Thus, they are appropriate NMVs have an important role to play in urban trans- elements in strategies dealing with poveity allevia- port systems throughout Asia in coming decades. tion, air pollution, management of traffic problems Transport investment and policy are the primary and motorization, and the social and economic di- factors that influence NMV use and can have an effect mensions of structural adjustment. NMVs have a most on the pace and level of motorization. For example, important role to play as a complementary mode to Japan has witnessed major growth of bicycle use public transportation. despite increased motorization, through policies providing extensive bicycle paths, bicycle parking at Introduction rail stations, and high fees for motor vehicle use. Denmark and the Netherlands have reversed the NMvs-bicycles, cyde-rickshaws, and carts-play a decline of bicycle use through similar policies. vital role in urban transport in much of Asia. NMVs China has for several decades offered employee account for 25 to 80 percent of vehide trips in many commuter subsidies for those bicycling to work, cul- Asian cities, more than anywhere else in the world. tivated a domestic bicyde manufacturing industry, Ownership of all vehicles, including NMY's, is grow- and allocated extensive urban street space to NMV ing rapidly throughout Asia as incomes micrease. traffic. This strategy reduced the growth of public However, the future of NMvs in many Asian cities transport subsidies while meeting most mobility is threatened by growing motorization, loss of street needs. Today, 50 to 80 percent of urban vehide trips space for safe NMV use, and changes in urban form in China are by bicycle and average journey times in prompted by motorization. Transport planning and China's cities appear to be comparable to those of xi for an average of over 30,000 passenger-miles and nearly 100 ton-miles of goods movements. Together, bicycles, rickshaws, bullock carts and country boats account for three-fourths of the value added, 80 per- cent of employment, and 40 percent of vehicle assets in Bangladesh's transport sector. In Indian cities, bicycles typically account for 10 to 30 percent of all person trips (including walking) and for 30 to 50 percent of the traffic on primary urban roads. Walking and cycling account for 60 percent of total trips and 40 percent of work related trips in Karachi, Pakistan. Cycle-rickshaw traffic typically accounts for 10 to 20 percent of the traffic on primary urban roads and for 5 to 20 percent of all person trips Bicycles play a vital role in Japan's modern and efficient urban in Indian and Pakistani cities. These vehicles, along transport systems, thanks to supportive public policies and the provision of extensive facilities or cyclists, such as this bike lane with hand-carts, account for a major share of urban in Tokyo. freight movement in Chinese cities and the majority of all freight movement in Bangladesh. Many low income people in Asian cities cannot many other more motorized Asian cities, with much afford even subsidized public transport fares and, if more favorable consequences on the environment, they lack a bicycle, have no choice but to walk, even petroleum dependency, transport system costs, and when traveling 10 to 20 km. Lack of access to com- traffic safety. mercial credit is a major barrier to greater use of NMVS among the poor. Many are unable to save enough to Extent of ownership and use buy a bicycle, even though the cost may be less than a year's worth of bus fares. When incomes of the poor Bicycles are the predominant type of private vehicle increase slightly, as is the general trend in Asian cities in many Asian cities. Bicyde ownership in Asia is in recent years, the most affordable way of boosting now more than 400 million and growing rapidly. mobility is through purchase of a bicycle. There is Bicycle ownership in China increased more than 50 evidence to suggest that the use of bicycles by the fold between 1952 and 1985, to 170 million, with poor enables them to upgrade their housing condi- nearly half in cities. Since then it has risen to 300 tions by reducing their transport expenditures. million and is anticipated to grow to 500 mnillion by Travel time savings offered by the bicycle attract 2000. In many Chinese cities, bicycle ownership rates many people of all income levels to bicycles in many are one bicycle per household or more. Between 1980 cities. As traffic congestion in cities increases, public and 1988, the number of bicycles in Beijing grew transport schedule reliability and average travel more than 12 percent a year to 7.3 million. In India, speeds both decrease, making bicycles competitive there are roughly 25 times as many bicycles as motor at longer trip lengths due to their flexibility, conven- vehicles and urban bicycle ownership is growing at ience, and greater reliability. a fast pace. Small informal sector enterprises, as well as formal The majority of the world's 3.3 million cycle rick- private sector firms, have played and will continue to shaws and goods tricycles are found in Asia. Despite play a major role in non-motorized transport systems. recurrent efforts made by some local authorities to Promotion of the NMT sector can stimulate substantial suppress cycle rickshaws in preference to motorized employment growth and microenterprise develop- transport modes, the number and use of these vehi- ment, especially in low income cities, particularly cles is growing in many cities in response to other- benefitting the poor. Where cycle-rickshaws are de- wise unmet transport needs. The number of cycle clining, frequently due to regulatory suppression, rickshaws in India is expected to increase from 1.3 taxes, licensing requirements, bans, and even confis- million in 1979 to 2.2 million by 2001. cation, hundreds of thousands of low income people In Bangladesh, the cycle rickshaw fleet is esti- are threatened with loss of employment. mated to grow from two-thirds of a million in 1988 NMVs play an important role in getting people to to over one million by 2000. More than three-fourths and from express public transport services, particu- of Bangladesh's cycle rickshaws are in urban areas. larly railways. It is common to see hundreds or even These urban cycle rickshaws each annually account thousands of bicycles parked at stations in India and xii PP*_ II.,- * l o Bicycles are the predominant means of urban mobility in China, thaniks to several decades of supportive government policies that hzave produced the most resource efficient urban mobili:'y systems in the world. China. As in Japan and much of Europe, bicycle modes. For societies as a whole, it depends as well access expands the potential market area of high- on how environmental costs, social costs, and other speed public transport services at low cost. This is externalities related to transport are assessed. one of the most valuable potential functions of bicy- Determination of the most efficient modal mix for cles in large cities with long average trip lengths, for a city also requires consideration of constraints on sustaining mixed NMV/motor vehicle traffic systems street space, patterns of land use, existing invest- in cities with higher levels of motorization, for rein- ments in transport vehicles and infrastructure, and tegrating NMVs into the transportation system of funds available for new investment and transport motor vehicle dependent cities, and for dealing with operations. It should also take into account current network capacity saturation in NMV dependent cities. and anticipated problems in the overall transporta- tion and land use system, such as traffic congestion, Conditions underwhich NMVs should be air pollution, economic impacts of growing encouraged petroleum use, access of housing to employment, motorization trends, and goals for poverty allevia- Non-motorized modes are the most efficient means tion. Given the wide variation in these factors, urban of mobility over short distances in cities, while mo- non-motorized transport strategies must be tailored torized modes offer greater efficiency for longer for different types of cities. The integration of urban trips. The distance at which motorized modes be- development and transport planning and policy is come more efficient than non-motorized modes for vital to expanding opportunities for NMT use. consumers depends on income levels, the value of For a given amount of road or corridor space, the time, and the price and speed of varicus transport most efficient modes of transportation are generally xiii rail or bus modes operating on their own dedicated economics do not permit high frequency public rights-of-way. The least efficient use of road space is transport services. Bicydes are most important for low occupancy automobiles. Bicycles fall in between personal transport, but also accommodate light this range, providing road space utilization ap- goods hauling, being capable of carrying loads of 100 proaching that of buses in mixed traffic. However, to 180 kg. most travel corridors must accommodate trips of Bicycles should be considered as an integral part varying length. The several modes most efficiently of urban transport planning and management for serving these different trip length markets should cities across the world, just like public transport, each be allocated street space to maximize efficiency. private motorized transport, and walking. In smaller While these various factors will affect the utility of cities, bicycles should have a primary role on their NMVs from place to place, the general conditions own for work, shopping, and other travel. In larger under which the most common NMVs should be en- cities, where trips lengths are longer, bicycles should couraged in cities, in Asia and elsewhere, are as follows: be seen as most important in providing access to efficient public transport services for work trips and Bicycles in serving some short distance shopping and other trips. The integration of bicycles with public trans- Bicycles should be encouraged as the most efficient port can facilitate efficient polycentric metropolitan transport mode for short trips in cities of all types and development patterns. By linking multiple urban income levels, particularly for trips too long for walk- centers together by public transport on its own right- ing and too short for express public transport serv- of-way and expanding the service areas of public ices, particularly where travel demand density or transport stations with bicycle access, such strategies l MM One ofthemost important functions of bicycles in large cities is providingexpanded access to express public transportation. Six hundred bicycles park at this rail station in Madras, India. xiv can favor the evolution of megacities into imore man- can reduce total transport system costs or free up ageable constellations of small cities. resources for other unmet needs. The prinary market for efficient bicycle use is gen- erally from six or eight hundred meters to distances of Cycle-rickshaws five to seven kilometers. The utility of bicycles is re- duced, but not entirely eliminated, in cities with many Cycle-rickshaws are not as efficient as bicycles for hills or steep topography, where they may stilL serve a personal transport, but should be encouraged as a role, especially following waterways. complementary mode to motorized goods transport Bicycles should be encouraged as a key element in and as a passenger paratransit mode, particularly in access and egress to and from public transport, particu- countries where wages are low and there is substan- larly for intrametropolitan express services in large tial surplus labor. These vehicLes are a major source cities of all types. The catchment area for convenient of jobs and in some Asian cities they account for over and efficient access to rail or bus stops and stations can 10 percent of total employment. They provide many be enlarged by a factor of 20 to 40 times by encouraging useful services to urban residents that cannot always bicycLe-based access systems. Bike-and-ridLe strategies be readily replaced by motorized modes, acting as a offer an important means for improving public trans- non-motorized taxi, school bus, ambulance, delivery port system efficiency, performance, and use. service, and small freight hauler in some cities. In large, low income cities where public transport Cycle-rickshaws are quiet, non-polluting, use no services are insufficient to meet demand, and in low petroleum, and can traverse very narrow streets. income areas of more affluent cities, bicycle use Improvements should be encouraged in vehicle should be encouraged as the most efficieint mode for design and patterns of vehide ownership and opera- trips of up to 10 kilometers or more, al: least until tion, however, to improve safety, vehicle perform- public transport service provision can catch up with ance, the quality of working conditions for demand. The diversion of some public transport cycle-rickshaw drivers. Where they are in use, they travelers making trips shorter than several kilome- should be accepted as a usefu]l part of the transpor- ters frombuses tobicycles canpermitalargerportion tation system that fills market-expressed needs, of public transport vehicles to be concentrated on rather than as a nuisance or a barrier to transport longer distance, limited stop, express services, where system modernization. They are a thoroughLy twen- they can operate at higher efficiency. tieth century, efficient, and sustainable mode of In NMV dependent cities where public transport is transport, used even today in aerospace factories in insufficient to meet demand, where street space is North America. saturated, and where a large number of cyclists ride Even in high income motor-vehicle dependent distances over 10 or 15 kilometers, such as in some cities, there are opportunities for appropriate use of Chinese cities, express limited stop public transport cycle-rickshaws for short distance person and goods services should be upgraded and long distance cy- movement and as the basis for microenterprises pro- clists should be encouraged to use bike-and-ride. The viding goods and services at dispersed locations. diversion of such cyclists to public transport should There, they will find greatest utility where slow not be achieved through suppression of bicycle use modes are allocated right-of-way separate from mo- or constriction of street space for NMV,-, but rather torized traffic, in dense pedestrian-oriented neigh- through improvement of public transport to provide borhoods or central areas with slow traffic speeds, in more competitive travel time. When scarce street large factories and shopping districts, and areas space in cities is allocated to different modes, less where private motor vehicles are restricted. efficient private automobiles should be restricted Cycle-rickshaws should be separated from motor- rather than bicycle traffic in setting aside added space ized traffic when possible, except in areas where for high efficiency public transport and pedestrians. traffic speeds or motor vehicle volumes will remain In cities of all types, sizes, and income levels, low. On higher speed roads, the speed differential bicycles should be encouraged as a meaLns of reduc- and combined vehicle width of motor vehicles and ing air and noise pollution, petroleuir use, global cycle-rickshaws can produce unsafe conditions. warming, and traffic congestion, and as an important Where traffic congestion is most serious in cities and means of increasing the mobility of low income peo- there are large volumes of cyde-rickshaws, it may ple. By meeting a larger share of urban mobility make sense to enhance bicycle or bus modes to gain needs using low-cost bicycle transportation, cities greater efficiency in street space utilization. However, xv Ahmw0 00 ;Xk£ g 000f0 00 iH greater efficiency of resource utilization in the trans- port sector while enhancing accessibility. However, few institutional structures focus on non-motorized transport and little data is collected on its attributes or problems. Many national and local transport planning organizations are indifferent or hostile to non-motorized transport and focus solely on motorized transport issues. Training and institu- tional reform is needed to address these problems. Many of these factors can be changed only over the course of a number of years and some are difficult to control. However, actions by the World Bank, other multi-lateral and bi-lateral development fi- nance organizations, governments at various levels, Cycle-rickshaws are vital to freight movement in Chinia and and non-governmental organizations can influence many other countries in Asia and elsewhere. Similar vehicles are the direction and nature of change in many of these used in aerospace factories in the United States. the dir ction shof be accofpthed factors. Such actions should be accomplished through development and implementation of a Non- the wholesale banning of cycle-rickshaws from large Motorized Transport Strategy (NMTS) for the World areas of cities where they fill market needs is inadvis- Bank in Asia and other regions. Individual countries able on economic, environmental, and social grounds. and cities in Asia and elsewhere should also be en- couraged to develop their own NMTS. Otherforms of non-motorized transport Formulation of a non-motorized transport strategy Other formns of non-motorized transport, including simple boats, ox-carts, horse carriages, and hand- A NMTS, whether for a city, a country, a region, or for carts, all play a significant role in transport in certain the World Bank as a whole, should be developed to urban areas of Asia. However, insufficient available establish and support the appropriate use of NMVs in data and literature dealing with such modes limits the areas of concem to maximize transport system their discussion in this report. efficiency, equity, and environmental quality. While Walking is the most widely used means of trans- some elements described below are undertaken in port in most Asian cities and of all modes, has the transport sector and project appraisal studies today, lowest cost and the fewest impacts on the environ- many aspects related to NMvs are often neglected. ment. Walking should be encouraged as the most A NMTS should identify the extent, pattern, and efficient mode for trips of up to 800 meters length in current trends related to non-motorized transport cities anywhere in the world. Further research and availability and use, including variations based on policy work is needed on pedestrian traffic safety in income, cost, trip length, and other factors. It should motorized cities and strategies for improving pede- assess the overall pattern of travel demand for differ- strian conditions. ent modes of transport for low, moderate, and high income groups to identify particular trip lengths Key barriers to NMVS where modal options are limited to inefficient trans- portation choices. The key barriers to NMV use include affordability of A key focus should be on road safety problems, vehicles,NMV-hostilestreetenvirornments,vehicletheft, particularly those facing pedestrians and bicyclists. negative social and government attitudes to NMVs, and Road safety improvements offer a potential for wide- excessive and inappropriate regulation of NMVs. spread social and economic benefits in terms popular Overcoming these barriers may require changes with all classes of society. in transport investment patterns, infrastructure An urban NMTS should identify key traffic conges- design standards, street space allocation, credit and tion locations and gather data on the composition financing systems, regulatory policy, public educa- and attributes of traffic flows, their trip length dis- tion, and marketing, depending on local circum- tribution and pattern, and the extent of encroach- stances. Such changes should be part of much larger ment on the transportation right-of-way by efforts to manage the modal mix of cities to favor non-transportation activities and uses. This informa- xvi tion should be used to identify opportunities for faster modes. Many have incorrectly equated trans- improved traffic management in congesited loca- port system modernization with complete transport tions, including separation or channelization of dif- system motorization, making it difficult to win ac- ferent modes within the right-of-way or on parallel ceptance for policies and investments favoring NMT routes to separate slow and fast traffic, improvement in many cities. Moreover, transport professionals of intersection design and operation to reduce turn- and researchers have often neglected NMT in their ing movement conflicts and delays, using turn pro- studies, planning, and recommendations. As a result hibitions, one-way systems, grade separations, of all these factors, the World Bank has paid only traffic signalization, and grade separated under and sporadic attention to non-motorized transport issues over passes, where appropriate. until recently. It should consider restriction of private motor Several World Bank urban projects in recent years vehicle traffic in congested areas by limiling peak have included NMT components, most notably pro- hour entry or by creating automobile restricted areas, jects in China, India, Mozambique, Tunisia, and streets, or traffic cells, which discourage short trips Chile. In Ghana, the Bank is engaged in a notable by private motor vehicles. It should consider pricing pilot project to promote bicycles and carts for rural changes for public and private transport to influence transport development. In Shanghai, the World Bank travel demand. Where poor traffic discipline or en- is proposing support for bicycle network develop- croachments are problems, stepped up enforcement, ment. The Bank should build on these experiences public education, and advertising campaigns and the and expand its attention to these issues. provision of low cost off-street market areas should A World Bank non-motorized transport strategy be considered. should be developed to begin institutionalizing NMT An urban NMTS should identify and evaluate op- into Bank operations, lending, and activities. This portunities for shifting longer distance trips made by strategy should focus on internal Bank operations private motorized and non-motorized vehicles to and external activities the Bank can undertake with bike-and-ride systems, with express public: transport its multi-lateral and bi-lateral partners to provide operating on reserved rights-of-way. It should iden- appropriate support for NMT. tify strategies for reducing average trip length in the The primary benefits of a NMTS will be in improv- long run through changes in land use patterns and ing overall transport system performance and sus- the distribution of housing, markets and shops, and tainability. However, a NMTS has potential relevance employment both in relationship to each other and to poverty alleviation, air pollution and global warm- the public transport system. It should ideniafy appro- ing problems, the impacts of rapid growth in motori- priate networks for NMv use to strengthen their util- zation and petroleum use, and the social dimensions ity for short to moderate length trips within cities and of adjustment. evaluate the appropriateness of shifting long walk trips and short public transport trips to M Two or three story bicycle parking garages at Japanese railway stations hold up to several thousand bicycles at higl density, using simple mechanical devices for bi-level storage on each floor. in China, India, much of Europe, and Japan. For goods bicycles can be seen parked at some stations. Travel movement,thisrequiresbetterlinkageoftruckswithrail, time, convenience, and problems with the feeder bus waterways,and non-motorized vehides. system are the main reasons for bike and ride mode choice in Japan, as Box 5.1 shows. Integration of bicycles with public transportation As in Japan and much of Europe, bicycle access expands the potential market area of high-speed Bicycles are not a substitute for public transport. public transport services at low cost. This is one of Instead, these are complementary and partially over- the most valuable potential functions of NMVs in lapping modes of transport. Each has unique megacities, where average trip lengths are long. Im- strengths and weaknesses. In combination, they offer provement of bicycle access to public transport is also a strong potential competitor to private motorized an important strategy for sustaining mixed traffic transport for many types of trips. systems, reintegrating NMVS into motor vehicle de- To reduce long-distance bicycle commuting and pendent cities, and dealing with network capacity free up congested road space, the Chinese have been saturation in NMv dependent cities. establishing bicycle-subway and bicycle-bus ex- In Western Europe and Japan today, the fastest change hubs, which have been very popular in Bei- growing and predominant access mode to suburban jing and other cities.1 Bicycle access to railways is also railways is the bicycle, accounting for one-fourth to important in India, where hundreds or thousands of one-half of access trips to stations.2 Adequate sup- 37 More than 2 million cyclists park daily at Japaniese railway stations, in simple lots like this one outside Tokyo, and in high technology parking structures. porting infrastructure, including secure parking at with 5,456 other station parking garages of lower station entrances and safe access routes, is essential capacity. An increasing number of these facilities are to this intermodal integration. computerized or automated multi-story structures Between 1975 and 1981, the number of bicycles providing very high density parking.3 parked at Japanese rail stations quadrupled to 1.25 Bike-and-ride strategies offer opportunities for in- million. By the end of the 1980s, more than two million creased public transport system efficiency when fac- bicydes were used daily to access suburban railway tored into public transport network and operations stations in Japan. Use is heaviest in the lower density design. With expanded station catchment areas, suburban fringe areas of large cities. Travel time, con- inter-station spacing can be greater, creating higher venience, and problems with the feeder bus system are line-haul public transport speeds and efficiency in the main reasons for bike-and-ride mode choice. equipment utilization, with a level of service compa- Japanese and European transportation policy and rable to that obtained with denser station spacing investment has encouraged bike-and-ride system de- relying on pedestrian access. velopment. In Japan, more than 730,000 new bicycle In the long run, increased inter-station and inter- parking spaces were built at rail stations between line spacing may permit public transport networks 1978 and 1981, supported by national subsidies avail- to concentrate more frequent service on fewer lines able to both public and private sector parking devel- for the same size vehicle fleet, reducing average wait- opers. By 1981, there were 636 garages at Japanese ing time for public transport services and increasing rail stations accommodating more than 500 bicycles, efficiency in use of rights-of-way. This is particularly 38 Box 5.1 Primary reasons for use of the bicycle to reach Japanese rail stations 10 prefectures Survey location around Japan Urawa City Survey date 1980 1973 Sample size 1,838 2,091 Sample restriction Cydists using Cyclists near rail transit rail station Primary reason for use oif bicycle (percent) (percent) Convenience and travel time a. Bicycle is convenienit and faster than 21.0 42.9 walking b. Bicycle is available on demand 14.0 c. Bicycle is fastest mode for trip 6.1 Subtotal 41.3 42.9 Problems directly related to bus service a. Service to infrequent 7.9 15.7 b. Bus stops too distant 5.5 c. Schedule unreliable 5.7 d. Buses overcrowded 6.1 e. No early morning/late afternoon service 2.9 10.0 Possible problems relatecl to bus service f. Bicycle is cheaper than bus 15.5 g. No alternative travel mode 5.4 5.6 h. Distance too far to walk 20.9 Subtotal a-e 28.1 25.7 Subtotal a-h 49.0 52.2 Bicycle is good for health 9.7 Other 4.2 No response not included 0.7 Total 100.0 100.0 Note: Survey of l prefectures in Japan was conducted by 10 local bicycle associations as part of a bikecoloUy (bicycle safety and promotion) campaign. Sample consisted of 1,113 men and 725 women, chosen at random among bicydlists using rail sta- tions. Data publishe in apanese and supplied by the Japan Bicycle Promotion Institute. Data on urawa city are taken fom a survey published in Bikeways in Japan, Japan Rolad Development Association, 1977, Tokyo. The survey was conducted on the roads centering on three railway stations in the city, in the areas of the stations plazas. Some 71 percent of the bicycle users sur- veyed were commuters and 15 percent were students. important in megacities where average trip lengths In cities where public transport services are inade- are long and resources for express public transport quate to meet demand, it may be productive to shift service provision are insufficient to meet demand. some less efficient short distance public transport By reducing average point-to-point travel time trips to NMt~VS, allowing concentration of public trans- throughout metropolitan areas, bike-and-ride sys- port resources on longer trips, with bike-and-ride tems -can improve the competitiveness. of public access systems expanding market catchment areas. transport with private motorized transport. This in- More research is needed on the extent of bicycle fluences mode choice and, at least in some cases, may access to public transport throughout Asia. influence individual decisions regarding acquisition of motor vehicles. Thus, bike-and-ride systems can Integration of NMvs with motorized goods be important as an element in transportation system movement management and efforts to manage the evolution of metropolitan modal mix and pace of motorization, Creation of more modally diverse freight vehicle especially in large cities. fleets can enhance economic efficiency in cities too. 39 In Bogota, Colombia, a large bakery once used just Notes trucks to deliver baked goods to its 600 retail outlets. Today the bakery uses semi-trailer trucks to distrib- 1. Suhua, Dong, 1990, op. cit. ute inventory to six sub-distribution centers, from 2. Replogle, Michael, "The Role of Bicycles in Public which a fleet of one cubic meter capacity cargo tricy- Transportation Access," Transportation Research Record, des provide final distribution to retail outlets. By No. 959, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, recognizing the benefits of modal differentiation, the 1984, p. 55-62. bakery cut distribution costs by over half while in- 3. Replogle, Michael, Bicycles and Public Transportation, creasing employment.4 op. cit. The extent of similar integration of NMVs with 4. Navarro, Ricardo; Heierli, Urs; Beck, Victor; La Bici- motorized goods movement in Asia is not docu- cleta Y los Triciclos, Swiss Center of Appropriate Technol- ogy (SKAT), St. Gallen, Switzerland, 1985, and Navarro, mented, but may be quite extensive. Further research Ricardo; Heierli, Urs; and Beck, Victor; "Bicycles: Intelli- in this area is needed. gent Transport in Latin America," Development, Vol.4, 1986, Society for Intemational Development, Rome, Italy. By combining use of cag-rcce (ccl r h and large motorized or ist tionoto-retail olets a arecmecabaeioaaCoubact total distribu- tio ssecosts by mrthnalwieicesing employment, compared to its p u system. Rent-a-cycle-ports, like this one at a rail stationz in Nigata, Japan, hold hundreds of rental bicycles used by both nearby resiaents and workers to get from home-to-station or station-to-workplace. The Netherlands offers some of the best examples in the world of efficient, modern, multi-modal transportation. Four out of ten Dutch rail passengers arriveat the station by bicycle, as is evident at the station in Leiden, a satellite city near Amsterdam. 40 Policies and regulations Regulations and policies influencing NMVs use their components from India is widespread, but this alleviates only part of the regulatory cost burden on Regulations and policies, including taxes and import end users.1 duties, fuel taxes, vehide registration and licensing Such stiff protectionist policies aimed at aiding fees, and credit financing systems for vehicle pur- domestic NMV producers impose a high cost on cy- chase, all have a major influence on the cost and clists and cyde-rickshaw users while often failing to availability of various transport modes. Frequently create viable industries. When combined with low in Asia and other parts of the world, regulations and taxes on motor vehicle imports, such policies foster policies have been used to discourage or sup press the economically inefficient choices. use of NMvs, especially cyde-rickshaws, while foster- Vehicle licensing is commonly used to raise reve- ing motorization of transport. nue, to ensure vehide safety, and to regulate vehide In some Asian countries, import duties are struc- use. In many cities, however, it has been used to try tured to favor motorized transport. In Bangladesh, to suppress cycle-rickshaws and other infonral sec- for example, the trend over the past two decades has tor public transport services, such as jeepnies, jitneys, been towards encouraging motorized public trans- motorized auto-rickshaws, and pirate taxis. port, discouraging imports of bicycles and their com- In Karachi, cycle-rickshaws were banned in 1960 ponents to protect local bicycle manufacturers, and and replaced by auto-rickshaws, which in turn were offering concessions to affluent private motor vehicle subjected to restrictions on new registrations from buyers. In 1989, Bangladesh taxed importecl bicycles 1986 onwards. In Manila, the motorized tricycles and most bicycle components at 150 percent, while which replaced cycle rickshaws in the 1950s were buses, mini-buses, and trucks were taxed only 20 later banned from main roads, and now operate percent, baby-taxis at 5 percent, small-engine auto- mostly on smaLLer roads as feeder services.2 Only in mobiles (850 cc or less) at 50 percent, jeeps and station Singapore have restrictions been placed on private wagons at 30 percent, and motorcycles at 20 percent. motor vehicle registrations, beginning in 1990, al- Import duties on bicycles and bicycle parts are though such vehicles are the least efficient users of greater than those on motorcycles and their compo- road space in Asian cities. nents, with taxes as high as 170 percent for imported In a number of cities in India, Indonesia, and bicycle tires. Bangladesh, restrictions have been placed on the While such taxes are intended to protect domestic number of cycle-rickshaw registrations that wiLL be bicycle producers, two-thirds of bicycle components permitted, often freezing registrations at a fixed level needed in Bangladesh must be imported, raising for many years. Restrictions on licenses create a lu- significantly the costs of bicycLe and cycLe-rickshaw crative black market in duplicate or falsified licenses. ownership and operation. Smuggling of bicycles and It also makes cycle-rickshaw drivers and owners 41 vulnerable to extortion and abuse from local police, Chinese transport policies have been quite differ- who can threaten to seize their vehicle, causing at a ent from this pattern. In the 1950s, China began minimum, loss of a full day's pay and at worst, loss offering employee commuter subsidies for those bi- of livelihood. Indeed, Jakarta authorities have seized cycling to work, accelerated bicycle production, and some 100,000 cycle-rickshaws in the past five years, allocated extensive urban street space to bicycle traf- dumping at least 35,000 into Jakarta Bay, as they seek fic. Today, 50 to 80 percent of urban trips in China the complete elimination of these vehicles from the are by bicycle, while providing travel speeds compa- city. Thousands more cycle-rickshaws have been rable to those of many other more motorized Asian seized and destroyed in Delhi in the late 1980s. cities, with much more favorable consequences on Wherever rickshaws are licensed in Bangladesh, the environment and petroleum dependency. cycle-rickshaw pullers must also hold driver's li- Many planners in Chinese cities have been dis- censes, under laws that date back to the 1920s. How- cussing problems caused by widespread violation of ever, in many cities as few as 15 percent of all pullers traffic regulations by cyclists. Very heavy bicyde are actually licensed. Although the licensing fees are traffic flows frequently lead to overflow of cyde usually minimal-on the order of one-tenth of a traffic into motorized traffic lanes and violation of day's income-it typically takes ten or more times traffic signals. Many Chinese planners call for public this amount to secure a license, as a number of signa- education about traffic regulations. In many Chinese tures are required.3 cities, workers have recently been organized to help A key objective of urban transportation system the police enforce traffic order. development and management should be the preser- Most Chinese transport experts tend to agree that vation of modal diversity, so that travelers can choose different policies need to be pursued in cities of among multiple competing travel modes to select the different sizes. In small cities of up to several million one that offers the highest efficiency of resource utili- population, bicycle use should not be limited. In zation and acceptable speed and comfort within a large cities with severe bicycle traffic congestion and limited budget. When modal diversity decreases, street space saturation, bus, subway, and rail public people are often left with no choice but to use an transport should be better developed to attract long- inefficient travel mode or to give up traveling alto- distance cyclists, reducing average bicycle trip gether. Market forces can work in transportation lengths. Many think that costs of bicycle use should modechoiceonlywhenmultiplechoicesareavailable increase to moderate further bicycle fleet growth.4 and given a level playing field on which to compete. The Chinese government stopped collecting a use tax This sometimes requires protecting weaker but for bicycles in 1980. Some Chinese planners suggest desirable modes of non-motorized transport from a restoration of such fees. stronger but less efficient motorized transport modes, just as economic regulation is sometimes Land use, investment patterns and NMVs needed to ensure competition and prevent the emer- gence of monopoly or oligopoly in other markets. The characteristics of NMVs cannot be well under- However, rather than protecting NMVS, some gov- stood without discussing their interaction with land ernments in Asia have put into place policies to use and motorized transport modes, as well as the suppress NMV use, particularly cycle-rickshaws. diverse nature of urban trip-making. More than all Many cities have imposed constraints on non-motor- other modes, the utility of walking and cycling are ized modes of travel, particularly cycle rickshaws, claim- dependent on the micro-scale character of neighbor- ing these cause congestion or unfairly exploit human hoods and the built environment, which is strongly labor, or that they represent backwardness. In Kuala influenced by investment patterns. Lampur, Malaysia, and Jakarta, Indonesia, cycle-rick- Urban transport and land use interact as a com- shaws have been mostly displaced by such measures. plex and self-regulating system, much like ecological The suppression of cycle-rickshaws is comparable or biological systems. The available resources, vehi- to the removal of slums and squatter settlements. Just des, networks, rules of operation, and cost structures as slum clearances destroy real housing resources for can be influenced by policy makers. Individual trav- the poor, cycle-rickshaw bans eliminate real trans- elers make their choices within the constraints portation resources for the poor and middle class, provided, based on their own habits. Land uses, once hurting hundreds of thousands of people who fre- set into place, act like a genetic code for the future quently lack the political power to defend their mo- evolution of the city and its mobility system. bility systems or jobs. Changes come slowly once patterns are set in place. 42 The pattern of buildings and transportinfrastructure transport speed, reliability, and productivity, and in a neighborhood tells people how to travel, within increased use of all of these modes. Traffic calming certain broad choice parameters. strategies becoming widespread in Europe and Urban form has a major influence on mode choice Japan are means of enhancing alternatives to private but also responds to the predominant transport motorized transport while accommodating automo- mode in use when a city neighborhood is under bile traffic. Clustering new growth at higher density development. Cities most dependent on a diverse with mixed uses within walking distance of public mix of walking, cycling, and public transporl: tend to transport can lead to high levels of mobility with high be compact in form and become multi-nucleated as energy efficiency and minimized dependence on mo- they expand in size, with heterogeneous land use at torized transport. a small scale, mixing residential, retail, and often NMV potential is greatest where there are large some production functions. Where public transport existing bicycle fleets, safe places for them to operate, is predominant over non-motorized modes, average secure places for NMV parking at destinations, and trip lengths and transport costs are higher. In con- where land use patterns do not require long travel trast, cities highly dependent on the automobile gen- distances to meet daily needs. NMV potential is lim- erally sprawl at low densities, with long average trip ited where motorized vehicles fill the streets, leaving lengths, spatial separation of different land uses from few safe places for cyclists, where the security of each other, and little diversity of mode choices. parked vehicles is poor, and where average trip The trip length distribution of a city, set by the lengths are long. However, even under such unfavor- current land use and general costs of transport, de- able circumstances, there are opportunities for ex- telmines to a large extent the opportunity for inter- panding NMv use for short trips through better traffic changability of motorized and non-motorized trips. management. For person trips with small loads, walking is typi- Preserving modal diversity so that people have cally the most efficient mode for short trips of up to the freedom to choose the most efficient and appro- one kilometer. Cycling is usually the most efficient priate mode of transport for a particular need should mode for trips of half a kilometer to several kilome- be one of the central goals of transport system man- ters. The maximum efficient range of wallcing and agement and transport investment policy. Unless cycling for individuals often depends on income. transport policies, investment patterns, and deci- Cost sensitive low income people commonly prefer sions about the allocation of street space recognize to walk or cycle much longer distances to avoid the the vital role of non-motorized transport, the modal expense of public transport fares. diversity now enjoyed by Asian cities will decline, Especially as cities grow larger, the need to make resulting in much higher transport system economic longer trips usually grows. Since walking and cycling and environmental costs. are too slow to be efficient for longer trips, motorized In low income Asian cities, resource allocation transport become the optimal mode choice. For trips should be reexamined. There may be benefits in shift- longer than several kilometers, aggregate point-to- ing some investment from expensive motorized point corridor travel demand is a key determinate of transportation infrastructure and heavily subsidized which motorized mode may be more efficient. If de- public transportation to instead provide subsidies or mand is very high, rail or dedicated busway services credit to low income workers to expand access to are usually most efficient, but must often compete NMvs. In high income Asian cities, opportunities to with less efficient automobiles and motorcycles. If expand NMV use should be explored as well. travel demand is relatively low or if origins and des- Evaluation of transport investments solely on the tinations are highly dispersed, automobiles, motorcy- basis of cost-benefit analysis fails to account for cles, or paratransit are the most efficient modes. broader objectives of transport system management. Between these extremes, buses provide the greatest For example, an assessment that considers that the energy efficiency, but this is often reduced when the time savings of car occupants are a benefit is quite buses are caught in traffic congestion. inappropriate where there is a policy of containing Motorized transport efficiency varies widely, de- or reducing the volume of car traffic.5 Evaluation pending on many factors. Reallocation of street space methods that consider the potential of projects to and the creation of new reserved rights-of-way for meet several key multiple objectives may offer more public transport, pedal-powered transport, and promise for the development of efficient multi- pedestrians can lead to significant increases in public modal transport systems. Such methods are now 43 finding greater use in European communities. In Credit systems and NMVs London, many boroughs have adopted this ap- proach with the following general objectives.6 The provision of low-cost credit for the purchase of NMVs should be a high priority to ensure that more * ACCESSIBILITY. Increasing personal and busi- of the poor have access to affordable mobility. In ness access; India, it is possible for the more affluent to get auto- * ECONOMY. Enhancing economic development mobile loans but generally not possible for lower and increasing employment; income people to get smaller loans to buy a bicycle. * ENVIRONMENT. Improving the environment; There are exceptions, however. In Hyderabad, India, * SAFETY. Reducing road accidents and increas- commercial banks were encouraged to lend to rick- ing personal security; shaw operators for the purchase of vehicles. * EFFICIENCY. Reducing the total resources used Bicycle and cycle-rickshaw assemblers and manu- for a given level of transport; facturers could play a greater role in financing vehi- * EQUALITY. Giving equal consideration to all de purchases if provided with appropriate technical sections of the community; assistance and access to commercial credit to help * DEMOCRACY. Maximizing personal involve- establish such programs. In Santo Domingo, Domini- ment in decision-making. can Republic, a credit union of tricicleros helps fi- nance vehicle purchases and a tricycle assembly project. Such lending programs, targeted to micro- enterprises, can provide major stimulation to local economic activity. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has demon- strated a very effective model for micro-scale lending among people who have no collateral. Potential bor- rowers are encouraged to form themselves into pools >1 2 i ], i&Xof four or five individuals who know each other. One person in the pool gets a small loan of US$100 or so to help capitalize an income-generating activity, such as buying a sewing machine or bicycle. Only after the initial borrower has repaid their loan can the other individuals in the pool become eligible for loans. Social pressure within the group generally leads to very low default rates. Commuter subsidies are another area where poli- cies can be changed to encourage NMV use. Bicycle commuter subsidies were a key factor in the growth of bicycle use in China. These employer subsidies enabled workers to purchase a new bicycle every four to six years. Direct employer subsidies common since the 1950s were largely stopped in the late 1980s, as bicycle ownership reached levels close to one per household in most Chinese cities. However, certain other fees on bicycle purchase were removed in 1987. In Delhi, the cost of operating subsidy for DTC buses in 1985 was RS 185 Crore (US$ 150 million). It Cycle rickshaws can be an efficient complement to motorized has been pointed out that this amount of money public transportation, especially in cities with a large supply of low-cost labor. Rather than banning or curbing these vehicles, would be sufficient to provide a new bicycle for every cities can often improve traffic flow by better management of household in Delhi below the poverty level, clearly transportation rights-of-way to stem encroachments, like this one recognizing, however, that the bus system is an es- above, and planning for more effective integration of non-motor- ized and motorized modes, recognizing the importance of main- sential component of the urban transport system that taining modal diversity. could not be replaced by bicycles.7 44 Notes 5. Lester, N., "Economic Assessment of Cycle Facili- ties," Proceedings of Velo City '87 Congress, op. cit., p. 37. 1. Gallagher, Rob, The Rickshaws of Bangladesh, March 6. Transport Policies for London, London Strategic 1989, privately published. Chapter 5, p.11. Policy Unit, 1987. Cited in Lester, N. "Economic Assess- 2. Gallagher, op. cit., Chapter 5, p. 7-8. ment of Cycle Facilities," Proceedings of Velo City '87 * ' ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Coneress, op. cit., p. 37. 3. Gallagher, op. cit., Chapter 5, p. 4 7o taAes9, op. cit., 4. uha,Don, 98, o. it 7. Hathway, A. G., 1990, op. cit. 4. Suhua, Dong, 1989, op. cit. 45 Recommendations for action Conditions under which NMVS should be Bicycles encouraged In general, bicycles, should be encouraged as the Non-motorized modes are the most efficient means most efficient transport mode for short trips in cities of mobility over short distances in cities, while mo- of all types and income levels, particularly for trips torized modes offer greater efficiency for longer too long for walking and too short for express public trips. The point at which motorized modes become transport services, and where travel demand density more efficient than non-motorized modes for con- or economics do not permit high frequency public sumers depends on income levels, the value of time, transport services. and the price and speed of various transport modes. Bicydes should be considered as an integral part of For societies as a whole, it depends as well on how urban transport planning and management for cities environmental costs and other externalities related across the world, just like public transport, private to transport are assessed. motorized transport, and walking. In smaller cities, Determination of the most efficient modal mix for bicycles should have a primary role on their own for a city requires also consideration of constraints on work, shopping, and other travel. In larger cities, street space, patterns of land use, existing invest- where trips lengths are longer, bicycles should be seen ments in transport vehicles and infrastructure, and as most important in providing access to efficient funds available for new investment and transport public transport services for work trips and in serving operations. It should also take into account current some short distance shopping and other trips. and anticipated problems in the overall transporta- The primary market for efficient bicycle use is tion and land use system, such as traffic congestion, generally from six or eight hundred meters to dis- air pollution, economic impacts of growing tances of five to seven kilometers. The utility of bicy- petroleum use, access of housing to employment, cles is reduced, but not entirely eliminated, in cities motorization trends, and goals for poverty allevia- with many hills or other steep topography. tion. Given the wide variation in these factors, urban Bicydes should be encouraged as a key element in non-motorized transport strategies must be tailored access and egress to and from public transport, par- for different types of cities. ticularly for intrametropolitan express services in While these various factors will affect the utility of large cities of all types. The catchment area for con- NMVs from place to place, the general conditions venient and efficient access to rail or bus stops and under which NMVs should be encouraged in cities, in stations can be enlarged by 30 or 40 time by encour- Asia and elsewhere, are as follows: aging bicycle-based access systems. Bike-and-ride 46 strategies offer an important means for improving pub- urban residents that cannot always be readily re- lic transport system efficiency, performance, and use. placed by motorized modes, acting as a non-motor- In large, low income cities where public transport ized taxi, ambulance, delivery service, and small services are insufficient to meet demand, bicycle use freight hauler in some cities. Cycle-rickshaws are should be encouraged as the most efficient mode for quiet, non-polluting, use no petroleum, and can trav- trips of up to 10 kilometers or more, at least until erse narrow streets. public transport service provision can catch up with Improvements should be encouraged in vehicle demand. The diversion of some public transport design and patterns of vehicle ownership and opera- travelers making trips shorter than several kilome- tion, however, to improve safety, vehicle perform- tersfrombusestobicyclescanpermitalargerportion ance, the quality of working conditions for of public transport vehicles to be concentrated on cycle-rickshaw drivers. Cycle-rickshaws have little longer distance, limited stop, express services, where potential in cities with many hills or other steep they can operate at higher efficiency. topography. In NMV dependent cities where public transport is Even in high income motor-vehide dependent insufficient to meet demand, where street space is cities, there are at least limited opportunities for ap- saturated, and where a large number of cyclists ride propriate use of cycle-rickshaws for short distance distances over 10 or 15 kilometers, such as in some person and goods movement and as the basis for Chinese cities, express limited stop public transport microenterprises providing goods and services at services should be upgraded and long distance cy- dispersed locations. They will find greatest utility clists should be encouraged to use bike-and.-ride. The where slow modes are allocated right-of-way sepa- diversion of such cyclists to public transport should rate from motorized traffic and in dense pedestrian- not be achieved through suppression of bJicycle use, oriented neighborhoods or central areas with narrow but rather through improvement of public transport streets and slow traffic speeds and other areas where to provide more competitive travel time. private motor vehicles are restricted. When scarce street space in cities is allocated to Where they are in use, they should be accepted as different modes, less efficient private automobiles a useful part of the transportation system that fills should be restricted rather than bicycle traffic in market-expressed needs, rather than a nuisance. setting aside added space for high efficiency public Cycle-rickshaws should be separated from motor- transport and pedestrians. Where it is introduced, ized traffic when possible, except in areas where road pricing should not be applied to bic ycle traffic traffic speeds or volumes will remain low. Especially except perhaps on very high quality limited access on higher speed roads, the speed differential and dedicated bicycle facilities. The costs of bicycle use combined vehicle width of motor vehicles and cycle- should be kept as low as possible to encourage use rickshaws can produce very unsafe conditions. of this efficient and clean mode. Where traffic congestion is most serious in cities In cities of all types, sizes, and income levels, and there are large volumes of cycle-rickshaws, it may bicycles should be encouraged as a means of reduc- make sense to promote diversion of some trips from ing air and noise pollution, petroleum use, global cycle-rickshaw to bicycle or bus modes to gain greater warming, and traffic congestion, and as an important efficiency in street space utilization. The wholesale means of increasing the mobility of low income peo- banning of cycle-rickshaws from large areas of cities ple. By meeting a larger share of urban mobility where they fill market needs is inadvisable on needs using low-cost bicycle transportation, cities economic, environmental, and social grounds. can reduce total transport system costs and free up resources for other unmet needs. Hand carts Cycle-rickshaws There is very little readily available research on the role of hand carts in urban transport in Asia or else- Cycle-rickshaws are not as efficient as bicycles for where. However, this transport mode does play a personal transport, but should be encouraged as a significant role in short-distance goods movement in complementary mode to motorized good[s transport cities of all sizes and income levels, although their and as a passenger paratransit mode, particularly in use tends to be greater in low income cities. Further countries where wages are low and there is substan- research is needed to identify the characteristics of tial surplus labor. These vehicles are a mrajor source these vehicles, the range of roles they fill, and of employment and provide many usefuL services to changes in levels of use as motorization increases. 47 Their use should not be discouraged without exami- loads, need to make a series of linked trips, or is public nation of such questions. transportation too expensive for the individual?). * The importance and perception of trip time Animal carts and carriages (e.g., does the time savings of public transport out- weigh the cost savings of walking or cycling?). In general, bullock carts, horse carts and carriages, * The importance and perception of road and and other animal-powered transport appear to be not traffic conditions (e.g., does the trip pass through an well suited to large cities, except for those at the area very hazardous to cyclists or is the bicycle more lowest income level. They are slow, consume a large predictable in its travel time than public transport?). amount of road space relative to their capacity and * The importance and perception of convenience productivity, and leave behind a trail of animal and level of service (e.g., is a longer trip by bicyde in waste. For these reasons, their use is likely in decline hazardous conditions preferable to enduring crush throughout most of Asia. Despite these drawbacks, loading on an overcrowded bus?). they have a continuing modest role to play in very * The degree to which the individual is subjec- small cities and towns, providing person and goods tively disposed to bicycle or NMV use (e.g., is bicycle movement where other modes are not available to use considered a low-income and low status mode of meet demand, particularly in low income countries. transport or is it acceptable for a person aspiring to Fuller study of their role in communities and the middle class status?). impacts of their likely decline would be beneficial. From these dimensions influencing bicycle and Non-motorized boats NMV use, we can identify a number of key barriers to NMT use. In general, small non-motorized boats continue to Affordability of bicycles can pose particular have an important role to play in person and freight problems for very low income households. Lack of transport in cities with extensive waterways, such as access to small scale commercial credit, which could in several cities in China and Bangladesh. Where enable purchase of a bicycle for the same weekly cost labor costs are low, they are economical, as well as as now expended for public transportation is a re- being kind to the environment. Fuller study of their lated barrier. In some countries, tariffs placed on role in communities and the impacts of their likely imported bicydes and parts, combined with inade- decline would be beneficial. quate or low quality local bicycle production, unnec- essarily increase NMV costs. Barriers to development of NMVs Bicycle-hostile street environments offer no le- gitimate place for NMV traffic and thus expose cyclists Barriers to the development of NMVS vary widely to both psychological discomfort and serious acci- between cities with different modal dependencies dent risk. Rapid motorization can quickly reduce the and income levels. However, the key factors influ- quality of the cycling environment unless steps are encing transport system modal evolution have been taken to protect more vulnerable NMVs from dis- identified as.1 placement by fast and often aggressive motor vehide traffic. Lack of separation of slow from fast modes, * The supply and design of transport infrastruc- provision of higher speed multi-lane highways in ture; urban areas with no attention to slow traffic modes * Constraints and options of individuals and traveling in the same corridor, and poor quality road households; maintenance all pose barriers for NMV use. * Social values, norms, and opinions affecting Bicycle theft poses a significant impediment to transport behavior. NMV use in some cities where it adds to the costs of operation of a bicycle and partially constrains the The propensity of individuals to use NMVs for locations accessible by bicycle to those places where either a particular day or in general is influenced by safe parking can be found. Lack of space in cramped several key dimensions.2 residences for secure bicycle storage in areas where * Objective possibility of choosing the bicycle or theft is a problem constrains bicycle ownership and other NMV (e.g., does the traveler own or have access use. Lack of secure bicyde parking at public trans- to a non-motorized vehicle?). port stations constrains development of bike-and- * Constraints for not using the bicycle or using an- ride systems where theft is a problem. other mode (e.g., does the traveler need to carry heavy 48 Social attitudes to NMvs often have a negative * Assess the overall pattern of travel demand for influence on bicycle ownership and use. The .attitude different modes of transport for low, moderate, and that bicycles are low status vehicles for the poor and high income groups to identify particular trip lengths that motorcycles and cars are high status vehicles for where modal options are limited to inefficient trans- the middle class promotes rapid motorization and portation choices. In motor vehicle dependent cities, marginalization of the bicycle. Similarly, the attitude this evaluation should focus on long walk trips made that transport system modernization mearns total by low income people and on short trips made with transport system motorization promotes inappropri- private motor vehicles. In non-motorized transport ate policies and transport investments favoring rapid dependent cities with overcrowded or inadequate and unsustainable motorization. The lack of consid- public transport systems, this evaluation should eration for NMT modes in the training of transport focus on long trips made by walking or NMVs. professionals is a related problem. * Identify key traffic congestion locations and Regulatory suppression of NMV traffic, such as gather data on the composition and attributes of the banning of cycle-rickshaws (becaks) from streets traffic flows, their trip length distribution and pat- or whole districts, freezes on the issuance of new tern, and the extent of encroachment on the transpor- licenses to cycle-rickshaws, and harassment of NMVs tation right-of-way by non-transportation activities by police and authorities, all pose serious threats to and uses. NMV use. Such measures marginalize NMVs, drive up * Identify opportunities for improved traffic their cost of operation, and stigmatize their users, management in congested locations, including: usually promoting more rapid motorization and de- creased overall transport system efficiency. - Separation or channelization of different modes Overcoming these barriers may require changes within the right-of-way or on parallel routes to separate in transport investment patterns, infrastructure slow and fast traffic, allocating reserved right-of-way to design standards, street space allocation, credit and public transportvehles,non-motornzedvehicles,pede- financing systems, regulatory policy, public educa- stian traffic, and private motor vehicles. tion, and marketing, depending on local circum- - Improvement of intersection design and op- stances. Such changes should be part of much larger eration to reduce turning movement conflicts and efforts to manage the modal mix of cities to favor delays, using turn prohibitions, one-way systems, greater efficiency of resource utilization in the trans- grade separations, or traffic signalization. port sector while enhancing accessibility. - Underpasses, overpasses or special traffic Many of these factors can be changed only over control devices to facilitate crossing congested arte- the course of a number of years and some are difficult rial roads. to control. However, actions by the World Bank, - Restrictionofprivatemotorvehicletrafficinthe other multi-lateral and bi-lateral development fi- congestedareabylimitingpeakhourentryorbycreating nance organizations, governments at various levels, automobile restricted areas, streets, or traffic cells, which and non-governmental organizations can influence discourage short trips by private motor vehicles. the direction and nature of change in many of these - Introduction of pricing changes for public factors. Such actions should be accornplished and private transport to influence demand in the through development and implementation of a non- corridor or area. motorized transport strategy. - Improvement of traffic discipline through stepped up enforcement, public education, and ad- Formulation of non-motorized transport strategy vertising campaigns. - Improved management of encroachments A NmrS is an overall strategy that seeks to establish on transportation right-of-way, for example, by ex- and support the appropriate use of NMVs in urban panding low cost off-street market areas to enable areas to maximize transport system efficiency, eq- restrictions on vending activities in the right-of-way uity, and environmental quality. The NMTS should or adjacent sidewalk and provision of off-road cycle- hold the following research and planning objectives. rickshaw stands. * Identify the extent, pattern, and current trends * Identify and evaluate opportunities for shifting related to non-motorized transport availability and longer distance trips made by private motorized and use, including variations based on income, cost, trip non-motorized vehicles to bike-and-ride systems, length, and other factors. 49 with express public transport operating on reserved * Formulation of a framework for small-scale rights-of-way. credit system development to assist low income * Identify areas with the greatest potential for households in purchasing NMVS. enhanced NMV priority on the basis of NMv owner- * Development of a strategy for strengthen ac- ship, topography, income, trip length, and overall cess to appropriate credit and technical assistance for travel patterns. NMV manufacturers and assemblers. * Identify strategies for reducing average trip length in the long run through changes in land use Recommended action program for patterns and the distribution of housing, markets the World Bank and shops, and employment both in relationship to each other and the public transport system. Basis for a new strategy * Identify barriers to the manufacture and own- ership of NMVs and strategies for overcoming these, NMT has been relatively neglected by transport pro- including an assessment of trade flows, trade barri- fessionals until recently. This has been reflected in ers, and tariffs related to NMVs, local NMV industry the relative lack of attention by the World Bank to structure and performance, affordability of NMVs to non-motorized transport issues. the population, credit systems for NMV purchase, and Over the years, however, a small portion of World licensing and registration requirements. Bank urban projects have included NMT components, * Identify regulatory policies that inhibit NMV most notably projects in China, India, Mozambique, use in different size cities and strategies for influenc- Tunisia, and Chile. In Ghana, the Bank is engaged in ing them, including traffic regulations, parking poli- a notable pilot project to promote bicycles and carts cies, and licensing requirements. for rural transport development. The Bank should build on these experiences and expand its attention On the basis of this evaluation and assessment, the to these issues. NMTS will be formulated, focusing principally on the The Bank should take a new strategic approach following implementation and project elements. towards non-motorized transport as part of its efforts to deal with poverty alleviation, the social dimen- * Formulation of desirable continuous networks sions of adjustment, air pollution and global warm- of facilities for pedestrians, NMVs, public transport ing problems, and the impacts of rapid growth in modes, and private motor vehicles, based on princi- motorization and petroleum use. A World Bank ples of hierarchial network design. Non-Motorized Transport Strategy should be devel- * Designations of areas where pedestrians and oped to begin institutionalizing NMT into Bank op- NMvs have priority over private motorized transport erations, lending, and other activities. This strategy for some or all of the day and development of imple- should focus not only on internal Bank operations, mentation strategies, induding traffic calming meas- but also on external activities that the Bank can un- ures, traffic cells, area pricing, and other forms of dertake with its multi-lateral and bi-lateral partners traffic restraint. to provide appropriate support for NMT. * Provision of secure bicyde parking at express The unique characteristics underlyingnon-motor- public transport stops and stations to encourage ized transport systems need to be understood as a bike-and-ride travel, especially in larger cities. basis for preparing a new strategy. * Formulation of improvement plans to establish * Non-motorized vehicles offer private transpor- more efficient traffic flow on the network, with spe- tation at low cost, emit no pollution, use only renew- cial emphasis placed on modal channelization or able energy, emphasize use of labor rather than segregation in areas where heavy traffic flows of both capital for mobility, and are well suited for short trips NMVs and motorized traffic occur. in most cities regardless of income, offering an alter- * Relaxation of regulations on NMV use to permit native to motorized transport for many short trips. free market entry of transport vehicles for commer- Thus, they are appropriate elements in strategies cial purposes. dealing with poverty alleviation, air pollution, man- * Formulation of revised tax and tariff policies to agement of traffic problems and motorization, and support the greater use of NMVs and to dampen both the social and economic dimensions of struc- growth and use of private motor vehicles. tural adjustment. 50 * Non-motorized transport is vulnerable to dis- Require appropriate support for NMT placement by growing motorization unless govern- ments take actions to manage street space and the Bank loans should encourage governments to pro- modaL mix through both policy and pricing instru- vide appropriate support for non-motorized modes ments, and appropriate investments. Without action in their transport planning and management, indus- in the near future, many bicycle and pedestrian trial and land development, trade and tariff policies, friendly cities in Asia and elsewhere will lose their and management activities. current modal diversity and follow the path of Bank transport projects should include appropriate Bangkok to overwheLming motorization, massive provisions for non-motorized modes within the pro- traffic congestion, and serious air quality, noise, and ject travel corridor or area and should provide tech- traffic safety problems. nical support and training for local professionals and * Small informal sector enterprises, as well as staff in non-motorized transport planning and devel- formal private sector firms, have played and will opment as part of multi-modal transport system continue to play a major role in non-motorized trans- management. Bank project components that pro- port systems. Promotion of the NMT sector can stimu- mote motorized transport system development late substantial employment growth and should be balanced whenever possible with other microenterprise development, especially in low in- components promoting NMT modes. come cities, particularly benefitting the poor. Bank transport project assessments should more * Lack of access to low-cost credit to purchase fully identify anticipated impacts of projects on the non-motorized vehicles is a major barrier to greater environment, on public transport and NMT modes, use of these modes among the poor. on the poor, and on long-term foreign currency re- * In many cities, current transportation infra- quirements. Where projects are anticipated to have a structure, street space allocation, and policies hostile negative impact on NMT use or the environment, to non-motorized modes also impede greater use of alternatives to the proposed action and potential these modes by the poor. mitigating measures should be identified. * Few institutional structures focus on the non- motorized transport sector and little data is collected Support expanded NMV production on its attributes or problems. Many national and local transport planning organizations are indiflerent or Just as the Bank and its partner institutions, such as hostile to non-motorized transport and focus solely the IFC, have on occasion aided development of on motorized transport issues. motor vehicle manufacturing, they should identify appropriate assistance to support expansion or crea- On the basis of this understanding of non-motor- tion of bicycle and NMV assembly industries as part ized transportation, the World Bank should under- of transport or industrial development lending. take the following actions. Strategies should be identified to enhance access of these enterprises to credit and technical assistance, Promote modal diversity including training in how to establish successful con- sumer credit programs. Trade linkages and NMV The Bank's lending operations should give greater technology transfer between Asia and the less-bicy- emphasis to policy based lending that encourages de-intensive countries of Africa and Latin America modal diversity. They should seek to ensure that should be promoted. individuals and the private sector have a range of transport options and can then choose the one most Promote reform at multiple institutional levels efficient for each particular person or goods move- ment, including non-motorized options. The Bank's non-motorized transport strategy should The Bank should develop a strategy ard opera- work in partnership with and provide support to tional guidelines to integrate appropriate support for government and non-governmental organizations at non-motorized transport into ongoing Bank opera- different levels, from local to national and interna- tions and to encourage greater attention to non-mo- tional. Because NMV use is highly decentralized, torized transport by developing countries, both on most problems need to be solved locally in the allo- its own and as a complementary element of public cation of street space, the design of communities, and transport systems. intermodal linkages. However, steps also need to be 51 taken at a higher level to create a dimate of opinion oriented to system-oriented, along with the Bank's and transport pricing and credit systems that do not increased concems for the environment and poverty, discourage NMV use. emphasis should be given to the recruitment of pro- fessionals who have previous knowledge or experi- Promote better transportation analysis ence with non-motorized transport issues among other requirements. The Bank should support institutional changes The Bank should consider designating one indi- where appropriate to create or strengthen capabili- vidual in each Technical Department with lead re- ties for supporting appropriate NMV use, induding sponsibility for non-motorized transport issues and training of personnel, strengthening data collection develop procedures for reviewing projects for appro- and analysis related to NMVs and long-term least cost priate indusion of non-motorized transport modes. planning methods, and fostering better linkage of This individual should be given special training to transport with land use decisions to influence travel ensure proper understanding of NMT problems and demand and mode choice. appropriate strategies for their promotion. Support research, analysis, and data collection Develop special NMT-focused training Lack of knowledge and experience in non-motorized Focused training programs should also be devised transport is the major reason for the less active in- for transport specialists, economists, and project of- volvement of the Bank until now in non-motorized ficers to give them a better understanding of the transport. The Bank should carry out further study problems of non-motorized transport and opportu- to increase sector knowledge of non-motorized nities for integrating NMVs into ongoing Bank activi- transport issues and to provide clear guidance to- ties. Consideration of NMvs should also be integrated wards future operations. In this regard, a leadership into other Bank transport-related training whenever role of PRE and the technical department are critical. appropriate. Non-motorized transportation should be inte- EDI training activities to promote the appropriate grated into a wide range of World Bank activities. integration of non-motorized transport in overall This could include economic and technical analysis transport planning and development should be ex- undertaken by Bank staff, consultants, and partner panded, building on initial efforts dealing with plan- agencies pertaining to transport, rural, urban and ning for megacities. EDI should also develop a regional development, air pollution, global warm- separate series of seminars on planning for non-mo- ing, motorization, and energy conservation and torized transportation in cities. management. World Bank staff who monitor global transporta- Integrate NMT into external activities tion systems should collect data and information on the non-motorized transport sector as well as the Coordination of support for non-motorized trans- motorized sector, preparing assessments that relate port development activities and research with other changes in both to larger trends and processes. This multi-lateral and bi-lateral lenders and development should include information on changes in regulatory organizations should be given a high priority. Non- policies that affect non-motorized transport posi- motorized transport considerations should be inte- tively or negatively. grated into research, demonstration, development and other activities related to poverty alleviation, air Develop expertise on NMT within the bank quality, energy, and structural adjustment, including both social and macroeconomic aspects. Bank expertise needs to be strengthened to deal with The Bank should work together with UNCTAD, non-motorized transport issues. The Bank's staff re- ESCAP, ADB, UNDP, and other multi-lateral and bi-lat- cruitment has been traditionally based on transport eral agencies to develop and strengthen global non- modes, but to date has included only motorized motorized transport strategy. This should include modes. Neither PRE, the Technical Departments, nor sponsoring research and demonstration projects re- the Country Departments have any specialists on lated to non-motorized transportation. non-motorized transport modes. With the general The Bank should encourage transportation pro- trend in lending operations shifting from project-ori- fessionals at all levels in its partner organizations to ented to policy-oriented, and from infrastructure- take non-motorized and informal modes of transport 52 seriously when collecting and analyzing data, when Develop long-term least cost planning methods designing facilities and policies, and when evaluat- ing alternative solutions to mobility problems. Long-term least cost planning methods for transport and community development should be developed Support research and policy development for use by the Bank and its bi-lateral and multi-lateral partners. Cost-benefit approaches to project assess- Research is needed in a number of areas including: ment should be complemented by more comprehen- sive multi-objective evaluation methods that * Collection and analysis of data on the extent of recognize long-term costs and distributional impacts NMV ownership and use, including variation based for the public and private sectors, users, and the on income and other factors, in cities and countries environment. throughout Asia and the world. This should include The experience of the electric utility industry analysis of the employment multiplier effects of should form a starting place for development of such transport investments in different sectors of the mo- methods. Increasingly, utility analysts find it is torized and non-motorized transport industries in cheaper to subsidize consumer purchases of efficient different countries and collection and analysis of light bulbs and appliances than to build new gener- more complete information about NMV manufactur- ating capacity. So too, transport planners trying to ing and trade flows in Asia and elsewhere. sort out the best strategy for spreading too limited * Research and analysis on the role of NMVs in resources around to meet travel demand may find the informal and formal economy, especially in new direction in considering long-term economic mixed traffic and NMV dependent cities of Asia, in- and environmental sustainability. cluding attention to NMV assembly and repair work- Active management of the modal mix of cities to shops, goods hauling services, mobile retail services, encourage appropriate NMV use may be cheaper than courier services, and secure bicycle parkinig services. expanding road or public transport infrastructure, * Identification of opportunities and strategies while delivering equal or better mobility. Quantita- for fostering development of small scale credit sys- tive analysis of such alternatives is needed at a metro- tems, such as the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, to politan level as part of World Bank project planning aid NMV dependent informal sector enterprises. activities. Where very large capital investments are * Analysis of the impact of growing petroleum contemplated, this should involve use of improved or use and motorization on foreign exchange require- new transport, air quality, cost, and energy models. ments, debt accumulation and servicing, investment and savings, income distribution, and accessibility in Improve transport planning methods and models various countries, * Research and demonstration of appropriate fa- The Bank should encourage the development and cility designs and strategies to improve rnon-motor- use of transportation models for urban planning and ized transport safety in countries undergoing rapid analysis that explicitly account for NMVs in trip gen- motorization. This should include research and dem- eration, distribution, mode choice, and network as- onstration of strategies for traffic calming and traffic signment techniques. When they are used, mode safety in cities with high motorcycle traffic flows, choice models should be made sensitive to key fac- methods for managing mixed NMV/motcrcycle traf- tors influencing shifts between walking, NMVs, and fic, and appropriate traffic management and design motorized public and private transport. Even in strategies for managing very high volume bicycle Asian cities where NMVs play a major role, many of traffic flows within constrained street space. the transport models now in use ignore NMVs and * Technology transfer efforts that could transfer waLking, focusing solely on motorized transport. low-cost human-powered transportation technologies from Asian countries where they are successful to those Development of new intellectual technology in need of low-cost mobility, especially to petroleum- importing African and Latin American countries. Cooperative efforts are also needed to develop the * Analysis of the impacts of motorization in Asia intellectual technology for non-motorized transport and elsewhere on co2 and other greenhouse gas planning and development and the management of emissions and the extent to which NMV encourage- transport modal dependency and motorization in ment might reduce growth of transport-:related con- cities. Transport engineering manuals and planning tributions to global climate change and air pollution. guidelines tailored to the problems of developing 53 countries at various income levels need to be devel- reducing or eliminating fees and regulations for non- oped to avoid further inappropriate use of North motorized transport. Taxes and tariffs on bicycles, American based standards to countries with low public transportation vehides, and non-motorized ve- incomes and levels of motorization. hides should be eliminated or sharply reduced to en- The Bank and other international organizations hance their affordability by the poor and near-poor. should encourage the formation of an Asian Trans- portation Research Board by the countries of the Reduce and carefully target public transport subsidies region to help develop and strengthen this intellec- tual technology. Subsidies to transportation inevitably encourage longer trips and more travel. If public transport is Institution building unable to keep pace with demand, short of needed resources, and reliant on heavy subsidies intended to There should be more encouragement for the crea- benefit the poor, it may be better to gradually reduce tion of locally-responsive appropriate technology re- subsidies and raise fares while substituting targeted search and training centers to study and respond to income and credit assistance to the poor. local needs, including those in transportation, and to By raising fares, entry of private sector service build community leadership and skills. Transporta- providers may become competitively possible at the tion projects should be designed in consultation with same time that public agencies take in more revenue representatives of the poor and the users of slow to support operations. Higher fares can be offset by transportation modes to identify alternative strate- direct transfer payments or creation of credit gies for mobility enhancement, unmet travel needs, schemes allowing low income people to buy bicycles and ways of making projects most compatible with for the same cost as they had been paying in public the interests of all potential users. Local institutions transport fares. Greater bicycle use can alleviate for regulating and controlling transportation and overcrowding in public transport, permitting a development should be created or strengthened, higher level of service. where possible. Encourage deregulation of NMT Encourage appropriate transportation narketing and education Building on its work in public transport deregula- tion, the Bank should encourage innovations in non- The Bank should encourage its borrowers to develop motorized public transport services and modes diverse programs and actions to influence public through greater deregulation. Private sector com- opinion in favor of less resource intensive transpor- petition between motorized and non-motorized tation modes and to promote traffic discipline and paratransit modes should be encouraged, with only safety in the operation of both motorized and non- the regulation necessary to ensure safety and fair motorized modes. access to street space. Notes Manage vehicle ownership and use to favor resource 1. Brog, Werner; Erl, Erhard; and Katteler, H.; "Exist- efficiency ing and Potential Bicycle Use - Key Factors," Proceedings of Velo City '87 International Conference on Planning for the Urban Cyclist, Groningen, Netherlands, Netherlands The Bank should encourage borrowers to impose Centre for Research and Contract Standardization in Civil higher ownership and use fees and fuel taxes on and Traffic Engineering, 1988. private automobiles and other motor vehides while 2. Ibid. 54 Appendix Table A.1 Percent of person trips by various travel modes Bicycle & Bus & Motorcycle & City Year Walk cycle rickshaw rail scooter Automobile Othera Total NMv Dependent Cities China Shanghai 1986 38 33 26 3 100 Shenyang 1984 10 65 25 0 0 0 100 Tianjin 1987 50 41 9 0 0 0 100 India Kanpur 1977 72 24 0 3 1 0 100 Ahmedabad 1981 43 20 29 6 1 1 100 Bangalore 1984 44 12 36 6 2 0 100 Visakhapatnam 1981 43 12 35 5 1 4 100 Indonesia Bandung 1976 40 16 46 100 Yogyakarta 1976 50 50 100 Nepal Kathmandu 1987 56 8 16 14 6 100 Mixed Traffic Cities Indonesia Jakarta 1984 23 17 25 13 8 14 100 Surabaya 1984 20 25 13 26 9 7 100 India Delhi 1981 29 18 40 13 100 Madras 1980 21 20 53 4 1 1 100 Bombay 1981 15 11 58 1 8 7 100 Japan Saitama pref. 1978 30 34 36 .. 100 Motor Vehicle Dependent Cities Malaysia Kuala Lampur 1984 10 2 34 12 34 8 100 Phillipines Manila 1984 8 0 14 0 23 55 100 Thailand Bangkok 1984 16 0 58 5 19 2 100 Japan Tokyo pref. 1978 21 64 15 100 Notes: a. Other includes motorized paratransit and taxi modes. Not available 55 Table A.2 Percent of vehicle trips by travel modes, selected cities Cycle Bus & Motorcycle City Year Bicycle rickshaw MPI rail & scooter Automobile Total India Ahmedabad 1981 21 13 34 24 8 100 Abhnedabad 1986 26 22 52 100 Chandigarh 1981 15 4 2 54 15 10 100 Cochin 1986 :: ~ 8 56 ~ 36 100 Coimbatore 1981 13 2 72 8 5 100 Cuttack 1981 8 6 77 5 4 100 Delhi 1986 5 .. 62 33 100 Guwahati 1981 3 4 6 74 5 8 100 Indore 1981 16 7 54 14 9 100 Jaipur 1981 32 9 4 34 16 5 100 Kanpur 1986 30 19 24 17 10 100 Lucknow 1981 34 19 .. 29 12 6 100 Lucknow 1986 49 .. 7 44 100 Ludhiana 1981 23 7 7 35 19 9 100 Maduri 1986 19 .. 49 32 100 Pune 1981 16 .. 7 59 13 5 100 Varanasi 1981 21 20 5 39 11 4 100 China Bejingb 1984 48 .. .. 52 .. .. 100 Tianjin 1987 82 .. .. 18 0 0 100 Shanghai 1982 31 .. .. 69 0 1 100 Shanghai 1986 42 .. .. 58 0 2 100 Nepal Kathmnandu 1987 11 20 35 30 100 a. MErT = Motorized Para-Transit, including taxis and auto rickshaws b. Data for Bus and Rail indudes very smallmotorized private transport mode share .. Not available Table A.3 Bicycle trip length distribution in three Indian cities Percent by distance (kans) Avg. trip Population City 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 20+ Total length (ion) (mill.) 1981 Delhi 24.0 25.5 24.6 15.2 10.7 100.0 10.9 5.7 Jaipur 65.2 26.7 - 8.1 - 100.0 4.9 2.2 Hyderabad 49.0 36.9 8.7 2.0 3.4 100.0 6.4 0.9 Table AA Bicycle trip travel time distribution in three Indian cities (percent) Minutes of travel time by bicycle City < 20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 90+ Total Delhi - 28.0 12.7 16.9 15.3 7.5 6.1 6.9 6.6 100.0 Jaipur 56.0 22.9 9.8 4.0 2.4 - 4.9 - - 100.0 Hyderabad 29.6 28.2 14.8 8.7 7.4 2.0 1.3 1.3 6.7 100.0 Table A.5 Bicycle trip frequency in three Indian cities (percent) City Daily 5-6 days/week 3-4 days/week 1-2 days/week Infrequently Total Delhi 84.3 9.2 2.3 0.4 3.8 100.0 Jaipur 81.7 0.8 0.8 3.2 13.5 100.0 HIyderabad 905 1.4 2.0 5.4 0.7 100.0 56 Table A.6 Travel mode by trip length and purpose in Japanese cities, 1975 Trip purpose Trip Returning distance Mode School Work Shopping Business home Other Total 2 km On foot 50.2 51.6 30.6 25.6 38.2 37.0 44.6 Bicycle 41.6 41.1 63.8 65.1 55.3 18.9 49.0 Motorcyde 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 Automobile 2.3 1.5 2.3 5.5 2.3 2.6 2.5 Transit & other 5.8 5.8 3.2 3.4 4.0 3.6 3.9 4 km On foot 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.6 Bicycle 70.0 81.1 72.9 63.1 75.6 64.9 76.3 Motorcycle 1.3 0.3 1.2 3.8 1.6 1.2 1.8 Automobile 10.7 5.6 14.1 23.8 9.8 18.0 6.6 Transit & other 18.0 13.0 11.8 9.3 12.9 15.9 14.7 6 km On foot 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Bicycle 37.2 51.3 32.8 35.4 42.0 25.3 36.3 Motorcycle 3.0 0.6 1.7 4.0 2.5 1.6 2.8 Automobile 22.9 15.4 39.7 48.6 25.3 38.6 31.4 Transit & other 37.0 32.6 25.7 12.0 30.3 34.5 29.5 8 km Bicycle 4.9 12.6 3.3 26.3 8.1 5.4 17.5 Motorcycle 3.1 1.0 1.3 5.5 2.9 1.5 2.7 Automobile 37.7 29.8 60.2 65.6 41.2 55.0 41.5 Transit & other 54.4 57.3 35.0 19.0 47.8 38.1 38.3 12 km Bicycle 0.0 4.7 0.0 3.6 8.5 4.7 11.0 Motorcycle 3.2 0.8 1.7 3.3 2.8 1.3 2.4 Automobile 31.9 33.1 49.9 69.8 40.5 54.3 48.2 Transit & other 64.9 61.4 48.4 13.1 48.2 40.0 38.4 16 km Motorcycle 0.6 0.4 0.8 1.9 1.1 0.4 1.5 Automobile 53.1 37.5 68.4 86.5 59.7 66.9 81.3 Transit & other 46.6 62.1 31.8 11.6 39.1 32.7 17.2 20 km Motorcycle 0.9 0.6 0.8 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.3 Automobile 59.7 4.2 77.1 89.6 69.3 66.8 69.4 Transit & other 39.4 95.2 22.0 8.6 29.6 32.4 29.3 30 km Motorcycle 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.0 Automobile 73.3 35.5 71.7 86.7 79.1 75.0 79.6 Transit & other 26.4 63.8 27.3 11.8 20.0 23.9 19.4 Table A.7 Traffic accident rates, selected countries and years China Bangladesh USA Kuwait Zambia Traffic Accident Rates 1985 1989 1913 1985 1977 1960 1974 Deaths/100,000 population 4 1 4 18 32 7 19 Deaths/10,000 motor vehicles 48 50 33 3 11 45 57 Motor vehides/1,000 population 1 2 14 740 350 15 33 57 Table sources Table 1.1 1982 China data fromZihao, Wang, 1989, OP. Table 1.6 Gallagher, Rob, 1989, op. cit., data for years cit.; Tianjin data from Thornhill, William, "Non-Motorized between 1977 andf 1983. Based on information from Transport in Tianjin, China, presented at Transportafion G.Menckhoff, World Bank, Calcutta had 36,000 hand- Research Board Annual Meeting 1991, Washington, DC; pulled rickshaws plus many thousands of cycle rickshaws 1980/88 Shanghai datat from Shtenghong, Chen, "Major in the outer areas, in 1984. Issues in Transport Planning of Shanghai," China City Plan- nling Reiw etme 90 .-26; India data from Table 1.7 Zhihao, Wang, "Bicycles in Large Cities in Pendakur, V.S., 1986, op. cit., p. 31. and Maunder, D.A.C., China," Transport Reviews, Vol .9, No .2, p. 171-182. "Comparison of Cycle Use in Delhi, Jaipur, and Hydera- bad," TRRL, Crowthorne, U.K., 1980; Indonesia data from Table 1.8 Fouracre, P .R. and Maunder, D.A.C. Travel Soegijoko & Cusset, "Mobility and Transport Perception in Demnand Characteristics in Three Medium Sized Indian Cities, Some Medium Sized Cities of Java," 1988, cited in SugijJoko, RR 121, Crawthorme, TRRL, 1987. Budhy T'ah'ati S. and Horthy, Sharif, "T'he Role of Non- Motorize Trnprt Modes in Indonesian Cities," Trans- Tal1.ForcePR.ndMuerDAC,"rvl portat ion ReerhRecord, 1991 (forthcoming) andTall9FucrPRnd udeDAC,rvI Gallagher, Rob, The Rickshaws of Bangladesh, 1989, Chapter Dem-and Characteristics in Three Medium Sized Indian 6, p. 69. Countr data from: Lowe, Marcia, Worldwatch Cities," RR 121, TRRL, Crowthorne, U.K., 1987. Institute Paper 90, and United Nations, Bicycles and Cornpo- nents: A Pilot Survey of Opportunities for Trade Among Devel- Tablel1.10 Marcia Lowe, The Bicycle: Vehicle fora Small opn~Countries, Geneva, International Trade Center Planet,Worldwatch Paper90, WorldwatchlInstitute, Wash- UNCAD/GATT, 1985 or later. ington, DC, p. 26, citing vari'ous sources. Table 1.2 Delhi Development Authority, Trans porta- Table 2.1 Lowe, op cit p12, citing various sources; tion for Delhi, New Delhi, 1984, p. 17. World Bicycle Production '86, Cycle Press International No. 30, Aug. 1987, p. 15. Table 1.3 Maunder, D. A. C., "Comparison of Cycle Use in Delhi, Jaipur, and Hyderabad," TRRL, Crowthonrne, Table 2.2 Bangladesh Transport Sector Review, The U. K., 1980. World Bank, Februiary 28,1991, Annex 3, p. 9. Tablel1.4 Powills,Michael A., Hamburg&john. R., and Table 2.3 Energy in Developing Countries, U.S. Office of Vance, James H., "Transportation Planning for Bicycles in Technology Assessment, Washington, DC, 1991.p. 49. Shanghai," Transportation Research Board Annual Meet- ing, 1990, Washington, DC. Table 3.1 Data from Transportation Strategies for Human Settlemnents in Developing Countries, UNCHS/HABiTAT, Nai- Table 1.5 Gallagher, Gallagher, Rob, The Rickshaws of robi, 1984. p. 24-25. except for bicycles & cycle-rickshaws. Bangladesh, March 1989, privately published. 1990, Chapter Bicycle and cycle rickshaw data from Song Zhao, op. cit., 6,p 64, citing Engineers and Consultants, Bangladesh, bicycle facility lane width assumed to ble same as for Ltd., "Mapping Data Collection and Analysis for Use in buwy.Ccercsa aaiybased on Song, Thao Development Plan of Rangpur, Report III," December daauigcnevtvsiaeof cycle-rickshaw capac- 1985, UNCH (Habitat), Dhaka, National Physical Planning it tlzto n suigaeaeoccupancy of 1.5 Project, 1985, Tables 6.2.1.; and Bangladesh Bur-eau of Sta- prosercl-ikha(tdsoutfor driver) and tistics, Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, 1984/85, Dhaka, mxdtafconios.Teevalues could vary widely Table 2.99, p. 165. and merit further research. 58 Table 4.1 Holden & Yang, op. cit. p. 10. Table A.2 Fouracre, P.R. and Maunder, D. A. C. Travel Demand Characteristics in Three Medium Sized Indian Cities, Table 4.2 Gallagher, op. cit., Chapter 8, p.7. Estimated RR 121, Crawthome, TRRL, 1987. and Shihao, Wang, "Bi- from newspaper reports of road deaths in 1986-87. Figures cycles in Large Cities in China," Transport Reviews, Vol.9, include vehicle users only, not pedestrian deaths. No.2, 1989. p. 171-182; and Shenghong, Chen, "Major Is- sues in Transport Planning of Shanghai," China City Plan- Table A.1 Fouracre, P.R. and Maunder, D. A. C. Travel ning Review, Sept. 1990. Demand Characteristics in Three Medium Sized Indian Cities, RR 121, Crawthorne, TRRL, 1987; Shihao, Wang, 'l3icycles Table A.3 Maunder, 1980, op. cit. in Large Cities in China," Transport Reviews, Vol.9, No.2, 1989. p. 171-182; Powills, Michael, et.al. "Transportation Table AA Maunder, 1980, op. cit. Planning for Bicycles in Shanghai," Transportation Re- search Board Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, 1991; Pen- Table A.5 Maunder, 1980, op. cit. dakur, V.Setty, Urban Growth, Urban Poor, and' Urban Transport in Asia, Centre for Human Settlements, Univer- Table A.6 Data based on survey conducted in 1975 by sity of British Columbia, Occasional Papers No. 39, Van- the Japan Bicycle Road Develpment Association. Data per- couver, British Columbia, 1986.; Pendakur, V.Setty, tains to greater Kyoto Osaka Kobe area. Sample size not 'Planning for Pedestrians in Kathmandu, Nepal," Trans- tivns o greate Kyoto, Oaka,eoe larea. e se menot portation Research Record 1294, Washington, DC, 1991. givenireport.PublishediJapaneselanguagedocument. Japan data from Tokyo At A Glance, Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1981. Randstad, Netherlands data from Table A.7 Holden, Janet A. and Yang, Zhao-Sheng, Rooij, A. de, "The Role of the Bicycle in An Integrated "Increased Motorization and Highway Fatalities in the Approach Towards Mobility," Velo City '87 Proceedings, People's Republic of China," Pa er presented at Transpor- p. 43.; Germafly country data from Holzapfel, H., "The tation Research Board Annual Meeting, January 1989. p. BJicycle as An Element of Integ>rated Transport Planning," 10. Bangladesh data from Elahi, Hoque & Matthias, op. cit., Velo City '87 Proceedings, p. 60. p. 5, citing Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1984. 59 Distributors of World Bank Publications ARGENTINA FNIAND MErICO SOUTH AFRICA. EOTSWANA Cio. HlrsdL SRL AkatwinuA Kirisupps,s INKJEC Foriitlas G.kalin-Ge P.O. Box 124 Apwtdo Posa 22-860 Oxfixd UnYl,ty Pre Florida 165,4th PioOfe. 453/465 SF4o01 14060TfalnMcoDD South, AfAnca 1333 BuEwes Aib Heisok 10 P.O. BM 1141 MOIOCCO CapeTown AUSTRALIA. PAPUA NEW GUINEA. 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