Gender in the South Caucasus: A Snapshot of Key Issues and Indicators 1 Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have made progress in many gender-related aspects in the past decade and show outcomes that are in some cases an improvement over the regional Europe and Central Asia (ECA)2 average. Despite this progress, gender disparities remain in endowments (demographics and education), access to economic opportunities (labor markets) and women’s voice in the South Caucasus countries. One of the most salient gender issues in the South Caucasus is that of “missing women�. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have a high sex imbalance at birth, with an average of 14 percent more male births than female births (highest in Azerbaijan at 17 percent). Sex ratios have been increasing since the 1990s in the South Caucasus, while staying stable in neighboring countries. Some key country-specific gender issues for the South Caucasus countries (see Annex 2) are: o In Armenia, a high gender wage gap and a low share of women with firm ownership point at remaining gender imbalances in labor markets. Women’s voice in society is hindered by low representation of women in parliament and a low share of firms with women managers. o In Azerbaijan, the labor market is characterized by high gender wage gap and a low share of firms with women ownership. The share of firms with women managers is also low. o In Georgia, net secondary enrollment rates for both boys and girls are below the ECA regional average. Its labor market is afflicted by one of the highest gender wage gaps in the region and a low share of women with firm ownership. In addition to the gender gaps in endowments and in terms of access to economic opportunities revealed by the selected indicators, inequalities may also exist at a disaggregated level (for example, by ethnicity or rural/urban sector). Furthermore, this snapshot does not discuss inequalities in voice in depth, an area in which women lag in across the board in the region as well as globally (as indicated, for example, by their low participation in the political arena). Lastly, this snapshot presents only selected indicators, and is by no means comprehensive. 1Data accessed in March 2012, unless otherwise indicated. 2 Throughout this note, indicators for ECA refer to the World Development Indicators aggregate “ECA (developing only)�, which includes the following countries: Albania, Kosovo, Russian Federation, Armenia, Kyrgyz Republic, Serbia, Azerbaijan, Latvia, Tajikistan, Belarus, Lithuania, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia ,Turkmenistan, Bulgaria, Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Montenegro, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Romania. Endowments – Education Primary enrollment and Primary enrollment rates* (%, adjusted, net), latest completion rates 100 94 92 93 96 93 94 % of official school age 90 85 86 Armenia and Georgia have primary 80 enrollment rates comparable to the children 70 ECA regional average. Azerbaijan 60 has below regional average rates for 50 both girls and boys. The gender gap 40 in primary enrollment in the South ARM AZE GEO ECA Caucasus countries is low. Female Male The gender gap in completion rates Source: EdStats, World Bank. Notes: ECA refers to Europe & Central Asia is also small in the South Caucasus. (developing only). 2007 data for Armenia and Georgia; 2009 for Azerbaijan and Georgia has the largest gap of the ECA. *See Annex 1, Section 1 for more information on adjusted net primary three countries, with boys exceeding enrollment rate. girls’ completion rates by 6 percentage points. Evolution of net primary Primary enrollment rates, by sex, (%, adjusted net), enrollment rates 2000-09 100 Enrollment rates declined up to the Female mid-2000s in the South Caucasus 95 countries, when they started to 90 increase again. 85 80 75 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 ARM AZE GEO ECA 100 Male 95 90 85 80 75 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 ARM AZE GEO ECA Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to Europe & Central Asia (developing only). 2004 – 2007 data for Georgia,, and 2001-2007 for Armenia. Secondary enrollment rates Secondary enrollment rates (%, net), latest available 100 91 92 Secondary enrollment rates in 89 86 % of official school age 90 Armenia and Azerbaijan are high 80 82 77 77 80 compared to ECA. Enrollment rates children increased in the past decade in all 70 three countries, with Azerbaijan 60 standing out for its marked progress. 50 40 The gender gap in net secondary ARM AZE GEO ECA enrollment rates in Armenia, Female Male Azerbaijan and Georgia is low. Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only. 2009 data for Armenia and ECA; 2007 for Azerbaijan, and 2006 for Georgia. Tertiary enrollment rates Tertiary enrollment rates (%, gross), 2009 100 The gender gap in tertiary education % of official school age in the sub-region is large in Armenia, 80 61 although the country has the higher 57 individuals 60 50 overall enrollment rates. Consistent 44 40 28 23 with the regional average, women 19 19 have higher enrollment rates than 20 men in Armenia and Georgia. The 0 gender gap in tertiary enrollment in ARM AZE GEO ECA Azerbaijan is minimal. Female Male Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only. Subject-related gender Duncan Index*, 2007 – 2009 average segregation ARM 0.3 Based on the Duncan Index, the level of gender segregation in Azerbaijan AZE 0.4 tertiary education is above the ECA regional average. 40 percent of boys GEO 0.2 in Azerbaijan would have to change their fields of study in order to ECA 0.3 equalize enrollments across fields for boys and girls. The level of this 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 type of segregation in Georgia is lower than in ECA, and, in Armenia, Duncan Index it is comparable to the ECA regional Source: WDI, original data is based on national household surveys. An average average. index is calculated based on data for 2007 – 2009. *The Duncan Index measures the percentage of male students that would have to change field of study to equalize enrollments for boys and girls across the academic fields. Endowments – Health Life expectancy Life Expectancy Gender Gap*, in years, 2009 11 The gender gap in life expectancy is Life Expectancy Gap, 9 larger than the OECD average, but 9 lower than the ECA regional average 7 6 years of 8.9 years. The gap has been 7 6 6 narrowing over time due to a relatively more accelerated 5 improvement in male’s life 3 expectancy. ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Source: WDI. *The life expectancy gender gap is defined as the difference in female and male life expectancy. Male adult mortality rates (ages Male adult mortality rates* (per 1,000 adults), 2009 15-60) 300 284 250 Mortality rates for males are much 184 178 higher than those for females in all 200 164 three countries. Male mortality rates 150 118 remain high compared to OECD 100 averages, but are lower than those of many other ECA countries and the 50 ECA regional average. 0 AZE ARM GEO ECA OECD Mortality rates have declined much Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- more rapidly for men than for income OECD members. OECD data for 2007; 2008 for ECA. *Probability that women. From 2000 to 2009 alone, those who have reached age 15 will die before reaching age 60. the mortality rate for men decreased by around 36, 37 and 19 adults, in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, respectively. Maternal mortality rate Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births), 2008 60 Maternal mortality has declined in Maternal mortality 48 the sub-region over time. In 50 Azerbaijan and Georgia, maternal 40 34 mortality rates remain higher than rate 29 the regional level. 30 20 14 10 ARM GEO ECA OECD Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. Data on Azerbaijan are not available. Fertility rates Fertility rates (births per woman), 1990-2009 3 Fertility rates have declined in the South Caucasus countries since 1990. 2.5 The trend has not been homogeneous across countries and the sub-periods. 2 While in the 1990s fertility rates declined in all three countries, fertility has considerably increased in 1.5 the early 2000s and remained 1992 1990 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 stagnant through 2009 in Azerbaijan. It rose somewhat in Armenia and ARM AZE GEO ECA continued to decline in Georgia through most of the last decade. Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only. Adolescent fertility rate Adolescent fertility rates (births per 1,000 women, 15- 19 yrs), 2009 The adolescent fertility rate in the 50 43 South Caucasus is higher than in the Births per 1,000 ECA region and the average for OECD 40 35 33 28 women countries. Nonetheless, it is 30 substantially lower than that of other 19 20 regions including, for example, Latin America and the Caribbean. 10 0 ARM GEO AZE OECD ECA Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. Missing women Sex ratio imbalance Sex ratio at birth 2005-2010 (male per female births) 1.25 1.20 Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have Male births per female 1.20 1.17 1.15 an alarming sex imbalance at birth, 1.15 1.11 1.10 1.07 1.06 second only to China. 1.04 births 1.05 1.00 0.95 Georgia Azerbaijan Armenia China World excluding China Least developed Less developed countries regions, Source: UN. Evolution of the missing women Sex ratio at birth 1990-2010 (male per female births) phenomenon 1.20 Male births per female The issue of missing women in the 1.15 South Caucasus countries has been births progressively worsening since the 1.10 1990’s, although the increasing trend 1.05 has subsided in the second half of the 2000s. 1.00 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 ARM AZE GEO World Source: UN. Access to economic opportunities – Labor markets Labor force participation rate Labor force participation rate, (% population, ages 15 - 64), 2009 With the exception of Armenia, 100 women’s labor force participation 77 79 74 72 75 rates in the South Caucasus are higher 80 66 65 % population than those of the ECA region as a 55 59 58 60 whole, although they remain significantly lower than men’s labor 40 force participation rates in all three 20 countries. 0 ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Female Male Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. Data accessed in June 2012. Changes in labor force participation Labor force participation rate, % point changes, 2000- 2009 Changes in labor force participation 4 have been heterogeneous across 4 2 2 percentage points 1 0 countries. From 2000 to 2009 female 1 labor force participation increased in -2 -1 -1 Azerbaijan and Georgia, but decreased -5 -4 drastically in Armenia. Male labor force -8 -5 participation increased somewhat in -11 -10 Georgia, but decreased both in Armenia ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD and Azerbaijan. Female Male Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. Data accessed in June 2012. Unemployment rate Unemployment rate 15+, 2008 (%) 40 35 Armenia has the highest female Unemployment rate unemployment rate in the South 30 22 Caucasus and the highest gender gap, 20 16 17 with women representing around 61 percent of the total unemployed. 10 7 7 8 6 6 5 Georgia also has high unemployment rates for both men and women, 0 compared to ECA and OECD. In ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Azerbaijan, the unemployment rate is Female Male the lowest in the sub-region, and is higher for men. Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. 2007 data for Armenia. Self-employment Self-employed, by sex (%), 2008 70 63 65 63 Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia 60 52 % of employed have much higher self-employment 50 40 38 rates than ECA and OECD and, in 40 contrast with the ECA regional 30 19 20 16 20 11 average, self-employment rates are 10 higher for women than for men. 0 ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Azerbaijan and Georgia, the two countries with the highest self- Women Men employment rates, also have the Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- highest share of rural population in income OECD members. the sub-region (48 and 47 percent, respectively), and higher than the ECA average of 36 percent. Monthly wages gender gap Female earnings relative to $1 male earnings (cents), latest available The South Caucasus countries have 100 some of the lowest female wages 77 relative to men’s in the ECA region for 80 64 55 57 monthly earnings. 60 Cents 40 This could be due to occupational segregation, differences in hours 20 worked and productivity, and 0 discrimination. AZE ECA ARM GEO Source: UNECE. Notes: Gender pay gap is the difference between men’s and women’s average earnings from employment, shown as a percentage of men’s average earnings. Data for Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia is for 2010, and 2007 – 2011 for ECA. Data accessed in September 2012. Gender gap among employers Gender gap among employers (% points), 2008 5 The average share of employers (as a 4 Percentage points percent of total employment) is low, 4 on average, in the ECA region. 3 2 2 Armenia and Georgia have low 2 gender gaps in the share of employers 1 1 (lower than the regional average); Azerbaijan’s gap is larger, driven by a 0 larger concentration of male ARM AZE GEO ECA employers in the labor market. Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. Data shows the difference between the share of men and women employers as a percentage of total employment. Sectoral employment Sectoral employment (% of total employees), 2008 100 The services and agricultural sectors Agriculture % of total male or female 80 absorb most women workers in 57 Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. 60 49 51 employed 39 40 37 40 Compared to the regional and OECD 20 15 16 averages, a smaller share of women 3 4 0 are employed in the services sector in ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD the South Caucasus countries, compensated by a relatively larger Female Male proportion in agriculture. 100 Industry % of total male or female employed The South Caucasus countries display 80 a move away from services and into 60 agriculture for female workers, in 35 34 40 25 contrast with the regional patterns. 18 17 18 20 8 7 12 4 0 ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Female Male 100 Services 85 % of total male or female employed 80 66 53 62 60 45 49 43 39 35 33 40 20 0 ARM AZE GEO ECA OECD Female Male Source: WDI. Notes: ECA refers to developing countries only and OECD to high- income OECD members. 2007 data for Georgia. Women’s Voice Women’s political participation Women’s political participation (%) 7 Women have low political ARM 9 participation in the South Caucasus countries. The share of women in AZE 11 parliament is very low in all three countries. In addition, the share of GEO 16 women ministers in ECA is 13 percent 7 on average, much lower than the ECA 13 18 Africa (18) and LAC (24) averages.* Countries like the United States and 0 5 10 15 20 the United Kingdom have 23 and 24 Share of women among ministers, 2010 (%) percent share of women ministries, Share of women in the parliament (lower or single house), 2006 - 2011 (%) respectively. Source: UNECE. Share of women in the parliament data is 2007 for Armenia and 2011 for Georgia; no data available for Azerbaijan. * Average is calculated with data for 47 African countries with available data and, and 28 LAC countries. For ECA, average includes 27 countries. Women’s participation in business Share of firms with female (%), 2009 The share of firms with female ARM 32 13 participation in ownership is particularly low in Azerbaijan AZE 11 5 compared to the rest of the sub-region GEO 41 and ECA. In addition, the share of 20 women in top management positions ECA 37 is well below the average for ECA in 19 Armenia and Azerbaijan. 0 10 20 30 40 50 Participation in Ownership Top Manager Source: WDI. Trafficking in persons Trafficking in persons tier placements*, 2011 4 According to information compiled by the U.S. State Department, the 3 2WL Government of Georgia fully complies 2 Tier 2 with the Trafficking Victims Protection 1 Act’s standards to combat human 1 trafficking; the Government of Armenia does not fully comply, but is 0 making significant efforts to bring the ARM AZE GEO country in compliance with these Source: U.S. State Department Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. 2.5 corresponds to TIER 2 Watch List. See Annex 2, Section 2 for more standards. The Government of information. *The chart does not reflect the number of persons trafficked. Azerbaijan is currently on the U.S. State Department’s Tier 2 Watch List (See Annex 2, Section 2 for more information). Annex 1. Additional Information 1) The adjusted primary net enrollment rate reflects the total number of pupils of the official primary school age group who are enrolled at primary or secondary education levels, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population. It differs from the primary enrollment rate in that it also includes the official primary age group who are enrolled in secondary education (e.g., from skipping grades or entering school earlier). 2) TIER 1: Countries whose governments fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s (TVPA) minimum standards; TIER 2: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. TIER 2 WATCH LIST Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards AND: a) The absolute number of victims of severe forms of trafficking is very significant or is significantly increasing; b) There is a failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat severe forms of trafficking in persons from the previous year; or c) The determination that a country is making significant efforts to bring itself into compliance with minimum standards was based on commitments by the country to take additional future steps over the next year. TIER 3: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so. Source: U.S. State Department, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. Annex 2. Selected gender-related indicators by country Health and demographics Education Labor Voice FY11 portfolio performance Subject- Female Share of Ratio of Ratio of Female Gender gap Share of Women ECCU Country IDA Life Maternal Share of related earnings Share of Share of gender- Sex ratio at female/mal female/mal labor in labor women trafficking: expectancy mortality female pop. gender relative to women in women informed # projects birth e secondary e tertiary participatio participatio with firm Tier gap ratio 65+ segregation $1 male parliament managers projects(% enrollment enrollment n rate n rate ownership Placement* in tertiary earnings ) Europe and Central Asia** 9 34 1.07 64 96 122 0.30 58 18 0.7 36 15 19 .. 40% 55 1 Russia 12 39 1.06 69 98 135 69 9 0.7 33 14 14 2WL 50% 2 2 Belarus 12 15 1.06 68 102 144 0.40 62 7 0.7 53 35 25 2WL 0% 2 2 Moldova x 8 32 1.06 63 102 134 46 4 0.8 53 24 21 2 33% 3 2 Ukraine 11 26 1.06 67 98 125 62 10 0.8 47 8 28 2 0% 1 3 Armenia x 6 29 1.15 62 102 128 0.31 69 14 0.6 32 9 13 2 67% 6 3 Azerbaijan 6 38 1.17 59 96 99 0.36 65 6 0.5 11 11 5 2WL 67% 3 3 Georgia x 7 48 1.11 62 95 125 0.23 59 18 0.6 41 7 20 1 0% 2 4 Albania 6 31 1.07 53 98 56 21 0.7 11 16 20 2 100% 1 4 x Bosnia & Herzegovina 5 9 1.07 58 103 130 41 27 33 19 14 1 0% 1 4 FYR Macedonia 4 9 1.08 57 98 119 0.23 50 28 36 33 19 1 0% 1 4 Kosovo*** x 4 43 26 32 11 33 2 0% 3 4 Montenegro 5 15 1.08 58 101 128 26 11 24 2 0% 1 4 Serbia**** 5 8 1.08 57 102 130 0.25 29 22 16 2 100% 1 5 Bulgaria 7 13 1.06 59 96 131 0.24 63 10 0.8 34 21 26 2 0 5 Croatia 7 14 1.06 62 104 127 60 11 0.9 34 24 23 1 50% 2 5 Czech Republic 6 8 1.06 60 101 138 0.30 61 17 0.7 25 22 18 2 0 5 Estonia 10 12 1.06 67 102 170 0.32 71 7 0.7 36 23 26 2WL 0 5 Hungary 8 13 1.06 63 99 137 0.29 55 13 0.8 42 9 14 2 0 5 Latvia 10 20 1.04 67 101 182 0.30 71 6 0.8 46 22 31 2 0% 1 5 Lithuania 11 13 1.04 66 100 151 68 4 0.9 39 19 15 1 0 5 Poland 9 6 1.06 62 99 143 0.26 58 14 0.8 48 20 31 1 0% 1 5 Romania 7 27 1.06 60 99 134 0.22 56 16 0.9 48 11 25 2 50% 2 5 Slovak Republic 7 6 1.05 63 101 159 0.33 61 16 0.7 30 15 20 1 0 5 Slovenia 7 18 1.05 61 100 145 0.33 67 8 0.9 42 14 16 1 0 6 Turkey 5 23 1.05 56 91 79 29 47 41 9 12 2 25% 4 8 Kazakhstan 10 45 1.07 68 97 144 74 7 0.6 34 18 25 2 33% 3 8 Kyrgyz Republic x 8 81 1.06 59 99 130 0.29 59 23 0.7 60 26 23 2 33% 6 8 Tajikistan x 7 64 1.05 57 87 41 60 17 0.6 34 19 12 2 50% 4 8 Turkmenistan 8 77 1.05 59 49 29 17 3 0 8 Uzbekistan x 6 30 1.05 57 99 70 0.40 51 26 40 22 11 2WL 100% 3 IDA mean 6 42 1.08 60 98 108 0.31 57 17 1 38 20 16 .. 35% 4 Non-IDA mean 8 22 1.06 62 99 136 0.30 61 13 1 35 18 21 .. 34% 1 Flagging 5± from 60% IDA 10+ 60+ 1.10+ 65+ Outliers 0.40+ 50 or lower 20+ 0.7 or lower 35 or lower 10 or lower 15 or lower 2WL or 3 criteria parity Target 1: compliance Percent of w/ Women's Firms with Trafficking As % of total % of female % of male firms with Indicator Female minus Per 100,000 Male per monthly women in top Victims PRMGE 65+ Ratio Ratio Duncan Index population population female Percent details male (years) live births female births earnings as % management Protection monitoring population ages 15-64 ages 15-64 participation of men's (%) Act’s; 2WL is in ownership 2-Watch List Sources: WDI, GenderStats, UNECE, Enterprise Surveys, U.S. State Department. Data for latest available year. * See Annex 1, Section 2 for more information on U.S. State Department's tier definitions. ** Excluding high-income Europe. *** Missing data on Kosovo is completed with statistics in the Kosovo Gender Diagnostics (WB, 2012). **** The 2012 WDR highlighted Serbia as a country with high sex imbalances at birth. Further work is planned to understand the severity and factors behind the issue in this country. Annex 3. Selected key gender-related issues by country Health and demographics Education Labor Voice FY11 portfolio performance Subject- Female Ratio of Ratio of Female Gender gap Share of Women Share of ECCU Country IDA Life Maternal Share of related earnings Share of Share of Sex ratio at female/mal female/mal labor in labor women trafficking: gender- expectancy mortality female pop. gender relative to women in women # projects birth e secondary e tertiary participatio participatio with firm Tier informed gap ratio 65+ segregation $1 male parliament managers enrollment enrollment n rate n rate ownership Placement* projects(%) in tertiary earnings Europe and Central Asia** √ .. √ 55 1 Russia √ √ .. √ √ √ √ √ 2 2 Belarus √ √ √ √ √ 2 2 Moldova x .. √ √ 3 2 Ukraine √ √ .. √ √ 1 3 Armenia x √ √ √ √ √ 6 3 Azerbaijan √ √ √ √ √ 3 3 Georgia x √ √ √ √ √ 2 4 Albania .. .. √ √ √ 1 4 x Bosnia & Herzegovina .. √ √ .. √ √ √ 1 4 FYR Macedonia √ √ .. √ 1 4 Kosovo*** x .. .. .. .. .. √ √ .. √ .. √ 3 4 Montenegro .. .. .. .. √ √ 1 4 Serbia**** .. .. .. √ 1 5 Bulgaria √ 0 5 Croatia .. √ √ 2 5 Czech Republic √ √ 0 5 Estonia √ √ √ √ √ 0 5 Hungary √ √ 0 5 Latvia √ √ √ √ 1 5 Lithuania √ √ .. √ 0 5 Poland √ 1 5 Romania √ 2 5 Slovak Republic √ √ 0 5 Slovenia 0 6 Turkey √ .. √ √ .. √ √ √ 4 8 Kazakhstan √ √ .. √ √ √ 3 8 Kyrgyz Republic x √ √ √ √ 6 8 Tajikistan x √ √ √ .. √ √ √ √ 4 8 Turkmenistan √ .. .. .. √ √ .. .. .. √ 0 8 Uzbekistan x √ √ .. √ √ 3 Flagging 5± from 60% IDA 10+ 60+ 1.10+ 65+ Outliers 0.40+ 50 or lower 20+ 0.7 or lower 35 or lower 10 or lower 15 or lower 2WL or 3 criteria parity Target 1: compliance Percent of w/ Trafficking Women's Firms with As % of total % of female % of male firms with Victims Indicator Female minus Per 100,000 Male per monthly women in top PRMGE 65+ Ratio Ratio Duncan Index population population female Percent details male (years) live births female births earnings as % management Protection Act’s; monitoring population ages 15-64 ages 15-64 participation 2WL is 2-Watch of men's (%) in ownership List Sources: WDI, GenderStats, UNECE, Enterprise Surveys, U.S. State Department. Data for latest available year. * See Annex 1, Section 2 for more information on U.S. State Department's tier definitions. ** Excluding high-income Europe. *** Missing data on Kosovo is completed with statistics in the Kosovo Gender Diagnostics (WB, 2012). **** The 2012 WDR highlighted Serbia as a country with high sex imbalances at birth. Further work is planned to understand the severity and factors behind the issue in this country. .. - Data not available.