FOOD AND Agriculture Global Practice FOLLOW-UP NOTE & ACTION PLAN IMPLEMENTING THE WORLD BANK GROUP’S GENDER STRATEGY—FROM ANALYSIS TO ACTION TO IMPACT FEBRUARY 2017 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE GLOBAL PRACTICE Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact FOLLOW-UP NOTE & ACTION PLAN February 2017 Cover photo: Courtesy of Neil Palmer, CIAT. Acknowledgments This note on Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact, has been prepared jointly by the Gender in Agriculture team of the Food and Agriculture Global Practice (GFADR) of the World Bank: Sanna-Liisa Taivalmaa, Eija Pehu and Minna Kononen, regional gender focal points and other operational staff—Faiza Ahmed, Hanane Ahmed, Fatima Amazonas, Sandra Broka, Melissa Brown, Helle Buchhave, Barbara Coello, Sanjiva Cooke, Christine Heumesser, Daniel Gerber, Carol V. Figueroa-Geron, Francisco Obreque, Selma Rasavac, Meeta Seghal, Sarah Simons, Victoria Stanley, David Tuchschneider, Patricia Van De Velde, Dorte Verner, Saleha Waqar, and Melissa Williams. The team is grateful to Preeti Ahuja (Practice Manager) for her valuable guidance and support. Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations v Summaryix Chapter One: Background 1 Chapter Two: The Gender Strategy, IDA18 Commitments and Agriculture 3 Chapter Three: Key Regional Gender Gaps in the Agriculture Sector and the Opportunities to Close Them 5 3.1 Key Gender Gaps by Region and Theme 5 3.2 Closing Agriculture-Specific Gender Gaps across WBG Regions Through Lending Operations 9 Chapter Four: Good Practices and Lessons Learned 15 Chapter Five: Operationalizing Gender Work 19 5.1 Project Pipeline Reviews 19 5.2 Capacity Building 19 5.3 Project Cycle 21 Chapter Six: Data 23 6.1 Project-Level Gender Data Collection 23 6.2 Portfolio-Level Gender Data Collection 24 Chapter Seven: Resources 27 Chapter Eight: Internal and External Partnerships 29 Annex One: World Bank Group (WBG) Gender Strategy, 2016–2023: Executive Summary 31 Annex Two: Closing Gender Gaps in Agriculture Projects 35 Annex Three: Africa Regional Brief 39 Annex Four: East Asia and Pacific Regional Brief 45 Annex Five: Europe and Central Asia Regional Brief 49 Annex Six: Latin America Regional Brief 53 Annex Seven: Middle East and North Africa Regional Brief 57 Annex Eight: South Asia Regional Brief 61 Annex Nine: World Bank Agriculture and Gender Publications 65 Annex Ten: Quality at Entry and Quality at Implementation Methodologies 69 Annex Eleven: Data Sources for Gender in Agriculture 71 TABLES Table 1.1: Linkages Between the Objectives of the Gender Strategy and Agriculture xi Table 1.2:  Monitoring and Implementation of the Strategy in GFADR xii Table 3.1: Critical Gender Gaps in Agriculture Identified by World Bank Operational Staff in the Regions 7 Table 3.2: Agriculture Global Practice Lending by Subsector and Region, FY2011–FY2016 (US$, Millions) 10 Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact iii Table 3.3: Gender-Related Analytical Work in Agriculture by Region and Globally, FY2010–FY2015 13 Table 4.1:  Lessons Learned on Integrating Gender in Agriculture Projects, Organized by WBG Gender Strategy Objective 17 Table 6.1:  Share of Projects Addressing all Three Dimensions of Gender in Agriculture Projects in Different Regions FY2010-FY2016 25 Table 7.1: gfadr Gender Strategy Operationalization—Selected Areas of Emphasis 27 Table A2.1: Focus Areas of the Regional Portfolio and Pipeline Projects 35 Table A2.2: Agriculture Projects by Region Addressing Thematic Gender Gaps 36 FIGURES Figure 3.1: Agriculture Portfolio: Addressing Thematic Gender Gaps, by Region 9 Figure 3.2: Total Lending to Agriculture (IBA/IBRD) by Region and Global Practice, FY2011–FY2016 (US$, Millions) 10 Figure 5.1: A Theory of Change in Operationalizing the Gender Strategy in GFADR 20 BOXES Box 3.1: Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture 8 Box 3.2: Good Practice Example: Building Capacity and Increasing Women’s Economic Empowerment 12 Box 6.1:  An Example of Studies Conducted to Support Gender Integration in the Irrigation Development and Support Program (Idsp) in Zambia 23 Box 6.2: New Gender Tag in Operational Portal 24 iv Food and Agriculture Global Practice Acronyms and Abbreviations AES Agriculture and Environmental Services ICT Information and communication technology APPSA Agricultural Productivity Program IFAD International Fund for Agricultural for Southern Africa Development CCSA Cross-Cutting Solution Area IFC International Finance Corporation CDD Community-driven development ISR Implementation Status and Results CGIAR Consultative Group on International LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Agricultural Research M&E Monitoring and evaluation CSA Climate-smart agriculture MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency EAAPP East Africa Agricultural Productivity Program MNA Middle East and North Africa EAP East Asia and the Pacific NGO Nongovernmental organization ECA Europe and Central Asia PAD Project Appraisal Document FAO Food and Agriculture Organization PCN Project Concept Note of the United Nations PIM Project Implementation Manual GBV Gender-based violence PPP Public-private partnership GDP Gross domestic product QAE Quality at Entry GENRD Gender in Agriculture and Rural Development QAI Quality at Implementation GFADR Food and Agriculture Global Practice (World RPO Rural producer association Bank Group) SSA Sub-Saharan Africa GNP Gross national product TFESSD Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially GP Global Practice Sustainable Development GSG Global Solutions Group WAAPP West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program GSURR Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global WBG World Bank Group Practice WUA Water user association HR Human resources Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact v Food and Agriculture Global Practice—Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy vi Food and Agriculture Global Practice Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact vii Summary Context The new World Bank Group (WBG) Gender Strategy, 2016–2023: Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction, and Inclusive Growth, endorsed by the WBG’s Board in Decem- ber 2015, aims to address the vast challenges related to gender equality and empow- erment, by setting ambitious targets and adopting a rigorous methodology to assess progress. The objectives of the Strategy are: (1) Improving Human Endowments (health, education, social protection); (2) Removing Constraints for More and Better Jobs (care services, unsafe transport, occupational sex segregation, entrepreneurship); (3) Removing Barriers to Women’s Ownership of and Control over Assets (land, hous- ing, financial inclusion, and technology, including ICT); and (4) Enhancing Wom- en’s Voice and Agency and Engaging Men and Boys (child marriage, gender-based violence, engaging men and boys, women’s participation and decision making). The purpose of this Follow-Up Note is to describe the status of gender integration in the work of the Food and Agriculture Global Practice (GFADR) and to define the Global Practice’s approach to achieving the objectives of the Gender Strategy. Providing women equal access to services, assets, and enhancing their agency and oppor- tunities would increase agricultural output in developing countries between 2.5 and 4 per- cent.1 To achieve the objectives of the agriculture sector’s projects, relevant gender gaps must be addressed in a rigorous and meaningful manner, so that both men and women’s capacity, skills and talent are harnessed to generate sustainable and better quality rural livelihoods. Achieving gender equality is one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 5), and women play an important role in attaining progress in several other SDGs. Empowering women farmers is also essential to the World Bank Group’s twin objectives of ending extreme poverty and increasing shared prosperity. Additionally, under the IDA18 commitments, at least 75 percent of IDA18 financing operations for skills development will consider how to support women’s participation in and improvement of the productiv- ity of their economic activity, and/or consider how to reduce occupational segregation. 1 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact ix Effective mainstreaming of gender considerations across the gaps and challenges in the agriculture sector as follows: GP’s interventions is important in all these regards. (1) nutrition, (2) access to services and inputs, (3)  agricultural land tenure, (4) hiring/labor Status of gender practices, (5) post-secondary and tertiary edu- integration in cation in agriculture, (6) voice, and (7) gender- based violence. In addition to these gaps, gender dif- agriculture projects ferences among men and women in their capacity to The investments in agriculture offer a significant opportu- address climate change was mentioned as an over- nity to reduce gender gaps. Total annual lending (FY2011– arching issue in all regions; one that affects not only pro- 16) to agriculture across all Global Practices (GPs) ranged ductivity but is widening existing gender gaps. between US $2 billion and US $4.2 billion, corresponding to 5–12 percent of total World Bank lending. The Agricul- At the same time, rural transformation and the changes ture GP was responsible for 52 percent of the total lending in family farming are also expanding the role of women for agriculture in FY2011–16 (US $12 billion), indicating in agriculture all over the world. And in several countries, that a large share of the investment in agriculture came agriculture is ‘feminizing’, either because men are mov- through other GPs. IFC is also an increasingly important ing out of agriculture or because women are engaging in investor in agriculture, with investments that have tripled different types of agricultural employment. The changing in the past six years reaching US $3.2 billion in FY2015. roles of women within agriculture pose new requirements for agriculture interventions. GFADR incorporated all three gender dimensions (analysis, actions, M&E) in all FY2016 projects, reflecting a significant Opportunities to close these increase from FY2010. However, as the Quality at Entry gender gaps and support the review is done during the preparation phase, the results do implementation of the Gender not always lead to gender integration during the implemen- Strategy in GFADR tation phase. A portfolio review based on key documents of Explicit agriculture, food, and nutrition objectives are not a sample of projects (FY2008–13)2 found that 76 percent of set out in the Gender Strategy which adopted a cross- the projects were rated “Gender Implemented.” cutting approach; however, agriculture, food, and nutrition are encapsulated in a number of Gender Strategy objec- Generally, the operational staff of the Agriculture GP is well tives. Because agriculture is a critical driver of household aware of the importance of gender in agriculture projects; jobs/income, food and nutrition security—agriculture yet in practice, the knowledge and skills vary significantly in fact underpins all four objectives of the Gender Strat- among staff. While each regional unit in GFADR has egy. The following Table 1.1 shows a close concordance nominated a gender focal point, going forward, their time between the objectives of the Gender Strategy and several allocation for gender issues will need to be agreed to and key agricultural sector dimensions. documented with their managers to assure commitment, recognition and accountability. Agriculture is a diverse sector, embracing numerous sub- sectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, rural finance, extension Key gender gaps in the and research, natural resource management, land tenure agricultural sector and land management, etc.)—each requiring specific Regional gender focal points and other senior operational technical and socioeconomic approaches. In listening to staff in GFADR have identified seven highly critical gender operational staff working across these subsectors, however, it becomes clear that in addition to the various technical aspects of operations, the following gender issues require 2 Mollard, I., E. Brearley, M. Vyzaki, and S.-L. Taivalmaa. 2015. “Beyond consistent and concerted attention and action across all Quality at Entry: Portfolio Review on Gender Implementation of Agriculture Projects (FY2008–13).” Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper, operations: capacity building, jobs, access and control over assets, World Bank, Washington, DC. and voice and agency. x Food and Agriculture Global Practice Table 1.1.  Linkages between the objectives of the Gender Strategy and agriculture Key Gender Gaps AGR Interventions WBG Gender Strategy Objectives in the Agriculture Sector to Address the Gaps Improving Human Endowments •  Maternal & child food security & •  Food security nutrition •  Nutrition sensitive agriculture •  Low education base •  Safety nets linked to agricultural •  Access to agriculture knowledge production •  Technical education, extension and training in agriculture More and Better Jobs •  Hiring/labor practices on/off-farm •  Quality of jobs, decent work,   •  Working terms and conditions formal-informal •  Feminization of AGR •  Job creation, self-employment, contract farming •  SMEs, links to value chains, entrepreneurship, vocational training •  Green jobs Ownership and Control of Assets •  Agricultural land issues •  Agric Land, water, trees, inputs, •  Access to services and inputs machinery and ICT •  Capacity to address climate change •  Access to financial services, warehouse receipts, market information, etc. •  Climate-smart agriculture Women’s Voice and Agency; •  Customs, norms; laws & regulations •  Voice in collective action (community Engaging Men and Boys •  Voice groups, producer organizations, water •  Gender based violence user organizations and community- driven development, governance) •  Legal frameworks (land, business, inheritance, etc.) •  Creating awareness of intra-household dynamics/domestic violence Table 1.2  lays out in a summary format, the key objec- gender work.  The objectives below will contribute in clos- tives and targets, encapsulating the GP’s efforts towards ing the gender gaps in agriculture sector. Achieving them addressing key gender gaps in the food and agriculture will require commitment, resources and systematic efforts sector in the coming years. Table 1.2 also briefly high- at all levels of the Agriculture GP, and more systematic lights the approaches, practices and modalities and sets cooperation across other GPs and CCSAs. out the result indicators for tracking progress on GFADR’s Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact xi Table 1.2.  Monitoring and implementation of the Strategy in GFADR Objective Target Approach/Modality Sources Gender gaps addressed •  98% include all three gender •  Systematic review of ISRs, ICRs, Gender systematically dimensions (by FY20) documents Tag Evaluation, •  Impl/M&E Support for Scorecard indicator project teams data •  Staff training and clinics with Gender CCSA Gender in agriculture tools •  A 3-module gender in agriculture •  Gender in agriculture Survey TTLs and are used, good practices and e-training is completed by 70% of “starter package” with tools, national project teams; lessons learned are shared TTLs (by FY18) checklists Course Completion and scaled up among TTLs •  Gender in agriculture tools are easily •  More field visits and learning statistics from OLC and clients available for all staff (by FY18) facilitated and supported across project teams and regions Data collection, M&E, and •  Project documents have an evidence- •  AGR Quality Team Support Quality @ reporting on gender are based rationale and approach on •  Managers ensure attention to Implementation improved gender and gender indicator(s) gender in project documents Periodic portfolio relevant to the project •  Incentives for Gender Focal review •  Gender specific results reported on Points & TTLs are provided in ISRs and ICRs •  Gender specific result variations from targets evaluated Strong GFADR gender team •  Periodic Meetings •  Building social capital Meeting minutes; & Gender in Agriculture •  Dissemination and Knowledge across the GP and with inclusive plans of action CoP. Regional focal points sharing events other departments through system functions effectively. interaction Analytical and Technical •  Joint identification of key topics/ •  CoP to identify key topics Reports produced Assistance work deepened issues to address and partners and successful events and disseminated •  Pooling and sharing of AGR gender- •  BBLs, Workshops, website, conducted specific findings/recommendations emails work across WBG & with external partners and stakeholders IDA18 objective: Project •  75% of the projects have demand •  Systematic review of project PADs, ISRs, ICRS to consider how to support led training on agriculture and documents women’s participation entrepreneurial skills in and improvement in •  75% of the projects create an the productivity of their enabling environment and incentives economic activity men & women to participate in collective action for enhancing outcomes xii Food and Agriculture Global Practice CHAPTER ONE Background Agricultural growth is effective in reducing poverty. Cross-country econo- metric estimates show that overall GDP growth originating in agriculture is, on aver- age, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country’s population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.3 Agricultural growth is particularly effective in reducing hunger and malnutrition. Most of the extreme poor depend on agricul- ture and related activities for a significant part of their livelihoods. Agricultural growth involving smallholders, especially women, will be most effective in reducing extreme poverty and hunger when it increases returns to labor and generates employment for the poor.4 Women are key players in agriculture. Women comprise on average 43 percent of the agricultural labor force, ranging from 20 percent in Latin America to 50 percent in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia, and exceeding 60 percent in a few coun- tries.5 At the same time, across all regions women possess fewer assets for agriculture (land, livestock, and human capital), have less access to agricultural inputs (seed, fer- tilizer, labor, and finance), and have less access to agricultural services (extension and insurance) than men.6 As a result, the agriculture sector is underperforming in many developing countries. Closing the gender gap could increase women’s yields on farms by 20–30 percent, raise total agricultural output by 2.5–4 percent, and potentially reduce the number of hungry people by 12–17 percent. The gender gap in agriculture imposes costs not only on women and their families, but also on the agricultural sector, the broader economy, and society as a whole. Progress on addressing the gender gaps in food and agriculture is a key to meeting the World Bank Group’s (WBG) Twin Goals of ending extreme poverty and increasing shared prosperity. Also, under the IDA18 commitments, at least 75 percent of IDA18 financing operations for skills development will consider 3 World Bank. 2007. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC. 4 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2012. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012. Rome. 5 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. 6 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 1 how to support women’s participation in and improve- that the various shocks facing agriculture—climate ment of the productivity of their economic activity, and/ change, financial uncertainty, price volatility, and so on— or consider how to reduce occupational segregation. Sim- are the new normal. Based on this reality, WBG support ilarly, women have a critical role to play in several of the shifted towards improving the resilience of agricultural SDGs, with many targets specifically recognizing women’s systems and rural livelihoods through more climate-smart equality and empowerment as both the objective, and as agriculture and longer-term risk management. The plan part of the solution. also called for greater emphasis on the opportunities for agriculture to play a strong role in contributing to better In 2002, the World Bank issued its Gender Strat- nutritional outcomes. egy (Integrating Gender into the World Bank’s Work) that focused on mainstreaming gender Gender issues have been addressed in the Agri- throughout the Bank’s strategic, analytical, and culture Action plans. The 2010–12 Action Plan referred operational work.7 Actions to achieve the goals of to improving women’s access to assets and services and the Gender Strategy in agriculture included systematic fostering greater inclusion of women in programs and reviews of project documentation, technical support pro- producer organizations to increase their empowerment. vided by the agriculture sector gender team, and efforts to To track its progress, the 2010–12 Plan included targets strengthen the Community of Practice (CoP) on Gender for gender in project documentation—analysis, actions, in Agriculture and Rural Development (GENRD). These and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). The 2013–15 actions were recognized by the Independent Evaluation Action Plan drew attention to the pervasive gender gaps Group in 2010.8 in productivity and earnings as well as gender differences in time use, access to assets and credit, and treatment by As the understanding of gender’s role in devel- markets and formal institutions. As a result, gender was opment has evolved, so has the understanding of integrated more deeply within the Action Plan through a the agriculture sector’s relevance and required stronger emphasis on the links between gender, agricul- response to the changing socioeconomic and nat- ture, and nutrition; on a landscape approach (with greater ural environment. Since 2010, the World Bank agri- awareness of gender roles) to sustaining natural resources; culture team has operated under two agriculture action and on the use of indicators to track progress in achieving plans. The first (2010–12)9 focused on increasing agricul- gender outcomes. tural productivity (partly through a much greater empha- sis on the private sector’s role in fostering agricultural The purpose of this note on Implementing the World Bank growth) and devising solutions to the food price crises, Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact such as the Global Food Crises Response Program. The subse- is to briefly describe the status of gender integration in quent Action Plan (2013–15)10 reflected the understanding the work of the Food and Agriculture Global Practice (GFADR) and to define the Global Practice’s approach 7 World Bank. 2002. “Integrating Gender into the World Bank’s Work: A Strat- to achieving the objectives of the Gender Strategy. The egy for Action.” Washington, DC. note also offers region-specific guidance, including “The 8 IEG (Independent Evaluation Group). 2010. “Gender and Development: An What” on priority issues and key gaps and “The How,” Evaluation of World Bank Support, 2002–08.” World Bank, IFC, and MIGA, which sets out modalities for more effectively closing these Washington, DC. 9 World Bank Group. 2009. “Implementing Agriculture for Development: gaps where GFADR research, analytics, technical assis- World Bank Group Agriculture Action Plan FY2010–2012.” Washington, DC. tance, financial support and partnerships can contribute. 10 World Bank Group. 2013. “Implementing Agriculture for Development: Further details are provided in Annexes Two–Eight. World Bank Group Agriculture Action Plan 2013–2015.” Washington, DC. 2 Food and Agriculture Global Practice CHAPTER TWO The Gender Strategy, IDA18 commitments and Agriculture The new World Bank Group Gender Strategy, 2016–2023: Gender Equality, Poverty Reduc- tion, and Inclusive Growth, aims to match the global attention given to gender equality by setting ambitious targets and adopting a rigorous methodology to assess progress, with the overarching goal of attaining transformative rather than incremental change (Annex One). The objectives of the Strategy are: (1) Improving Human Endowments (health, education, social protection); (2) Removing Constraints for More and Better Jobs (care services, unsafe transport, occupational sex segregation, entrepreneurship); (3) Removing Barriers to Women’s Ownership of and Control over Assets (land, hous- ing, financial inclusion, and technology, including ICT); and (4) Enhancing Women’s Voice and Agency and Engaging Men and Boys (child marriage, gender-based vio- lence, engaging men and boys, women’s participation and decision making). The Strategy stresses that gender equality is a core development objec- tive as well as smart development policy and practice. Sustainability cannot be realized without increasing capacity and agency, and the distribution of opportunities, resources, and choices for men and women. Not only is gender equality a desirable objective, it is also a feasible one, in which all three major societal sectors/actors—public, private, and civil society—have a role to play, especially in rural areas. GFADR is acting to close gender gaps in agricultural productivity, by improving access to services, inputs, agricultural land and capabilities, and by enhancing resilience and fostering a low carbon path to devel- opment. The GP also identifies action to close gender gaps in food security via the increased production of, and access by all, to diverse and nutrient-dense crops. The GP is working on building the resilience of women and men to cope with natural (climate change), economic (commodity price volatility) and human (conflict) shocks through its interventions that support the billions engaged across the entire global food system, especially smallholder farmers. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 3 The strategy brings new elements for GFADR’s As women are active agents in agricultural production, approach to gender work. The new approach empha- processing and food systems, success in achieving secto- sizes: 1) Comprehensive analysis to identify key gender ral objectives will be enhanced by their effective partici- gaps by Region, 2) Attention to the fact that gender gaps pation in, and benefit from, project activities. Using both vary between countries, subsectors and livelihood streams men’s and women’s capacity and talent by giving equal of agriculture and thus call for customized approaches, opportunities for both groups to participate will ultimately 3)  Shifts in approach from broad mainstreaming to strengthen project performance. targeted/customized approaches and 4) More focus on addressing identified gaps during implementation and on Gender and Development is the Special Theme of monitoring/evaluation of impacts on gender. IDA18. The objective under the Theme is to ‘Sharpen focus on closing gaps between women, men, girls and Explicit agriculture, food, and nutrition objec- boys in country strategies and operations, and strengthen tives are not set out in the Gender Strategy which the data and evidence base to enhance impact towards adopted a cross-cutting approach; however, agri- gender equality’. The theme emphasizes strengthening culture, food, and nutrition are encapsulated in the knowledge base on what works in low-income country a number of Gender Strategy objectives. Because contexts and building the project design and implementa- agriculture is a critical driver of household jobs/income, tion on that knowledge. GFADR will focus on the policy food and nutrition security—agriculture in fact underpins commitment to ‘Remove constraints for more and better all four objectives of the Gender Strategy. jobs and ensure that at least 75% of agriculture project’s skills development will consider how to support women’s GFADR projects aim to strengthen develop- participation in and improvement in the productivity of ment outcomes for client countries, smallholder their economic activity’. This will be done by enabling farmers and other relevant stakeholders—with and encouraging women’s participation in agriculture the objective of fueling sustainable agriculture and entrepreneurial trainings as well as supporting col- sector-led growth, contributing to enhanced food lective action through farmer organizations and women security and reduced poverty and vulnerability. groups. 4 Food and Agriculture Global Practice CHAPTER THREE Key regional gender gaps in the agriculture sector and the opportunities to close them Key gender gaps by Region 3.1  and theme In the agriculture sector, gender gaps vary by country, region, and live- lihood source; consequently, a deep understanding and analysis of the context is necessary to define the appropriate pathway(s) to close those gaps. However, at a broader level, gender focal points and key Task Team Leaders in GFADR have identified seven key gender gaps in the food and agriculture sector, as follows: (1) nutrition, (2) access to services and inputs, (3) agricultural land tenure, (4) hiring/labor practices, (5) post- secondary and tertiary education in agriculture, (6) voice, and (7) gender- based violence. Additional important stressors identified in several regions were (a) the impact of climate change—with differentiated impacts and costs imposed on men and women, and (b) jobs—among others, men’s migration from rural areas, tech- nology adoption, fragility, conflict and violence as well as climate change have a bear- ing on both the quantity and nature of jobs in agriculture. Regional and Country Contexts Define the Nature of Gender Gaps in Agriculture Below is the summary of the gaps across each World Bank Region. Annex Two summarizes in detail the gaps identified for each region, with examples of projects that incorporate components/activities to address those gaps. In Sub-Saharan Africa women, notably those from the poorest quintiles face seri- ous constraints in all facets of life. Low asset ownership and low levels of education reduce rural women’s bargaining power within the household and limit their voice in Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 5 collective action in their communities and in the wider opportunities for women, but at the same time, these agricultural sector. Women’s weaker status is reflected in opportunities cannot be fully realized due to a host of tra- high rates of domestic violence and other indicators such ditional norms that restrict women to caregiving roles and as lower literacy and high maternal mortality rates, in give them less of a voice in farming choices and the use large part due to poor education and health services and of income. malnutrition. “Modernizing forces” such as male migra- tion from rural to urban areas can create opportunities for Across the Bank’s client countries in Europe and women who remain on the farm, but limited land owner- Central Asia (ECA), rural women are also bound by ship and access to services often lock women into poverty. traditional norms that emphasize their caregiving roles and limit their pursuit of employment outside the home. In South Asia, social norms strongly define women’s When women are employed in agriculture, their wages roles, especially in poor rural communities. Their domi- are lower than those of men. Even if land legislation is nant role as caregivers, combined with limited ownership progressive, due to low rates of collective action among of assets, constraints to post-basic education, and restricted women, low awareness of their rights and weak enforce- mobility, reduce women’s opportunities to engage in paid ment of the laws, their agency and opportunities are labor, notably professional employment. The corollary to effectively reduced, especially in Central Asia. this phenomenon is the weakened socioeconomic position of these women, weakening their voices even further with In East Asia and Pacific, rural women have less access respect to the allocation of family resources or access to to information and services such as extension or to col- opportunities. A serious symptom of low female status is lective action on agriculture. Limitations on voicing their the high malnutrition prevalent among children (especially concerns, lead to underpaid work in agriculture and dif- girls) and young mothers in South-Asia region (SAR). ficulties in starting a business. In addition, women’s capac- ity to address the impacts of climate change is lower than The Middle East and North Africa countries are men, especially in the Pacific region. very diverse, and that diversity is seen in the variation in women’s mobility and choice, which can be dictated by Thematic and Cross-Cutting social mores and legal frameworks, including regulations Issues Driving Gender Disparities that restrict work.11 Women’s access to productive assets, in Agriculture especially fertile agricultural land, can be limited by prac- Table 3.1 that follows lays out in a summary format, the tices that reinforce male control and ownership of those 7 key issues identified by the regional focal points in terms resources, despite the role women often play in their man- of the key gender gaps in the food and agriculture sector— agement. Women’s agricultural labor is very important, viewed through a region-specific lens. especially in poor rural households where women work long hours, engaged mainly in non-mechanized, labor- Two other key thematic challenges around gen- intensive and noncapital-intensive activities.12 der in the food and agriculture sector relate to climate change and jobs. Climate change poses a In Latin America and Caribbean, women in wealth- huge threat to agriculture and food security and ier countries pursue education to exit agriculture, while widens existing gender gaps. Emerging research women in the poorer economies in Central America and indicates that food system stress induced by climate the Andes are increasingly assuming roles in farming as change is likely to interact negatively with existing gender men move to cities or abroad. Male migration creates inequalities; climate change, extreme weather events and natural disasters disproportionately affect women farmers. 11 World Bank. 2013. “Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Devel- Women farmers appear to be less able to adapt because opment in the Middle East and North Africa.” Washington, DC. 12 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2005. “Breaking Ground: Present of financial or other resource constraints as well as having and Future Perspectives for Women in Agriculture.” Rome. 6 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Table 3.1. Critical gender gaps in agriculture identified by World Bank operational staff in the regions Services Agricultural Gender-Based Region Nutrition and Inputs Land Labor Education Voice Violence (GBV) SSA Highest Productivity Seldom have legal Highest rate of Low level of Lack of voice High maternal gap owing to land title, often unpaid women post-secondary in household, mortality low access to small holdings workers in and tertiary society; no globally credit, training, agriculture education in land, decreased inputs, markets, agriculture likelihood for knowledge, membership in male labor rural producer organization MNA Low land Low labor force Conservative ownership participation, gender norms, (2–29%) mostly public legal restrictions, sector, long hours male approval in underpaid sometimes needed manual agricultural work LAC Access to Women Women bound by services (credit, migrating to traditional norms, water) hard to urban areas, caregiving roles, negotiate so fewer in less decision- agriculture in making power general—but in poor areas, feminization of agriculture ECA Land ownership Agricultural More women GBV restricts 5–36% employment to producer decision-making underpaid, associations power informal; social role as caregivers, less participation in employment EAP Access to Access restricted Underpaid labor Access to Pacific area highest extension in agriculture; information low; globally advice limited wage gap; access better access in to credit groups but limited information on agriculture SAR Serious Serious issue; Low labor force Less participation Customs, laws, nutrition only 5% participation in secondary social norms, issues among have titles in in general, but and tertiary religion, caste, children Bangladesh high in manual education; less and language agricultural labor representation in interact to create professional jobs discrimination Source: Authors. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 7 Box 3.1. Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers a cogent approach to developing technical, policy, and investment options to support actions that target any one or all three outcomes, as follows: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, (2) building the resilience of food systems and farming livelihoods to climate change, and (3) reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. To succeed, climate-smart agricultural interventions depend on institutional, operational and behavioral changes, which are not possible without social analysis (including gender analysis) influencing policies and projects. CSA strategies are unlikely to be effective, let alone equi- table or transformative, without active attention to gender.† CSA practices may, for example, have undesired effects on the gender perspective related to workload, assets, crop residues, food waste/loss, food and nutrition security, mechanization and extension. Furthermore, CSA practices may require substantial investments of time, labor or cash, which often pose considerable constraints for women. A pilot training workshop on Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture for Development Practitioners, was organized by the World Bank, FAO, and Africa Alliance for CSA, and facilitated by CARE Tanzania in May 2016. The pilot program underscored an urgent need for training on practical ways to integrate gender issues in CSA projects, building on past experiences and lessons learned at international and national levels. In Tanzania, some key issues raised by the participants included: the high labor burden placed on women; initial lower yields in conservation agriculture; choice of practices; and lack of extension services on practical CSA solutions. This evidence needs to be made available to policy and decision makers in a tailored and actionable form. Source: Authors. † Bernier Q., R. Meinzen-Dick, P. Kristjanson, E. Haglund, C. Kovarik, E. Bryan, C. Ringler, and S. Silvestri. 2015. “What Influences Awareness and Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices? Evidence from Kenya.” CCAFS Working Paper No. 79. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/gender-and-institutional-aspects-climate-smart-agricultural-practices-evidence-kenya#.VZGzW6acwiE. less access to information and extension services.13,14,15 In of decent job creation. In Africa alone, 350 million 2015, the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD jointly developed young people will enter the labor force between now and a new module for the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook enti- 2035. Even under the most optimistic projections, wage tled “Gender in Climate-Smart Agriculture” (CSA) which jobs in Sub-Saharan Africa will absorb only 25 percent emphasizes the importance of integrating gender in CSA of these individuals. Farming and self-employment will practices to reduce gender inequalities and ensure that be called upon to provide gainful employment for at least men and women can equally benefit from any interven- 70 percent of young Africans entering the labor force until tion in the agricultural sector to reduce risks linked to cli- at least 2030.17 However, job opportunities are not equal mate change.16 (Box 3.1). for everyone. Women’s participation in the agricultural labor force may be significant, but data on wage employ- The agriculture and food sector has a significant ment reveal a clear gender gap in wage employment in role to play in the present and future challenges rural areas, as well as a wide variation between countries. Even when rural women are in wage employment, they are more likely to have seasonal and temporary contracts 13 Jost, C., F. Kyazze, J. Naab, S. Neelormi, J. Kinyangi, R. Zougmore, P. Aggarwal, G. Bhatta, M. Chaudhury, M-L. Tapio-Bistrom, S. Nelson, and P. Kristjanson. and lower positions or wages than men. The World Eco- 2015. “Understanding Gender Dimensions of Agriculture and Climate Change nomic Forum’s global and regional competitiveness stud- in Smallholder Farming Communities.” Climate and Development 8(2): 133–44. ies18 conclude that a nation’s competitiveness in the long 14 Twyman, J., M. Green, Q. Bernier, P. Kristjanson, S. Russo, A. Tall, term depends significantly on whether and how it educates E. Ampaire, M. Nyasimi, J. Mango, S. McKune, C. Mwongera, and Y. Ndourba. 2014. “Adaptation Actions in Africa: Evidence That Gender Matters.” CCAFS and utilizes its women and men equally.19 Various other Working Paper No. 83. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agri- culture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen. 15 Tall, A., P. Kristjanson, M. Chaudhury, and S. Mckune. 2014. “Who Gets 17 Annan, K., G. Conway, and S. Dryden (editors). 2015. African Farmers in the the Information? Gender, Power, and Equity Considerations in the Design of Digital Age: Overcoming Isolation, Speeding up Change, and Taking Success to Scale. Foreign Climate Services for Farmers.” CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Affairs (special issue). Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen. 18 World Economic Forum. 2014. The Global Gender Gap Report 2014. Geneva. 16 World Bank, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), and IFAD (Interna- 19 World Bank. 2015. “Linking Women with Agribusiness in Zambia: Corporate tional Fund for Agricultural Development). 2015. “Gender in Climate-Smart Social Responsibility, Creating Shared Value, and Human Rights Approaches.” Agriculture.” Module 18 of the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington, DC: Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper. World Bank Group, World Bank Group. Washington, DC. 8 Food and Agriculture Global Practice factors including men’s migration from rural areas, natural development, in Europe and Central Asia (ECA), parts of and man-made disasters as well as climate change have a Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), the Middle East bearing on both the quantity and nature of jobs in agri- and North Africa (MNA), and East Asia and the Pacific culture. These can also result in women being left to han- (EAP). (Figure 3.1) dle the spectrum of agricultural roles, many times without adequate resources, affecting the quality of such jobs. A stocktaking of lending operations reveals that the substantial operational efforts around agri- 3.2 Closing agriculture- culture related activities—across several WBG specific gender gaps GPs (e.g., Water, Environment, Rural and Urban Development etc.)—present a huge opportunity across WBG Regions to help mainstream analysis, design, implemen- through lending tation and monitoring and evaluation aspects in Operations support of closing the above gaps. The total annual lending has ranged between US $2.5–4.2 billion during Gender mainstreaming needs to be comple- the last five years (FY2011-FY16).20 The Agriculture GP mented by a more selective, targeted approach was responsible for 52 percent of the total lending for that builds on regional specificities and the agriculture in FY2011–16 (US $12 billion) (Figure 3.2). potential for high development impact. In very general terms, efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) need to The main recipients of agricultural lending by be designed to focus more on the gender gaps in agricul- region are South Asia (SAR) and Sub-Saharan tural productivity, agribusiness operations, and nutrition- Africa (SSA). This distribution, shown in Table 3.2, sensitive food systems. In South-Asia region (SAR) the pri- reflects the fact that these regions are home to many orities are safe food systems, sustainable livelihoods, and agricultural-based economies. The projects cover sub- linking small-scale producers to value chains. Rural-urban sectors ranging from animal production to agro-industry transformation, male outmigration, and the resulting feminization of agriculture create new challenges but also opportunities for women and for pursuing agricultural 20 This is equivalent to 5–12 percent of total World Bank lending. Figure 3.1. Agriculture Portfolio: Addressing Thematic Gender Gaps, by Region FY16 Project Global Monitoring Budget, Performance Review & Strategic Planning General Services Printing & Multimedia IBRD 41754 | JULY 2015 Figures by Global Practice This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information Europe and Central Asia shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. • Labor Not gender Gender in all Global Practice Count informed 3 dimensions • Agric. Land • Voice East Asia Pacific Agriculture 11 0% 100% • Labor Education 19 0% 68% • Agric. Land • Services Energy & Extractives 25 16% 36% Middle East & North Africa • Voice Environment & Natural Resources 10 0% 70% • Labor • Voice Finance & Markets 6 17% 33% South Asia Governance 18 6% 39% Latin America & Caribbean • Services Health, Nutrition & Population 16 0% 88% • Services • Voice • Agric. Training/Extn • Food/Nutrition Macro economics & Fiscal 27 41% 19% • Voice Sub-Saharan Africa Management • Labor Poverty 4 0% 25% • Agric. Land Social Protection & Labor 19 0% 79% • Services • Basic Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience 35 3% 60% • Educ/Agric. Trade & Competitiveness 12 8% 75% • Training Transport and ICT 34 12% 59% • Voice • Food/Nutrition Water 19 5% 63% All 255 9% 57% Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 9 Figure 3.2. Total lending to agriculture (IDA/IBRD) by region and Global Practice, FY2011–2016 (US$, millions) AG GP SAR 3,190 1,247 Other GPs MNA 212 428 LCR 823 945 ECA 282 824 EAP 1,516 1,708 AFR 3,263 2,239 Source: Authors. Table 3.2. Agriculture Global Practice lending by subsector and region, FY2011–FY2016 (US$, millionS) Region Overall Subsector AFR EAP ECA LAC MNA SAR result Agricultural Extension 606 173 39 160 28 368 1,374 and Research Agro-Industry Marketing 744 222 144 131   499 1,740 and Trade Animal Production 423 317 37 16 92 439 1,323 Crops 422 193 52 10 12 267 957 Forestry 97 178 84 412   59 830 General Agriculture, 1,473 758 213 736 261 970 4,410 Fisheries, Forestry Irrigation and Drainage 1,204 1,176 471 190 238 1,345 4,624 Public Administration, 534 206 66 114 10 490 1,421 Agriculture Overall Result 5,502 3,224 1,106 1,769 640 4,437 1,6679 Source: Authors. marketing and trade, and their scopes vary in terms of design and implementation has proven to con- opportunities and designs in terms of actual efforts at tribute to the success of agriculture projects in closing the gender gaps. many contexts. Several specific examples of flagship projects in agriculture that demonstrate the “what and how” of activities undertaken in these regards are pro- . . . Via Including Gender Responsive “Flagship Operations” . . . vided in Annex Two. Strategic and systematic consideration of gen- Examples span projects across all Regions and have contributed to der issues and integrating them into project all four objectives of the Gender Strategy and covered the gender gaps 10 Food and Agriculture Global Practice identified by the GFADR focal points. In Rwanda, for exam- use agricultural knowledge more effectively. The techni- ple, the Land Husbandry, Water Harvesting, and Hillside Irriga- cal education agenda presents a significant opportunity to tion Project (P114931) pursues the improvement of human target women and girls’ skills development. endowments and strengthening voice and agency, in their communities and families—by encouraging women farm- . . . And Through Knowledge ers to join self-help groups and cooperatives; often women Activities are selected to serve as leaders in the finance and audit An Agriculture GP-wide analysis to scan the functions, and also get to have a say in land use decisions. knowledge portfolio for gender-related analyti- In addition to learning techniques that support sustainable cal work carried out during FY2010–15 by the GP, agriculture, women and men participate in targeted deci- including global studies, illustrates that there is sion making and financial literacy training. The project underreporting in the Operations Portal on gen- also promotes nutrition awareness training, kitchen gar- der. The document review found that 35 percent of the dens, and crop-fortification, which can potentially reduce analytical work included gender analysis, but only some women’s labor burden, improve nutrition, and increase 4 percent of the studies were marked with a gender flag21 their income. As a result, women now have greater voice or included gender in the title. Many studies that carried and agency. The Brazil Rio Grande do Norte Regional Devel- out gender-disaggregated analysis or included gender- opment and Governance Project (P126452) pursues the own- specific recommendations did not check the gender flag ership and control over assets and more and better jobs, in the operations portal (Table 3.3). by supporting the increase of food security and access to productive infrastructure and markets for family agricul- The analysis showed that emerging topics (from ture. Gender is mainstreamed through the project’s inclu- FY2015 onwards) for Advisory Services and Ana- sive design also promotes the participation of women and lytics work are related to agricultural risk man- youth, as well as marginalized indigenous and quilom- agement and insurance, value chain analysis, bola communities. And finally, Box 3.2 presents a flagship and climate change.22 These themes are critical, yet Relaunching Agriculture: Strengthening Agriculture Pub- more wide-ranging analytical work is needed from the lic Services II Project (RESEPAG II) in Haiti which dem- gender perspective on emerging issues such as the rural- onstrates contributions to several objectives of the strategy urban transformation, ICT for gender and agriculture, in an innovative way. The program’s overarching objective access to farm mechanization, and approaches to enable is building capacity on gender issues in Haitian ministries employment generation, self-employment, and hiring of and increasing women’s economic empowerment through labor. To that effect, the GFADR gender team is pursuing a multi-agency partnership between the Ministry of Agri- two studies with FAO: one on green jobs in agriculture culture and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs. and one of the implications of feminization of agricul- ture. In addition, GFADR teams will be encouraged to The project portfolio and indicative pipeline appropriately and fully code their analytical work. over the next couple of years illustrate the focus of the current as well as upcoming agriculture projects in the regions (Annex Two). Most projects 21 The analysis first focused on the knowledge activities that were marked with a present opportunities to address gender gaps. The prac- gender flag or that had at least one of the gender-related terms (women, gender, female) in the title. Given the very low number of studies that came up, it was tical means of doing so will depend on the design of decided to do a quick gender review of the project documents. each project and its components. As agriculture becomes 22 For each region, future analytical work focuses on the following areas: AFR increasingly knowledge-intensive, and as that knowledge (agricultural risk management and insurance, agribusiness development and is increasingly generated/transferred in an innovation the private sector, and livestock); EAP (food security and food safety, and value chains and agribusiness); ECA (value chain and commercialization); LAC (agri- system setting rather than through traditional channels, cultural innovation and commercialization, risk and insurance, climate change post-secondary and tertiary agricultural education will and natural resource management); MENA (agro-industry and value chains); enable individuals to understand, generate, share, and and SAR (poverty and livelihoods, agricultural growth). Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 11 Box 3.2. Good practice example: Building capacity and increasing women’s economic empowerment The partnership between the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, and the World Bank’s Relaunching Agriculture: Strengthening Agriculture Public Services II Project (RESEPAG II) Activities: »» Conducted a gender review that revealed women’s low participation in professional and managerial positions in MARNDR (the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Rural Development). The review also showed women to be largely absent from leadership roles in mixed productive organizations, often due to low levels of literacy, time constraints imposed by domestic duties, and resistance from men to having women occupy such positions. »» Recruited a Gender Focal Point (an agronomist with gender expertise) into MARNDR. »» Facilitated an ongoing collaboration between MARNDR and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MCFDF) to begin inte- grating gender mainstreaming tools into RESEPAG as well as MARNDR policies and programs. »» Conducted an in-depth gender analysis of the project’s implementation documents and instruments, and provided con- crete recommendations. »» Strengthened women’s productive involvement in agriculture in the project pilot areas by building skills and providing gender sensitization training. »» Conducted gender sensitization workshops, focus groups discussions with women in producer cooperatives, and community-level training to understand challenges to women’s active participation and leadership. »» Developed a financial literacy program for women in agriculture to teach basic market, economy, and financial skills (for literate and illiterate individuals). »» Created a gender monitoring system for agricultural investments and strengthened the monitoring framework to better understand the project’s impact on its target beneficiaries. Results: »» Increased capacity within MARNDR to mainstream gender. •  In 2009, a Gender Focal Point from MCFDF was appointed to MARNDR to ensure effective mainstreaming of gender in policy and programming development in the agriculture sector. •  Guidelines for MARNDR recruitment were revised to remove gender bias. »» Improved inclusion in the project’s incentive fund. •  The language of the RESEPEG II Market Support Facility was revised to include more female farmers. •  The farm area required for an individual to be eligible for incentive funding was reduced from 10 to 5 hectares, as research showed that few women in Haiti owned 10 hectares. »» Strengthened ability to monitor gender inclusion in the agricultural sector. •  Introduced preliminary gender-relevant project indicators in the overall M&E system. The number of women receiving extension services, as well as women’s level of adoption of new technologies, is now tracked with a target of at least 20 per- cent for women heads of households. »» Female farmers’ financial capacity improved. »» A financial literacy training program developed to serve women in agriculture. •  The program teaches basic market, economic, and financial skills to enhance competence in agri-business management. A comprehensive guide for the financial literacy program was produced in French and Creole. The program is designed to be implemented in ways that do not add to women’s complex time burden. Source: Authors. Note: RESEPAG II (Renforcement des Services Publics Agricoles); MARNDR (Ministère de l’Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelles et du Développement Rural); MCFDF (Ministère à la Condition Féminine et aux Droits des Femmes). 12 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Table 3.3. Gender-related analytical work in agriculture by region and globally, FY2010–FY2015 Total Number With Gender Flag or “Gender, Gender Considerations Region of Analytical Works Women, Female” in Title Included in the Study AFR 77 6 (8%) 31 (40%) EAP 45 1 (2%) 13 (29%) ECA 46 0 7 (15%) LAC 45 1 (2%) 13 (29%) MNA 20 1 (5%) 10 (50%) SAR 25 1 (4%) 15 (60%) Global 76 5 (7%) 27 (36%) Total 334 15 (4%) 116 (35%) Source: Authors. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 13 CHAPTER FOUR Good Practices and Lessons Learned The Quality Enhancement Review process, including peer reviewers’ comments and discussions in the review meetings, is the most system- atic way of sharing good practices on specific themes across the GP. Fur- thermore, good practices and lessons learned are usually shared among task team members or staff working in the same country or on similar kinds of projects. Differ- ent Communities of Practice (formerly Thematic Groups) have assumed the role of collecting and sharing good practices. Within GFADR, the GENRD CoP has—and has since its foundation in 1998—played a major role. GENRD and the Agriculture GP have also prepared several publications, such as the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, with numerous examples of good practices and lessons. Annex Two gives good prac- tice examples from several countries with a range of gender actions. More efforts are being made to identify, develop and share good practices with teams and national counterparts. The following good practices are drawn from the GFADR portfolio and can be addressed across the pipeline: »» Ensure equal opportunities for men and women to engage in project activities. Because women often have less access to formal and informal net- works in addition to having restricted mobility, they do not always have enough information on opportunities to participate in agricultural projects. A good practice is to ensure that both men and women have information on oppor- tunities within projects. Second, ensure that both groups have opportunities to participate in subprojects and committees and hold positions in project imple- menting units and related collective activities that support a project’s outcomes. »» Select one of the client government’s implementation team mem- bers as a “gender champion.” The client’s commitment to gender issues and capacity to champion them is necessary for successfully integrating gen- der in projects. The selection of a “gender champion” and the provision of capacity-building opportunities are special incentives for an individual who can subsequently provide training to the entire team while continuously advising and monitoring the implementation of agreed actions. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 15 »» Organize women. Organizing women in select lessons for integrating gender in agriculture projects. groups, clubs, or associations is often the first step These are drawn from a review of the GFADR Lending in empowering women and opening economic portfolio and are arranged to correspond to each of the opportunities to them, as well as supporting the four objectives of the Gender Strategy. acquisition and development of new knowledge and skills. Through groups, women often find it Disseminating Good Practices easier to access more formal support mechanisms and Lessons of Experience or empowerment programs provided by govern- The GFADR gender team proposes a number of chan- ments or donors. nels for disseminating lessons learned and good prac- »» Women and men working together. Work- tices, as follows below. A number of these modalities are ing towards gender equality may induce threats to already in practice while others are being introduced women’s empowerment from individuals who may more vigorously: be feeling disempowered, such as male family mem- »» Different project-, country-, region-specific email bers, colleagues, or community leaders. Encourag- lists to be used for “fast delivery” of good practices. ing men and women (especially married couples) to »» Short videos (including YouTube videos), blogs, work and participate in training together and offer- and brief notes on good practices and studies. ing family counseling may reduce such threats. »» Field visits and learning facilitated and supported »» Recognize staff performance on gender across project teams in a country and region. issues. Management’s commitment on gender »» GP’s weekly e-newsletter which highlights project can be demonstrated effectively when engagement examples. in gender work is clearly one of the performance »» Internal country website could include country- indicators. specific information related to gender in agricul- ture and lessons learned from different partners The agriculture portfolio also offers a rich set of specific lessons learned from experience. Table 4.1 offers a few 16 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Table 4.1.  Lessons learned on integrating gender in agriculture projects, organized by WBG Gender Strategy objective Objective Lesson Improving Human Endowments •  Include activities that support food and nutrition security in a relevant manner within the (health, education, social project context. protection) •  Consider an opportunity for postsecondary and tertiary education in agriculture support in the project, especially in SSA. •  Assess if a lack of basic skills (literacy, financial literacy) hinders women’s participation in the project; arrange basic training or connect them with government or other organizations and projects in the area. Removing Constraints for More •  Provide transport and childcare (or allowances for them) during training and encourage and Better Jobs private enterprises to do the same. •  Vocational training and on-the-job training are effective ways of guaranteeing the availability of skilled workers for value chains. •  Use “role models” that have the experience of the local labor market to provide peer support to new entrants in the labor market. •  Use women-only training at places of employment in areas were women’s mobility is strictly controlled. Removing Barriers to Women’s •  Provide practical solutions to removing bottlenecks in obtaining and recognizing land tenure Ownership and Control over and land use rights at the grassroots level, working with traditional leaders. Assets •  Combine physical investments in assets with capacity building to use and maintain them. •  Create incentives (e.g., additional grants) for associations to include women members. •  Encourage public-private partnerships (e.g., offer skills training for farmers/employees of an identified company). •  Use a range of ICTs (radio, video, tablets, mobile phones, VOIP), selected based on local infrastructure and capacity (electricity, women’s literacy, connectivity). •  In Islamic areas, introduce Sharia-compliant microcredit products and establish women-only groups or provide options to do home-based work. Enhancing Voice and Agency •  Engage men, traditional authorities, and local government early in the project design phase and Engaging Men and Boys in discussions of women’s and men’s roles in project activities. (child marriage, gender-based •  Enable and encourage women to play an active role in the consultation process from project violence, changing social norms, design to the final evaluation. women in decision making) •  Consider affirmative actions (e.g., quotas for female members and leadership positions in associations and project decision making bodies). •  Encourage and incentivize the government to recruit/second both men and women to the project implementation unit, research institutes, and other organizations or institutions associated with the project. •  Liaise at the district level with organizations working to prevent GBV, and provide information to beneficiaries on opportunities to enhance voice and agency. Source: Authors. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 17 CHAPTER FIVE Operationalizing Gender Work Agriculture is a diverse sector, embracing numerous subsectors (crops, livestock, fisheries, rural finance, extension and research, natural resource management, land tenure and land management, etc.), each requiring specific technical and socioeconomic approaches for effective weaving in of gender considerations. At the same time, in listening to opera- tional staff working across these subsectors, it is clear that some specific gender issues would require attention and action across all operations. A strategic opportunity exists to reduce gender gaps through GFADR investments by making sure that the following questions are systematically reviewed and rigorously addressed in each new project: »» Does this operation build capacity? If so, whose and how? »» Does this operation create jobs? If so, for whom and how? »» Does this operation improve women’s access to assets and information? And if so, how? »» Does this operation improve voice and agency? If so, whose and how? These questions correspond very closely to the objectives of the WBG Gender Strat- egy, further underlining the importance of agriculture in achieving those objectives and in providing opportunities for gender-responsive actions. 5.1 Project pipeline reviews At the Agriculture GP level, the Global Engagement Unit systematically reviews gender integration in all Project Concept Notes (PCNs) and Proj- ect Appraisal Documents (PADs). Teams preparing projects receive advice on how to improve analysis of issues and gender responsiveness in their projects. Gender aspects of projects are also discussed in Quality Enhancement Review (QER) meet- ings, and additional information, guidance, and resources are provided where neces- sary and feasible. 5.2 Capacity building Capacity building on gender aspects—of all stakeholders involved in the project cycle—is key for the successful integration of gender in projects. In what follows, staff Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 19 Figure 5.1. A theory of change in operationalizing the Gender Strategy in GFADR Training, good practices, tools, shared and scaled up • Clients and staff capacity to Data, evidence & identify & address gender gaps • Leadership commitment knowledge on gender increased • Women and men and consistency issues built up benefit equally from • Enabling environment GFADR inter ventions for agriculture-gender • Gender gaps in nexus • Customized gender actions agriculture sector • Resources Analytics and technical designed reduced assistance • Accountability • Actions implemented, monitored & evaluated Projects and par tnerships Knowledge – Financing – Convening Power skills and training needs, and existing learning tools are SMART indicators; analyzing project results described below. through a gender lens; and integrating gender into »» Staff skills and capacity gaps. The operational M&E (conducting/overseeing surveys, assessing staff of the Agriculture GP generally is well aware of the economic benefits to women, etc.). importance of gender in agriculture projects, but in practice »» Learning tools. World Bank publications and learning the knowledge and skills to address gender in the context of tools on gender across topics and regions (Annex Ten). The a project’s particular technical focus can vary significantly Agriculture GP gender team regularly prepares among WBG staff members. This disparity is the result technical assistance papers and notes on topical of a gap in staff members’ capacity to identify rel- issues specifically for agriculture. These analyti- evant issues in agriculture and to design gender- cal products include comprehensive books (e.g., responsive project activities. The capacity to iden- Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook), tools and checklists tify gender issues should be fostered among all (for example, Gender Issues in Monitoring and Evalu- operational staff, while the specialized capacity to ation in Agriculture: A Toolkit), and case studies illus- design interventions specific to agriculture can be trating good practice. Moreover, online courses on built among gender specialists. A mechanism must gender in agriculture are available for internal and be created to ensure that these gender specialists public use; they include a three-module internal course are available to assist project teams. Management on integrating gender into agriculture projects and all staff should be held accountable for gender from an operational World Bank perspective and a equity in their work. 17-module comprehensive course based on the Gender in »» Training needs. Task Team Leaders emphasize the Agriculture Sourcebook, which is available to external need for concise and practical ‘how to’ advice. They have partners as well. identified the following training needs: conduct- The Gender in Agriculture Team provides assistance to project ing gender analyses and interpreting the results; teams and responds to any query regarding gender integrating gender into theories of change/results during the project cycle. In addition, a team mem- frameworks and developing gender-sensitive ber stands ready to participate in the identification/ 20 Food and Agriculture Global Practice appraisal missions when feasible or to provide CVs When gender (and other social) analyses con- of vetted gender specialists as short-term consul- ducted during the design phase reveal only pre- tants. The gender team also assists country teams liminary or superficial insights on gender issues (e.g., meetings with project teams) by providing (often due to limited data or time), further ana- information on key gender issues for the agricul- lytical work on gender should be part of project tural subsector with which they are concerned. activities. When projects fund other analytical work Gender in Agriculture and Rural Development Community related to core project activities (such as value chain anal- of Practice (GENRD) shares information, tools, and yses or climate change impact assessments), those stud- knowledge products by email and organizes 8–10 ies should integrate gender analysis as an element of the seminars each year, along with “friendly fire” clin- methodology rather than as an afterthought. ics on operational challenges. Working with the four Agriculture GSGs—Climate-Smart Agriculture, Food A gender-oriented theory of change needs to be Safety and Quality (including nutrition), Access to linked to the overall project theory of change. Markets and Value Chains, Jobs and Livelihoods— This approach will clarify and specify the pathways will ensure that they will apply a gender lens to through which the project’s interventions are expected to identify innovative approaches. result in women’s empowerment. The gender theory of change should not be separate from the project’s overall 5.3 Project cycle theory of change but embedded within it. As noted previously, agriculture projects have a Implement (not just design) a gender strategy number of opportunities to close gender gaps, with indicators and targets. Good gender analysis but those opportunities are not pursued fully and completed during project preparation should lead to the systematically. The basis for gender-successful project design of a project gender strategy with key indicators and design and implementation is created by negotiating with targets. Gender strategy timelines and mechanisms for the client government to raise awareness and gain sup- implementation as well as indicators and targets (which port on the one hand, and by providing project teams with can be simple) are key for allowing project teams to moni- adequate skills, tools, and funding to proceed. The first tor the strategy’s implementation. However, not every single year after a project receives Board approval is an excellent operation requires a separate gender strategy. time to plan deeply for gender integration in the project. The sections that follow identify a few critical issues in the Targeted women’s activities should complement, project cycle that future projects should take into account not replace, gender mainstreaming in core proj- more comprehensively. ect activities. Where women face particular constraints (e.g., in relation to social norms), it can be effective to 5.3.1 Design phase design specific activities to help overcome those chal- A good gender analysis should be standard prac- lenges. Those activities should not, however, be seen as tice in the design phase of agriculture projects. an alternative to integrating gender considerations across Many social analyses completed during project prepara- core project activities. tion simply present demographic data and general infor- mation on women. Often there is limited interaction 5.3.2 Implementation between those who complete the social analyses (often Ensure that gender skills, tools, and funding are consultants) and the project design team. In contrast, a available for each project. For project staff, training robust analysis would first identify gender gaps and then, for gender skills and concrete actions is essential. The in consultations with stakeholders and facilitators, provide need for a separate gender specialist for the team can be specific, practical advice on how to design project activi- decided on a case-by-case basis. It would be useful to have ties to be able to close those gaps and ensure women’s a pool of experts financed by the GP to ensure timely sup- involvement. port to the teams. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 21 Project Implementation Manuals (PIMs) play track record of delivering gender-sensitive technical assis- a key role in ensuring that, in practice, gender tance and/or of gender training for others. issues are integrated in implementing project activities. The PIM should facilitate women’s engage- Register individual beneficiaries rather than ment in decision-making processes, monitoring, and social households. This step is important for differentiating a control. Task teams should make sure that PIMs do not project’s impacts on men and women. present barriers to engaging women in project activities but rather, enable and encourage their participation. As 5.3.3 Monitoring and evaluation the client owns the PIM, the client’s capacity on gender Agriculture projects are very diverse, so it is dif- issues needs to be ensured. ficult to define standard gender indicators for all of them. Moreover, while the results framework is a criti- Actively mobilize women’s participation in any cal tool for tracking project outcomes, it is important to go competitive selection process. It is sometimes argued beyond it to capture project benefits more fully. The core that the reason a project has more male beneficiaries than results indicator requirement means that practically all women beneficiaries is that women’s groups do not apply agriculture projects collect sex-disaggregated data on the for project support. In order to proactively address this total number of beneficiaries. However, the compulsory situation, it can be effective for project teams to undertake core gender indicator has limited usefulness for tracking targeted mobilization campaigns to encourage women’s progress in gender as it provides no information on the type and groups apply for project support. quality of the benefits that a project provides to women, and quite frequently it is measured poorly. Ensure that eligibility criteria for subproject activities do not prejudice women’s participa- Customized indicators could bring more infor- tion. Women’s or other marginalized groups’ participa- mation on real gender impacts, such as the gender tion in subprojects can be ensured by defining selection impact in institutional development or in the use of gender- criteria for subprojects to favor their participation. For sensitive practices. It is also extremely important to define example, additional points could be awarded based on indicators clearly to ensure that they measure the correct the percentage of proposal beneficiaries who are female issues and the good practices in terms of defining SMART or members of marginalized groups, or the inclusion of indicators also apply here. organizations with female participation in leadership posi- tions (being careful to confirm that women are effectively Numerous examples of gender indicators for performing leadership roles). Another option is to reserve agricultural subsectors are available from the a percentage of subprojects for marginalized groups or to WBG (e.g., Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, provide a special “funding window” for women’s propos- 2009; Gender Issues in Monitoring and Evalua- als that meet basic threshold requirements for technical tion, 2012) and other sources. Nonetheless, in some viability and sustainability. Note that it is important to hold these emerging areas (e.g., job creation), good indicators and projects to the same standards of technical viability and sustain- good data for agriculture are lacking. The other challenge ability, or else the project will essentially subsidize subprojects with a is to make these examples and other gender and M&E higher likelihood of failure. tools easily available for teams to define relevant indica- tors for their projects. Gender-sensitive technical assistance is key. Not only is it essential that women receive technical assistance, One opportunity to better capture the critical domains but that assistance must also be gender-sensitive, taking influencing women’s empowerment is to explore how to the particular needs of women producers into considera- use the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture tion. In selecting technical assistance providers, the proj- Index (WEAI) at the project level. ect team often will have to give priority to providers with a 22 Food and Agriculture Global Practice CHAPTER SIX Data 6.1 Project-level gender data collection The data collected within agricultural projects is demand-driven and project specific. World Bank lending operations in agriculture conduct baseline surveys, needs assessments, specific evaluations, and case studies (and other special studies such as food processing studies, analyses of value chains, land use patterns, or policy reviews; see Box 6.1) that are strongly connected to a project’s geographical area, context and activities. Projects also amass specific M&E information, including empirical data collected through detailed surveys or qualitative data from focus group interviews. Surveys usually collect sex-disaggregated data if they focus on the project’s beneficiaries, and some of the special studies focus specifically on gender issues in a particular area of interest, such as a value chain. Studies and data are not always included in the ISRs or even stored within the project portals, but are available to other Task teams upon request. Box 6.1. An example of studies conducted to support gender integration in the Irrigation Development and Support Program (IDSP) in Zambia Collective action via producer organizations. Integrating Women Producers and Their Organizations into Agricul- tural Investment Programs in Zambia and Mali. 2012. TFESSD funding. https://olc.worldbank.org/content/mainstreaming- gender-irrigation-development-support-program-case-study-zambia Land ownership and compensation to women of resettled communities. Women’s Land Ownership and Compensa- tion Study in Zambia. 2013. Available from the GFADR Global Engagement Unit. Nordic Trust Fund on Human Rights. Women farmers’ information needs: The potential of ICTs. Supporting Women’s Agroenterprises in Africa with ICT—A Feasibility Study from Zambia and Kenya. 2015. Funded by BNP Paribas. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/2015/02/23989243/supporting-womens-agro-enterprises-africa-ict-feasibility-study-zambia-kenya Private sector policies for contracting and employing rural women. Linking Women with Agribusinesses in Zam- bia. 2015. Nordic Trust Fund on Human Rights. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/08/24663581/ linking-women-agribusiness-zambia-corporate-social-responsibility-creating-shared-value-human-rights-approaches Source: Authors. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 23 It is important to realize that the question of in agriculture. The Gender CCSA has revised the Gender ownership can also hinder the availability of the Tag guidelines in the Operational portal. The new guide- data. Governments collect and own general data and lines aim at prompting discussion at the design stage on statistics. Therefore, agricultural census data or statistics the opportunity to close gender gaps. (Box 6.2). on poverty rates may not always be available to outsiders. Some data, such as project baseline data, are collected by Quality at Entry (QAE) review: Gender integra- the client, and the World Bank may not always influence tion in project design documents. Projects are rated how it is collected. “Gender Informed” if at least one of three gender dimen- sions (Gender Analysis, Gender Actions, and Gender In some cases, specific Trust Funds are used to M&E) is included in the PAD. Agriculture GP projects cover the costs of data collection or studies con- have all been rated “gender informed” since FY2013,23 ducted for lending operations, and in other cases and projects incorporating all three gender dimensions funds are allocated from the loans. These reports increased from 30 percent to 100 percent in six years are requested by the project teams for project-specific pur- (Table 6.1). poses, and they often remain in the “gray literature”—that is, not available to the development community at large Quality at Implementation (QAI) review meth- because of the sensitive nature of the data. Although such odology. This methodology, based on key documents studies, by the WBG and other development partners, (Implementation Status and Results reports, Aide Mem- would be tremendously helpful and contextually relevant, oires, and operational manuals), was developed to under- access to the information remains sporadic and informal. stand the quality of gender interventions in the project There is neither a depository nor recent inventory of this implementation phase. A portfolio review of a sample of gray literature on agriculture operations. projects (FY2008–13)24 found that on average, 76 percent of the projects were rated Gender Implemented based on 6.2 Portfolio-level gender data 23 For a relatively small set of projects, after the gender analysis is complete it collection may reasonably be concluded that gender-specific actions and related M&E are not appropriate. 24 Mollard, I., E. Brearley, M. Vyzaki, and S.-L. Taivalmaa. 2015. “Beyond GPs collect data on gender in order to monitor the project Quality at Entry: Portfolio Review on Gender Implementation of Agriculture portfolio. Other types of data are collected at different Projects (FY2008–13).” Agriculture Global Practice Technical Assistance Paper, levels of the World Bank to assess for gender integration World Bank, Washington, DC. Box 6.2. New Gender Tag in Operational Portal The new Gender Tag tracks whether and how project appraisal documents identify specific gaps between women and men, and girls and boys in analyses, as part of the country engagement framework (country gender assessment, poverty assessment, SCD, CPF, Country Gender Action Plan) and links them to specific actions supported by the project, with indicators in the results framework. The gender tag is intended to prompt discussion at the design stage on the opportunity to close gaps between males and females in the four pillars of the World Bank Group Gender Strategy 2016–2023, i.e., human endowments, more and better jobs, ownership and control of assets, and voice and agency. The tag prompts operational teams to take an active role in identifying operations that are critical to closing key gender gaps and in preparing actions to address them in order to try and ensure that reporting on gender captures the good work being done in operations. The new tag introduces three major changes: First, the prompt in the portal has moved from the Activity Initiation Summary (AIS) to the Concept Note stage, because project conceptualization usually has not progressed sufficiently at AIS to allow the Task Team Leader (TTL) to provide meaningful answers; Second, the questions have been sharpened to ask if teams have articulated a results chain to address the identified gaps, thereby shifting the focus to quality and depth of analysis rather than on processes and track- ing quantity alone; and Finally teams will be asked to assess and rate the project’s performance in closing the targeted gender gaps identified during project preparation as part of the Implementation Completion and Results Report (ICR). 24 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Table 6.1. Share of projects addressing all three dimensions of gender in agriculture projects† in different regions FY2010–FY2016 Total Number of Agriculture Projects, Region FY10–FY16 FY10 FY11 FY12 FY13 FY14 FY15 FY16 AFR 87 33 50 91 85 71 90 100 EAP 50 8 0 57 40 89 100 100 ECA 29 33 0 50 67 86 100 100 LAC 35 22 25 88 86 100 50 100 MNA 9 50 75 100 100 — — — SAR 50 55 30 89 83 40 100 100 Total 260 30 34 80 76 76 93 100 Source: Authors. Note: FY2010–13 results from all Agriculture and Rural Development projects; FY2014–15 results from Agriculture GP. the QAI review. The review also indicated that if a project Enabling the Business of Agriculture. This system- neglects gender during the design phase, it may be possi- atic review of agribusiness across 40 countries provides a ble to catch up during implementation. (Annex Ten) tool for policy makers to identify and analyze legal barriers for the business of agriculture and quantify the transaction The World Bank Group Corporate Scorecard costs involved in dealing with government regulations. Indicators for Agriculture. In FY2015, only 32 proj- Presently, data are presented on six topics: seed, fertilizer, ects reported gender-disaggregated results that could be machinery, finance, markets, and transport. Gender will included in the composite indicator farmers reached with be added in future reports, with indicators on women’s agricultural assets and services, of the total pool of 111 proj- access to assets, inputs, voice, and services included. ects that reported on this indicator. The share of female farmers reached (of the total reported) was only 6.9 per- Women, Business, and the Law. This review presents cent. Similarly, only 54 projects (of 86) reported on farmers data focusing on legal and regulatory barriers to wom- adopting improved agricultural technology, and only 20 reported en’s entrepreneurship and employment in 173 economies gender-disaggregated results. The share of female farm- across sectors. It provides quantitative measures of laws ers (of the total reported) was only 6.7 percent. Such gross and regulations that affect women’s economic opportuni- underreporting of gender disaggregated data needs to be ties in seven areas: accessing institutions, using property, improved. For both indicators, the largest share of female getting a job, providing incentives to work, going to court, farmers was in EAP. building credit, and protecting women from violence. Many of these measures are relevant to rural areas. A new indicator ‘Projects reporting gender indica- tors during implementation’ measures the share of Living Standards Measurement Surveys (LSMS). projects that included gender monitoring at design that These surveys are a core data collection effort at the report on it during implementation. ISRs must report on household level by the World Bank. In eight countries all sex-disaggregated results indicators as indicated in the in Africa, a comprehensive module on agriculture has results framework of the Project Appraisal Document. been added—the LSMS-Integrated Survey on Agricul- For agriculture projects approved from FY2010–12, 76% ture (LSMS-ISA), which supports multiple rounds of a reported on these indicators. nationally representative panel survey in each country to Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 25 improve the understanding of the links between agricul- Development Impact Evaluation (DIME). This ture, socioeconomic status, and nonfarm income activi- effort by the Development Research Group assesses the ties. These datasets are disaggregated by sex and provide impact of selected WBG projects. One of its programs, a significant source of data for analytical work. They Agriculture and Rural Adaptation program (AADAPT) have already been used for a study of gender differences assesses the impact of eight agriculture projects across the in agricultural productivity25 and to explore the extent to world. These impact evaluations disaggregate data by sex which women provide agricultural labor in Africa.26 and include gender-differentiated impacts. Gender Databases. It is also important to note that 25 World Bank and ONE Group. 2014. “Levelling the Field: Improving Oppor- there are many databases with global information on gen- tunities for Women Farmers in Africa.” Washington, DC. 26 Agriculture in Africa: Telling Facts from Myths (http://www.worldbank.org/ der and agriculture that can be used to support the data en/programs/africa-myths-and-facts). needs for World Bank projects (Annex Eleven). 26 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Chapter seven Resources Presently, the gender team in the GFADR Global Engagement unit includes a GG level Senior Gender in Agriculture Specialist funded by the Government of Finland. Each region has nominated a gender focal point. To maintain the momentum of the gender work in agriculture, critical in meeting the twin goals of the WBG and imple- menting the WBG’s Gender Strategy, it is essential to ensure that a commensurate resource envelope is provided for this work in GFADR. Adequate budget to finance a gender expert as well as the funds required to ensure that gender expertise and analytical and operational tools are available for the agriculture teams are important to deliver on the implementation of the follow-up note and action plan. Table 7.1. GFADR Gender Strategy Operationalization— Selected areas of emphasis Areas of Work Support to AGR Project Teams (with > Focus on Implementation Support & M&E) Gender in AGR Results Chains Development Client Capacity Building Workshops & Staff Training 100 Analytical work to understand gaps and learn from experience and good practices Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 27 Chapter eight Internal and External Partnerships Cross-boundary cooperation to achieve stronger gender outcomes and to influence change exist through both current and planned investments, technical assistance and analytics relating to agriculture. Lending to agri- culture occurs across multiple World Bank GPs, regions, and thematic areas. The fol- lowing GPs are key collaborators in moving the agriculture agenda forward: (1) Water Resources, (2)  Social, Urban, Rural, and Resilience, (3) Environment and Natural Resources, (4) Trade and Competitiveness and (5) Transport and ICT. GFADR is also working closely with the Health, Nutrition and Population GP. The nature and depth of the cooperation depends on each analytical piece or project’s particular design and approaches. At the operational level, depending on the proportional GP involvement required, some operations will be co-managed by other GPs, while most will have team members engage on cross-GP support. Similarly, effective collaboration with CCSAs Cli- mate Change, Jobs, and Gender, is vital for GFADR’s work in gender. Specifically, inter- action with the Gender CCSA will keep GFADR staff current on the implementation of the WBG strategy, new ideas, and new practices, especially within the dimensions of analysis and M&E. Four thematic priorities—Global Solutions Groups (GSG)—structure GFADR’s efforts to understand and support the sustainability of global food system(s): Climate-Smart Agriculture, Food Quality and Safety, Markets and Value Chains, and Employment and Livelihoods. The GSGs for each of these themes work actively to bring these thematic areas into agriculture operations, and at the same time, the gender team in GFADR and the Gender in Agri- culture and Rural Development CoP will make a concerted effort to integrate gender awareness, actions, and evidence-based good practices into the work of the GSGs. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 29 The Agriculture GP actively cooperates and Donor Platform for Rural Development, NGOs, bilateral shares information with a number of multi- donors, private sector, and other organizations working lateral and bilateral partners and other stake- on gender issues in agriculture sector. Furthermore, rel- holders. These include the Food and Agriculture evant tools, research reports, and other knowledge prod- Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricul- ucts across global practices and CCSAs as well as other tural Development (IFAD), the Consultative Group on development organizations are collected and dissemi- International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the Global nated through GENRD. 30 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex one World Bank Group (WBG) Gender Strategy, 2016–2023:27 Executive Summary By many measures, 2015 marks a watershed year in the international community’s efforts to advance gender equality. In September, with the adoption of the Sustain- able Development Goals (SDGs), UN Member States committed to a renewed and more ambitious framework for development. This agenda, with a deadline of 2030, emphasizes inclusion not just as an end in and of itself but as critical to development effectiveness. At the center of this agenda is the achievement of gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls (SDG 5). In addition to governments, the pri- vate sector is increasingly committed to reducing gaps between men and women not just because it is the right thing to do, but because it makes business sense. 27 Gender equality is also central to the World Bank Group’s own goals of ending extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity in a sustainable manner. No soci- ety can develop sustainably without transforming the distribution of opportunities, resources, and choices for males and females so that they have equal power to shape their own lives and contribute to their families, communities, and countries. Promoting gender equality is smart development policy. During the past 15 years the World Bank Group has accelerated progress in addressing gaps between males and females in its operational and analytic work, while at the same time advancing its understanding of what works and what does not to close those gaps. The 2001 strategy called for country and task teams to incorporate a gender lens in the design and objectives of their engagements and established a monitoring framework to track these considerations at entry. This approach helped raise awareness about gender equality and its centrality in Bank Group operations. 27 World Bank Group. 2015. World Bank Group Gender Strategy (FY2016-23): Gender Equality, Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Growth. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/23425 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 31 The 2015 Gender Strategy—which is based on consulta- situations. In 2015, 127 countries had adopted laws on tions with more than 1,000 stakeholders in 22 countries gender-based violence but one in three women globally from the public and the private sectors as well as civil have experienced physical or sexual intimate partner vio- society—builds on these achievements and reflects both lence in their lifetimes. Companies realize they are affected changes in the global landscape and the accumulation of as well, particularly in countries with high incidence of evidence about what works to close gaps. The strategy intimate partner violence, where they often record a loss recognizes that stronger and better-resourced efforts are of productivity. More countries have adopted laws against needed to address gender inequalities in access to jobs as child marriage, but in one-third of the countries for which well as control over and ownership of productive assets. data are available, more than 30 percent of girls are mar- Jobs and assets are key levers of change for women, their ried by age 18. The proportion of seats held by women communities, and economies and fundamental drivers in national parliaments has increased from 13 percent in of economic growth and poverty reduction. Achieving 1990 to 22 percent in 2014, but these are small absolute results also entails closing the remaining gender gaps in gains. Gender equality is also about changing the norms health and education and enhancing women’s voice and and expectations about female and male roles and ulti- agency—the ability to be heard and to make choices about mately changing power relations, and men are key actors their own lives. And it requires engaging men and boys. for, and beneficiaries of, fostering a more balanced distri- bution of power within governments, companies, formal The past two decades have seen significant progress in and informal institutions, and households. raising living standards and closing gaps between men and women, especially in education and health, yet critical Addressing gender disparities is critical to the consolida- gaps persist in economic opportunity as well as in voice tion of peace and security in fragile and conflict-affected and agency of women and girls. Improvements mask environments. Violent conflict and fragility affect men steep income variance in access to services, with women and women in different ways, a difference that is sel- in poorer households and poorer countries facing widen- dom recognized or addressed in mainstream conflict and ing gaps with their richer counterparts. Increased access to reconstruction policies and programs. At the same time, schools has helped close female-to-male gaps in enrollment, extended exposure to conflict and crisis can give rise to completion of primary school, and transition to secondary new dynamics in the traditional gender roles that men school in all developing regions. However, issues of learn- and women assume. These shifts can present opportu- ing and quality of services remain, and in some regions, nities to reassess and transform gender roles for positive reverse gender gaps—whereby males are disadvantaged— change. And while gender equality challenges prevalent in are appearing at secondary and tertiary levels. fragile and conflict-affected situations are broadly similar to those in other developing countries, important contex- Women lag behind men in most measures of economic tual factors in those situations require different operational opportunity. Even though the gap between male and approaches. The World Bank Group has committed to female labor force participation narrowed between 1990 supporting efforts to address gender gaps in fragile and and 2013, female labor force participation remains low, conflict-affected situations (IDA Resource Mobilization hovering around 55 percent. Women are less likely to work Department 2013). full time, and when they work they earn 10 to 30 percent less than men (World Bank 2011, 2014a). Female owners This strategy builds on the conceptual framework of the of formal small- and medium-sized businesses face a credit World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Develop- gap of roughly US$300 billion (IFC and GPFI 2011). ment (World Bank 2011), which posits that households, markets, and institutions, and the interactions between Gains in voice and agency are uneven, with changes in the them, influence gender equality and economic develop- enabling environment still not fully translated into prac- ment. The framework focuses on three domains of gender tice. Gender-based violence is a constraint to women’s equality: human endowments, notably health and educa- voice and agency, especially in fragile and conflict-affected tion; economic opportunity, as measured by participation 32 Food and Agriculture Global Practice in economic activities and access to and control of key are critical to advancing economic opportunities productive assets; and voice and agency, as expressed for women—one such partnership, SheWorks, led in freedom from violence, the ability to have voice and by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), influence in governance and political processes, and the focuses on quality employment opportunities for ability to exercise control on key decisions such as mar- all. The strategy will focus on the determinants for riage, sexual activity, and childbearing. The three pil- women to access more and better jobs, including lars are strongly interconnected. For example, although developing policy frameworks for care services, health and education are important in their own right, reducing deficits in infrastructure that prevent they also contribute to women’s ability to take advantage women’s participation in paid employment, pro- of economic opportunities and their capacity to exercise moting the conditions for women’s entrepreneur- voice and agency. Gender-based violence is a constraint to ship, and reducing skill gaps and occupational sex women’s voice and agency and can lead to reduced mobil- segregation. ity, restricted access to certain jobs, work absenteeism for 3. Removing barriers to women’s ownership of and control both men and women, and long-term trauma and mental over assets. The strategy will focus on key produc- health issues, which affect the next generation. The Bank tive assets such as land (individual ownership and Group’s country-driven approach allows for the emphasis female access to community-owned lands), hous- within each pillar to vary according to specific situations ing, and technology. Access to financial and insur- within the country and the private sector. ance services are key enablers of asset ownership, and the World Bank Group has committed to push Within this framework, the World Bank Group Gender Universal Financial Inclusion to help close the Strategy focuses on four objectives: persistent gap between women and men, notably 1.  Improving human endowments—health, education, and in access to accounts. Another important prereq- social protection. Closing the remaining sticky “first- uisite is access to identification, which still eludes generation” gaps, while starting to tackle emerg- the poorest women and children. To provide ser- ing issues, is fundamental to poverty reduction vices at scale, technology can play an important and shared prosperity. First-generation issues role. The World Bank Group will assist clients in include further decreasing maternal mortality, analyzing data on gender gaps in these areas, and improving women’s access to health services, clos- using evidence to inform policy making, improve ing the remaining gender gaps in education, and business practices, promote universal identifica- expanding social safety nets. Among emerging, or tion, and prioritize financial inclusion in ways that “second-generation,” issues are ensuring health close gender gaps. care for an aging population and for noncom- 4. Enhancing women’s voice and agency and engaging men municable diseases; improving early childhood and boys. The World Bank Group will promote and development; breaking down gender stereotypes enhance women’s participation and decision mak- in teacher training and curriculum development; ing in service delivery and support the reduction increasing girls’ enrollment in science, technol- of gender-based violence and mitigate its impact ogy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM); in conflict situations. For example, increased atten- facilitating school-to-work transitions; and devel- tion can be paid to safety and sexual harassment oping innovations to promote women’s economic in transport or sanitation projects or the promo- empowerment in social safety net interventions. tion of positive parenting and peaceful conflict 2. Removing constraints for more and better jobs. Increas- resolution among participants in social safety net ing women’s participation in the labor force, their projects. Psychosocial and economic support can income-earning opportunities, and their access to be made available to survivors of gender-based productive assets are central to the achievement violence in crisis environments. The World Bank of the World Bank Group’s goals, yet remain a Group will continue to support the collection of frontier area. Partnerships with the private sector evidence about legal gender differences—building Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 33 the base for changing adverse masculinity norms At the same time, the private sector increasingly recog- and promoting positive behaviors—and the effec- nizes that closing gender gaps in employment and leader- tive representation, participation, and decision ship means better talent, more productivity, more diverse making of women in local service-delivery gover- leadership, more customers, and a stronger bottom line. nance structures, notably water, energy, schools, More firms in the private sector are changing business health center management committees, and local practices, developing public-private partnerships, and development committees. committing resources to achieving gender equality. The World Bank Group will work with the private sector to The new strategy also places a stronger emphasis on out- create equal opportunities for women and men in their comes and results. This requires the following: supply chains as part of their corporate leadership, in »» Strengthening the country-driven approach, with better their workforce, and as customers. Efforts to transform the country-level diagnostics, policy dialogue, and sex- way companies do business will not only result in a reduc- disaggregated data. tion of the gaps between men and women in the economy, »» Developing a better understanding of what works for gender but it will enable them to capture previously overlooked equality, by enriching the evidence base. talent and customers. »» Building more systematically on what works, by bringing the evidence to task teams and clients. The World Bank Group is fully committed to the 2030 »» Adopting a strategic approach to mainstreaming that helps Sustainable Development Agenda and SDG 5, and to achieve results in client countries, including a more achieving its vision of a shared planet free of poverty with robust monitoring system. nobody left behind. The new goals build on the achieve- »» Leveraging partnerships for effective outcomes, particularly ments and lessons of the Millennium Development Goals with key UN agencies and the private sector. and reflect the growing interconnectedness of develop- ment challenges and the changing institutional and finan- From 1979 to 2014, the global framework for gender equal- cial landscape for development. With its country-driven, ity and the engagement of various actors promoting this multisectoral, and public-private business model, as well agenda strengthened significantly. However, donor finan- as its ability to leverage financial resources, the World cial commitments have not kept pace with political com- Bank Group will make an important contribution to mitments. Using data from the Organisation for Economic operationalizing this agenda. Ultimately, ensuring equal Co-operation and Development’s Development Assistance opportunities for women and girls is not just a global goal Committee gender marker, the share of total aid from in itself, it is critical to the achievement of all the goals. bilateral donors that can be attributed to gender equality increased from 8 percent in 2003 to 15 percent in 2013. 34 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex two Closing Gender Gaps in Agriculture Projects The table below sets out the focal areas of the active portfolio and projects under development, pertaining to agriculture that offers opportunities to close gender gaps. Table A2.1. Focus areas of the Regional Portfolio and Pipeline Projects Region Ongoing Projects Projects under Development SSA •  Agricultural productivity (research & ✓✓ Combining agricultural extension, input distribution) productivity with value chains and •  Commercial agriculture, agribusiness competitiveness •  Emergency and crisis recovery ✓✓ Climate change adaptation (CSA, •  Community-based rural landscape approach, resilience) development ✓✓ CDD MNA •  Natural resource management, ✓✓ Value chain and agribusiness Community-Driven Development (CDD) LAC •  Sustainable agriculture and rural ✓✓ Agricultural competitiveness, development sustainable production ECA •  Agricultural competitiveness, ✓✓ Agricultural competitiveness institutional development EAP •  Rural area poverty alleviation (rural ✓✓ Land allocation development/rural livelihoods) Rural area poverty alleviation (rural ✓✓  development/rural livelihoods) SAR •  Water management (irrigated Rural transformation, economic ✓✓  agriculture, rural livelihoods) development, irrigated agriculture Source: Authors. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 35 The subsequent table and sections offer specific examples of activities undertaken to fill the 7 critical gaps identified of flagship projects that demonstrate the “what and how” by regional gender focal points in agriculture. Table A2.2. Agriculture Projects by Region addressing Thematic Gender Gaps Services and Gender-Based Region Labor Land Inputs Education Voice Violence (GBV) Nutrition SSA Regional Sahel Zambia: Agricultural Africa Higher Agricultural Second examples† Pastoralism Irrigation Productivity Education Cluster Agricultural Support Project, Development Program for Centers of Development Growth Project, (P147674) and Support Southern Africa Excellence Project, Uganda Ethiopia Project (P094183) Project (P148591) (P148591) (P102459) (P126974)‡ MNA Yemen: Rainfed Morocco: Social examples† Agriculture and Integrated Project Agriculture (P089259) (P129774) LAC Jamaica: Rural Haiti: Bolivia: examples† Economic Relaunching Community Development Agriculture: Investment Initiative Strengthening in Rural (P105122) Agriculture Areas Project Public Services in Bolivia II Project (P107137) (P126744) ECA Uzbekistan: Serbia & Kyrgyz examples† Horticulture Tajikistan: Republic: Development Real Estate Support to Project Management Community (P133703) Projects Seed Funds (P147050 & (P144338) P154561) EAP Vietnam: Myanmar: Philippines: China: examples† Second Rural Agricultural Philippine Rural Guizhou Rural Finance Project Development Development Development (P072601) Support Project Project Project (P147629) (P132317 and (P133261) P132424) SAR Afghanistan: Bangladesh: India: Andhra examples† National Second Phase Pradesh Rural horticulture and of the National Inclusive livestock project Agricultural Growth Project (P143841) Technology (P152210) Program (P149553) Source: Authors. † Projects listed as examples have a component or actions that contribute to closing gender gap(s) in the region. Land projects are led mainly from other GPs but contrib- ute directly to closing that gender gap in the region. For more information on the projects, see Flagship projects or regional briefs. ‡ Led by GED, in cooperation with GFADR on agriculture education. 36 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Flagship projects MOROCCO: Social and Integrated Agriculture Improving Human Endowments Project (ASIMA) Project (P129774, FY2013–FY17) aims to increase the implementation of land and biodi- and Strengthening Voice and Agency versity conservation measures in selected projects directed RWANDA: Land Husbandry, Water Harvesting, at small farmers in targeted marginal areas characterized and Hillside Irrigation Project (P114931, FY2010–17) by high poverty rates, low levels of education, and low has the objective to increase the productivity and commer- productivity. Nearly 11 percent of agricultural coopera- cialization of hillside agriculture in target areas. Women tives in Morocco are women’s cooperatives and ASIMA are encouraged to join self-help groups and cooperatives, promotes social inclusion by giving particular attention to where women are often leaders in the finance and audit female small farmers. The selection of agri-food chains functions. In addition to learning techniques that support and of the demonstration projects has been made tak- sustainable agriculture, women and men have partici- ing into consideration the representativeness of female pated in targeted decision making and financial literacy beneficiaries. training. The project also promotes nutrition awareness training, kitchen gardens, and crop-fortification, which SAHEL REGION: Regional Sahel Pastoralism can potentially reduce women’s labor burden, improve Support Project (P147674, FY2015–21). The objec- nutrition, and increase their income. Women now have tive of the project is to improve access to essential pro- greater voice and agency in their communities and fami- ductive assets, services, and markets for pastoralists and lies because of their participation in cooperatives and in agro-pastoralists in selected transborder areas and along decisions over land use. transhumance axes across six Sahelian countries, and strengthen country capacities to respond promptly and BOLIVIA: Community Investment in Rural effectively to pastoral crises or emergencies. The project Areas (PICAR) (P107137, FY2011–19) project aims operates in a fragile conflict area where women’s participa- to improve access to sustainable basic infrastructure and tion in income-generating activities may be circumscribed services for 300,000 individuals from the most disadvan- by a lack of mobility and resources and by cultural and taged rural communities, selected from some of Bolivia’s religious norms. Empowering women and recognizing poorest municipalities. The communities themselves their inputs in pastoralism will reduce communities’ vul- define and prioritize the investments and manage the nerability to external shocks, including conflict. The proj- government funds. The results have been outstanding: by ect is looking for innovative ways for addressing gender in actively involving women in managing and accounting for all of its activities, and the aim is to have women constitute the use of public resources, the project has created a high 30 percent of the more than 2 million beneficiaries. The standard of transparency to the committees’ work and the project coordination units in each country have local gen- increased engagement from women has become a valu- der facilitators, who are trained in gender issues and form able and intangible asset for the communities. a network of gender specialists in pastoral areas. MYANMAR: Agricultural Development Support Project (P147629, FY2015–FY22) aims to increase Ownership and Control over Assets and More crop yields and cropping intensity. The project pays close and Better Jobs attention to women’ empowerment and gender aspects of ZAMBIA: Irrigation Development and Support water management services: poor rural transport infra- Project (P102459, FY2012–18) has promoted gender structure and safety concerns limit women interactions equality by strengthening women’s collective action and outside their villages, constraining their opportunity for participation in agricultural growth initiatives through social networking and learning. In addition, it seeks to the use of ICT. Women were able to openly discuss their address the impact of cultural norms and practices that expectations of the project, their concerns, and factors prevent women from fully participating in decision mak- that would constrain their participation, especially con- ing with regard to resource allocation such as water man- cerns regarding land resettlement and reallocation in agement in irrigated areas. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 37 polygamous households and in relation to land held under in 13 states populated by almost 85 percent of the nation’s customary tenure arrangements. This information trig- poor. Focusing on the women in rural households, the proj- gered just-in-time analytical work (“Women’s Land Own- ect mobilizes them to form self-help groups which are then ership and Compensation Study in Zambia”) to refine federated at the village, subdistrict, and district level (the the project’s resettlement approach and ensure women’s project currently includes 280,519 self-help groups of rural access to land at all stages of implementation. women). By promoting savings among the rural poor, par- ticularly women, the project helps them to build financial REPUBLIC OF KYRGYZSTAN: Agriculture Pro- capital and become clients of formal financial institutions, ductivity Assistance Project (P144338 and P118838, so that they can obtain credit and other financial services. FY2013–18) promoted women’s equality by increasing their incomes and improving nutrition for the whole fam- BRAZIL: The Rio Grande do Norte Regional ily. The project’s objective is to increase agricultural pro- Development and Governance Project (P126452, ductivity among the beneficiaries. Its Community Seed FY2013–FY19) supports the Government of Brazil in Fund sub-component includes assistance for self-help increasing food security and access to productive infra- groups (92 percent women) that were selected through dis- structure and markets for family agriculture’ improving cussions with local authorities and on the basis of poverty the quality of, and access to, health, education and pub- criteria. The groups were trained in agronomic practices lic security services; and improving systems for public and vegetable processing, and each participant received expenditure, human resource and physical asset man- seed for four crops, whose values was repaid in cash after agement in the context of a results-based management harvest with 100% repayment. approach. Gender is mainstreamed through the project activities and the project’s inclusive design also promotes INDIA: National Rural Livelihoods Project the participation of women and youth, as well as mar- (NRLP) (P104164, FY2011–17) has promoted women’s ginalized indigenous and quilombola communities. Proj- equality by enabling them to build financial capital and ect Interventions in the health sector will benefit infants, become clients of formal financial institutions. This proj- women of reproductive age and those at risk for breast ect works intensively with nearly 2.86 million households and cervical cancer. 38 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex three Africa Regional Brief BACKGROUND Gender inequality permeates the economic fabric of many African countries: address- ing it is an integral part of solving structural challenges faced by half of the region’s population, as well as for unleashing Africa’s economic potential. In most of the African countries, agriculture is the engine of growth, and the gender asymmetries are critical in rural areas. The framing of this annex on the Gender Strategy and agriculture in Africa follows the framing of the Gender Action Plan (2013–18) recently developed by the Gender Team in Africa. The action plan stresses the need for generating and using a sound evidence base to guide policy dialogue in African countries. While supporting the mainstreaming of gender, the plan raises four thematic issues: (1) reducing female mortality rates; (2) closing earnings and productivity gaps; (3) shrinking the differences in voice in the household and society; and (4) investing in youth. All of these themes are relevant to agriculture. CRITICAL GAPS Reducing Female Mortality. Gender asymmetries in health care provision contrib- ute to female mortality, along with deficiencies in nutrition among pregnant women and children. The links between malnutrition, child mortality, and stunting are clear. Regional maternal mortality rates for 2015 ranged from 12 deaths per 100,000 live- births for developed regions to 546 (511–652) for SSA. While the figures for SSA are high, there has been substantial improvement from 1 death per 16 women in 1990, to 1 per 36 women in 2015. Rwanda and Cape Verde achieved a 75 percent reduction in maternal mortality during that period. Gender inequality in nutrition—resulting from women’s weak land rights, lower levels of education, and inadequate access to credit, extension services, and technologies—has been widely documented. Conversely, when women have more control over household resources, children’s nutrition has been found to be better. Households in which women Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 39 have more resources often spend more on household and sufficient decision-making power. As the rural-urban tran- child nutrition—improving the quantity and quality of the sition proceeds ever more rapidly in many regions, not diet—compared to male-dominated households. enough is known about the parallel feminization of agri- culture and the opportunities and challenges it poses for Actions. Improving women’s access to assets, ser- women farmers. vices, and voice addresses the question of nutrition, through both the production and consumption of a Actions. The Land team in GSURR leads the work more diversified diet. Agricultural policies and strate- on land projects, and GP Agriculture is collaborating gies can address the nutrition issue by promoting the with them. The Global Land Unit will continue to diversification of crop production (pulses, vegetables, incorporate gender into all land projects, and (going fruits), increasing the consumption of livestock prod- forward) specifically those in Africa. The Develop- ucts and fish, mitigating health and nutrition risks ment Data Group—Center for Development Data is associated with agriculture (waterborne, food-borne, working on gender-disaggregated data on land own- and zoonotic diseases, as well as occupational injuries ership and use through modifications to the LSMS and health hazards), and breeding more nutritious surveys, and the pilots are focusing on Africa. varieties of the staple food crops consumed by poor The rural-urban transition, especially accompanied people in developing countries. All of these efforts by male out-migration, is a prominent ongoing devel- must include women in the decision-making process. opment, yet fairly little is known about its impacts. For instance, under the Ethiopia Second Agricultural To address this knowledge gap, the GE Gender team Growth Project (P148591), the European Union sup- is engaging in a global study with FAO to improve ports efforts to mainstream nutrition into the project’s the understanding of pathways to the feminization activities. In addition to nutrition, this project also of agriculture and make it possible to craft effective addresses female farmers’ access to services and mar- interventions to address it. The new Africa Region kets. The project should benefit an estimated 1.6 mil- Agricultural Policy Unit will be involved in reviewing lion smallholders. and developing these studies so they can seamlessly feed into the country profiles and dialogues. Agricultural Productivity: Land. Women make up about half of the labor force in SSA. They typically Agricultural Productivity: Services. Women in farm smaller, less productive plots and grow less profit- Africa do not have nearly as much access to credit, fer- able crops. FAO estimates that less than 20 percent of tilizer and other inputs, or technical and market infor- landholders globally are women. In Western and Central mation as men, stifling their productive power in the Africa and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), agricultural sector. If women enjoyed the same access this proportion is less than 10 percent. Compared to men, to agricultural inputs as men, the productivity of wom- women have less security over their landholdings, which en’s farms could increase by 10–30 percent. But there is are also consistently smaller than those owned by men (for more to this issue. The recent “Levelling the Field” report example, in Ghana the mean value of men’s landhold- shows28 that equalizing women’s access to productive ings is three times that of women’s landholdings). When resources is not enough to close this gap—the returns to women have more secure tenure over land, the impacts those resources are often even more important. This con- are substantial. In Rwanda, for instance, improved land sideration is especially true for farm labor, which emerges tenure security led women landowners to increase their as the chief driver of the productivity gap. For example, investments in agriculture by 18 percent, twice the level in Niger women use less adult male farm labor on their observed for men. plots—a factor behind the country’s 19 percent produc- tivity gap. But even when Niger’s female farmers deploy The issue of rural land ownership is becoming more acute as increasing numbers of men are leaving rural areas for urban centers in search of work, leaving women 28 World Bank and ONE. 2014. “Levelling the Field: Improving Opportunities to assume all of the agricultural tasks, often without for Women Farmers in Africa.” Washington, DC. 40 Food and Agriculture Global Practice the same amount of labor on their plots as males, men still (APPSA, P094183). Investments have focused on enjoy an advantage by garnering higher returns (in terms research, extension, seed production and value chains of output per hectare) from the male labor that they use for selected commodities (cassava, wheat, maize, rice, on their fields. Many context-specific factors contribute dairy, aquaculture, and others). EAAPP and APPSA to this discrepancy: childcare duties impinge on women’s are applying a 30 percent quota for women’s involve- ability to mobilize and supervise farm labor, norms lead ment across the activities. The provision of improved male laborers to exert more effort on male-managed plots, cassava planting material and the introduction of SRI women are not able to command labor at key planting rice production systems have particularly involved and and harvesting periods, and/or cash constraints oblige benefited women farmers, substantially increasing women to hire less effective farm labor. their incomes. In all programs, women were 30 per- cent of the advanced degree students sponsored, and Actions. Supporting the development of the care the AWARD mentor program for women scientists economy is coming to be recognized as an underused was associated with WAAPP. WAAPP also influenced opportunity. For example, Martinez and co-authors29 the establishment of a gender task force in ECOWAS conducted a randomized evaluation of a preschool (the Economic Community of West African States). program in rural Mozambique and found that, in addition to positive effects on schooling and child Employment. Labor productivity in firms managed by development outcomes for beneficiary children, the women in Africa is 6–8 percent lower than in firms man- program led to a big positive externality: primary aged by men. Market segregation often constrains women caregivers increased their labor force participation to less productive sectors. For example, 9–14 percent of by 26  percent relative to a control group. Similar the differential in gender earnings for the self-employed is approaches need to be piloted more broadly and attributed to the industry in which they operate. Women scaled up where feasible. They can free more time for are also overrepresented among unpaid and wage work- women farmers and create local employment oppor- ers and in the informal sector. With a total of 65 percent tunities for caregivers. of women being employed, Africa has the highest rate ICT-enhanced service provision will be expanded, of unpaid female workers. There is a dearth of informa- ranging from mobile banking to e-extension and the tion on female participation in the informal sector and on provision of market information (Digital Green vid- earnings from various sources of paid work. eos, Interactive Voice Response systems, rural radio, Actions. With FAO and the GSG on Livelihoods and and other technologies). The new CoP on ICT in Jobs, the Gender group in GE is engaging in a study agriculture with the GE Gender team will lead this to understand the gender aspects of “green jobs” work. (defined as jobs in agriculture, forestry, and natural The Second Agricultural Growth Project in Ethio- resource management) and is developing a method- pia (P148591) is using Digital Green participatory ology to review the agriculture portfolio in terms of videos to reach farmers with extension services, green jobs. In addition, the Jobs CCSA is reviewing including extension advice on nutrition. Since 2008, the kinds of jobs (primary, secondary, tertiary) agri- Africa Region has engaged in a set of regional pro- culture can generate in Africa. The GE will work with ductivity programs covering 15 countries in West the team led by Luc Christiansen to bring gender into Africa (P094084, ongoing), 4 countries in East Africa that analysis. The Jobs CCSA is also engaged in a (EAAPP, closed) and 3 countries in Southern Africa Let’s Work Program that includes a horticulture sec- tor review in Tanzania. These are great entry points to bring in gender in data collection and analysis 29 Martinez, S., S. Naudeau, and V. Pereira. 2012. “The Promise of Preschool and in crafting policies and interventions. Lastly, a in Africa: A Randomized Impact Evaluation of Early Childhood Development in Rural Mozambique.” World Bank and Save the Children, Washington, DC. recent study on the contractual arrangements and http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/The_Promise_of_Preschool_ HR policies between agribusiness companies and in_Africa_ECD_REPORT.pdf Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 41 women farmers/employees in Zambia noted that Actions. Going forward, Enabling the Business of private companies often have quite progressive HR Agriculture is going to include indicators for women’s policies in the interests of supporting sustainable sup- collective action. Systematic data of this kind will help ply chains and keeping trained staff. These kinds of to articulate these points more convincingly in policy arrangements can present an opportunity for PPPs dialogues and design better investments. The Agricul- that make more and better jobs available for women ture GP will cooperate with the Water group and the in agriculture. Land group to strengthen women’s voices in relation to these two themes. Voice. In relation to agency, the key issues identified in the Two specific operations to enhance women’s voice Gender Strategy are women’s lack of societal voice through can be highlighted—the Uganda Agricultural Cluster underrepresentation in national and local decision- Development Project (P148591) and the Regional Sahel making bodies; the muted voice of women within house- Pastoralism Support Project (P147674). The Uganda holds in many countries (which is associated with their project identifies commodities, their production limited control over household resources and fertility); areas, and communities to support. Each value chain and women’s exposure to domestic violence. While agri- is analyzed, and support to farmer groups is designed cultural projects might not directly address these issues, based on a gender analysis. Progress is tracked by they can be aware of them and collaborate with NGOs or gender-disaggregated data. The regional pastoralism responsible national agencies. project will apply gender analysis across its activities, engage a group of gender focal points in participating The major form of collective action for farmers is the countries, and support women’s groups in livestock formation of rural producer organizations (RPOs) and production. water user associations (WUAs). Some 25 percent of the World Bank’s support for agriculture involves RPOs in Investing in Building the Capacity of Youth. some way—mainly through support for capacity build- Africa is closing the gender gap in primary education, and ing at the grassroots level, or support to RPOs as imple- as a result girls will be better educated than their mothers. menters of subprojects. In 2010, 55 percent of the RPO At the same time, a serious gap remains in terms of sup- support components gave attention to gender (in par- port for vocational and tertiary education in agriculture, ticular to ensuring women’s inclusion and meaningful especially for females. In 2007 a joint study by the World participation).30 A major deficiency has been the lack of Bank’s Human Development and Agricultural and Rural attention to improving the capacity of producer organiza- Development groups showed that agricultural education tions beyond the community level (at the subnational and overall had been gravely neglected by donors and national national levels). Another deficiency has been the lack of governments. Women students and professionals were attention to strengthening women’s voice. especially affected. For example, the Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators database of the International A more structural constraint for women’s limited involve- Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) reveals that among ment in RPOs and WUAs is their limited access to land. agricultural researchers in SSA in 2007, 14 percent of Because their rights to land and water are often insecure, PhDs were female, 19 percent of MScs, and 23 percent women can be marginalized in RPOs and in WUAs of BScs. Data from 2014 show a mere 5 percent increase (which often formalize farmer’s rights to use water). in each category. Agriculture is becoming increasingly knowledge-intensive and oriented toward participation in 30 Rolle, F. And H. Rygnestad (2012). Review of World Bank Investments in Building the Capacity of Rural Producer Organizations from 2004 to 2010. innovation systems. As a result, up-to-date technical skills Internal Paper. World Bank, Washington DC. November 2012. and improved competence in soft skills (communication, 42 Food and Agriculture Global Practice leading consultations, fostering collective action, using unexploited potential to impart critical skills in a rela- ICTs, and others) are increasingly required. tively short time, and new vocational training models (such as Helvetas) need to be piloted in Africa and Actions. The 2007 report urgently needs to be scaled up where possible. updated to make the case for vocational and tertiary education in agriculture. Vocational training has Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 43 Annex four East Asia and Pacific Regional Brief BACKGROUND The EAP region is very diverse, and the gender constraints differ, especially between the Pacific and other parts of the region. The Pacific region has experienced faster growth and greater poverty reduction than any other region. These achievements have helped to narrow gender gaps, most notably in education and health. Gender gaps in access to education—including secondary and tertiary education—have closed dramatically. Despite progress, important challenges remain to achieving gender equality in the region. Growth and development alone are not sufficient to achieve gender equality in all socioeconomic dimensions and for all women. Gender gaps in economic oppor- tunity and influence in society have proven particularly persistent. The Pacific region suffers from gender inequalities reflected in women’s inferior asset endowments, eco- nomic opportunities, and voice and agency. Women are also disproportionately vul- nerable to the effects of natural disasters and climate change, which heighten the risks to their livelihoods, especially in the Pacific. Female labor force participation is relatively high in EAP, where about 70 percent of women participate in economic activities—exceeding every other region. Women also have a higher level of participation in the management and ownership of firms than women in other developing regions. In the Pacific region, many women in both urban and rural areas work in the informal sector. Even though most of the region’s econo- mies have shifted away from agriculture and toward manufacturing and services, agri- culture still employs a large share of the labor force, ranging from about 34 percent in the Philippines to 70 percent in Lao PDR. Most people in the poorest households work in agriculture. Men have more opportunities for employment outside of agriculture, while women are more likely to engage in unpaid family labor in agriculture and in the informal sector. In addition, the EAP population is aging faster—and on a larger scale—than the population of any other region in history, which increases women’s care-related work burden. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 45 Women still earn less than men for similar work—around economies in the region. Such stereotypes clearly limit 70–80 percent, on average. Female workers are more likely women’s opportunities and prevent them from achieving than men to work as unpaid family labor or in the infor- their potential and participating, on an equal footing with mal sector. Whether as farmers or entrepreneurs, women men, in the labor market. Women remaining in rural areas still own less land and have weaker access to productive are often overburdened with work related to caretaking. inputs, adversely affecting productivity and profitability.  Actions. Hundreds of thousands of women are being reached through WGB-supported microfinance World Bank analyses find that promoting gender equality activities in the region, including rural women and in access to productive resources and economic opportu- female entrepreneurs in Vietnam, Mongolia, Indone- nities can contribute to higher economic productivity that sia, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste. In Vietnam benefits women and men alike. If societies in EAP were to the Second Rural Finance Project has created some allocate resources on the basis of people’s skills and abili- 10,000 jobs with women. Beyond offering micro- ties, rather than on the basis of gender, per worker pro- credit, the project has helped women to deal with ductivity could increase by as much as 7–18 percent, with social issues that affect them adversely. The Philip- important implications for growth and poverty reduction. pines Rural Development Project has tailored support to women for adding value to agricultural products, Women continue to have a weaker voice and influence marketing products, and developing an enterprise. than men in the home, in politics, and in civil society. And violence against women remains high. Women’s lack of Voice and Participation. Gender-based differences voice and influence is particularly acute in the Pacific, in social and political capital in a number of rural areas where the prevalence of gender-based violence is among reduce women’s access to information on farming tech- the highest of any developing region. niques and their ability to protect and regulate local resources and their marketing channels. Even though The EAP Gender Action Plan (2011–13) (still in effect) women are often active in different community groups, advocates the following agenda for public action: (1) pro- they belong to groups that do not have influence on com- moting gender equality in endowments and human munity or farming decisions, while men dominate such development; (2) taking measures to close gender gaps in groups.31 As mentioned, women’s lack of voice and influ- economic opportunity; (3) taking initiatives to strengthen ence and exposure to gender-based violence is particu- women’s voice and influence—and to protect them from larly acute in the Pacific. violence; and (4) fostering opportunities and managing risks associated with emerging regional trends. Actions. Increasing women’s access to information and training, extension services, and other produc- CRITICAL GAPS tive inputs can play a key role in enhancing the pro- ductivity of female-led enterprises, both within and Economic Empowerment. Gender gaps in economic outside agriculture. The Poverty Reduction Fund in opportunity and influence in society have proven par- Lao PDR has a built-in mechanism to favor propos- ticularly persistent in EAP. Gaps in access to credit and als identified by women in poor rural communities assets remain critical gaps for women farmers. Women’s for public services and small-scale infrastructure. As participation in economic activities is further complicated a result, 650,000 poor people in remote areas gained by the fact that women face different issues, such as high access to basic services between 2003 and 2011, tax burdens and very small enterprises. In addition to the with 91 percent of these projects reflecting the pri- lack of nonfarm employment, employment segregation orities of women. In China, women are offered equal by gender remains substantial, and as noted, women earn less than men for the same work. With the exception of 31 See Rutsaert, P., S. Akter, J. S. Luis, N. M. Htwe, S. S. San, B. Raharjo, and China, every country in EAP has at least one law that A. B. Pustika. 2015. “Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equity in Agriculture: makes it harder for women to get a job or start a business. A Different Perspective from Southeast Asia.” http://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/wp-con- In this respect, Malaysia is among the most restrictive tent/uploads/2015/05/Rutsaert-et-al-Gender-equity-Southeast-Asia.pdf 46 Food and Agriculture Global Practice opportunities to join farmer cooperatives and partici- Actions. In Myanmar, a project focusing on productiv- pate in training and capacity-building activities. Spe- ity growth and irrigation will develop an inclusive land cial consideration is given to the voice of women as a administration plan in the targeted irrigation sites. vulnerable group, both in accessing employment and in taking part in joint decisions. Resilience to Climate Change. The Pacific region is known to be one of the most natural-disaster-prone Land. Despite strong recent economic growth and over- regions of the world. Women farmers are more exposed all development, gender disparities in access to and con- to climate risks than men, considering that women have trol over land remain pervasive in the East Asia Region. fewer endowments and entitlements. They also have less Women are still less likely to own land than men, and even access to information and services and are less mobile when they do, their holdings are likely to be smaller and than men, which can limit their capacity to recover from less valuable than those of men. Female-headed house- disasters. holds also tend to have poorer access to other productive Actions. In China, a CSA project encourages women inputs and support services, including livestock and access to participate in technical activities and training pro- to agricultural extension services. Because the reasons for grams to improve their capacity to adopt new agri- women’s lower access to land differ across the region— cultural techniques and increase their resilience to from unfavorable legal frameworks to cultural norms and climate change. practices that deem land to be a “male asset”—effective policies to increase female landholdings need to account for context-specific constraints. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 47 Annex five Europe and Central Asia Regional Brief BACKGROUND Overall, ECA countries have managed to close large gender gaps in human develop- ment, yet women continue to lag behind men in economic opportunities in most coun- tries. Attitudes towards gender have been greatly affected by political systems in the region. The socialist ideology that prevailed in much of ECA included a fairly strong element of gender parity and contributed to the development of a legal framework that is broadly gender neutral with respect to inheritance, property, freedom of move- ment, and the educational rights of women and girls. The collapse of the communist and socialist regimes and a resurgence of religiosity has led to some backtracking in equality as traditional paternalistic patterns have reasserted themselves and spread. While some countries have become more equal, women in certain communities face barriers that reduce welfare and growth. The barriers are most evident when it comes to women’s economic and leadership opportunities,32 even though their educational achievement and tertiary education levels are generally higher than those of men in many ECA countries. Female labor participation and educational attainment vary considerably across the region. Women play a crucial role in local food security and comprise about 17 percent of agricultural workers in ECA countries. Variation across countries with respect to averages is modest. In Central Asia, however, women are almost exclusively responsible for weeding cotton fields, and they provide a large part of the labor for the harvest. Because much of this labor is informal, and like other labor spent on family farms, it is not usually captured in official statistics. In fact, most agricultural employment in the region is informal. Many women work as farmers on their own account or as unpaid family workers, yet they do not declare themselves to be employed (or seeking work) in agriculture.33 Self-employment tends to be more widespread in ECA countries with large rural populations.34 32 ECA Regional Gender Action Plan, FY2013–FY15. 33 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2014. “Rural Women in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.” Rome. 34 Sattar, S. 2012. “Opportunities for Men and Women: Emerging Europe and Central Asia.” World Bank, Washing- ton, DC. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 49 The Regional Gender Action Plan does not have sector- is a widespread problem. In addition, women’s wage rates level gender priorities for agriculture, but the Sector Unit overall lag behind men’s.37 for Private and Financial Sector Development, Europe Actions. Improving access to information, train- and Central Asia Region (ECSPF), promotes access to ing, and finance can benefit both women and men finance for both women and men, which is important for in the agricultural sector. In the Republic of Kyrgyzstan, the agricultural sector. women make up the majority (92 percent) of rural self-help groups; with support from the World Bank, CRITICAL GAPS these groups receive training in sustainable agricul- Property and Land Rights. The legal frameworks in ture practices and food processing (preserving veg- ECA countries are gender-neutral, yet significant differ- etables), as well as in business skills that enable them ences in implementation are evident among countries. to improve the nutrition of their families as well as For example, the share of female agricultural landhold- increase their incomes. In Uzbekistan a project focuses ers ranges from 5 percent in Albania to 36 percent in on creating better rural jobs within the horticulture Moldova.35 Ensuring women’s access to and control of value chain. land as well as other assets is important for eliminating poverty and increasing economic productivity. Migration. Male migration in Central Asia and the Cau- casus has left women alone and responsible for their farms Actions. All ECA land projects include a social and households. This situation can empower women as assessment with a gender focus and specialized activi- decision makers and increase their agency, but it can also ties to increase women’s knowledge of and access further entrench gender roles. Women left behind in socie- to information about their land rights, gender sen- ties with very rigid gender norms may not be able to chal- sitivity training for land agency staff, and gender- lenge patriarchal norms and gender inequalities, which disaggregated monitoring. Other actions are context restricts their flexibility and farm management options. and country specific (legal aid, promoting joint titling, Across the Balkans, it is young women rather than men and others). It will be important for the Agriculture who leave the homestead and seek employment in towns, GP to work with the Global Land Unit to ensure that perhaps also as a consequence of their relatively higher agricultural operations address these issues where average educational achievement relative to men. possible. Actions. The feminization of agriculture study Economic Empowerment. The persistence of tradi- described in the main text will help to define the fac- tional social roles and deep-rooted stereotypes limit wom- tors that drive the feminization of agriculture and en’s and girls’ education and employment options in many clarify the consequences for women, their families, countries in the region,36 even though the legal framework and agricultural production and food systems. This and educational attainments are effectively gender neu- information will help to inform WBG operations and tral. Women are also largely responsible for household investments, including the design of agricultural proj- work and childcare, which further limits their participa- ects and programs in general. tion in the labor market and engagement in entrepreneur- ial activities, especially in rural areas. It is widely accepted that the man is primarily responsible for providing the 37 World Bank Group studies include: (1) Cancho, C. A., and N. Elwan. 2015. income for the family. Domestic violence toward women “Bosnia and Herzegovina: Gender Disparities in Endowments, Access to Eco- nomic Opportunities, and Agency”; (2) Davalos, M. E., S. Sattar, K. Simler, B. Bidani, A. Reva, S. Tsirunyan, and M. B. Orlando. 2012. “Kosovo: Gender Gaps in Education, Health, and Economic Opportunities”; (3) World Bank. 2013. “FYR Macedonia Gender Diagnostic: Gaps in Endowments, Access to 35 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2014. “Rural Women in Eastern Economic Opportunities, and Agency”; (4) Omar, Y., and B. C. Vick. 2013. Europe and Central Asia.” Rome. “Montenegro—Gender Diagnostic: Gaps in Endowments, Access to Economic 36 See http://eca.unwomen.org/en/where-we-are/moldova/economic- Opportunities, and Agency”; and (5) “Gender Gaps in Albania through the empowerment#sthash.1awmgUw9.dpuf Lens of Poverty and Shared Prosperity: Findings from the 2012 LSMS1.” 50 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Decision-Making Power. Increasing women’s decision- more toward subsistence and household survival are the making power requires changes in social perceptions of domain of women. In cases in which one partner works gender norms and stereotypes, and it requires actions off of the farm, the other usually has more decision- to address gender-based violence, which limits women’s making power. power to make decisions. Encouraging women to form Actions. Women can be excluded by male- agricultural self-help groups, as well as giving them dominated community decision-making structures opportunities and the capacity to participate meaning- and processes in rural areas. Under a Community Agri- fully in farmers’ associations, are ways to increase their cultural Resource Management and Competitiveness Project decision-making power. Decision-making power within a in Armenia, women are receiving training and infor- farming household is not absolute, but as a rule of thumb, mation to enhance their participation and decision- most farms that are commercial in nature tend to be led making capacity in producer organizations. by men, whereas agricultural activities that are oriented Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 51 Annex six Latin America Regional Brief BACKGROUND Agriculture is one of the keys to promoting growth and reducing poverty and food insecurity in LAC. It represents almost 8 percent of the region’s combined GDP and employs 20 percent of the population. It is also the most pro-poor sector, with growth in agriculture proving more effective than nonagricultural growth at reducing poverty.38 Almost two-thirds of the region’s rural population still lives in poverty, and women are overrepresented among the poor. For that reason, mainstreaming gender in agri- culture not only is essential for the sector’s performance but also is also essential for poverty reduction, food security, and gender equality. The region’s rural women have less access than men to resources, particularly to productive assets such as land, water, credit, and agriculture inputs. This disparity helps account for women’s higher levels of poverty and vulnerability.39 The latest data available for the region show that women in rural areas are poorer than men, except in Guatemala and El Salvador. The gap is most pronounced in Uruguay and the Dominican Republic, where women are 20 percent and 18 percent poorer than men, respectively. The countries of Latin America have high overall rates of female labor-force partici- pation, but women participate much less in agriculture than women in other devel- oping country regions. This pattern reflects relatively high female education levels, economic growth and diversification, and cultural norms that support female migra- tion to service jobs in urban areas. Just over 20 percent of the agricultural labor force in Latin America was female in 2010, slightly higher than in 1980. Their participa- tion in agriculture varies from a low of 10 percent in Central America to 43 percent 38 Dewbre, J., D. Cervantes-Godoy, and S. Sorescu. 2011. “Agricultural Progress and Poverty Reduction: Synthesis Report.” OECD Food, Agriculture, and Fisheries Working Paper No. 49. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris. 39 Quisumbing, A. 2003. “Agriculture and natural resources: Overview.” In A. Quisumbing (Ed.), Household Decisions, Gender, and Development: A Synthesis of Recent Research. Washington, DC: IFPRI; Deere 2005. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 53 in Paraguay, 70 percent in Brazil and more than 86 per- 52 percent growth in income generated by family farming cent in Bolivia.40 The South American countries of the and rural employment44 easily surpassed the 29 percent45 Plurinational State of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, growth in GDP per capita between 2003 and 2013. Since and Peru dominate both the average and the rising trend, 2011, the flagship plan Brasil Sem Miséria (Brazil without while many countries in Central America and the Carib- Poverty) has, as one of its key components, a series of bean have seen declining shares of women in the agricul- rural productive inclusion programs aimed at expanding tural labor force.41 basic services (water and sanitation, electricity, roads, and so on), productive inputs and grants, as well as increased Even so, the feminization of agriculture is occurring within access to technical assistance, credit, and rural extension LAC as well. Either within “family farming” or as wage coverage for “family farmers.”46 laborers, women constitute a growing portion of the agri- cultural labor force. As in other regions, evidence suggests CRITICAL GAPS that poor female farmers face a number of disadvantages in Agency, Participation, and Recognition of Women comparison to their male counterparts. Women may have as Farmers. Rural women are still affected by many less access to productive inputs, credit, and consumer mar- forms of discrimination. In Bolivia, women overall have kets. Gender-blind technical assistance and rural extension less access to education compared to men, which is illus- programs may fail to provide appropriate services adapted trated by the illiteracy rate in the National Survey for Dis- to women’s needs and constraints. Restrictive social norms crimination and Social Exclusion from 2014: 8.1 percent may limit women’s mobility, autonomy, and agency, lead- of women versus 2.9 percent of men. This survey also ing to lower participation of women in producer networks. revealed that 3 in 10 women feel discriminated against Permanent and temporary migration of the region’s men when searching for a job, and 2 in 10 perceive discrimi- to the United States are accelerating the feminization of nation when requesting something at a public office or agriculture in the LAC region, particularly in Central service. A recent WBG study indicated that women who America. This change is having important implications for identify themselves as indigenous or Afro-descendants feel the agricultural sector, as women face specific constraints even greater discrimination, above all with respect to eco- that prevent them from fully compensating for lost labor nomic circumstances. due to male migration.42 But very little is known in this regard, since national statistics and most current agricul- Men in Guatemala, for example, score higher than women tural projects do not capture this transformation. on all indicators of agricultural empowerment.47 Women are frequently seen as passive beneficiaries of agricultural Brazil has been recognized for its efforts over the past dec- ade to promote social inclusion and reduce poverty and inequality through policies and programs targeting the 44 See MDA (http://www.cresol.com.br/site/upload/downloads/183.pdf). 45 See IPEA (http://www.ipeadata.gov.br). rural poor; more than 67 million Brazilians were lifted out 46 The use of the “family agriculture” or “family farming” category as a demo- of poverty between 2003 and 2014.43 The reduction in graphic and economic unit for federal and state land reform and poverty reduc- poverty levels has been stronger in rural areas, where the tion policies and programs in Brazil was formally established under the National Program for the Strengthening of Family Farming (PRONAF). The legal frame- work for PRONAF established the official definition of family farming (Decree 40 Katz, Elizabeth. 2003. “The changing role of women in the rural econo- No. 1946 of 28/06/96). PRONAF intersects with the National Program for mies of Latin America.” In Benjamin Davis (ed.), Food, Agriculture and Rural Agrarian Reform, which provides specific funding for families resettled under land Development: Current and Emerging Issues for Economic Analysis and Policy reform. The family farming unit, as legally defined, is the recipient of the critical Research. Vol. I: Latin America and the Caribbean. Rome: FAO. document—the Declaration of Eligibility for PRONAF (Declaração de Aptidão, DAP): 41 FAO 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture: Women in Agriculture: Clos- “The family unit for the purposes of issuing a DAP , comprises the set of individuals within the ing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. nuclear family (husband or partner, wife or partner and children) and other individuals who exploit 42 World Bank 2016. Impact of male out-migration from Guatemala on rural the same rural property under various ownership conditions, but strictly under the management women’s agency, land use and agricultural production. World Bank, Washing- of the family, including cases in which the property is operated by an individual with no family.” ton, DC. 47 Alkire, S., R. Meinzen-Dick, A. Peterman, A. R. Quisumbing, G. Seymour, and 43 As shown in data from the National Household Survey (PNAD) from 2003 A. Vaz. 2012. “The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index.” IFPRI Discussion and 2014, considering the national poverty line of R$ 140 in September 2011. Paper. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. 54 Food and Agriculture Global Practice investments rather than as “farmers.”48 Women are con- change may affect women more adversely than men.50 sidered responsible for domestic tasks, reproductive and Access to water and irrigation depends not only on the caretaking activities, supporting the man in productive availability of water, but also on the legal and regulatory sectors, subsistence activities (domestic animals, sub- systems governing its distribution and use and on the nego- sistence crops, and gardens) and small-scale income- tiating power of different actors, as well as on the tech- generating activities (such as artisanal crafts and nological and institutional development of irrigation. In beekeeping). the context of a “water market,” women may find it hard to negotiate for water rights and defend their interests. This understanding of men’s and women’s roles results in Where water and its management are exclusively public the (explicit or implicit) exclusion of women from diverse or communal, there is still no guarantee that women will activities in projects, such as projects focusing on technol- have equitable access to water. In most countries in the ogy transfer. In addition, in many male-dominated crops, region, access to water is contingent on land tenure, and such as rice, it is very difficult to gather sex-disaggregated as a result, women may find themselves disadvantaged in data unless the projects amend their M&E strategies— relation to irrigation.51 such as the typical procedures for agricultural household Example: Expanding Women’s Agency through surveys, which ask for the principal farmer or landholder Productive Inclusion in Rural Areas of North- to provide information. east Brazil. This exploratory study (March 2016, Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality funds) inves- Access to and Control over Resources. In Latin tigates the constraints to productive inclusion faced America, land ownership is most frequently transferred by rural women in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, through inheritance, but daughters are much less likely located in the poor, drought-affected Northeast than sons to inherit land. Many countries in the region Region of Brazil. The study was carried out to guide have instituted legal reforms that have strengthened mar- the gender-sensitive implementation and mid-term ried women’s land rights, but land-titling efforts have not review52 of productive inclusion components of the always facilitated the practice of including both husbands’ World Bank-financed Rio Grande do Norte Regional and wives’ names. Development and Governance Project.53 In addition, The first comprehensive and standardized measure of it will inform the design and insertion of a gender women’s empowerment and inclusion in the agricultural module, based on IFPRI’s WEAI framework)54 in the sector in Guatemala revealed that lack of access to credit project’s impact evaluation surveys. and lack of decision-making power over income were the The study’s main findings confirm that in this envi- most salient attributes of disempowerment of Guatema- ronment, where producers are already burdened with la’s rural women.49 the impact of drought and desertification and difficult access to markets and new technologies, women pro- In most countries in Latin America, women have limited ducers face additional constraints compared to their access to water for productive uses, which depresses agri- male counterparts. Interviews with women producers cultural productivity. Because women in Latin America are overrepresented in arid and semiarid areas, climate 50 Parada, S. 2008. “Rural women in Latin America and their access to eco- nomic resources.” Division for the Advancement of Women, Department of 48 For an example related to women engaged in rice production in the Andean Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York. countries, see: Twyman, J., J. Muriel, and M. A. García. 2015. “Identifying 51 Ibid. Women Farmers: Informal Gender Norms as Institutional Barriers to Recog- 52 Scheduled to be completed before the end of FY2016. nizing Women’s Contributions to Agriculture.” Journal of Gender, Agriculture and 53 Rio Grande do Norte Sustentável (P126452, approved by the Bank in June Food Security 1(2): 1–17. 2013). 49 IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2012. “Women’s 54 IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2012. “Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index.” Washington, DC. http://www.ifpri.org/ Empowerment in Agriculture Index.” Washington, DC. http://www.ifpri.org/ publication/womens-empowerment-agriculture-index publication/womens-empowerment-agriculture-index Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 55 found that they face constraints in relation to the fol- to and control over productive resources. Hav- lowing particular dimensions of agency: ing secure land ownership rights is directly cor- »» Leadership within the community: Community asso- related to women’s decision-making power in ciations, producer organizations, and farmers’ relation to productive activities. Land ownership cooperatives have been very male-dominated, traditionally has been registered to male heads as the family representative in public spaces in of households, however. The lack of ownership rural communities is usually the male head of rights also prejudices women’s access to financ- the household. Many of the women interviewed ing, which often requires land ownership as a provided justifications such as “men know bet- form of collateral. While Brazil has programs ter” or “men speak better,” revealing their inter- with dedicated credit lines for women, women nalization of gender norms. The study found are not always aware of them, and in practice that where women had participated in women- there is very little uptake. only groups, in general they were more likely to »» Control over use of income: Women’s control over the challenge these traditional roles and to be more use of income from productive activities is gener- active participants in community associations. ally related to their participation in productive Some women’s husbands opposed their partici- activities. With the diversification of household pation in women’s groups, but the women found income sources, particularly resulting from cash support and encouragement from their fellow transfer programs that target women, women group members. Finally, continuous support to report having greater control over household women’s groups is essential to prevent men from income. taking over women’s activities once they become »» Gender division of household labor and women’s time use: lucrative. The traditional gender division of labor persists »» Decision making related to production and commercial- in much of rural Brazil, although this situation ization: The gender division of labor within rural is changing as women increasingly participate households often results in women being respon- in productive activities. With their increased sible for domestic work and men for produc- participation in on-farm and off-farm activities, tive work. Where women engage in productive women retain primary responsibility for domes- activities, they often differ from their husbands tic and reproductive tasks, which increases their on decisions related to those activities. Women time poverty. who participate in producer organizations report »» Autonomy in decision making related to mobility: having greater control over productive activi- Restrictive social norms persist in much of rural ties. Both men and women producers have dif- Brazil, making it hard for individual women pro- ficulty accessing both public and private markets ducers and producer organizations to complete and rely heavily on intermediaries. Women face bureaucratic processes required for legal registra- additional challenges in accessing markets for tion and to obtain various certifications, which commercialization due to security concerns and often require repeated trips to municipal centers. social norms restricting independent travel. Travel to markets is similarly complicated, not »» Access to and control over productive resources, including only by restrictive social norms but by security project grants, credit, and other productive assets such as concerns. land: Often women producers have less access 56 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex seven Middle East and North Africa Regional Brief BACKGROUND In MNA, agriculture is central to national economies, and women play key roles in the production of goods. The female share of the agricultural labor force in the Near East and North Africa appears to have risen substantially, from 30 percent in 1980 to almost 45 percent in 2010. Some of the highest and fastest-growing participation in the region is found in Jordan, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and the Syrian Arab Republic.55 Rapid growth in the number of wage workers in the region and in women’s agricultural labor is widening the gap between female urban and rural labor force participation. Some studies suggest that this feminization of agriculture maybe partly attributable to male out-migration but is due mostly to globalization, population increase, and agricultural intensification affecting differential gender roles as a response to labor market supply and demand.56 For example, a case study from Syria57 indicates that the feminization of agricultural labor reflects a situation in which women provide the bulk of agricul- tural labor but are not involved in farm management, because the male head of the household remains on the farm while other male household members work off of the farm in urban areas or migrate to neighboring countries for work. In MNA, conservative gender norms and an institutional framework that sometimes formalizes unequal rights for women limit women’s opportunities to participate in the economy by limiting their mobility and occupational choices, as well as their agency and voice within and outside the home. Combined with an economic structure that incentivizes women to stay at home or work in the public sector, limited options in the 55 FAO 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture: Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. 56 M. Abdelali-Martini and J. Dey de Pryck, 2014. Does the feminisation of agricultural labour empower women? Insights from female labour contractors and workers in northwest Syria Journal of International Development, DOI: 10.1002/jid.3007 57 Abdelali-Martini Malika, Patricia Goldey, Gwyn E. Jones and Elizabeth Bailey, 2003a. Towards a Feminization of Agricultural Labour in Northwest Syria. Journal of Peasant Studies, London (30/2) pp. 71–94. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 57 private sector, and a skills mismatch, these factors imply collect firewood, and store, preserve, and process dairy very low rates of female participation in the workforce. and food products. Men are responsible for irrigated agri- There are variations within the region in terms of gender culture and the production of cash crops, particularly qat norms, women’s participation in the economy, and the and coffee. extent to which it has changed; rural women in Tunisia (or in the Maghreb) do not face the same level of discrimi- CRITICAL GAPS nation as rural women in Yemen (or in the Arabian Pen- Gender Norms and Regulations. Social and cultural insula in general). norms in MNA generally place high value on women’s role within the home and family and her investments in Women in MNA are farmers and family and wage work- family life. These norms reflect elements of a patriarchal ers, but because they lack control over most resources society in which women and men are partners in a mar- and other opportunities, their contribution to agricul- riage but with separate roles. Women’s primary sphere of tural development as well as broader economic and social influence is perceived to be within the home,62 whereas development remains limited. Women typically work men are supposed to be the breadwinners and decision long hours as unpaid family labor, engaged mainly in makers in the public sphere.63 These elements are not non-mechanized, labor-intensive, non-capital-intensive unique to MNA society but are perhaps more pronounced activities58 in crop and livestock production, including there than elsewhere in the world. post-harvest activities such as producing tomato paste, freekeh, and milk and other animal products such as wool. A range of countries in the region retain many laws lim- They are responsible for storing and processing many iting female mobility and autonomy within the house- agrobiodiversity products, which are mainly marketed by hold. Fathers and husbands are still the legal gatekeepers men. Women also have primary responsibility for the hus- of women’s and girls’ activities. Applying for a passport, bandry of small animals (poultry, ruminants) as well as traveling outside the country, working outside the home, supporting large-animal systems through herding, provid- and deciding to marry all can require male permission.64 ing feed and water, maintaining stalls, and milking.59 Gender issues in the legal sphere include gender gaps in access to courts, differences between traditional and legal For example, about 75 percent of women working in rights and the application and enforcement of laws, as agriculture in the Republic of Yemen are unpaid, as are well as laws that disadvantage women. 66 percent in Syria, 45 percent in the West Bank and Gaza,60 and 70 percent in Egypt.61 Female farmers are Women’s access to productive assets, especially agriculture estimated to perform more than 70 percent of the work land, is limited by social norms that reinforce male con- in the agricultural sector in Yemen. Women are mainly trol and ownership of those resources. In the Arab world in charge of the very labor-intensive rainfed systems that women make up a small proportion of total landown- produce basic food crops for family consumption, and as ers, ranging from 29 percent in Jordan to only 4 percent mentioned, women are also usually in charge of animal in Syria. When women do own land, they tend to own husbandry. Women also grind grain by hand, haul water, smaller plots. Women’s land is also often controlled by a male member of the family until marriage, and after mar- 58 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2005. “Breaking Ground: Present riage by their husband or son. In many countries, women and Future Perspectives for Women in Agriculture.” Rome. 59 Elasha, Balgis Osman. 2010. “Mapping Climate Change Threats and Human Development Impacts in the Arab Region.” Arab Human Development Report Research Paper, United Nations Development Programme, Regional Bureau 62 Moghadam, Valentine. 2004b. “Women’s Economic Participation in the Mid- for Arab States, New York. dle East: What Difference Has the Neoliberal Policy Turn Made?” Journal of 60 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2005. “Breaking Ground: Present Middle East Women’s Studies 1 (1): 110–46. and Future Perspectives for Women in Agriculture.” Rome. 63 Offenhauer, Priscilla, 2005. Women in Islamic Societies: A Selected Review 61 Egyptian Organization for Development Rights. 2011. Report on the Eco- of Social Scientific Literature. Library of Congress, Washington, DC. nomic Deprivation and Legal Exclusion of Rural Women in Egypt. Cairo: 64 World Bank 2012. Women, Business and the Law database. http://wbl Egyptian Organization for Development Rights. .worldbank.org 58 Food and Agriculture Global Practice also risk losing their entitlements in case of divorce, wid- This traditional practice puts major limitations on wom- owhood, or the husband’s migration.65 en’s mobility and thus on their access to services and any kind of external interaction. Actions. The Social and Integrated Agriculture Project (ASIMA)66 in Morocco aims to increase the implemen- For example, social constraints imposed on women‘s tation of land and biodiversity conservation measures mobility in rural Yemen are so high that the impact of in selected projects directed to small farmers located providing transport infrastructure and services is limited in targeted marginal areas in the project area. The and mostly indirect. In rural Yemen, women‘s mobility is project will also promote social inclusion by giving mostly restricted to areas they can reach by walking. The particular attention to female small-scale farmers. use of motorized transport is restricted to accessing health The selection of agri-food chains and of the demon- care. Even then, women have to ride in a covered car, stration projects reflects the representative conditions accompanied by a male family member. Women’s use of of female beneficiaries. intermediary means of transport is also greatly restricted The Rainfed Agriculture and Livestock Project (RALP) in by social norms: bikes and motorbikes are not allowed; Yemen addressed social and gender-specific issues donkeys can be used to transport loads but not to ride. through a set of gender-sensitive implementation arrangements to ensure that female farmers and Compounding the restricted use of transportation by other vulnerable groups (such as poor farmers with women is the fact that transport costs are significantly limited access to water and land) could benefits from higher for women because they need special seating con- the project. The focus on female beneficiaries was an ditions, or they have to travel with a male family member. important aspect of the design and implementation In rural Tunisia, for example, transportation expenses of RALP. Through the project interventions, women rank fourth in the list of the family’s total expenditures, gained access not only to better seed but also to com- with 19 percent of the family’s income spent on transpor- munity labor-saving devices, agro-processing facili- tation. These high expenditures are attributed mainly to ties, and production-related startup activities. poor infrastructure and the absence of public and alterna- tive means of accessible, affordable transportation. Mobility: Transportation for Women. Mobility is a major factor in access to economic resources, education, Data Availability. Data access (and a general lack of health care, and other key elements influencing women’s data) are major issues across the region, with the exceptions empowerment. Poor transportation and access to mar- of Iraq, the Palestinian Territories, and Yemen. Challenges kets limit the opportunities to market and sell products. include making national statistical data available and sys- In MNA countries, as in many other developing econo- tematically learning from rigorously evaluated policy pilots, mies, women’s mobility is constrained not only by the which can provide invaluable lessons, identify country- limited supply of transport but by social factors reducing specific gender gaps, and help to formulate nuanced policy women’s access to the outside world and by political reali- interventions. MNA countries have very little data or statis- ties.67 Additionally, rural women in tribal areas are usually tical information on the status of rural women, and often not allowed to travel by themselves outside their villages. it is outdated. Rural women’s work in the household or Whenever they want to leave, they need to be accompa- agriculture is generally overlooked. Surveys, analyses, and nied by a male family member, a so-called “mahram.” policies are rarely gender based—the concept of gender mainstreaming has gained little traction in the region. The gender bias and opacity in agricultural census data both 65 IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) and FAO (Food and conceals and marginalizes women’s contribution to the Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2007. The Status of Rural Poverty in the Near East and North Africa. Rome: IFAD and FAO. socioeconomic development of rural areas.68 66 Agriculture solidaire et intégrée au Maroc. 67 World Bank 2011. Making Transport Work for Women and Men: Challenges and Opportunities In the Middle East and North Africa, Lessons from Case World Bank 2013. Regional Gender Action Plan for the Middle East and 68 Studies. North Africa Region, FY2013–FY16. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 59 Annex Eight South Asia Regional Brief BACKGROUND South Asia has experienced a long period of robust economic growth and has been among the fastest growing in the world. From a sectorial point of view, agriculture and services have driven the growth performance across South Asia.69 Despite recent economic growth and changing social norms, dramatic gender inequities persist in South Asia. SAR has the second-lowest rate of female labor force participation among the six World Bank regions (MNA is lowest). SAR also has the largest gender dispar- ity (16 percentage points) of all six regions when considering accounts held at formal institutions,70 and gender gaps in secondary education completion rates continue to be large. The female share of the total population economically active in agriculture is about 35 percent in South Asia. The female share in India has remained steady at just over 30 percent. A very large country such as India can mask changes in some smaller coun- tries in the region, where the female share of the agricultural labor force appears to have increased dramatically—for instance, it now exceeds 50 percent in Bangladesh.71 Almost 70 percent of employed women in South Asia work in agriculture, making it the most important source of employment for women by a wide margin, and much more important for women than for men.72 At the same time, women in SAR engage relatively more in agricultural wage employment than women in any other region, most likely because of the increasing landlessness in SAR and because women in other regions tend to have weaker property rights in land and other assets.73 Women in SAR 69 World Bank 2015. Rama, Martín, Tara Béteille, Yue Li, Pradeep K. Mitra, and John Lincoln Newman. 2015. Addressing Inequality in South Asia. South Asia Development Matters. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0022-1 70 World Development Indicators (http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development- indicators). 71 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11: Women in Agriculture—Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 61 are involved in crop and livestock production at subsis- on an interplay of economic, social, and cultural factors. tence and commercial levels. They produce food and cash Customary law can exist in parallel with formal legal crops and manage mixed agricultural operations often regimes. Where these systems coexist, customary law can involving crops, livestock and fish farming. According to determine a woman’s rights in marriage or to property the Asian Development Bank, however, in India unpaid and inheritance, which are often different from the rights work in almost all sectors in family agricultural enter- granted under statutory law. In South Asia social norms prises accounts for 34 percent of informal employment interlock with religion, caste, language, and geography to for women. promote some and exclude others, and efforts to achieve key gender goals at the country level have proven chal- In South Asia as a whole, women tend to cluster in tra- lenging. Cultural norms generally dictate that men own ditionally “female” arenas of employment, which are and inherit land while women gain access to land through generally pay less than the traditionally “male” arenas their relationship with a male relative.75 (for example, Pakistan has few female mechanics, farm machine operators, or truck drivers). Within agriculture, Maternal and Early Childhood Nutrition. Among especially in off-farm activities, opportunities exist to children under five years of age, 38 percent have stunted develop non-traditional employment for women across growth owing to persistent nutritional deprivation. The South Asia. Such opportunities will not only generate high prevalence of stunting combined with the region’s higher incomes but will eventually contribute to the evo- large number of children (SAR has 26 percent of the lution of women’s traditionally perceived roles in their world’s children under the age of five) explain why South respective communities. Studies in South Asia have found Asia bears about 40 percent of the global burden of child that enhancing women’s knowledge and managerial skills stunting. Globally, child stunting is significantly more related to agricultural value addition and value chains can common in the poorest segments of society, but in South reduce occupational sex-segregation. Asia the difference between rich and poor is particularly marked. The fact that gender inequality is particularly severe in SAR has been a factor in explaining the “Asian Enigma,” Improving nutritional outcomes involves empowering the fact that underweight rates in the 1990s were (and in women across multiple domains. For example, women many cases still are) higher for South Asia than for many must not only be able to produce nutrient-rich foods but to countries in SSA, despite similar or better levels of GNP allocate those foods to the household members who need per capita in SAR countries. Studies have shown sanita- them most. In education programs the main emphasis is to tion, urbanization, and women’s status to be the key fac- improve female enrollment and retention in primary and tors in narrowing the gap in children’s nutritional status. secondary schools, but schools are also platforms for deliv- The latest figures, reported in the Global Nutrition Report ering nutrition interventions, including—but not limited 2014, suggest that rates of stunting (low height for age) to—interventions for adolescent girls. The main contribu- have declined from 48 percent in 2005 to 39 percent tion of agriculture and food security initiatives to nutri- in 2013. This number is still very high but represents a tion is to ensure that they improve diets, particularly for decline of 14 million in the number of malnourished mothers and young children, by improving the availabil- children.74 ity of and access to diverse, nutrient-dense foods through production, value-chain interventions, or markets.76 CRITICAL GAPS Customary Laws and Social Norms. Equal oppor- tunities for women in business and the workplace depend 75 Rama, M., T. Tara Béteille, Y. Li, P. K. Mitra, and J. L. Newman. 2015. “Addressing Inequality in South Asia.” South Asia Development Matters. 74 IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2014. Global Nutrition World Bank, Washington, DC. doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0022-1 Report 2014: Actions and Accountability to Accelerate the World’s Progress on Nutrition. 76 UNICEF 2015. Stop Stunting in South Asia, a Common Narrative on Mater- Washington, DC. nal and Child Nutrition. UNICEF South Asia Strategy 2014–2017 62 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Actions. The Andhra Pradesh Rural Inclusive Growth proj- exist, but women either cannot access them or are una- ect in India aims to enable selected poor households ware of them. Many women who are aware of their land to enhance agricultural incomes and secure increased ownership and inheritance rights choose not claim them access to human development services and social enti- for fear of reprisal from other family members, especially tlements. To boost human development, the project brothers. Even if laws allow women to inherit ancestral supports investments to increase the nutritional content lands and other family assets, as is the case across most of of agricultural production (by including milk, vegeta- South Asia, customary practices still strongly favor male bles, and poultry) and also to use innovative access to inheritance.79 rural retail chains and enterprises to improve the local food environment. Concurrent investments are testing Significant gender differences exist in access to financial new ways of ensuring access to human development, services across many countries in South Asia, which (as nutrition, and sanitation services with a combination noted) has the largest gender disparity of all regions when of demand, supply, and enterprise approaches. considering accounts held at formal institutions.80 Lack of access to finance (agricultural and nonagricultural) and Education. Gender differences in coverage are low microcredit is a huge impediment to taking advantage of in the case of primary education. Persistent challenges opportunities to earn a higher income, improve produc- remain in secondary and tertiary education, including tivity, pursue entrepreneurship, and create an enterprise. gender gaps in vocational and professional training. These For example, in Pakistan, less than 3 percent of women gaps mean that fewer women work in agriculture, science, have access to finance, and when they do, their use of and technology at the professional level, and that fewer credit is low. In Bhutan, where agriculture is dominated by women participate in decision making in these domains. women, their ability to hire men for physically hard labor on the farm is very limited. Agriculture in South Asia in ICT can be a powerful tool to empower disadvantaged general is dominated by female labor, and yet crop yields groups and improve socioeconomic and health outcomes are lower for women than for men, primarily because of for women, men, and children, but barriers to technol- this lack of access to adequate productive resources. ogy adoption disproportionately impact women. In South Actions. In Afghanistan, the National Horticulture Asia women are 37 percent less likely to own a mobile and Livestock Productivity Project promotes the adoption phone than men, and nearly 35 percent fewer women of improved production practices by target farmers, than men have access to the Internet.77 This digital gen- with the gradual rollout of farmer-centric agricultural der divide—that is, the gap between men and women in services and support for investments. Nearly half of accessing ICTs—remains large. the project’s beneficiaries are women. The project attained this rate of female participation by identi- Lack of Access to Productive and Financial fying and selecting agricultural subsectors that lend Resources. The issue of women’s land ownership is per- themselves to women’s participation or which do not sistent in most of South Asia—in Bangladesh, for instance, present significant constraints to women’s participa- individual land titles held by women accounted for about tion, such as kitchen gardening, household poultry 5 percent of land ownership. The significant exception production, and (to a lesser extent) small ruminant is Sri Lanka, where both sons and daughters can inherit, production systems. The project ensured that suffi- widows can inherit all of the deceased husband’s prop- cient financial and technical resources were directed erty in the absence of descendants, and married women toward such activities to ensure substantial levels of have the right to acquire and dispose of their individually female participation. owned property.78 In many cases land ownership records Asian Development Bank. 77 79 World Bank 2013. South Asia Regional Gender Action Plan FY2013–FY15. UN Millennium Project 2005, Taking Action: Achieving Gender Equality and 78 80 World Development Indicators (http://databank.worldbank.org/data/ Empowering Women. Task Force on Education and Gender Equality. reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators). Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 63 Feminization of Agriculture. Migration is changing public life—including higher education and employment— the face of South Asia’s families and farms as a shifting cli- eventually becomes the norm, violence may decrease. mate and economic development make agricultural-based livelihoods increasingly less viable. Rural Nepal is going The transformation of rural areas has also led to a change through unprecedented demographic, socioeconomic, in the structure of female employment. Perhaps the best- and environmental changes as men move from villages to known illustration of this point comes from Bangladesh, urban areas and overseas in search of better opportuni- where rapid growth in the garment industry created wage ties. Women, in addition to looking after children and the employment for young village women. In Pakistan, too, elderly, are left behind. With limited access to capital and women benefitted more than men from the expansion resources, they nevertheless assume responsibility for per- of nonfarm activities. The number of unskilled women forming traditionally male-dominated farming practices. working as agricultural laborers fell by one-third between This situation has lowered the use and productivity of land 2000 and 2008, whereas the number of those working in and has perpetuated, if not exacerbated, food insecurity. manufacturing and construction tripled. This shift is more Women are increasingly adopting less intensive farming significant than that among rural unskilled male workers, practices as well as abandoning agricultural land.81 for whom employment in manufacturing and construc- tion increased by about 60 percent. The new employment Mobility and Women’s Participation. In much of opportunities have increased labor force participation South Asia, violence against women and girls is occur- among women who were less likely to work before. ring against a backdrop of socioeconomic changes that Actions. In Bangladesh, the second phase of the may be the most rapid changes the region has ever wit- National Agricultural Technology Program aims to have a nessed. Those changes may influence violence directly or special impact on women and enhance benefits to indirectly through shifts in gender equality. For instance, them and other vulnerable groups. The project design women’s opportunities for and participation in higher includes a Gender and Inclusion Framework (GIF) education, employment, and politics have expanded in focused on participatory processes, social inclusion, most countries. As such opportunities arise and open the and accountability. All community subprojects will fol- doors to greater gender equality and women’s empow- low the guidelines provided in the GIF and maintain erment, however, women and girls may face a backlash, the requisite consultation processes and documenta- including an increased risk of violence as they leave home tion. The project will ensure inclusion and gender to work or study. As women’s greater participation in equity in access to its services through the establish- ment of a component-specific targeting and gender mainstreaming action plan, formed on the basis of 81 Tamang et al. 2014. Journal of Forest and Livelihood 12(1) October, 2014. in-depth targeting and gender studies and audits. 64 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex Nine World Bank Agriculture and Gender Publications GENERAL: GLOBAL »» Women, Business and the Law (2016) »» Enabling the Business of Agriculture 2016 : Comparing Regulatory Good Practices »» Feminization of Agriculture in the Context of Rural Transformations: What Is the Evidence? (2016) »» Are Gender Differences in Performance Innate or Socially Mediated? (2016) »» As Good as the Company They Keep?: Improving Farmers’ Social Networks (2016) »» Gender in Climate Smart Agriculture (2015) »» Beyond Quality at Entry: Portfolio Review on Gender Implementation of Agriculture Projects (FY2008–13) (2015) »» The Cost of the Gender Gap in Agricultural Productivity in Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda (2015) »» The Gender Gap in Agricultural Productivity: The Role of Market Imperfections (2015) »» Gender at Work: A Companion to the WDR on Jobs (2014) »» Gender and Agriculture: Inefficiencies, Segregation, and Low Productivity Traps (2013) »» Gender Issues in Monitoring and Evaluation in Agriculture: A Toolkit (2012) »» World Development Report 2012: Gender and Development »» Linking Gender, Environment, and Poverty for Sustainable Development: A Synthesis Report on Ethiopia and Ghana (2012) »» IEG: An Evaluation of World Bank Support 2002–08: Gender and Development (2010) »» Gender and Governance in Agricultural Extension Services: Insights from India, Ghana, and Ethiopia (2010) »» Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (2008) Africa (AFR) »» Gender-differentiated impacts of tenure insecurity on agricultural performance in Malawi’s customary tenure systems (2017) »» Investigating the gender gap in agricultural productivity: Evidence from Uganda (2016) Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 65 »» How Much of the Labor in African Agriculture Is Provided Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) by Women? (2016) »» Central America Migration and Women’s Agency in Agri- »» World Bank Research Digest, Vol. 10(4): Changes in Pov- culture: Women in Agriculture—The Impact of Male Out- erty and Female-Headed Households in Africa (2016) Migration on Women’s Agency, Household Welfare, and »» Securing Property Rights for Women and Men in Rural Agricultural Productivity (2015) Benin (2016) »» Women’s Economic Empowerment in Latin America and the »» Ethiopia women in agribusiness leaders network: impact Caribbean: Policy Lessons from the World Bank’s Gender evaluation midline report (2016) Action Plan (2012) »» Investigating the gender gap in agricultural productivity: evi- dence from Uganda (2015) »» Gender Differentials and Agricultural Productivity in Niger Middle East and North Africa (MENA) »» Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and (2015) North Africa (2013) »» How Much of the Labor in African Agriculture Is Provided by Women? (2015) »» Gender Smart Policymaking in Ghana (2015) THEMATIC »» Levelling the Field: Improving Opportunities for Women Aquaculture and Fisheries Farmers in Africa (2014) + video Closing the Gender Gap »» Gender Analysis of Aquaculture Value Chain in Northeast for African Women Farmers Vietnam and Nigeria (2009) »» Decomposition of Gender Differentials in Agricultural Pro- ductivity in Ethiopia (2014) »» The Nexus between Gender, Collective Action for Public Climate change Goods, and Agriculture: Evidence from Malawi (2014) »» AES Note #6: Gender, Agriculture, and Climate Change »» Explaining gender differentials in agricultural production in (2014) Nigeria (2013) (brief) and the policy research working paper, »» Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change: Social Syn- »» Gender Dimensions in Nigerian Agriculture (2013) thesis Report (2010) »» Caught in a Productivity Trap: A Distributional Perspec- tive on Gender Differences in Malawian Agriculture (2013) Food Aid (brief) and the policy research working paper »» Child Growth, Shocks, and Food Aid in Rural Ethiopia »» Gender and Agriculture: Inefficiencies, Segregation, and Low (2005) Productivity Traps (2013) »» Women and Trade in Africa: Realizing the Potential (2013) »» Accounting for gender production from a growth accounting Governance framework in Sub-Saharan Africa (2012) »» Gender and Governance in Rural Services: Insights from »» Liberia: Gender-Aware Programs and Women’s Roles in India, Ghana and Ethiopia (2010) Agricultural Value Chains (2010) »» Engendering Rural Information Systems in Indonesia (2005) East Asia and the Pacific (EAP) ICT »» Gender-Dimensions of Collective Forest Tenure Reform in »» Supporting Women’s Agro-enterprises in Africa with China (2016) ICT—A Feasibility Study in Zambia and Kenya (2015) »» The Fruit of Her Labor: Promoting Gender-Equitable »» ARD Note #64: Filling the data gap on gender in rural Agribusiness in Papua New Guinea (2014) Kenya (2012) »» Toward gender equality in East Asia and the Pacific: a com- panion to the world development report (2012) Infrastructure »» Women’s empowerment and socio-economic outcomes: impacts »» Making Infrastructure Work for Women and Men: A Review of the Andhra Pradesh rural poverty reduction program (2015) of World Bank Infrastructure Projects (1995–2009) 66 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Land issues »» AES Note #4: Supporting Women through Agriculture Proj- »» Land Tenure and Gender: Approaches and Challenges for ects in the Latin America and Caribbean Region (2013) Strengthening Rural Women’s Land Rights (2014) »» Giving Women a Bigger Voice in Rural China (2011) »» AES Note #10: Examples from East Asia on Strengthening Women’s Land Rights (2014) Value chains, enterprises »» AES Note #1: Property Rights for Women in the ECA »» Linking women with Agribusiness in Zambia (2015) Region: Results from Recent World Bank Projects (2013) »» Global Value Chains, Economic Upgrading, and Gender: »» Internal Paper: Women’s Land Ownership and Compensa- Case Studies of the Horticulture, Tourism, and Call Center tion Study (2013) Industries (2013) »» Toolkit for integrating gender-related issues in Land Policy »» AES Note #7: Participation of Women in the Second Par- and Administration Projects (2013) ticipatory Rural Investment (PDCR)—Case Study Bolivia »» Gender and Land Administration: Issues and Responses (2012) (2014) »» Women’s Inheritance Rights and Intergenerational Trans- »» Internal Paper: Integrating Women Producers and their mission of Resources in India (2012) organizations into agricultural investments programs in »» Environmental and gender impacts of land tenure regular- Zambia and Mali (2012) ization in Africa: pilot evidence from Rwanda (2011) and »» Sustainable Support System for Rural Women Entrepre- the policy research working paper neurs: Ethiopia (2011) »» A Practical Guide for Addressing Gender Concerns in Land »» Incorporating Gender Activities into Cotton Lending Project Titling Projects (2010) Design: High Impact at Reasonable Cost (2010) »» Female Land Rights and Rural Household Incomes in Bra- »» Liberia—Gender-aware programs and women’s roles in zil, Paraguay and Peru (2006) agricultural value chains (2010) »» Gender Issues and Best Practices in Land Administration »» Gender, Time Use, and Change: Impacts of Agricultural Projects: A Synthesis Report (2005) Export Employment in Ecuador (2001) »» Internal Report: Land Administration and Gender Issues portfolio review (2004) Water & irrigation »» Gender Sensitive Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation in Nutrition Agricultural Water Management (2016) »» Agriculture GP Note #1: Promoting Agriculture-Nutrition »» AES Note #8: Empowering Women in Irrigation Convergence through Participatory Extension Videos (2015) Management—The Case of the Gender Pilot Plan in Peru »» Agriculture GP Note #2: Fostering Agriculture—Nutrition (2014) Links. Recommendations for Agriculture Extension Curricu- »» AES Note #9: Mainstreaming Gender in the Irrigation Devel- lum Reforms in India opment Support Programme—Case Study Zambia (2014) »» Gender-Inclusive Nutrition Activities in South Asia: Map- »» Checklist for integrating gender-related issues into Agricul- ping Report (2012) ture Water Management (2013) »» Empowering Women in Irrigation Management: The Sierra Private Sector of Peru (2013) »» Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in »» Enhancing the Role of Women in Water User Associations Africa (2013) in Azerbaijan (2012) »» Investing in Women’s Employment: Good for Business, Good »» Internal Paper: Gender Mainstreaming in Water Resources for Development (2013) Management (2005) »» Gender and Rural Non-farm Entrepreneurship (2013) Rural Development »» AES Note #11: Empowering Rural Women in East Asia and Pacific Region (2014) Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 67 Annex Ten Quality at Entry and Quality at Implementation Methodologies Criteria for Rating Gender Project: Guiding Questions: Score Dimension The Activity … Does the Project … Check 1/0 Gender includes analysis and/or •  identify and analyze gender issues relevant to the project objectives or 1/0 Analysis consultation on gender- components? related issues •  report findings of country/regional gender diagnostics (gender assessment, poverty assessment, etc.) relevant to project development objectives or components, or does the project undertake a social or environmental or poverty and social impact assessment? •  reflect the results of consultations with women/girls/men/boys and/or NGOs that focus on these groups and/or specific line ministries? ▼ If at least one check above, a score of 1 is achieved Gender is expected to narrow gender •  include specific or targeted actions that address the needs of women/ 1/0 Actions disparities, including through girls or men/boys? specific actions to address the •  propose gender-specific safeguards in a social/environmental distinct needs of women/ assessment or in a resettlement framework? girls (men/boys) and/or to •  show how interventions are expected to narrow existing gender have positive impact(s) on disparities? gender equality ▼ If at least one check above, a score of 1 is achieved Gender includes mechanisms to •  include specific gender and sex-disaggregated indicators in the results 1/0 Monitoring monitor gender impact framework? and and facilitate gender- •  propose an evaluation, which will analyze the gender-specific impacts Evaluation disaggregated analysis of the project? ▼  If at least one check above, a score of 1 is achieved Overall Score In how many dimensions does the project score 1? 0–3 Y/N ▼  he project must score 1 in at least one dimension to be rated Gender Informed by Gender Cross- T Cutting Solution Area ▼ The project must score 3 to be rated Gender Informed by Agriculture Global Practice Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 69 Quality at Implementation Methodology Gender in Implementation and Completion Gender Criteria for Rating Project: Guiding Questions: Dimension The Activity… Does the Project… Check Score Gender Analysis Gender analysis is incorporated in •  Was any gender analysis 1/0 project manual(s), and/or further conducted (e.g., studies, social analysis on gender-related issues is and environmental assessment, a conducted. substantive gender component of a study)? Gender Actions Actions are taken to narrow gender •  Are actions to incorporate gender 1/0 disparities and to address the distinct mainstreaming outlined in project If 2 boxes needs of women/girls (men/boys) manual(s)? are checked and/or to have positive impact(s) on •  Are recommendations to under gender equality. mainstream gender made to Gender government by the World Bank? Actions, a •  Did activities to mainstream gender score of 1 is occur? achieved Gender Mechanisms to monitor and evaluate •  Is the core compulsory gender 1/0 Monitoring and gender outputs and outcomes are indicator in the results framework? If 2 boxes Evaluation (M&E) functional. •  Are additional gender-disaggregated are checked indicators in the results framework? under •  Were additional gender data Gender collected and reported? M&E, a score of 1 is achieved Overall Score at Number of 1s in Gender Dimensions 1–3 Implementation Gender Y/N ▼ Project must score at least two points, one of them being Implemented Gender Actions, to be rated Gender Implemented Qualitative •  Did the team include a gender specialist (World Bank/Donor/Government/Other)? (AM) Review of •  What type of gender actions were taken? (AM, PIM) Implementation •  To what extent is gender disaggregated in the results framework? (ISR) (potential source •  Were any gender issues brought to the attention of government? (ISR, AM) documents in •  Were any gender issues brought to the attention of World Bank Management? (ISR, AM) parentheses) •  What kind of gender-related operational measures were included in the PIM? COMPLETION How successfully was gender mainstreamed in the project from entry to completion? (Project •  How was gender addressed? Implementation •  Were gender activities successful? and Completion •  What lessons were learned from gender mainstreaming? Report) 70 Food and Agriculture Global Practice Annex Eleven Data Sources for Gender in Agriculture World Bank: Gender Equality Data and Statistics. This gender data portal is a one-stop shop for gender information, catering to a wide range of users and providing data from a variety of sources. The portal has indicators related to five dimensions of gender equality: economic structures and access to resources; education; health and related services; public life and decision making; and human rights of women and girl children. IFAD: Rural Poverty Portal. This portal provides a brief description of the poverty status in rural areas in different countries as well as general information on rural poverty. FAO: Gender and Land Rights Database. This portal highlights the major political, legal, and cultural factors that influence women’s ability to claim their land rights through- out the world. It includes 84 country profiles, land tenure statistics disaggregated by gender, and a Legislation Assessment Tool for gender-equitable land tenure. FAO: Agri-gender Statistics Toolkit. This toolkit supports increased collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated agricultural data. It includes a compilation of gender-sensitive questions, questionnaire components, and tables. The database is structured around nine items related to agriculture: agricultural population and households; access to productive resources; production and productivity; destination of agricultural pro- duce; labor and time use; income and expenditures; membership in agricultural or farmer organizations; and food security poverty indicators. UN Women Watch: Facts and Figures: Rural Women and the Millennium Development Goals. The portal highlights the rural women’s progress in achieving key Millennium Development Goal indicators, pointing to advances that have been made and gaps that still exist. In addition, the portal describes the comparative advantage of different UN organizations in relation to rural women. World Economic Forum: Annual Global Gender Gap Report. The Global Gender Gap Index 2015 ranks 145 economies according to how well they are leveraging their female talent pool, based on economic, educational, health-based, and political indicators. Implementing the World Bank Group’s Gender Strategy—from Analysis to Action to Impact 71 World Bank: Women, Business and the Law. Getting to Equal each year: the Human Development Index (HDI), the measures legal and regulatory barriers to women’s entre- Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index, the preneurship and employment in 173 economies. It pro- Gender Development Index (GDI), the Gender Inequal- vides quantitative measures of laws and regulations that ity Index (GII), and the Multidimensional Poverty Index affect women’s economic opportunities in seven areas: (MPI). accessing institutions, using property, getting a job, pro- viding incentives to work, going to court, building credit, UN Statistics: The World’s Women. This portal highlights and protecting women from violence. differences in the status of women and men in eight areas: population and families; health; education; work; power UNDP: International Human Development Indicators. The and decision making; violence against women; environ- Human Development Report Office releases five indices ment; and poverty. 72 Food and Agriculture Global Practice F O O D A N D A g r i c u lt u r e G l o b a l P r a c t i c e 1818 H Street, NW Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/agriculture Twitter: @WBG_agriculture