SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT JUNE 2021 WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT INTERVENTIONS TO INCREASE WOMEN’S ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT IN SOUTH ASIA? SKILLS AND TRAINING INTERVENTIONS BACKGROUND care work and gendered domestic roles, and legal barriers (World Bank 2020). Limitations on access to services, such as The World Bank’s South Asia Region Gender Innovation electricity and transport, together with limited trade and low Lab is conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of wages are among the barriers to female employment (Samad interventions with direct or indirect effects on measures of and Zhang 2016, Lopez-Acevedo and Robertson 2016). women’s economic empowerment. The review focuses on These barriers add to or are reinforced by the restrictive changes in labor force participation, employment, income, gender norms that prevail in the region (Das 2006). and empowerment outcomes. The goal is to document what has worked and has not for women in the region (covering all Policy interventions to increase economic participation from countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, women have multiplied globally as investments in women and Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka), the types of interventions gains in their participation have grown; the South Asia region implemented, and identifiable gaps in knowledge and action. is no exception. From government-led policy interventions The review organizes interventions in six broad categories: and projects to interventions led by nongovernmental skills, assets, credit, labor market, entrepreneurship, and organizations (NGOs), and those supported by donors and empowerment. This note summarizes the main findings researchers, attempts have been made to increase women’s from skill-building interventions. labor force participation and economic empowerment. These activities have focused on supply-side interventions, equipping women with skills, assets, access to credit, and WHAT IS A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW? more, seeking to close gender gaps. This note, and the Women’s economic participation in South Asia remains low others in the series, look at those policies and programs that despite rising overall incomes and improvements in women’s have been evaluated and review their success in achieving health and educational outcomes (Figure 1). Women in South these goals. Asia have a low level of labor force participation, 24 percent, well below the global average of 47 percent and only higher WHAT IS INCLUDED? than the Middle East and North Africa region’s 20 percent participation rate. Of the women who are active in the The review includes experimental and quasi-experimental labor force, only 5 percent are unemployed, in line with the evidence for policies and programs that directly aimed global average and similar to levels of male unemployment to change women’s economic outcomes (labor force (World Bank 2020). Several barriers prevent women from participation, employment, and income-generating activities) participating in the labor market, among them are limited or have indirectly done so. This note focuses on those educational opportunities, mobility restrictions, unpaid programs that have approached achievement of these Women’s Par�cipa�on 47% 24% 20% in the Labor Force Global South Asia Middle East and North Africa Figure 1. Labor Force Participation Trend (1996–2019) Source: World Bank Gender Statistics at https://data.worldbank.org/ outcomes through skills-building interventions designed for Two reviewers independently searched and extracted labor market participation. For purposes of this review, skills data and information about projects, including impact interventions are defined as technical, professional, and effects, design, and intervention components. Additional soft skills programs, and do not include general education outcome-specific data, such as units of reporting, coefficient (secondary or tertiary) or adult literacy programs. significance, and standard errors were also extracted. If a study reported impact estimates using more than one The review includes English-language studies published between specification, all were recorded, but only the researchers’ January 1990 and March 2020 across white and gray preferred specification is used in this note. literature (peer reviewed journals, working papers, program or agency reports, and academic thesis, among others) The inclusion of studies was restricted to experimental identified via an extensive search of multiple databases.1 and quasi-experimental evaluations (such as randomized controlled trials and natural experiments) of policies or 1 The search spanned databases that included Econlit, Web of Science, Science Direct, interventions implemented in any South Asian country, National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Google Scholar, World Bank e-Library, irrespective of date. Intervention inclusion was not limited UNWider, Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Center for Global Development (CGD), International Growth Center (IGC), American by time, duration, frequency, or method of intervention Economic Association (AEA), AEA Registry, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3iERePEc Research Papers in Economics IDEAS database, and JSTOR. exposure. Figure 2 summarizes the paper identification 2 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT process. Final studies were selected using a three-stage SKILLS INTERVENTIONS filtering process. The first stage filtered select papers relevant to the region and programs that were women-specific or Skills-based interventions can improve income, included female beneficiaries. The second stage filtered for empowerment, and labor market outcomes for women intervention type and the third for methodology.2 through increased business knowledge (such as financial planning, marketing, and other business-related skills), Eligible studies were those that: improved life skills (such as outlook on life, motivation, • Evaluated a skills program: business skills training self-esteem, and career aspirations), and greater decision- (financial literacy, business planning, marketing, etc.), making inside and outside homes (Chinen et al. 2017). trade-specific hard skills training or vocational training In return, these benefits can increase the likelihood of (such as tailoring and sewing skills), market access entrepreneurship and business or job performance, including training (for example, how to link to the market, market growth in income opportunities. Finally, improved skills can information, market expansion), and soft skills training improve women’s empowerment across social, educational, (such as communication, problem-solving, job search, economic, political, and psychological dimensions. and others). • Used experimental or quasi-experimental evaluation Existing systematic reviews analyzing the impact of skills methods. training on women’s labor market outcomes are limited, and • Reported outcomes for women: either because they the few that exist focus on a broader global landscape, and in were the direct target population or impacts for them as most cases involve high- to medium-income countries (Filges a subpopulation are reported. et al. 2015, Betcherman et al. 2004). Other reviews (Kluve et • Reported required outcomes: employment (including al. 2017, Betcherman et al. 2007, IEG 2012, and Tripney et al. labor market outcomes, income, earnings, self- 2013) analyze the impact of skills training and employment employment) and empowerment (agency, well-being, programs for the total population or focus solely on young happiness, etc.). population, and do not always report differences in impacts by sex or programs designed to target women. The South Figure 2: Search Methodology Identi cation A preliminary list of Backward and forward Resources were rechecked Stage 2: Snowballing databases was searched snowballing was conducted using the World Bank Stage 1: Base Search library lists and the Stage 3: Recheck connected paper’s website Studies were stored in a The process was repeated Final studies were added snowballing repository un�l no new studies were to a thema�c database Screening iden�fied Eligibility decisions were made a�er reading the �tle and abstract of each resource. Addi�onal scoping was done to iden�fy outcomes and methodology for some ar�cles. Each study outcome was assigned to a category, either Eligibility employment, empowerment, or income. Poten�al papers were also checked for their iden�fica�on strategy. Key informa�on about programs and par�cipants was extracted for each study including type of interven�on, sample popula�on, econometric methodology, and impact details. All studies added were given unique IDs based on interven�on type, popula�on, econometric methodology/specifica�on, year, and outcomes. If a study reported impact es�mates using more than one specifica�on, it was coded using different codes for methodology/specifica�on. Key Information 2 Second stage search terms included: skills, training, female skills, soft skills, adult literacy, ICT (information and communications technology), skills development, vocational training, and skills training. Third-stage search terms included: impact, impact evaluation, assessment, intervention, RCT, and randomized control trials. JUNE 2021 | 3 Asian region accounts for only a few of these systematic Sri Lanka. Figure 3 maps the geographical distribution reviews, each including only a handful of impact evaluations. of the evaluations, including intervention dates, sample characteristics, and training types. Table 1 provides details of While studies were found for countries in the South Asia the programs identified. region, they did not fit the selection criteria. For example, although numerous national and subnational programs Most skill-based impact assessments started after 2006. offer training programs for women, only a few studies gauge Programs conducted training sessions for hard skills (business, the impact of skills training using a rigorous evaluation finance, and tailoring) and soft skills (communication, time methodology, others did not report outcomes for women, management, and problem-solving) in conjunction with and so forth. As filters were applied to select papers from local banks and NGOs. Most programs focused on women the documents identified after the first stage (339,688,621), from disadvantaged backgrounds or poor socioeconomic about 90% were dropped in the second stage (33,370,352 status, with low formal education levels. Most evaluations remained), and further refinement for the third stage left covered trainings in selected districts and gauged impacts an initial pool of 3,134,907 studies for further review. After for programs with a small to medium scope. The evaluation removing repetitions, refining by title and abstract and other by Chakravarty et al. (2019) is the only one to assess a filters, a preliminary list of 104 studies were identified. This nationwide training program spread across 56 districts in list was scoped further for relevant outcomes, methodology, Nepal. and sample. This resulted in a final list of only nine studies that were considered to have adequate methodological rigor and content for inclusion in the meta-analysis. PROGRAM TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS The nature and scope of interventions varies by country The inclusion criteria are multilayered and has limitations. The and program (Table 2). We identified the following types of rigorous methodology only includes experimental and quasi- training: technical skills focused on specific trades; business experimental studies, those with a clear comparison/control skills, such as financial literacy; marketing and business group, or a design manipulation that separates effects from planning; and soft skills, such as communication, time other changes or existing trends. Hence, the final database management, and problem-solving. Women targeted by did not include assessments that focus on outputs, such as these training programs, either as intended beneficiaries or women trained or pre-post test scores to measure training as a subsample, generally have low levels of education, are effectiveness (USAID Bangladesh 2017, IMPACTT 2013). poor or from marginalized backgrounds, work in low-skilled Evaluations of programs that report null or negative findings occupations, or are active in the informal sector.3 Programs for the primary outcome might not end up in a publication differ on training type, structure, and the level of uptake. and would not show up in the screening process. In addition, While all programs document positive effects for economic skills programs might suffer from design challenges, high participation, the ones with the largest effects had a greater dropouts, low uptake, information asymmetries, and gender focus in training design/implementation and, unsustainable costs. These may undermine program delivered their training through local providers. effectiveness and consequentially fail to produce significant impacts or negatively impact a successful evaluation. TRAINING DELIVERY The selection process also does not account for impact evaluations published in local languages. Lastly, the criteria Participants received an average of 136 hours of training. privilege outcomes are measured at the extensive margin, This includes high-intensity training from 240 to 390 hours that is, women who previously were not in the labor market (Maitra and Mani 2017, Cheema, et al 2019, Bhatta et al. who decided to engage in an income-generating activity or forthcoming), medium intensity training (63 hours in the unemployed women who found jobs, rather than transitions case of de Mel et al. 2014), and more compressed training into better employment for women who were already of 35 hours (Chun and Watanabe 2012, Field et al. 2010). economically active or business performance improvement Training sessions were mostly delivered using a classroom for female business owners (although when reported in model following nationally and internationally approved papers that meet the criteria, these effects are included in curriculums; a few added on-the-job learning through the database). apprenticeships or internships. Most impact assessments do The final set of skills interventions identified for this review were in five countries: Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and 3 An exception is the Sri Lanka program (de Mel et al. 2014) whose beneficiaries have on average 10 years of education, are urban, and have previous work experience. 4 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Figure 3: Selected Skills Training Programs not detail the program curriculum and content. When details on content, the program delivered is the International Labor are provided, as in Bhutan, general characteristics of the Organization (ILO) Start and Improve Your Business training program are outlined. For example, the program was three program, for which a complete repository of materials is months long under the Rural Skills Development Project, available online.4 providing training in three stages: stage 1 delivered theory lessons and basic concepts related to the skills, stage 2 put the theory into practice, and stage 3 provided trainees with 4 The Bhutan study assesses impact for the first 2 stages only (Chun and Watanabe 2012). on-the-job training for four to six months. Similarly, while in Training packages and implementation models of the ILO program are available at https://ilo. the Sri Lanka case the authors do not provide extensive details org/empent/areas/start-and-improve-your-business. JUNE 2021 | 5 Table 1: Summary of Included Programs ID Title Resource Authors Year Country Subregion Interven�on Methodology type 1. Skills for Market (SFM Report Ali Cheema, Asim 2019 Pakistan Bahawalnagar, Skills training Randomized 2013-14)—Market I. Khwaja, M. Bahawalpur, control trial Linkage (ML 2015– Farooq Naseer, and 16): Final Impact and Jacob N. Muzaffargarh Evalua�on Report Shapiro 2. Money or Ideas? A Journal Xavier Giné and 2014 Pakistan Bahawalpur, Business Randomized Field Experiment on ar�cle Ghazala Mansuri Hyderabad, training and control trial Constraints in Rural and A�ock access to Pakistan loan lo�ery 3. Do Tradi�onal Journal Erica Field, Seema 2010 India Ahmedabad Business Randomized Ins�tutions Constrain ar�cle Jayachandran, skills training control trial Female and Rohini Pande Entrepreneurship? A Field Experiment on Business Training in India 4. Can Skill Journal Natalie Chun and 2011 Bhutan Bumthang, Ha, Voca�onal Matching Diversifica�on ar�cle Makiko and Trashigang training es�mators Improve Welfare in Watanabe Rural Areas? Evidence from the Rural Skills Development Project in Bhutan 5. Voca�onal Training Journal Shubha 2019 Nepal Na�onwide Voca�onal Regression Programs and Youth ar�cle Chakravarty, training discon�nuity Labor Market Ma�as Outcomes: Evidence Lundberg, Plamen from Nepal Nikolov, and Julian Zenker 6. The Skills to Pay the Journal Achyuta 2018 India Bengaluru Skills training Randomized Bills: Returns to On- ar�cle Adhvaryu, and job control trial the-Job So� Skills Namrata Kala, placement Training and Anant services Nyshadham 7. Learning and Earning: Journal Pushkar Maitra 2013 India New Delhi Voca�onal Randomized Evidence from a ar�cle and Subha Mani training control trial Randomized Evalua�on in India 8. Impact of Short-Term Journal Saurav Dev Un- Nepal Katmandu Voca�onal Randomized Voca�onal Training ar�cle Bha�a, Sangeeta published Valley training control trial on Labor Market Goyal, and Dhiraj Outcomes: Evidence Sharma from Nepal 9. Business Training and Journal Suresh de Mel, 2014 Sri Lanka Colombo and Business Randomized Female Enterprise ar�cle David McKenzie, Kandy training control trial Start-Up, Growth, and Christopher and Dynamics: Woodruff Experimental Evidence from Sri Lanka 6 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Attendance, or uptake, ranged from 56 percent to 98 ADDING A GENDER FOCUS percent across all training offerings. Participants in programs Training interventions with a gender focus have a stronger with high uptake (Cheema et al. 2019, Chun and Watanabe impact on women’s labor market and empowerment 2012, Giné and Mansuri 2014, and de Mel et al. 2014) had outcomes (Fawcett and Howden 1998, Mohapatra and an active interest in the training and fewer logistical barriers. Mahapatra 2016). Among those programs that reported Among the reasons women reported for not attending were a high gender focus or a design intended for women, this lack of childcare, friends not being selected for training, lack meant that the training design not only addressed gender- of interest, and most significantly, distance to the training specific barriers to access but also enhanced and sustained center. Maitra and Mani (2017) report a 21 percentage point benefits after training completion. increase in training attendance for women with a secondary school education and proximity to the training center. They Social and logistical constraints, such as household work, further estimate that a 10-minute increase in the time family obligations, childcare, and gendered norms against taken to walk to the training center results in a 1 percentage travel have prevented women from taking full advantage point reduction in the likelihood of program completion. In of skills training. Cheema et al. (2019) and Chakravarty et Cheema et al. (2019) the program increased uptake when it al. (2019) evaluate programs that address these barriers by applied learning from previous training schemes and limited providing monetary incentives, childcare services, mentoring travel constraints by offering training within rural villages— for life skills, and organizing training sessions in villages and even though this cost more. The program combined this closer to women’s homes. Maitra and Mani (2017) evaluate approach with social mobilizers to engage women in the a program that targets demand-side constraints, such as lack community to participate. Following on other active labor of information on training and benefits, through an extensive market policies and vocational training programs, Chun and advertising campaign using social mobilizers. Programs also Watanabe (2012) select participants based on demand, and included additional women-specific modules to enhance hence select participants having an active interest in training. training benefits. Female trainees received 40 hours of De Mel et al. (2014) also gauged demand and offered an additional life skills training on topics such as negotiation allowance for transportation, food, and other costs, as well skills, worker rights, sexual and reproductive health, and as an incentive—a subset of those completing training were discrimination (Chakravarty et al. 2019, Bhatta et al. 2020). eligible for a grant. Finally, religious and cultural factors, such Field et al. (2010) collaborated with the SEWA Bank to provide as observance of purdah was also a factor for low training an additional module that focused on empowerment and demand among women; women less observant of purdah aspirations. The aspiration module consisted of a video that had a higher interest in training. showed successful SEWA clients telling stories of how good financial practices helped them out of poverty. Trainees were Nongovernmental entities deliver more programs than also asked to identify financial goals and how they wanted governments. Field et al. (2010) evaluate business training to achieve them over the next six months. The training also by SEWA Bank, whose clients are primarily women from encourages women to save and avoid “frivolous” spending. low socioeconomic backgrounds that work in the informal Giné and Mansuri (2014) also review a program that adapts sector. SEWA Bank has an existing financial training program training delivery to accommodate women from low-literacy for its female clients consisting of basic training that includes backgrounds and includes visual and stimulation-based accounting skills, business life cycle planning, customer training material. service, and cost reduction. Maitra and Mani (2017) evaluate a program by two local NGOs that provides vocational training in stitching and tailoring: Pratham and SATYA (Social TRAINING PLUS PROGRAMS Awakening Through Youth Action). Adhvaryu et al. (2016) Programs also added modules to training formats to sustain partnered with the largest ready-made garment export firm benefits after training by providing participants with market to evaluate the P.A.C.E. training program and on-the-job links, job placement services, and internships. Cheema et training. De Mel et al. (2014) worked with a non-profit, the al. (2019) evaluate a program that includes an additional Sri Lanka Business Development Centre (SLBDC), a training market link intervention that provides a subsample access institution that had been delivering the same program for to a commercial market through sales agents. Adhvaryu eight years. The remaining programs collaborated with et al. (2016) look at a program that conducts additional government partners to evaluate existing vocational training sessions with participants after training to review their programs at the national or subnational levels. experiences and how learning from their training is being used in professional and personal situations. Government JUNE 2021 | 7 Table 2: Summary of Training Programs ID Training Complementary Dura�on Frequency Implementa�on Training Sample Women Impact type interven�on partner uptake characteris�cs trained measured 1. Tailoring, Market link 4 384 hours a Pakistan 97% Women with low NA 6 months, func�onal months Skills educa�on levels, 1.5 years, literacy, Development poor socioeconomic and 2.5 numeracy, and Fund status, and mostly years financial (PSDF) b unemployed literacy 2. Marke�ng, Loan lo�ery 4 56 hours c Na�onal Rural 93% Rural microfinance 651 22 months business months Support clients–men and trainees planning, Program women, mostly and (NRSP) and small business financial the Pakistan owners management Poverty Allevia�on Fund (PPAF)d 3. Financial NA 8 35 hours e SEWA Bank f 70% Women working 289 NA literacy and months in the informal women business skills sector, ages 18–50, who are ac�ve savers within the past 2 years g 4. Construc�on NA 3 35 hours Government 98% Men and women, 451 12 months h skills and months partners ages 18–40, living in trainees months hairdressing rural areas and working mostly in agriculture 5. Technical Job placement 1 to 3 Variable i Government 70% Men and women NA 9–11 training services months partners who are young, low months educated and rela�vely poor 6. Time 12 80-hours j Private NA Women garment 1,341 9 months management, months garment workers, with an women communica�on, export firm average age of 37– problem - 28, most high school solving, educated and speak and financial kannada literacy 7. S�tching and NA 6 240 hours k Partnered 56% Migrant women 442 6 months tailoring months with two se�led in slums, ages women services NGOs: 18–39, who have Pratham and completed at least SATYA five grades of schooling 8. Voca�onal Job placement 4 390 hours Ministry of 67% Men and women 727 12 training Incen�ves months Educa�on ages 18–45 from trainees months marginalized and low socioeconomic background 9. Business Cash grant 2 63 hours l Sri Lanka 67% Women, ages 25–45, 268 3–4 months, training months Business who are out of the women 1–1.5 years, Development labor force and and 2 years n Centre expressed interest in (SLBDC) m star�ng a business 8 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Table 3: Reported Outcomes and Impacts Outcome category Outcomes Effect 9 [01 PAK] Skills for Market (SFM 2013-14)—Market Linkage (ML 2015–16): Final Impact Evaluation Report Employment Engaging in any tailoring-related activity in the last month 11.500*** Earnings Monthly income 13.769** Empowerment Civic engagement 19.200 Well-being -18.000 Happiness -0.100 Female empowerment 53.700 [02 PAK] Money or Ideas? A Field Experiment on Constraints in Rural Pakistan 10 Employment New business 6.200** Empowerment Outlook on life 11.200* CO cohesion -11.100* [03 IND] Do Traditional Institutions Constrain Female Entrepreneurship? A Field Experiment on Business Training in India Earnings Any personal labor income over past week 19.000*** Empowerment Talk business 0.100*** [04 BHU] Can Skill Diversification Improve Welfare in Rural Areas? Evidence from the Rural Skills Development Project in Bhutan Earnings Income diversification 10.000*** [05 NEP] Vocational Training Programs and Youth Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Nepal Employment Any income-generating ac�vity 8.000* Earnings Earnings 189.000*** [06 IND] The Skills to Pay the Bills: Returns to On-the-Job Soft Skills Training Empowerment Expecta�on of promotion in the next 6 months 7.670* Skill development training 14.800*** Production award or incen�ve 2.810 Self-rating rela�ve to peers having same skill 13.000** Line co-worker self-assessment 7.840 Saving for education 6.070* Saving for other reasons -3.320 Community self-help group -3.460 Conscientiousness 5.300 Locus of control 2.640 Perseverance -10.500 Extroversion 15.900** Self-sufficiency 3.830 Self-esteem -15.800 Hope/op�mism -6.340 Moderate distress -4.190 Child’s expected age at marriage 7.930 Child educated beyond college 8.080*** [07 IND] Learning and Earning: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in India Employment Any employment 6.00** Empowerment Own sewing machine 8.000 ROSCA (rotating savings and credit association) membership -0.080 Happy at home -8.000 [08 NEP] Impact of Short-Term Vocational Training on Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Nepal Employment Labor force participation rate 13.00*** [09 SL] Business Training and Female Enterprise Start-Up, Growth, and Dynamics: Experimental Evidence from Sri Lanka Employment Any new business 12.00** *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Note: For studies with multiple rounds, we select the highest reported value. . 9 Employment outcomes are measured in percentage points and income is measured in logs. 10 Measures are reported in percent of standard deviation. JUNE 2021 | 9 vocational training programs in Nepal have an essential job Most studies gauge impacts 6 to 12 months after training; placement module along with the training program, which two report medium-run impacts 18 to 22 months post requires trainees to intern with trade-specific employers intervention (Cheema et al. 2019, Giné and Mansuri 2014). for six months (Chakravarty et al. 2019) to sustain learning De Mel et al. (2014) measure impacts at four points: 4, 8, benefits. Similarly, the program evaluated by Giné and 16, and 25 months after the training. This is the only study Mansuri (2014) provides post-training handholding reporting impacts of skills training beyond 22 months; hence, sessions, where trainers visit trainees at their home or it is difficult gauge whether impacts are sustained in the place of business to observe and answer training-related long run. The multiple rounds in the de Mel et al. (2014) questions. This program also relies on a community study show that effects of the training-only intervention, organization model that requires individuals to be part of a while significant and positive 3–4 months after the training, community organization. De Mel et al. (2014) added grants dissipate over time and disappear by the 15–16 months to the training program. measure. PROGRAM IMPACTS CONCLUSION Program impacts were sorted into three broad categories: Several observations emerge from this review and highlight employment, income, and empowerment.5 The potential priorities for practice and policy. The most salient measurement of labor market outcomes varied significantly, of these is the significant lack of rigorously evaluated from labor force participation rates to indicators for self- interventions and policies targeting women’s skill-building employment. Labor market impacts vary in effect sizes in the South Asian region. No training impact assessments between 6 and 13 percentage points (Figure 4) depending were found in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Maldives even on the program. For example, Bhatta et al. (forthcoming) though numerous training programs are active in these report a 13 percentage point increase in labor force countries, as they are throughout the region, by national participation and a 17-percentage point increase in gainful and local governments, civil society and NGOs, and private employment for women in Nepal. Where measured, providers. The low number of reports and evaluations the incidence of income-generating activity for women suggests that most of these programs are not being increased by 8.5 percentage points on average.6 Giné and evaluated for impact, instead, they appear to rely on metrics Mansuri (2014) report impacts in percentage of standard such as number of women enrolled or number of women deviation, for example women who have received business who complete the training. Hence, it is difficult to gauge training and a loan are 6.2 percent of a standard deviation how effective skills training is in improving labor market and more likely to create a new business on their own and empowerment outcomes for women. without involvement of other community members.7 Second, while all programs that were evaluated successfully The results for empowerment indicators are mixed; only improved economic empowerment and participation three studies report significant and positive impacts outcomes, interventions sensitized to the prevailing social that range between 6 to 11 percentage points (Giné and and logistical barriers for women had larger impacts. Mansuri 2014, Field et al. 2010, Adhvaryu et al. 2016). However, programs that tailored design and implementation The improvements are recorded for social, psychological, to address these barriers incurred higher implementation and decision-making outcomes, including a woman’s costs than those that did not. self-reported outlook on life, level of engagement in the community, extroversion levels8, and whether a woman Third, most studies gauge impacts 6 to 9 months after has a greater say on saving and decisions about children’s training while three report medium-run impacts 12 to 22 education. months after intervention. Some programs included design elements to sustain and enhance learning benefits for longer periods. However, more evidence is needed to understand the impacts of skills training on long run outcomes. 5 Table 3 shows details of all employment, income, and empowerment variables reported in the selected studies. 6 This includes any income-generating employment and new business generation. 7 All participants are required to be a part of a community organization to be eligible for uncollateralized loans and training. 8 A personality measure that captures the net number of beliefs workers identify with that are predictive of extraversion. 10 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Figure 4: Effect Sizes of Selected Studies TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF TRAINING PROGRAMS - FOOTNOTES a. The training program was held fivee to six days per week in the with each training having variable frequency morning, from 9 am to 1 pm j. Trainings were conducted on-the-job for two hours every week. b. Punjab Skills Development Fund (PSDF), established in 2010 by the Management allocated one hour of workers’ production time a week government of Punjab in collaboration with UK’s Department for to the program and workers contributed one hour of their own time. International Development (DfID), is a not-for profit skills financing k. Trainings were conducted for 2 hours per day for 5-day week company established to provide high-quality skills training to poor and l. Training was conducted for 7 hours a day for 9 days vulnerable populations in Pakistan to generate sustainable income m. A Sri Lankan nonprofit training institution established in 1984, to and employment opportunities. PSDF does not conduct training provide the business training. The institute introduced the Start and itself, instead, it asks training service providers (TSPs) to submit their Improve Your Business (SIYB) program to the Sri Lankan market in vocational training proposals and bid for PSDF funding. 2001 and is a leading partner organization of this program. c. Forty-seven training sessions were conducted, with each session n. Significant effects are reported only for 3–4 months post training. having 5 lecture days (9am–4pm with a 20-minute tea break and a 40-minute lunch break), one day visit to a local market and an awards ceremony. d. PPAF is an apex institution created in 2000 with World Bank funding REFERENCES that provides capacity building and funding to numerous partner microfinance institutions and NGOs. NRSP provides uncollateralized Adhvaryu, A., Kala, N., and Nyshadham, A., 2016. 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Technical and 12 | SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Interventions to Improve the Employability and Employment of Young People in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review, s.l.: Campbell Systematic Reviews. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259486407_ Technical_and_vocational_education_and_training_ TVET_interventions_to_improve_the_employability_ and_employment_of_young_people_in_low-_and_ middle-income_countries_A_systematic_review USAID Bangladesh, 2017. Final Performance Evaluation, Women’s Empowerment Activity, USAID. World Bank, 2020. South Asia Women in the Workforce Week. STAY CONNECTED We gratefully acknowledge funding from the South Asia Trade Facilitation Program (SARTFP) and the Umbrella Facility for Gender Equality (UFGE). SARTFP is a trust fund administered by the World Bank with financial contribution from the Government of Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 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