m~~~ .._-> ,, s ,, U i - j - _ _ - A Cr~~~~~i ; rA, ~~ 3 Sz ; 4- --- ,~ v** 4'tb J -s'r*'( . .. - ' - - :.. -. 1- -1 y* - 7 - - 1. I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~; .rYi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 - I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U l IL (j. K A '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jr~~~~~c Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development Case Studies from South Africa - Edited by gr .w~ S M. Pire R.M.owig -r4 -~ ~ ^ . . 1 'U The World Bank Environment Department The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First Printing August 2002 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. Information for Figure 1.1 was provided by the National Botanical Institute and adapted by T. Wolf. All intro- ductory images to the chapters were photographed by R. M. Cowling, except for Chapter 8 (G. Nichols), Chap- ter 12 (J. Hone) and Chapter 13 (K. Maze). Individual chapters were peer reviewed by Agi Kiss and Tony Whitten (World Bank) and Paul Jepson (University of Oxford). The editors are grateful to these reviewers for their constructive comments. Like all publications, production of this volume was very much a team effort. We are very grateful to Cynthia Stock, Sharon Esumei and Jim Cantrell for their exceptional help with production of this book. BIODIVERSITY SERIES Impact Studies These "Impact Studies" are a subset of the Biodiversity Series of the World Bank's Environment Depart- ment Papers. These papers address topics related to the positive and negative impacts of human activities on biodiversity. The following studies have been published in this series: Biodiversity Conservation in the Context of Tropical Forest Management Hunting of Wildlife in Tropical Forests-Implicationsfor Biodiversity and Forest Peoples Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Contents Foreword v 01 Introduction 1 T. Sandwith ? Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme 5 B. W. van Wilgen, C. Marais, D. Magadlela, N. Jezile and D. Stevens 3 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal 21 P. S. Goodman, B. James and L. Carlisle 4 Biodiversity Conservation in Plantation Forestry 33 K. E. Kirkman and R. McC. Pott 5 Biodiversity and Conservation Farming in the Agricultural Sector 43 J. S. Donaldson 6 The Greater Addo National Park Initiative: Linking Biodiversity Conservation to Socio-economic Development 57 G. I. H. Kerley and A. F. Boshoff 7 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People- A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal 67 G. R. Hughes Contents 8 An Urban Challenge: Conserving Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal 79 D. Roberts, M. Mander and R. Boon 9 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town 89 K. Maze, T. Katzschner and B. Myrdal 1 0 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain 101 S. D. J. Privett, B. J. Heydenrych and R. M. Cowling 11 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape 117 C. M. Gelderblom, D. Kruger, L. Cedras, T. Sandwith and M. Audouin 1 2 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development 129 T. Sandwith and M. Pfotenhauer 1 3 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity 143 R. M. Cowling, S. M. Pierce and T. Sandwith iv Foreword T en years after Rio, South Africa is the venue for the World Summit on Sustainable Development. This is a welcome choice for the world's biodiversity community, as South Africa has also made impressive progress in integrating biodiversity issues and concerns into development projects, in the process achieving positive outcomes for both development and biodiversity. These successes can serve as a model for other nations. Under Article 6 of the Convention on Biological Diversity, which has been ratified by South Africa and more than 170 other countries, states are required to integrate the conser- vation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral plans, programs, and policies. Many countries are wrestling with just how to achieve this objective. Development and conservation are often trade-offs. Yet the South Africa case studies in this report illustrate many examples of best practice-such as the Working for Water program-and mitigation of biodiversity loss in sectors such as agriculture and forestry. How has this come about? Are the enabling factors and lessons learned peculiar to South Africa, or do the lessons have wider application? South Africa has had an extraordinary political and development history. Al- though biodiversity was already being addressed in some sectors during the apart- heid period, the change in government and democratisation in 1994 clearly led to innovative ways of integrating biodiversity with development needs. The need to do something for the poor made innovations and linkages to socioeconomic benefits imperative. Scientists were able to convince politicians of the value of programs such as Working for Water, which simultaneously re- moved invasive tree species and helped restore water supplies, while also meet- ing social objectives through job creation and poverty alleviation. The high-level political appreciation of threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the linkage of biodiversity conservation to socioeconomic delivery, were key factors in mainstreaming biodiversity. v Foreword The successful integration of biodiversity into urban and regional planning, energy, and even in- mainstream development was not accidental. It can frastructure-to illustrate that good biodiversity be attributed to four main factors: good scientific management is good for the economy, good for information and understanding; institutional capac- local development, and good for business. ity and commitment; strategic cross-sectoral and Threats have been tumed into opportunities. For public-private partnerships; and a willingness by example, a nuclear power plant on the Agulhas the scientific and conservation community to seize Plain triggered the development of a bioregional opportunities and demonstrate that biodiversity- plan and a major conservation effort. Similarly, a friendly policies can provide socioeconomic op- cutback in government funds for conservation and portunities for the poor. protected areas led to more creative off-reserve South Africa inherited a core of dedicated and solutions and new partnerships with private land- well-trained scientists. Because of apartheid and owners. The approach was always pragmatic. sanctions, these scientists were often isolated from Efforts were targeted not just to biodiversity the outside world. As a consequence, they became "hotspots," but also to areas where success could self-reliant, innovative, and developed broader help build credibility, forge partnerships, and build perspectives. Encouraged by the innovative Co- political and conservation capital. operative Scientific Programs of the former Coun- Since the change in government in 1994, scien- cil for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), tists have risen to the challenge to disseminate in- widely differing professionals were brought to- formation rapidly and effectively, demystifying and gether to solve practical problems. The small size simplifying biodiversity, and making it manage- of the biodiversity community in South Africa led able, accessible, and tractable. The primary lesson to unique opportunities, where individuals could that South Africa can contribute to other develop- make a difference by working together across dis- ing (and developed) countries is that biodiversity ciplines and sectors. conservation and sustainable use is a fundamental Good science led to an improved understand- building block of sustainable development, not a ing of biodiversity and ecosystem values. Even luxury. more important, there was the institutional capac- The World Bank is pleased to publish this vol- ity, awareness, and commitment to take the sci- ume as part of the Biodiversity Series: Impact Stud- ence and reinterpret it in a form that was useful to ies. The inspiring stories presented here can assist decision makers and development agendas. This Bank client countries by providing examples of "marketing" of biodiversity and its relevance to best practice and lessons learned in promoting sustainable development has been the primary fac- biodiversity conservation in the context of sustain- tor in mainstreaming biodiversity in South Africa. able development. Many of the case studies have Based on practical needs and pragmatic agendas, relevance to other countries and other sectors, dem- strategic partnerships have been formed between onstrating synergies between biodiversity conser- govemment agencies, NGOs, and the private sec- vation and poverty alleviation, innovative solutions tor. The scientific community and their partners to shared needs, and opportunities to mainstream have been able to seize opportunities across mul- biodiversity at the local level as part of ordinary tiple sectors-water, tourism, forestry, agriculture, people's lives. Kristalina Georgieva Director, Environment Department The WVorld Bank vi j Introduction T. Sandwith T he Convention on Biological Diversity requires state parties to integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. Over the past ten years, there has been considerable effort in many countries to ensure that this mainstreaming of biodiversity occurs, and to determine effective approaches to- wards meeting this goal. Although it might be difficult to provide a precise defi- nition of this process, situations where mainstreaming of biodiversity has occurred might be characterised by: * the incorporation of biodiversity considerations into policies governing sectoral activities; * the silmultaneous achievement of gains in biodiversity and gains in an eco- nomic sector (the "win-win" scenario); * sectoral activity being recognised as based on, or dependent on, the sus- tainable use of biodiversity; * situations where sectoral activities result in overall gains for biodiversity exceeding biodiversity losses. Mainstreaming is, however, not necessarily a matter of intent or design that can be simply put in place as a policy measure. It may arise with a gradual and growing understanding of the dependence of a sector on biodiversity, or it may occur suddenly, when sectoral and biodiversity partners are presented with a shared need, and are opportunistic in their actions. More importantly, for mainstreaming to achieve lasting impact, it must occur at a very local level, and become a part of ordinary peoples' lives. Mainstreaming biodiversity in South Africa must be seen against the back- ground of social and political change that has characterised the sub-continent. Only during the last two hundred years have such diverse communities as hunter- gatherers, pastoralists and colonial farmers and traders interacted and created the Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa current mosaic of settlement and land use activi- and threatened status, are the succulent karoo ties. The results are not only the well-known con- biome, the grasslands and shrublands of the Maloti- flicts and tragedies of the sub-continent, but also Drakensberg mountains, the moist grasslands of the "rainbow nation" described by Nobel laureate the interior and the north-eastern coastal wetlands Desmond Tutu. The results, significantly, are and woodlands. There is a strongly felt responsi- etched into the very landscape itself. The enormous bility on the part of South Africans to respond to disparities of power and access to land and re- the challenge of conserving biodiversity while sources resulted in a system of racially-defined meeting the country's development needs. Nature homelands, farming areas and cities, and a skewed conservation agencies, in particular, have acted distribution of population and wealth. This has had proactively to make biodiversity conservation a impacts on biodiversity and the sustainability of force for rural development, and in so doing, to land use practices. In particular, South Africa's contribute more significantly to leveraging eco- apartheid past has resulted in low involvement and nomic and social benefits and reducing the direct poor representation of black people as leaders in costs of conservation to the state. conservation and natural resource management Since 1994, the World Bank has been involved institutions. with South African partners in developing pro- Since its democratic transformation in 1994, grammes under the biodiversity operational focus South Africa has provided fertile ground for policy of the Global Environment Facility. Favourable per- review and innovation. In particular, there has been ceptions of South African innovation and effec- an enormous opportunity to consider creative so- tive implementation have emerged, and therefore, lutions to ongoing challenges of social develop- the opportunity to tell these stories to a wider ment and poverty alleviation amid the diversity of audience. Perhaps the classic tale is that of the backgrounds and cultures. There have also been Working for Water Programme developed by the fundamental changes in political and administra- Department of Water Affairs and Forestry with its tive arrangements, with the incorporation of the state, private sector and civil society partners. This communal areas of the former apartheid "indepen- programme presents a "win, win, wvin" scenario, dent" and "self-governing" homelands, the forma- where not only has biodiversity conservation im- tion of nine new provinces, and the introduction proved through the removal of alien plants, but of elected local government across state, commu- community empowerment and entrepreneurship nal and privately-owned land. Instead of "business has been developed, and better quality and quan- as usual", sectors have actively sought partnerships tity of water supplies ensured. It is through such to increase their effectiveness in transforming the innovative programmes, that measures are being state and society. This is true also of the "bio- taken to address the legacies of apartheid, and, more diversity" sector. It is noteworthy that biodiversity specifically, to develop a new generation of con- has been identified as a sectoral activity, and as a servation leaders who are representative of the di- natural resource for economic development by the versity of people in South Africa. The situation is South African Department of Arts, Culture, Sci- still woefully inadequate, but these programmes ence and Technology. should be seen as a stage in this transformation. South Africa is a country with megadiversity, The World Bank wishes to assist its client coun- comprising an astonishing variety of biomes in- tries to meet their obligations under the Conven- cluding Mediterranean-type, arid, alpine and tropi- tion by providing examples of best practice and cal environments (see Figure 1.1). Within these lessons learned in promoting biodiversity conser- biomes there is high species diversity and ende- vation in the context of sustainable development mism. For example, the Cape Floristic Region is across multiple sectors in one country. South Africa the smallest and richest of the world's six floral provides this opportunity as a cluster of initiatives kingdoms (known as the Cape Floral Kingdom) are being explored, providing a rich resource for and the only one which is contained entirely within reflection and analysis. To this end, a workshop the borders of a single country. Other hotspots of was convened in June 2001 at Giants Castle in the biodiversity, emphasising both their importance uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park World Heritage 2 Introduction Figure 1.1. Map A: National and provincial boundaries of southern Africa Map B: Biomes of South Africa rZIMPBABIW E Map A \ < E _ i 9SA PROVINCES -9, .ELEVATION - METERS - . EL ~~~~~~~501 - 1 000 j- < _ 1001 -1500 EASTER~~~3A ~~~EV 1501 - 2000 20 01 3500C Fynbos Aflanfic In~~~~~~Jdian 7 rrNama-Karoo Ocean? ......: Ocean Sana Cape Tovun lgoa Bay ~~~~~ Succulent Karoo CapeBAguihas a Olm Source:, Information from National Botanical Institute, adapted by T Wolf. Site. It was convened by KZN Wildlife and the consider the elements which contributed to their Terrestrial Ecology Research Unit (University of identification as examples of mainstreaming Port Elizabeth), and funded by the World Bank. It biodiversity, and attempt to draw out some illus- was intended that the workshop would consider trations and lessons which could be shared by a mainstreaming stories from a number of sectors, wider audience in South Africa and elsewhere. 3 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa The set of papers included in this volume rep- mands on their time were able to make a signifi- resent this thinking, and demonstrate to a greater cant contribution, and to Carol Scheepers and KZN or lesser extent, not only the diversity of contexts Wildlife for supporting and hosting this event. In in which mainstreaming might occur, but also a particular, Shirley Pierce and Richard Cowling sense of the conditions under which it occurs or have made an enormous contribution towards en- could be stimulated to develop. The papers were couraging and enabling these stories to be told in prepared by the participants in their personal ca- such a way that they contribute towards the con- pacities, as professionals engaged in, and thinking ceptual development of this field. It is to be hoped about, the purpose and impact of their activities. that a wider community of professionals will be Therefore, they do not represent the views, opin- interested and motivated to reflect on this emer- ions or standpoints of any organisation or sector. gent field of work, and to contribute further to its Indeed, the workshop was regarded as a unique development and impact. and rare opportunity for professionals to meet un- hindered by pressing work programmes and dead- EMYCMAL Mn7 lines and other constraints. Its findings are offered to colleagues in this spirit, with an invitation to In an attempt at standardisation of these case stud- engage further in the debate and development of a ies, certain monetary values have been expressed tentative framework of mainstreaming. Not all as United States dollars. It should be noted that cases are shining examples of mainstreaming suc- there has been quite marked fluctuation in the cess stories. However, in the context of the work- Rand/Dollar exchange rate during the time period shop and this volume they point to the conditions covered by this work. The range has been between under which mainstreaming might emerge and US$1 =R5.50 and US$1 =RlI1.50. The reader is contribute to the debate while providing food for asked to interpret monetary values with this thought and speculation. The participants were perspective. inspired by the linkages between the processes of mainstreaming and the nature of change in South Africa, as well as the opportunities that emerge. lADTOR'S AFLDFUAM My thanks are due to Kathy MacKinnon and the World Bank for creating the opportunity and T. Sandwith is with the Cape Action for People incentive to develop this initiative, to all of the and the Environment (C.A.P.E.), Cape Town. authors and reviewers, who despite increasing de- trevor(capeaction.org.za. 4 7- I --- Win-Win-Win: South Africa's 2 Working for Water Programme B. W. van Wilgen, C. Marais, D. Magadlela, N. Jezile and D. Stevens SUMMARY This chapter describes the birth and highly successful growth of the Working for Water (WfW) Programme which emerged from a history of earlier efforts to control the alien plant invasions that threaten biodiversity in South Africa. This programme is aimed at dealing with this threat, and at the same time, it provides opportunities for the social improvement of people formerly disad- vantaged by apartheid. On the basis of catchment studies that showed the im- pacts of alien plants on the loss of water resources, scientists prepared a presentation explaining these impacts and how large numbers of jobs could be created in the clearance of invasive alien plants. This "road show" convinced the newly-appointed Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry in the first demo- cratic government of South Africa of 1995. The worthiness of the proposal was much strengthened by the fact that such a programme would help to alle- viate unemployment. This prime factor enabled further political support and initial funding equivalent to US$6 million. In this example of mainstreaming biodiversity, the key success factors in- cluded the dedication and farsightedness of a group of ecologists, a valuable phase of integrated and cooperative research, the unique opportunities for change offered by a new democratic government, political vision and support, seed fund- ing by a conservation NGO, and the imaginative secondment of a core of com- mitted people to drive the initial implementation of the WfW Programme. Although the protection of biodiversity is not its main purpose, it is an important 5 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa objective. The programme has had a number of and outlines how the problem gained prominence, problems associated with its rapid growth, and and substantial funding, following South Africa's from an imperative to balance development needs first democratic elections. It outlines the birth and in the post-apartheid South Africa with the need growth of the Working for Water Programme, a to comply with high professional standards. Nev- US$160 million initiative to gain control of the ertheless, it has found a reasonably successful mix problem. The chapter describes the factors that in satisfying the needs for efficiency, social de- led to its success and achievements to date. It also velopment, and political transformation towards outlines the problems and future prospects. democratisation and equity. If the programme Throughout there is a bias towards examples from continues the path it has followed to date, it will the Cape region in South Africa. The Working for make a major contribution to the conservation of Water Programme originated in the Cape Floral biodiversity in South Africa. Region, an area of unusually high biodiversity. In addition, many of the studies which under- pinned the original arguments for initiating the WROT(DULCThOlM programme were undertaken in the Cape. Today, however, the programme is a national one, and it South Africa is a microcosm of the world today, has been successfully implemented throughout where the ratio of rich to poor within one coun- South Africa. try mirrors the global situation. The country is actively seeking to redress these imbalances, plac- ing an emphasis on rural development and the TH1E OF,T&'LL : (I= VI$E AUEIM PLA\IS elimination of poverty through economic devel- Ul1 SUTh AFR opment and job creation. In most developing countries, such an emphasis would work counter Thousands of plant species from other parts of the to the conservation of biodiversity, with short- world have been introduced to South Africa for a term economic growth and social delivery taking range of purposes: as crop species; for timber and precedence over ecosystem conservation. There- firewood; as garden omamentals; for stabilising fore, placing a monetary value on ecosystem ser- sand dunes and as barrier and hedge plants. Many vices is an important and politically expedient of these alien species have become naturalised, way of ensuring intervention. The challenge is to surviving in the South African landscape without ensure that these interventions incorporate eco- the need for tending, and some of these naturalised logical sustainability, fairness and efficiency. species have become invasive. Invasive alien spe- There are few examples of such projects in the cies are able to survive, reproduce and spread, un- world, especially among the poorer and species- aided and sometimes at alarming rates, across the rich nations in the developing "south". It is there- landscape. fore remarkable that one such example comes South Africa has a serious problem with aggres- from South Africa in the form of the Working for sively invasive alien plants. These affect almost WaterProgramme. This programme was developed 10 million hectares (8.28%) of the country, and with the dual function of controlling invasive alien are spreading rapidly (Table 2.1). These invasions plants and providing social improvement for eth- come at a considerable cost to the economy and nic groups who had been disadvantaged by apart- the environment, and affect the lives of all South heid. In this way, it maximises an ecosystem Africans, either directly or indirectly. They con- service (the delivery of water), protects biodiver- vert species-rich vegetation to single-species stands sity and enhances sustainability by eliminating of trees, increasing biomass and decreasing stream invading alien plants, and promotes social equity flow dramatically. For example, invasion of the through jobs and training for economically catchment areas surrounding Cape Town, if left marginalised people. to spread at current rates, could reduce water This chapter presents a brief history of inva- resources for this rapidly growing city by 30%. sive alien plant control efforts in South Africa, Invasions on a national scale are estimated to be 6 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme Table 2.1. The most widespread invading alien plants in South Africa Reason for Area invaded Origin introduction Impacts & distribution Syringa Asia Ornamental, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 3 million ha along river (Melia azedarach) shade communities; excessive water banks, disturbed areas, roadsides, use; frugivorous birds focus urban open spaces on the fruits at the expense of native species, preventing dispersal. Pines North America, Timber, poles, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 3 million ha; wide- (Pinusspecies) Europe firewood, communities; excessive spread in mountain catchments, ornamental, water use; increases fuel forestfringes, grasslands and shade loads and fire impacts. fynbos Black wattle Australia Shelter, tanbark, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 2.5 million ha; wide- (Acacia mearnsil) shade, firewood communities; excessive water spread except in arid areas use; promotes destabilisation and erosion of stream banks. Lantana Central and Ornamental, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 2.2 million ha of forest (Lantana camara) South America hedging communities; poisonous to and plantation margins, water livestock. courses and savannas Gum trees Australia Timber, Displaces diverse native plant Widely scattered in 2.4 million (Eucalyptus species) firewood communities; excessive water ha in all areas use. Rooikrans Australia Dune reclama- Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 1.9 million ha, mainly (Acacia cyclops) tion, shade, communities; increases fuel in the southern and western firewood loads and fire impacts; pre- coastal belt. vents natural movement of sand, disrupting ecosystem- level dynamics. Port Jackson Australia Dune reclama- Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 1.9 million ha, mainly willow tion, shade, communities; excessive water the coastal lowlands of the (Acacia saligna) fodder, tanbark use. Western Cape Prickly pear/cactus North, central Ornamental, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 1.8 million ha in drier (Opuntiaspecies) and south edible fruits, communities and severely areas America animal fodder reduces grazing potential Mesquite North America Fodder, shade Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 1.8 million ha in drier (Prosopisspecies) and firewood communities; depletes areas groundwater resources. Bugweed South America Ornamental Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 1.8 million ha; (Solanum communities; frugivorous widespread in wetter areas mauritanum) birds focus on the fruits at the expense of native species, preventing dispersal. Hakea Australia Hedging, Displaces diverse native plant Occurs in 0.7 million ha in (Hakeaspecies) firewood, communities; increased water mountain and lowland fynbos ornamental, use; increases fuel loads and dune reclamation fire impacts. 7 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa using almost 7% of the country's runoff. These be in the region of US$3.2 billion. (See also losses could mean that more (and expensive) dams Chapter 10). have to be built much earlier to meet water de- The economic value of stream flow lost to mands, with serious economic impacts. Invasion invasions of black wattle in South Africa has of indigenous grasslands and shrublands by tall been calculated using the opportunity-cost trees and shrubs also increases the amount of plant approach. First calculated is the value added material (fuel load) that can burn. While ecosys- by water over the different demand sectors tems in South Africa are normally quite resilient (irrigation, domestic and urban use, mining to regular burning, these increased fuel loads lead and industry, the environment and affores- to fires of higher intensity and a range of detri- tation). Second is the estimation of the value mental effects. Physical damage to the soil can added by additional water where black occur, resulting in increased erosion after fire. In- wattles were eradicated. These estimates vasion also impacts directly on biodiversity by re- were adjusted to allow for evaporation and placing diverse stands of indigenous vegetation spillage of flood water (33% of additional with virtual monocultures. water was assumed to be unusable), changes in the numbers of downstream water-users over the next 20 years, and the degree to THE C(OSTS OF IMVASIVE PLANT SPECIES which water would contribute to the eco- nomic value added in each sector (assumed Economic costs to be 10% of predicted growth in economic value added). This study revealed a "net Arriving at a comprehensive figure for the total present cost" of US$1.4 billion attributed costs of invasive plants is not possible at this to black wattle invasions (it should be noted stage. The indications, however, are that the total that this study considered only black wattles, costs are substantial, and a number of studies and not the many other invasive trees in the support this contention. Some examples are listed country). below (see list for further reading at the end of o In the only detailed study to date on the eco- the chapter). nomic benefits of biological control of in- vasive alien plants in South Africa, scientists • One of the few detailed studies calculated the have shown that bringing the red water fern value of a hypothetical 4 km2 (400 ha) moun- (Azolla filiculoides) under control has tain fynbos ecosystem at between US$3 mil- yielded a return on investment of 1130:1. lion (with no management of alien plants), Red water ferns, introduced from South and US$50 million (with effective manage- America, rapidly covered reservoirs and re- ment of alien plants), based on six compo- sulted in damage to water pumps, the deaths nents: water production, wild flower harvest, of livestock and substantial clearing costs hiker visitation, ecotourist visitation, endemic that totalled US$58 million. This was com- species and genetic storage. Given that there pared to US$5 1,000 to carry out the research are over one million hectares of protected that led to the release of the biological con- fynbos areas in South Africa, the potential trol agent, which in turn brought the prob- reduction in value due to invasion could lem completely under control within two amount to over US$11.75 billion. years of release. • The value of lost water has been estimated at The cost to clear the alien plant invasions US$163 per ha on the Agulhas Plain area of in South Africa is estimated to be around South Africa; therefore, if 20,000 hectares of US$1.2 billion, or roughly US$60 million this area became invaded (20,000 ha is the per year for the estimated 20 years that it will target area to be incorporated in the proposed take to deal with the problem. This expense Agulhas National Park), the total cost would is needed to offset the considerable costs due 8 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme to invasive plants. It should be emphasised invaded. Indications are that southem Africa could that, should the programme not be funded, lose almost a quarter of its plant species due to the costs will grow as invasive plants spread alien plant invasion. Clearly, any programmes that to occupy the full extent of invasible habi- reduce the extent of invasions will have large ben- tats. The country is therefore forced to incur efits for biodiversity, even if these are not the pri- these expenses or face the worse prospect of mary reason for the interventions. growing impacts. These few examples indicate that the economic THE HISTORY OF EFFORTS TO CONTROL consequences of invasions are vast. INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS Biodiversity costs The realisation that invasive alien plants pose se- rious threats to the ecology of South Africa is not Invading alien organisms are widely regarded as new. Early botanists, including Peter MacOwan the second greatest threat to biodiversity after di- (in 1888), and Rudolf Marloth (in 1908) raised rect habitat destruction. There is only a handful of concems about the potential for introduced plants proven cases where alien plant invasions have re- to replace natural vegetation, with detrimental sulted in the extinction of species in South Africa. consequences. Despite these warnings, the prob- Nonetheless, almost 1,900 of the 3,435 plant spe- lem only became widely recognised as serious cies listed in the Red Data List for southern Africa during the later part of the 20th century. When are threatened wholly or in part by invasive alien control efforts started in the second half of the plants; and the greatest threat to endangered drag- 20th century, they were made for reasons of con- onflies comes from invasion of riparian habitats. serving natural vegetation, and not for any eco- Similarly, transformation of landscapes by alien nomic reasons. trees has been shown to be a significant threat to Initial attempts to control invasive plants were 90 bird species in Mpumalanga, almost half of at best uncoordinated and erratic, and did little to them categorised as threatened endemics. stem their spread. Although few campaigns were Biodiversity impacts will be most keenly felt in adequately documented, the existing evidence the Cape Floral Region (CFR), which covers shows that poor understanding of the ecology of 90,000 km2 of south-westem South Africa. This invasive species, as well as a lack of subsequent area, barely 4% of the land surface of southern follow-through after clearing, led to much wasted Africa, contains 45% of the subcontinent's plant effort and money. The early, erratic control efforts species, some 8,600 species of flowering plants were replaced later by coordinated control pro- and ferns, of which almost 70% (5,850 species) grammes country-wide in the 1970s and 1980s. are endemic. Almost one third of the CFR has At the same time, considerable efforts were put already been lost to urbanisation, agriculture and into research, in order to develop sound, scientifi- forestry, and the remaining areas (mainly in the cally-based control options. At one stage, it ap- mountains) are under severe threat from invad- peared that the problem would be brought under ing alien plants. In a scenario of limited or no control. funding for the control of invading alien plants, Sadly, the momentum of the integrated control the prognosis for the future of this floral king- programmes was lost in the late 1980s. Increasing dom is grim. demands on government spending in a beleaguered Alien plants spread as a result of regular distur- South Africa under economic sanctions led to fund- bance in the form of fires, as well as increasing ing cutbacks and a loss of momentum, despite the levels of agriculture, road building, forestry and capacity that had been built to deal with the pro- development. While spread rates are not fully un- gramme. Research programmes also suffered cut- derstood, there are plenty of examples that illus- backs, and the net result was that the substantial trate the extent to which areas have become public investment in the control of alien plants in 9 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa mountain catchment areas was invalidated. Alien the problem was not appreciated in the influen- plants again began to re-invade cleared areas. tial circles of government decision-makers. Clearly something had to be done. WATER USE BY INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS- A HISTORY OF APPRECIATION OF THE PROBLEM THE CONCEPTION OF THE WORKING FOR WATER PROGRAMME AND ITS SUBSEQUENT The effect of alien plants on water yield was not GROWTH always seen as a major impact of plant invasion, although it had been recognised at an early stage. In 1992 a government-funded, cooperative research In 1945, the pioneer of forest hydrology in South initiative was rounded off with the publication of Africa, Professor C.L. Wicht, identified invasive a book on the ecology of the fynbos biome. In this alien plants as "one of the greatest, if not the great- publication the consequences of declining man- est, threats to Cape vegetation". This view was agement funding were expressed in terms of in- based on the detrimental effects of invasive alien creases in invasive plants and decreases in water plants on the native flora and biodiversity al- supply. These predictions were again based on the though he did recognise that "the effect on water results of catchment experiments at Jonkershoek. supply will depend mainly on the extent to which It was pointed out that the declines in water yield loss of moisture is increased, .... at present an resulting from unchecked invasions of the catch- unknown quantity". Currently, most evidence for ment areas would be disastrous for the water sup- water use by alien plants in South Africa arises plies to cities, industries and agriculture. from the efforts of the catchment research ThesedirepredictionspromptedtheDepartment programme of the former South African Forestry of Environment Affairs to fund a project aimed at Research Institute, and its successor, the Council determining the true effects of alien plants on wa- for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), ter resources in the region. With advances in com- Division of Forest Science and Technology. This puter technology, and a good understanding of the programme had its beginning at Jonkershoek, basic ecological dynamics of the area, it proved where Prof. C.L. Wicht established world- possible to develop a computer model to simulate renowned hydrological experiments. His work, the growth, spread and water use of alien plants in and that of his successors, on the effects of affor- a fire-prone landscape. The results were convinc- estation laid a clear basis for calculating the ef- ing. Invasive plants would increase in density and fects of alien plants on water supplies. By 1977, extent over the next half century, resulting in re- it was clear that invasions of catchment areas by ductions in stream flow of between 30 and 60%. alien trees would probably result in reductions of The predictions of serious water loss came at a 350 mm of run-off per year (expressed as rainfall time when South Africa had just elected its first equivalent), based on the results of catchment ex- democratic government. This single event of 1994 periments at Jonkershoek. was arguably the biggest turning point in the These catchments have an average annual rain- country's history. It was accompanied by newfound fall of about 1,500 mm, of which about 600 mm optimism, and a willingness to accept change in a reaches the streams; the rest either evaporates or range of approaches and activities. It also proved is used by the natural vegetation. Changing natu- to be a key factor in mainstreaming biodiversity, ral vegetation from low shrublands to tall wood- as it was against this background that scientists lands through afforestation or invasion will were able to approach politicians with proposals increase this use by 350 mm, leaving only fornewprogrammesthatwouldotherwisenothave 250 mm for the streams. It was concluded that been entertained. "extensive invasion of the Cape mountains is The scientific community formed a special therefore very likely to have a serious impact on working group to produce a slide show to illus- regional water supplies". Although concerns over trate the problem and to mobilise additional fund- the impacts of invasions on water supplies were ing. The original brief of the working group was published in a number of scientific publications, simply to produce a slide show for use by anyone 10 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme Box 2.1. The catalyst -research, synthesis and communication of scientific knowledge to decision-makers The communication of the severe impacts which invasive alien plants have on water resources was key to the initiation of the Working for Water Programme. The problem had been recognised for somne time by scientists but was not widely understood. Ecologists, hydrologists, resource economists and engineers worked together in an interdisciplinary analysis of the problem. These implications were then effectively communicated to key and influential decision-makers. The first aim was realised through the analysis of the problem, and the publication of the results in respected scientific journals. Studies showed, for example, that in the case of the proposed Skuifraam Dam (the preferred next option to supply water to Cape Town), water can be delivered at a cost of 54 and 57cents per kilolitre (kl) with and without the management of alien plants, indicating that such manage- ment is cost-effective. Clearing invasive plants from the existing Theewaterskloof catchment would de- liver additional water at only 10.5% of the cost of delivery from the new Skuifraam scheme (unit reference values of 6 and 57 cents per kI respectively). The second aim was achieved through a targeted presentation to key politicians. The benefits were explained without using jargon or delving into the scicntific complexities of the issue. Instead, use was made of attractive slides to make the important points, with immnediate success. This simplified means of communication contrasted with the lack of progress made through scientific publication. who wanted to advertise the problem (a so-called able to spend the budget within the allocated time, "road show") but it was soon realised that a more creating 6,163 jobs, and clearing 33,229 ha of in- strategic approach was needed. A conscious deci- festations in 10 projects spread over six of the sion was made to target the national Minister of country's nine provinces. The management team Water Affairs and the provincial minister respon- made a considered decision to establish a commu- sible for conservation in the Westem Cape Prov- nications project within the programme, tasked ince. The slide show emphasised not only the with ensuring that the Working for Water Pro- threats of invasive alien plants to water resources, gramme gained maximum exposure from the and therefore to economic growth and empower- programme's inception. The communications ment, but also the opportunity that a clearing programme was instrumental in highlighting the programme would offer for job creation to allevi- achievements of Working for Waterand raising its ate the pressing unemployment problems in the profile in a society keen to see concrete results from country. The presentation was given on the 2nd of the newly-elected democratic government. This June 1995, and stimulated the Minister of Water initial success guaranteed further funding, includ- Affairs (Professor Kader Asmal) to initiate a re- ing funding from local government, the private newed campaign to control alien invasive plants sector, foreign aid and a significant grant from the in October 1995. This programme became known government's poverty-relief allocation, aimed at as the " Working for Watei" Programme. The name creating employment amongst the poorest of the captures the essence of the reasons for its support poor. The budget rose to US$11.5 million in 1996/ funding-to conserve water resources and to cre- 97, and to US$40 million in 1997/98, and the ate jobs. cleared areas increased to 71,289 ha and 220,884 The programme began with a budget of US$4 ha in those years respectively. The 1999/2000 an- million to cover its first six months of operation. nual report put the total expenditure of the Under the guidance of a small, but dedicated and programme at over US$120 million over five years, passionate, management team, the programme was and the employment levels at 20,999 jobs. 11 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa BCH 2.2. A -u Umuolg t .i, Professor Kader Asmal, Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry in the Mandela cabinet after 1994 was quick to grasp the development potential of the Working for Water project, and applied tc, his cabinet colleague (Jay Naidoo) for funding. To quote Professor Asmal "Reinforced by the cogent arguments put forward by WWF-SA-funded indi- viduals, I approached my dear colleague, Jay Naidoo, for funding. Jay was Minister without Portfolio in the first democratic cabinet of South Africa, and responsible for the Reconstruction and Development Programme. Minister Trevor Manuel had yet to take control of the finances of our country. I approached Jay Naidoo for initial funding of R25 million without a business plan. Jay is a wise person, and he saw the value of what was being proposed". The granting of the initial funding was based on trust and friendship between two cabinet colleagues with a history in the struggle for democracy in South Africa. It was a key turning point in the establishment of the Working for Water Programme. FACITORS WLMUC= LEE) TO THE SUCCESS for Nature-South Africa (WWF-SA) to cover the OF THE WORXING FOR IYJTER l IR( UR1bE appointee's salary. Without high-level political support, it is doubtful whether the programme The Working for Water Programme is generally would have been able to command its subsequent viewed as a highly successful initiative, both na- status. tionally and internationally. It addresses a serious Emphasi.rng the emergent eneetrt: A signifi- environmental problem, and creates many employ- cant factor was the potential for job creation in an ment and training opportunities. It was imple- environment where unemployment is extremely mented at a time when many other initiatives of high. The programme would have had significant the new government were bogged down in bureau- benefits even with limited job creation, but the fact cracy and slow to establish. A number of factors that it was able to create many jobs, and therefore contributed to the success of the Working for Wa- directly affect the lives of many people, was a key terProgramme including: factor in securing funding and sustaining political support. A unique opportunity: The opportunity offered Taking a novelapproach: The idea of linking by the new democratic government, and the cli- an invasive plant clearance programme to job cre- mate of acceptance of change, was a critically im- ation, and aligning it with the new government's portant factor enabling the initiation of the Working Reconstruction and Development Programme, pro- for Water Programme. Under different circum- vided a new approach that made the package stances, it is unlikely that it would have been pos- eminently saleable. Many people, especially envi- sible to secure the necessary resources. ronmentalists, were acutely aware of the problem Leveraging political support: Cabinet-level of invasive plants, and the need to deal with the support and political backing was key to the suc- problem, but were unable to make an impression cess of the programme. The backing arose from until this new approach was adopted. the decision to place a dedicated, persuasive and Putting a dedicated team together: A core of diligent person close to an influential and vision- visionary, dedicated people made the programme ary cabinet minister (Professor Kader Asmal). The work. With the new funding, these dedicated con- appointment to this extraordinary post was made servationists, who included the management and possible through a grant from World Wide Fund communications team, the project managers, and 12 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme employees of several conservation agencies, were ing highly visible results in, and around, a densely prepared to put in additional effort to initiate the populated area. programme and ensure its progress. Gainingpoliticalprofle:The programme was Publicising the initial successes:The dissemi- initiated shortly after the first democratic election nation of information about the Working for Water of a new government in South Africa. The new Programme was an important dimension and a key government was keen to produce success stories factor in the programme's success. Informative pro- rapidly, but was hampered by the inability, inher- motional brochures and newsletters were produced, ent in large, bureaucratic govemment departments, "open days" were held, and valuable contacts were to realign their priorities quickly enough. As a re- forged with key reporters who ensured that articles sult, many well-intentioned schemes became were carried in influential national and local news- bogged down and failed to deliver. The Working papers. This "marketing" ensured significant aware- for WaterProgramme, on the other hand, employed ness of the problem, and of the unfolding solution, people immediately, creating visible results; in this and this, in turn, resulted in an ability to secure more way it provided a refreshing success story to funding from a range of sources. counter criticisms that the new government was Avoiding bureaucracy: The initiation of the not delivering on its promises. The programme has Working for Water Programme outside existing also become an international role model, further structures as a special activity, accountable to the raising its political profile. Programme members minister, helped to provide a measure of freedom have participated in international initiatives to deal from bureaucracy and procedures. with invasive alien species, including bi-national All of the factors listed above contributed to the cooperation with the USA and Australia, the Glo- programme's success. If any one of them had not bal Invasive Species Programme (GISP), and the been in place, the outcome could have been quite IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. different. Some were a result of the unique set of Delivering economic benefrts:The programme circumstances in the country at the time. Never- has created significant employment opportunities theless the Working for Water Programme does amongst the poorest of the poor, and made a sub- provide lessons for similar initiatives elsewhere in stantial contribution to combating unemployment. the world. More than 60% of the total budget found its way into the pockets of workers. This is a significant ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE WORKING FOR WATER achievement. Through a labour-intensive approach, PROGRAMME targeting the poorest of the poor, the programme has had a significant impact on the redistribution The Working for Water Programme has achieved of wealth. A study based on the demand created much in the first few years of its existence (Table by the programme in 1996/97 showed that the 2.2). The major achievements encompass an array household income of the poorest categories of of fields: the conservation of biodiversity, as well employees would increase by more than 3% while as impacts in the political, economic, legislative, that of the richest households would decrease by awareness, research and social fields. The less than 0.1%. programme has been particularly successful in di- Creatingenvironmentalawareness:The Work- versifying its interests-see below. ing for Water Programme has created a high de- gree of public awareness of the value of natural Conservingbiodiversity:The clearing of large ecosystems, and raised the profile of the problem areas infested by invasive alien plants is a tangible of invasive alien weeds. The programme has won achievement of the programme (Table 2.2). Cape 25 national and international awards since it be- Town's Peninsula provides a good illustration. This gan in 1995. It has provided participating conser- area was severely infested with alien plants, but a vation agencies with opportunities to transform significant proportion has been cleared over the their personnel through the recruitment of staff past five years, heralding the rescue of one of the from historically disadvantaged groups. This has world's hottest hotspots of biodiversity, and creat- enabled a broadening of understanding of issues 13 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Tble 2.2. Pvogvass and aWaemUenIts ag Me@ Yf;aFfr g faFYfdgo PTogTamme uRDg~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 SSS Sit$ @6 ge Number of provinces 6 9 9 9 9 9 Total number of projects 10 38 239 No data No data 313 Budget (Rand) 26,773 80,005 245,291 248,891 222,913 300,975 Area cleared (ha) 33,229 71,289 220,884 107,565 112,333 170,660 Area treated in follow-up (ha) 0 12,046 33,229 128,648 121,310 183,736 Number of people employed 6,686 8,386 42,059 23,662 20,999 23,998 Other achieve- Successful Green Trust Significant Diversified Joint USA- Promulgation ments initiation Award (best increase in activities, South Africa of new weed conservation funding from expansion of symposium: control project of poverty- "secondary management regulations; 1996); two relief fund. industries". practices for initiation of a other awards. 3 more Changeover alien plants. programme awards from direct on wetland employment rehabilitation of labour to contractors. relating to the conservation of biodiversity (see Box StieDatlig resercIi: To provide a sound sci- 2.3). An important impact in poor communities is entific basis, the programme funded a small, but the general increase in environmental knowledge very focused, research programme to investigate and awareness from training programmes. The en- the benefits of clearing invasives. Results have been vironmental spin-offs have the potential to help published in respected internationaljournals, pro- keep rural areas clear of invasive alien plants, while viding credible evidence in support of applications encouraging sustainable use of natural resources. for further funding. In addition, Working for Wa- Improving iegisiation: The programme has terinvested significant amounts into research on aided in the revision of legislation such as the Con- the biological control of invasive plants, a field in servation of Agricultural Resources Act, so as to which South Africa is a world leader. Finally, the deal with different categories of invasive plants. profile of the programme, and involvernent of aca- This includes novel approaches for allowing plants demics, has stimulated research interest in with commercial value to be cultivated provided invasives, resulting in many students choosing alien that the landowners accept responsibility for clear- plant control and ecology as topics for their post- ing costs in surrounding areas; and phasing out graduate studies. popular ornamental invasives through banning fur- Ening5okL henef t.:As well as concen- ther sales from nurseries. trating on alien plant control using paid labour, 14 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme Box 2.3. Contributions to transformaRion-perceptions of participants. The Working for WaterProgramme has provided many opportunities for self development for people from previously disadvantaged backgrounds, as well as opportunities for expanding understanding of biodiversity issues. The experiences of Nosipho Jezile and Desmond Stevens illustrate this impact. Ms Nosipho Jezile is the regional programme leader for the Eastem Cape projects. Before she joined the programme she practised as a junior scientist (1994-1997) at Somchem-a government-owned explosives manufacturer. As a student she was actively involved with resistance politics and the promotion of gender equity at the University of the Western Cape. Ms Jezile explains: "I became aware of Working for Water through the programme's publicity cam- paign and through word-of-mouth. What intrigued me was the challenge of venturing into the field of environmental conservation after I worked in the "destructive" field of explosives. I knew very little of biodiversity even though I was trained as a natural scientist.". Ms Jezile points to the mindset change of poor communities living within the proximity of nature reserves as an example of changing perceptions. The local communities at Dwesa Nature Reserve changed from destructive use of resources to a controlled system of use. At the same time, the community has developed pride and a positive outlook towards conservation. Ms Jezile comments further: "A classical example for me was being able to convert a member of the executive committee of the Eastern Cape parliament. I was able to convince him of the importance of biodiversity relative to water supply infra- structure, which is a govemment priority in rural areas. He developed an understanding of the positive impacts of biodiversity on the ecotourism potential of the Eastern Cape Province". Mr Desmond Stevens is currently General Manager: Operations Support Services with the Western Cape Nature Conservation Board. He was employed by the Provincial Department of Economic Affairs in 1995, where his activities were directed towards building institutional capacity in communities and government departments, with an aim to implementing RDP projects. His unit was invited in late September 1995 to attend a meeting to discuss the implementation of local alien invasive plant clearing projects. Mr Stevens comments: "At the time I was very reluctant to attend, because our experience was these meetings were always alienating. They always had middle-aged white males providing reasons why government cannot do certain things. Furthermore I had no clue about alien trees and their impact on the environment-as a matter of fact I did not care either. I could not understand why the government wanted to remove trees that provide for the greening of townships. For most of the meeting 1 did not pay much attention, but two particular statements of a certain Mr. Marais at the time caught my attention, when he talked about jobs and saving of water. Of course I did not know that this Marais fellow would rope me in to such an extent that both professional and personal life have become synonymous with "killing" invasive alien trees. I developed such an interest in the natural environment and the protection of our heritage that I started an environmental forum in our location. I can also now hold my own in debates with very experienced conservationists". Mr Stevens states that the whole experience expanded his horizons, and resulted in his becoming involved in formal structures of the ANC's environmental desk. Working for Water developed complementary ex-offenders. The development of a "secondary programmes, including a range of secondary in- industries" component, utilising the products of dustries, training courses to create opportunities clearing has been coupled with small business train- for contractors and the development of small busi- ing and development, enabling workers to exit the ness opportunities, and employment schemes for programme and run businesses on their own. 15 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Among the social development interventions Planning for effectivepolitical/social transfor- are programmes such as the childcare initiative to mation:The strong need to redress the legacies of enable women to engage in labour for household apartheid had an effect on the programme. The need income. Women are the most vulnerable social to satisfy political goals often dominated decisions category in most poor communities, and most chil- on where to initiate projects. As a result projects dren in these poor communities do not get oppor- did not necessarily target high biodiversity areas tunities for an early start in pre-school education. and a number of projects were undertaken in non- The programme also employs social scientists priority areas, or targeted non-priority species. working with communities, and especially youths, Projects were initiated in many areas to demon- to raise awareness on HIV/AIDS and how to avoid strate that jobs could be created quickly. The need infection. Working for Water linked up with the to direct poverty-relief funding to the poorest ar- National Population Unit (NPU), the United Na- eas often meant that the most infested areas did tions Population Fund (UNFPA), and the Planned not receive adequate funding. More could have Parenthood Association of South Africa (PPASA), been achieved (in terms of biodiversity conserva- to set up a reproductive health programme, target- tion) if projects had focused on highly-invaded ing workers in poor communities to change sexual hotspots of biodiversity. behaviour and increase use of contraceptives. In vesting in training:The Working for Water Programme, in line with government policy, also PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED, AND LESSONS had a high-priority focus on affirmative action and 1N AVOIDANCE social transformation. The imperative to draw staff from previously disadvantaged groups (where skills It would be unreasonable to expect that a and experience were rare due to past inequities in programme of this nature would be without prob- education and employment policies) exacerbated lems. A frank analysis should provide lessons for the management weaknesses and led to further in- future initiatives. efficiencies. Strong discipline was often lacking in the projects, a reflection of inadequate training, Ensuring adequate management: The rapid lack of structures, and even various forms of in- growth of the programme led to management chal- timidation. This led to inefficiency and low pro- lenges, especially as the new, and independent, ductivity in some cases. Such problems could be organisation had no corporate culture or history or avoided in future by an early and adequate invest- experience to draw upon. The programme focused ment in training, even if initial operations are de- on delivery, and as a result, staff struggled with is- layed slightly. sues of immediate implementation. Not enough ef- Ensuringadequate security of funding:-In the fort was put into the development of a strategy, or first few years of the programme, funds were allo- into medium-term planning. This led to some sig- cated late in the financial year, and the resultant nificant inefficiencies. Problematic projects were pressure to spend them (especially poverty-relief characterised by poor management practices, par- funds) placed significant stress on already over- ticularly those initiated without any advance plan- committed staff and resources. In addition, the ning. Inappropriate, or wrong, methods were annual allocations ended at the completion of the sometimes used to deal with invasive plant species. financial year, and there was a significant delay Stands were sometimes cleared with no, or insuffi- before the next round of funding was approved. cient, follow-up, exacerbating the problems rather This stop-start nature of the funding meant that than improving the situation. In a few cases, valu- work was stopped and re-started later, with nega- able stands of indigenous trees were felled. Much tive consequences for the clearing programmes and of this could have been avoided by slower growth the well-being of workers. The lesson here is that of the programme, but delivery in termns ofjob cre- ecological projects need to obtain multi-year, se- ation was seen as an over-riding imperative. An ad- cure funding to be more effective. equate investment in experienced management could A voiding conlicts ofinterest: Significant con- serve to avoid some of these problems. flicts of interest have developed between the 16 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme programme and organisations or interest group- funds. These include funds raised from users of ings that either use invasive alien plants or oppose water from alien-free catchment areas such as lo- their clearing. Conflict arises where invasive spe- cal municipal authorities, from levies (or volun- cies underpin important commercial activities, such tary donations) from growers of plantations of as plantation forestry; where they provide firewood invasive plants, or from foreign aid. The projected (many Acacia species) or food (Opuntia species), cost of clearing is large (around US$1.2 billion). fodder (Prosopis species), or nectar for bees (Eu- This cost could be reduced in one of two ways: calyptus species); and where they have aesthetic through the effective implementation of biologi- or utilitarian value (omamentals, shade trees or cal control solutions, and through the use of mate- windbreaks). Early consultations should be under- rial or resources derived from clearing operations, taken to seek partnerships and mutually accept- i.e developing "secondary industries". Both chal- able solutions. lenges require focused development if they are to Ensuring wider buy-in: The programme was succeed. driven by a relatively small group of people, and Developing a focus on professional Hmanage- there was understandable reluctance to grasp some ment: It is essential that clear plans be in place of this enthusiasm more widely amongst some of before any control activities are initiated, in order the programme's key partners and implementing to ensure that managers fully understand the con- agents. In some instances, this equated to a "not sequences for long-term follow-up, and are in a invented here" syndrome. In addition, the solutions position to anticipate and meet these demands. The to water resource management through manipu- adaptation of best practices to local conditions lating vegetation cover had to be adopted by a needs to be completed before medium and long- department staffed largely by engineers not accus- term planning approaches can be put in place. The tomed to, or trained in, ecological solutions. importance of careful and detailed long-term plan- ning for the success of the Working for Water FUTURE CHALLENGES Programme cannot be over-emphasised. Developingadequate capacity to underpin the Arguably the largest environmental programme in programme: The development of sufficient capac- Africa today, the Working for Water Programme ity to underpin a professionally-run programme is a has had remarkable success but still faces some significant challenge. Large numbers of people need key challenges. to be trained in basic alien plant management skills, in ecology and ecosystem management, and in busi- Avoiding bureaucracy: As a govemment-run ness and personnel management, at all levels. At programme, Working for Water faces the danger the same time, the need for politicaUsocial transfor- of becoming bogged down by bureaucracy. Its ini- mation will remain an imperative. The means must tial success was in part due to its location outside be found to transfer existing knowledge to large of the normal line functions of a government de- numbers of people, through formal and on-the-job partment. Current thinking is that the programme training, if the programme is to become an effec- should be moved out of a line-function department tive vehicle for this transformation. to become an independent parastatal organisation. Developing a stable environment: Effective Achieving a smooth transition to this status will alien plant control is a long-term undertaking that be a significant challenge. requires follow-up at regular intervals over several Diversifying sources of funding: The pro- years. The programme must become stable enough gramme has been remarkably successful in attract- to be able to take a medium- to long-term perspec- ing significant funding, mainly from government, tive on the work that it does, over and above the but also from the private sector. However, the vast current focus on short-term goals. Depending on majority of funding originates from central gov- the species, felling of adult plants requires regu- emnment, and is vulnerable to cut-backs. Sources lar follow-up for several years to clear emerging of funding need to be diversified to include a wider seedlings. Therefore, initial clearing should only range of funders, and different means of raising be undertaken if there is sufficient certainty that 17 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa funding will be available to cover the necessary strategy. The exact mechanism by which this will follow-up over the next 10 years. be achieved is still under discussion. Maintaininga balance between objectives: If the programme is to achieve optimal effectiveness CONCLUSIONS in dealing with the threat of invasive alien plants, it will have to be able to balance the need for de- The Working for WaterProgramme has proved to velopment in poverty-stricken rural areas with the be a triple-win initiative that addresses three im- need to clear priority infestations (which may not portant aspects of sustainable development. In the always be in the poorest areas). A balance also first place, it seeks to address economic aspects needs to be found between the need to employ through the creation of employment, thereby mak- qualified and experienced people, and the impera- ing a contribution to the equitable sharing of ben- tive to bring in, and train, people from previously efits. The avoidance of the costs of impacts disadvantaged backgrounds. associated with invasive plants (such as the need Resolving conflicts ofinterest: Some possible to build more dams) is another economic benefit. approaches to avoid conflict and reduce the im- Secondly, social improvement is enhanced through pact of invasive alien species include: recognition employment opportunities targeting people from of the value of a vibrant forest industry and the previously disadvantaged sectors of society. Fi- active management of the spread of plantation nally, it makes a significant contribution to the trees; provision of well-managed woodlots in areas sustainable conservation of biodiversity and the where fuelwood is scarce, the use of non-invasive ecosystem services that diverse natural communi- species wherever possible, or ensuring that ties deliver to humans. The supply of large vol- biocontrol is introduced at the start of new agro- umes of clean water from catchment areas covered forestry projects; the use of biocontrol to reduce with healthy and diverse natural vegetation has the invasive potential of otherwise useful species been the focus of this particular programme. without killing them (for example, by reducing the The Working for Water Programme has made number of seeds they produce); early recognition significant progress in dealing with a major envi- of potential invaders and precautionary measures; ronmental problem, and it has the potential to grow education on the dangers and costs of invasive spe- and become a global role model for dealing with cies; and encouragement of the use of alternative, invasive plants. Notwithstanding its growing pains, non-invasive species for ornamental and utilitar- the programme has found a reasonably successful ian purposes. mix in satisfying the needs for efficiency, social Empoweringpeople: Clearing of invasive alien transformation and development. There are no ob- plants is often in the enlightened self-interest of vious better examples of this in South Africa to- landowners, but the challenge lies in getting land- day. Moreover a solid foundation has been laid for owners to understand the benefits. Understanding a significant conservation and socio-economic con- will, in turn, translate into changed attitudes and tribution, through a combination of political vision behaviour. People need to take ownership of the and support, a dedicated and driven workforce, a problem, rather than waiting for the government successful social development intervention to deal with the problem. programme, and growing public awareness. Developing approaches aligned with the ne w waterlaw: South Africa's new water law (Box 2.4) ACKMOLLDGEMET7 offers a framework for dealing with activities that impact on the sustainable use of water. Programmes The Working for WaterProgramme owes its exist- aimed at clearing invasive alien plants are one such ence and success to many people. Dr Fred Kruger, activity. Because invasive alien plants use exces- a former student of Wicht, led and inspired invalu- sive amounts of water, the clearing operations will able research on invaded catchment area experi- assist in the goal of maintaining an environmental ments at Jonkershoek. The support, vision and reserve, as required by the law. Funding the clear- leadership of the Minister of Water Affairs and ing operations can form part of the water pricing Forestry, Professor Kader Asmal, was critical in 18 Win-Win-Win: South Africa's Working for Water Programme Box 2.4. South Africa's new water law South Africa's 1998 National Water Act is a pioneering effort to incorporate sustainability and interna- tional cooperation into a national approach to water law. In the initial stages of discussion, it was sug- gested that the new law's core objective should be "to ensure that water is available in sufficient quantity, quality, and reliability for the development and well-being of the nation." That language reflected a tradi- tional view emphasising infrastructure investment to expand water supplies. As the discussion continued, there was growing consensus that emphasising further expansion of sup- plies was probably unrealistic. South Africa was already using nearly 60 percent of its available water, compared with just 5-10 percent in countries such as Namibia and Botswana. Furthermore, South Africa's water resources were enormously influenced by climate and topography. Only one-fourth of the nation has perennial rivers, another fourth has rivers that only flow periodically, and fully half the nation has rivers that only flow after infrequent storms. After further debate, the law's core objective was changed to "managing the quantity, quality, and reliability of the nation's water resources .... to achieve optimum long-terrn, environmentally sustain- able, social and cconomic benefit for society from their use." The new language emphasised the need to manage the resource, to manage the tension between growing demand and finite supply, and to ensure that water was used not just productively and beneficially, but optimally. The new law specifically reserves water to meet basic human needs and to maintain ecological func- tions. It states that the "quantity, quality, and reliability of water required to maintain the ecological functions on which humans depend shall be reserved so that the human use of water does not individually or cumulatively compromise the long-term sustainability of aquatic and associated ecosystems." The wa- ter required to meet basic human and environmental needs is identified as "the reserve," and enjoys prior- ity of use. Provisionally, the law allocates 25 litres/person/day to each individual for drinking, food preparation, and personal hygiene. After water required for basic human and environmental needs is assured, the law requires that remain- ing water be allocated so that all people have equitable access to the resource for productive purposes and to the benefits that flow from water use, such as jobs. The new law greatly broadens local participation in water management decisions. Within an individual watershed, the responsibility for allocating water to users rests with local Catchment Management Agencies, which are expected to operate with broad partici- pation from all interested parties. The law also requires the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry to develop water pricing strategies, such as charges to cover the full financial costs of providing access to water, including the costs of infra- structure; a watershed management charge, which can cover the use of rivers and water bodies for both water consumption and waste disposal; and a resource conservation charge, which can be applied where a particular water use significantly affects others in the watershed. Finally, the law recognises the need to manage transboundary water resources cooperatively. the establishment and development of the pro- has been supported by an able team of managers, gramme. The ongoing support of his successor, all of whom are characterised by dedication and Ronnie Kasrils, and the Ministers for Environment commitment. The World Wide Fund for Nature Affairs and for Agriculture (Valli Moosa and Thoko (South Africa) funded critical interventions (includ- Didiza), has also been crucial. Dr Guy Preston, the ing the appointment of Dr Preston as programme Working for Water Programme's leader, deserves leader) that were catalytic to the establishment of special mention for his leadership and energy. He the programme. Important implementing agents 19 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa supplied the bulk of the capacity needed to initiate Le Maitre, D.C., van Wilgen, B.W., Gelderblom, C.M., the programme. These included South African Bailey, C., Chapman, R.A. & Nel, J.A. 2002. Inva- National Parks, the Western Cape Nature Conser- sive alien trees and water resources in South Af- vation Board, the KwaZulu/Natal Wildlife Service, rica: Case studies of the costs and benefits of Rand Water, the former Municipality of Cape management. TorestEcologyandManagement 160: Town, the Forest Owners Association, the Coun- 143-159. cil for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Macdonald, I.A.W., Kruger, F.J., & FelTar, A.A. (eds). and the Plant Protection Research Institute. 1986. The ecology and control of biological inva- Manyaka, Greyling and Meiring ran an exception- sions in southern Africa. Oxford University Press, ally successful communications project that raised Cape Town. the profile of the programme. Over 40,000 people, Richardson, D.M., Macdonald, I.A.W., Hoffmann, J.H. including managers, field supervisors, and work- and Henderson, L. 1997. Alien plant invasions. In: ers have contributed to the programme's success- R.M Cowling, D.M. Richardson and S.M. Pierce a debt of gratitude is due to each of them. (eds), Vegetation of Southern Africa, pp. 534-570. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. AUTHORS' AFFILDATIOIOS Van Wilgen, B.W, Bond, W.J. and Richardson, D.M. 1992. Ecosystem management. In: R. M. Cowling B. W. van Wilgen is with the CSIR Division of (ed.), The Ecology ofFynbos-Nuitients, Fire and Water, Environment and Forestry Technology, Diversity pp. 345-371. Oxford University Press, Stellenbosch. bvwilgen(csir.co.za. Cape Town. C.MaraisandD.Magadlelaarewiththe Work- Van Wilgen, B.W., Cowling, R.M. & Burgers, ing for Water Programme, Cape Town. marais@ C.J. 1996. Valuation of ecosystem services: a case dwaf-wcp.wcape.gov.za. study from the fynbos, South Africa. BioScience N. Jezile is with the Working for Water 46: 184-189. Programme, King Williams Town. Van Wilgen, B.W., Little, P.R., Chapman, R.A., D. Stevens is with the Western Cape Nature Gorgens, A.H.M., Willems, T. & Marais, C. 1997. Conservation Board, Cape Town. The sustainable development of water resources: history, financial costs and benefits of alien plant FIRTHTEIR REAMDIG control programmes. South African Journal of Sci- ence 93: 404-411. Le Maitre, D.C., van Wilgen, B.W., Chapman, R.A. & Van Wilgen, B.W., Cowling, R.M. & Le Maitre, D.C. McKelly, D. 1996. Invasive plants and water re- 1998. Ecosystem services, efficiency, sustainability sources in the Western Cape Province, South Africa: and equity: South Africa's Working for Water modelling the consequences of a lack of manage- Programme. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13: ment. Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 161-172. 378. 20 Wildlife Utilisation: 3 Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal P. S. Goodman, B. James and L. Carlisle SUMMARY In common with many landscapes in the world, those in South Africa have been colonised and transformed to the detriment of biodiversity. By the end of the 19th century, the destruction of the large mammal fauna through over-hunting and alien disease had advanced so far that the colonial rulers enacted legislation for the protection of wildlife. This included the establishment of the first formal protected areas in the Colonies of Natal and Zululand. Today, close to 9% of the province of KwaZulu-Natal (the amalgamation of the fonner province of Natal and the KwaZulu "homeland") is under fonnal protection. From the mid- ] 950s onwards, areas outside the protected area network also became repositories of wildlife and biodiversity. Set in the north-eastern region of KwaZulu-Natal, this is the story of how surplus wild animals from formal conserved protected areas were made available to private land owners for re-establishment of wildlife popu- lations on their properties, and how this sparked the growth of the wildlife indus- try in the region. With the support of the fonner Natal Parks Board, through extension services for wildlife management and a supply of game at subsidised prices, the industry grew to cover 167,394 ha or 6.7% of the region. This growth in the wildlife industry has replaced conventional agricultural practices, primarily domestic stock farming. Apart from the incentives provided by the provincial wildlife depart- ment, this change has been brought about by the growing local and international demand for nature-based experiences (game viewing and hunting); a supportivc policy and legal framework; a normalisation of the agricultural environment and withdrawal of perverse state subsidies; the willingness of business (both local 21 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa and international) to invest in land under wildlife; coastal plains with subtropical forests, mesic grass- and the comparative advantage of wildlife over land, sandy bushveld and sandforest in the east, to cattle operations in a semi-arid environment. This savanna in semi-arid river basins, and also mon- case study clearly demonstrates how biodiversity tane (temperate) forests, grasslands and alpine has been mainstreamed into a thriving local heathonitshighlyingwesternboundary.Theprov- economy with clear benefits for the conservation ince is an important region for subtropical of biodiversity in the long term. agriculture and plantation forestry, and its moun- tainous regions are a source of much of the INTRODUCTION country's water. It is also the most highly popu- lated province in South Africa. Sorne 34% of the After nearly three centuries of transformation of province has been transformed; the major agents the natural landscape for living space, food and of transformation are commercial sugar cane plan- raw materials to meet human needs, the bio- tations (4.4%), commercial tree plantations (6.8%) diversity of South Africa is beginning to benefit and a diverse array of subsistence agricultural ac- from a new forn of land use, based on the con- tivities (8.8%). sumptive and non-consumptive use of wildlife. Our study area covers north-eastern KwaZulu- Game ranching is not only conserving biodiversity Natal and encompasses 24,960 km2 or 26.3% of more effectively but is also yielding greater eco- the province area (Figure 3.1). It comprises a broad, nomic returns and employment opportunities than undulating coastal plain in the east which rises traditional uses such as livestock ranching and gradually to a 1200 m plateau in the west. The agriculture. This chapter describes how this came climate is sub-tropical; rainfall is highly seasonal, about, identifying the factors that underpinned this with 77% of annual rain falling in the hot summer transition and, consequently integrated the sustain- season, between September and March. Rainfall able use of biodiversity into rural land use prac- varies from 1100 to 1200 mm per year along the tices. The study area is north-eastern KwaZulu- coast, to 600 mm in the centre of the study area, Natal, but a similar transition is evident in other and then rises to 1000 mm on the westem plateau. provinces of South Africa, notably in the Eastern Most of the wildlife utilisation sector is based in Cape and Limpopo Province (formerly named the central region where, owing to the torrid sum- Northern Province). At present it is estimated there mer, conditions may be regarded as semi-arid. are approximately 9,000 properties associated with This is an important area for biodiversity, mak- the wildlife utilisation sector in South Africa, cov- ing up a large proportion of the Maputaland Cen- ering 13% of the total land area. This compares to tre of Endemism for plants, and is undoubtedly only 5% covered by statutory or formal protected the richest area for birds in South Africa. Prior to areas (i.e. conservation areas formally protected their extirpation, the area also boasted large herds by national, provincial and local level legislation). of elephant, hippopotamus, rhino, buffalo, wilde- Corresponding data for KwaZulu-Natal Province beest, zebra, impala, nyala, waterbuck and reed- are 8.4% and 2.5%. The growth in the wildlife buck. The high biodiversity in the region is utilisation sector on privately-owned land is grow- explained largely by its intermediate position along ing at a rapid rate both in Kwazulu-Natal and other the tropical to sub-tropical gradient, a geological parts of southern Africa. history spanning many millions of years, a diver- sity of geological substrata, and a varied climate. ECOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NORTH-EASTERN KWAZULU-NATAL Historical background Ecological background The original inhabitants of Zululand and Maputaland were hunter-gatherers, w ho lived with KwaZulu-Natal, comprising an area of 94,860 kin2, little impact on the rich plant and wildlife re- is a province with a wide diversity of landscapes sources of the region. By about 200 A.D. com- and vegetation communities. These range from the munities of cultivators and livestock-keepers with 22 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal Figure 3.1. Location of the study area, north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, with major forms of land use in the year 2000 Land use in NE KwaZulu-Natal W Commercial z Formal Protected 3 Game W Tribal Areas/Communal Wurban PnoaNtr m Crban Reserv oastal Forest ( i Dams & Rivers Reserve fric Greater St Lucia Wetland Park X U l u n S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t Lucia South Africa aZ ulu-Natal Richards Bay knowledge of smelting and smithing had reached velopment of extensive areas of secondary grass- this area as part of a southerly migration down land and woodland. These habitats were then the eastern side of the continent. These people, who maintained by regular fires which also promoted were to become the direct ancestors of today's new forage for livestock. Iron smelting also re- Zulu-speaking communities, gradually expanded, quired large quantities of timber, especially the displacing the original inhabitants to the environ- harder woods like umThombothi (Spirostachys mentally harsh, mountainous terrain on the west- africana); consequently, areas adjacent to smelt- em escarpment. ing sites were cleared. As a result of these activi- Initially, settlements were small with few live- ties, parts of the study area may have changed stock, and were restricted to areas free from Na- from closed woodland and forest to more open gana, the local Zulu name given to sleeping woodland and grassland. sickness or Trypanosomiasis, an indigenous dis- The expanding cattle population became an ease of domestic livestock and humans which is important cultural component of the emerging Zulu harboured by wildlife and transmitted by the tsetse culture in the region, but epidemics of lung sick- fly. As settlements expanded, cultivation of crops ness in the 1 860s and early 1 870s decimated the necessitated the clearing of natural vegetation. Zulu herds. Hunting was an important part of Zulu Although the people were largely sedentary, their culture and the people had many uses for wild ani- practice of shifting cultivation resulted in the de- mals. The impact of this hunting outside of the 23 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa cattle-grazing radius of the homestead was, in the significant protected areas proclaimed in the re- long term, low and probably sustainable, since it gion include Mkhuze Game Reserve in 1912 and was controlled by the king and his subordinate Itala Game Reserve in 1972. chiefs. From the early 1900s, the remaining game popu- Before 1879, the only permanent residents of lations outside protected areas continued to be dras- European origin in the study area were missionar- tically reduced by concession hunters and farmers. ies, storekeepers and traders, who hunted for sub- Nevertheless, game populations in the more remote sistence, and some itinerant hunters. During areas were recovering from the rinderpest epidemic Shaka's rule (1819-1828), fairly tight control was and expanding their range. At the same time sleep- exercised over the hunters, but later, under Mpande ing sickness increased in the advancing livestock (1840-1872), this control was all but lost. From industry. Political pressure from farmers resulted the 1840s on, a lively trade in ivory, rhino horns, in the initiation of game eradication programmes buffalo and other hides was conducted between in the region; in 1917 alone, 25,000 wildebeest local Zulu and Thonga hunters and the visiting were shot in an effort to eradicate the disease. Fur- hunter-traders. Within 50 years of the first penma- ther game eradication programmes were imple- nent settlement of Europeans at Port Natal mented in the study area, mainly in and around (Durban) in 1824, and its development as an active Umfolozi and Mkhuze Game Reserves and on the trading port, those species most sought after by Makhatini Flats. Consequently, many thousands hunters and traders, including the white rhino, were of indigenous herbivores were destroyed. From all but extirpated. The situation was exacerbated 1931 until 1950, extensive game eradication by a rinderpest endemic between 1895 and 1897 programmes (both inside and outside of protected during which many animals, both wild and do- areas), trapping oftsetse flies and later aerial spray- mestic, perished. Kudu, reedbuck and bushbuck ing of DDT, eliminated the tsetse fly over large were affected, but not to the same extent as buf- areas of its fonner range. This tsetse fly eradica- falo. It was estimated that 746,000 head of cattle tion programme, often referred to as the Nagana died or were destroyed throughout South Africa, Campaign, had a major effect on the biodiversity and 80% of the cattle and game in the study area of the region, with both protected areas and the succumbed. surrounding countryside being severely depleted From the 1860s, conservation awareness in the of wildlife. Subsequently, control of the game re- colonies in Africa gained ground, along with the serves was handed back to the Zululand Game establishment of formally proclaimed "game re- Reserves and Parks Advisory Service (established serves". Ironically, it was the British sportsmen- in 1939) who, together with the Department of hunters and officials in the Colony of Natal who Agriculture, controlled the protected areas in the were the first to begin campaigning for the protec- study area until the establishment of the Natal tion of game, largely as a result of the rapid de- Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board in 1947 cline of certain species in the region. A fledgling (later the Natal Parks Board). conservation movement lobbied for the enactment of the first legislation to protect wildlife in the BIRTH AND GROWTH OF THE WILDLIFE colony in 1866 and 1884. These laws were ex- UTILISATION SECTOR tended to Zululand and Thongaland (Maputaland) after the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom in 1879, The first protected area managers in the study area and the annexation of Zululand as a British colony had a "game keeper and protectionist mentality". in 1887. In 1895 the first Zululand game reserves Management involved a high degree of interven- (Umfolozi Junction Reserve, Hluhluwe Valley tion, including destruction of predators ("vermin") Reserve, St Lucia Reserve and Mdletshe Reserve), and introduction to the reserves of alien species were established (Figure 3.1). Previously, in 1894, such as red deer, English pheasants and jacaranda the Pongola Game Reserve was proclaimed by the trees (Jacaranda mimusifolia). Moreover, land- govemment of the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek on owners strongly resisted conservation efforts in the old Transvaal side of the Pongola River. Other their local areas, where hunting for the production 24 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal of biltong (dried and salted meat) was (and still is Figure 3.2. Growth in the area under wildlife to some extent) an important activity amongst utilisation on privately-owned land in north- many white farmers. Protectionist management eastern KwaZulu-Natal approaches also denied access to wildlife and natu- 1200 ral resources to neighbouring Zulu and Thonga communities, something that is still resented to 1J0000 this day. 80000 With the practice of strict protective manage- X ment in statutory protected areas, the remaining 6/ wildlife populations exploded. This coincided with 40000 the onset of a prolonged drought in the late 1950s. It was not long before game managers realised that 20000 in the absence of predators, the 'over population' o of wildlife could cause severe environmental dam- X X 0 0 00 c 0 ° age. The situation was particularly severe in Year Mkhuze Game Reserve; as a result, wildlife popu- lation control programmes were initiated. Night culling was the primary method of control, but some animals were captured live. Initially, cap- unless it is devoted to extensive cropping, utilises tured animals were translocated to other protected game to a greater or lesser extent for commercial areas in the region. Later they were made avail- gain. able free of charge to landowners who were able Almost all wildlife commercialisation has oc- to provide a suitable means of transporting the curred on privately-owned land, which historically animals to their fanrs. According to the reports of had been set aside for white occupation by the the Chief Conservator Zululand between 1956 and Zululand Land Commission in 1904. By contrast, 1964, over 5,000 animals (primarily impala) were commercial game ranching of wildlife on commu- given to landowners to restock their farms. This nal land (land reserved for the Zulu people) has proved to be the critical catalyst for the birth of been negligible. the wildlife utilisation sector in the study area. Out Over the last 200 years, land use in the study of these modest beginnings, both the game cap- area has done a complete cycle. From largely wild- ture and the game ranching industry in Zululand life-based (the wildlife utilisation and hunting era were bom, and in the late 1960s the Natal Game of the early 1 800s) through various forms of agri- Ranchers' Association was formed. cultural use, including cattle and crop agriculture, Up until the late 1970s, statutory protected ar- it is now reverting back to wildlife. This shift in eas were small and surrounded by large tracts of land use has been associated with many benefits communal or privately-owned land that were used for biodiversity conservation. A pertinent question for agricultural purposes, primarily cattle hus- is whether there are any overwhelming ecologi- bandry, with lesser areas devoted to cotton, sisal, cal, economic or social reasons for this change and sugar and citrus fruits. From the mid-1970s, wild- whether these are likely to be sustained in the fu- life utilisation expanded on former agricultural ture. In other words, how has biodiversity been land, encouraged by support from the Natal Parks mainstreamed into land use in the study area? Board in the form of subsidised game sales and a wildlife extension service which provided free ECOLOGICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL advice on wildlife management. The area is now UNDERPINNING OF THE WILDLIFE the major centre for wildlife utilisation in UTILISATION SECTOR KwaZulu-Natal. In 2000, it was estimated that 16.6% of the land surface in this region was under The notion of wildlife utilisation as an altemative formal protection while a further 6.7% comprised to domestic livestock emanated from early propo- game ranches (see Figure 3.2). Virtually every farm, nents of game ranching in the 1 960s who based 25 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa their arguments on several untested assertions, Secondary production from a wildlife sys- namely: tem has, in all instances, been found to be inferior to that from domestic stock. In ret- • Wildlife herbivore communities would sus- rospect this is understandable, since domes- tain a higher biomass than domestic stock tic stock have been bred for productivity, on the same area of veld (rangeland) and, while natural selection has favoured survival therefore, were assumed to be more produc- rather than production in wildlife. tive than domestic livestock systems. o While spatial and temporal separation of • Domestic livestock systems, largely domi- habitat use has been demonstrated in wild- nated by cattle, would make use of only a life systems, (i.e. different species use habi- small proportion of the available forage, tat in different ways and at different times) namely grasses. This, in association with fire wildlife use is characterised by large degrees protection measures, would result in a rela- of overlap, with only a few species showing tive imbalance between the use of the herba- a clear-cut habitat separation. What is quite ceous and woody components of savanna evident, however, is that there is not a het- ecosystems and lead to the encroachment and erogeneous mix of all species across the land- densification of woody vegetation. This scape, but instead, a dominance of a few would lead to a substantial reduction in the species in different areas of the landscape. productivity of the grass component and an Similarly, studies of the diet of wild herbi- accompanying loss in the herbaceous diver- vores show large overlaps in the plant parts sity of rangelands. On the other hand, an in- and plant species consumed by the different tact wildlife community with a range of species. This leads to a more even spread of grazers, browsers and mixed feeders would the utilisation pressure across plant species utilise all fodder resources, thereby maintain- in wildlife systems. ing a balance between herbaceous and woody o On the other hand, the distribution of feed- components, with greater productivity ing pressure has been shown to be more achieved and more diversity of both the her- evenly spread by height class; consequently, bivore community and vegetation. there is a more even use of the available re- o The wild herbivore community, comprising sources by wildlife than domestic livestock between 10 and 20 different species, each systems. with their own dependence on water and pref- erence for the available habitat, would be able Thus while wildlife cannot compare with do- to make better use of the spatial pattern in- mestic stock in terms of secondary productivity, herent in savanna vegetation. the broader but overlapping use of the landscape, o Through utilising different plant species and plant height, species and plant part spectrum al- plant parts, different species of wild herbivore, lows a greater flexibility in resource use in wild- would make more even use of the available life systems, imparting a greater degree of stability vegetation and thus lead to higher productiv- to the management system. As a by-product, the ity while maintaining plant diversity. diversity of wild herbivores is maintained, along o Having evolved with the suite of livestock with the diversity of interactions and processes diseases which are prevalent in Africa, the operating at the local and landscape levels. wildlife has become disease-resistant; con- Nevertheless, it is not the ecological merits of sequently, the cost of controlling disease wildlife that have driven the shift in land use from would be much less for wildlife than for do- domestic stock and other farming activities to wild- mestic livestock systems. life, but economic and possibly social advantages. From an economic perspective, a growing body of While many of these assertions have been chal- work indicates that the financial returns from game lenged by researchers over the ensuing years, several ranching are comparable to returns from cattle important generalisations have emerged, namely: ranching. However, the marginal nature of domes- 26 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal tic cattle enterprises in semi-arid environments now establishing populations of plains game spe- makes diversification to include wildlife a logical cies such as wildebeest and zebra to replace the option. Multi-species production systems provide cattle. Finally, attention turned to the re-establish- the manager with opportunities to lessen financial ment of the 'Big Five' (elephant, rhino, buffalo, risk in a variable and unpredictable environment. lion and leopard) sought after by the international This has been illustrated in Zimbabwe where it is tourist market. In order to accommodate these spe- argued that the comparative advantage of wildlife cies in an environment where the adjacent farmers over cattle operations has fuelled the transition to continued to canry out more conventional farming wildlife. The comparative advantage of wildlife in practices, land owners and investors had to expend rain-fed production systems lies in the addition of large amounts of money on game fencing. To ac- economic tiers to the production process through commodate the more discerning tourist, upmarket safari hunting and ecotourism. These are not avail- lodges and camps were established. Crop agricul- able to cattle ranchers. In practice, whether by de- ture, particularly irrigated crops, was abandoned sign or accident, there has been a gradual move or restricted to the more fertile soils close to wa- from cattle-based land use to land use dominated ter. These lands were also the most productive from by wildlife. The adoption of this land use over time a wildlife perspective and hence the competition can be recognised as a linear sequence of events between the two land uses, wildlife and crops, was on almost every ranch. greatest here. The land use on most northern Zululand farms The switch from cattle and crop agriculture to or ranches in the early 1 960s was dominated by game was, in most cases, not complete. Most farm- cattle. Wildlife was generally sparse with restricted ers (up to 80%) were more cautious and practised remnant populations of the more common species a mixed, flexible land use (cattle and game), with such as duiker, impala, kudu, common reedbuck bed and breakfast accommodation catering for lo- and, in places, bushbuck and mountain reedbuck. cal tourists and hunters. The full transition only This wildlife had little impact on farming activi- took place in instances which contributed to the ties and was generally ignored, except for the oc- security of the operation, involving either foreign casional animal that was taken for the pot. investment or partnership in a larger cooperative As wildlife populations grew, some of the more venture. common species (impala) were thought to be com- peting with cattle for grazing, while others (e.g. BENEFITS TO BIODIVERSITY OF THE reedbuck and bush pig) started causing crop dam- WILDLIFE UTILISATION SECTOR age and low levels of 'problem animal' hunting began. As wild populations expanded, both in size Game ranching, or any other form of wildlife and distribution, culling and hunting began, in the utilisation on private land, has the potential to con- late 1970s and early 1980s, encouraged by the tribute significantly to the conservation of bio- emerging market for game meat and the local mar- diversity from the broad ecosystem and landscape ket for game biltong. At the same time, rarer wild- level down to the genetic level. However, this con- life species (e.g. nyala and white rhino) became tribution depends on the geographical position of available for purchase at subsidised prices from the land, the position of the property in relation to local protected areas, and farmers began purchas- formal protected areas, the size of the property, ing and restocking their ranches, specifically for the management philosophy and the quality of the emerging trophy hunting market. In many in- management. stances the combination of the complementary land In north eastem KwaZulu-Natal, game ranches uses of meat and trophy hunting proved lucrative make many positive contributions to the conser- and comparable to the returns from cattle. vation of biodiversity at the landscape and ecosys- Gradually, cattle began to be phased out in tem levels. Probably most important is the favour of wildlife to cater for the safari hunting facilitation of linkages or stepping stones between and nature tourism market. This involved much the somewhat isolated formal protected areas (see more active wildlife management, with ranchers Figure 3.1). In a semi-arid landscape where survival 27 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa of species is subject to the vagaries of a variable over the erection of game-proof fencing has had a climate, the ability for animals to move, either by major impact on the mobility of large herbivores migration or gradual colonisation, is an important and carnivores. From the species perspective, many survival strategy. A wildlife-friendly environment large herbivores and predators which are confined between strict protected areas is a critical, often by the fencing exist in small non-viable popula- unappreciated, contribution that game ranches tions. Without active management, these will not make to enhancing biodiversity. Game ranches can survive in the long term, and neither will they con- also contribute to the conservation status of com- tribute to the viability and stability of the regional munities and habitats which are poorly protected or meta-population. It is evident that the conser- in the formal protected area network. In the case vation of the genetic integrity of local wildlife study area, two plant communities endemic to the populations is a rather low priority amongst pri- province, but not protected in the network of for- vate game ranch owners. This is evicdenced by small mal protected areas, were found on game ranches. population sizes, lack of meta-population manage- Moreover the protection status of 17 of the 19 broad ment strategies and the common practice of ac- habitat types found in the region was enhanced. quiring stock from distant sources and from sources With respect to landscape and community level that are unlikely to be compatible with locally processes, game ranching brings back many of the adapted stock. original large herbivore species. The most signifi- Nonetheless, these apparently negative aspects, cant re-establishments are the megaherbivores, are far outweighed by the positive contribution that such as elephant and black rhino, which can have the game ranching industry makes towards the disproportionately large impacts on the environ- conservation of biodiversity in the region. More- ment. Large predators such as lion, leopard and over, improvements which would reduce the nega- cheetah have also been re-established. The re- tive impacts on biodiversity and enhance the establishment of the most important keystone positive contribution could be brought about by species are vital in reinstating ecosystem-level the following actions: processes such as herbivory, predation and competition. o Development of partnerships between land- At the species level, by actively establishing and owners and conservation authorities, and be- managing the larger herbivore and predatory spe- tween adjacent landowners, facilitating the cies, game ranch managers have not only enhanced removal of barriers between properties and the status of these species (e.g. elephant, white the re-instatement of broader landscape level rhino, black rhino, lion, leopard, wild dog), but processes for the larger mammals. This would also enhanced the survival prospects of wider-rang- naturally enhance the effective population ing species, whose populations are not entirely sizes of rare, wide-ranging species as well. secured in the formal protected areas. The most o Sensitising managers to issues affecting land- significant of these species are the mammalian scape and community level processes and predators and raptors, including the vultures and dynamics, for example artificial water distri- eagles that are still persecuted on land dedicated bution, fire, predation, competition and the to agriculture. impacts of harvesting. On the down side, and stemming from the ear- 0 Sensitising managers to the issues affecting lier land use of many of the ranches, many impor- short-tern genetic integrity of populations. tant landscape level processes have not been reinstated yet. These include the impact of the ag- TEd EIABLIRIM EINIVIRONMENT riculturally-designed network of water points on landscape processes, such as the seasonal move- Biodiversity has been mainstreamed by switching ment of large herbivore species that are water- from a land use dependent on alien domestic live- dependent; and the use of fire, which plays an stock and crop species, to one that depends on important role in plant succession, nutrient recy- indigenous species and landscapes. This is not cling and the patterns of veld utilisation. More- only enhancing the long term conservation of 28 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal biodiversity, but is the major driving force behind been the almost compete lack of its adoption by the economic growth and social development of Zulu communities living in the communal areas. the region. Critical factors in this process include: The most likely factors that have inhibited the de- velopment of game ranching and ecotourism in * the commitment of early conservationists and communal lands are: legislators who recognised the need for for- mal protected areas which later provided the * lack of appropriate social structures and skills seed stock for re-establishing extirpated wild- in the community to manage, on an equitable life populations. basis, a complex wildlife and ecotourism * the dedication and insight of the early Natal project on communal land. Parks Board officials who successfully pio- l land hunger felt by a community that has been neered live game capture techniques, and deprived of its land by a century of colonial, wildlife management solutions on private and then authoritarian and discriminatory, land through the farm game extension service. governments. * normalisation of the agricultural economy of * the social and economic importance placed the country through the withdrawal of gov- on the individual ownership of domestic live- emnment subsidies for domestic cattle ranch- stock, whereas wildlife is customarily con- ing, fencing and transport subsidies for sidered as owned by no one and free for all. agricultural produce (e.g. sugar cane). * distrust of the motives of government agen- * development of formally-constituted bodies cies seen to be furthering the cause of wild- (e.g. the Natal Game Ranchers Association) life and biodiversity, apparently at the to represent and further the interests of the expense of people's livelihoods. game ranching fraternity. * a legal framework that supported private land Despite the numerous attempts at developing ownership, and private ownership of wild- community-based wildlife and ecotourism in the life resources. study area, none can truly claim long-term * support to, and incentives for, wildlife ranch- sustainability; this is an important challenge for ing as a land use, through the free and sub- the future. Indeed sustainability remains a chal- sidised provision of wildlife and wildlife lenge for the whole sector since the wildlife in- extension services to prospective and exist- dustry is directly linked to the ecotourism and ing game ranchers. hunting markets. While the current market appears * revenue generated from game sales by for- far from saturated, a shift in the world economy, mal conservation bodies which has been re- political acceptability or security status of the re- turned to the organisations to fund improved gion could easily trigger a slump. The current biodiversity management. This has stimu- growth in the industry would appear to be fuelling lated enlightened and efficient management a high demand for live game. For instance, rev- of formal protected areas in the region. enue from the annual KwaZulu-Natal wildlife game * the opportunities created by the change in auction has continued to grow since its inception national governance, making the country ac- (Figure 3.3). This growth has resulted primarily ceptable and attractive to foreign investment, from an increase in the per head price of the ani- and a desirable tourist destination. The avail- mals as opposed to an increase in the number of ability of foreign capital has been critical in animals sold. the development of upmarket ecotourism destinations. CONCLUSIONS CURRENT AND FUTURE PROBLEMS Game ranching and its supporting activities, namely sport hunting and non-consumptive Perhaps the greatest disappointment thus far in the nature-based tourism in KwaZulu-Natal, and South developing wildlife and ecotourism industry has Africa as a whole, provides an excellent example 29 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Figure 3.3. Growth in revenue from the quality service staff that are generally drawn from lKwaZulu-Natal wildlife annual game auction the local population and trained to provide this and animals sold at eachQ auction service. The growing demand for nature-based 40 - _ _ _ experiences from a large, interested and well- 350 Animals Sold X~ 1 o sensitised South African market, as well as a grow- U Total e~'enue i om anoing foreign clientele, has providedi the economic 30- 25 _______________________ incentive to transform land formerly under agri- >9 25 - _ ~. culture, and cattle, back to indigenous vegetation e 20 and wildlife. ,,, 15 - C _ _ _ > Although some of the negative impacts of do- E 10 - _ _ . _ r F [ mestic livestock ranching and cropping still exist < 5 - . < _ [ L [ [ [ on most transformed lands, the gains in biodiversity O - . 1 11 Fl, ] l n ] ri j L j k t L X have been enormous. For instance, in the space of X O. c o L 25 years Mkhuze Game Reserve, once isolated and O2 O O => 0 a) ° surrounded by hostile land uses, is now connected Year to large tracts of private and jointly managed wild- life estate. Similarly, many species once rare in the region are now common or secure as a result of this extended estate. On the other hand, the di- of the mainstreaming of biodiversity into the pro- rect impact of activities associated with game duction landscape. Numerous policies instituted ranching and nature tourism has been negligible, by the former Natal Parks Board and its succes- and certainly smaller than that experienced under sor, KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, encouraged the de- agriculture, being restricted mainly to the devel- velopment of the wildlife industry in the province opment of eco-friendly lodges and camps. There and facilitated the wise use of this resource. These is little doubt that the activity depends on the sus- included granting of full ownership rights of wild- tainable and wise use of resources. Without wild- life to landholders; generous incentives such as life and the natural landscape, there would be no free donations of wildlife and later wildlife at hunters and no tourists; both biodiversity and the subsidised prices; and the provision of a free ex- economy would be losers. tension service for farm game that both encour- aged and supported the rational use of wildlife under private ownership. Not only was wildlife ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS management supported, but so too was hunter proficiency, through the setting of standards, While it is clear that many individuals and teams hunter proficiency testing and training. At a na- had an important role to play in the development tional level, policy implementations such as the of the wildlife industry in north eastern Zululand, Lubombo Spatial Development initiative, which three stand out as having played a pivotal role. Peter recognises the region's indigenous biodiversity Potter, Chief Conservator Zululand (1950-1963) as its primary asset, have reinforced government's led the team that pioneered the capture and trans- commitment to conservation of biodiversity location of impala from Mkhuze. From these small where this is appropriate. beginnings of individual capture, a large and so- To date there is little doubt of the synergy be- phisticated industry specialising in the mass cap- tween this thriving economic sector and gains in ture, transport and marketing of wildlife has the security of the province's biological resources. developed. Without these tools and methods and A wide variety of wildlife, managed under near the personalities that developed thern, the growth pristine conditions, attracts the discerning nature in the industry would have happened far slower, if tourist or hunter who demands high standards of at all. The Farm Game Extension Service of the service and accommodation, and is prepared to pay former Natal Parks Board, under the able leader- for it. This in turn creates the demand for high ship of Mike Mentis, provided an invaluable service 30 Wildlife Utilisation: Its Role in Fostering Biodiversity Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal to pioneer game ranchers during a time when little Conservation by Sustainable Use, pp. 335-387. was known of wildlife management. The Sport Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. Hunting Extension Service of the former Natal Dasmann, R.F.1964. African Game Ranching Perga- Parks Board which superseded the Extension Ser- mon Press Ltd, London. vice was headed by Spud Ludbrook. He formed Duminy, A. and Guest, B. (eds) 1989. Natal and valuable partnerships with the hunting fraternity Zululand from Earliest Times to 1910. A NewHis- in the region, and established and implemented a tory. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg. set of acceptable standards for hunter proficiency. Grossman, D, Holden, P.L. and Collinson, R.F.H. 1999. Veld management on the game ranch. In: N.M. Tainton (ed.). Veld Management in South Africa, pp AUTHORS' AFFILIATIONS 261-279. University of Natal Press, Pietermarizburg. James, B.M. and Goodman, P.S. 2001. Nature Tour- P. S. Goodman is with KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, ism and Conservation. Ecological Study. World Cascades. Bank Report, Washington. B. James is with Brousse-James and Associates, Krug, J. 2001. Private Supply of Protected Land in Cascades. Southem Afnca: A Review ofMarkets, Approaches, L. Carlisle is with the Conservation Corpora- Barriers and Issues. Workshop Paper. World Bank/ tion of Africa, Phinda Resource Reserve, Mfolozi. OESD International Workshop on Market Creation for Biodiversity Products and Services, Paris, Janu- ary 2001. FURTHER READING Van Wyk, A.E. and Smith, G.F. 2001. Regions of Flo- ristic Endemism in Southern Africa. Umdaus Press, Child, B. 2000. Making wildlife pay: converting Hatfield, South Africa. wildlife's comparative advantage into real incen- Walker, B.H. 1976. An assessment of the ecological tives for having wildlife in African savannas, case basis of game ranching in southern African savan- studies from Zimbabwe and Zambia. In: H.H.T. nas. Proceedings of the Grassland Society of Soutl Prins, J.G. Grootenhuis, T.T. Dolan (eds.). Wildlife Africa 11:125-130. 31 s -n Biodiversity Conservation in Plantation Forestry K. E. Kirkman and R. McC. Pott SUMMARY This chapter traces the mainstreaming of biodiversity in the forestry industry since the early, unrestrained expansion of insensitive afforestation. South Afri- can indigenous forests covered only a very tiny area, and were heavily exploited by the European settlers. However, from 1888 onwards, the remaining forests were afforded legal protection. This restriction on natural timber resources, to- gether with the increasing demand for timber by the developing gold mines, growing railways and expanding population, led to the birth of plantation for- estry. The first plantings, using fast-growing exotic tree species, were often envi- ronmentally unfriendly with high water use, and led to habitat destruction and a local loss of biodiversity. Furthermore, these alien species proved to be aggres- sive invaders of natural habitats. In 1972, the introduction of the Afforestation Permit System placed restric- tions on the area that could be afforested. In 1988 a forestry industry working group was convened and self-regulating conservation guidelines were produced. With regular revisions, these guidelines have greatly improved forestry practices and reduced negative impacts. Legislative changes after 1994 reinforced the need to conserve biodiversity and minimise impacts. The Afforestation Permit Sys- tem was revised to incorporate biodiversity through mandatory environmental impact assessment. In addition, international standards brought pressures to bear on forestry practices. As a consequence, formal environmental management sys- tems, such as SO 14001, were adopted and the industry strived towards Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification for good management, which includes the conservation of biodiversity. South Africa has the largest percentage of FSC- certified plantations in the world. 33 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa INTRODUCTION regions (Box 4.1). These areas are often characteri- sed by high levels of plant endemism. The rarity South Africa's natural landscape is largely tree- of some of these endemics makes them particu- less, with only 0.33% of total land area covered in larly vulnerable to extinction from drastic habitat indigenous forest. The largest continuous forest is alteration. The establishment of plantation forests found around Knysna on the south coast, and the has undoubtedly had an effect on biodiversity but rest occurs as patches distributed across the sub- quantification of the severity of this effect is diffi- continent. The extent of natural forests has not been cult. Critics contend that afforestation creates "bio- sufficient to provide the many wood products re- logical deserts" by replacing natural communities quired to satisfy the country's needs. The limita- and species with alien trees. Proponents, however, tions of the resource became evident soon after point to the fact that modern plantations consist of the arrival of the Dutch in the Cape in 1652, and both planted and unplanted areas in the ratio of the arrival of the English in the Eastern Cape and about 3:1. This means that of the total plantation Natal in 1820. Colonisation led to rapid depletion estate in South Africa, about 500,000 ha are in a of indigenous forest patches, and the uncontrolled natural state and will never be planted. They are, exploitation of the forests of the Cape and Natal in so to speak, in the biodiversity bank. Because of the 1700s and 1800s. The indigenous forests in the mosaic configuration of this unplanted area, the areas later to become the provinces of the East- and because much of it is made up of species-rich em Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga fared wetlands, riparian zones and indigenous forest, the little better. Attempts to regulate exploitation led opportunities for conserving biodiversity in plan- to the first comprehensive forest law in 1859, and tation forestry are actually higher than for most to the Forest Act for the Cape Colony in 1888, other forms of land use. aimed at slowing down the rate of exploitation and improving forest management. Prior to legislation During the late 1880s to the early 1900s, popu- lation expansion, gold-rushes, and the development As knowledge and understanding of the value of of railways increased the demand for building unspoiled natural environments grew, there was materials, sleepers and mining timber. It was increasing public pressure on plantation forestry recognised that timber exploitation of slow grow- companies to improve the conservation of ing and finite-resource indigenous forests in South biodiversity and threatened habitats. At the same Africa would never be sustainable. Most local in- time, within many plantation forestry companies, digenous tree species are not suited to plantation knowledge and understanding of the importance conditions. This necessitated the establishment of of biodiversity conservation also increased. Plan- commercial plantations of fast growing exotic spe- tation forestry is intimately linked to the environ- cies, notably Eucalyptus, Acacia and pine species ment, and many staff within plantation forestry from Australia, North America and the Mediter- companies had a keen sense of environmental re- ranean basin to meet the need for timber prod- sponsibility and an appreciation for the concept of ucts. Today, indigenous forests in South Africa sustainability. In 1975 S.A. Forest Investments are primarily maintained for conservation pur- Ltd.-later to become Mondi Forests--broke new poses, with limited and sustainable harvesting ground by creating an Environmental Conserva- according to systematic, controlled methods. It tion Section. This was the first time that a private is the plantation forests of alien species which company became actively engaged in environmen- provide much of the hard and soft wood require- tal self-regulation in South Africa. This was a vol- ments of the country. untary development, and had its roots in the desire to manage the land and natural assets of the com- PLANTATION FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY pany in a wise and responsible manner. The process of mainstreaming biodiversity Many plantation forestry areas of South Africa are within plantation forestry had already started before situated in the country's most biologically diverse the decision to include biodiversity sustainability 34 Biodiversity Conservation in Plantation Forestry Box 4.1. Plantation forestry in South Africa Plantation forestry encompasses the planting, tending and harvesting of exotic timber species, notably pine, acacia and eucalyptus species, in a non-forest habitat. Plantation forestry is a long term investment, with tree rotations of up to 35 years. This industry is not to be confused with indigenous forestry, which would include harvesting trees from indigenous forests. In a country with limited indigenous forests, industrial-scale forestry plantations of exotic trees have been planted mostly in non-forest habitats such as grassland and fynbos shrublands, and are essential to provide the timber requirements of the country. The most important impacts of afforestation can be summarised as: * effects on hydrology (e.g. reduced stream flow), * changes to habitat and biodiversity, * increase in habitat for species adapted to alien tree species plantations with a decrease in habitat for non-adapted species, * possible changes in soil nutrient status and associated micro-organisms, * changes to the landscape (e.g. plantation forest-covered hills instead of grasslands). In the Southern Hemisphere, South Africa currently has the third largest, and one of the oldest, planta- tion resource areas and holds half of Africa's planted area. South Africa is among the world leaders in research on the management of industrial-scale timber plantations. Plantation forestry was also the first industry to include the environment in the formal training of its practitioners. The total plantation area of South Africa, comprising 1.5 million ha of equal areas of softwood and hardwood species, produces both softwood and saw-timber from the world's largest pruned softwood resource. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry statistics (August 1998) show that 41% of plantations are in Mpumalanga, 30% in KwaZulu- Natal and I1% in the Eastern Cape. Commercial plantations contribute significantly to the South African economy, adding 4.4 % to the Gross Domestic Product (for 1996). The industry provides employment, both directly and indirectly for nearly 200,000 people, mostly in rural areas. This equates to an economic support base for more than one million people. within legislation. The forestry industry proactively ciples was also initiated in most major plantation formed a wide spectrum working group in 1988, forestry companies by 1995, while the implemen- which in 1990 produced a document, entitled tation of environmental management systems such "Guidelines for the Application of Conservation as ISO 14001, was being investigated by most of Practices in Plantation Forestry". The original the major companies by 2000. working group later reconstituted as the Forestry Industry Environmental Committee, which revised The development of forestry legislation the original work to produce the "Guidelines for in South Africa Environmental Conservation Management in Com- mercial Forests in South Africa" in 1995. These During the development of the plantation forestry guidelines were widely adopted as an industry stan- industry, management and legislation underwent dard, with different companies working together numerous revisions, as knowledge, understanding to improve their environmental management. A and management improved. Prior to 1972 the main coordinated approach to environmental manage- objective of the plantation forester was to plant up ment proved a key factor in mainstreaming as much of a given area as possible. One of the biodiversity in the forestry sector. The subscrip- inevitable impacts was a reduction in the mean tion to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) prin- annual run-off of rivers whose catchments were 35 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa heavily afforested, especially in low flow periods (EIA) legislation (in terms of the National Water and in droughts (see Chapter 2). This led to a con- Act of 1998 and the National Environmental Man- flict situation with the agricultural sector, which agement Act of 1998) have further refined the claimed that they could not irrigate winter crops process, and integrated the conservation of to the previous extent. Concern about limited wa- biodiversity. Rigid process requirements, which ter supplies became a key factor in mainstreaming include detailed fauna and flora surveys, and the biodiversity, and the government responded to determination of the minimum water reserve, en- agricultural concerns by amending the Forest Act. sure that forestry development will n-iot take place This led to the afforestation permit system in 1972, without due consideration of conservation-worthy applied by an interdepartmental committee, which areas. would scrutinise, and approve or reject, all appli- Prior to 1994, forestry policy focused largely cations to afforest new land, or to re-afforest land on protecting man-made plantations on State for- that had been fallow for more than five years. It est land and to a much lesser degree woodlands. was based solely on estimated water usage. Cer- In 1994, the institution of a new government, keen tain catchments were closed to future afforesta- to incorporate democratisation policies into legis- tion and a certain percentage of planting was lation, brought the need for substantial forest policy allowed in others. The permit imposed restrictions revision, which became another key factor in on where trees could be planted and it specified mainstreaming biodiversity. areas that had to be left unplanted. With the publication of the Forestry White Pa- Although the permit system concentrated on per on Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) in streams, springs and wetlands, it had the additional 1996, government comnmitted itself to a totally new benefit of creating inter-connecting corridors be- task of identification, selection, consultation, moni- tween open areas. This had the significant and toring and evaluation of acceptable sustainable immediate effect of ensuring a greater proportion forest development (Box 4.2). The national gov- of forestry estates remaining unplanted. While the ernment recognised that the forestry industry original intention was to reduce water consump- should demonstrate its environmental sustain- tion, a beneficial consequence was an increase in ability, and commit to working with other stake- the opportunity to conserve biodiversity. Improve- holders to develop legally-recognised principles, ments in the afforestation perrnit system, and the criteria and indicators for sustainable forest man- development of environmental impact assessment agement (SFM) for South Africa. 30H U. gNRuNPu@, cruasOf and MnaCztm (M)u Erzl SL3421z roposed Greater Addo' lEle'p'hant NlationaW Park....................... mTOrrOstrial Zo*.... .. I..... Marine zone . . . . . . .o ..... . . . . . L.) . 3 Kilomteis A.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . .! 1 . . . . N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 The Greater Addo National Park Initiative: Linking Biodiversity Conservation to Socio-economic Development the key features and advantages of the GANP fol- reptilian and amphibian fauna. The proposed park's lows (details are available at http://www.zoo. domain will hold five species of tortoise, the most upe.ac.za/teru). diverse land tortoise fauna in the world within1 a The proposed park will be some 398,000 hect- single conservation area. The proposed park will ares in size, comprising a 341,000 ha terrestrial also contribute significantly to the conservation of zone and a 57,000 ha marine zone (Figure 6.2). a range of threatened freshwater and estuarine fish The former includes almost 90 km of the Sundays species, and also a number of threatened inverte- River, while the marine zone includes the Bird and brates, including two rare butterfly species, an en- St Croix island groups in the Indian Ocean. This demic dune grasshopper and the flightless dung continuous conservation area, over 200 km in beetle. length, will be the third largest national park in The proposed park will conserve an impressive South Africa. It will be geomorphologically and array of plant species, ranging from the desert- biotically the most diverse conservation area in adapted succulents in the Karoo to the stately trees South Africa, and probably one of the most di- of the Alexandria coastal forest. It is characterised verse in the world. It will be unique in including by a wide range and high diversity of plant spe- examples of six of the seven biomes in South Af- cies, and by the close proximity of several very rica, as well as a diverse marine component, and it different and unrelated vegetation types. Part of will contribute significantly to South Africa's con- the Albany Hotspot, recognised as a global centre servation requirements. The near pristine Alexan- of plant biodiversity, falls within the park. The dria coastal dunefield is the largest, most proposed park and its surrounds also include an impressive, coastal dunefield in South Africa, and important and interesting palaeontological record, one of the most spectacular in the world. The consisting of a range of plant and animal fossils; GANP will also offer some protection to fragile these include dinosaur bones and unique fossil fish and threatened river systems, with the Sundays deposits. River estuary being of particular conservation The fact that the GANP includes areas of six significance. biomes ensures that at least some of these biocli- The Bird and St Croix island groups are of great matic regions will persist there in the face of glo- conservation value. They support the largest popu- bal climate change. In this regard the marked lation of the threatened African penguin, and the altitudinal variation over a relatively short distance largest Cape gannet colony, in the world, as well within the proposed park boundary is noteworthy. as a range of other species of special conservation It will also provide an array of ecosystem services, significance, e.g. the Cape fur seal. The marine ranging from the conservation of biodiversity to zone also supports populations of threatened, and the provision of clean air and water, retention of ecologically and economically, important species, soil and opportunities for carbon sequestration. e.g. reef and game fish, bottle-nosed dolphins and humpback dolphins, southern right whales and KEY FACTORS IN MAINSTREAMING Bryde's whales, and great white sharks, which are THE GANP INITIATIVE also all important ecotourism draw cards. Particular attractions in the proposed park will The national government has been vigorously pro- be the megaherbivores (elephant, black rhinoceros, moting tourism in South Africa since 1994, as it hippopotamus) and other charismatic animals, regards tourism as a major economic development ranging from the large predators such as lion and opportunity for the country (Box 6.1). The GANP cheetah, to an endemic, flightless dung beetle. The proposal was therefore timely, and was formulated park will include the "Big Five" (lion, leopard, in full recognition of this national priority. The suc- elephant, rhinoceros, Cape buffalo), a feature criti- cessful mainstreaming of the GANP initiative has cal for tourism success. With over 400 species, it come about because of recognition in key political will provide habitat for almost half of the bird spe- circles that it has outstanding potential to provide cies recorded in South Africa, and it will also play sustainable socio-economic development options a significant role in conserving the region's diverse in an area where poverty is rife and increasing. 61 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Prime targets included politicians, local com- B s z w6 LDE;DO munities, farmers groups, service groups, I, .: r 3$ 6(lG academics, and conservation NGOs. A criti- cal feature of this process was the proponents' The key feature to the acceptance of the GANP willingness to engage these groups in open initiative by government and other sectors has debate and argue the merits of the proposal, been the explicit recognition of the tourism po- and pay attention to the concerns and issues tential of the proposal. The opportunity to expe- raised by these stakeholders. rience examples of Africa's spectacular fauna in o A NGO support group specifically for GANP their natural environment, in a malaria-free zone, was established and it has been actively is recognised as a major attraction. A unique fea- lobbying for the initiative. ture is the combination of the terrestrial "Big Five" with elements of marine fauna such as An important step was the involvement of do- whales, dolphins and sharks. The variety of land- nor agencies. The Humane Society of the United scapes has the potential to extend the tourism States and International Fund for Animal Welfare value of the proposed park, with tourists being (IFAW) were already supporting the AENP land able to spend a number of days at a single desti- purchases (for elephant habitat), through the ini- nation while their experiences range from desert tiative of SANP. The GANP proposal reinforced to rainforest to the sea, and from lions to pen- IFAW's commitment to provide financial support guins. The GANP proposal explicitly links the for the expansion of the AENP for elephant con- conservation of biodiversity with human devel- servation. Additionally, the GANP initiative pro- opment, with the focus on the long-term vided the incentive for the donation of sustainability. US$ 750,000 by the Leslie Hill Succulent Karoo Trust for land purchases specifically for succulent plant conservation, the first expansion of the park for biodiversity conservation in the broader sense. During 1998, representatives of the World Bank recommended that the GANP concept be devel- The GANP proposal was launched in a briefing oped for GEF support; a project was prepared and to the National Parliamentary Portfolio Commit- approved for GEF support in 2002. tee for Environment and Tourism, an influential During February 1999, a GANP stakeholder body in the political arena. As part of the strategic workshop was held at the University of Port Eliza- approach to mainstreaming GANP, the following beth (UPE), supported financially by GEF, SANP, actions were undertaken. UPE and the University of Cape Town, and with participation by 170 delegates representing a wide • The GANP report was widely disseminated, range of stakeholder interests. Arising from the by making it available on the internet and extensive debate at this workshop, there was a circulating copies to key stakeholders, includ- unanimous declaration of support for the concept ing local, regional and national politicians and by the stakeholders. SANP was tasked with the government agencies, conservation authori- implementation of the GANP proposal. ties, NGOs, academics and land use decision- Subsequent to the workshop, the Addo Forum makers. (a community liaison body previously established o Wide coverage in the local and national print by SANP) was reconstituted in order to maintain and electronic media was achieved through and promote the ongoing interaction between the dissemination of the proposal, and SANP and GANP stakeholders. Besides SANP, through the proponents making themselves stakeholders include the Eastern Cape Department available for interviews. of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism, o Numerous presentations were made to a wide Eastern Cape Agricultural Union, Department of range of stakeholders and interest groups. Land Affairs, local and regional municipalities, 62 The Greater Addo National Park Initiative: Linking Biodiversity Conservation to Socio-economic Development Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Eastern PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED Cape Tourism Board, the Wildlife and Environ- ment Society of South Africa and representatives After the GANP stakeholder workshop there was of local communities and business interests. a loss of momentum for the GANP proposal, largely due to a nine-month delay in establishing MEASURES OF MAINSTREAMING and staffing the SANP project office in Port Eliza- THE GANP INITIATIVE beth. Furthermore, SANP scientific staff trans- ferred to Port Elizabeth have had to deal with the Support for the GANP proposal was formalised in GANP proposal in addition to their previous re- a documented declaration of support from the sponsibilities in parks beyond the borders of the stakeholders workshop in 1999. Public support has Eastern Cape Province. As a consequence, land- been strong, and importantly has included that of owners in the GANP domain became disgruntled politicians from across the political spectrum. The due to the lack of follow-up information about GANP proposal is included in the national bio- SANP's commitment to, and progress with, the regional policy of the Department of Environmen- GANP proposal. At the same time there was a lack tal Affairs and Tourism. Although some stake- of follow-up media coverage. Thus, the GANP holders (primarily agriculturalists) have raised proposal, which had a very high public profile up concerns, these have been of a relatively minor to this point, virtually disappeared from the public nature and there have been no major dissenting eye. This is in strong contrast to the competing voices. Concerns include such issues as the tim- Coega development (see below) which maintained ing of the implementation of the concept, the fate a very strong media profile, thereby assuring itself of farm workers, family burial graveyards and the of strong and ongoing political support, at national, mechanisms of change of landownership. provincial, regional and local levels. A number of awards made to the proponents of The GANP initiative unwittingly found itself the GANP proposal provide evidence of the en- in competition with the Coega Development. The thusiastic support for this initiative. These include latter comprises plans for a deep-water port and the Mayor's Citizen of the Year Award (1998- adjacent 17,000 ha industrial development zone Conservation category), the Mail & Guardian (IDZ), the boundary of which will be less than Green Trust Award (1999-Emerging category), 10 km from the park boundary. Since 1999, this and a Special President's Award by the Wildlife development has received significant support from and Environment Society of South Africa. politicians and from the business community, Subsequently SANP established a Scientific mainly because it was marketed on the basis that Services office in Port Elizabeth and a loan was it would provide substantial employment oppor- provided by the Industrial Development Corpora- tunities, both locally and regionally. It was ini- tion to SANP for land purchases and development, tially supported by substantial seed funding from an indication of the strong perceptions of the eco- government and it has been able to employ top nomic viability of the proposed park. The alloca- consultants to market the project through a slick tion of funds by the Department of Environmental and aggressive media campaign, thereby al low- Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) in its 2002/2003 bud- ing it to maintain a high media profile. As a re- get, for the purchase of land, indicates the extent sult the Coega Development has received of national support for this initiative. This is the significant and ongoing political, sectoral and fi- first time in decades that the national budget has nancial backing from the national government. included funds for land purchases for conserva- To date, that project has already cost in excess of tion as a line item. The importance attached to the US$6 million and final approval has been pro- GANP proposal was highlighted by a presentation vided by the relevant government authorities. The on the project at a GEF-DEAT workshop in June deep-water port, alone, is expected to cost in the 2001. DEAT has now allocated human and finan- region of US$300 million, this being about six cial resources to expedite implementation of the times the amount that is required to fully develop project. the proposed park. 63 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa In contrast, the absence of an ongoing, and high velopment option for the region and it is profile, media campaign for the GANP proposal already attracting resources to this impover- by SANP, meant that the initiative largely faded ished part of South Africa. This includes in- into obscurity and the focus of the public and pri- vestments from the tourism industry, direct vate sector, including organised business, politi- income from tourism and international cians and poor communities, was fixed firmly on donors. the adjacent Coega Development. Thus, the GANP o GANP will result in increased conservation initiative, which is widely considered to be socially, of biodiversity, specifically providing for the environmentally and economically viable, was re-introduction of a range of extirpated spe- largely replaced, in the eyes of the public and pri- cies (particularly the carnivores), as well as vate sector, by an initiative that is unlikely to meet conservation of a range of ecosystem pro- any of these criteria. Consequently, the implemen- cesses that could not be conserved at a tation of the GANP proposal had to be supported smaller scale. The large carnivore species by relatively meagre financial contributions from are particularly important for successful govemment, and by loans and grants from inter- tourism operations. national donors. This shortage of resources has o It has stimulated the development of private delayed implementation. conservation/ecotourism initiatives in the re- This delay has led to problems from incompat- gion. This is evidenced by the establishment, ible developments within the planning domain of since the GANP report in 1997, of a plethora the proposed park. For example, private entrepre- of hospitality (mainly bed-and-breakfast neurs have purchased land, or used existing land B & B facilities) and game-based ventures holdings, to develop wildlife-based ventures. Al- in the area surrounding the present AENP. though an environmental impact assessment (EIA) The number of B & B establishments in the is now required for land use zoning changes, and GANP domain has increased from two in for major structural developments in rural areas, 1997 to 38 in 2001. most developers have proceeded without o In addition to providing a range of critical authorisation, or have attempted to conduct EIAs ecosystem services, the proposed park will on a post hoc basis. Consequently, a number of contribute significantly to the fulfillment of developments that are incompatible with the con- South Africa's obligations to the intemational servation goals of the GANP have taken place. Convention to Combat Desertification and the Examples are the introduction of extra-limital game Convention on Biological Diversity. species and the erection of structures (e.g. lodges) o The GANP proposal is being implemented that are neither aesthetically nor ecologically ap- in an inclusive manner, involving a wide propriate. In addition, some landowners have range of inputs from the social, economic and cleared the thicket vegetation, subsequent to the academic sectors, and all interested and af- initial announcement of the GANP proposal in an fected parties are developing "ownership" of effort to claim higher land prices (for "improve- the GANP concept. As a consequence, ments") if their land is purchased for inclusion in biodiversity conservation has become rel- the park. Any further delay in implementing the evant and important to a wide range of sec- GANP proposal is likely to exacerbate these prob- tors in civil society and government. lems, leading to greater aesthetic and ecological damage and increased restoration costs. MlUERF[UlDM LE$SEMIS M M-J] PERdPECTEE Notwithstanding some of the problems mentioned earlier, the mainstreaming of the GANP initiative The GANP initiative has resulted in a number of is considered to have been successful. It has strong actions that have benefited many sectors: sectoral support, there are no major dissenting voices, and significant progress in its implemen- o Conservation combined with nature-based tation has been made. However, a number of im- tourism is the only realistic sustainable de- portant lessons have been learned. 64 The Greater Addo National Park Initiative: Linking Biodiversity Conservation to Socio-economic Development . Economic development and environmental CONCLUSIONS protection are inter-dependent and indivisible. Biodiversity has economic value, through Prior to the unveiling of the GANP proposal, there tourism, and therefore conservation can be was little public expression of government desire to justified in human socio-economic develop- expand conservation areas falling within the GANP ment terms. Therefore, the socio-economic domain. Land acquisition for the park took place benefits of an environment-based project in on an ad hoc basis and was not driven by a conser- a third world country must underpin its vation plan underpinned by biodiversity issues. mainstreaming strategy. Subsequent to the GANP proposal, SANP, and pro- * It is critically important to produce a docu- vincial and national government, have explicitly ment that concisely and clearly enunciates, stated their support for the development opportuni- and motivates, the vision and concept of an ties provided by the proposal, which is based on initiative for biodiversity conservation and biodiversity considerations. Thus, the GANP pro- associated socio-economic development. posal has brought about the simultaneous achieve- * Sympathetic print and broadcast media are ment of gains in biodiversity and gains in an extremely powerful tools in garnering pub- economic sector (tourism). This is evidenced by the lic support, both locally and nationally, for fact that the park has more than doubled in size, as an initiative of this nature, and politicians, a result of land purchases and the consolidation of decision makers, funders, and local commu- conservation areas, thereby providing for the cre- nities are greatly influenced by the coverage ation of an additional four tourism nodes. Thus, the obtained. However, once an initiative has so-called "win-win"' scenario is being achieved. been launched, its media profile must be The incorporation of formerly agricultural ar- maintained, and even expanded, via an ag- eas into GANP has undoubtedly resulted in net gressive and pro-active campaign. biodiversity conservation gains, since research has * Adequate resources, especially human, must highlighted the loss of biodiversity under unsus- be dedicated to the implementation phase. tainable agricultural practices. This research has also demonstrated that conservation and tourism * A comprehensive and effective public rela- is sustainable in terms of the use of biodiversity. tions strategy is essential; marketing and The GANP initiative has provided a number of mainstreaming of a project will be less suc- useful lessons and insights into the mainstreaming cessful if it is done on an ad hoc basis. of ti Mosti the GANP pro- * Once an initiative has been launched the posal has boosted an awareness of biodiversity and momentum achieved must be sustained, or generated a general acceptance of the concept of ex- even expanded, lest interest be lost by key panding conservation areas, and the ability of such stakeholders, or the project supplanted by a areas to provide sustainable socio-economic benefits. competitor. The public relations strategy must Finally, the success that has been achieved in take this aspect into account. mainstreaming the GANP initiative is a result of the * Likely problems in the expansion of conser- explicit linkage between biodiversity conservation and vation areas include the stimulation of the mar- socio-economic development opportunities. ket value of properties, through mainstreaming the conservation value of an area, and the need ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS to purchase these properties with iimited funds. Furthermore, the expectations of landowners The research on which this paper is based has been and tourism operators, in terms of opportuni- funded by the National Research Foundation, the ties arising from the project, need to be care- University of Port Elizabeth and South African fully managed. National Parks. We thank Richard Cowling (UPE) * It is critical that biodiversity conservation for stimulating discussions on the topic, and Mike initiatives be informed by, and where fea- Knight (SANP) for his contribution to developing sible complement, government policy and the ideas presented here, and his invaluable com- initiatives. ments on an earlier draft of this chapter. 65 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa AUTHORS' AFLMKnOMS Kerley, G.I.H, Knight, M.H. and De Kock, M. 1995. Desertification of Subtropical Thicket in the Eastern G. I. H. Kerley and A. F. Boshoff are with the Ter- Cape, South Africa: are there alternatives? Environ- restrial Ecology Research Unit, University of Port mental Monitoring and Assessment 37:211-230. Elizabeth. g.kerley@zoo.upe.ac.za; a.boshoff@ Kerley, G.I.H. and Boshoff, A.F. 1997. A proposal for zoo.upe.ac.za. a Greater Addo National Park-a regional and na- tional conservation and development opportunity. Terrestrial Ecology Research Unit Report 17. Uni- FURTHER REA01MG versity of Port Elizabeth, South Afiica. Kerley, G.I.H., Boshoff, A.F. and Knight, M.H. 1999. Boshoff, A.F. and Kerley, G.l.H. 1999. Proceedings of Ecosystem integrity and sustainable land-use in the a Greater Addo National Park Stakeholders Work- Thicket Biome, South Africa. Ecosystem Health shop. Terrestrial Ecology Research Unit Report 25. 5:104-109. University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Kerley, G.l.H., Boshoff, A.F. and Knight, M.H. 2002. Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism. 2001. The Greater Addo National Park, South Africa: A bioregional approach to South Africa's protected Biodiversity conservation as the basis for a healthy areas. Department of Environmental Affairs and ecosystem and human development opportunities. Tourism, Pretoria. In: Managing fbr Healthy Ecosystems. Vol. II: is- Geach, B.G.S. 1997. The Addo Elephant National Park sues and methods. (in press). as a model of sustainable land use through eco- Van Wyk, A.E. and Smith, G.F. 2001. Regions of Flo- tourism. M.Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, ristic Endemism in Southernt Africa. Umdaus Press, South Africa. Hatifield, South Africa. 66 .77 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People- A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal G. R. Hughes SUMMARY In 1895, the practice of conservation was initiated in the region now known as KwaZulu-Natal through the formal protection of designated natural areas. Some 106 years later, the concept of biodiversity conservation and its sustainable use has been mainstreamed into policy and practice in virtually every sector of the province (public, private and traditional). This has been achieved through delib- erate and structured participation policies created by the nature conservation authorities, culminating ultimately in the proclamation of legislation governing such participation. The nature conservation authority, KZN Wildlife, is now pub- licly accountable for these policies-a unique achievement, ensuring democratisation in conservation. Because the sustainable use of wildlife has been a fundamental policy of conservation in KwaZulu-Natal, wildlife, especially the large mammal component, has thrived. Through partnerships with the private and traditional sectors, wildlife farming has become a driving economic force producing direct financial benefits and creating jobs. Partnerships include direct liaison committees, conservancies, biosphere reserves, community conservation, local boards and business profit-sharing arrangements. This has led to gains in biodiversity and gains in the private sector. With the guaranteed participation of all levels of society, there is a growing realisation that all activity is dependent upon the sustainable use of biodiversity. INTRODUCTION The Convention on Biological Diversity promotes sustainable living through conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing. The focus of this chapter is 67 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa on the third element although success may not have of the Black and White Mfolozi Rivers, reserved been achieved without the efforts made to practice solely for the use of King Shaka (see Box 7.1). conservation and promote the sustainable use of Many of these consensual relationships began wildlife. to degrade and in many cases ultimately disappear The traditional indigenous peoples who have with the arrival of white settlers in the early 19th inhabited the province of KwaZulu-Natal (formerly century. Virtually all large mammals and many known as Natal-see Box 7.1) for the past 5000 smaller species were hunted or exploited to near years have applied varying constraints to the use extinction by the late 1800s. Whilst this was hap- of wildlife (in this context wildlife means animals pening, any role played by indigenous communi- and plants). The 'San'/Bushman' or "First People" ties in managing the use of wildlife was eliminated lived as hunter-gatherers. With the arrival of the as these communities were progressively pastoral 'Nguni peoples with their cattle and agri- disempowered. The scene was set for total disas- culture, at least some four hundred years ago, came ter and the alienation of wildlife from the day-to- the possibility of over-exploitation, especially of day living of the majority of citizens-a scene large mammals. Also threatened were more rare which was to endure for nearly a century species, for example the African weasel. This led to control by tribal consensus and decrees by the 7HE LUMO ROD B .CN 79 COMSEMSUAL amakhosi (tribal leaders) restricting the use of, or Gd FU7G M access to, certain species, and limiting traditional and communal hunts to those authorised by the By the 1890s it was apparent that sonme large mam- amakhosi. The best known example of this was mal species were on the brink of extinction and the definition of a hunting area, at the confluence irrational exploitation was sending many other slKal 7.1. MDS2sGfta n0azS an - _;l= -l Today, KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa, on the eastern seaboard of South Africa, and served by the main port of Durban. Back in 1800, the region's inland mountainous area, the Drakensberg, was sparsely populated by San hunter-gatherers, while the eastern and northern areas were occupied by the cattle-owning 'Nguni tribes. By the year of 1818, all of the area's many traditional clans had been amalgamated into the Zulu nation through the manoeuverings and skilled generalship of Shaka of the Zulu clan. By 1879 the growing tension between the British colonial settlers who had come to occupy the southern and midlands of the region resulted in the Anglo-Zulu War which saw the subjugation and annexation of that part formerly known as Zululand. Natal (including Zululand) became one of the four provinces of South Africa in 1910 and remained unchanged until 1975 when a plethora of pieces of Zululand and Natal became established as KwaZulu. Despite the attempts by the apartheid government, KwaZulu never ac- cepted full "homeland" status, but was a self-governing territory. In 1994 KwaZulu and Natal were once again united under a single legislative body and became KwaZulu-Natal. Conservation control followed a similar route: colonial until 1910, then provincial until 1947 when a parastatal authority, the Natal Parks Board, was established. The Board was responsible for all nature conservation, protected areas and the use of wildlife. In 1982 the KwaZulu government established the KwaZulu Bureau of Natural Resources which had a wider mandate, involving brown as well as green environmental issues. The Natal Parks Board handed over a number of protected areas that were more conveniently managed by the Bureau. In 1998, following several years of negotiation, the two conserva- tion bodies amalgamated into the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service which changed its name in 2000 to KZN Wildlife. 68 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People-A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal species in the same direction (see also Chapter 3). NGO in South Africa (see Box 7.2). WESSA's in- For the first time in the region which was to be- fluence continued to grow for the next thirty years. come the Province of KwaZulu-Natal, some con- During the 1960s two significant shifts in policy cerned citizens made their voices heard. After occurred in the Natal Parks Board. Firstly, in 1962, considerable lobbying, the first four parks for game a "farm game" extension service was launched. The were established in the province on 30th April goals of field officers operating outside of pro- 1895, an action influenced by a tiny minority of tected areas were thus changed from strict law voting citizens, none of whom came from indig- enforcement to the promotion of wildlife as an enous communities. The proclamations by the integral part of sound land management (see also Colony of Natal were certainly well-intended, even Chapter 3). It was a difficult transition, with sup- if not universally supported. Without them the path port from very few private landowners (the main of conservation in the province would have been target of the policy), despite the fact that it was dramatically different and the possibility of focused on "useful" species i.e. those that could mainstreaming biodiversity conservation could be hunted. The second policy shift was the deci- never have been realised. sion to make surplus game available to other parks For nearly seventy years, from 1895-1960, the and for sale to private landowners. With this in- dominant philosophy driving nature conservation centive began the first hesitant steps in bringing was law enforcement and protectionism. As a re- sult, nature conservation became a foreign con- cept to all indigenous peoples as access to living natural resources, especially large mammals, be- came ever more remote. The marine component Box 7.2. NGO partnerships: key factors of biodiversity remained in a healthy state. It was in mainstreaming biodiversity not traditionally used by the Zulu people and was not to be perceived as over-exploited until the lat- No discourse on the democratisation of ter part of the 20th century. biodiversity conservation in KwaZulu-Natal Following the Second World War, biodiversity would be complete without reference to the non- conservation began to attract more attention at the global level. South Africa, because of its role in government organisations operating in the prov- ince. For many years the African Wildlife Society the development of the United Nations, was drawn into this paradigm, becoming a founder member an it ucso,WSA pae nivlal itof thes trnationa Uncmiong forutonserv n ofr role in conservation. In the early part of the 20th ofatue (IUCNtemation Union fr r lthe Col partion of th century its founders were the promoters and pro- Nature (IUCN). As a result, political parties at the vokers of conservation action. The province owes local level began to take an interest in conserva- the Society an enormous debt, not only for those tion. In 1947, in the region now known as critical early activities but for its continued, and KwaZulu-Natal, the Natal Parks Board, a parastatal still growing, contribution to biodiversity con- body, was established. As was typical of most con- servation in KwaZulu-Natal, including represen- servation bodies at this time, its structure was mili- tation on the boards of conservation bodies. taristic, its primary goals being order, protection ta tion onf conservant bodies. X . . . ~~~~~~~~~~In recognition of the significant added value and expansionism. A strict top-down management order was in place, there was little formal partici- hers,athe NlrkBod f ormall enrsed, bers, the Natal Parks Board fomnially endorsed, pation from the public at large and none at all from in 1998, the establishment of a Board-NGO Fo- indigenous communities.' indigenous communities. rum which has resulted in the registration and The only traceable influence from outside mdi- recognition of 30 NGOs. As this relationship viduals was through the offices of one or two non- viduals was through the offices of one or two non- matures, considerable benefits are envisaged, not government organisations (NGOs), especially the the least of which is the democratisation of African Wildlife Society (now the Wildlife and biodiversity conservation. Environment Society of South Africa WESSA), then the most effective and powerful nature-based 69 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa biodiversity conservation into the mainstream of Council approval through the usual parliamentary formal agriculture (see also Chapters 3 and 10). processes. This was a major step i;n democratisa- Encouraged by support for conservation from tion. The committee system proved to be a major white landowners and believing that conservation success and remained remarkably effective over was for all communities, during the 1970s the nearly thirty years. Natal Parks Board began to open its governance to Three important steps in the democratisation a wider range of citizens. In 1974 for the first time process took place from 1977-1985. They involved a province-wide Committee on Conservation and both internal changes and change initiated from Recreation was initiated with all four dominant outside. race groups deliberately represented: black, white, Within the Natal Parks Board, the first Staff Indian and coloured. It was an interesting experi- Representative Committees were established in the ment (especially given the apartheid government Drakensberg region in 1977 by the Chief Conser- of the time) but with limited success for a number vator West. These committees were intended to give of years. The committee enjoyed good province- a voice to, and open up formal communication level support and was promoted and endorsed by channels for, the black members of staff. Until this the Provincial Administrator-in-Executive Com- stage, black personnel had no voice. They were mittee. There is little doubt that those persons in- not represented by the Staff Association which was volved, including provincial politicians, enjoyed restricted to officer class, which in effect meant participating but they were handicapped by the fact whites only. At that stage, people of colour were that their role was purely advisory and lacked any only employed as game guards (i.e. field rangers), real power. There was also a disincentive for people clerks, and general assistants, yet comprised by of colour participating in any formal structure un- far the majority of staff. The move for black staff der apartheid, although the stigma of participation to be heard was not universally supported by white was not as severe as it became in later years as the staff, nor was it backed by all members of the Board political struggle gained strength and momentum. itself. In certain parts of the province there was Of far greater significance, and a giant step in hostile resistance. mainstreaming biodiversity into the white commu- Of equal importance to internal transformation nity activities, was the establishment of liaison was the invitation to the Government of the Self- committees in 1974. These liaison committees ef- Governing Homeland of KwaZulu to appoint two fectively brought those with a focused interest in members to the Natal Parks Board. This move, in the use of natural resources directly into main- 1978, was a first in the history of Natal nature con- stream conservation. Examples of such commit- servation, when staff became answerable and ac- tees were the Hunters, Coastal Fishing, Inland countable to black South Africans. This was Fishing, Trout Fishing and Yachting Liaison Com- initiated by the member of the Executive Com- mittees. In later years others were added, includ- mittee of the Province responsible for nature con- ing the Traditional Healers Liaison Committee and servation and supported by the Natal Parks Board the Conservancies Liaison Committee. There were in a sincere effort to bring all communities into no constraints on participation but only a few com- conservation. The first black appointees made an mittees (e.g. coastal fishing) had significant mem- enormous impression, inspiring black staff and bership from groups disenfranchised through provoking a dramatic paradigm shift in attitudes apartheid. The Traditional Healers Committee, amongst the white staff. It was a pivotal moment however, is dominated by black citizens. in mainstreaming biodiversity in KwaZulu-Natal. These committees attracted a range of influen- The external development of significance was tial citizens who saw this development as a real the start of the Conservancies System by a group opportunity for participation in conservation deci- of local farmers in the Dargle area in 1977. Loosely sion-making. For the first time, policy, legislation based upon a "Farm Patrol Plan" written by staff (both amendment and development) and manage- of the Natal Parks Board, a conservancy is an as- ment action was considered and debated by those sociation of landowners, each paying an annual most affected, and prior to Board and Provincial levy into a central fund from which expenses are 70 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People-A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal drawn for staff, wildlife purchases and collective At the political level, the staff and the Board of action towards conservation on their combined the Natal Parks Board were actively turning against landholdings. In essence, conservancies have the national policy of apartheid. In flagrant viola- mainstreamed biodiversity conservation into the tion of existing laws, they made a decision in 1982 daily management of landholdings which are not to stop applying racist legislation in visitor lodges normally devoted to conservation activity. Some within protected areas controlled by the conserva- of the most successful conservancies are those tion division. Following on from this, the same devoted to intensive agriculture, such as sugar or action was taken in the more visible recreation re- tree plantations. This is because of the care that sorts in 1983. Although supported by the Provin- now goes into protecting and managing the un- cial Executive Committee, the Board was requested damaged or untransformed components of the land- not to publicise these actions for fear of a vicious holdings. The landowners have taken responsibility response from central government. There is no for conserving the biodiversity that falls within doubt that these changes did become public; it is their jurisdiction. The importance of this main- noteworthy that there was never any pressure streaming should not be underestimated. Today brought to bear to revert to apartheid constraints. there are 227 conservancies covering over 20% of Nevertheless, this action did not lead to a sig- the province (in addition to the 8.16% of formally nificant growth in black usage of the province's protected areas). The Conservancies Association, protected areas although there are now clear indi- representing nearly 200 landowners, has become cations of the acceptability of such destinations, an important NGO whose influence goes far be- especially the beaches within the parks. It is now yond its membership. Regular monitoring of con- possible to record up to 50,000 black visitors on a servancy activities has shown significant and single public holiday on beaches within protected valuable increases in important and threatened areas. By 2001 a dramatic paradigm shift in black mammal and bird species. No province-wide con- attitudes towards protected areas can be perceived. servation endeavour would even consider exclud- This is probably due to three factors: more leisure ing conservancy members, whose vision has gone time, greater mobility and a growing understand- beyond rural land holdings and inspired the for- ing of the role of protected areas and the opportu- mation of urban office-park, industrial, marine and nity to see large mammals. even suburban conservancies. From 1985-1990 was a period of rapid expan- The Natal Parks Board encouraged conservan- sion in the participation of informed citizens and cies to reintroduce large mammals to properties the first indications of efforts to include, and con- where they were compatible with economic prac- sider the needs and aspirations of, black commu- tice-(you can't put elephants on a maize farm!)- nities. Within KwaZulu, the Bureau of Natural by offering a 25% discount off normal prices for Resources was established to promote nature con- founder wildlife populations. This policy remains servation within traditional communities which had in force in KZN Wildlife, the successor to the previously received no encouragement or consid- Natal Parks Board, and has succeeded in estab- eration for nearly a century. lishing new populations of large mammals (see It is noteworthy that in the homeland of also Chapter 3). Bophutatswana, there existed a parastatal board During this period, South Africa had no access similar to the Natal Parks Board (staffed by many to United Nations environmental support, such as ex Natal Parks Board staff) which, in the 1980s, the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, started innovative and exciting programmes to in- and could not register biosphere reserves. Never- clude black citizens. Some wonderful results were theless, the Natal Parks Board promoted the con- achieved, which further inspired the Natal Parks cept in KwaZulu-Natal, and established seven Board's own desire to democratise conservation. biosphere reserves, based on its formally protected Severe criticism by citizens of KwaZulu-Natal areas. In effect they became "super conservancies". about a lack of sharing of resources and the fast In due course, their formal recognition will be developing "struggle" press created the impetus sought from UNESCO. for another dramatic change of Natal Parks Board's 71 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa policy. From the passive but slow, evolutionary intimate and allowed peer and association groups democratisation process, the Board adopted an of staff to participate in a supportive manner, draw- aggressive and focused outreach programme. ing strength from one another. There is no doubt Between 1991-2000 further changes in inter- that these inclusive seminars, attended by staff of nal practice and external policy promoted the all races and a CEO who was accessible and ac- democratisation of biodiversity conservation. In countable to all staff, facilitated the continuation 1989, the Natal Parks Board decided to establish a of the democratisation process. province-wide forum or seminar, led by the CEO These internal adjustments were essential to the in which as many staff as possible could partici- external process. In 1991 there was consensus pate and a "state of conservation" overview would amongst the staff about the need for a more ag- be delivered. It was expected that real and mean- gressive and dynamic outreach programme to in- ingful dialogue would develop between executive volve traditional communities. This led to the and field management, resulting in improved joint creation of the first multi-racial and multi-level decision-making. This did not prove to be the case group of staff to formulate what was to become for numerous reasons, including the difficult lo- known as the Neighbour Relations Policy (see Box gistics of amassing enough staff in a central loca- 7.3). This process of democratisation was not al- tion. Furthermore, inhibitions arose as a result of ways easy and was greeted by some staff with cyni- the mix of disparate communities of staff, often cism, and even open hostility. Nevertheless, a for the first time. policy and action plan was produced by the most To try to overcome these problems the CEO's representative group of staff ever assembled and seminar was changed to a series of seven regional sent to outside institutes and NGOs for review. In seminars (including one at head office), carried out spite of criticism from some academics that the in both English and Zulu, which proved to be more plan was top-down and illegitimate, most external : 7.3. 7he -1l 0 I'm K L Z G5CMSUF M3E20Co ' The Natal Parks Board launched an extensive series of programmes to make conservation in general, and in protected areas in particular, more relevant to poor communities. These aim to: I . encourage participation in protected area management and planning by creating Neighbour's Forums to: ' create trust o discuss boundary and land uses o create wildlife resource harvesting programmes • provide controlled free access o formalise and honour commitments. 2. foster economic and social development, thus contributing to an improved quality of life by: o addressing basic social needs of neighbouring communities o encouraging preferential employment o involving local entrepreneurs o developing wildlife resource areas on the periphery of protected areas. 3. enhance environmental awareness by: o developing environmental education and interpretation programmes o creating an appropriate problem-animal policy o undertaking training of staff o creating a Neighbourhood Trust to fund such actions 72 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People-A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal bodies were enthusiastic. The proposals were en- that would address this resentment. A previous dorsed by the Board as policy and the Board's request in 1987 to impose a tourist levy had been outreach programme was underway. Flawed as it turned down. After considerable debate a proposal may have been, it was another fundamental step for a structured system of levies was approved by towards making biodiversity conservation a main- the Board and implemented by the Natal Parks stream activity for all citizens. Board in February 1998 (Box 7.4). At the heart of the policy was the creation of The important features of the levy were that it trust between conservation staff and communities. was modest, well-structured, accountable and did This was a huge challenge given the history of not affect the basic budget of the organisation it- conservation worldwide as a practice that often self Staff were thoroughly trained in the principles, alienated indigenous communities, rather than in- all tour groups/agents were sent copies of the cluded them. In South Africa, this was exacerbated planned levy and staff met with influential groups by the iniquitous apartheid policies pursued by throughout the province to explain the policy. The central government. It is to the credit of many concept was enthusiastically promoted by staff of members of staff that significant and measurable the outreach programme and neighbouring com- improvements in trust were made. Through this munities alike. In three years it has raised over R1 3 closer dialogue came greater understanding which million for community development and is pos- was invaluable for future progress. sibly the most effective and sustainable such Staff of the Natal Parks Board began to under- programme in Africa. stand the depth of bitterness ingrained in the psyche The question of sustainability was all impor- of traditional communities regarding the fact that tant because a previous attempt to direct financial their ancestral lands had been declared protected benefits direct to communities in KwaZulu through areas without consultation, and thereafter made the Nature Conservation Act had failed. That struc- inaccessible to them. This bitterness was admitted ture was flawed in that the Act stated that 25% of and discussed more openly than ever before, and gross revenues should be paid annually to appro- this discourse pointed the way to possible solu- priate communities. This was unsustainable. (Had tions. The Neighbour Relations Policy empowered it been 25% of net profits from revenues earned it staff to find solutions, including the establishment might have worked.) Following amalgamation of of local forums and a development fund to be gen- the Directorate with the Natal Parks Board in April erated by a levy system on tourism. 1998, this option fell away and the tourist levy replaced it. (1) The Tourism Levy and Community Development The tourist levy has a number of strong Fund advantages: Two of the goals of the Neighbour Relations Policy * It encourages communities to value tourists- were to establish a trust fund and to facilitate do- the more tourists, the more money for their nations for community development. An amount benefit. equivalent to more than US$3.75 million)2 was * A proportion (10%) of the levies accumu- raised by staff for various projects across the prov- lates in a capital fund, namely the Commu- ince. As a result water schemes, electrification nity Development Fund and the interest programmes, nutritional gardens, schools, clinics generated provides grants to communities and equipment were built and supplied. Such distant from tourist areas; it is used to supple- programmes are still continuing. Early in the ment worthy projects at the discretion of the programme it was made clear that the money came trustees. from donors. Although this was appreciated, it did * As the funds are allocated according to com- not assuage the resentment directed towards people munities' wishes, there is growing coopera- using ancestral lands without direct benefits flow- tion between adjoining communities sharing ing to communities. As a result, there were attempts the boundaries of the protected areas and thus to determine a way of involving tourists in a scheme sharing the fund. 73 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa S(MH 7.4. W@Rb:s t8 uWDSGTM Rho [pUDbft00 9LO 1k7 C' | ^!- ]n EIata Pzv4s 3oavd CommunNV LeW With effect from 1 February 1998, visitors will be required to pay a community levy when entering certain protected areas administered by the Natal Parks Board. The levy will apply to those reserves where an entry fee is payable and where hutted accommodation or camping is offered. The levy will be used to assist neighbouring communities with capacity-building and development of their surrounds. It will be a once-off payment per camp per reserve, i.e. the levy will be applicable at each Natal Parks Board reserve where an entry fee is paid. The levy will be: RIO per person per camp for hutted accommodation; R5 per person per camp for camping; Rl per person per entrance gate for gate entry. Children under the age of three years will not be subject to the levy. Education groups visiting protected areas will not be subject to the levy. A community levy will also be payable for the following Natal Parks Board facilities: Crocodile Centre, St Lucia Rl per person per entry Santa Lucia, St Lucia RI per person per entry Giant's Cup Trail R5 per person Overnight Hiking R5 per person Aircraft entry RI per person Aircraft entry (overnight) RIO per person Background infornmaion South Africa's protected areas are vital to the ongoing success of this country's world-renowned wildlife conservation programmes. In economic terms, our protected areas are our greatest tourism asset. They attract ever-growing numbers of both foreign and local visitors for the unique experience of life in the wilds. As members of the world's conservation community, we must safeguard these protected areas. They are a priceless heritage which can benefit us all. Our protected areas can only thrive if they have the support of our people. This includes disadvantaged communities who live around these areas. The Natal Parks Board recognises the needs of these communi- ties and has thus committed itself to their development and upliftment through one of the largest conserva- tion social responsibility programmes in Africa. However, direct cash injection from tourism into these communities is also sorely needed. The community levy would go directly towards fulfilling this need. (2) Local Forums to Local Boards on the enthusiasm of the local, influential, tradi- tional community leaders. The forums were cer- The local forums established under the Neighbour tainly not a universal success. Relations Policy encountered several problems. In 1995 a symposium held under the auspices Their success depended upon the keenness of lo- of the Wildlife and Environment Society of South cal officers-in-charge (which varied from outstand- Africa (WESSA) and entitled "Parks and People", ing to negligible) and, to an even greater extent, sought ways forward for full participation of all 74 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People-A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal people in conservation activities. After several days allowance for their services other than for costs of deliberation and debate, the establishment of incurred. local boards was proposed. Amalgamation took place on 1 April 1998 fol- Following the symposium the concept was pre- lowing the publication of Act No 7 of 1997 with sented to one particular leader whose relations with the establishment of a parastatal board, the formal conservation had been very hostile. He KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Board. The pointed out very bluntly that the forums/boards staff serving the new board would be known as the were all very well but that all the real power was KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service, still held by the Natal Parks Board and its staff. which became KZN Wildlife in August 2000. At He noted that the Board had decided that there the same time the legislation provided for the es- would be forums (see the criticism by academics, tablishment of local boards, thus effectively com- above), the Board decided when and where they pleting the democratisation of nature conservation would be held, and who would attend and when. in KwaZulu-Natal. After a long and thorough pre- He ended his expression of dissatisfaction by say- paratory period, the first four local boards were ing that after 300 years his communities were tired established in September 2000 and were followed of having no real powers. His views wiped out any by others, eventually covering the entire province. complacency that might have been engendered by The establishment of a legitimate provincial some apparent successes in neighbour forums. It board and the local boards had major impacts in was clear that a clear and discernable shift in power steadily eroding entrenched positions and expand- relations was needed. As a result it was proposed ing cooperative governance. Their timing could not that local boards be enshrined in legislation, thus have been more opportune as protected areas were making their establishment obligatory and account- now faced with a new threat, namely land claims. able through a public process. This would mean a Following 1994, over 30,000 land claims, posted true transfer of power from the Natal Parks Board by victims of apartheid, raised great alarm for the to the people. survival of protected areas in the province. The efforts of conservation bodies to democratise, how- AMALGAMATION OF THE CONSERVATION ever, has resulted in a positive shift in political BODIES IN KWAZULU-NATAL attitudes which, coupled with the clear economic benefits flowing from protected areas, have con- In 1994 following South Africa's first democratic vinced the state to deflect land claims for conser- election and the creation of the Province of vation areas. KwaZulu-Natal, the then Minister of Traditional The opening up of dialogue had permitted con- and Environmental Affairs, instructed that all na- servation staff to display genuine and sincere em- ture conservation bodies in the province should be pathy with claimants which, coupled with the fast amalgamated into one single authority. Two ma- developing Community Development Fund, made jor organisations quite different in structure, were pursuit of just and equitable solutions relatively involved. These were the Directorate of Nature smooth. Two important land claims have already Conservation of KwaZulu, a government depart- been settled. In both cases the existence of the ment, and the Natal Parks Board, a semi-autono- development fund played an important role. mous parastatal body with an independent board. There is no doubt that staff of KZN Wildlife The Joubert Commission was established by have developed the skills necessary for construc- consensus and recommended that the new author- tive participation in such sensitive negotiations. ity should be a parastatal structure, with appoint- Those claims that have been settled have set a trend ment of board members by public process to towards greater democracy and the empowerment ensure broader representation. This differed of traditional communities, giving them rights over greatly from the selection of the members of the conservation land without the right to resettle on old Natal Parks Board who had been handpicked ancestral land. This has had two challenging re- for their enthusiasm for conservation, and their sults. The first has been the establishment of new expertise, and who received no remuneration or community bodies called Community Property 75 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Figure 7.1. Key factors in the process of democratisation which influenced the mainstreaming of biodiversity in the Province of KwaZulu-Natal DEMOCRATISATION STEPS FULL LEGISLATIVE PROMOTION TOODLS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 2001 | Additional boards MAINSTREAMING Public/private sector partnersliip | BIODIVERSITY |F First four public 2000 appointed local boards j Settlement of land claims First NGOs forum through negotiation First NGOs forum First publicly appointed nature conservation board Le n fr f 1999 _ _ _ _ _ Legislating for full participation Development of fisheries forums |_ _ _ __| 1998 | Tourism levy and |Parks and People" Congress community development fund C o t Creation of tourism levy Development of ] Recognition of unions democratic legislation I_I__ Expansion of hunting and Promotion of parks development tourism in private sector in traditional communities __ _ 1997 Development of Job creation neighbours forums Expansion of NGOs Active support for traditional communities 1990s | Neighbours relations policy Establishment of Biosphere reserves [k Development of ACE Programmes I l to bring black influential Establishment of ] [ citizens to protected areas 1980s conservancies in Kwazulu-Natal I I _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ I IGiving control of use of ] Opening dialogue with wildlife to landowners traditional communities [e andowner __________________________________________________Expansion of staff representation I ConservanciesII I 1970s CosranI Support to conservancies Liaison committees Sustainable use policy 1960s Extension services [ Donation and sale of surplus game 1940s Natal Parks Board [ Creation of staff association - 1930s First advisory board 1895 State authority | Limited NGO involvement ] Pre 1895 TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT 76 Democratisation: Biodiversity Conservation for all People-A Case Study from KwaZulu-Natal Associations bringing yet another, more focused, management (see also Chapter 3). Finally, there is suite of stakeholders to the conservation scene. The a widespread, and growing understanding of the second development has seen democratic struggles dependence of human survival on the sustainable within the communities themselves as traditional use of biodiversity. loyalties are threatened by progressive forces. Con- The key factors for mainstreaming biodiversity servation staff in KwaZulu-Natal have learned to in this case study have been a progressive policy adapt to these circumstances and are today welcome over 40 years, starting with the Natal Parks Board, participants in seeking solutions. Years of policy focusing on bringing benefits derived from development and hard-earned experience have un- biodiversity through a broad range of participa- doubtedly paved the way for the full participation tory programmes, eventually involving all com- of all people in biodiversity conservation. munities and stakeholders. In this pursuit the province has been served by committed staff, en- THE FUTURE thusiastic NGOs and a sympathetic citizenry and some commendable political leadership that has The democratisation of conservation in KwaZulu- given financial support to this essential cause. Natal has taken decades to achieve but biodiversity has undoubtedly now entered the mainstream of economic growth, politics and community life at NOTES all levels. This direction can now be followed with confidence, free of so much of the baggage of the 1. Considerable controversy exists around the names past, as sound conservation practice has so much San and Bushman to describe these early inhabitants. to offer the province and its people. The economic Some surviving groups prefer San (mainly South Afri- benefits have been dramatic, leading to increases can) others Bushman (Botswana and Namibia). San is in tourism and substantial job creation. Neverthe- used in this paper. less, for conservation to succeed, understanding 2. US$1 = R8 at time of writing. must go beyond simple economics. The end result of the democratisation of conservation would be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the appreciation of the aesthetic benefits of con- servation and the understanding of the nesit ofseratonuand thviroeundtalmandi engfth necessity After nearly a century of democratisation, it seems of sound environmental management unworthy to list some individuals and not others because positive results come from team efforts. CONCLUSIONS The conservation team of the Province of KwaZulu-Natal deserves praise from its very ori- From this account of KwaZulu-Natal, it can be gin in 1895 to today. Thanks to all the staff we concluded that a process of democratisation has know and those we never met. Additional thanks been a key factor that has enabled the main- must go the many citizens of the province whose streaming of biodiversity conservation into land support was invaluable and to the many board use decisions (Figure 7.1). Through the ceding of members of the Natal Parks Board and successor power to all stakeholders, biodiversity has featured boards who set the policies. Inkosi Simon in both formal policy and informnal process. Gumede and Professor Paul Luthuli, the first In South Africa, and in particular KwaZulu- black members of the Natal Parks Board, deserve Natal, there are outstanding examples of sustain- special thanks. Finally thanks should go to the able use of wildlife. The economic sector has political leaders in the province who have made benefited from wildlife populations restored by it all possible. conservation agencies. The shift in land manage- ment from marginal agriculture to wildlife as an economic generator through photo tourism or hunt- AUTHOR'S AFFILIATOIN ing is resulting in net biodiversity gain for the Prov- ince of KwaZulu-Natal. An additional 10% of the G. R. Hughes is with the Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal surface area has been converted to pure wildlife Wildlife. ghughes@kznwildlife.com. 77 it ?' bI An Urban Challenge: Conserving 8 Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal D. Roberts, M. Mander and R. Boon SUMMARY Over the last three decades, open space planning has provided an important vehicle for mainstreaming biodiversity issues in the Durban metropole, now known as the eThekwini Municipality. In the early 1980s, the focus was prima- rily on the protection of areas of conservation significance. By the mid-1990s this had developed into a more holistic understanding of the contribution of urban open space to sustainable development. This change in approach has been driven by political transformation (i.e. the move from apartheid to democracy in South Africa) and the international prioritisation of environmental issues. The Durban experience has also underscored a number of factors important in the mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns, namely the value of partnerships be- tween non-governmental and governmental institutions; the significant role played by individuals in championing biodiversity issues; the need for detailed ecologi- cal data to guide urban planning; and the need for biodiversity planning to be sensitive to changing social, cultural and political needs. INTRODUCTION Today, for the first time in human history, urban dwellers outnumber those in rural areas. It is currently predicted that the global urban population will double from 2.5 billion in 1995 to 5 billion in 2025 and that by the end of the 21st century more people will live in the urban areas of the developing world than are alive on the planet today. This scenario has significant implications for the global 79 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa ecosystem as each city has an 'ecological footprint' The Durban case study (based on its resource consumption and waste generation) that is many times larger than its physi- The eThekwini Municipality, formerly known as cal area. the Durban metropolitan area, is located on the In South Africa this 'ecological footprint' has eastem seaboard of Africa and occupies an area of been significantly influenced by the environmen- 2,297km2-with a population of some 2.8 million tal impacts of past governments' policies which people (Figure 8.1). distributed the country's resources along racial The city is a key industrial, commercial and lines. The Land Act of 1913 began the process of transport centre in the southern African region, and racial segregation by restricting land ownership by is an important local, and emerging international, black people to 7% of the country's total land area. tourist destination. This development profile, com- This was increased to 13% in 1936 as a 'compen- bined with factors such as unemployment levels sation' for the loss of parliamentary voting rights. of 32%, high levels of poverty, a housing backlog In 1948 the Nationalist government formally in- estimated at 186,000 units, the development of stituted the policy of apartheid, a cornerstone of dense, large scale informal settlements, urban which was the creation of 'bantustans' or self-gov- sprawl and industrial pollution, have all placed high erning 'homelands' for the black population. The demands on the local ecosystems and impacted political desire to separate the racial groups was, negatively on local and regional biodiversity. Three however, undermined by the need for a cheap and decades of open space planning in the city have, accessible labour force to support the country's however, shown that it is possible to mainstream economy. This resulted in the promulgation of the the concept of biodiversity protection by establish- Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 (as amended in ing clear, and understandable, links between eco- 1945) which enabled white local authorities to system conservation and human needs, and by manage black townships within the so-called 'white' urban areas and which transformed urban blacks into temporary sojourners in 'white South [ . 0 IRt 1 lls Ear D Africa'. This racial segregation was further rein- s 1 lh SG5S S forced by the Group Areas Act in 1950, under which Indians and coloureds were forcibly re- MPlUMALANGA LAND moved to special townships in the urban areas. These laws were supported in turn by the institu- tion of pass laws and influx control. The repeal of these influx controls and pass regu- STATE 'NF.tje lations in 1983 opened the floodgates of black KWA-Zi I jI urbanisation in South Africa. It was estimated at NA[AL I .. u di the time that 9 million people (i.e. 360,000 people a year or 1,000 people a day) from the 'homelands' Ladysmith would move into South Africa's urban areas be- tween 1985 and 2010. Almost all of the influx that Buy has resulted has been to the poor black township areas in the previous 'white cities'. This has pro- Pietermat-ireburg duced extensive overcrowding and a mushroom- D tDURBAN ing in the number of informal settlements. This METRO AREA rapid urbanisation has put significant pressure on the natural resource base in South Africa's cities. It is against this backdrop of global urbanisation and the emergence of post-apartheid cities that the rt Africa mainstreaming of biodiversity issues in the South F.ASILRN Shepstone African city of Durban is examined. CAPE 80 An Urban Challenge: Conserving Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal incorporating this thinking-in an incremental and Phase 2-Preparation of the Durban Metropolitan iterative fashion-into urban planning and deci- Open Space System (D'MOSS) Report for municipal sion-making processes. Durban Phase 1-Preparation of the Metropolitan Open At the same time as the provincial authorities and Space System (MOSS) Plan WESSA were working on a metropolitan open space system plan, authorities in municipal Durban In Durban, attention was first focused on urban (the largest local authority within the metropoli- biodiversity issues during the early 1970s when tan area) were reviewing open space provision at a an environmental NGO, now known as the Wild- local level. Up until this point, the primary deter- life and Environment Society of South Africa minant of open space distribution in municipal (WESSA), expressed concern regarding the loss Durban had been the town planning policy to re- of important natural areas to ad hoc urban devel- serve land for public open space at a ratio of 2 opment. This prompted two key individuals within hectares per 1,000 of the estimated potential popu- WESSA to propose the development of a metro- lation. This approach was reviewed when amend- politan open space system (MOSS) to protect the ments to the provincial Town Planning Ordinance conservation-worthy areas of the city. In 1979 the (promulgated in September 1983) required local first MOSS plan was produced. This plan consoli- authorities to acquire privately owned land, re- dated all viable conservation belts and potential served for open space purposes, within a 5-10 year trail routes within the metropolitan area into an period. A critical review of open space needs in open space network. The major shortfall of the plan the municipal area was necessary, especially as the was its focus on the preservation of rare and en- privately-owned land, reserved for public open dangered species and communities, rather than the space in municipal Durban, had an estimated ac- preservation of ecologically functional landscapes. quisition cost of approximately R20 million. These same individuals (representing WESSA) In a first attempt to rationalise and clarify acqui- approached the provincial planning authorities sition priorities, an inventory of open spaces within (i.e. the Natal Town and Regional Planning Com- the municipal area was developed. This did not, mission: NTRPC) with concerns regarding the however, include ecological information on the listed loss of important open spaces in Durban. An open spaces. In 1983, a PhD candidate in the Biol- agreement was reached between the two institu- ogy Department of the local University of Natal tions to develop a metropolitan open space sys- approached the city's town planning department and tem plan for the city as a joint project. The motivated the need to undertake a detailed ecologi- partnership hosted a seminar in February 1983 to cal evaluation of the open spaces within the mu- promote the MOSS concept amongst the city's nicipal area, using a vegetation sampling stakeholder groups. The resolutions passed at this methodology developed by the Department of seminar resulted in the NTRPC establishing a Agriculture's National Botanical Institute. The re- MOSS steering committee. sultant collaboration between the three institutions With support from NTRPC, a researcher was culminated in the production of the Durban Metro- appointed in 1985 to produce a more detailed met- politan Open Space System (D'MOSS) report in ropolitan open space plan. As with its predeces- 1989. This report recommended the creation of an sor, however, this second plan reinforced the idea open space network for the municipal area which that the ideal open space system consisted of large consisted of a grid of nine park systems. Plant com- natural areas connected by river corridors. The scale munities were used to define the form and size of of the plan was also too small to make it useful in the system, and preliminary estimates of minimum the planning and decision-making of local munici- critical area and corridor widths for the various plant palities. Thus, while the new plan focused increased communities were used to estimate the dimensions attention on the need for appropriate open space of corridors and conservation areas. design and protection, it lacked sufficient detail to The real significance of the work undertaken assist with the implementation of the system. during this second phase was that it focused on 81 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa the design of a system that was ecologically vi- treated open space as 'space left over after plan- able and self-sustaining, as opposed to being ning' or 'undeveloped land'. merely a collection of conservation-worthy sites. Once the asset had been defined, experts from As such, the new system included many parcels of Durban contributed their knowledge to the identi- land that would not previously have been regarded fication and mapping of all open spaces consid- as having conservation significance, including ered important to the design of an ecologically some disturbed areas and formal landscapes. The functional open space system within the city. Data 1989 report was accepted by the Durban Council. were mapped using a geographical information sys- tem (GIS). On completion of the data capture ex- Phase 3-Preparation of the Durban Metropolitan ercise, maps showing the open space asset were Open Space System (D'MOSS) Framework Plan displayed in each local council area for public com- ment. The maps were also displayed at all stake- The demise of apartheid and political changes in holder workshops held throughout the process. This the early 1990s resulted in new political leader- allowed members of the public and various envi- ship emerging in Durban. These new decision- ronmental organisations to refine the mapped open makers regarded the creation of an ecologically- space asset using their local knowledge. viable open space system as a less urgent matter The open space asset thus identified represented than addressing issues of poverty, economic de- approximately 33% of the total met-opolitan area. velopment and meeting basic needs. This political Of this, approximately 52% was classified as un- about-face, combined with the demarcation of a developable due to physical and legal constraints new metropolitan boundary (significantly larger (including unstable land, steep topography, open than that of the previous municipal boundary), ul- water surfaces, road and rail reserves or land zoned timately provided the motivation for the design of as parks or conservation areas). The remaining 48% a new open space system plan for Durban. This was, however, identified as being potentially de- process was initiated in 1998 and led by the origi- velopable and likely to come under pressure for nal PhD researcher who had now joined local gov- urban development in the future. emnment as Durban's first environmental manager. Central to this new approach was the interroga- The development of the metropolitan open space tion of the manner in which the open space system framework plan was influenced by two key fac- could contribute towards the broader development tors i.e. the democratisation of South African so- objectives of the city. Research was used to dem- ciety and the global prioritisation of sustainable onstrate how urban open spaces and their ecosys- development. As a result, the focus of open space tems provide 'goods' (e.g. water for consumption) planning in Durban shifted from conservation and and 'services' (e.g. waste treatment) that are im- ecological viability to the implementation and portant in meeting people's basic needs and im- management of a socially, economically and envi- proving quality of life. In Durban 17 different open ronmentally sustainable urban open space system. space service types were identified, including: gas 'Urban open space' was defined as any vegetated regulation, climate regulation, disturbance regula- area (e.g. nature reserves, private and public gar- tion, water regulation, water supply, erosion con- dens, golf courses, sports fields, road and rail trol, soil formation, nutrient cycling, waste verges, open water bodies etc.) or open hard-sur- treatment, pollination, biological control, refugia, faced area (e.g. parking lots and other paved or food production, raw materials, genetic resources, concrete areas) within the urban environment. All recreation and cultural values. of these areas were regarded as having some physi- Because not all open spaces supply the same cal or economic value. Open space was seen as an kind of services, and because different urban land urban 'asset' that was identifiable and quantifiable uses require different levels and types of open space and that required protection, conservation and services to remain sustainable, it was possible to management in a manner similar to other urban prioritise open spaces. For example, in a catch- resources. This approach differed substantially ment where residents in informal settlements col- from previous town planning initiatives which had lect water from local streams, the rivers and 82 An Urban Challenge: Conserving Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal wetlands that supply the water and improve its Phase 4-The Unicity Open Space System quality would be a priority for protection. This ap- Framework Plan proach represented the first time that resource eco- nomics had been used as an open space planning Although the debate regarding the implementation tool in Durban, and possibly the world. The use of of the 1999 framework plan has not yet been re- resource economics was also significant in that it solved, the demarcation of a new metropolitan allowed the value of open space to be communi- (Unicity) boundary in preparation for the 2000 lo- cated in terms that were meaningful to the vast cal government elections provided the impetus for majority of stakeholders within the city. the design of a Unicity open space framework plan. Prior to the preparation of the metropolitan This plan included only those areas considered framework plan, the value of open space was not critical to the sustainable provision of open space well understood, especially when compared to the services whereas the 1999 plan had included all benefits of other land uses such as housing and areas considered to contribute to the ecological industrial development. As a result the open space viability of the system (i.e. the maximum poten- resource was undervalued during decision-making tial open space system). This new approach was and resource allocation processes. By using inter- adopted in response to the growing conflict be- nationally-recognised techniques it was possible tween conservation and development needs in the to address this problem by calculating the replace- city. The result has been a significant reduction in ment value of the open space services in Durban. the spatial footprint of the system. For example, This process resulted in a conservative estimate of the metropolitan plan included a total open space R2.24 billion per annum, which excluded the value asset of 45,090 ha (33% of the metropolitan area). of Durban's tourism sector worth approximately A similar design approach at the Unicity level R3.5 billion per annum (at the time approximately would have produced a total open space asset of US$1= R7). These figures can be compared with 123,000 ha (54% of the Unicity area). By design- the 1998/1999 metropolitan council financial year ing a critical open space system, focused on the operating expenditure for general services, airports, sustainable provision of open space services, the electricity, water, markets and transport of R3.5 size has been reduced to 61,964 ha, of which only billion. 15% (9,385 ha) is regarded as developable. This Despite its initial attractiveness, the success of new plan is still to be presented to Council, but it mainstreaming biodiversity and environmental is hoped that the significant reduction in system management issues through the use of resource size will help to win greater political support for economics has had variable success. Although the the implementation of the plan. 1999 Durban Metropolitan Open Space Frame- work Plan was accepted by Council, some politi- A review of progress to date cians, line functions and stakeholders regard the implementation of the open space plan as a sig- The mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns in nificant obstacle to development in the city. This Durban began with a highly motivated, environ- is because the city's physical limitations (i.e. a mental NGO concemed about the impact of ad hoc coastal situation, numerous rivers and the deeply development on large, conservation-worthy areas. incised topography) mean that there are very few This resulted in urban biodiversity issues being open areas that are not in some way impacted by moved from the periphery of the governmental the requirements of the plan. The result is that planning debate to the point where they began to the D'MOSS framework plan is regarded as influence provincial policy development. Although sterilising land suitable for development. Thus, the open space plans produced as a result of this while the principle of biodiversity conservation process were flawed because of their focus on 'rep- may be broadly acceptable to stakeholders at a resentative natural communities', they did serve conceptual level, it is clear that this position is to raise awareness amongst local government offi- subject to change when implementation of policy cials of the importance of urban open space con- impacts on delivery. servation. Unfortunately this impact was reduced 83 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa by the fact that the plans were not at a scale that system which prioritised sustainable service de- local level government could use in day-to-day livery rather than maximising ecological viability. planning and decision-making. By adopting this new approach it has been pos- The production of a more detailed open space sible to reduce the spatial footprint of the open plan for the municipal area of Durban provided space plan dramatically. It is hoped that this will maps which could be used to inform land-use plan- help reduce development/conservation conflicts in ning decisions almost at the lot level. The design the city and in so doing secure political support of the system focused on the creation of an eco- for the implementation of the city's open space logically viable system. This approach highlighted system. the role of previously-overlooked areas (e.g. dis- turbed and formally managed landscapes) in se- CONCLUSIONS-MAINSTREAMING LESSONS curing ecological viability and biodiversity LEARNED IN DURBAN protection. It also helped to sensitise decision- makers to the fact that it was not only 'indigenous Incorporation of biodiversity considerations communities' that were of relevance to their plan- into sectoral policies ning and decision-making. This phase of open space planning mainstreamed the concept and im- Since the early 1980s, open space planning in portance of urban biodiversity to the extent that Durban has become an increasingly prominent el- local government dedicated specific human and ement of land use policy and management. With financial resources to the implementation of the the emergence of a sustainable development plan- system. As a result, between 1989-1993, the open ning focus in the 1990s, the open space debate has space plan impacted significantly on planning de- begun to influence sectoral policy development and cisions in the Durban municipal area and became broad scale strategic planning in the city (e.g. the an accepted yardstick for assessing the acceptabil- proposal to use river catchments in defining plan- ity of development proposals. This was also a pe- ning regions in the Unicity). Important lessons riod when arguments centred on biodiversity learned in this regard include: conservation and/or ecological viability were re- garded by politicians as acceptable motivations for o the need forpartnerships:Although the ini- the protection of open areas. This was also the only tial concern for biodiversity conservation in point in the open space planning process in Durban Durban was articulated by an environmental when acceptance of open space policy has been NGO (WESSA), it was the partnership successfully translated into clear and focused formed between WESSA and the provincial implementation. planning authorities that allowed this con- By comparison the development of the D'MOSS cern to move from the 'green fringe' to a point framework plan occurred in a period of rapid po- where it began to influence mainstream policy litical transition, during which 'biodiversity con- development. Similarly the partnership servation' was regarded as an interest of the formed between the municipal authority, the minority, upper class. So, while ecological viabil- local university and the National Botanical ity and biodiversity protection remained priorities Institute allowed an academic concern for the amongst environmental planners, it was clear that conservation of local biodiversity to be trans- these concepts had to be re-interpreted to make lated into a detailed spatial plan, which was them acceptable to decision-makers focused on used to guide planning and decision-making social upliftment and poverty alleviation. Resource by city authorities. economics provided a useful tool by which to o reinterpreting biodiversity: The use of re- achieve this re-alignment. Unfortunately, even this source economics made it possible to con- approach was challenged and implementation has vert the somewhat elusive value of been limited. biodiversity into something understandable Based on these experiences, the Unicity open to the majority of urban stakeholders (i.e. a space framework plan focused on the design of a monetary value). This approach helped in- 84 An Urban Challenge: Conserving Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal crease political support for biodiversity pro- democratisation and the increased priority tection and has impacted on policy develop- placed on meeting people's basic needs. The ment within the city. Nevertheless, tensions shift from a 'conservation' to a 'sustainable still exist between the short-term time lines development' focus has necessitated a change which govern most political decision-mak- in the tools required for open space planning ing and the longer term considerations which e.g. botanical surveys are now supplemented influence biodiversity planning. Political ex- by the use of resource economics. This pro- pediency continues to pose a potential threat cess highlights the need for biodiversity ini- to the effective mainstreaming of biodiversity tiatives to remain responsive to changing concerns in urban areas. political and ideological pressures. need for data: In Durban open space policy * need for education: Although the use of re- (and hence biodiversity conservation) has source economics helped provide a re-align- only led to action (e.g. acquisition and man- ment between the ecological priorities of agement of land) when policy has been trans- environmental planners and the human lated into detailed spatial plans that can upliftment priorities of political decision- inform planning and approval processes. makers, this approach has not ensured an Without these detailed spatial plans, even the unchallenged implementation of Durban's best policy has little or no impact on sectoral open space framework plan. This suggests activities. Development of these detailed that the mainstreaming of biodiversity issues plans requires the development of ecological in cities must be supported by education databases. programmes that help develop a deeper un- derstanding of sustainability issues. In the Win-win scenario between biodiversity long term this will avert situations where a conservation and economic gains lack of understanding of the inter-related nature of social, ecological and economic The mainstreaming of biodiversity issues in concerns, results in ecological (and hence Durban is largely the result of open space design biodiversity concerns) being marginalised remaining responsive to changing development and when social and economic pressures are high. political pressures. It is likely that the need to en- sure an alignment between socio-economic and Net biodiversity gain exceeds net biodiversity loss biodiversity priorities will be a continuing feature of open space planning in Durban for the foresee- Even though there is a growing realisation in able future. Important lessons learned in this re- Durban of the importance of open spaces, its ef- gard include: fect on biodiversity loss perse has probably been minimal. It is anticipated that this will improve conceptualflexibility: In the early stages of with a more coordinated and widespread imple- the open space planning process in Durban mentation of the open space plan but this will re- the focus of attention was on the protection quire political support and the allocation of of conservation worthy areas and subse- appropriate human and financial resources. Impor- quently the creation of an ecologically-viable tant lessons learned in this regard include: open space system. This mirrored existing global environmental priorities (e.g. protec- * the need to measure effectiveness: While it tion of rare and endangered species). A more is vital that biodiversity issues remain socially holistic understanding of the role of bio- relevant, it is also critical that an emphasis diversity emerged in the 1 990s as a result of on meeting basic needs does not overshadow the Rio Earth Summit, which highlighted the biodiversity goals. In Durban the assumption need for development that balanced ecologi- is that protection of an ecologically-viable cal, social and economic concerns. This was open space system will result in adequate supported in South Africa by a process of biodiversity conservation. However, it is not 85 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa possible to say whether current approaches brand processes and they are often instrumental will protect 90% or 10% of the biodiversity in unblocking stalled processes. of the pre-urban landscape. Sectoral mainstreaming is, therefore, in many the need for appropriate tools: The use of cases the result of 'the right person being in the resource economics in open space planning right place at the right time'. At the same time, implies that the non-human world is only of there are potential pitfalls associated with too value when it provides goods and services to strong a reliance on champions. There is the dan- the human world. Many of the services pro- ger that when a champion moves on (either geo- vided by open spaces are, however, intangible graphically or in terms of interest) the programme (e.g. aesthetic and cultural values) and are will lose momentum or collapse entirely. This does difficult to quantify in economic terms. Many not mean that champions are irreplaceable, but people also consider these services to be ir- rather that each project needs more than one cham- replaceable or priceless. There is a danger, pion. The mainstreaming of biodiversity requires however, that where the value of open areas identification of a range of champions amongst all cannot be identified or where their economic stakeholder groups and sectors to help build ca- value is not viewed as sufficiently substan- pacity and ensure the continuity and sustainability tial, areas will be treated as valueless. There of the programme. Only in this way will the full is clearly a need to develop planning tools range of sectoral activity effectively incorporate that ensure real sustainability and biodiversity biodiversity concerns. protection. Sectoral activity is based on/depends on A MUSlEMEMEMYS sustainable use of biodiversity To all those individuals who have been involved The Durban experience has demonstrated that in open space planning in Durban over the last 20 alignment of biodiversity concerns with other years especially: Craig Allan, George Antoni, Keith sectoral objectives is easier to achieve in sectors Cooper, Penny Croucamp, Grahame Davies, Coun- where delivery is linked directly to environmental cillor Libby Goodall, Tony Markewicz, Geoff quality issues (e.g. waste water management and Nicholls and Garth Williamson. storm water management). In cases where the link is not as direct (e.g. housing), open space concerns are often seen as a threat. MAUYllt $' AMA0I()S Rote of champions D. Roberts is with the eThekwini Municipality, Durban. robertsd(cesu.durban.gov.za. Finally, Durban's experience has demonstrated M. Mander is with the Institute of Natural Re- that committed individuals are important in en- sources, Pietermaritzburg. ManderM@nu.ac.za suring the successful mainstreaming of biodiver- R. Boon is a Consultant to the eThekwini Mu- sity issues. Interested individuals with WESSA nicipality, Durban. boonr@cesu.durban.gov.za. were the first to promote the concept of conser- vation-based open space planning. This champi- oning role was subsequently taken over by FURTHER REARl G individuals in local government and a researcher at the local university. The action of these indi- Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., viduals has influenced and directed institutional Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., (governmental and non-governmental) policy O'Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. development and decision-making. Champions and van den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the world's are vital as they provide continuity when interest ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: wanes amongst other stakeholders, they help 253-260. 86 An Urban Challenge: Conserving Biodiversity in the Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Ramphele,M. 1991.New Day Rising. In: M.Ramphele Roberts, D.C. and Poynton, J.C. 1985. Central and & C. McDowell (eds). Restoring the Land. Panos, peripheral urban open spaces: need for a biological London. evaluation. South African Journal of Science 82: Roberts, D.C. 1990 An Open Space Survey of Munici- 464-466. pal Durban. PhD Thesis. University of Natal, Reddy, P.S. 1996. Local government restructuring in Durban. South Africa. In: P.S. Reddy (ed). Readings in Lo- Roberts, D.C. 1994.The design of an open space net- cal Government Management and Development. A work for the City of Durban (South Africa). Envi- South African perspective. Juta, Cape Town. ronmental Conservation 21(1): 11-17. United Nations Environmental Programme. 1999. Roberts, D.C. 1993. The vegetation ecology of Mu- Global Environmental Outlook 2000. Earthscan, nicipal Durban. Natal. Floristic classification. London. Bothalia 23(2): 271-326. Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W. 1996. Our Ecologictal Poynton, J.C. and Roberts, D.C. 1985. Urban Open Footprint. New Society Publishers. Canada. Space plan in South Africa : A biogeographical per- www.durban.gov.za/environment spective. South African Journal of Science 81: 3-37. www.ceroi.net/reports/durban/index.htm 87 ~"n Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town K. Maze, T. Katzschner and B. Myrdal SUMMARY The urban sprawl of Cape Town has developed over an area that is home to extraordinary floral biodiversity. The low-lying habitat remnants, referred to here as the Cape Flats, support no less than 1,466 plant species, 76 of which are endemics. These species-rich fragments are threatened by further urbanisation and invasive alien shrubs. Under apartheid, the Flats were designated for disad- vantaged ethnic groups with enforced removals from the more benign foothills of Cape Town. Although there had been a prolonged effort to conserve this flora, little progress was made until a NGO, the Botanical Society, identified core sites for conservation and presented a plan to the local government. A partnership was formed to implement the Cape Flats Flora Programme. Conservation endeavours were made practicable through a process of prioritisation of 38 conservation-worthy sites. Biodiversity concerns were mainstreamed into the policies and practice of local government. Key factors in the success of the Cape Flats Flora Programme were: the receptiveness of key City of Cape Town officials; the formation of the new Environmental Man- agement Department within the local government; partnerships between local government and the NGO; a people-centred conservation approach; the estab- lishment of site-specific projects; and the commitment of working group mem- bers. By delivering both conserved habitats and net social gains (e.g. education, integration of recreational uses, and small-scale employment creation possi- bilities), the Cape Flats Flora Programme demonstrates the way for further conservation initiatives. 89 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa iNITRODUCTIOPN remaining floral diversity is under extreme threat from ongoing urbanisation and peri-urban threats, The City of Cape Town is the largest metropolitan such as inappropriate dumping of waste. These area within the Cape Floral Region (CFR). This threats are escalating daily, as more people arrive region is also known as the Cape Floral Kingdom, from the impoverished Eastern Cape and establish the smallest of the world's six floral kingdoms. themselves in informal settlements of shacks on The Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA), sprawls the Cape Flats. This dire situation has led many across some 2,487 km2 that includes a major cen- conservationists to argue that the C'ape Flats biota tre of diversity and endemism (Figure 9.1). Indeed, is a lost cause and that limited conservation re- this area has been described as a "jewel in the sources would be better allocated to areas where crown" of the CFR. Botanically and physio- opportunities are more favourable. graphically, the CMA can be divided into two re- A committed minority of conservationists felt gions: the Cape Peninsula mountain chain and the otherwise. Seizing opportunities provided by the Cape Flats. The mountain chain (with 2,585 plant emergence of new institutions, and the growing species in 471 kM2) is an area of steep and rugged awareness that environmental health is a corner- terrain, mainly untransformed by urbanisation. The stone of sustainable lifestyle, they have succeeded CMA lowlands, the Cape Flats, cover a low and in mainstreaming biodiversity concerns into poli- sandy isthmus between False and Table Bays, 70% cies and practices in the city. This was achieved of which has been urbanised (Figure 9.1). Here through a protracted campaign to create awareness natural habitats are restricted to numerous isolated of the plight of Cape Flats flora, through engage- remnants, in undeveloped open spaces, parks and ment of key stakeholders, and by identification of nature reserves, as well as in infrastructure servi- a list of priority sites which, together, will con- tudes, corridors, and road and freeway verges. serve the region's special species. Despite this, the region supports 1,466 plant spe- cies in 1,874 km2 with 76 local endemics and 131 Red Data Book plants, a unique concentration of OF C S?TERh'3 COMCERN$ rare and endemic species in an urban setting. O1MlD AC70X3 l TGMHE Y CAPE FLATS Cape Town is a city of contrasts. The lower mountain slopes are home to the city's wealthier Since the time of the early plant hunters, such as residents while 73% of the mountainous area falls Thunberg who first visited the Cape in 1772, there within a statutory protected area, the Cape Penin- has been a strong interest in the flora of the area sula National Park, which is the beneficiary of now covered by the CMA. In comparison to the generous funding from international (GEF) as well more spectacular Peninsula mountains, however, as city and national sources (see Chapters 2 and the Cape Flats were neglected. The first conserva- 11). This ensures an excellent standard of man- tion initiative was the donation, in 1955, of agement planning and implementation. In contrast, three hectares of Cape Flats wetland by Edith the windswept and bleak lowland area of the Cape Stephens, a lecturer in botany at the University of Flats is home to Cape Town's impoverished ma- Cape Town. Later, in 1972, Hugh Taylor, a pio- jority forced to live there under apartheid, and neer of plant community research in the CFR, pub- joined by rural people with the weakening of laws lished a paper where he raised concern about the in the early 1980s. Many residents live in impov- conservation status of the Cape Flats vegetation erished and crime-ridden conditions, in uniform and flora, largely in relation to threats from inva- housing estates, serviced shacks and informal sive alien plants. settlements. Quality of life in many of these sub- Prior to 1982, small nature reserves were pro- urbs is appallingly low, especially in comparison claimed such as Tygerberg Nature Reserve and the to the grand and leafy suburbs on the foothills of Rondevlei and Zandvlei bird sanctuaries (both now Table Mountain. renamed as nature reserves). Most of these reserves Seven of the Cape Flats' rare and endemic spe- were proclaimed on an adhocbasis; i.e. sites were cies have already gone extinct in the wild and the not identified in a systematic way that prioritised 90 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town Figure 9.1. The Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA) showing remaining natural vegetation, the Cape Flats, Cape Peninsula National Park and the 38 core flora conservation sites A~~~~~~~~M | * .N:atrn . . . C . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...-.---------*----- A< ... . 7 )& I " .................. .................. ............ .......... p....... ...................... ..................... Coe Flora Sites .......4 Natural Mountain VeSetation .Welland...................................Natural Lowland Vegetation ... - ................... .~ Irnfne Land.. .................. ......................................... .............~ ~ ~~~~~~~~9 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa areas on the basis of their contribution to pre- eas threatened by development. This was due to a determined conservation targets. In 1982 the number of factors but mainly to a lack of political "Greening the City" report identified some areas support for conservation issues. In addition there as conservation priorities. The report was adopted was no clear or organised strategy nor delegated by the then City of Cape Town's Council in 1984 body for implementation, and the findings of the and led to the proclamation of the Wolfgat Nature report were not communicated to a sufficiently Reserve in 1986. wide audience. At the same time a project was funded by the The conservation priority for both government Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and civil society at that time was the Peninsula (CSIR) to identify conservation priorities in low- mountain chain, where conservation was easier and land regions of the fynbos biome. Despite its value, more politically rewarding for a city council that this report never received political backing and was exclusively composed of representatives of the none of its recommendations was implemented. white minority. In contrast, the economically and Many of the identified priority sites were subse- politically marginalised Cape Flats received scant quently lost to the massive expansion of urban ar- attention and fewer resources. Even proclaimed pro- eas on the Cape Flats from the mid- 1980s onwards. tected areas such as Wolfgat Nature Reserve did not Political pressure, and urgency to accommodate a receive any resources for managerment until after large number of migrants to the city, marginalised the first local government democratic elections of conservation concerns. 1996 when the Parks and Forests Branch of the City In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several floral began a community participation programme. surveys and vegetation mapping exercises were During the early to mid- 1990s many of the larger conducted to identify conservation-worthy areas. remnants of land were lost to development while These studies, by botanists from the National Bo- even those with some protection status (local and tanical Institute and the two local universities (IJni- provincial nature reserves), gradually degraded, versity of Cape Town and the University of the owing to lack of on-the-ground management (e.g. Western Cape), were motivated in response to the the Driftsands Nature Reserve). By 1997 there were rapid escalation of threats to the Cape Flats flora. nine formally proclaimed protected areas on the In 1990 a report entitled "Conservation Priority Cape Flats, but only three of these were effectively Survey of the Cape Flats", identified and mapped managed. Instead, between 1994 and 1997, the important conservation areas. This study was attention of government and civil society was fo- funded by the Western Cape Regional Services cused elsewhere, on the consolidation of conser- Council (regional government), the City (local vation areas and management on the Peninsula government), the University of Western Cape, and mountains, which culminated in the establishment the Botanical Society of South Africa (NGO). This of the Cape Peninsula National Park in 1998. Many report was critical in raising awareness about the conservationists had given up on the Cape Flats plight of the Cape Flats biota. It identified all sites where fragmented landscapes, and escalating with natural habitat and populations of Red Data threats created a much greater conservation chal- Book species as important for conservation but did lenge, requiring the engagement of poor and not prioritise them. One such site was Kenilworth marginalised communities. Racecourse, a 50 ha remnant habitat within a horse- During the 1990s the Botanical Society of South racing track which supports 18 Red Data Book Africa (BotSoc), the most active NGO dealing with species. In 1992, the city council accepted this flora conservation issues in the CMA, commented study as a reference document to guide decision- on numerous development proposals which threat- making with respect to future development pro- ened conservation sites identified in the 1990 study. posals and agreed, wherever possible, to retain Given that there was no prioritisation of areas and natural areas identified as conservation-worthy. that conservation resources were severely limited, Despite this council resolution, the report failed it was difficult to defend some of these areas. Out to mobilise significant action and the city adopted of frustration, and an urgent need for clearly identi- a passive role, particularly when dealing with ar- fied conservation priorities, BotSoc launched a study 92 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town to identify conservation priorities, based on the prin- western part of the Cape Flats, required to con- ciples and practices of target-driven systematic con- serve at least one occurrence of the region's spe- servation planning. With the establishment of the cial species. These sites, termed core conservation Cape Peninsula National Park well advanced, local sites, included land parcels under a wide range of and regional government were more willing to fo- management, zoning, and ownership regimes, such cus on other conservation responsibilities. The stage as existing nature reserves, a freeway interchange was set to engage CMA authorities in initiatives for or private land zoned as open space or agriculture. effective conservation of the Cape Flats flora. The The report recommended: GEF-funded Cape Action Plan for the Environment (see Chapter 11) recognised the area as a priority * providing adequate protection status to 15 for conservation action, opening the door for inter- core conservation sites; national funds to be allocated for conservation ac- * promoting sound conservation management tions on the Cape Flats. of the 15 core conservation sites; * expansion of the study to less well-known A STRATEGIC CONSERVATION PLAN FOR eastern parts of the lowlands of the CMA. HABITAT REMNANTS ON THE CAPE FLATS The results of this study were submitted to the As threats to the remnant Cape Flats biodiversity local, provincial and national govemment authori- continued to escalate from the mid- 1 990s, conser- ties. The former Cape Metropolitan Council found vationists from BotSoc and the National Botani- the report persuasive and officially adopted its rec- cal Institute (a largely state-funded research ommendations in 1997. A working group of rep- institution) developed a planning process with the resentatives from local and provincial government following attributes: was established as the official body for liaison and implementation of the Cape Flats Flora Pro- * priority sites should be identified using a sys- gramme. At the same time the City provided fund- tematic planning protocol that was explicitly ing for BotSoc to expand the study eastwards. target-driven and, hence, defensible; * as far as possible, the plan should accommo- Phase 2: Expanded conservation plan date sites identified as part of the metropoli- tan open space system in the "Greening the The second phase, which covered the entire low- City" Report; land portion of the CMA (i.e. the eastern and west- * every effort should be made to use the plan- em Cape Flats, as well as the agricultural land to ning outcomes as an opportunity to show- the north) began in 1999. Although the technical ly- case the exceptional biodiversity of the CFR correct term for the expanded study area is the in an impoverished urban context, in particu- CMA lowlands, the area is referred to as the Cape lar emphasising the environmental education Flats as this is a more accessible and marketable and recreation potential. name. In this phase the overall conservation goal was expanded. The conservation target was set at This planning process was conducted in two two occurrences of each special species and the phases. Owing to limited funds, the first phase was process included an evaluation of the extent to based on existing information, mostly from the which existing protected areas in the planning do- earlier report. After the first phase, funding was main achieved this target. Furthermore, the assess- made available by the City to include previously ment also considered the vulnerability of sites to unsurveyed sites. threatening processes. A total of 1,466 indigenous plant species were Phase 1: Initial conservation plan recorded in 1 18 sites, 131 of which are threatened with extinction. This included 76 species endemic The first phase, conducted in 1997, identified a to the planning domain; these are the so-called minimum set of 15 sites, out of 47 sites in the special species. The nine protected areas in the 93 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa planning domain conserved less than one third of maintained. One of the awareness activities in- these special species. The reserve selection algo- cluded taking politicians from local government rithm identified 23 sites, in addition to the 15 iden- on guided spring tours of the core conservation tified previously, as necessary to achieve the sites to expose them to these unique areas, their conservation target. This provided the new set of associated management issues, opportunities and 38 core conservation sites. Owing to the extreme threats. In addition, awareness programmes were vulnerability of their populations, three endemic targeted at the general public and youth, including plants are expected to become extinct in the wild travelling exhibits, posters and brochures, environ- in the near future. The report recommended trans- mental education materials (Box 9.1), and radio location and ex situ conservation actions for these and television interviews. species. Four years after the initiation of the Cape Flats As with the first phase, the results of the study Flora Programme, secure protection status had been and recommendations were presented to all three achieved for three sites and substantial improve- tiers of government. The report included large for- ments to on-the-ground management had been mat maps clearly showing the locality of the 38 made at 11 of the 38 core conservatlion sites. The sites and all the information pertaining to each site Working Group highlighted the fact that many of was captured on the City's geographical informa- the conservation sites are situated in some of the tion system (GIS). The City adopted the recom- poorest quarters of the city, where open space re- mendations of the Phase 2 report and agreed to quirements have often been overlooked. A 2001 continue coordination of the existing Working survey among Cape Flats' households of aware- Group, whose responsibility had now been ex- ness of environmental initiatives in the region tended to the 38 core sites. rankedthe CapeFlats FloraProgramme higherthan better resourced initiatives. This increased profile The role and achievements of the Working Group and political support paved the way for expanding the conservation estate and improving on-the- The Working Group comprised representatives of ground management. the City's environmental and conservation man- Coordination and cooperation, provided through agement agencies for different areas of the CMA, the Working Group, assisted in taking conservation the provincial nature conservation authority and beyond ecosystem management and integrating it BotSoc. The group was led by the City's Environ- mental Management Department and the Botani- cal Society of South Africa. Its official terms of reference included working towards improving the protection status of the 38 core conservation sites B .. as well as their on-the-ground management. Bi- on Ui= monthly meetings provided a useful forum for solv- ing problems and sharing experiences from In2001a program targeted specifically at school site-specific projects. An important role of the learners was initiated with the aim to encourage Working Group was to communicate information teachers and learners to explore the natural en- on the core conservation sites to land use planners vironments in the vicinity of school grounds within the different geographic areas of the CMA. through active learning. The theme "Cape Flats The group also provided guidance to the City on a floral treasures on your doorstep" was promoted land acquisition programme for conservation. and the use of natural open spaces outdoor class- The Working Group placed great emphasis on rooms was encouraged. An active learning teach- creating awareness and raising the profile of im- ers guide, colour wall poster and map were portant sites among politicians and the public at commissioned and distributed free to all schools large. Even though significant political buy-in had in the CMA, with funding from the City of Cape been achieved, the group realised that this was an Town. ongoing task to ensure that support was actively 94 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town into the wider urban context among many differ- ics such as plant-pollinator mutualisms and the ef- ent line functions and sectors e.g. catchment man- fects of city air pollutants on biodiversity. A new agement, storm water control and spatial planning project aims to establish role models for commu- departments, (see also Chapter 8). Other local and nity involvement in conservation at three pilot sites, provincial government departments such as spa- situated in some of the poorest parts of the Cape tial planning and development evaluation depart- Flats. Funding has been secured for this project ments were made aware of the significance of the for three years on a 50-50% basis from the Table core conservation sites. Information on the 38 core Mountain Fund and the City (see Box 9.2). conservation sites was integrated into land use decision-making. Spatial planning initiatives and specific site development plans for the CMA have incorporated these priority sites as no-go areas for development. NGOs, such as BotSoc, are engaged Box 9.2. Conservation in the community: constructively with developers and planning au- the Edith Stephens Wetland Park thorities. Through the land-rezoning processes, such as at the Kenilworth Racecourse, it has been possil tneoittre-fs wit deeoes The Edith Stephens Wetland Park was originally 'bslle to negotiate trade-offs with developers. These ensure that conservation-worthyportions of a three hectare wetland that needed to be con- Theseensur tha consrvaton-wothy ortios of nected to the two adjacent land parcels (one pri- a site are given increased protection status and that veted o the ta cnt land pc (oe pi- deeomn fudn isstaiefr thi.mn vately owned and the second owned by the City) to become ecologically viable. In June 2000 the agement. In return permission is granted to develop City purchased the privately-owned land and those parts of the site with low conservation value. amalgased the privatels-one Edith This approach is seen to be one of the key reasons amalgamated the three land parcels into the Edith fr sucs rfteprgam ofr Stephens Wetland Park. The steering committee The increasof thed prolitcal s o forc for the park includes partners as diverse as the Tiononthe capesFlatsed politirto a r incr seinrea- previously disadvantaged communities, the Na- tsonurce allocat ed to atin.rough its tional Botanical Institute, the BotSoc, and the sourcserationclaned-aocqisition.programm ith Table Mountain Fund. The project aims to es- Ccommitted-Rc.uillion .ov tree years tablish a community park that creates jobs to land purchase at four of the core conservation (through invasive alien plant removal), provide sites (ca. 1000cha), signiurofintl ncreonsvasion t a recreational centre and a reserve that integrates sites (ca. 1000 ha), significantly increasing the thvaiucomnie.TeabeM nan the various communities. The Table Mountain amount of land and number of special species Fund, with financing from the GEF, facilitated under secure conservation status. In addition to t land purchase, money has been spent on infra- the first stakeholder workshop which led local structure, management costs, environmental edu- community leaders to support the project. '~ ~ ~ ivovmn project. To date, the City has spent more than cation and community Involvement projectse Moreover a number of site-specific initiatives, R2 million on establishing this park. The Na- tional Botanical Institute has also enthusiastically ncmmudini .invove haverledpt the i ove- sourced funding of over R400,000 from the Work- community involvement, have led to the Improve- I.gfrWtrPorm-efrtermvlo n ment of protection status and on-the-ground con- rng for Water Programme for the removal of in- mervaofprotection managmt.s The opptroruniy for- vasive alien vegetation in order to rehabilitate pervartionership tdevel b hetwee funders, NGosr the park's natural wetlands, using labour sourced partnerships to develop betwveen funders, NGOs, frmlclomuiesThpaksucssd - local, provincial and national government facili- from local communities. The park's success dem- tated access to funding and resources, both from onstrates the linkages between poverty, environ- the privat and publc sector.ment and development. The Edith Stephens the Workiateang Groupl encouragedrese arhoatrt Wetland Park initiative demonstrates how core The Working Group encouraged research at the cosrainitsanndewrkodlvr core conservation sites by identifying projects for conservation sites can indeed work to deliver universities and making available the data used in the core sites study. Research projects covered top- 95 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa ItEY FACTORS Wl THE SUCCESS OF established Environmental Management Depart- bAIMSTREAMVIMI THE CAPIE FLATS ment was receptive to strategic and relevant plan- FLODRA PROGRAME ning projects. The early conservation awareness of some City officials and politicians and pro- Clearly identified conservation priorities gressive "greening" of planning departments, paved the way for the establishment of the Envi- The success of the Cape Flats Flora Programme ronmental Management Department and willing- hinged on the initial support gained from the City ness to take on the conservation challenge of the for the conservation plans that identified the core core conservation sites. This certainly was a ma- conservation sites. Several factors made these con- jor factor leading to local government's official servation plans acceptable to local government: adoption of recommendations for the core con- servation sites. The increase in information and o The core conservation sites addressed a real general public awareness about the environment biodiversity threat (urban development and assisted mainstreaming. conservation management neglect) and pro- vided a solution to conservation challenges Committed conservationists on the Cape Flats. o The plan had a scientific basis and was based The commitment of participants of' the Working on a systematic approach with clear and ex- Group, underpinned by the leadership of the City's plicit conservation targets that were cognisant Environmental Management Deparl:ment and the of competing urban needs and threats. Botanical Society of South Africa, was essential o Decision-makers and politicians valued the to the success of the Cape Flats Flora Programme. process of identification of the core conser- At times the challenge of conserving the core con- vation sites as a pragmatic prioritisation and servation sites seemed overwhelming but member an effective way to deal with plant conserva- commitnent remained strong. The partnership be- tion challenges in the city, including alloca- tween the City and BotSoc was a driving element tion of limited conservation resources. in the Working Group and its activities and projects. Securing political support People-centred demonstration projects While the plan for the core conservation sites un- Successful site-specific projects demonstrated how derpinned the Cape Flats Flora Programme, it was it is possible to achieve a net benefit across many less than 5% of the job. One of the key tasks of the sectors through the creation ofjobs and providing Working Group was to lobby the City to adopt the a community asset (see Box 9.2). This helped se- plan and to work to ensure ongoing support. The cure support for further projects from local gov- sound working relationships between project part- emient and the private sector. Instead of focusing ners and politicians was facilitated through Work- narrowly on ecological concerns alone, the Work- ing Group activities and spring tours, which ing Group investigated the challenge in the con- enthused participants about site-specific projects. text of urban development, and socio-cultural There was strong political support from the Coun- issues. Thus, at the Edith Stephens Wetland Park cillor responsible for Planning and Environment, jobs were created through ecological restoration who championed the convergence between meet- projects and community facilities were provided. ing inhabitants' needs and protecting the city's re- The group encouraged local involvement in devel- source base. oping solutions appropriate to particular situations. Opportune timing Unique socio-ecological context The release of the report on core conservation sites The uniqueness of conservation in this urban con- was particularly opportune in that the City's newly- text with its distinct "Cape Flats" flavour was ap- 96 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town pealing to the media. In particular public attention many from accepting the conservation challenge. was caught by the contrast between the urban, and Further, there was little experience in conservation often harsh, living environments of the Cape Flats through public participation, particularly in engag- and the conservation of fragile natural assets. ing with disadvantaged communities. The need to engage with poor and marginalised neighbouring OBSTACLES TO MAINSTREAMING communities was a paradigm shift requiring much effort from already over-stretched conservationists. Local government restructuring Once pilot community-based conservation and en- vironmental education initiatives started showing The Working Group was established at a time when promise, more support was forthcoming. the City had just been restructured and significant institutional re-organisation and political change Resistance to systematic approach was taking place. Officials represented on the Working Group came from different parts of the Initially there was some resistance to the prioritisa- City that were at different stages of restructuring. tion of sites for conservation. It took a few years Frequently roles and responsibilities, powers and to convince sceptics that prioritisation was neces- duties and lines of reporting were not clear. Offi- sary in order to profile biodiversity conservation, cials faced tremendous obstacles, not least of which secure the necessary political buy-in and to focus were budget constraints and staff shortages. De- limited conservation resources. spite these constraints, group members were com- mitted to participating, and played a large role in Plant-focused plan providing the required coordination. Some non-botanists viewed the conservation plan Weak coordination as too plant-centric but data were lacking for other organisms. Fortunately most scientists accepted The lack of a coordinated approach to conserva- that plants were a good surrogate for other life tion management and initiatives across the City, forms in planning at this scale. as well as a varying degree of commitment from local government officials in charge of core con- FUTURE CHALLENGES servation sites, was a huge challenge. Continued commitment by Working Group members was key Maintaining momentum to overcoming this constraint. Maintaining momentum to effect implementation Lack of resources is a huge challenge and a long-term task that re- quires constant encouragement and optimism from The lack of capacity and resources hampered the the members of the Working Group as well as implementation of action plans at each of the core funders. Ongoing political support and commit- sites. The Working Group provided a forum to ad- ment can be achieved through targeted awareness dress these problems and in some cases creative so- campaigns, based on success stories at grass roots lutions were developed (e.g. sourcing funding for level, and by demonstrating integration and stream- restoration and community tourism projects from lining with the City's priorities and objectives. the national government's Poverty Relief Fund). Securing resources Raising interest in the programme A significant lack of capacity and resources ham- Initially it was difficult to raise interest in the Cape pers implementation of plans at all core sites. It is Flats flora even among some conservationists. The hoped that the success of demonstration projects, highly fragmented nature of the remaining habitat, increased public support and a comprehensive and the extreme nature of the threats, discouraged biodiversity strategy for the City, will leverage 97 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa increased resources for biodiversity conservation natural habitats in the city through open space and from local government. Much of the future suc- outdoor classrooms. Efforts to develop a viable cess of conservation on the Cape Flats depends on conservation strategy for the Cape Flats flora show creative conservation initiatives providing multiple promise of success where it has been possible to benefits and contributing to improved urban envi- integrate the conservation of habitat remnants with ronments. This must start with increasing the development needs and poverty alleviation. awareness, appreciation and stewardship of Biodiversity considerations have been effectively biodiversity by local communities, followed by mainstreamed in the City's environmental plans and sustainable financial mechanisms and conservation policies which, in turn, guide land use planning and management arrangements. development. The core sites project demonstrates that biodiversity conservation and economic gains Ongoing local government transformation can go hand-in-hand through infonned land use decision-making. By approaching conservation in The renewed re-organisation and social transfor- a manner that delivers not only conserved habitats, mation of local government and the potential loss but a net gain across sectors (e.g. education, inte- of environmental management as a distinct recog- gration of recreational uses, and small-scale employ- nisable unit pose threats and challenges. Although ment creation possibilities through the rehabilitation the role of environment and its advocacy role within of these pocket reserves), the Cape Flats Flora local government is currently seen as critical, en- Programme demonstrates the way for furthering vironmental management may become a subordi- biodiversity conservation and social progress within nate function of urbanisation and planning. the Cape Floral Kingdom as a whole. The unique- ness of Cape Town's biodiversity, clearly defined Improved management conservation priorities, committed conservationists and a people-centred approach were the key ingre- Institutional capacity for conservation at local gov- dients that led to the successful mainstreaming of ernment level must be improved to ensure sound biodiversity on the Cape Flats. and integrated conservation management at each site. Securing the support of the private sector is a ACEMLEDEbEMT key challenge. The authors wish to acknowledge pioneers of con- Research servation on the Cape Flats including Margie Jarman, Bruce McKenzie, Paul Britton, Aleka There is a great need to improve our ecological Beaumont, Lee Jones and Dalton Gibbs, and in understanding of urban conservation. Particular particular Julia Wood, Clive McDowell and Barrie areas for study include: important ecological pro- Low who directed vital floral surveys and map- cesses such as the role of fire in the isolated, rem- ping exercises. Officials Peter Adams, Stephen nant fynbos sites; the effects of population isolation Granger, Peter Tomalin, Jfirgen Gandt and Coun- and the role of corridors; and the control of inva- cillor Brian Watkyns played a central role in pro- sive alien shrubs, herbs and grasses. As research moting the programme within the City. The improves, the Working Group needs to channel the Working Group members are thanked for their information through to managers in order to fine- commitment to the Cape Flats Flora Programme. tune the on-the-ground conservation management The National Botanical Institute contributed to requirements of each site. Cape Flats Flora Programme; in particular George Davis and Xola Mkefe played key roles in the Edith ClBCLlUlSMS Stephens Wetland Park, outreach greening and environmental education. The state of biodiversity conservation on the Cape Julia Wood and Bruce McKenzie were the driv- Flats has improved through the Cape Flats Flora ing force behind Phase 1 of the core site initiative. Programme. Communities have developed a Julia Wood provided information on the history of greater appreciation and awareness of the value of conservation efforts on the Cape Flats. Keith 98 Conserving an Embattled Flora: Mainstreaming Biodiversity Issues in Urban Cape Town Wiseman provided a summary of restructuring in National Scientific Programmes Report 87. Coun- local government. Shirley Pierce and Richard cil for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria. Cowling provided invaluable comments on earlier *Maze, K.E. and Rebelo, A.G. 1999. Core Flora Con- drafts of this manuscript. Finally the Global Envi- servation Areas on the Cape Flats. Unpublished ronment Facility (through the Table Mountain report FCC Report 99/1, Botanical Society of South Fund), City of Cape Town and Botanical Society Africa. of South Africa are thanked for funding the Cape McDowell, C.R. and Low, A.B. 1990. Conservation Flats Flora Programme. priority survey of the Cape Flats. Unpublished Re- port, University of Western Cape, Belville. AUTHORS' AFFILIATIONS *McKenzie, B. and Rebelo, A.G. 1997. Core Flora Conservation Areas on the Cape Flats. Unpublished K. Maze is with the Botanical Society of South report FCC Report 97/1, Botanical Society of South Africa, Cape Town. wildflower(gem.co.za. Africa. T. Katzschner is with the City of Cape Town, Wood, J. and Low, A.B. 1993. Environnmental survey Environmental Management. tania.katzschner@ and management guidelines for the Tygerberg and capetown.gov.za. environs. Unpublished report, National Botanical B. Myrdal is with the Table Mountain Fund- Institute, Kirstenbosch. WWF-SA, Cape Town. bmyrdal(wwfsa.org.za. Wood, J., Low, A.B., Donaldson, J.S. and Rebelo, A.G. 1994. Threats to plant species diversity through FURTHER READING urbanisation and habitat fragmentation in the Cape Metropolitan Area, South Africa. Strelitzia Daines, A. and Low, A.B. 1993. CapeMetropolitanArea. 1:259-274. West Coast environmental survey: Unpublished re- port, National Botanical Institute, Kirstenbosch. Jarman, M.L. 1986. Conservation Priorities in the low- *Available in PDF format at http://www.botanical land regions of the Fynbos Biome. South African society.org.za 99 I w- d Putting Biodiversity to 10 Business on the Agulhas Plain S. D. J. Privett, B. J. Heydenrych and R. M. Cowling SUMMARY The Agulhas Plain encompasses the major issues and challenges facing conser- vation authorities in the Cape, especially in the lowlands. It has a high number of rare, endangered and endemic plant species, but this biodiversity is threatened by various activities including agriculture, urbanisation and invasive alien plants. Scientists and conservationists have long been aware of the area's exceptional diversity and its threats, and have recently used systematic conservation plan- ning tools in order to define conservation priorities. At present, only 4% of the Plain is formally conserved in provincial and national reserves and, owing to financial constraints, this area is unlikely to be expanded significantly. Of the unconserved land, 95% is in the hands of rural private landowners, who also own the majority of conservation-worthy landscapes. As a result of the apartheid legacy, virtually all these landowners are white and there is high unemployment and poverty amongst the other, marginalised communities. To successfully conserve the globally significant ecological patterns and pro- cesses of the Agulhas Plain requires innovative methods of integrating the pri- vate sector and local communities into the conservation network. This paper explores two recent conservation interventions that do exactly that. One is a strategically devised programme of land purchase and of contracting private land into a national park that will safeguard much of the region's priority conserva- tion sites. The other is a collaborative conservation project between the govern- ment, private and NGO sectors that is using innovative methods to integrate biodiversity into business practices and bring private landowners into the con- servation network. These provide examples of the mainstreaming of biodiversity 101 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa into various sectors including tourism, agricul- vation management are very limited and need to ture and education. Key driving factors were the be strategically spent. perceived threats to the regions' biodiversity; the Thus, the scenario facing conservation planners role of key individuals and organisations; insti- on the Agulhas Plain includes a minefield of so- tutional support; government will; inter-depart- cial, political and economic issues. Critically, for mental cooperation and collaboration; and trust conservation to succeed they will need to involve between parties. private landowners as well as the formerly disen- franchised local communities. Creative approaches lITRODUCTIOl are required to ensure the management and expan- sion of the conservation network through The Agulhas Plain, comprising 153,917 ha at the biodiversity-based opportunities for local landown- southern tip of Africa (Figure 10.1) is an example ers and communities. of a high priority lowland area in the Cape Floris- This chapter explores two initiatives on the tic Region (CFR). It is a microcosm of the issues Agulhas Plain that have developed over the last facing conservation authorities throughout the decade. Both are models of state-private sector Cape, especially in lowland regions. The partnerships. One is a strategic conservation inter- biodiversity of the region is spectacular, including vention driven by the South African National Parks many locally endemic plants. However, this and based on a solid scientific grouncling. The other biodiversity is extremely threatened by human ac- is a collaborative partnership between the Western tivities. Some 23% of the Plain has been lost to Cape Nature Conservation Board, private sector cultivation, while approximately 15% of the rem- and an international non-government organisation nant natural habitat has been transformed by dense (Fauna & Flora International), that has developed stands of invasive alien trees. The region contains largely as a result of serendipitous events. Both 112 Red Data Book plant species, many of which are characterised by new and innovative approaches are on the verge of extinction. to biodiversity conservation. This is a good news Threats to the region's biodiversity are com- story, albeit fraught with challenges. pounded by the fact that only 4% of the Plain enjoys formal conservation status and 95% of the E U O THE PL A DECADE AGO unconserved land is in the hands of rural private landowners. The majority of these private land- In the late 1980s, prospects for biodiversity con- owners (70%) are involved in commercial farm- servation on the Agulhas Plain were bleak. The ing activities that have a negative impact on the region had long been identified as a top priority conservation status of their properties. As a re- for conservation in the Cape Floristic Region. A sult of South Africa's apartheid legacy, virtually number of scientific surveys had emphasised the all the privately-owned land on the Agulhas Plain extraordinary richness and value of the floral and is in white ownership. The rural settlements and faunal biodiversity. However, little was being done small towns of the plain are mostly inhabited by to ensure the conservation status of rare and threat- those communities disadvantaged by apartheid- ened habitats and taxa. Conservation was largely mostly descended from the aboriginal Khoen- espoused as a formal land use restricted to state- Khoen or Khoi inhabitants of the region. Over owned properties. The original proclamation of the last decade there has also been a large influx these reserves had very little to do with conserva- into the region's towns of Xhosa people from the tion priorities. The De Mond State Forest, (named former homelands of the Eastern Cape. Unem- according to legal status, not vegetation type), had ployment is rife, in some cases exceeding 50% been proclaimed for state security (the landing of of the economically active population. While the seaplanes during World War II) in 1941. This was ideal scenario would be to ensure that all un- followed in 1960 by the Walker Bay State Forest spoiled land on the plain, irrespective of size of network (again named according to legal status not remnant, enjoys some form of conservation ac- vegetation type), which was proclaimed in order tion, funds for the purchase of land and conser- to stabilise coastal sand dunes. The shifting sand 102 Figure 10.1. The Agulhas Plain showing the location of the Agulhas National Park, Grootbos Private Nature Reserve, Flower Valley and the Walker Bay Fynbos Conservancy, as well as existing nature reserves and priority areas for conservation intervention Swellendam T ~~~~~~~~Rviersonderend - To Cape Town N2 R4t/ Oula Walker6ay a ,3lIker Bay N 6rine Pleserve . ... Cape Infanta r Va lleyOs dasdorp Gansbaal~~n \Q6 4 Indian Ocean < \ < H~~~~~~~~~~euningrug DeM n D n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C L,, DangerPoint~ ~ ~ o Hert agelkraal R1 Natu Waenhuiskrans/Arniston z: Atlantic Ocean PW ba \_ = sark Soutilh A ca Iz Quoin Point u\ Cape Agulhas X l 1 0 Co nse rvatio n Areas \ Cape Fbrstic lQngd <,-CD 10 km eape nlard[has Area en larg ed Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa dunes in these coastal areas were considered a cultivate virgin land has been granted by the state. threat to agriculture and an intensive planting Furthermore, the majority of private properties programme was initiated. Today, the biggest man- were infested with alien vegetation and very little agement cost in these state forests, and many of was being done to curb their spread. the surrounding private properties, is the removal of these alien trees that were planted there only a 'THE 7URNI P0INT few decades previously by the state. The recently-formed provincial statutory board, In 1994, something happened that was to change the Western Cape Nature Conservation Board the future of the Agulhas Plain-plans to develop (WCNCB), now administers these reserves. When a nuclear power station. Environmentalists nor- the management of these state assets was devolved mally regard nuclear plants as threats. In this case from national government to the provincial gov- the development was the catalyst to promote ernment in the mid-1980's, there was a concomi- biodiversity conservation. tant loss of the cross subsidisation from forestry Scientists from the Institute for Plant Conser- permits which had previously financed their man- vation (IPC) had been researching various aspects agement. Further cuts in conservation budgets over of the Agulhas Plain's flora and vegetation, work- the last decade have resulted in a situation where ing with conservation-minded landowners. They there is virtually no funding available for conser- were approached by the consultants appointed by vation management on these reserves. They house the nuclear agency (Electrical Supply Commis- no facilities for tourism, generate virtually no in- sion-ESKOM) to carry out the biological com- come and are beset with management problems, ponent of a structure plan for the plain. Incidentally, including poor access control and dense alien veg- the site (5km2) chosen for the nuclear facility is etation cover. probably the most biologically valuable on the Consequently, by 1990, only about 4% of the Plain, being home to four unique species and 45 area of the Agulhas Plain was formally conserved. Agulhas Plain endemics. The structure plan en- This reserve network had been haphazardly estab- abled IPC scientists to incorporate their research lished and there were insufficient funds available findings into a document that would guide eco- for its management. On private properties, agri- nomic development on the Agulhas Plain for de- cultural activities, which had begun in the 18th cades to come. Understandably, conservation issues century, have continued unabated until the present. emerged as major concerns. A preliminary con- Cultivation for cereals and pastures resulted in the figuration of priority sites for conservation action loss of 35,000 hectares of lowland vegetation on was included in the plan. The threat of a nuclear the more fertile, shale-derived soils. Many of the power station thus gave rise to the first major con- habitats previously thought to be marginal for com- servation planning exercise on the Agulhas Plain. mercial cultivation had come under threat from new ESKOM had paid for the plan but who was go- forms of land use, including the cultivation of wild ing to ensure that these biodiversity issues were flowers and viticulture. The fynbos wild flower translated into action and therefore implemented? industry, which is based on the area's biodiversity, The ESKOM structure plan was not legally bind- is by far the largest industry on the Agulhas Plain. ing, at least for its conservation aspects. Besides, Traditionally, flowers were harvested from the wild the capacity to implement its recommendations was by landowners for the fresh and dried flower mar- lacking at all tiers of government. For this reason, kets. However, a growing trend over the last 20 the IPC and the Botanical Society, using funds from years has been the cultivation of a number of in- the Pew Foundation (USA), and WWF-South Af- digenous fynbos species for the export market. rica, appointed a conservation officer for the The net result was habitat conversion and an over- Agulhas Plain. His job was essentially to investi- all loss of biodiversity. The lack of formal control gate opportunities for implementing the conserva- in this region is highlighted by the fact that the tion recommendations of the structure plan. He 4,600 ha of fynbos under cultivation represents would do this by seeking to understand the socio- almost 10 times the area for which approval to economic drivers of habitat loss and the opportu- 104 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain nity costs and potential and actual benefits of con- servation. Most importantly, he was encouraged Box 10.1. Conservation mechanisms to develop good relationships with the local in- of South African National Parks habitants. The creation of this full time post pro- vided the initial momentum to ensure that South African National Parks (SANP) has two biodiversity issues became mainstreamed on the types of conservation mechanisms. Schedule I Agulhas Plain. national parks are the traditional national parks owned and managed by the state. Alternatively, contractual national parks allow for the procla- STRATEGIC CONSERVATION INTERVENTION mation of private land (or state land under the BY SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL PARKS control of a parastatal organisation or commu- nity) to become part of a national park. In these Planning for a park parks, the land remains the property of the land- owner and is managed according to an agreement In the early 1 990s, South African National Parks between SANP and the landowner. The agreement (SANP) investigated the establishment of a coastal is flexible and may allow for some (sustainable) park along the Agulhas Plain. Following a feasi- resource use. The agreement requires a formnal bility study in 1995, which included vital input contract with SANP for a period of more than 30 from the ESKOM structure plan and key scientists years (preferably 99 years). The Agulhas National from the University of Cape Town, SANP shifted Park is a combination of the schedule 1 and con- their focus away from the coast and highlighted tractual national park mechanisms. the Agulhas Plain's fynbos vegetation and unique wetland systems as conservation priorities. Con- comitant with the SANP study, the Institute of Plant Conservation (IPC) at the University of Cape Town initiated a systematic conservation plan. Four pri- The appointment of a coordinator ority nodes were identified, all of which coincided with areas previously emphasised as conservation By early 1997, the Botanical Society's conserva- priorities in other studies. These were the tionmanager(discussedabove)hadbeenworking Heuningrug limestone complex in the northeast, in the area for 18 months and had gained local the Elim area in the centre, Groot Hagelkraal in knowledge and standing in the community. He was the southwest and the Soetanysberg in the south- then appointed by SANP as the locally based co- cast (Figure 10.1). As a result, SANP amended ordinatorto oversec the implementation of the park. their goal for the Agulhas National Park to incor- The new park coordinator produced a newsletter, porate the four nodes, two of which coincided with disseminated information and organised a series their own priority areas. Altogether SANP identi- of meetings with the public and sectoral groups fied an area of approximately 20,000 ha for the during 1997 and 1998. This post was vitally im- Agulhas National Park. In early 1996, the Board portant in developing trust between SANP, NGOs, of SANP approved the establishment of a national private landowners and local communities on the park on the Agulhas Plain. Plain, an essential ingredient for success in a project Serendipity, and the need for academic institu- of this nature. tions to actively market their products, was a turn- ing point in the development of the Agulhas The first funds for invasive alien plant clearing National Park. Without the intervention by the IPC, resources may well have been directed towards a In early 1998, a large-scale project, funded by the coastal park (which would have been politically Norwegian government, to clear invasive alien difficult given the high usage of the area by local plants on the Elim communal lands was initiated people) and the fynbos and wetland systems would by SANP. Although the national park had not been have been left to degrade. proclaimed at that stage, SANP recognised the 105 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa undertake works in the area of the developing Ea3 10.2. 7lae EDHm Tomir, miJ>'.- Agulhas National Park. This successful partner- ship enabled SANP to undertake important man- Although most of the land on the Agulhas Plain agement work, utilising central government funds is freehold, there is one area of communally and without putting a strain on its own funding owned land. The Elim community, many of mechanisms. Instead SANP funds were used pri- whom are descendants of the original Khoen- marily for the purchase of land for the park. Fur- Khoen inhabitants, are the custodians of approxi- thermore these two initiatives provided local mately 7,000 ha of land, including one of the communities with a direct buy-in to the park largest and best-preserved tracts of rare Elim through employment opportunities. finbos. Preliminary discussions between SANP and the Elim community suggested that the com- The first land acquisitions munity would be willing to investigate the inclu- sion of the Geelkop node (home to many endemic In a conservation environment where dwindling plants) into the Agulhas National Park on a con- funds are the norm, innovative strategies are needed tractual basis. The Elim community, however, is to create the financial, economic and social basis currently busy with intemal negotiations to trans- for a major intervention like a new national park. fer the title deeds of the land from the Moravian Only once the national park enjoys a measure of church to the local community. This process will economic sustainability, will its biodiversity be need to run its course before further discussions effectively safeguarded. In the interim, and as the regarding the national park. national park develops, commercial opportunities need to be exploited by SANP. Thus, a decision was made to establish a gateway to the national park at Cape Agulhas, the southernmost tip of Africa. Although the Cape Agulhas area was not one of the priority areas for biodiversity identified social and economic benefits in providing more by the systematic conservation plan, the site's in- than 70 jobs to people in the community adja- corporation was vital for capitalising on the area's cent to the future park. Moreover, clearing the substantial tourism potential. catchment of the Elim lands of invasive trees The first property to be proclaimed as part of would benefit the wetland systems of the down- the Agulhas National Park was the land managed stream areas earmarked for park inclusion. The by the quasi-govemment Portnet Lighthouse Ser- success of the Elim Working for Water project vices. This organisation was looking for manage- was a result of a number of initiatives and seren- ment assistance and a vision for the future of Cape dipitous events. These included a pilot project Agulhas at the same time as SANP was putting its funded by the IPC from monies leveraged from a plans into action. Through good relationships be- top-tier ecotourism venture, a chance in-flight tween key individuals and trust built up over a few meeting and decision to fund the project by two years, not only the land, but also two money- top government officials, and a partnership be- making enterprises, a museum and a restaurant, tween a number of government departments to were handed over for SANP to run. T'he Agulhas secure bridging finance and co-financing to National Park was officially launched by the Min- complement the foreign funding. ister of Environment Affairs and Tourism on 1st At the same time SANP initiated a second alien- March 1999 and the first areas proclaimed in Sep- clearing project, again as a result of a joint part- tember 1999. What makes this process of park es- nership between SANP and the Department of tablishment unique is that it was the first example Water Affairs. This project provided the impetus in South Africa where a flexible, strategic and sys- for the development of an ecological and socio- tematic conservation planning approach was ap- economicdevelopmentprojectthattrainedlocally- plied in planning and initiating a system of based contractors and provided the capacity to conservation areas. 106 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain Economic benefits of a national park Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE) (see Chapter 11) as it takes high level planning to a A recent survey of businesses on the Agulhas Plain local level. ABI is designed to address the main indicated that, owing to increased economic op- threats to the region's biodiversity and to improve portunities, the majority favoured the establishment the livelihoods of the local communities through a of the Agulhas National Park. Indeed, the economic multiplicity of inter-linked conservation, develop- impacts of protected areas extend well beyond their ment and socio-economic activities. A GEF project boundaries. In South Africa, the Kruger National is under preparation to include biodiversity con- Park is estimated to have a value of between R3 servation, sustainable harvesting and ecotourism billion and R5 billion per year after the economic components. It is estimated that the full project multipliers have been taken into account. Simi- will access US$3.5 million from GEF funds and larly, the Addo Elephant National Park generates co-financing to the value of US$7 million from some R 360 million annually (Chapter 6). The SANP, FFI and the Western Cape Nature Conser- value of these protected areas, which exceeds the vation Board (WCNCB). individual park budget by orders of magnitude, pro- vides evidence to decision-makers of their true con- tribution to the economy. State-private sector partnerships SANP realised that it was not realistic to depend Box 10.3. South African National Parks- on the state for the provision of all of the require- ments for the establishment of new protected ar- . . ~~~~~~~There are three ways in which the private sector eas. An estimated US$4 million is required for purchasing 12,000 ha of privately-owned land in coan invest in SANP's establishment of a formnal order to consolidate the high priority areas for the conservation system for the region: i) by donat- effetiveconervaion f te pak's iodversty. ing land for the system, with or without commer- Thefremaivecninga8, th would bindedsit. cial opportunities; ii) under an agreement or The remainin 8,000 ha would be included into fnnlcnrc hrb adi nlddi h the park on a contractual basis. SANP's internal forml contract whereby land is included in the development fund for land purchase will not be tong-term interests of conservation in exchange sufficient for consolidating all important conser- for various benefits (which are not necessarily fi- suffiientfor onsoidatng al imortat coser- nancial) e.g. contractual national parks, and iii) vation areas. Other sources of funding, including nanciw)e.g cntrtalcnationalrparks, and sus- those administered by WWF-South Africa and taiiby landowners undertaking conservation and sus- Fauna & Flora International (FF1) have been used tamnable farmning practices of their own free will. Faunao suploantemSANP's internal land purchase Contractual national parks are bound by a to supplement SANP's intemat land purchase formal contract between the landowner and funds. The prospect of SANP incorporating sufficient SANP but they do not always ensure equitable land for the effective consolidation of the Agulhas benefits to both parties. Experience thus far sug- gests that accrual of benefits from contractual National Park without the cooperation of private naialprsotnfvushervteecr landowners and other conservation agencies (es- national parks often favours the private sector pecially the Western Cape Nature Conservation more than conservation, with landowners some- Board) would be unrealistic. Indeed, this coopera- times perceiving the arrangement solely as an Board incentive for a land improvement service (e.g tive approach has paved the way for the develop- s g ment of the Agulhas Biodiversity Initiative (ABI), alien plant control) or for economic opportuni- which should provide the mechanism for the ef- ties (e.g. ecotourism). It is important, therefore, fective implementation of the Agulhas National to ensure that the contractual national park strives Park and further consolidation of conservation- to incorporate explicit conservation goals over worthy areas on the Agulhas Plain. ABI is consid- the long term. ered an important pilot for implementation of the 107 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa A COLLABORATIVE CONSERVATION INITIATWIE added in 1996 and 1997 increasing the reserve to OM THE WESTERM RIN3 OF THE AGULHAS PLAIN 1,050 ha. Grootbos employs qualified biologists and con- The coastal region between Hermanus and servationists to run guided tours and to develop Gansbaai on the western rim of the Agulhas Plain the conservation projects. Funds generated by the (Figure 10.1) is characterised by uncultivated, ag- tourism business have been re-invested into a va- riculturally marginal and scenically spectacular riety of conservation projects. These have included landscapes. Up until the late 1980s, farms in the fauna and flora surveys, clearing of invasive alien area were utilised for cattle grazing and wild flower vegetation, fynbos and forest restoration projects, harvesting. Fortunately, owing to the low produc- fire management and radio tracking of endangered tivity of the soils virtually no cultivation had taken mammals. This information has been integrated place. According to the reserve selection proce- into a comprehensive conservation management dure used to determine the area of the Agulhas plan for Grootbos. While the establishment of this National Park, this region was not a priority for reserve was not based on a rigorous scientific se- inclusion in the park. However, a conservation ini- lection analysis, subsequent research has shown tiative, born out of a dynamic private sector tour- ism project, was to have a significant influence on the future conservation management of the area. Sox 10.4. Private Nature Reserves (PNR) an the Agulhas Plain The private sector-Grootbos Nature Reserve Private nature reserves are administered by the In 1991, an entrepreneurial businessman from WsenCp aueCnevto or Cape Town purchased a 127 hectare farm near Western Cape Nature Conservation Board Capebaai Tw puchsed a 17 thec farm nea (WCNCB) and are established with the objec- Gansbai. is deisio to by th farmwas ased tive of protecting and conserving the natural en- on its spectacular view over the Atlantic Ocean g g vironment. The owner undertakes not to pursue rather than its biodiversity value. The owners . . recognised the potential economic benefits of any activity that will degrade the natural envi- catering for the foreign nature-based tourism mar- ronment, and all activities should be based on ket. Their decision to invest in an up-market lodge sound ecological principles. PNRs are registered was influenced by political stability and the in- and published in the Government Gazette. No flow of foreign visitors following South Africa's financial support is provided by the WCNCB, first democratic elections of 1994. The property but expertise on managing natural systems is firs deocraic lectonsof 194.The roprty made available to the landowner on request. had previously been poorly managed as a cattle and flower harvesting farmn to the detriment of There is no legal commitment binding the land- the site's biodiversity. at that time it employed owner to conservation activities and registration the site's biodiversity; at that time It employed o rvt auersre a ecnelda n only four staff. The farm was converted into an of private nature reserves can be cancelled at any ecolodge employing 50 full-time staff, more than stage on receipt of a written request from the landowner. A PNR, therefore, provides no long- half of whom come from the surrounding impov- termoser. i foR thereaten, pr is- erished communities. These local unskilled staff ti sandsiapefor threatened populations, pris- were trained to fulfil the many requirements of a tine landscapes or ecological processes. The fully functioning tourist lodge. conservation status depends largely on the com- From the beginning, the owners realised the mAlbert n faml initiated the first PNR on the importance of basing the business on the region's spectacular natural beauty and diverse flora and Agulhas Plain in 1969. Today there are 24 PNRs on the Plain, covering a total area of approxi- fauna. The lodge was carefully integrated into the oathePlyi,0 ha.eTis i neal areao a natural environment, and only local artisans and thately 8,000 ha. This is nearly the same area as that administered by the WCNCB in iormal pro- craftsmen were employed. The farm was registered as a private nature reserve and opened to its first guests in 1995. Three neighbouring farms were 108 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain 5,000 foreign and local visitors are exposed to the Box 10.5. Some marketing lessons uniqueness of the Agulhas Plain's biodiversity and from Grootbos Nature Reserve the need for conservation intervention. Primarily, Grootbos is a tourism lodge generat- The vast majority of international guests visit ing its income through nature-based activities. Africa to view big game. It is more difficult to Funds generated by the tourism business have been market floral biodiversity as an attraction for re-invested into conservation and social projects. foreign visitors. The problem is compounded by Mainstreaming has taken place through the shift a lack of coordinated efforts to market the Cape's in land use from agriculture to nature-based tour- unique floral wealth. Grootbos was forced to ism activities. As a result, there has been a net gain develop a marketing strategy around luxury and in biodiversity conservation and tourism in the re- service, to which was added a package of natu- gion. A hurdle for ecotourism world-wide is that ral attractions, emphasising marine fauna, espe- almost all nature tourism is advertised as cially whales, penguins and seals. The botanical ecotourism, whether or not the business contrib- tours of the fynbos proved very popular once the utes to biodiversity conservation. The Grootbos guests had arrived at Grootbos, and increasingly tourism initiative has secured the conservation of guests are visiting the reserve specifically to view 1,050 ha of previously threatened habitat, signifi- the flora. cantly increasing its conservation profile and in- Grootbos invested a large amount of capital fluencing conservation in the surrounding area. It into developing their sound environmental prac- has created employment and training opportuni- tices, conservation commitment and involvement ties, increased environmental awareness amongst of the local communities. From a business per- local and foreign visitors, marketed the region's spective, these funds might have been better spent natural diversity, increased visitation to the area on infrastructure development, marketing or divi- and created business opportunities for a variety of dends to shareholders. However, this investment secondary businesses and other nature-based tour- into the environment is now paying its own divi- ism operators. dends through positive marketing from environ- mentally-based magazine and newspaper articles, NGO involvement-Fauna & Flora International conservation and ecotourism awards, increased and Flower Valley interest from specialist nature-travel operators, and support from local and international conser- The development of collaborative conservation in vation agencies. the area was accelerated by the acquisition of a 578 ha portion of land adjacent to Grootbos by Fauna & Flora International (FFI) in 1999. FFI's involvement arose out of the imminent threat of that the site has considerable conservation value conversion of the Flower Valley property from (604 plant species, including 44 Red Data species natural vegetation to viticulture. A neighbouring and two species new to science). A nature reserve private landowner provided the catalyst and key established by chance because of its spectacular driving force to initiate what has subsequently be- views, and expanded in order to cater for tourism come a major conservation project. She privately requirements, has turned out to be of regional con- funded a deposit on the property and negotiated a servation value. one-year period to secure the remaining finance. The guiding philosophy at Grootbos aims to Having failed to obtain financial support in South convert science into stories in such a way that na- Africa, she went to the United Kingdom, where ture comes to life forthe guests. On all tours, guides she successfully mobilised the necessary funds emphasise the threats posed to the conservation of with the aid of Fauna & Flora International (FFI). the natural environment and the role that Grootbos The decision by FFI to support the project was and its conservation partners are playing in coun- influenced by crucial input from local scientists tering these threats. As a result, each year, over and conservationists from the major stakeholders, 109 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa WCNCB, SANP, Botanical Society, IPC and Grootbos. They were also swayed by the conser- Box 10.6. Fynbos cultivation vation value of the farm, the unified support by local conservation agencies and the existing mo- The ploughing of natural fynbos and replacement mentum of other conservation initiatives in the with cultivated fynbos species for the export of region. flowers is a common, and growing, agricultural At least in terms of flora, Flower Valley was activity on the Agulhas Plain and elsewhere in not a priority conservation site. It did, however, the Cape Floristic Region. Quality control, in form one of the few links between the western hills terms of stem length, flower shape and colour, of the Agulhas Plain and the Elim hotspot. In this as well as stringent phyto-sanitary r equirements instance threats were used to galvanise support. have pressurised the fresh flower industry into The threat to Flower Valley provided the opening expanding areas under cultivation. Income de- for an international NGO to become involved in rived from cultivars can be far higher than flow- conservation on the Agulhas Plain. FFI has subse- ers harvested in the wild. One hectare cultivated quently been involved in financing the acquisition generates the same revenue as 50 to 100 ha of of priority land for the Agulhas National Park in a natural vegetation. However, cultivation is nega- core conservation area. The NGO has also become tively impacting the biodiversity of the region. intricately involved in conservation planning and Most cultivation replaces pristine fynbos, pesti- the Agulhas Biodiversity Initiative. With Flower cides are commonly used and there are concems Valley as its flagship project, FFI will continue to of genetic contamination of wild stocks as the have an influential role in fynbos conservation in genetic material used comes from a variety of the future. sources. The production of cultivated species is Flower Valley is now owned and run by the also less labour intensive than wild flower har- Flower Valley Conservation Trust (FVCT), which vesting, an important consideration in a region aims to promote the sustainable utilisation of with unemployment of over 50%. fynbos resources for the conservation of biodiversity and the upliftment of local communi- ties on the Agulhas Plain. The FVCT has set about developing an ambitious biodiversity-based busi- ness with economic, environmental and social com- ponents. The core business remains the export of certification will include strict harvesting tech- fynbos flowers to European flower markets. The niques, road and fire management, alien plant con- business buys wild flowers from farms covering trol, payment of correct wages and provision of 20,000 ha of the Agulhas Plain, thereby influenc- proper working conditions and housing. It is hoped ing land management practices over a large area that Flower Valley's innovative biodiversity-based using economic incentives. The Trust is in the pro- business strategy will successfully develop a niche cess of developing a niche market overseas through market that will increase the demand for an internationally-recognised certification or sustainably harvested, as against cultivated, fynbos "green labeling" system. products. Establishing eco- and/or fair trade labels may Seasonality in the flower export business results be the best way to establish the credentials of a in workers being laid off during the quiet months. biodiversity business product. The establishment Flower Valley employs 55 workers with 165 of this certification process is being carried out in dependants. Under previous management, approxi- close collaboration with a number of organisations mately half of the work force was laid off for six including WCNCB, SANP, Botanical Society and months each year. Through the development of a the South African Protea Producers and Exporters paper-making micro-enterprise, the FVCT has cre- (SAPPEX). The primary objective is to maintain ated full time employment on the farm for all staff. the use of wild harvested products as against the An important element in the marketing success of cultivation of fynbos crops. Key requirements for the paper products is the story of conservation and 110 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain social commitment that is explained on the packag- ing. The purchaser is not only buying a professional Box 10.7. What is a conservancy? looking product, but one that carries a powerful message of employment creation and conservation. Conservancies, implemented by the Western A biodiversity business as a sustainable entity Cape Nature Conservation Board (WCNCB), will fail without ongoing support from the local encourage off-reserve conservation through co- community. The success of the project has been operative management. They create a mechanism built on gaining the community's support through whereby groups of landowners can pool their sincere efforts to address their needs. The Trust resources for the purpose of conserving fauna has set about improving standards of living and and flora and the development of environmen- enhancing capacity, especially amongst the women tally friendly business opportunities. The and children. Within its first six months of opera- WCNCB provides landowners with guidance and tion, the Trust established an Early Learning Cen- expertise in conservation management. Currently tre (ELC) for local children. The ELC provides conservancies are based on a voluntary agree- pre-primary education and day-care educational ment but legislation is being investigated to support for 24 children. The facility also provides strengthen their status. day-learning programmes in environmental/out- door education for teachers and children from other schools in the area. The ELC has significantly improved the children's readiness for primary Africans and foreigners. These new landowners school and was important in gaining the com- placed a greater value on preserving the natural munity'ssupportbyaddressingafundamentalneed landscapes. By 1999 their concern over issues at an early stage of the project. In the longer term, such as alien vegetation invasion and repeated, the Trust plans to develop further environmental uncontrolled wild fires resulted in the formation education centres on the Agulhas Plain. of the Walker Bay Fynbos Conservancy (WBFC). The FVCT is working towards independence Grootbos Nature Reserve provided the catalyst of donor assistance. After 36 months, the flower to initiate this project. Their conservation staff and paper businesses are not yet covering the con- established communication channels and played servation and community costs and the trust is still a crucial role in developing trust between the vari- dependent on financial support from FFI. Obtain- ous parties. The success of this form of collabo- ing financing for a biodiversity business in South rative conservation management is built on strong Africa is difficult, as it is a relatively new concept personal relationships. for finance institutions. It is imperative to secure The conservancy incorporatcs 17 landowners bridging capital/loans while developing the busi- covering an area of 12,160 ha and includes ness model and identifying potential financiers. Grootbos, Flower Valley and the Walker Bay Na- Ultimately it is hoped that the business will gener- ture Reserve managed by the WCNCB. In order ate sufficient income to fund the Trust's conserva- to achieve its objectives concerning conservation tion and community objectives. Once the business management and social upliftment, the conser- can fully support the conservation and community vancy is actively pursuing biodiversity-based busi- costs, the Flower Valley model will provide a net ness opportunities. The conservancy used funds gain in biodiversity conservation, skills develop- acquired, with the assistance of FFI, from the ment, job creation and education. Whitley Awards Foundation in the United King- dom, to employ a permanent conservation man- The Walker Bay Fynbos Conservancy agement team. In close collaboration with all landowners they have developed a set of priorities Over the last decade almost all of the traditional, for conservation management and biodiversity- agriculturally active landowners on the western based business opportunities. A conservation man- rim of the Agulhas Plain have sold their proper- agement plan was drawn up for all the properties ties to more affluent, conservation-minded South and alien vegetation removal and fire management 111 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa programmes implemented. On the Agulhas Plain, fective vehicle in South Africa for cooperative the only major channel for state-funded clearing management by landowners affected by common is via the Working for Waterprojects administered resource issues. The need for off-reserve mecha- by South African National Parks and WCNCB (lo- nisms for effective conservation was emphasised cal implementing agencies). The SANP-adminis- by the Cape Action Plan for the Environment tered funds are only available to a limited number (CAPE) and the WCNCB has made a strategic of landowners whose properties are earmarked for decision to promote and encourage the establish- inclusion in the park on a contractual basis. The ment of conservancies. Since the establishment of WCNCB has a difficult task in selecting which the WBFC in 1999, a further four conservancies landowners should receive funds and are using have been launched on the Agulhas Plain. The to- conservancy membership as a prerequisite for fund- tal area registered within conservancies on the ing. The conservancy has thus far received over Agulhas Plain now exceeds 35,000 ha, an area R200,000 for alien clearing that would not have nearly four times that administered by the WCNCB been made available to the individual landowners. in the region's formal reserves. If properly nur- The 17 landowners making up the conservancy tured, the conservancy concept will provide the jointly own a very valuable area of the Plain, both most cost-effective means of conserving large tracts from a biodiversity and ecotourism perspective. It of private land in the CFR. is essential to develop economic incentives for these landowners to conserve their properties in the long term. The challenge lies in creating LESSONS FOR MAINSTREAMING biodiversity- based economic activities for land- owners and employment opportunities for the lo- Turning points and enabling factors cal communities. The conservancy has developed a strategy for nature-based tourism development Decades of scientific research had shown that the in the area and is currently exploring options for Agulhas Plain was a region of exceptional the development of multi-day hiking and horse biodiversity. There was something worth conserv- riding trails that will traverse various properties. ing. This focused the attention of key scientists Through a "slowly-slowly" approach, landowners and conservationists on the plight of the region have gained enough confidence in the conservancy and proved important later in conservation plan- structure to endorse a notarised agreement secur- ning and fund raising. An immediatle threat to the ing right of access across their properties for the region's biodiversity, the development of a nuclear hiking trail in favour of the conservancy. These power station, gave the impetus for a structure trails will provide income for landowners and also plan, which played a major role in the develop- significant opportunities for training and employ- ment of the Agulhas National Park. Similarly, the ment of the local communities. The success of the threat of viticulture galvanised support for con- WBFC can be attributed to certain key factors: serving Flower Valley that led to the involvement firstly the desire by landowners to conserve their of Fauna & Flora International. The threats of properties; secondly, perceived threats in the form fire and alien plant invasions were important ar- of wild fires, alien plants and new land use prac- guments used in the establishment of the conser- tices in the area; thirdly, a private sector driving vancy. Solutions have been found by treating each force in Grootbos Nature Reserve with its quali- threat as an opportunity, rather than reacting fied staff, committed owners and financial against it. In the Agulhas National Park, Grootbos, subsidisation of the project; fourthly, support from Flower Valley and the Walker Bay Fynbos Con- an international donor (FFI) and, finally, the key servancy, key individuals drove the projects. Ex- driving forces provided by energetic individuals students from the Institute of Plant Conservation from within the group. (University of Cape Town) played important roles While the conservancy concept suffers from in developing both the Agulhas National Park and various inadequacies, it is presently the most ef- the conservancy. 112 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain Individuals could not function on their own and to regional development. They have resulted in a institutional support in the form of South African significant improvement in the standards of con- National Parks (SANP), the Western Cape Nature servation management of certain areas on the Plain Conservation Board (WCNCB), Fauna & Flora (e.g. alien clearing in the Agulhas National Park, International (FFI) and Grootbos, as well as col- Elim and the WBFC). They have created increased laboration between these institutions, was essen- environmental awareness amongst landowners (e.g. tial in the mainstreaming process. FFI provided the coordinator of the Agulhas National Park vis- funding for land purchase and support of Flower ited most landowners on the plain) and local com- Valley as well as land purchase for the Agulhas munities (e.g. the Flower Valley Early Learning National Park, while Grootbos provided adminis- Centre). They have significantly increased employ- trative and financial support to the conservancy. ment and training opportunities (e.g. Grootbos The establishment of the Agulhas National Park Nature Reserve). They have resulted in positive has been dependent on governmental will and in- business spin-offs through direct marketing oppor- ter-departmental cooperation, while the Walker Bay tunities (e.g. tourism opportunities for contracted Fynbos Conservancy was built on organisational landowners and neighbours of the Agulhas National support from Grootbos and FFI. Both the indi- Park), partnerships (e.g. joint marketing of con- vidual and organisational support often require a servancy accommodation, establishment ofajoint degree of risk taking. High risks in conservation hiking trail) and the support of outside businesses often require brave action and if individuals and/ (e.g. Grootbos support for boat-based nature tours). or organisations are prepared to take the risks, threats can be turned into opportunities. Constraints on progress The success of collaborative initiatives such as contractual national parks and conservancies are The Agulhas National Park is still developing dependent on trust between key individuals and slowly as a result of central funding cutbacks within landowners that may take several years to build. SANP. This "slowly-slowly" approach may have These are often one-on-one relationships that may advantages, however, in that it allows SANP to break down if key individuals leave the project. gain acceptance with the local community. Cred- One drawback with the development of the Agulhas ibility with the local community is crucial to the National Park, was that only one or two individu- success of a project of this nature. Sensitive nego- als, rather than a team, have been responsible for tiations to include large tracts of private land into the majority of the development and planning work. the park are ongoing and require continuity and It is important that mechanisms are in place to trust on the part of both SANP and landowners. ensure that projects are sustainable, independent The ability to lever funds from a variety of sec- of any one individual. tors, private and public, domestic and international A rigorous scientific basis and strategic conser- are crucial to the future success of the develop- vation planning are important for achieving con- ment of the Agulhas National Park. The Agulhas servation goals. However, in some instances, such Biodiversity Initiative should provide the finan- as the Grootbos and Flower Valley projects, con- cial and technical assistance to do this. servation initiatives develop independently and Outside of the planned area of the Agulhas Na- should be supported despite the lack of strategic tional Park, land purchase is not a realistic option prioritisation. It is important to look for key en- for expanding the conservation network. Less abling factors and to support these initiatives. restrictive conservation models offered by the West- ern Cape Nature Conservation Board, (namely pri- Results of mainstreaming vate nature reserves and conservancies) are likely to be more attractive to most landowners. Unfor- Although the collaborative conservation projects tunately, these conservation models provide very on the Agulhas Plain are still at an early stage, low levels of security for biodiversity, with land- they have already contributed in a number of ways owners being able to withdraw at any stage, even 113 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa after substantial investment of resources from con- properties. The challenge ahead is how to roll these servation agencies. Legislation to strengthen the sta- success stories out to other conservation-worthy tus of private conservation initiatives and provide areas on the Plain. This will require further strength- economic incentives for private conservation is, ening of the collaborative partnerships established therefore, urgently required. A key lesson is the need over the last decade and an even greater effort by to approach on-farm conservation in a building- conservation agencies to integrate private landown- block manner, allowing landowners to retain rights ers, NGOs and communities into their conserva- over land and gradually working towards greater tion network. Ultimately, the biodiversity of the conservation security for those who wish to receive Agulhas Plain will only be safeguarded once all greater rewards. South Africa needs to develop a the owners of conservation-worthy land are on classification system to assist this, as most people board and have an incentive to conserve. are reluctant to sacrifice any rights immediately, even for the noble cause of conservation. ACKIMiOWLlEOGEMENTS CONCLUSIONS The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution The status of biodiversity conservation on the of the following people as key role players in the Agulhas Plain has steadily improved over the last projects discussed in this paper: Lance Kabot and decade. This improvement has coincided with a Olinka Macintosh (Flower Valley); Michael, Ter- dchange. This th provementfhasvernmentedonseva- tius and Heiner Lutzeyer (Grootbos); Britta Lomba, change in the approach of government conserva- EwnvnShue,An n ieSot n tion agencies towards conservation management Elwyn van Schouwen, Anne and Mike Scottn and on the Plain. Not only have conservation inter- YvonneKamp(WalkerBayFynbosConservancy); ventions been strategically planned, but also a far Mark Botha (Botanical Society); Chris Martens greater effort has been made to involve private and Deon Geldenhys (Western Cape Nature Con- landowners, NGOs and local communities in or- servation Board); Adriana Dinu, Martin Hollands, der to reach conservation goals. It has been Chris Huxley and Mark Rose (Fauna & Flora In- realised that the region's unique biodiversity can- ternational); Jane Turpie and Mandy Lombard not be saved by the traditional approach of en- (University of Cape Town); Rob Little and Ian larging the formal conservation network. Instead, Macdonald (World Wide Fund for Nature-South a far more progressive collaborative approach has Africa), Carol Blumenthal (private landowner); beenadopted.This has included developing part- Prof. Carl Lohan, Hercules Wessels and Sura nerships with private landowners (e g. contrac- Pieterse (Agulhas Lighthouse Mtuseum); John tual national parks and conservanciesg and NGOs Basson and James Collocot (Portnet Lighthouse (e.g. land purchase and support by FFI for SANP), Servoces); Schalk and Tinie Lourens (Lourens and creating biodiversity-based employment op- Group); Paul Swart, Christine Afnikad James Engel portunities both on and off reserves with the as- Alliston Appel, Carl Richter and Thys Ahrends sistance of other government agencies (e.g. (Elim Community); Agulhas Plain landowners; accessing Working for Water project funds for staff of the Agulhas National Park and Agulhas alien clearing), and in collaboration with private Workmg for Waterproject. landowners (e.g. developing trails that traverse state and private properties). AUTHORS' AFFMLiATIONS Already sectors such as tourism, education and agriculture have benefited through the mainstream- S. D. J. Privett is with the Grootbos Nature Re- ing of biodiversity on the Plain. The businesses serve, Gansbaai. grootbos@hermamns.co.za. described above are dependent on the region's B. J. Heydenrych is with the Blackwood Basin biodiversity for their success. Yet, at the same time, Group, Australia. BarryHelen(westnet.com.au. by putting biodiversity to business in a sustain- R. M. Cowling is with the Terrestrial Ecology able manner, there has been a concomitant im- Research Unit, University of Port Elizabeth. provement in the status of biodiversity on those rmc(kingsley.co.za. 114 Putting Biodiversity to Business on the Agulhas Plain FURTHER READING conservation issues. MSc Thesis, University of Cape Town. Cole, N.S., A.T. Lombard, R.M. Cowling, D. Euston- Heydenrych B.J., Cowling R.M. and Lombard A.T. Brown, D.M. Richardson, and C.E. Heijnis. 2000. 1999. Strategic conservation interventions in a re- Framework fora conservation plan fortheAguihas gion of high biodiversity and high vulnerability: a Plain, Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Unpub- case study from the Agulhas Plain at the southem lished report. Institute for Plant Conservation, Uni- tip of Africa. Oryx 33: 256-269. versity of Cape Town. Lombard, A.T., R.M. Cowling, R.L. Pressey, and Cowling, R.M. and Mustart, P.J. 1994. Vegetation and Mustart, P.J. 1997. Reserve selection in a species- conservation. Volume 2. Appendix 5. Southern rich and fragmented landscape on the Agulhas Plain, Overberg sub-regional structure plan. MLH Archi- South Africa. Conservation Biology l l: 1101-1115. tects and Planners, Cape Town. Pence, G.Q.K, M.A. Botha and J.K. Turpie. 2003. Find- Cowling, R.M. and B. Heydenrych. 1999. Agulhas ing the optimal combination of on-and off-reserve Plain. A brave new fynbos national park. Plant Talk conservation strategies for the Agulhas Plaiii, South 19: 21-25. Africa: a financial perspective. Biological Conser- Heydenrych, B.J. 1999. An investigation of land vation (in press). use practices on the Agulhas Plain (South www.grootbos.com-Grootbos Nature Reserve Africa), with emphasis on socio-economic and www.fynbos.co.za-Walker Bay Fynbos Conservancy 115 Incorporating Conservation 11 Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape C. M. Gelderblom, D. Kruger, L. Cedras, T. Sandwith and M. Audouin SUMMARY The south-western region of South Africa has an attractive environment and a relatively strong economy. This is the province of the Western Cape, an area of exceptional biodiversity which encompasses almost all of the Cape Floristic Region. The region's economy and beauty attract people into the area, with re- sultant development needs that exert immense pressure on the region's natural resources. As a consequence, there has been a history of time-consuming and costly conflict between conservation and development, which has contributed to an ongoing loss of biodiversity. Recently, the independent, but coincidental, ini- tiation of systematic planning initiatives by both the conservation community and the development planning authorities has resulted in an environment condu- cive to collaboration. This has been a turning point, marking the beginning of biodiversity considerations being mainstreamed into decision-making processes in land use planning and implementation. Advances in systematic conservation planning have resulted in a rigorous and defensible identification of priority areas for conservation in the Western Cape. The identification of these priority areas coincided with the launch of a new strategic bioregional planning initiative being implemented by the provincial planning authorities. There are two major benefits. Firstly, formally established protected areas are legally protected as zones within land use plans, and the bioregional approach to planning facilitates the maintenance of landscape linkages 117 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa necessary for long-term ecosystem functioning and from environmental lobbyists while development biodiversity maintenance. Secondly, there are ben- proceeded in areas with unique conservation value. efits for efficient land use planning and develop- This approach was very inefficient for both con- ment control, since a proactive statement of servationists and developers. conservation priorities can steer development to- This chapter describes how the deadlock was wards less sensitive sites, and result in less costly broken by the concomitant development of sys- decision-making procedures. tematic planning initiatives within both the land Although these concurrent moves towards a use planning and conservation sectors. It explains more strategic approach created an environment how these systematic approaches complemented conducive to collaboration, actual transformation each other and led to the incorporation of conser- within the relevant authorities required the estab- vation priorities in development planning pro- lishment of a cross-sectoral partnership between cesses. It outlines both the early successes that have the conservation and planning communities. A key been derived from collaboration, and the challenges step in this process was the development of the which lie ahead. In particular, it focuses on the Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE), development of a strong partnership between the funded through the GEF, which facilitated inter- conservation and land use planning sectors and how action among key individuals and led to formalised this needs to be supported by sound legal frame- inter-agency cooperation agreements. This resulted works and the capacity to deliver. in a highly supportive policy mandate but there still remains a need to improve appropriate inter- 7!jD "F-y 0 disciplinary capacity for local implementation. aPPG: , H BACM;SE0RDUME The individual development of two complemen- tary strategic planning initiatives facilitated cross- The Western Cape is situated in the southern-most sectoral collaboration. These initiatives were: the part of the African continent. It covers 129,406 adoption of a bioregional approach to land use plan- km2. Almost four million people live, work and ning, and the development of a strategic conserva- relax in this area, and the population is increasing tion plan which systematically identified priority at an average rate of 2.8% per year, partly as a areas for conservation. result of intrinsic growth but also because people are drawn there, mainly from other parts of the Bioregional planning: a facilitatory framework country, by its relatively strong economy and natu- ral beauty. This region, and the adjoining marine In the past, poorly integrated planning frequently areas, have spectacularly high levels of plant and fragmented the landscape and disrupted ecologi- animal diversity and endemism (Box 11.1). The cal and evolutionary processes necessary for main- combination of pressure for development and high taining biodiversity. For example, conservation diversity make it one of the hottest hotspots of glo- areas could be inadvertently juxtaposed with areas bal biodiversity. of intense development, leading to spill-over edge The principles and practices of systematic con- effects. In response to the growing pressure for a servation planning have only recently been applied more sustainable approach to development, bio- at a scale appropriate for region-wide assessment regional planning emerged as an integrative con- and now offer opportunities for improving decision- cept that amalgamates ecosystem management and making regarding land use in the CFR. In the past, development planning into a single framework. A without the regional perspective, the impacts of significant departure from the former approach to proposed developments have been evaluated on an land use planning, it aims to accornmodate both individual basis. Opposition to development was the conservation of biodiversity and the need for often based on advocacy rather than on actual con- development within the landscape. One of the tools servation value. Many proposed developments in for implementing bioregional planning in practice non-critical areas experienced strong opposition is the development of biosphere reserves (see Box 118 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape Box 11.1. Biodiversity and conservation in the Cape Floristic Region The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) comprises an area of 87,892 km2 at the south-western tip of Africa, almost all of which lies in South Africa's Western Cape Province. This region has long been recognised as a global priority for conservation action, owing to its high concentration of endemic taxa, especially of plants and invertebrates, and its vulnerability to processes that threaten this unique biodiversity. The CFR is recognised as a Centre of Plant Diversity, an Endemic Bird Area and a WWF Global 200 Ecoregion. The biodiversity tally for the CFR is impressive. The region supports 8,200 plant species (5,682 en- demic), 127 mammals (9 endemic), 288 birds (6 endemic), 109 reptiles (19 endemic), 38 amphibians (19 endemic) and an unrecorded, but undoubtedly large, number of endemic invertebrates. In addition, the area is home to 1,406 Red Data Book plant species, the third highest known concentration of such threat- ened species in the world. Cultivation for agriculture has transformned 25.9% of the CFR and dense stands of woody alien plants and urban areas each cover 1.6%. Although invasive alien plants are a problem in the mountains, most transfonnation has occurred on the more productive, and accessible, lowlands where more than 95% of some habitats have been lost. As of 1999, about 20% of the CFR is included in 50 protected areas supported by provincial or national legislation. Given the global aspiration of protecting at least 10% of each country or regioni, this situation appears quite healthy. On closer scrutiny, however, the alarm bells start ringing. While some 50% of the fynbos-clad mountains are protected, only 9% of the lowlands are reserved. Moreover, many of the low- land habitats have no protected areas whatsoever, and they have been so extensively transformed by the human footprint that it is no longer possible to achieve even a modest 10% conservation target. Finally, the existing protected area network does a very poor job in incorporating the ecological and evolutionary processes that will sustain the CFR flora and fauna indefinitely. These processes include the migration of plants and animals along gradients of climate and soil, the ongoing cvolution of species, and the tolerance of naturally-ignited fires that have influenced so profoundly the evolution of the CFR biota. 11.2). This involves the proactive identification of and flexibly, applied to the realities of modern priority areas for conservation and their placement South Africa. within a supportive planning framework of buff- Coincidentally, as part of the post-apartheid ers and transition areas. policy reform in South Africa, all municipalities were given a directive (in tenns of the Municipal Application of bioregional planning Systems Act No 32 of 2000) to draft integrated in the Western Cape development plans (IDPs)) for their areas ofjuris- diction. This provided the opportunity for a com- Although there has long been awareness in South plete revision of all plans. Most importantly, for Africa of the importance of balancing development the first time, spatial development frameworks and environmental protection, there were few prac- (SDF) whose role is to guide land use, were ex- tical tools to achieve this goal. In 1996, however, tended beyond their previous limitation within ur- the provincial government formally adopted ban areas to include the entire landscape, giving bioregional planning as a basis for land use plan- them much wider relevance. In addition, provision ning in the Western Cape, with agreement that a was made for these frameworks to have statutory network of biosphere reserves would be established status. Consequently, protected areas and other to integrate protected areas into the surrounding conservation zones identified in these spatial landscape. The definitions of both bioregional plan- frameworks would have legal protection from de- ning and biosphere reserves were opportunistically, velopment. The opportunity to incorporate the 119 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa In the Western Cape, there has been formal recognition by UNESCO of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve and the Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve. These biosphere reserves link protected areas and surround- ing privately-owned land in an association which is governed by a not-for-profit company structure. The Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve lies approximately 60 km south east of Cape Town. It encornpasses both mountain and coastal/marine components, and a core protected area which is home to 1,600 different plant species. This makes it one of the world's richest sites of plant diversity. Private and municipal nature reserves, the Harold Porter Botanical Garden, the Palmiet River estuary, sections of the coast and marine areas comprise the buffer zone. Plantations, farms, local towns and industrial developments make up the transition zone. The Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve on the other hand protects the highly threatened remnants of coastal lowland fynbos on the west coast north of Cape Town. The core area consists of the West Coast National Park comprising dune thicket and transitional scrub. The biosphere reserve includes some of the most poorly conserved renosterveld and sand plain fynbos where less than 5% and 1% respectively are formally protected. The Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve is a focus of efforts to link conservation and socio-economic development in an area of high unemployment and poor levels of education, but where prospects of sustainable nature-based tourism are high. bioregional planning approach in SDFs and IDPs mentation plan was supported by detailed plans throughout the Western Cape permitted the incor- for the first five years of implementation. poration of the most up-to-date information on The situation assessment addressed both the conservation priorities. biophysical and the human environment. The bio- physical analysis included an evaluation of the ter- The Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE) restrial, freshwater and marine systems. The out- come was the development of a spatially-explicit In 1997, South Africa received GEF funding conservation plan that, for the first time, system- through the Cape Peninsula Biodiversity Conser- atically identified priority areas for conservation. vation Project to assist with establishment of the The rigorous and transparent nature of the process Cape Peninsula National Park, to protect the most used to identify these priorities was critical in gain- threatened part of the CFR, and for the develop- ing acceptance for the resulting spatial conserva- ment of the Cape Action Plan for the Environment tion plan (see Box 11.3). The participatory nature (CAPE). The objective of CAPE was the estab- of both the development of the strategy and the lishment of a common vision and strategy for the establishment of a supportive implementation plan conservation of the unique diversity of this region, was critical in establishing local buy-in. Strong together with an action plan for its implementa- participation by those who would be responsible tion through cross-sectoral partnerships. for implementation also ensured that the plan was The first step was to gain a good understanding practical and supportive of existing initiatives (see of the current situation by undertaking a rigorous Box 11.4). situation assessment (Figure 11.1). A thorough Successful implementation of CAPE is depen- consultative process then guided the development dent on the development of support from a diverse of a strategy for the conservation of the biodiversity group of stakeholders. For this reason, an inten- of the region, which was fleshed out into a 20- sive public involvement program-lme was con- year implementation plan. The long-term imple- ducted, which ensured that those who would inherit 120 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape Figure 11.1. Process used to develop the Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE) Box 11.3. Systematic identification of priority areas Situation Assessment Eight stages in the development of a systematic conservation planning process 1. Identifying and consulting key stakeholders + t 2. Identifying broad goals for conservation planning Strategy 3. Gathering and evaluating data on biodiversity features and threats to their persistence 4. Formulating targets for biodiversity features ¶47r 5. Reviewing the effectiveness of existing con- .__________________________________________________ _ .servation areas Implementation Plan 6. Selecting additional conservation areas .____________________________________________ 7. Implementing conservation action in selected areas 8. Maintaining and monitoring established con- the plans were intimately involved in their devel- servation areas opment. This process of involvement culminated in the establishment of a coordinating committee, which included all the key institutions involved in implementation, and a full-time coordination unit to facilitate collaboration between this inclusive between sectors. Since such informal partnerships grouping of stakeholders. Involvement of these are vulnerable to the loss of key individuals, it is diverse stakeholders brought biodiversity onto the necessary to strengthen some of them through the agenda of institutions not normally concemed with establishment of formal institutional linkages. This biodiversity management. This provided an oppor- process has already been initiated with the signing tunity to mainstream biodiversity into the policies of memoranda of understanding at two levels. of multiple sectors as well as the establishment of Firstly, political agreement was reached, commit- the cross-sectoral partnerships necessary for imple- ting both national and provincial govemment to mentation of collaborative projects. the implementation of the CAPE strategy, and sec- ondly, all of the implementation agencies (the Cross-Sectoral Partnerships Facilitate the CAPE implementation committee) have agreed to Mainstreaming of Biodiversity into the undertake specific roles and responsibilities in their Land Use Planning Sector respective sectors. It is, however, critical that this process of institutionalising collaboration does not Forthe conservationpriorities identified bythe CAPE result in the loss of ownership and drive that lay strategy to have an impact in practice, they needed to behind the initial successes. be recognised and implemented in partnership by the planning and conservation communities. Incorporation of conservation priorities into spatial planning processes Formalising cross-sectoral partnerships Although planning initiatives are being under- Many of the collaborative cross-sectoral partner- taken in other provinces of South Africa, the ships established under the initial stages of CAPE bioregional planning approach being used in the were driven by the personal collaboration of dy- Western Cape is particularly well suited to sup- namic individuals who built invaluable bridges port the inclusion of conservation priorities. The 121 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Bell 11A4 007sR2 PFOPES3d by CAFE The CAPE conservation programme has followed the international trend in conservation of moving away from top-down control of conservation areas and resource use, towards a more collaborative mechanism. In this model, sound scientific understanding and appropriate institutional structures support cooperative governance and community participation. A strong emphasis was placed on including local role players, and especially the institutions that are responsible for implementing the outcomes of CAPE., in the plan- ning and decision-making phase. The implementation programme was structured into three integrated themes: protecting biodiversity in priority areas, promoting sustainable use of biodiversity, and strengthening institutions and governance. Specific objectives of these themes include: To establish an effective reserve network, enhance off-reserve conservation and protect threatened species. The conservation of small fragmented priority areas, as well as the large areas required to con- serve landscape scale processes, must be secured through the use of private land in conjunction with state protected areas. It is therefore essential to have effective off-reserve conservation that encourages conser- vation on private land through supportive bioregional planning, incentives for appropriate land uses, and good extension aimed at motivating landowners to participate in conservation initiatives. To develop methods ofintegrating biodiversity concerns into catchment managementprogrammes, support sustainable harvesting, and encourage sustainable nature-based tourism. Sustainable use of freshwater systems can be addressed by integrated catchment management, which includes management of water resources, as well as all other processes impacting negatively on biodiversity, such as the control of invasive alien species. Sustainable harvesting must be supported by measures that promote compliance through education and the development of incentives such as ownership of communal resources. For terrestrial species this implies the establishment of sustainable levels of harvesting. In the case of marine resources, the establishment of protected areas to protect the resource base is critical. The potential of tourism to drive the conservation of biodiversity also needs to be harnessed by mechanisms that encourage reinvestment of revenues and guide development. To strengthen institutions, policies and la wFs, enhance cooperative governance and commnunity par- ticipation, and support continued research. The most important activities include the establishment of effective coordinating mechanisms, supported by an integrated legal framework that explicitly targets the conservation of biodiversity. This will enable resources to be focused on conserving prioritv areas, and supportive training, extension, research and awareness programmes. Above all, the CAPE implementation programme recognises the need to mobilise civil society as a partner in conservation through enhanced institutional frameworks as well as capacity building. Success- ful implementation is dependent on realignment of resources around agreed priorities and collaboration between agencies to ensure that the most important projects are initiated and that resources are used efficiently. In order to get the projects implemented quickly enough it is also critical that additional re- sources are secured from national budgets and/or the international community or national budgets. bioregional planning approach involves the iden- cating core conservation areas for the proposed tification of core areas for conservation and their biosphere reserves. There is, therefore, good po- support through the use of buffer and transition tential for securing their long-term viability, by areas . The conservation priorities identified by removing direct conflict with other types of land CAPE will contribute towards the process of lo- use. In addition, since bioregional planning re- 122 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape gards the entire landscape as one functional unit, sphere reserves have already been approved by the buffer zones can be used for the maintenance UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) pro- of large-scale ecological processes such as mi- gramme in the Western Cape. These are the gration which contribute towards maintaining Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve and the Cape West diversity in the long term. As these spatial frame- Coast Biosphere Reserve (see Box 11.2). The adop- works have formal legal status and can form the tion of bioregional planning as a provincial policy basis for development control, they are potentially and the support of both planning and nature con- the most important implementation mechanism servation authorities for the implementation of the of the spatial conservation plan developed by programme offers enormous scope for extending CAPE-see Box 11.5. the network of biosphere reserves across the CFR. This could result in a network of biosphere reserves Conservation on the ground: biosphere reserves across the whole province (see Figure 11.2). The establishment of biosphere reserves is an effective Once the planning frameworks are in place the next mechanism for integration of environmental man- step is to put into place institutional frameworks agement at a local level. Both existing biosphere for implementation. Biosphere reserves have been reserves are driven by independent bodies in which recognised internationally as a powerful means of both local stakeholders and government partners implementing bioregional planning and this is are represented. strongly supported locally by both the conserva- tion agencies and provincial government. Two bio- The role of conservation agencies within and beyond protected areas Box 11.5. Use of CAPE to support the The conservation agencies and non-governmental develoxp11 Uen of CAPE cstazone s porliorganisations (NGOs) most closely involved in the dorthevWelmernt a coastal zone policydevelopment of CAPE have taken a lead role in its implementation. Interventions range from creat- The potential for using the conservation priori- ing new protected areas to focusing off-reserve tie idntiiedby APEto nfornhepraniori conservation measures in identified priority areas. ties identified by CAPE to inform the planning The development of incentives to encourage con- process has already been successfully demon- sevatonmon pr ivaeyon lnd uan e esa- strated in the development of a coastal zone sen of atrog-onervan tesi arm poliy fr th WetemCape Th Wesem ape lishment of a strong conservation extension arm policy for the Westenn Cape. The Western Cape arwelsidtonegton ihabieina Department of Planning is responsible for de- planning approach. Collaboration between agen- veloping a policy to prevent linear development ciningration wh er een ser alon th coatlie. uch eveopmnt wuldnot cies, and Integration with other relevant sectors, along the coastline. Such development would not has provided an effective institutional framework, only destroy the sensitive natural areas but would and much greater capacity, to implement conser- also affect the attractiveness of the coastline and vation measures than previously when the nature the potential role it can play in the tourism in- cnevio agency wredinuslation thereahas dustry. Although the spatial frameworks for this bensencouraging poress as onation policy were already in an advanced state, the a oes and thegdeelopmet plnsingathor plannig depatment ecidedto dely thei author-ities and the development plannmng authori- planning department decided to delay their ties have begun to cooperate to share decision- finalisation of the policy in order to ensure that mi es aro land se deprove the conservation priorities identified in CAPE better service to the public. were protected as core conservation areas. Al- though still in draft forn, these revised frame- works are already being widely used by CHALLENGES TO SUCCESSFUL authorities and town planners involved in devel- IMPLEMENTATION opment applications along the coastline. Key challenges still lie ahead in order to success- fully mainstream biodiversity considerations into 123 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Figure 1I.2. Proposed cDustervd system ol blosphera ressrues Core conservation areas Vowrhiynsdoup 2 Transition zones ('areas of co-operation') . [112 Extent of the fynbos biome region Caipe WVesL Codb7L 3 C CopeTowm , ;'cr \ - Aq Kogelberg land use planning. These include maintaining a good ity is being strengthened in the agencies concerned flow of information to decision-makers and devel- to improve management of this information as a oping appropriate capacity for implementation. strategic resource. Information collected in the course of planning Providing information to decision-makers and environmental assessment exercises continues to update and supplement the original data. This It is critical that regional and local decision-mak- is particularly important in view of the fact that ers are aware of conservation priorities that fall the CAPE conservation plans were completed at a under their jurisdiction. In order to achieve this, 1:250000 scale, suitable for regional planning pro- the conservation authorities responsible for the cesses. Only in one pilot area-the Agulhas Plain curation of the CAPE conservation plans must es- (see Chapter 10)-was more detailed planning tablish strong relationships with both decision- done at a scale (1:10000) able to support local plan- makers, and the planners who support them, to ning processes. Local planning and assessment pro- provide updated information on conservation pri- cesses, therefore, have an important role to play in orities in an easily accessible and appropriate for- gathering additional finer scale data which can be mat. The CAPE implementation committee fed back to conservation agencies holding the provides an ideal vehicle to facilitate managerial master conservation plan. This more detailed in- level interaction. It is supported by a specialist formation could then be used to further refine con- working group which addresses the specifics of servation priorities to ensure that they are at a scale information management. The programme aims to suitable for local implementation. NVeb-based in- ensure that decision-making processes for land use formation servers are being installed to provide planning, development control and conservation the most efficient and effective access to data. planning can be made on the basis of the most Collaborative workshops with user groups across comprehensive and up-to-date information. Capac- all sectors have defined essential data requirements 124 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape and the management protocols necessary to en- of the situation, other donors have provided bridg- hance their use. ing funds to ensure that the information manage- ment system is developed further. Development of appropriate capacity To ensure that information from CAPE is used to Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) guide the development of spatial frameworks, the Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) has the CAPE strategy identifies a suite of projects that potential to further assist in integrating the con- support bioregional planning through the devel- servation of biodiversity into mainstream deci- opment of appropriate guidelines and capacity. sion-making (see also Chapter 4). The purpose More detailed information on the incorporation of of SEA is to integrate environmental issues into conservation principles into the bioregional plan- policy, plan and programme formulation at an ning process, with a focus specifically on the early stage. A key difference between environ- prioritisation of areas for conservation, will be in- mental impact assessment (EIA) and SEA is that tegrated in training manuals and workshops used EIA focuses on the impact of development on the to train local govemment officials and consultants. environment; whereas the focus of an SEA is on Ensuring that information on conservation pri- the opportunities and constraints that the envi- orities is used correctly in both planning and evalu- ronment places on development (Box 1 1.6). A ation processes is not a trivial task. There are very SEA is required as part of spatial development few people available with the cross-disciplinary frameworks although the detailed methodologi- expertise necessary to effectively integrate sound cal approach has not yet been finalised. It is im- conservation principles and priorities into portant that the conservation community becomes bioregional planning processes. The need for de- engaged in the SEA process to ensure that con- veloping this capacity has been made even more servation priorities are included in spatial devel- acute by the recent devolution of responsibility for opment frameworks. compiling these plans from provincial to local government (municipalities), where capacity to CONCLUSIONS undertake even the most basic planning is severely limited. The incorporation of conservation priorities into The conservation priorities identified by the planning guidelines allows for the wise and CAPE strategy are underpinned by decision- biodiversity-friendly selection of sites for devel- support software that can be used to assist a par- opment. In this way landowners, developers, town ticipatory decision-making process. This is very planners, environmentalists and others are clearly important in South Africa where there has been a informed of development options and develop- strong move away from top-down planning towards ment can be diverted away from key conserva- more participatory approaches and has consider- tion areas and is directed towards areas that have able potential to aid local implementation. lower conservation priority. The South African movement towards strategic environmental Realignment of resources to use a window assessment offers considerable potential to main- of opportunity stream biodiversity conservation into develop- ment planning. The redrafting of all spatial frameworks has cre- This move to systematically incorporate the ated a window of opportunity to mainstream conservation of priority areas into the planning biodiversity, particularly when clearly articulated guidelines for the region is a large step forward inputs in terms of agreed conservation priorities from past ad hoc approaches which were ineffec- are available. Internal resources have been re- tive for both developers and conservationists. From aligned to support this process but there is limited the developers' perspective, the previous lack of capacity and budgets particularly within the con- clarity on where conservation priorities were lo- servation agencies. In recognition of the urgency cated led to expensive plans being made for areas 125 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa Figiue X X.3 . rDin?vence iun Sas,s Lb3tuaen .g FYN FEJ:..................::. <.SEA.. u : 7a 26dvesses tlhe impaEct of V [o dlss a f , an ' |" Uo._`. l'c aft3 u2: E theX 3fluivanmDeat on0-i_E, Environmental Impact Strategic Environment Assessment (EIA) Assessment (SEA) \ ENVIRONMENT / MJEin Ieaflils 0 SEA The main benefits of SEA are that it: o proactively informs the development of plans and programmes; * identifies the opportunities and constraints which the environment places on development; o provides guidelines to ensure that development is within sustainable limits; has the ability to integrate across areas, regions or sectors; o improves the way in which cumulative effects are dealt with in environmental assessment, for ex- ample, through the use of thresholds and limits of acceptable change; and o focuses on the maintenance and enhancement of a chosen level of environmental quality, rather than on minimising individual impacts. For example an important task within a SEA is to identify the environmental limits or limits of accept- able change of the environment (e.g. limits to water extraction) within which development can occur. Information on biodiversity and conservation priorities can play a critical role in informing the definition of these environmental limits. where development was likely to be opposed The clear identification of conservation priori- because of their conservation values. From a ties provides an opportunity to ensure that core conservationist's perspective, the consequence was conservation areas are identified in regional plan- time-consuming advocacy against development, ning processes according to the location of under- which in some cases was not actually going to im- lying biodiversity value rather than located in areas pact on true conservation priorities. By clearly iden- where the there are low opportunity costs because tifying conservation priorities, the new approach of low potential for development. Furthermore, as allows development to be proactively guided away an integrative bioregional planning approach is now from priority areas, and is therefore clearly a more used, these core conservation areas can be sup- efficient solution for all parties. ported by buffer and transition zones to prevent 126 Incorporating Conservation Priorities into Planning Guidelines for the Western Cape fragmentation of the landscape and facilitate the vironment and Forestry Technology and the West- maintenance of large-scale ecological processes em Cape Department of Planning, Local Govern- such as migration. ment and Housing enabled us to participate in the The key factor that facilitated the main- preparation of this paper. streaming of biodiversity into development plan- ning processes was the development of a AUTHORS' AFFILIATIONS cross-sectoral partnership between the conserva- tion and planning authorities. The establishment C. M. Gelderblom and M. Audouin are with of this partnership was supported in two ways: Environmentek, CSIR, Stellenbosch. cgelder@ firstly, by simultaneous moves towards a more csir.co.za. strategic approach and secondly, through the D. Kruger and L. Cedras are with the Western framework of collaboration established under the Cape Department of Planning, Local Government GEF-sponsored CAPE project. CAPE is promot- and Housing, Cape Town. dkruger(pawc. ing further collaboration and cross-sectoral imple- wcape.gov.za. mentation through a multi-stakeholder committee T. Sandwith is with the Cape Action for People supported by an independent coordinator. Suc- and the Environment (C.A.P.E.), Cape Town. cessful implementation of the CAPE project will trevor@capeaction.org.za. ultimately depend on the development of strong partnerships with sectors not usually associated FURTHER READING with conservation, e.g. mining and health, and facilitating the mainstreaming ofbiodiversity into Cowling R.M., Pressey R.L., Lombard A.T., Heijnis their policies and plans. C.E., Richardson D.M. and Cole N. 1999. Frame- Real benefits have already been experienced in work for a conservation plan for the Cape Floristic addressing biodiversity conservation concerns Region, South Africa. IPC Report 0001. Prepared within the development process. This has enabled for WWF-SA. conservation agencies and civil society advocates Cowling, R.M. and Pressey, R.L. 2003. Context, char- to focus their interventions on critical sites. The acteristics and history of conservation planning in explicit statement of conservation priorities and the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biologi- their incorporation into statutory frameworks has cal Conservation (in press). facilitated orderly development, and removed the CSI R. 2000. The CAPE Implementation Programme confusion and conflict, which frequently results Report, Report Number: ENV-S-C99130D. Pre- when the impacts of development proposals are pared for WWF-SA addressed in an ad hoc manner. The full potential Dennis Moss Partnership. 2000. Bioregional Planning of this partnership is still to be realised. However, Framework for the Western Cape Province, To- early indications are that the mainstreaming of wards the application of Bioregional planning priorities for biodiversity conservation into land principles and the implementation of UNESCO's use planning will mean development with lower Biosphere Reserve Programme in land use plan- impact on biodiversity. It will also lead to the pro- ning within the context of Act 7 of 1999. Report motion of those opportunities, such as ecotourism, produced for the Department of Planning Local which biodiversity holds for development. Government and Housing, Provincial Government of the Western Cape. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism and CSIR. 2000. Guideline Document. Strategic Envi- We appreciate useful editorial comment from ronmentalAssessmentin SouthAfiica. ISBN 0-621- Shirley Pierce, Richard Cowling and Brian van 29925-1. 36pp. Wilgen. The World Bank is thanked for making Gelderblom, C.M., Nel, J., Sandwith T., Botha M., participation in this inspiring workshop possible. Hauck, M., and van Wilgen B.W. 2003. Turning Funding from the CSIR's Division of Water, En- strategy into action: the design of a conservation 127 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa programme for the Cape. Biological Conservation Pressey, R.L. (in prep.) Living landscapes: a guide to (in press). locating and designing places for biodiversity. Miller, K.R. and Hamilton, L.S. 1999. Editorial-Chal- World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. lenges facing our protected areas. Parks 9(3):1-6. Younge, A. and Ashwell, A. (eds.). 2000. Cape Action Pressey, R.L. 1999. Editorial-Applications of irre- Plan for the Environment: SummaryReport. WWF- placeability analysis to planning and management SA, Stellenbosch. problems. Parks 9(1): 42-51. http://www.capeaction.org.za 128 ; - A . Maloti-Drakensberg: 12 Transfrontier Conservation and Development T. Sandwith and M. Pfotenhauer SUMMARY The Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Programme (MDTP) between South Africa and Lesotho seeks to conserve glo- bally significant biodiversity while contributing to economic and community development. Over the past 20 years, a process has been underway to forge cooperative action between the two countries and to develop an overall manage- ment and development strategy for the shared mountain ecosystem. This re- sulted in the mainstreaming of biodiversity-friendly key policies and programmes into sectoral development. In particular, the services that the ecosystem pro- vides, such as high quality water, are recognised as fundamental to economic development in the region and are dependent on sound management of the biodiversity resource. This has led to a bilateral agreement between the two countries to work cooperatively in pursuit of the programme goals and the adop- tion of compatible land use planning to ensure orderly development. This chap- ter also examines this process operating in the Mnweni component of the larger programme area, and contrasts the global and local scales of the initiative. It is concluded that mainstreaming has indeed occurred, but needs continued high- level support to be effective. Local stakeholders must also be involved if its potential benefits are to be achieved. 129 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa INTRODUCTIOIq South Africa Heritage values and historical background In South Africa, the earliest protection measures were the proclamation of forests in the 1890s and The Maloti-Drakensberg ecoregion is an extensive the establishment of protected areas for scenic and mountainous area on Lesotho's eastern border with species conservation purposes. For example, the South Africa. Covering 5,000 km2, the mountain Giants Castle Game Reserve, proclaimed in 1907, range straddles the international boundary and en- protected the last extensive population of the eland compasses a diverse natural and cultural landscape, (Taurotagus oryx), in the Colony of Natal. The which has been accorded World Heritage status South African government supported the inclusion (Figure 12.1). It is an Important Bird Area (IBA) of the major catchment areas of the Drakensberg and includes Ramsar wetlands of international in a series of state forests in the 1960s and 1970s. importance, is species rich, and has high levels of These were managed primarily for their role in endemism. It also contains a unique assemblage generating water run-off of a sufficient quantity of San rock art (see Box 12.1). and quality. Hydrological research conducted in The Maloti-Drakensberg mountains were the these catchments quantified rates and patterns of home of San hunter-gatherers, who found their last run-off but also experimented with the effects of refuge in these mountains as they were displaced, different land management and agricultural prac- and eventually eliminated, by pastoralists and tices. These rivers currently supply the bulk of the colonial settlers in the second half of the 19th cen- water to the industrial development areas of South tury. From as early as 1848, the government relo- Africa through diverse inter-basin water transfer cated black communities to "locations" in the schemes, including the Thukela-Vaal pumped stor- foothills, onto land held in trust for these commu- age scheme and the Lesotho Highlands Water nities. The purpose of these schemes was to create Scheme, and involve some of the largest and most a buffer between farmers and the San people and complex engineering developments in Africa. Less to create separate areas for different population attention was paid to biodiversity, including the groups. This was the Victorian forerunner of the devastating effects of plantation forestry in this former South African government's apartheid poli- fragile environment, beyond estimating the role of cies. Little thought or planning went into the pros- different fire management treatments on vegeta- pects for sustainable livelihoods under these tion communities, which was always linked to the circumstances, either then or in the subsequent implications for run-off. century. The current patterns of settlement and land Ultimately, it was recognised that agricultural use in the mountains are a consequence of these land uses were inappropriate on the fragile soils early actions. above a contour that became known as the Natu- ral Physiographic Catchment Boundary. A sys- Converging streams of resource conservation tematic attempt was made in the 1970s and 1980s to acquire this land for the state and to protect it. The Maloti-Drakensberg region is a resource of great A significant advance for conservation of strategic value to Lesotho and South Africa, prima- biodiversity took place in 1989 when the relevant rily because of its role as the most important water authorities assigned responsibility for the state catchment area in the sub-continent. This prompted forests, including the wilderness areas and na- discussions in the 1960s between the countries re- ture reserves, to the provincial nature conserva- garding the exploitation of these resources, and also tion authorities, to be managed as though they resulted in the initiation of a range of important were nature reserves. This provided the opportu- protection measures. Development of resource pro- nity for virtually the entire extent of the tection in the mountains has been effective for both Drakensberg on the South African side of the catchment management and biodiversity conser- border to be consolidated under a single state- vation, but with marked differences in effective- controlled management regime. The only exclu- ness across the international boundary. sion was the area of communal land, known as the 130 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development Figure 12.1. The Maloti-Drakensberg Transtrontier Conservation and Development Area Clareqn r.Xi . v J\ a a 1 -. P- n .4t'& 1hukuz%S,; @,t-X)v_S \. ~ tieesX v 4 ~~~~ ~~~~~ c¶S I -9 kpn S "f WJ h7h rwa ½,f m GA R5 , <>13 j 0 0 5 P2NW Sowdy',a $1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~13 Xi~~ " > /S)A -~~~~~~ At*:o 7t It 7 ,.n SAZ [I >o- nt Slrn.oaSPolc0Bsrc LEGEND ~ 13 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa authority in Lesotho, although there is an advanced Dan X2.. . value ~as [aoul- understanding of the relationship between natural 7':2f .-I 3 URWfis resource conservation and sectoral development, particularly with respect to water production, ag- o Species rich (2,153 plants, 299 birds, 48 mam- riculture, and more recently, tourism development. mals, 48 reptiles and 26 frogs) o Exceptional diversity of palaeo-invertebrates The seeds of mainstreaming o 1 9 threatened Red Data species including the Drakensberg cycad (Encephalartosghellinkii), By the 1990s, therefore, there was a growing rec- bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), oribi ognition in both countries of the integrated nature (Ourebi ourebi) of biodiversity conservation and the ecosystem o High levels of endemism (30% for plants) services that natural landscapes provide, as well o One of seven recognised biodiversity hotspots as an understanding that the future prospects for in Southern Africa sustainable development hinge on effective re- o Unique high altitude wetlands source conservation. It is in this recognition that o Montane and alpine grasslands and shrublands the seeds of mainstreaming are to be f ound. In both o Richest occurrence of rock art in the world Lesotho and South Africa, the processes began as o Over 40,000 images in 600 painted sites two separate streams, brought together by the jux- taposition of politics, resource demands and eco- nomic development. This process was strengthened and supported, both nationally and through a high- level engagement between the countries. Mnweni, which has remained under communal land tenure. IUJfTII OF THSE AMSTREA MG PIR(CESS Lesotho A vision for transfrontier cooperation A strikingly different situation prevails in Lesotho, For many years, there has been a vision for the where virtually the entire high altitude region is a mountain range to be developed into a transbound- communal rangeland area under the control of tra- ary conservation area, mainly to extend and pro- ditional authorities. Extensive development assis- tect its wildemess value. In the early 1980s, the tance has been directed at determining the South African and Lesotho authorities, as a com- conditions for sustainable rangeland management ponent of broader political cooperation, sought in the highland areas, with partial success in the to evaluate the potential for transboundary con- implementation of improved management servation programmes. The programme contin- programmes. There is a single national park, ued until 1992, amidst varying levels of political Sehlabathebe National Park, which lies in the accord between the two countries. The changing mountain region adjacent to the international political landscape after 1994, with the advent of boundary and the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park. South Africa's first democratically-elected gov- The analysis of biodiversity priorities through the emient, provided fresh impetus as South Africa development of a national biodiversity strategy for and its neighbours sought to build greater regional Lesotho identified the need to protect a range of cooperation and stimulate rural economies. At the landscapes, including better representation of the request of Lesotho, the then Natal Parks Board eastem mountains, and the transitions from low- (see Chapter 7) supported further interaction and land to highland areas. This coincided with pro- renewed efforts to obtain significant program- posals for new protected areas to protect the matic funding. With a preparatory grant from the watersheds and mitigate the impacts of the major GEF, through the World Bank, it was possible to dams in the Lesotho Highlands Water Scheme. investigate the priority actions required to address There is, as yet, no formal nature conservation threats to globally significant biodiversity and to 132 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development design a transboundary programme of active in- ment areas on formerly open access rangelands. tervention to be implemented by the two coun- This has had the important consequence of enhanc- tries from 2002-2006. ing the prospects of private sector investment in key tourism sites in the mountains. Mainstreaming biodiversity into regional land use plans Mainstreaming biodiversity though political commitment The transition to democracy in South Africa also initiated a complete review of sectoral policies and On the I1 th June 200 1, the governments of South practices, and created new provinces. One conse- Africa and Lesotho entered into a memorandum quence was the need for a uniform policy for land of understanding (MOU) that seeks to develop and use planning and development control in the implement a cooperative biodiversity management Drakensberg region of the new province of and socio-economic development strategy based KwaZulu-Natal. Known as the Drakensberg Spe- on the rich biodiversity and cultural heritage in cial Case Area Plan, the process envisaged a single the Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation plan and authority to guide future decision mak- and Development Area. (see Box 12.2). This re- ing and ensure orderly development. During the sulted in the establishment of a bilateral MDTP preparation of the Maloti-Drakensberg Trans- steering committee and preparatory activities, frontier Programme (MDTP) proposals, this same which have evaluated the potential for nature-based concept of a uniform and complementary land use tourism to support community development and planning and zonation scheme for the whole area biodiversity conservation in the transfrontier area. gained greater currency and is now one of the ma- A US$16 million grant from the GEF will support jor goals of the programme. This notion of greater the MDTP programme in both countries. uniformity of control and management has elevated The MOU captures an important shift in think- the status of the area in terms of provincial and ing in the sub-region, where the goals of national priorities, and has ensured that biodiversity biodiversity conservation and addressing the root resources are recognised in the spatial plans for causes of poverty and environmental degradation development. Similarly in Lesotho, the recogni- have become inter-dependent. A focus on the in- tion of a nationally important resource has led the temational value of the resource base, and the government to impose statutory special develop- shared responsibility to protect it has also provided Box 12.2. Extract from the Maloti-Drakensberg bilateral memorandum of understanding (MOU) between South Africa and Lesotho "Recognising: * the sovereign right of each country to exploit its own resources; * the need for cooperation to discourage or prevent transboundary environmental impacts; * that peace, economic development and environmental protection are inter-dependent and indivisible; * that poverty is both a cause and consequence of environmental degradation; * the global environmental importance of the Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Devel- opment Area; The parties unanimously declare their commitment to establish a framework for cooperation between the countries for the purpose of conserving biological diversity and promoting sustainable development of the Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Area." 133 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa the most important means for securing ers, was that the ecosystem service of water pro- sustainability in this landscape. It is also clear that duction could be detrimentally affected by poor mainstreaming biodiversity into the regional de- land use practices (see also Chapter 2). The only velopment agenda, and at greater spatial and juris- guarantee of continuing supplies of quality water dictional scales, presents unique challenges. would be measures to address the negrative impacts and maintain the structure and integrity of the frag- TRIGERS AM TURMIMG F GIDR ile resource base. The juxtaposition of these con- cerns meant that biodiversity in this system became It is useful to consider the elements of the MDTP a direct concern of government. case study as a means of understanding what trig- gered mainstreaming and how this trend can be Tourism as a lead economic sector nurtured and supported. This experience may con- tribute to a more general perspective on processes In both South Africa and Lesotho, tourism is ad- of mainstreaming, and in particular on how this vanced as a potential source of economic growth takes place in the context of cooperation across and human development, particularly in rural ar- national boundaries. The development of the eas. During the 20th century, tourism in Africa and MDTP illustrates the manner in which the in the sub-region focused largely on the "Big Five" mainstreaming of biodiversity can emerge as a (lion, leopard, elephant, rhino, buflalo) destina- consequence of apparently independent pro- tions. Political conflict and instability in eastern grammes. Two major turning points have been the and central Africa has increased the numbers of recognition of water production as a fundamental visitors traveling to southern Africa, and this ex- biodiversity process, and the economic exploi- pansion of tourism arrivals has coincided with an tation of globally significant resources through international trend of increased demand for greater tourism. quality in niche destinations, e.g. adventure tour- ism in unique places. This has been recognised by Biodiversity and water resources South Africa and Lesotho, who commissioned in- vestigations and initiated processes in 1997 to cre- There has long been recognition of the beauty and ate strategic development initiatives, including the recreational opportunity presented by the Maloti- Maloti-Drakensberg. A key trigger in the MDTP Drakensberg mountains and, especially in South has been the recognition in 2000 of the Africa, infrastructure has been developed to en- Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg as a mixed natural and able people to access this area. During the 1 970s cultural World Heritage Site, one of only 23 such and 1980s, the fragility of the mountain ecosys- areas in the world and, therefore, a highly attrac- tem and the deleterious effects of poor policies and tive international tourism destination. This has management became apparent with advancing immediately generated a marked change in the populations of alien plants, soil erosion and poor area's market profile and an increased opportunity agricultural productivity. Mountaineers and other for many associated private sector enterprises to wilderness adherents lobbied for action. The Na- develop. In a short space of time, the Maloti- tal Town and Regional Planning Commission and Drakensberg transboundary area, and its globally the then South African Department of Environmen- significant biodiversity, has become a significant tal Affairs and Forestry took steps to address these vehicle for promoting and sustaining human de- problems by including all land with high fragility velopment. Several new tourism developments, and poor agricultural potential into zones which including private as well as public/private partner- merited greater protection. Similarly in Lesotho, ships, are being built as a result. the economic benefits of sustained water yields focused a multi-sectoral (agriculture, natural re- ACTOR COMTRIBUTING TO MAINSTREAMING sources, tourism, planning and local government) N THE IAEfT' response to manage the highlands appropriately. A primary motivation of these agencies, and the In addition to the regional cooperation mechanisms primary argument used to convince decision-mak- which have stimulated transboundary conservation 134 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development and development programmes throughout the sub- Land restitution region, there have been a number of other factors which have contributed to its emergent profile. In South Africa, the government has embarked on a wide-reaching programme for the restitution of land rights lost through racially discriminatory laws of Biodiversity science the past. In many cases, claims over land within the There has been a growing recognition of the presentsystemofprotectedareashavebeenresolved importance of the biodiversity of the Maloti- by providing benefits that are derived from these Drakensberg mountains, with taxonomic studies protected areas. Examples include agreements for describing a distinct fauna and flora. This steady the flow of benefits from community levies on tour- growth of scientific knowledge of the area, and ism, and for equity share-holdings by communities in tourism developments (see Chapter 7). Despite its international significance, has compelled au- in cour i ch cants (see through te thorities and the public at large to take notice of g g the area as having a value beyond its obvious restitution process, it creates the opportunity and watershed/catchment and recreational values A highlights the significant role that achieving equi- particular aspect, often ignored in South Africa, table benefits from biodiversity plays in initiating is the complexity and importance of the high and sustaining mainstreaming. altitude grassland ecosystems. Grasslands have generally been exploited extensively for grazing, Illegal trade cultivation and for plantation forestry. It is only Illegal activities in the Maloti-Drakensberg area recently that the biological significance and di- include cross-border cattle and other stock theft as versity of grasslands, their economic importance, well as the cultivation and transboundary trans- and poor conservation status, have been more port of dagga (Cannabis sativa) in both directions. widely appreciated. The conflict and impact on communities resulting from these activities have prompted high level con- New perspectives on cultural resources cern and intervention. This has raised the profile of the region at a political level, and also the realisa- The rock art of the Maloti-Drakensberg is widely tion that poverty is a root cause of illegal activities known, but only recently has there been a greater and environmental degradation. appreciation of the San culture and the long-term continuity of occupation and use of these land- scapes. Although there are widely differing views Politics and regional cooperation on the symbolic interpretation of some of the im- South Africa and Lesotho have maintained a cor- ages and rituals depicted, these are the only dial butconstrainedrelationship, with tensions hav- glimpses that we have of the culture and lifestyles ing their origin in the apartheid era, but extending of the San people, as they were almost completely to the present. The involvement of a Southem Af- disrupted by waves of settlement and conflict dur- rican Development Community (SADC), and ing the 19th century. This rock art heritage is of largely South African, peace-keeping force in 1999 particular interest today, as both the art, and the in Lesotho's internal political problems precipi- environment it depicts and in which it was cre- tated a period of tension, which is slowly being ated, are protected and managed together. The resolved. There has always been a concern in intermeshing of culture and nature in the Maloti- Lesotho that South Africa is an overwhelmingly Drakensberg area has implications for resource powerful neighbour. Consequently, there is a need management, and raises awareness of the cultural to establish a basis for enhanced cooperation as context in which nature conservation and land use well as reconciliation. activities are conducted today. In the southern Af- rican context, there is also a heightened awareness Local democratic structures of the manner in which colonial powers dealt with the people of the region, and a need for reconcili- The introduction of elected local government in ation for past injustices. South Africa has expanded the direct involvement 135 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa of communities in local government affairs. In ad- 7HE bV1NWENI PROJECT: CONSERVATIOMI dition, there has been a policy trend in both Lesotho AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMANGWANE and South Africa to increase cooperative governance TRIBAL AREA OF THE MALOTI-DRAKENSBERfS in many sectors, e.g. community forestry agree- MOUNTAINS ments. In the nature conservation sector, there have also been efforts to create local govemance struc- A particular focus of the MDTP has been on de- tures. The programme of developing new protected termining how to act locally to make a significant areas in Lesotho has resulted in the formation of contribution at the level of the programme goals. community conservation forums, representing au- The preparation of the programme, the identifica- thorities and community interests. In KwaZulu- tion of priority interventions, and the modus oper- Natal in South Africa, statutory local boards have andi were derived from existing and ongoing been developed to ensure greater integration of the initiatives at a local level in the mountains. An activities in protected areas with the livelihoods of example of a local level programme which is con- the people living in and around them (also see Chap- sistent with MDTP goals, but also challenges and ter 7). This form of co-management contributes sig- informs the overall programme, is the Mnweni nificantly to the alignment of conservation and Project. development priorities and actions. The amaNgwane Tribal area (AT)-the location of the Mnweni Project-stretches fiom the lower Tourism potential valleys in KwaZulu-Natal right up to the interna- tional boundary with Lesotho, along the During the development of the MDTP, nature- Drakensberg escarpment (Figure 12.1). It is occu- based tourism was identified as an industry that pied by about 10,000 people, who are some of the could potentially provide significant economic poorest and most marginalised in South Africa. development and biodiversity protection. A major Because of its remoteness and history., it is regarded constraint is the significant infrastructure require- as one of the few remnant areas in South Africa ment to support private sector investment and en- which could be described as a "living cultural land- sure an acceptable return on investment. This scape" where traditional communities and forms means that a partnership has to be developed be- of land use persist. Land use practices include tra- tween government, the private sector and commu- ditional agricultural options, involving extensive nities to improve infrastructure to the point where cattle grazing, juxtaposed with the more recent il- a viable nature-based tourism industry can be de- legal cultivation and exploitation of dagga (Can- veloped. Even modest levels of tourism develop- nabis). The already complex dynamics of social ment, especially in Lesotho, would enable a switch interaction in this traditional society are further in land use from grazing, and other forms of non- complicated by the challenges of the power rela- sustainable use, to nature-based tourism. A greater tions and economy resulting from the illegal ac- number and diversity of employment and income tivities and the interaction of the communities with opportunities will be created. Careful planning and outsiders. Since 1995, Bergwatch, an informal as- execution of these developments will avoid intro- sociation of conservation organisations led by the ducing new negative impacts. Wildlife and Environmental Society of Southern In summary, the strong support for main- Africa (WESSA), has been working with commu- streaming biodiversity in the MDTP is the result nities in the AT. of both political and economic factors in the south- Conservation action in this commtnity has had ern African sub-region, linked to enhanced oppor- to begin with seeking common grolnd between tunities for cooperation in the transboundary communities and conservationists, and the estab- context of the Maloti-Drakensberg. Agreement was lishment of trust and long-term commitment to reached among the wide range of stakeholders at cooperate. The livelihoods of the communities are all levels that urgent intervention was required in inextricably linked to the biodiversity resource eight critical but inter-related areas The compo- base, and there is a ready acknowledgement of this nents of the MDTP are listed in Box 12.3. dependence and also of the factors which threaten 136 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development Box 12.3. Components of the Maloti-Drakensberg Transboundary Conservation and Development Programme 1. Programme management and transboundary cooperation. A complex programme operating across national and sub-national jurisdictional boundaries demands a stable institutional framework. In the MDTP, this has been secured through a bilateral MOU and steering committee, as well as sub-national coordination committees and coordination units. 2. Strategic conservation planning. A programme objective and major component is the establishment of an agreed overall strategic vision and framework, which integrates biodiversity, socio-cultural and economic dimensions. This will require further development and consultation, over many years, before adoption by the two countries. 3. Protected area planning. Plans for existing protected areas and zones within protected areas require harmonisation, both spatially and with the overall transboundary vision. In addition, compatible and sustainable business plans must be developed to ensure that the future management and development of protected areas is secure. 4. Protected area management. Existing threats caused by alien plant invasions, erosion, poor fire man- agement and visitor use must be mitigated. Programmes focus on developing local skills and capacity for conservation management. 5. Conservation management in priority areas. The vast majority of the landscape is not formally protected. Through a prioritisation process, key conservation areas have been identified and effective management for these areas must be secured, especially the high altitude wetlands and the transitional zones along the escarpment edge. 6. Community involvement. A cross-cuttting theme of the programme is the involvement of communi- ties throughout the research, planning and management phases. A particular focus is on enabling com- munity members, under professional guidance,. to develop and implement the core community conservation programmes. 7. Nature-based tourism planning. Echoing and supporting the conservation vision, the analysis and planning of a major tourism investment programme is a key approach to developing vibrant alternatives to subsistence agriculture and to ensuring the economic benefits positively impact local communities. 8. Institutional development. In many parts of the programme area, nature conservation agencies and local community conservation structures are transitional. The programme supports the strengthening of existing conservation agencies and formalised incipient institutions, especially at the local level. it. On the other hand, there has been a deteriora- rectly create sustainable employment in the tion in natural productivity and, while community amaNgwane Tribal area (AT). The bottom line was members have noticed this, they are not agreed on that the community would have to be convinced how best to meet this challenge. The amaNgwane that alternative activities would generate greater Tribal Council and the Mnweni Valley Develop- benefits than the existing land use practices and ment Committee mandated Bergwatch to raise illegal activities. A real challenge was to resource funds for projects compatible with conservation these efforts for long enough to ensure that they and development and to discuss these opportuni- would become self-sustaining, as short-term project ties with the communities concemed. interventions usually do not achieve this threshold The approach adopted was to identify conser- of success. The remoteness, suspicion by commu- vation and development activities that would di- nities of outsiders and the difficulties of working 137 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa in such an area compounded the problems usually farmers for a community-run, small business, experienced in working in this kind of project con- erosion-reclamation enterprise. text. Nevertheless, significant progress has been achieved. Exchange visits A community-managed trust was established as an independent legal entity, endowed with capital Exchanges among the different wards and provided by Rand Water, a parastatal service pro- neighbouring community areas has led to a wider vider drawing water resources from dams fed by awareness and understanding of the common prob- the major rivers in the AT. The trustees include a lems of these communities. It has played a role in majority of community representatives as well as defusing long-standing conflicts between commu- Rand Water, WESSA and Bergwatch. Interest from nities, and between communities and conservation the capital fund sustains financial support for spe- managers regarding fire management and grazing cific conservation activities, and there is also a practices. fund-raising component which seeks further funds to supplement the capital fund or to facilitate the Progress initiation of complementary projects. These programmes have been gradual and cumu- Activities lative in their impact. As communities have learned more about the uniqueness of the biodiversity re- Development of a community conservation area source base, and how this can be coupled to exist- ing and future development opportunities, it has Biodiversity data were compiled at the request of been possible to introduce new ideas and move the Manzana ward, one of three sub-structures of forward with greater confidence. the amaNgwane Tribal Council as the basis for It was previously impossible to contemplate ac- designating a portion of the area for conservation tions regarding controlled grazing and fire manage- purposes. No firm decisions have yet been taken ment, as these were linked to the illegal trade in over formal designation of the area. dagga (Cannabis). Similarly, the need for environ- mental education had to be recognised from within A community-managed multi-functional cultural the community structure, as it would not have been and community centre possible to impose this from the outside. Since embarking on this programme, facilitators have been A proposal to develop a centre was prepared, and able to respond to the communities' own regard for the necessary authority sought. Funds were sourced sacred sites and natural features as the basis from from local govemment structures. Supporting ac- which to consider broader conservation measures. tivities preparing the communities for the opera- It took two years for the various cornmunity struc- tion of the centre have been intensive training for tures to reach a common understanding of the prob- wildemess and cultural guiding, craft development, lems they face and the opportunities to address them, environmental education, business management, as well as to develop the commitment and will to nature-based tourism and literacy in English. These act. Communities have begun to introduce new and activities were made possible through funding from innovative techniques in their rehabilitation work, the state poverty relief programmes. and there have been enquiries from neighbouring communities for assistance with developing their Erosion reclamation own programmes. A labour-intensive reclamation project was initi- Challenges and constraints ated at an early stage to address some of the more serious soil erosion problems in the area. It has The communities and project facilitators have en- created jobs, trained workers in rehabilitation tech- countered short-term political agendas that threaten niques and made skills available to local private the longer-term framework essential for a sustain- 138 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development able programme, particularly since the introduc- is a net improvement in the status of biodiversity. tion in 2000 of elected local government contested The MDTP is an example of a programme where on party-political grounds. Common to similar biodiversity at the sub-regional landscape scale, as programmes everywhere, the timing of funding well as at the local scale, has become the rationale often does not coincide with the programme de- for, and stands to benefit from, appropriately de- velopment, risking failure, either when funding is signed development programmes. Since main- made available before communities are ready for streaming is a process and its impacts are not it, or when expectations of funding are not realised. necessarily immediately obvious, it is useful to con- This is coupled with the requirement for a slow sider how the programme conforms to this notion process of communication and relationship-build- of mainstreaming and how this process can be ing, expressed by one of the community members guided and supported. as "We see you for a year, and then we begin to hear you". There are also other pressing issues that Incorporation of biodiversity considerations intervene and retard progress with programme into sectoral policies goals, for example, poor nutrition, HIV/Aids-re- lated mortality, inadequate infrastructure (such as The MDTP provides a rich example of how safe river crossings) and the costs of sending chil- biodiversity can become explicitly recognised at dren to school. the policy and programme level. This process be- Although the conservation activities undertaken gan decades prior to the coining of the term in the Mnweni Project have shown positive results biodiversity, and is in many ways is a consequence in clearing alien plants, repairing erosion, training of other factors operating rather than a direct rec- guides and showing people how to work together, ognition of the intrinsic value of biodiversity. Nev- it is not certain whether this work or the positive ertheless, the result has been that the natural impacts will be sustained. It has value as a pilot resource base of the Maloti-Drakensberg moun- project for demonstrating conservation that pro- tains has been recognised, at the highest levels of motes sustainable development and involves com- govermment in two adjacent countries, as the foun- munities. However, the impact of this initiative dation for appropriate future development in the needs to be monitored over time, so that the les- sub-region. A major contributing factor has been sons learned can be applied more widely, and de- the demand for water for the economic hub of fensible choices made regarding the use of scarce southern Africa, and the ability of the mountains management resources. The Mnweni Project is, to supply it sustainably under an appropriate man- nevertheless, an example of mainstreaming bio- agement regime. At a more local scale, there are diversity and culture at the grassroots level. It will communities in both countries who are directly inform future efforts to expand such programmes dependent on the natural resources of the area, and to achieve landscape level impact on sustainable whose livelihoods will be either secured or threat- natural resource management and regional eco- ened by future developments. Decision-makers are nomic development. taking account of both global and local issues re- garding sustainability, and biodiversity is a key component of these decisions. CONCLUSIONS: THE MDTP AS AN EXAMPLE The advent of democracy in South Africa in OF MAINSTREAMING 1994 has resulted in a questioning of previous poli- cies, including those affecting conservation of Mainstreaming occurs when biodiversity becomes biodiversity, and the adoption of a new vision an essential purpose and consideration in sectoral where human development is a primary concern. policies, plans and programmes; when there is a This provides a context for the process unfolding simultaneous and sustainable achievement of in the MDTP. Firstly, the area provides one of the biodiversity and economic objectives; where eco- few examples where the natural and cultural nomic activity ultimately depends on the persistence attributes of the landscape can be integrated to of biodiversity; and, most importantly, when there inform a way of life in which people and nature 139 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa can co-exist. The development of livelihoods and it is too early to state with certainty that there has the lifestyle in the Mnweni area will therefore be been a net benefit for biodiversity, but ihere are posi- fundamentally based on biodiversity and cultural tive signs. There has been increasing support from resources. Secondly, there will be further innova- national government in South Africa for measures tion as stakeholders grapple with the real ques- to address threats to biodiversity (e.g. from remov- tions of achieving positive socio-economic and ing alien plants) and to create jobs in the process biophysical impact, and of involving the entire (see Chapter 2). In the agricultural sector, likewise, community. It could be concluded that the role of poverty-relief funding has been deployed to build biodiversity has become a central concern. capacity among disadvantaged communities while At a more practical level, the implementation of addressing the threat of soil erosion. The greater these policies has elicited new challenges. There is emphasis of the MDTP at the regional landscape a high level of institutional and community accep- scale has generated government commitment to tance required for an integrative programme, and consolidate and even expand protected areas, and major difficulties in reaching people on the ground to ensure that they are effectively managed. In in an extensive and difficult region. There is also a Lesotho, too, there has been a recognition by gov- need to sustain the process with an elaborate set of emient that highland wetlands must be protected institutions and coordination mechanisms, as the and new protected areas are being created. All of programme cuts across political and jurisdictional these biodiversity protection measures have been barriers. The real test of whether mainstreaming has stimulated by the increased attention being paid to occurred will be when this "institutional" subsidy the region as a result of the MDTP process. can be withdrawn and the programme will have achieved its own momentum. Sectoral activity is based on/ depends on sustainable use of biodiversity Win-win scenario: biodiversity conservation and economic gains The MDTP illustrates how many development sec- tors have become either positively aligned with or Achieving economic results through nature-based based on an appreciation of biodiversity. In par- tourism is a long-term challenge as there are many ticular, there has been a gradual shift away from factors which contribute to the establishment of an exploitative agricultural activity in the M4DTP area area as a tourism destination, and it takes time to and a move towards those land use activities that finance, develop and market new tourism products. are more compatible with the natural resource base, The success of the MDTP has been to capture the e.g. nature-based tourism and recreation. Lesotho attention of government and private sector alike, with has long recognized the need to address environ- commitments and new action to upgrade infrastruc- mental degradation caused by overgrazing and in- ture, to remove legal and institutional barriers to appropriate agricultural activities, but the planning development and to invest in new tourism facilities. and development process now emphasises special There has already been upgrading of access roads, development areas where a new economy based the refurbishment of tourism facilities and the entry on nature-based tourism can be developed. The of community tourism and guiding projects. It is incorporation of the MDTP vision and goals into perhaps too early to say whether this has been a a spatial development framework that straddles the win-win situation, but the trend is clear. The focus international border and sub-national jurisdictions of new development has been to build on and rein- will further support the mainstreaming process. force the biodiversity heritage values recognised by the World Heritage Council, and to build a more A resonance of scales vibrant nature-based tourism economy. An overall and concluding perspective is that there Biodiversity gains exceed biodiversity loss has to be an alignment of the overall vision and goals of the MDTP with demonstrated results at a In the absence of direct monitoring and evaluation, local level. One view of mainstrearning is that it 140 Maloti-Drakensberg: Transfrontier Conservation and Development occurs when a multiplicity of small and success- paper benefited from the helpful reviews of ful initiatives come together to provide an overall Richard Cowling and Shirley Pierce. coherence of purpose at a much larger scale. For this to happen, there has to be a critical mass gen- AUTHORS' AFFILIATIONS erated by collective action, and a convergence of biological, social, economic, institutional and, T. Sandwith is with the Cape Action for People most importantly, political realities. For the MDTP, and the Environment (C.A.P.E.), Cape Town. there are a great many pieces of this puzzle in place, trevor@capeaction.org.za. and an understanding that mainstreaming M. Pfotenhauer is with the Wildlife and Envi- biodiversity is the only significant opportunity for ronment Society of Southern Africa, Durban. human development in the mountains. However, this mainstreaming process will need to be guided FURTHER READING by the constraints imposed by the needs of the people who live there. Griffin, J., Cumming, D., Metcalfe, S., t'Sas-Rolfes, M., Singh, J. Chonguica, E., Rowen M. and Oglethorpe, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS J. 1999. Study on the development of transboundary natural resource managemnent areas in Southern A f- The MDTP has been a collaboration of an enor- rica. Biodiversity Support Programme: Washington mous number of people over many years, and D.C., USA. www.bsponline.org they are perhaps the collective champions of the Hamilton, L.S., Mackay, J.C., Worboys, G.L., Jones R.A. mainstreaming process that now operates in this and Manson, G.B. 1996. TransborderProtectedArea globally significant landscape. In particular, Cooperation. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland and Aus- many staff of KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife and the tralian Alps Liaison Committee: Canberra. Ministry of Environment, Gender and Youth Sandwith, T.S., Shine, C., Hamilton, L.S. and Affairs in Lesotho have worked towards this Sheppard, D.A. 2001. Transboundary protected ar- vision and their contributions are gratefully ac- eas forpeace and cooperation. lUCN: Gland, Swit- knowledged. In addition, the Wildlife and En- zerland and Cambridge, U.K. http://wcpa.iucn.org vironment Society of South Africa and the Rand Thorsell, J. (ed.) 1990. Parks on the Borderline. Expe- Water Board have been instrumental in achiev- riencein TransfrontierConservation. IUCN: Gland, ing progress in the Mnweni area. The World Switzerland. Bank staff, in particular Dr Francois Falloux, van der Linde, H., Oglethorpe, J., Sandwith, T., Snelson, Dr Jan Boj6 and Dr Kathy MacKinnon have D. and Tessema, Y. (with contributions from A. Tiega guided and supported the process of developing and T. Price). 2001. Beyond boundaries: Trans- the MDTP from the beginning. The programme boundary Natural Resource Management in Sub- has been developed with the financial support Saharan Africa. Biodiversity Support Programme: of the GEF and the Japanese PHRD fund. This Washington, D.C., USA. www.bsponline.org. 141 Conclusions: The Fundamentals 13 of Mainstreaming Biodiversity R. M. Cowling, S. M. Pierce and T. Sandwith SUMMARY In this concluding chapter we assess the extent to which individual case studies have incorporated biodiversity priorities into mainstream development. Firstly we devised a framework for biodiversity mainstreaming with three interdepen- dent components: prerequisites, stimuli and mechanisms. Then we classified these components and ranked them according to their frequency in the 11 case studies. Finally, we assessed the extent to which the case studies have achieved four outcomes of mainstreaming biodiversity, namely the incorporation of biodiversity conservation into policy; gains in both biodiversity and the sector; net biodiversity gains being greater than biodiversity losses; and sustainable management. The most frequently cited prerequisites for mainstreaming were: 1) scientific knowledge and understanding; 2) adequate institutional capacity; 3) effective NGO involvement; and 4) commitment of stakeholders. All of these capacities need to be in place before positive mainstreaming outcomes can be achieved. Commonly cited stimuli for mainstreaming activities included: 1) the post- 1994 change in governance; 2) an appreciation of the threats to biodiversity/ ecosystem services; and 3) linkages to socio-economic delivery. Of paramount importance was the stimulation of stakeholders to identify innovative mainstreaming mechanisms that would satisfy the desire of the new govemment to provide socio-economic services to marginalised communities. Mainstreaming mechanisms identified in most case studies included: 1) ef- fective communication to stakeholders; 2) synergistic partnerships between gov- emnment, private sector and NGOs; 3) enabling legislation and policy; and 4) the creation of new institutions or institutional arrangements. The effect to which 143 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa these mechanisms affected mainstreaming out- South Africa has a long history of biodiversity comes varied across case studies. Most case stud- research, awareness and conservation action. This ies had achieved mainstreaming outcomes through volume has brought together 11 case studies from the incorporation of biodiversity issues into sector three main sectors, natural resource use, conserva- policies, and the achievement of simultaneous tion, and urban and regional planning (see Figure biodiversity and sector gains. However, in fewer 13.1), and presented them as narratives. than half, net biodiversity gains exceeded We attempt here to derive generalisations from biodiversity loss by sector activities, and sector these specific cases that might have relevance in activity was based on sustainable use of biodiver- other parts of the world. The case studies include sity. This is understandable since some of the the following components for mainstreaming: activities analysed (e.g. plantation forestry, agri- culture) are wholly or partially based on the trans- o prerequisites (knowledge, capacity, need and formation of biodiversity and habitats. commitment without which tnainstreaming We conclude by pointing out that South Africa cannot happen); has made remarkable progress in mainstreaming " stimuli (factors external and internal to the biodiversity and that this is due, in part, to a long sector that catalyse awareness of the need for history of concem and action regarding biodiversity mainstreaming actions); and issues. Nevertheless there are many factors that 0 mechanisms (the actual activities that seek challenge the gains made thus far. Foremost to effect mainstreaming) amongst these are a dwindling institutional capac- Our framework is very simple. Given that cer- ity, a declining corps of biodiversity profession- tain prerequisites are in place, a set of specific als, and the need to demonstrate that biodiversity- stimuli can catalyse activities which then lead to friendly policies do indeed provide socio-economic the identification of appropriate mechanisms, with opportunities for the poor. the net result that effective mainstreaming, as mea- sured by outcomes, will happen. In this chapter, ROTh DUCTDM we identify the general components of this frame- work and discuss these with regard to the case stud- As a party to the Conventon on Biologicali- ies. We conclude with an evaluation of main- versity, the government of ;South Africa is obliged streaming outcomes and challenges in South Africa. to mainstream biodiversity issues into relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies. Simply stated, this means that bio- SECTORS diversity must be integrated into sectors. In the Three very broad sectors were considered in this ideal situation, biodiversity gains exceed losses, volume. These are: without compromising sectoral activities. In rare cases, this can mean that sectors lose assets to o Natural resource use (sustainable water pro- biodiversity, such as where land is transferred duction, wildlife utilisation, plantation for- from agriculture to conservation. Most often this estry, commercial agriculture, nature-based can mean mitigation of impacts, as in plantation tourism); forestry. Essentially, integration of biodiversity o Conservation (protected area expansion, in- is achieved when the sectoral activity becomes stitutional transformation) dependent on the sustainable use, or preservation o Urban and regional planning (metropolitan- of biodiversity. scale, regional-scale, provincial-scale, trans- This is easier said than done. As pointed out by frontier-scale). Sandwith (Chapter 1), effective mainstreaming requires more than supportive policy. Indeed, the The fact that we have included conservation as a process of mainstreaming requires three inter-de- sector here requires some explanation. Because pendent components, namely prerequisites, stimuli biodiversity is the core concern of the conservation and mechanisms (Figure. 13.1). sector, it should follow that biodiversity has been 144 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity Figure 13.1. The process of mainstreaming biodiversity Sector Prerequisites Natural resource use (Ch. 2-5) Adequate institutional capacity (11) Conservation (Ch. 6-7) Scientific knowledge and understanding (1 1) Urban and regional planning (Ch. 8-12) Effective NGO involvement (11) Commitment of stakeholders (1 1) Supportive legislation and policy (8) Existing protected area system (8) Need for socio-economic delivery (7) Implementation/management knowledge (6) Awareness of global significance of biodiversity (6) Stimuli Change in governance (1 1) Threat to biodiversity/ecosystem service (10) Demand for ecosystem service (10) Linkage to socio-economic delivery (9) Superior sustainability (5) Globalization (3) Withdrawal of perverse incentives (2) Private sector involvement (1) Conflict resolution (1) Mechanism Effective communication to stakeholders (11) Synergistic partnerships (11) MAINSTREAMING Enabling legislation and policy (10) __________________________________ Creation of new institution/s (10) Seed funding (7) Effective research (6) Key appointments (4) Capacity building (2) Role models (2) Mainstreaming outcomes Incorporation of biodiversity issues into sector policies (10) Simultaneous biodiversity and sector gains ("win-win") (9) Net biodiversity gains-exceed-net-biodiversity loss by sector activities (4) Sector activity based on or dependent on sustainable use/management of biodiversity (5) Note: The numbers in brackets refer to frequency of issue/action in the 11 case studies described in this volume. 145 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa effectively mainstreamed in this sector. However, biodiversity, but the case studies in this volume this has not always been the case. In many situa- identified only nine of these (Figure 13.1). They tions, the establishment and expansion of protected are discussed in more detail below. areas has not been driven by biodiversity consid- erations. Historically, reserves were set up for any Sound scientific knowledge and understanding number of reasons-for single species preserva- tion, on land marginal for agriculture, on former South Africa has a long history of excellent royal hunting grounds etc. Often conservation biodiversity recording and research, dating back agencies avoid those areas where the opportunity to the 18th century. All of the case studies identi- costs of conservation are high. With the growth in fied sound scientific knowledge and understand- understanding of biodiversity patterns and pro- ing as prerequisites for effective mainstreaming in cesses, and the identification and use of explicit their sectors. Much of this understanding has its conservation targets, it is now widely appreciated origins in collaborative and trans-disciplinary re- that many protected area systems are not repre- search that was fostered by the Cooperative Sci- sentative of biodiversity or are inappropriately entific Programmes (CSP) of the Council for managed for biodiversity maintenance. In order to Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), which effectively conserve biodiversity in many parts of ran from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s. The the world, novel approaches are required. For ex- country is reaping the benefits of this legacy. ample, protection of under-represented biodiversity might require the integration of conservation in production landscapes, with due consideration of socio-economic issues, especially incentives and In all of the case studies, adequate institutional alternative employment opportunities (see Chap- capacity was identified as a prerequisite. These ter 6). Hence, biodiversity mainstreaming into the institutions include national, and provincial, level conservation sector may require a number of resource management and conservation agencies, mechanisms identified in this volume. academic institutions, and non-governmental Furthermore, many conservation agencies may organisations (NGOs). There is an important les- require far-reaching structural transformation in son here. The mainstreaming of biodiversity will order to conserve biodiversity effectively on, and not occur without an adequate level of capacity- off, protected areas (see Chapter 7). More specifi- human and financial-in institutions responsible cally, these agencies may require democratisation for policy development, implementation, research, of their decision-making structures and sensi- monitoring and lobbying. tisation to social delivery in order to achieve their conservation goals. Effective NGO involvement A shortcoming of this volume is that it did not consider those sectors where links to biodiversity All of the case studies cited effective NGO involve- are tenuous, namely mining, manufacturing, trans- ment as a prerequisite for mainstreaming bio- port and construction. Also not considered to any diversity. South Africa has a particularly vibrant great extent were agriculture and wildlife utilisation conservation NGO sector, which has provided seed (including medicinal use of plants) on South funding, conducted essential research and lobbied Africa's communal lands (but see Chapter 7, 10 for mainstreaming actions. Two organisations stand and 12). These sectors provide a major challenge out, both of which have been in existence since the for mainstreaming biodiversity, and must be con- early decades of the 20th century: the Wildlife and sidered in the future. Environment Society of Southern Africa (WESSA) and the Botanical Society of South Africa (BotSoc). PREREQUISITES WWF-South Africa has provided seed funding for both the Working for Water programme and the No doubt there are many prerequisites which can Agulhas Plain initiative. The National Veld Trust, a create an enabling environment for mainstreaming now defunct NGO, played a crucial role in drafting 146 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity soil conservation legislation promulgated in 1946. socio-economic development, and the economic The role of NGOs is a s'ine qua non for effective value of urban biodiversity to city dwellers. These biodiversity mainstreaming. links, if effectively communicated, are important for obtaining support for biodiversity mainstreaming Commitment of stakeholders/champions from key stakeholders, especially politicians. Committed stakeholders are an essential compo- Implementation/management knowledge nent of the mainstreaming process. All case stud- ies identified individuals and institutions whose Knowledge on how to implement and manage commitment and enthusiasm were regarded as a projects and programmes associated with the key prerequisite for mainstreaming. These stake- mainstreaming of biodiversity is an essential in- holders ranged from non-affiliated individuals, gredient for this process in many sectors. Although academics, govermment agency personnel, entire often linked to institutional capacity, this knowl- institutions (including NGOs), private landown- edge sometimes resides in the private sector or ers, local communities and even cabinet ministers. academia. The ability of South Africa to launch The contribution to mainstreaming by these stake- the massive Working for Water programme was holders, especially that made by individuals who due, in part, to the fact that individuals and agen- go far beyond the normal call of duty, cannot be cies had excellent experience in implementing and overestimated. managing large-scale alien plant removal projects. Similarly, the substantial experience in wildlife Existing protected area system management enabled the rapid development of the private wildlife industry. Likewise, the capacity The existence of a well-managed protected area among some academic institutions to manage large system was cited as a prerequisite for main- conservation planning projects formed the basis streaming in eight case studies. These protected for effective mainstreaming ofbiodiversity into the areas were important in a number of respects. For rural planning sector. example, they supply excess wildlife for restock- ing privately-owned ranches, essential for the Awareness of the global significance of biodiversity growth of the wildlife industry; they are the build- ing blocks for park expansion and the growth of In some respects, this is a special case of "scien- nature-based tourism; and they provide an array tific knowledge and understanding". However, six of ecosystem services to city and rural communi- of the case studies emphasised the importance of ties. All of these attributes serve to demonstrate awareness of the global significance ofbiodiversity the value of biodiversity to society, an extremely for the mainstreaming process. These included important part of the mainstreaming process. sectors with activities in the globally important Cape Floristic Region and montane grasslands, as Need for socio-economic delivery well as the ecosystem-rich Eastern Cape. The fact that South Africa is recognised as a "megadiversity In developing countries such as South Africa, where country" and includes three internationally- there is a need for all sectors to deliver socio- recognised biodiversity hotspots, is important for economic benefits, the mainstreaming of bio- engendering a sense of national pride regarding diversity cannot be sustained unless it is linked to these assets and for persuading decision makers to these benefits. This may be in the form of employ- acknowledge and act on the country's international ment opportunities or cost-effective delivery of eco- obligations to conserve them. system services. This link emerged as a prerequisite for mainstreaming in seven case studies here. Ex- STIMULI amples include the alien plant eradication for the cost-effective supply of water from mountain The stimuli for mainstreaming biodiversity appear catchments, nature-based tourism as an engine for to be specific to each sector. These can be internal 147 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa or external factors that catalyse actions which lead Decentralised and participatory planning has per- to the mainstreaming of biodiversity. These stimuli mitted the incorporation of biodiversity issues into are invariably threats to biodiversity, as well as mandatory regional and local structure planning events or processes that offer opportunities for processes that are implemented by the govern- mainstreaming. In this section we discuss some of ment structures that make the actual decisions the stimuli identified by the case studies described about land use. in this volume. Government restructuring, however, does not come without its problems for biodiversity. The Change in governance identification of new regional (provincial tier) structures has left some institutions severely inca- South Africa has undergone fundamental political pacitated. Most of the newly identified municipali- restructuring at all tiers of government since 1994 ties lack the capacity to incorporate biodiversity when the first democratic elections were held. This concerns effectively into land use planning. Fur- change in governance introduced new and signifi- thermore, while some of the better capacitated new cant opportunities for mainstreaming biodiversity. municipal structures have been enthusiastic about All case studies cited change in governance as a biodiversity preservation, others, especially in the catalyst for mainstreaming. This change to a de- poorer parts of the country, have not. mocracy also led to the lifting of sanctions (eco- nomic, trade, academic, tourism etc.), which also Threat to biodiversity/ecosystem services impacted on the mainstreaming of biodiversity. Points raised in these studies included: Almost all case studies identified threats, or ap- preciation of threats, as a stimulus. Loss of o enthusiasm of the new corps of politicians biodiversity and the unsustainable use of natural and civil servants for ideas that linked resources and ecosystem services provided the biodiversity preservation and sustainable use catalyst for stakeholders to seek effective ways of to socio-economic delivery for the poor; countering these. Examples include the urgency o global acceptance of post-apartheid South to effectively manage the country's hard-stretched Africa with opportunities to develop and ex- water resources in order to stimulate economic ploit hitherto inaccessible global markets in growth, and the threat to the ecotourism industry biodiversity resources such as nature-based of habitat degradation and biodiversity loss. tourism and wildlife products; o identification of nature-based toturism as an Demand for ecosystem service engine for economic growth; • democratisation of institutions that enabled A demand for the services provided by bio- participation by communities, NGOs and diversity-articulated by private as well as public individuals in identifying policies and actions sector institutions-provided a catalyst for main- that are biodiversity friendly. streaming in ten of the case studies. These services o the national government's adoption of inter- included water resources, wildlife products, nature- national conventions that bind it to support- based tourism opportunities, agricultural produce, ing biodiversity-friendly policies; and public open space. o accessibility to international funding sources for biodiversity-related research and imple- Linkage to socio-economic delivery mentation of projects; The identification of links between biodiversity and More recently, there have been changes at the the delivery of socio-economic services to South local government level, with a resultant devolu- Africa's massive population of poor and socially tion of powers of land use planning to the mu- marginalised people was cited as a stimulus for nicipal level. This also provides a stimulus and mainstreaming in nine case studies. Imaginative challenge for mainstreaming biodiversity. "win-win" approaches to biodiversity mainstream- 148 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity ing are found throughout this volume. A good of the 1970s and 1980s. The implementation of example is the link between biodiversity conser- this scheme has probably saved the country un- vation, cost-effective delivery of water for socio- told millions of rands in reduced erosion (and silt- economic development and human resource ation of dams), range improvement and biodiversity development in the Workingfor Waterprogramme. conservation. The impacts of this subsidy with- Others include the job creation and training po- drawal remains to be documented. tential of nature-based tourism, and the ecosystem services provided by biodiversity in urban settings. Private sector involvement A prerequisite for socio-economic delivery as a stimulus for mainstreaming was the identification Only two case studies suggested that private sec- of this linkage by committed, and socially respon- tor involvement provided the stimulus for sible, biodiversity professionals. mainstreaming. We suspect, however, that private sector involvement has been a more widespread Superior sustainability stimulus. The initiative of the private sector in de- veloping the wildlife utilisation and nature-based Superior economic and ecological sustainability tourism industries is a good example of how this of biodiversity-friendly activities as the stimulus sector stimulated biodiversity-friendly policy and for mainstreaming was included in five of the case practice. studies. Removal of water-hungry alien plants is a A more unusual example is the mainstreaming more sustainable practice for delivering water from of biodiversity as the result of a proposal for a catchments than is the building of additional dams. nuclear power station (energy sector). An electric- Wildlife utilisation and conservation farming are ity supply company arranged for a structure plan more sustainable than conventional livestock rear- to assess the impacts of a proposed nuclear facil- ing and agriculture. Nature-based tourism is more ity, and this action led to a host of conservation sustainable than alternative forms of land use in initiatives on the Agulhas Plain. certain ecosystems. Conflict resolution Globalisation The ongoing conflict between development and The globalisation of markets is often associated conservation was listed by two case studies as the with the unsustainable use and loss of biodiversity. stimulus for integrating the outcomes of system- However, globalisation was identified as a stimu- atic conservation plans into policy regarding land lus for mainstreaming in three case studies. Two use decisions. of these listed "green branding" of products- niche markets linked to ecologically sustainable MECHANISMS production methods-as a catalyst, while one argued that the "global prioritisation of sustain- Effective communication to stakeholders able development" provided an important stimu- lus (Chapter 8). All case studies demonstrated that effective com- munication of biodiversity issues, potential social Withdrawal of perverse incentives and economic linkages, and legal and moral re- sponsibilities for policy implementation, was cen- The post- 1994 withdrawal of state-sponsored sub- tral to the mainstreaming process. Communication sidies for unsustainable agricultural practices, was successes ranged from a one-off delivery of a "road cited as a stimulus for the adoption of more show" that convinced the Minister of Water Af- biodiversity-friendly land use practices in two case fairs and Forestry to initiate the Working for Water studies. However, as pointed out below, these sub- programme; advocacy programmes that targeted sidies included support for conservation farming key officials and politicians; awareness campaigns practices, for example the stock reduction scheme that gained public support for biodiversity projects; 149 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa to the cumulative impacts of sustained extension Creation of new institutions services in the conservation and agriculture sec- tors. Communication was especially effective when The creation of new institutions, established spe- conservation of biodiversity was simplified into cifically to ensure mainstreaming outcomes, was "do-able" projects, such as the clearing of inva- listed as an effective mechanism in ten case stud- sive shrubs, or when urban planners were given a ies. While some of these were statutory institu- prioritised list of sites to conserve. tions or formally linked to government structures, many had their origins in the private sector, or were Synergistic partnerships new NGOs. The establishment of appropriate, in- dependent institutions such as Working for Water, Partnerships that were complementary in terms of ranchers and farmers associations, forestry work- capacity, skills and political leverage were cited in ing groups, conservancies, advisory boards, and all case studies as effective mechanisms for so on, ensure that the mainstreaming process main- mainstreaming. These partnerships ranged from tains its momentum in the face of personnel turn- those involving politicians from neighbouring over and institutional restructuring. countries to those between different state institu- tions, between state institutions and NGOs; be- Seed funding tween state institutions and the private sector; between state institutions, NGOs and academia; In seven case studies, seed funding proved to be a and between state institutions, NGOs and tradi- highly effective means of kick-starting main- tional communities. streaming activities. Funding sources ranged from local and international NGOs to international fund- Enabling legislation and policy ing agencies such as the GEF, the private sector, and state institutions. Enabling legislation and policy was regarded by most case studies as an effective mechanism for Effective research mainstreaming biodiversity. Some of these legal frameworks pre-dated the Convention on Biologi- Research that guided the mainstreaming process cal Diversity and, hence, South Africa's obliga- and demonstrated its benefits was regarded as an tion to mainstream biodiversity. Examples include effective mechanism in six case studies. Thus, re- policies that enabled private ownership and search that highlighted the economic advantages subsidised the provision of wildlife resources to of alien plant eradication for sustainable water pro- ranchers; the establishment of private nature re- duction has rcinforced the value to society of the serves, contractual national parks and conservan- Working for Water programme. Systematic con- cies; the incorporation of "green" issues into servation planning studies have provided a trans- urban and regional planning; legislation that re- parent and defensible means of identifying land stricted the extent of afforestation in water use options, thereby winning the support of stake- catchments, and conservation farming legislation holders and providing implementing agencies with and subsidies. Other legislation is more recent very effective guidelines for land use decisions. and has been guided in its development by South Africa's international obligations regarding Key appointments biodiversity. Included here is the requirement for environmental impact assessment (EIA) and stra- Four case studies identified key appointments as tegic environmental assessment (SEA) in terms an effective mechanism for mainstreaming. Ca- of the National Water Act of 1998 and the Na- pable and committed individuals can guide the tional Environmental Management Act of 1998, process through the difficult period between the both of which have had extremely positive out- identification of the mainstreaming opportunity and comes for biodiversity in the forestry, agriculture the policy development and imiplementation and land use planning sectors. phases. They are also important in starting the pro- 150 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity cess of mainstreaming. However, it emerged from appear that all outcomes have been achieved for the case studies that it is vital that mainstreaming the case studies described in Chapters 2, 3, 5, 6 does not rely too heavily on single individuals, but and 7 (see Figure 13. 1). In the case of the urban rather on small teams of individuals, or institu- and regional planning sector, the first two out- tional-level responsibility. comes (incorporation into policy and a "win-win" situation) generally apply, although it remains to Capacity building be seen whether net biodiversity gains will ex- ceed losses, and the extent to which this sector The development of new capacity to ensure will become biodiversity-based. This will depend mainstreaming outcomes was identified in only two very much on the way in which these planning case studies. This probably reflects the fact that all processes are implemented and the extent to case studies indicated that there was adequate in- which development issues will override conser- stitutional capacity and knowledge for the vation in contentious areas (see, for example, mainstreaming process to occur. However, this Chapter 8). The forestry and commercial agricul- should not be seen as a reflection of the situation tural sectors (Chapters 4 and 5) have been remark- across all regions and sectors of South Africa. In ably successful in incorporating biodiversity those cases where mainstreaming has not occurred, issues into policy, but nevertheless both of these we propose that inadequate capacity is one of the sectors are dependent to varying degrees, on the key factors. transformation of natural habitat. Furthermore, biodiversity-friendly policies, even in the context Role models of transformed landscapes, are not universally applied across all activities and regions in these The example of role models as a mechanism for sectors. It is still too early to assess whether the mainstreaming was cited by only two studies. ambitious policies being formulated for the These were the significance of progressive farm- Maloti-Drakensberg Conservation and Develop- ers in helping to mainstreaming biodiversity in the ment Programme (Chapter 12) will result in ef- agriculture sector and the key role played by a suc- fective mainstreaming outcomes. cessful nature-based tourism enterprise on the Aguthas Plain. We believe that the positive example DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS of role models plays a more important role as a mechanism for mainstreaming than is evident from The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the case studies in this volume. which South Africa has ratified, promotes the prin- ciples for sustainable development and main- MAINSTREAMING OUTCOMES streaming biodiversity as a platform for conserva- tion, sustainable use and equitable sharing of The success of the mainstreaming of biodiversity benefits. Funders of reconstruction and develop- was assessed according to the following criteria: ment programmes have shown interest in the concept and have proposed policies for the main- * incorporation of biodiversity issues into sec- streaming of biodiversity. tor policies South Africa has a long history of concern and * simultaneous biodiversity and sector gains action regarding biodiversity issues. The combi- ("win-win") nation of adequate institutional capacity, scientific * net biodiversity gains exceed net biodiversity knowledge and management skills, effective NGO loss by sector activities involvement and a high level of commitment have * sector activity based on or dependent on sus- enabled the development of a biodiversity main- tainable use /management of biodiversity streaming process in many sectors. Escalating threats to the country's extraordinary biodiversity To what extent have the case studies described resources, at a time when a new government was in this volume achieved these outcomes? It would keen to provide socio-economic services to the 151 Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa 13Sa 13.N . IM0SCU$0gSS~fs heR [ManVSs $BU ($UJ3WGVsa.GP, Juno33 MOM Discussion during the workshop elicited comments which do not readily fit into the framework of mainstreaming biodiversity presented in this chapter. Some factors which might well be unique to South Africa were highlighted. The cruel injustices of apartheid are notorious worldwide. Less well known may be the effects of sanctions, including the academic boycotts. The international isolation had the effect of pushing many professionals to be more innovative in dealing with problems. As a result of the inequitable education system, the biodiversity professionals were almost exclusively white, and formed a very small community. This undersized group had to develop broader perspectives, and be less specialised than in most First World situations. Encouraged by the innovative Cooperative Scientific Programmes of the former Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), professionals with different skills were brought together to solve complex problems. This small scientific community also meant closer network- ing, and a trans-disciplinary awareness not nornally evident amongst biodiversity professionals. The juxtaposition of developed and developing worlds in South Africa led to an intense awareness in the biodiversity community of social injustices. With the collapse of apartheid after 1990, and the demo- cratic elections of 1994, came an urgency to find socially equitable solutions to environmental problems. Scientists responded by rapidly and effectively disseminating informnation on biodiversity, demystifying and simplifying biodiversity issues, and making these manageable, accessible and tractable. The mix of developed and developing worlds enabled the recognition of biodiversity as a contributor to, and source of, socio-economic development. marginalised majority, stimulated stakeholders to and the progressive decline in research funds, many identify many innovative and effective main- of the older, experienced researchers, as well as streaming mechanisms. The result has been the those young and newly trained, have emigrated. incorporation of the outcomes of the main- Furthermore, attempts to train a corps of black re- streaming of biodiversity in several sectors, with searchers in biodiversity science have not been concomitant benefits for the long-term persistence particularly successful, Very few are attracted to, of biodiversity. This has been a remarkable and recruited into, the discipline. Those few who achievement. emerge as post-graduates are often head-hunted by However, the situation is not as rosy as it would government and the corporate world for manage- appear. There are many factors that challenge the rial positions. Much more effort should be devoted gains made thus far. One such factor is dwindling to retaining and funding the skilled researchers who institutional capacity. This volume has demonstrated are required to inspire and train black biodiversity that adequate institutional capacity is an essential scientists. The conservation baton, which has been condition for mainstreaming. The recent decline in held by white South Africans through the apart- institutional capacity across South Africa is great heid period, must be passed on to an emerging com- cause for concern regarding sustainability of munity, representative of the country's population. mainstreaming outcomes. We urge that appropriate A third challenge is the need to demonstrate in institutional capacity in biodiversity research and an honest and transparent way that biodiversity- management be built and maintained. friendly policies do indeed provide socio-economic Linked to this challenge is the declining and opportunities for poor people. This is not a trivial ageing corps of biodiversity professionals and as task. Care must be taken not to raise expectations yet no up-and-coming team to replace it. Owing about potential socio-economic delivery when there to political insecurity, crime, institutional decline are limited opportunities for this. Furthermore, 152 Conclusions: The Fundamentals of Mainstreaming Biodiversity greater effort is required to convince all sections Carol Scheepers of KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife pro- of South African society of the intrinsic value of vided invaluable support. Finally, we owe a great biodiversity debt to all of those committed and passionate Given South Africa's achievements in main- people who, while not always knowing it, have streaming biodiversity, and the fact that these may played an indispensable role in mainstreaming have widespread value elsewhere on the continent biodiversity in South Africa. These roles extend and the world, every effort should be made to safe- from simple membership of a NGO through the guard them. full spectrum of activities, to the actions of gov- ernment ministers. Thank you for your efforts; they ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS have not been wasted. Thanks to Kathy MacKinnon (World Bank) for her AUTHORS' AFFILIATIONS belief that we have stories to tell and that these should be heard. We are grateful to the organ- R. M. Cowling is with the Terrestrial Ecology isations outside South Africa which have enabled Research Unit, University of Port Elizabeth. so many aspects of these studies, especially the rmcgkingsley.co.za. Global Environment Facility and Flora and Fauna S. M. Pierce is a Consultant. shirleyc@intekom. International. and for the new commitment by co.za. Conservation International. Many thanks to the T. Sandwith is with the Cape Action for People Giant's Castle workshop participants for their help and the Environment (C.A.P.E.), Cape Town. in crystallising some of the ideas in this chapter. trevor@capeaction.org.za. 153 X S t X - <2 -, " _ ~~~~~~~~~~ ;--'r -; r M X 1~~1 §_S X2W