COUNTRY DEPARTMENT III EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION THE WORLI) BANK Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries February 1995 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED AMP - Fiji, Asset Management Plan CBD - Fiji, Central Business District DLSE - Fiji, Department of Lands, Surveys, and Environment MHUDE - Fiji, Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and Environment MIPW - Fiji, Ministry of Infrastructure and Public Works NES - Fiji, National Environment Strategy NLTB - Fiji, Native Land Trust Board NWQL - Fiji, National Water Quality Laboratory PPD - Fiji, Physical Planning Division PWD - Fiji, Public Works Department RLA - Fiji, Rural Local Authorities STP - Fiji, Sewage Treatment Plant USP - Fiji, University of The South Pacific PWD - Fiji, Public Works Department RLAS - Fiji, Rural Local Authorities AMP - Fiji, Asset Management Plan HMA - Solomon Islands, Honiara Municipal Authority MTWU - Solomon Islands, Ministry of Transport, Works, and Utilities SICHE - Solomon Islands College of Higher Education SIWA - Solomon Islands Water Authority THA - Solomon Islands, Temporary Housing Areas TOL - Solomon Islands, Temporary Occupation Licenses PPD - Solomon Islands, Physical Planning Division ECD - Environmental and Conservation Division GDP - Gross Domestic Product GNP - Gross National Product NGO Non-governmental Organization O&M - Operations and Maintenance UNDP United Nations Development Program VIP - Ventilated Improved Pit WHO - World Health Organization FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES IN SELECTED PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES Table of Contents Preface ......................................................i Fiji Summary of Key Findings .....................................................1 I. Urban Development - Background Trends . .....................................................2 Demographic Trends and Urbanization ...................................................... 2 The Economic Setting ..................................................... 3 Urban Land Use Situation and Issues . .....................................................4 II. Status of Services, Environment & Institutions ...................................................... 7 Status of Urban Services .............7........................................7 Impacts on Urban Environment, Health and the Urban Poor ............... ............... 10 Institutional Framework ..................................................... 14 Ill. Meeting Medium-Term Needs ..................................................... 19 Improving W ater Supply ..................................................... 19 Priority Improvements to Sewerage and W astewater System .............. .............. 20 Priority Improvements to Drainage and Flood Protection ................... ................ 21 Options for Improving Solid W aste Management ............................................... 22 Strengthening Institutions ..................................................... 23 IV. Priorities for Action ..................................................... 29 Defining the Problem ..................................................... 29 Shaping the Strategy ..................................................... 30 Elements of a Strategy ..................................................... 31 Text Boxes Box 1.1 The Changing Pattem of Land Ownership ........................................... 4 Box 3.1 The condominial System - Innovation Low-cost Sewerage in Northeast Brazil ................ ........... 21 Box 3.2 Institutional Options for Infrastructure Provision ........................ .......... 24 Box 4.1 Turning Constraints into Opportunities .............................................. 31 Figures Figure 1.1 Industrial Production Index ..................... ..........................3 Figure 1.2 Squatter Site in Suva ...............................................5 Figure 2.1 Excess Sewerage Treatment Capacity at Sigatoka ............... ...........8 Figure 2.2 Annual W aste Generation Rates 9..............................................9 Figure 2.3 Fecal Coliform Counts in Suva ................................. ............. 10 Figure 2.4 Kai Sales in Tonnes .............................................. 11 Figure 2.5 Municipal Dump on River Bank at Nausori .................................... ... 11 Figure 2.6 W ater in Squatter Community .............................. ................ 13 Figure 2.7 Garbage Disposal on Plot ................... ........................... 13 Figure 2.8 Children Swimming Downstream from Toilet .......................... ......... 14 Figure 2.9 Domestic Tariff Structures .................... .......................... 15 Text Tables Table 2.1 Summary Financial Results of PWD Water Supply and Sewerage .... 16 Table 2.2 Urban Management by Level of Government ............. ....................... 17 Table 4.1 Suggested Priorities for Environmental Improvements ......... ............. 35 Annexes Annex 1 Table 1 - Growth of Major Urban Centers.. 36 Table 2 - Urban Squatter Dwellings .37 Annex 2 Table 1 - Sources of Household Water Supply .38 Table 2 - Household Sanitation Facilities 39 Annex 3 Table 1 - Urban Services - Suva Metropolitan Area .40 Table 2 - Urban Services - Westem Viti Levu .41 Annex 4 Affordability for Water and Sewerage Services .42 Charts Chart 1 Organization of Water and Sewerage Activities .43 MaDs Map 1 IBRD 25951 - Country/Region Map 2 IBRD 26035 - Environmental Hotspots in Selected Towns Solomon Islands Summary of Key Findings ..................................................... 44 I. Urban Development - Background Trends ................. .................................... 45 Demographic Trends and Urbanization ..................................................... 44 Economic Setting ..................................................... 46 Urban Land Use ..................................................... 46 II. Status of Services, Environment & Institutions ..................................................... 49 Status of Urbam Services ..................................................... 49 Impacts on Health and the Urban Poor ....................................... .............. 52 Institutional Framework ..................................................... 53 Ill. Meeting Medium-Term Needs ..................................................... 57 Priority Improvements for the Water Supply System ......................... ................ 57 Priority Improvements to Wastewater System ................................................... 58 Options for Improving Solid W aste Management Services ............... ................. 59 Strengthening Sector Institutions ..................................................... 60 Urban Management ..................................................... 64 Strengthening Urban Environmental Management ...................................... ....... 64 IV. Priorities for Action ..................................................... 66 Defining the Problem ..................................................... 66 Strategic Objectives and Principles ......................... ............................ 68 Elements of a Strategy ..................................................... 68 Investing in Essential Capital Improvements ..................................................... 69 The Role of the Donor Community ....................... .............................. 70 Measuring Progress ..................................................... 70 Text Boxes Box 3.1 The Condominial System - Innovative Low-cost Sewerage in Northeast Brazil ........................... 58 Box 3.2 Institutional Options for Infrastructure Provision . . ................................ 60 Box 4.1 Tuming Constraints into Opportunities ................................................ 67 Figures Figure 1.1 Migration Trends .............................................. 45 Figure 1.2 New Residential Areas .............. ................................ 47 Figure 2.1 Percentage Unaccounted for Water .............................................. 49 Figure 2.2 Ranadi Garbage Dump, Honiara .............................................. 51 Figure 3.1 Domestic Tariff Structure .............................................. 62 Figure 3.2 Projected SIWA Expenditure & Revenue ........................................... 62 Text Tables Table 2.1 summary Financial Results for Urban Water Supply and Sewerage .. 54 Annexes Annex 1 Agencies Which Have Provided Bilateral and/or Multilateral Assistance Within the Last Decade ................... .................. 72 Annex 2 Environmental Health Risks and Costs in Honiara .73 Annex 3 Water and Sewerage Pricing and Affordability .75 Charts Chart 1 Solomon Islands Water Authority, Summary Organization Chart ...... 77 Chart 2 Honiara Town Council ................ ................................. 78 ,Maos Map 1 IBRD 25952 - Country/Region Map 2 IBRD 26037 - Environmental Hotspots in Urban Honiara Western Samoa Summary of Key Findings .................................................... .. 79 I. Urban Development - Background Trends ............................................... ........ 81 Settlement History ....................................................... 81 Economic Setting ....................................................... 81 Distinctive Characteristics ....................................................... 82 II. Status of Urban Services, Environment and Institutions ............................ ................ 84 Status of Urban Services .............. ....................... . ................ 84 Impact on the Environment ....................................................... 86 Coping Strategies of the Urban Poor .................................. ..................... 87 Institutional Framework ....................................................... 88 III. Meeting Medium-Term Needs . ....................................................... 92 Improving W ater Supply ....................................................... 92 Options for Sewage Disposal ................... .................................... 83 Improvements in Solid W aste Management ..................................................... 95 Drainage Improvements ....................................................... 96 Institutional Strengthening ....................................................... 96 Should an Apia Municipal Authority be Established? ........................ ................. 100 IV. Priorities for Action ....................................................... 102 The Need for a Strategy ....................................................... 102 A Coordinated program of Actions ............................ ........................... 103 Measuring Progress ....................................................... 106 Text Boxes Box 3.1 The Condominial System - Innovative Low-cost Sewerage in Northeast Brazil ............................ 94 Box 3.2 Institutional Options for Infrastructure Provision .................................. 97 Box 3.3 The Honiara Town Council .................................... ................... 101 Box 4.1 Tuming Constraints into Opportunities .............................................. .. 103 Figures Figure 1.1 Private Sector Employment 1988 - 93 ............................................. 82 Figure 2.1 Per Capita Water Use ................ ................................ 84 Figure 2.2 Old Dump Site at Vaitoloa ................................................ 85 Figure 2.3 Poorly Maintained Drains ..................... ........................... 86 Figure 2.4 Poor Drainage in Low-lying Areas ................................................ 87 Figure 2.5 Contaminated Well ................................................ 88 Figure 3.1 Desiliting W ater Treatment Plant ................................................ 92 Figure 3.2 W ater Operations Cost Breakdown (1992) ............................... ........ 98 Figure 3.3 Domestic Tariff Structures ................................................. 99 Text Tables Table 2.1 Summary Financial Resutts of the Water Division ............................. 89 Table 3.1 Indicative Costs for Conventional Sewerage Systems ....................... 93 Annexes Annex 1 Bilateral and Multilateral Assistance for Urban Services .................. 108 Annex 2 Water Supply Pricing and Affordability .......................................... 109 Annex 3 Estimated Waste Quantities and Composition .................................. 111 Chart Chart 1 Water Authority: Summary Organization Structure .......................... 112 Maps Map 1 IBRD 25950 - CountrylRegion Map 2 IBRD 26038 - Environmental Hotspots in Urban Apia The report is based on the findings of two missions which visited these countries in November 1993 (reconnaissance) and March 1994 (to review baseline analysis prepared by local consultants/NGO's in each country) and the results of consultative workshops held in October 1994. Engineering condition assessments were prepared by Harrison Grierson Consultants Ltd. for Fiji and by Murray-North (S.I.) Limited for the Solomon Islands and Western Samoa; institutional/ financial assessment of sector agencies were prepared by Coopers & Lybrand affiliates in each country with assistance from Coopers & Lybrand Consultants staff in Sydney, Australia; assessments of how low-income groups cope with service deficiencies were undertaken: in Fiji by Prof. J. J. Bryant, University of the South Pacific and the South Pacific Committee for Human Ecology and Environment (SPACHEE); in Western Samoa by Mr. losefa Maiava and the 0 Le Siosiomaga Society; and in the Solomon Islands by the Solomon Islands Development Trust (SIDT). The report also has drawn on an annotated bibliography prepared by Profs. J. Lea and J. Connell, University of Sydney, based on an extensive review of literature available on urbanization, environmental conditions, and public services. This annotated bibliography will be made available as a separate report. The Study, which was supported by AIDAB, was managed by S. Whitehead (EA31N) and missions also comprised D. Hoomweg (Environmental Engineer), R. lyer (Management Specialist), A. Kim (Economist) (EA31N), J Leitmann (Urban Planner) (TWURD) and L. Black (consultant sanitary engineer). The peer reviewers were Messrs. W. Dillinger (LAI IN), C. Feinstein (ENVGC), and J. Racki (AF6IN). H Unger (EA31N) also assisted in the review. Mmes. L Kang, B. Mekuria (EA31N) assisted in producing the report. MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES IN SELECTED PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES Preface and Overview This report on the management of urban environmental sanitabon services covers Fiji, the Solomon Islands and Westem Samoa. Other Pacific island Countries that are also members of the World Bank including the Marshall Islands, Kinbati, Tonga and the Federated States of Micronesia will be reported on separately. The management of environmental problems in the rapidly growing cities of the Pacific was identified at an intergovemmental meeting of Pacific Island Member Countries of the World Bank in August 1993 at the East- West Center in Hawaii. In response, the Bank initiated these studies with support from the Australian Development Assistance Agency (AIDAB). Objectives and Audience The objective of the study is to suggest a preliminary strategy for strengthening the management and delivery of environmental sanitation services in the major urban centers of these counbies so as to protect human health, improve economic productivity, and safeguard environmental resources. The audience for the study is threefold: (a) public and private sector decision makers in these respective countries; (b) the donor community that has and will most likely continue to support urban services and infrastructure in the counties; and (c) World Bank staff and managers. A Consultative Approach In order to sufficiently reflect the unique characteristics and community traditons of these small island countries, the study seeks to help formulate a strategy for managing urban environmental sanitation services based on local knowledge and participabon. Following preparabon of a background study covering urbanization, environmental conditions, and public services and based on the existing literature (September - November 1993), three sets of local and regional consultants and NGOs were retained in each country to prepare reports on: (a) the institutional and financial setting for providing environmental sanitabon services; (b) an engineering condition assessment of urban infrastructure and service delivery; and (c) an assessment of how low-income communities cope with lack of services and poor environmental conditions. The latter study was also intended to provide insights on willingness to pay for improved service quality/reliability as well as the viability of community action to implement/maintain improved service levels. This work involved environmental NGOs (the South Pacific Committee for Human Ecology and Environment (SPACHEE) with the University of the South Pacific in Fiji; 0 Le Siosiomaga Society in Westem Samoa; and a community development organization (the Solomon Islands Development Trust - SIDT). The coping strategy studies were based on i semi-structured interviews, community meetings, and surveys in four to eight poor communities in each country. Fostering Local Participation To maximize local 'ownership", the draft strategies were intended to solicit inputs from local stakeholders including service providers, consumers, and affected groups. To this end, respective Govemments agreed that draft strategies would benefit from review by civil society. Final workshops were held in all three countries during October, 1994, to bring together the participants in the consultations and to firm up a strategy that could enjoy broad-based support. Each workshop drew on informaton from the consultations, enjoyed broad participation from different levels of govemment, community leaders, professionals, private sector representatives, religious organizations, environmental groups, donors, and others, employed working groups to focus on priority issues, and arTived at a consensus on recommendations, some of which were at odds with existing policy or conventional wisdom. The consultants and workshops were funded by the UNCHSNWorld Bank/UNDP Urban Management program. Report summaries are being prepared in locally spoken languages in order to further enhance dissemination and community involvement over time. Structure of Study Following the overview below that highlights a number of themes common to the countries covered, the study for each country begins with relevant background information on urban development, focusing on unique characteristics which affect the delivery of urban environmental sanitation services. The second section assesses the status of urban services, the environmental and health impacts of service deficiencies, and institutional capacity (including financing). The services induded in this study are water supply, sewerage and sanitation, drainage, and solid waste management. The third section reviews options for meeting medium- term service needs for each type of service, with recommendations on priority investments, institutional strengthening, and pricing and cost recovery. A final section draws these elements together into a preliminary strategy and records the key findings and recommendations of the consultative workshops. Urban Environmental Sanitation - A Development Priority The challenges of financing increasing demand for utility services, particularly in urban areas, have focused attention on infrastructure and utility services in many countries. Pacific Island Countries are also experiencing increasing urbanization and a growing demand for urban environmental sanitation services. The coverage, quality and reliability of urban environmental sanitation services affects the quality of life for these growing urban communities. It also directly impacts the productrvity of the urban economy which has become a major GDP generator in all three countries reviewed in the sector report. Further development of manufacturing and tourism - key components of these economies - is becoming limrted by capacity constraints in water and environmental saniation facilities and networks ii Unsatisfactory treatment and disposal of industrial wastes, household refuse and sewage are causing damage to the environment and marine economy and placing prospects for increased tourism at risk. As incomes rise, the volume of wastes generated in these countries will increase markedly. Problems cut across sectors and jurisdictions and call for a comprehensive strategy. Ensuring environmentally sound disposal through landfills or incineration requires more direct involvement by govemments in planning and regulabon because disposal has large extemalities and economies of scale that make competitive provision less viable. However, there is little prospect that a waste management strategy based on disposal alone can succeed at reasonable costs in Pacific Island Countries. Rather, the key to containing costs and curbing environmental damage from solid waste management lies in more effective waste minimizabon and recycling. Certainly, the most effective solutions are likely to be those with the widest public support. Govemment subsidies for water, sewerage and solid waste services have contributed significantty to high overall budgetary deficits in all these countries which limits the availability of resources for other development priorities. Production costs for these countries are relatively high, non-revenue generating water is high and cost recovery is relatively low. Low-income families which are not connected to these public service systems do not benefit from the considerable subsidies which result. Improved cost recovery and operational efficiency of water and sewerage services, in particular, are integral to Govemment efforts to improve public sector management. Making Institutions Work These deficiencies in performance are not happenstance - they are embedded in the prevailing system of institubonal incentives for the supply of infrastructure. Indeed, performance of infrastructure derives more from the institutonal environment in a country than the general condition of the economy. This supports the finding of the sector report that much potenbal exists for improved service performance in these Pacific Island Countries regardless of the GDP per capita level. Key reforms advocated in this sector report include: * wider application of commercial principles and an appropriate framework of operational incentves under which service providers: * have clear and coherent goals focused on delivering services; * their management is autonomous; and * they have financial independence; and * greater participation by users. These conditions are needed regardless of whether infrastructure is provided by the public sector or the private sector. To these ends, the sector report endorses the establishment in each country of an autonomous agency for water supply (and sewerage in Fiji) as the most practical opbon for improving institutional iii performance in the near term. It enables one institution to focus its undivided attention on these important urban services and to be held accountable for the quality and performance of the service. However, the report cautions that few successful examples of this type of public enterprises exist (public water authorities in Togo and Botswana being notable examples) because they continue to be vulnerable to changes in govemment support. Many perform well for a time, but ultimately fall victim to political interference. Thus, whilst, reform of the structure of the service providers in the countries reviewed in the sector report is essential, unless appropriate incentives are established, the service quality improvements being sought may not be realized. Many countries, induding those under review in this sector report, have introduced Recovery of O&M Costs subsidies through low tariffs with the aim of improving access to infrastructure services by the P*L Vila 0 Nuku'alofa poor. The effectiveness of subsidies depends on osuva whether they actually reach the poor, on the i* Honiara administrative costs of such targeting and on the EApia scope for allocating budgetary resources to this purpose without sacrificing other socially desirable 0 100 200 public expenditures. All too often, most of these Percentage subsidies tend to be captured by middle and higher- income households rather than the poor who often lack direct access to these public services. Where affordability constraints exist and a minimal level of water consumption can be identified as a lifeline need' for some users, well-targeted subsidies can be justified. Fortunately, there are few consumers in the urban areas reviewed in the report for whom cost recoverable water tariffs would be unaffordable. Thus, subsidies can be markedly reduced from present levels and targeted more effectively. Similarly, in view of the considerable extemal health benefits to society at large from satisfactory sewage treatment and disposal, some measure of budgetary support may be justified - not to substtute for, but to supplement cost recovery from user charges. The Unk with Land Uise Planning Land use presents two sets of challenges for the provision of environmental sanitation in urban areas in Pacific Island Countries. First, uncontrolled land development has resulted in settlement in areas that are both difficult to serve and low-density. This implies much higher capital and operating costs for providing these areas with infrastructure and services. Second, expansion into, or use of customary lands will present problems of land acquisibon for water supply, and waste treatmenVdisposal facilities. Improving the performance of urban services, municipal management, and the utilization of urban land will go a long way towards protecting and enhancing the quality of the urban environment. Two actions could help focus existng govemmental capacity to mitigate the negative effects of development on the environment and monitor environmental quality. At the national level, key staff involved in environmental iv oversight should have an explicit urban dimension added to their portfolio. Local officials need to be given the power to enforce the results of its investigatory work, especially in the area of drain maintenance. Staff also need to be involved in outreach and community education activities, as part of their monitoring work. Key findings and Recommendations of the Study Without action, service quality and environmental conditions can be expected to decline even as costs (and subsidies) continue to escalate; health risks & productivity losses are likely to increase along with institutional conflicts. By contrast, the study asserts that: * problems CAN be managed; • extemal assistance is no substitute for efficiency measures; and * problems are cross-sectoral multi-jurisdictional and require comprehensive approaches. The key levers of development and investment strategies should, therefore, include: * making the best use of investments that have already been made - through institutional reforms, improved O&M and targeted new investment to: rehabilitate existing assets; expand the consumer base which can be served by the installed base of trunk systems and support growth in economic activity; * drawing on the unique characteristics of these countries - the strong tradition of community decision making - to strengthen finance and management. Establishing a compact with the consumer - increase public awareness of the costs of providing services and incorporate community consultation more actively in decision-making on sector priorities; - tuming constraints into opportunities - e.g. using the present impasse in locating new waste disposal sites in Fiji and Solomon Islands as an opportunity to implement progressive waste minimization strategies and promote conservation and environmentally responsible behavior; * reviewing land use policies and regulations which currently impose high unit costs for providing utility infrastructure and environmental sanitation services; and * undertaking investments only when financial and operational arrangements for adequate management and maintenance are assured. Reliance on donor assistance for financing new works and deferred maintenance undercuts the viability of these services and reduces the contribution they can and must make to the social and economic development of these countries. v Summary of Key Findings - FiJI i. Fiji's achievements in providing quality environmental sanitation services in the country's major towns and cities are considerable. Coverage of urban water supply is virtually universal and, relative to most developing countries, a high proportion of the urban population has access to satisfactory sanitation. Availability of these services has undoubtedly contributed to the relatively low incidence levels for communicable disease related to poor environmental sanitation. However, lack of financing, a symptom of inadequate cost recovery, is causing planned maintenance and upgrading to fall seriously behind schedule for both water and sewerage services - reportedly by seven years in Suva. With reduced standby capacity, water supply service will likely deteriorate and supply disruptions will become more frequent. ii. The growth of urban population and industry is outpacing the capacity of existing water supply and environmental sanitation systems. The base of urban infrastructure, particularly in the Greater Suva area and in the Nadi-Lautoka corridor should, therefore, be strengthened, particularly in view of the substantial contribution the urban economy already makes to overall GDP. iii. The strategy now needed should aim to: i) protect the value of exisfing investment through improved maintenance; and ii) target new investment so as to expand the consumer base that can be served by existing trunk systems. Particular attention should be given to increasing access to the growing population of low-income families from all ethnic groups living in informal and squatter settlements that generally lacks access to these services; and tourism that is now being affected by water supply capacity constraints. iv. Implementation of the recently prepared National Urban Policy and revised Planning and Infrastructure Standards could reduce infrastructure costs markedly, particularly in extending services to peri-urban areas and where topography is difficult. In addition, lower-cost approaches to reticulated sewerage, which are being successfully implemented in other countries should be evaluated. The strong tradition of community consensus in Fiji would facilitate implementation of these altemative systems. v. Existing institutional arrangements need to be modemized. Management of water and sewerage operations should be separated from other public works functions and establishment of an autonomous Water and Sewerage Authority would be a step in the right direction. Water and sewerage tariffs, which have remained unchanged since 1984, should be increased in stages, so as to phase out subsidies over the near-term (say five years) and, thereby, reduce the mounting impact on the Govemment's limited budgetary resources. vi. It is also clear that the task of disposing of household refuse and industrial waste (including hazardous waste) is beyond the capability of local authorities. Thus, the time has come to establish regional waste management strategies (including a trade waste policy) for Greater Suva and for the Nadi/Lautoka region, along with regional agencies to administer them. The present impasse in locating new waste disposal sites serves as an opportunity to implement progressive waste minimization strategies and to promote conservation and environmentally responsible behavior. vii. The draft strategy outlined in the report was broadly endorsed by a range of stakeholders during consultations and a public forum in September and October 1994. In particular, the stakeholders supported: i) corporatizing the Water and Sewer Department to improve efficiency and accountability; ii) stepping up waste minimization and recycling efforts and strengthening public consultation in the location and oversight of waste disposal sites; iii) streamlining planning procedures, implementing more practical and economical planning and construction standards and improving public access to land information; and iv) regionalizing waste disposal as well as land use and transportation planning. 1 1. Urban Development - Background kilometers of a town or service center; hence Trends most rural populations have reasonable access to markets and services, and almost 39 per cent of the total population lives and 1.01 Fiji is the second most populous works in towns. Moreover, the proportion country in the South Pacific region, after and growth rate of the urban population are Papua New Guinea. Some 90 per cent of the both increasing. By the year 2,006 the urban population live on the two main islands, Viti population is expected to grow to 400,000, Levu and Vanua Levu, which also have most two thirds of which will be in the Greater of the land area of Fiji. Cyclones are Suva Region. Within twenty years, Fiji is common. Much of the base of economic likely to be transformed from a development (including tourism, agriculture predominantly rural to a predominantly Wthin twenty years, Fiji is and fisheries) is at risk from severe hazards, urban society likely to be transformed from a predominantly rural partly because of the growing concentration to a predominantly urban of population and economic activity in 1.06 The bulk of urban population society. coastal zones. growth in the past quarter century has occurred in metropolitan Suva that Demographic Trends and Urbanization dominates the urban hierarchy with just over 1.02 Oh uhalf the total urban population. It is followed 1.02 Of the countries In the region, Fiji yLuoa ih141prcn 18 has one of the longest histories of by Lautoka, with 14.1 per cent (1986 urbanization and best exemplifies all the census), where much recent industrial common trends of South Pacific intemal development has been centered. migration, that is from outer islands to inner islads,fro smll slans t lage slads, 1.07 Of particular significance is the islands, from small islands to large islands, peri-urban growth (see Annex 1, Table 1), from mountains to coasts and from rural to paricurl n th e 1,STabi urban areas. urban areas. corridor which has seen a population increase of 107 per cent in the past decade. Because of its relatively 1.03 Settlement pattems were initally Because of its relativel high roportion of high proportion of the based on the location of Fijian villages on y g p proliferation of squatter hilttops for defensive purposes, rather than in the unemployed and the proliferation of settlements, the growing valleys near cultivated land. Wth the squattersttlements,th on urban urban agglomeration introduction of a colonial economy. sugar agglomeration centered on Suva has been centered on Suva has been plantations along the ooastal areas attracted a the central focus of concrem over the central focus of concem platatonnalngthecoata arasFttactd. over urbanization in Fiji. denser and multiracial pattem of settlement uraniation In iji. Colonial towns such as Suva, Lautoka and 1.08 The ethnic distribution of the Labasa developed around agro-industrnal 1.8 Tethidsrbuonfte processig d lofd sar,oprad agonduothericash population is of considerable importance in a crops,with te relatd coport acd otivi tis, pluralistic society like Fiji's. The absentee tax on Fijians who were living away from 1.04 The changed conditions of urban their villages had a limiting effect on rural- employment brought about by the rise of urban migration for the Fijian population. industrial unionism (after World War II), a The tax was not lifted until 1966. By rise in wage levels, an increase in contrast, Fijian-Indians migrated freely to the occupational mobility; expanding urban early towns and had established a industries and a greater provision of housing substantial urban population of wage earners and entrepreneurs by the 1 920s. all accounted for the post-war urban growth. Fijian-andiantepreof ln through Fijian-Indian tenure of land, through 1.05 As a result, two-thirds of the total leasehold rather than ownership, has population now live within about eight assisted in producng a strong Indian orientation towards participation in the cash 2 economy, both through agriculture and 1.11 The economy grew by 1.7 per cent commerce. in 1993 and is expected to grow by about 3 per cent in real terms during 1994, based on The Economic Setting a modest increase in tourism and considerable increases in construction 1.09 Within the South Pacific region, Fiji activity, retail and wholesale trade, and has a very open economy and a relatively mining. high GNP per capita. Development assistance represents only about 3 per cent The Role of the Urban Economy and of GDP. Relative to most other countries in Employment The urban economy the South Pacific, Fiji has rich natural already accounts for about resources, and a well-educated population. 1.12 The urban economy already 60% of GDP and with Fiji's economy and employment have to accounts for about 60 per cent of GDP and continued growth in soeetnalobnftdfothaconsfraot6prcntfGDad manufactuunng, finance, some extent also benefited from the with continued growth in manufacturing, trade, services and country's central location in the region and finance, trade, services and tourism, its touism, its share in GDP large size, which have resulted in its share in GDP is expected to increase is expected to increase bcmn h aefrrgoa nfttos saei D sepce oices further. becoming the base for regional institutions further. Urban economic activities are such as the University of the South Pacific. concentrated in the Lami-Suva-Nausori corridor and the area covering Lautoka and 1.10 In the post-war years, there has Nadi. been a significant transition from reliance on the pnmary sector towards an expansion in 1.13 Urban-based manufacturing, secondary and, particularly, tertiary activity. including the newly established garment In 1950 agriculture, fisheries and forestry industry, in particular, has responded to the contributed 44 per cent of the GDP, but by Govemmenrs program of deregulation and 1 991 the primary sector contributed only 21 its export-oriented economic growth per cent. strategy. Growth in manufacturing has averaged 7.6 per cent per annum over the Figure 1.1: Industrial Production index 1987-91 period to represent 20 per cent of GDP and provide about 24 per cent of total paid employment (see Fig.1.1). Overall, For 1988,1987 - se 1977 100 manufacturing employment rose by two- For 1988-1990 - Bus 198 * 100 thirds (over 9,000 workers) between 1988 Ilidex and 1993. 400 1.14 Tourism, which has been a factor in 300 . . . 0 urban in-migration, declined following the events of 1987, but growth resumed quickly 200. _ .. . - such that by 1989, it contributed about 17 per cent of GDP. By 1991, tourism was l0o t I providing in excess of 74 per cent of foreign exchange eamings and employment for VW 197 1968 M9 1990 approximately 25,000 people - 30 per cent of total national paid employment. E1 1iij *wa=s sw isdiBIR m All uIcI"V 1.15 Notwithstanding the low overall population growth rate, the young age (Soum.*. *~g.ej of atatatt~io structure of the population ensures that the labor force will increase significantly. The urban economy is likely to continue to be the 3 major source of employment opportunities are relatively scarce; 1991 estimates were 5.5 for the 11,000 entrants to the workforce km2 for the former and 6.2 km2 for the latter in each year. Paid employment reached Greater Suva. The supply of native land is 95,000 for the first time in December 1993. also constrained, at least in Greater Suva (an Informal economic activity is also estimated 6.7 km2 in 1991). undoubtedly substantial. For example, over 85 per cent of low-income urban households 1.18 Since the 1940s, management of surveyed in 1989 were found to be engaged land leases and use by non-owners of native in some form of informal economic activity lands has been compulsorily transferred to (Bryant, USP). Repeat surveys in 1991 the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB), a indicated that this had declined somewhat, statutory body that acts as the intermediary but was still substantial. between the mataqali (traditional land owner) in leases and subdivisions of native land and 1.16 Recent growth in urban prospective investors. The NLTB was set up employment has been achieved mainly as a way of making land available for through private sector activity. Indeed, development, while protecting the interests employment in services, primarily in the of its Fijian owners. public sector, fell slightly between 1988 and 1992 due to the policy of restraining 1.19 The NLTB and the current system govemment expenditure. Even so, the public of land leasing is the most sophisticated in sector remains the largest formal-sector the Pacific. Since most land has been employer with a total of about 45,000 surveyed and most lots are registered, employees or almost half of total paid significantly fewer boundary disputes arise employment. Most of these jobs are in urban than in other Pacific Island Countries. areas. Leases are generally long-term and transferable, and accepted by banks as Urban Land Use Situation and Issues collateral. 1.17 The urban land market is generally 1.20 More recently the Board has played constrained, resulting in high land and a more active role in the land market, as housing prices on formal (freehold) land and developer as well as agent for the owners. squatfing elsewhere. The development and Its business arm, the Native Land densification of freehold land are govemed by Development Corporation, has subdivided an archaic 1947 act. State land, controlled by Deaedout native lan However the Department of Lands, can be accessed costs of mobilizing land through the only after a lengthy set of procedures. In any Corporation have been high. The Fiji event, undeveloped freehold and State land Housion calculaed tha lots Housing Authority calculated that lots , provided by the Corporation have to be Box 1.1: The Changing pattemn of Land Ownership. |priced almost a quarter higher, even before A result of the decline in significance of the extended family has been adding the Authority's own mark-up. the reduced significance of the mataqali as a land-owning unit as access to land has become more individualized; in many parts of Fiji individual 1.21 Much legislation impinges on land households are not only tending to become the owners and users of use. Regulations are often contradictory and particular tracts of land but are unwilling to lease or lend out parts of that there appears to be no way to resolve land. Close kinship structures, with their emphasis on reciprocity. f inherited social status and rank, are being replaced by individualism and conflicting provisions. Moreover, between egalitarianism. Concepts of property and ownership have shifted from a 1996 and 2000, about 40 per cent of all group to an individual orientation and emigration and wage employment native sugar land leases will be due for have disrupted ritual obligations and communal activities. This situation renewal. Because of complex and unwieldy has led to some disputes over the distribution of land rentals, administrative regulations, resolution of occurrences which are likely to increase in future. disputes ansing is likely to be difficult and 4 lengthy, particularly if long-established undeveloped land or invoke kinship tenants are displaced. obligations. By the end of the 1950s, urban inequalities became visible as shantytowns 1.22 NLTB has made progress using had begun to proliferate, especially around time-based benchmarks to improve Suva. By 1964, it was estimated that around processing efficiency and reduce one fifth of the total urban population lived in bureaucracy. Considerable scope also squatter communities. At the end of the exists to reduce the cost of its operations. 1970s, squatters in Suva constituted one- fifth of the labor force and made a significant 1.23 Given these constraints on access to contribution both to the city's food supply affordable land, poor urban dwellers are faced and to the production of tourist artifacts. with a limited number of options. They can: (a) rent from the Public Rental Board; (b) 1.25 An Inadequate Housing Sector move into charity housing for the destitute; (c) Response. In the guise of rationalizing land squat on underdeveloped land; or (d) invoke use, squatter settlements have been kinship obligations to live in one of several gradually removed and are being replaced urban villages, under differing arrangements by middle and high-income housing that provide varying degrees of tenure. development. Estimates made by the Suva Conversely, only a small number of wealthy City Council suggest that squatting in the migrants to Fijian cities can purchase freehold municipal area declined somewhat between land, or endure the costly and Ume- 1986 and 1991. Not surprisingly, this has consuming procedures to obtain state or driven the urban poor away from inner city native land. employment opportunities, especially in the informal sector, to areas where access to 1.24 Squatting. There are between thirty basic urban environmental sanitation and fifty squatter areas located in and around services are also most deficient. Suva, with a significant proportion occupying marginal lands (mangroves, flood-prone 1.26 The National Housing Authority, set areas, unstable hillsides, stream banks, and up in 1958, has been unable to bring the areas adjacent to dumps or industries).The cost of housing down to affordable levels for Housing problems have oldest squatter settlements in Suva were low-income families, even those in regular effectively worsened in the established by other Pacific Islanders and by cash employment. Its programs have have ncreased in extent and Indians. The first native Fijian squatter area primarily benefited middle income residents. poverty. was acquired in 1910 but not fully occupied Some 80 per cent of applicants for housing until after World War II. These areas are in 1973 could not afford the cheapest Home settled by people who either squat on Purchase Plan available and the situation has not improved since then. Indeed, few of Figure 1.2: Squatter site in Suva those now applying for Housing Authority , 17 _ - l assistance are from squatter settlements. 1.27 Under these conditions, housing problems have effectively worsened in the urban areas. Shantytowns have increased in extent and poverty. Insecurity within the - - -.....................shantytowns has become more apparent, -- _.r ...............whilst the backlog of applications for assistance has continued to grow (see Annex 1, Table 2). A project financed by the --- 4 t . . Worid Bank and the Asian Development Bank has helped to strengthen and focus the 5 Housing Authonty. However, the results are slow in coming and the number of squatter settlements continues to grow. 6 II. Status of Services, Environment failure rather than in support of routine and Institutions monitoring and evaluation. 2.05 Existing supply systems will need 2.01 This section reviews the current to be expanded to serve the needs of status of four major urban services - water projected population demand in urban/peri- supply, sanitation and sewerage, solid waste urban areas. In some cases, treatment and drainage. An overview of present systems are operating at capacity, in others, conditions and the impact of deficiencies in distribution systems need expanding. service provision on health and the Because of the lack of sufficient investment environment is provided. financing - a symptom of inadequate cost recovery - investment programs are 2.02 The Suva metropolitan area is significantly behind master plan schedules in characterized by high rainfall, concentration each town, resulting in reduced system of industrial activity and a large peri-urban efficiency and supply disruptions. population. Towns in the Westem province, where tourist activity and sugar production 2.06 In Suva, planned maintenance and are concentrated, experience frequent water upgrading is reported to be about seven shortages during the more pronounced dry years behind schedule with the system being season but severe flooding throughout many operated with reduced standby capacity. In of the main river systems. Issues arising are the West, where the economic and therefore summarized for each of these employment base is heavily dependent on regions respectively. Sector institutions tourism, water supply problems are more responsible for environmental monitoring significant. The Lautoka, Sigatoka and Ba and management as well as service systems are at capacity. High sediment loads provision, together with their financing are in rivers that results from inappropriate also reviewed. logging and agriculture practices in catchment areas has also caused systems to be closed Status of Urban Services down periodically, as happened in Ba in 1991. Water Supply Supply is becoming increasingly unreliable and pressures are low during periods of peak 2.03 Existfng Coverage and Quality. demand. The undersized pipeline from the Declining perfornance - Coverage of the urban population is already distant water source limits the usefulness of insufficient financi'ng - a symptom of inadequate cost relatively high - generally up to 95 per cent expanding the distribution network in Nadi. recovery - has delayed on a 24 hour basis (see Annex 2, Table 1) nrecesssry investments, and even up to 92 per cent for the large and 2.07 Adequacy of Water Resources. fesulting in reduced system efficiency and in supply rapidly growing pen-urban population. This Water resources are generally abundant on disruptions. is a notable national achievement. However, Viti Levu with rainfall ranging from 3,000 mm about 10 per cent of the total urban per year in the south-east to 1,700 mm per population which lives in squatter and year in the drier areas of the west. There informal settlements cannot get a water are, however, marked seasonal variations, connection without the written permission of with the west experiencing occasional the landowner. Many remain unconnected. deficiencies between May and October each year. 2.04 Total system supply and related LaC* ot financng has eeag losses are unquantified, but are thought to Sewerage and Wastewater. rrvestrent prDgrams being be high - probably over 30 per cent - with 2.08 Lack of financing has also resulted sgnficantly behind master considerable leakage and non-metered in sewerage investment programs being pban recommendations in a1l mapor urbnan centers. supply. Condition assessments tend to be significantly behind master plan undertaken more in reaction to system 7 recommendations in all major urban centers. the quality of effluent discharged to Laucala Overall 40 per cent of the urban population Bay and to accommodate high strength lacks proper sanitation facilities (see Annex wastewater from industries which has an 2 Table 2). Ground conditions are generally equivalent treatment load to several thousand unfavorable, especially in Suva, for the households. disposal of septic tank effluent (without the uneconomic use of large areas of land). 2.10 In the westem region, existing Reticulation systems are provided, or under sewer systems in Lautoka, Nadi and Sigatoka construction in all towns, but do not extend provide capacity for substantial coverage to pen-urban areas where much of the (greater than 85%) of urban areas. In Nadi, population growth is taking place. Infiltration the treatment plant is already somewhat is a significant problem, particularly in the overloaded, however. At Sigatoka, present older parts of the system in central Suva, and coverage remains low due to the lack of there are a number of direct stormwater legislative or financial incentives to connections. During heavy rains, hydraulic discontinue use of septic tanks even though overloading of the system occurs, with sewer service is available. discharge of raw sewage into waterways from pump station overflows. Treatment capacity 2.11 Most major tourist hotels have is significantly lower than the current installed individual sewage treatment plants population in most towns. Just as for water which are generally well operated. However, supply, condition assessments for sewerage many larger industries (e.g., sugar milling tend to be undertaken more in reaction to and food processing) discharge large system failure than in support of routine quantities of chemical and thermal waste, monitoring and evaluation and lack of which are frequently of high strength, into financing has resulted in sewerage rivers and drains. Trade wastes are a investment programs being significantly particular problem in Ba and Lautoka. behind master plan recommendations in all Regulabons are in place but are not enforced. major urban centers. Ba has no sewerage system as yet and residents and industries discharge untreated Figure 2.1: Excess sewerage treatment capacity at Sigatoka waste directly into water courses. Drainage and Flood Control 2.12 Flooding is frequent, severe and costly in the Westem towns of Ba, Nadi and Sigatoka. Main rivers on Viti Levu carry an enlarged silt load, and are subject to flood risk. Existing surface water drainage is no longer adequate, and maintenance is generally undertaken only after serious flooding has taken place. There are few effective flood prevention/amelioration strategies in place. Planning schemes, where they exist, have traditionally had little F/oodng is frequent, severe and 2.09 In Metropolitan Suva, only about regard to known flood risks, and have oDsty in the Westem towns of 25 per cent of the population has a sewer probably added to existing problems. Ba. Nadi and Sigatoka. connection. The two existing sewage Moreover, many urban areas are Planning schemes, where they treatment plants are at capacity and experiencing increased flood risks as the exist. have traditionally had treatment facilities will need to be expanded upper parts of river catchments are little regard to known flood nsks. and have probably and upgraded to stem further deterioration of developed (resulting in increased run-off). added to existing problems. 8 2.13 Nausor, adjacent to Suva, suffers 2.16 Waste generation rates are high from nuisance and mainstream flooding compared to other Pacific Island Countries, during heavy rains. To reduce the frequency reflecting the greater industrialization and of mainstream flooding, the Department of higher GDP (see Fig 2.2). Primary Industries has undertaken river dredging to protect from a 1 in 10 year storm 2.17 Except for softdrinks and beer event. More regularized general maintenance bottles, waste is not segregated or recycled. and repair of flood gates is required, however. This adds significantly, and unnecessarily, to waste volumes and complicates the disposal 2.14 Nadi has experienced damaging process (i.e., organic wastes, which greatly floods each year over the past decade. In add to volumes and moisture content, could Sigatoka, severe flooding of up to 1 m heights instead be productively used for composting in the commercial area are not uncommon. or be disposed by other methods). Accurate records and Ba, which is located in a floodplain, suffered mapping of flood events are not maintained and no four major floods in 1992. Even so, accurate 2.18 In sharp contrast to high quality estimates of the economic records and mapping of flood events are not collection service, solid waste disposal and damage attributable to maintained and no estimates of the economic management of garbage dumps has become flooding have been made. damage attributable to flooding have been a 'national dilemma'. The Review of Urban made. Infrastructure (UNDPtUNCHS, October 1991) notes that, for final disposal of solid Collection of house-hold waste Solid Waste. waste, most communities in Fiji have relied is effective - and might actually be too frequent. 2.15 Municipally managed solid waste on open dumping at a community tip usually collection systems are in operabon in mangrove areas which, being state land, In sharp contrast to high quality collection service, solid waste throughout the major urban/peri-urban are more easily acquired for this purpose. disposal and management of areas. Private contractors are used However, they have created a potent garbage dumps has become a extensively and collection is generally environmental and health hazard. 'national dilemma' conducted daily in the CBDs and two or In general, municipalities three bmes weekly in residential areas. In 2.19 In general, municipalities remain remain largely unclear as to the general, the collection of house-hold waste largely unclear as to the nature of the waste dealing with and in vmat is considered efficient and effective - and they are dealing with and in what quantities. quantities. might actually be too frequent. Waste volumes and composition are not being subjected to ongoing analysis, even Figure 2.2: Annual waste generation rates though industrial and 'hazardous' wastes are disposed at municipal dump sites. Whilst .imen , ,> many larger industries have adopted controls and waste treatment practices, . Fj, these are not subject to rigorous testing. Nor A% Lm b Ka. Cox" has any assessment been made of the impact of existing dump site operations on . t - cty surrounding communities. Not surprisingly, Lu . zwnha efforts to locate new dump srtes are ______________________ consistently met with strong community resistance and a number of dumps that A.V K_ Af C-9" U S a Cm should have been closed down long ago remain in operation. The environmental . | i § i | impacts of these problems are elaborated 0 2C 40D 600 8CD 10W 12M) 140 below. KrIboas pra capa 9 Impacts on Urban Environment, Health some wastewater pollution of local drains and and the Urban Poor creeks, with a health risk in the Nadi River and around the river mouth after heavy rains; Environmental Impact5 (c) there is some health risk along the shore Water quality problems 2.20 Wastewater. The shortcomings of after rains in Sigatoka; and (d) Ba faces will lwsn in each of sewerage and wastewater treatment systems pollution of local drains and health risks from fthse Iowns if currentswmignthBaRvr arrangements cinure are reflected in the quality of receiving waters. swimming in the Ba River. undercutting prospects for The unfavorable ground conditions for the incirased tourism. disposal of septic tank effluent, compounded 2.23 Water quality problems will worsen by the high annual rainfall that inhibits oxygen in each of these towns if current penetration leads to slow natural treatment of arrangements continue, undercutting wastes by septc tank systems. The combined prospects for increased tourism. In Nadi, rapid effects of inadequately treated sewage and populabon growth means that system septage runoff are pollution of watercourses capacity will be quickly used up so effluent and the coastal environment. quality from an already overloaded treatment system will deteriorate. In Sigatoka, the large 2.21 Metropolitan Suva suffers from high number of households not connected to the levels of nitrates and phosphates in Laucala sewerage system will increase, as will the Bay, fecal coliform counts (see Fig: 2.3) that flow of untreated human waste. In Ba, the are well beyond intemaional stndards in health risk caused by septic tank overflows most of Suva's creeks and along the will increase. shoreline, and very high levels of dissolved oxygen, BOD, suspended solids, and fecal 2.24 Wvthout controls and new coliforms in the Laucala receiving rivers, investment, the environmental deterioration due to improper wastewater disposal will Figure 2.3: Fecal coliform counts in Suva accelerate, especially around Suva. The number of septc tanks and flush toilets will increase while sewage treatment works, already at capacity, will emit effluents of increasingly poor quality. Expected impacts indude more illness due to human contact with polluted water in streams and along the foreshore, destrucion of marine habitat, and 20D - 1 } t 13 _ l I further deplebon of fish stocks and other *oo * IJ,,4 t | zo/ | W marine Ife due to foreshore pollution. O - t o / . ~ 2.25 Fish yields have fallen substantially WS. cw... (see Fig:2.4) from inshore fisheries in _ Day I 1 De 2 proximity to urban centers (particularly close to ports at Suva and Lautoka) due to b.ainwHo seeoe .8. PoSoeew contamination which may be particularly linked to industrial pollution (i.e. bottling plants, food processing, paint manufacture, 2.22 In westem VtI Levu. (a) in Lautoka machine shops, fumiture plants, petroleum waters adjacent to industrial discharges are storage, garment manufacture). highly polluted and foreshore waters pose a health risk after rains; (b) Nadi expenences 10 Figure 2.4: Kai (freshwater clam) sales in tonnes disposed along with regular solid waste. Runoff from pesticides and insecticides used (terag nvdum ie dgsh) to control mosquitoes and vermin leach into ieos the nearby waters. The dump in Nausori was 14o0 established on the banks of the Rewa River in 12C0 the 1960s and is a source of flies, 1000 | | | | | | | | mosquitoes, river contamination through amoD. . D D D D D D D D D leaching, smoke, spontaneous combustion, e , and scavenging dogs; periodic flooding also 40D causes waste material to wash directly into the river. 20) 81 8 2.28 On the westem side of the island, Yoff cities are experiencing similar problems with Source: Fiji State of Environment Report solid waste disposal. In Lautoka, the Namoli dump is located along the coast, leading to Municipal garbage dumps 2.26 Solid Waste. Municipal garbage marine contaminabon from leachates and 8ae usually located on or dumps are usually located on or near coastal pesticide runoff (sprayed daily to control near coastal areas for land reclamation; they are not land reclamabon; they are not adequately mosquitoes). Nadi also used the Namoli adequately sealed from sealed from flooding or seawater infiltrabon. dump. However, there is uncontrolled flooding or seawater The NEMS reported that they create a dumping along rivers and roads in Nadi itself, infiltration. They create a potent environmental potent environmental hazard for their as well as at an old dump site. Impacts hazard for their protracted protracted lifespan through leaching of include breeding of disease vectors, odors, lifespan. pollutants into the adjoining waters and contaminabon of drains and river courses, decomposibon process, resulbng in noxious and marine leaching as the old site was also a odors and additional leachates. Many have mangrove swamp. In Sigatoka, the dump is sacrificed and restricted an ecologically well-sited at some distance from the ocean important, and sensitive area. and waterways; however, the permeability of its base sand layers may allow leaching into 2.27 There are two dump sites in Greater the groundwater table. In Ba, the Maururu site Suva. The main dump, located at Lami, was is located inland and away from residenbal established about 50 years ago on mangrove areas; its environmental impact is low. forest adjoining the Tamavua River. The dump's leachates have contributed to river 2.29 Industrial Pollution. Fiji is an and harbor pollubon, with detnimental effects industrializing economy, with most enterprises on near shore fishery. The toxicity of the located in and around towns; therefore, leachates increases as hazardous wastes are industrial pollution has consequences for Figure 2.5: Municipal dump on river bank at Nausori urban sanitation. The problem is partcularly important in Suva where 23 of 39 industries recently surveyed were found to discharge directly into port waters, into a river that drains into the port, or into the stormwater drainage _ ..i system. Firms such as breweries and food -i'<^--5 ,Js" - A ~ ' - and decrease dissolved oxygen levels, ; > - harming aquatic life, they also increase the nutrient level which resuits in algal blooms ~~, ~~~~. . -. - - ~~~~~~~that harm coral reef and seagrass -'~< ' ;5- - -~ - ~ ' ~~ ~'; ~~ ' ~ ecosystems. 11 2.30 Other industries emit pollutants that headed the list of notifiable diseases and have carcinogenic, teratogenic, and toxic reporting of bacillary dysentery increased. effects on marine organisms; fish and However, under-reporting was confirmed by shellfish from Walu Bay have accumulated the Medical Officer in Suva and visiting excessive levels of heavy metals. Preliminary health nurses in other areas. surveys indicate that heavy metals in Suva harbor are as high as the most polluted 2.34 Moreover, it is unclear if the harbors in the world. Levels of TBTs, a very significant national decline noted above also toxic compound (banned in most countries) reflects lower actual incidence rates in urban used in defouling marine paints exceed those areas. It is common for low-income families in any port worldwide as reported in the to avoid the cost of hospital and doctor visits literature. The National Water Quality and rely initially on traditional remedies. It is Laboratory monitors bacterial concentrations also difficult to disaggregate statistics by in the vicinity of sewage treatment plants on a urban area. Recent background surveys monthly basis. Data is not made public, carried out in low-income communities for however. this study (see below) indicated relatively few cases of stomach illness for children and 2.31 Hazardous waste disposal, adults in Suva. This may indicate an particularly in Suva, presents a special increasing immunity to these diseases. At problem. Illegal reclamation of part of the the same time, incidence of diarrhea and Walu Bay foreshore (about 2000 in2) has respiratory infections was high in Nadi, occurred using discarded vehicle batteries; Labasa and Ba where water supply this area should be considered a hazardous conditions are more difficult. Despite waste site. Other hazardous elements that informal reports of filarasis, the 1990 enter the urban waste stream include: Ministry of Health Annual Report lists no petroleum products; asphaltic oils and cases. Other diseases caused by unsanitary bituminous wastes; medical wastes; conditons and overcrowding such as chemicals used in wood preserving; PCBs; tuberculosis, meningitis, typhoid, and asbestos-containing construction materials; dengue fever are reported to be on the and heavy metals used in a variety of increase. industrial processes. Coping Strategies of the Urban Poor 2.32 On the assumption that hazardous 2.35 Background surveys for this study waste generation in semi-developed countries were conducted in low-income communities such a Fiji range between 4 to 8 kg per in Metropolitan Suva and a number of other person per year (compared to 12 to 28 kg in urban centers. These surveys were intended developed countries), the total hazardous to assess altemative arrangements made by waste generated and requiring safe disposal communities - including low-income urban would amount to 3,000 to 6,000 tonnes per families, in particular - that do not have year. Expansion and increased diversity in the direct access to municipal services or when manufacturing production base will further tax service is unreliable or of such poor quality Security of tenure is the most the existng inadequate pollution controls. that it imposes health risks on consumers important pnonty to low-income (for example, intermitent and/or ommunities whfch lack access to . .ampe basic urban environmental Impact on Health contminated water supply, regular si m't Whio 2.33 Reported incidence of infantile prolonged flooding or ineffective water supply from the Public diarrhea, dysentery and hepatitis is down treatmentisposal of wastes). Works Department and are. sharply-countrywide since the mid-1 980s. ;derslandab/y. unmwiling to invest 2.36 Security of tenure Is the most to improve their homes or Although, fewer cases were reported in importnt priority to low-income communities neighborhood environment. 1992, influenza and infantile diarrhea still 12 which lack access to basic urban Measures to Mitigate the Impact of environmental sanitation services, Without Service Deficiencies. it, they generally cannot get metered water 2.38 Communities find ways to cope with supply from the Public Works Department lack of water supply. In general, water is and are, understandably, unwilling to invest used very sparingly in the drought-prone to improve their homes or neighborhood regions in the West and North where supply environment~~reinsI heWstad ohwhr spl environment disruptions are common. Communal Figure 2.6: Water in squatter community metering works well, whereas purchasing water from neighbors can be more costly than a metered supply, even were it to be '40- - - available for squatters. Community initiatives j8jr * -jare less effective against low water pressure and poor storage facilities that increase the risk of contamination. 2.39 Garbage collection service is not _[.;-t. w generally available to squatter communities, particularly in peri-urban areas. There is a > envir - . lack of community appreciation of health and , lack of cenvironmental problems caused by disposal __' i 76 aof garbage into mangrove ecosystems. Rather, dumping is seen as a means of reducing flooding problems in low-lying areas. Even so, community recycling of wastepaper and bottles is promoted by women's and church groups and is becoming increasingly common. In addition, 2.37 Most squatter and informal products made from recycled materials are settlements both within urban boundaries now being exhibited at annual craft fairs. and on the outskirts of towns are not Initial impressions indicate some market connected to the reticulated water supply potential for these products. and sewerage systems and do not receive garbage collection service. The lack of Figure 2.7: Garbage disposal on plot access to a regular water supply impairs the functioning of on-site sanitation . _ ; . arrangements and increases health risks. i Expressed willingness to pay for Even so, expressed willingness to pay for urban services is low and water urban services is low and water charges are , . - charges are avoided where alterative, even ff possibly avoided where altemative, even if possibly . ; ', contaminated, sources are contaminated, sources are available. Thus "' , 4 available, the extension of munidpal boundaries is -- unlikely, by itself, to ensure adequate - provision of these services to the poor. . V .. Indeed, low-income communities appear to have low expectations of local govemment . .>, capacity to provide services. ' ' .. 13 no inventory exists of local environmental 2.40 For ethnic Fijians, the most health conditions which could target the effective agents of change in community efforts of the limited public health staff health practices and environmental resources more effectively. sanitation are likely to be the women's and church groups of all denominations which 2.43 Basic information on use of on- are already active in most communities. For site sanitation technologies is lacking. in all cases, community the Indo-Fijian communities, religious groups Conventional sewerage is not a practical participation is likely to be as well as both men's and women's groups option for low-income communities in the sporadic at best where secure are active. Even so, in all cases, community large peri-urban areas. However, people are tenure is lacking. participation is likely to be sporadic at best generally unaware of how to operate water where secure tenure is lacking. sealed toilets and septic tanks properly. Virtually no information is available on 2.41 The background surveys also ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, though indicate that a number of common problems these have reportedly worked satisfactorily that affect environmental health go beyond in the similar low-density environment in the provision of services. In addition to Vanuatu. With oversight from women's security of tenure noted above, these groups, which are active in many problems relate to: inadequate infonmation neighborhoods, community septic tanks on local conditions; poor health awareness could also work well if arrangements were and education in low-income communities; regularized for disposing of sludge. and insufficient primary health care staff. 2.44 Sample surveys taken in 1989 and 2.42 There is a pressing need for in 1991 (Bryant, USP) indicate increasing Figure 2.8: Children swimming improved community vulnerability to poverty for all ethnic downstream from toilet health awareness and groups and including for the urban educaion. Use of well and employed1. Despite reductions in river water is common in unemployment, wage incomes for the low-income communities unskilled have declined in real terms and are and awareness of possible largely absorbed by food costs.2 upstream contamination is low. Water is often Institutional Framework considered to be unsafe only when it looks dirty. 2.45 Water Supply and Sewerage. The Frequent bouts of diarrhea principal management issues in water supply - - are tolerated almost as a and sewerage are the need for an natural condition for autonomous water and sewerage authority for children. Local health the sector, and ensuring that qualified local authorities are responsible staff are available to occupy the key positions. -> ~ -for monitoring and Water supply and sewerage services in all ; ~ ~ S regulating environmental urban areas of Fiji are provided by the Public health. However, Works Department (PWD) in the Ministry of govemment budgets have become Infrastructure and Public Works (MIPW). The pnnapat increasingly oriented away from public management issues in water health and towards curative health care. As sLpty and sewerae are X a result, in large and rapidly growing urban I need br an autonomous water The msults of the Household icome and and sewerage authonty for te areas, health Inspectors and Nurses may expenditure survey conducted by the Bureau of sector. end enswing Meit cover up to 5,000 people each and visits Statistics had not been released at the time of qualfied tlocuspthe key have inevitably become far less frequent writing. vdbAbb to occupy e' key posibons. than in the 1970s and 1980s. Unfortunately, 2 Fiji Poverty Task Force Repon. 1991 14 PWD is also responsible for roads and attended by the rest. Training in sewerage buildings. As a result, water supply and services is provided by a visiting expert from sewerage do not receive undivided attention New Zealand. in PWD. As with other PWD activities, water and sewerage activities are also organized in 2.48 Water Supply and Sewerage three streams: Finances. Finances of the water supply and sewerage sector are a part of MIPW, which (a) planning and design, including prepares the budgets, exercises budget contracting for capital works, under a control over expenditure and maintains the Director of Water and Sewerage; accounts. Table 2.1 below summarizes the financial situation of the water supply and (b) construction, operations, and sewerage sector in Fiji for the period 1991- maintenance activities in water supply, 1994. sewerage, roads, and buildings in their geographic areas under divisional 2.49 There has been an annual operating offices in Suva, Lautoka and Labasa deficit of over F$10 million, with cost recovery (each under a Divisional Engineer); averaging around 35%, as a result of and (a) tariffs remaining unchanged since (c) centralized administration and finance, 1984; with responsibility for accounting and personnel functions for all PWD (b) no charges being levied for services, including water supply and consumption by Govemment, sewerage. estimated at 20-30 % of total supply; Chart 1 shows the organizational structure of (c) system leakages, estimated at about water and sewerage activities in Fiji. 30%; and, 2.46 Water and sewerage activities have (d) collection inefficiencies, resulting in a a position complement of about 900: about 40 build up of arrears, currently amounting of these are technical positions, of which the to F$6 million. five most senior positions, including that of the Director, are filled by expatriates, while a Figure 2.9: Water Charges (US$ per m3) third are vacant due to non-availability of qualified staff; about 160 clerical and 0.5 administrative staff, about one-third of whom 0 I i X Port Vila are in the divisional offices; and over 700 04 Nukualofa workers. There is a shortage of qualified 0.3 Honiara professional staff to fill technical positions; on .2 - OonSuva the other hand, there is overstaffing at lower * * *EApa levels, but overall staffing is relatively low. 0 |j |j ' h j 2.47 PWD has been taking steps to train 10 20 30 50 local staff for senior technical and managerial m3 m3 m3 m3 positions, as financing provided by the Australian Staffing Assistance Scheme for Source: ADB four of the expatriate staff will no longer be available after 1997. Selected staff are sent to 2.50 As a result, as illustrated by Fig. 2.9 Australia for extended training, while local above, tariff revenues are low by regional courses, seminars and conferences are 15 levels, notwithstanding the very high service 2.53 Finances of Solid Waste standards maintained. Management and Drainage. The cost of these services are met mainly through Total budgetary supporl for 2.51 Total budgetary support for the municipal rates, supplemented to a limited the sector during the last three years averaged about sector during the last three years averaged extent by tipping fees for trade waste at the FS1O million per annum. about F$10 million per annum, has been a solid waste disposal site. In Suva, during 92- has been a maj or conithbutor td government major contributor to govemment budgetary 94, these costs averaged about F$0.90 - budgetary deficits and is deficits and is unsustainable. Certain capital 0.95 million per annum, and represent about unsustainable. expenditure has been offset by aid-in-kind 15% of the Council's expenditures. from Australia: F$2.5 for the Suva-Nausori Corresponding costs are much lower in the scheme in 1991, and F$2 million to be given other urban areas. in 1994 for Nadi water supply. 2.54 The direct cost of emptying septic tanks in Suva is met by a charge levied on Table 2.1 Summary Financial Results of PWD Water Supply users of the service. and Sewerage (F$ million) Urban Management 1994 1993 1992 1991 2.55 Urban management functions (in (budget) (estmate) actual Actual addition to urban services), especially land A. Recurrent use planning and control, are divided between Revenue 6.55 6.55 6.17 6.19 a range of nabonal, specialized, and local Expenditure 19.04 17.73 18.63 16.83 actors. The array of players is presented in T able 2.2. Deficit 12.49 11.18 12.46 10.64 % O&M Cost 2.56 The institutional framework for Recovery 34% 37% 33% 37% planning and service delivery is highly complex in Fiji. Many agencies are - Water suppty effectively involved in land use planning (urban) 6.32 5.58 4.11 3.49 decisions, including: the Department of - Sewerage 3.43 2.95 2.71 1.60 Town and Country Planning of the Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and the Total 9.75 8.53 6.82 5.09 Environment; local planning boards; the Native Lands Trust Board; the National Budget Deficit NA NA 16% 17% Housing Authority; and individual land owners. At the same time, many major urban centers do not even have a structure plan to help guide land use and development, 2.52 Solid Waste, Drainage, and notwithstanding the rapid urban growth now Sanitation. Solid waste, sanitation, and taking place. The high costs now being drainage are local govemment functions. In incurred by businesses relocating from Suva city, for example, the Health Services floodrprone areaseinecentralabusiness Department is responsible for solid waste and distrncts illustrate the value of such plans sludge removal, while the Engineenng There is a dear and pressing need for an Department is responsible for drainage. effective planning process. Contractors are used for drain maintenance, garden refuse collection and market cleaning, 2 57 Urban areas are govemed by etc. multiple jurisdictions. Municipalities, such as Suva City, Nausori, Lami Town, and Nadi Town, have elected local councils that are 16 Table 2.2: Urban Management by Level of Govemment Urban Management Level of Govemment Function National Specialized Local Cartography, mapping, Ministry of Lands and Mineral valuation Resources (MLMR) Land development and MLMR and Dept. of Town & subdivision control Country Planning (MHUDE) Preparation of land use Dept. of Town & Country Provincial Councils standards and approval of Planning (for Fijian villages) land use requests Preparation of land use Dept. of Town & Country Municipaities olans Planninq I Producton of urban land Housing Authority Native Land I rust j Private l i | Board | developers Public housing Housing Authority HART (an NGO); Municipalities Public Rental Board Methodist and other i______________________________ _ churches Public health and building Ministry of Health Rural Local inspection Authorities Road maintenance Public Works Dept. Municipalities responsible for promoting municipal health munidpal administrative boundaries, or even and welfare. They can provide and maintain any reliable information on its pace or public works, acquire and dispose of land, direcion. Nor is there provision for any sort of maintain streets and drains, implement low- metropolitan management. The present income housing schemes, and prepare land structure is characterized by: (a) central use plans. To do so, they assess and collect govemment planning and control that does property taxes and can incur debt. not involve adjacent local authorities in a coordinated manner; (b) a lack of 2.58 Peri-urban areas are administered communicabon between municipal by Rural Local Authorities (RLAs) that come govemments, RLAs, and urban villages in the under the Ministry of Health. They often same metropolitan area; (c) a tax burden to provide solid waste collection, public health, support urban development that falls and building inspection services but, because unevenly on beneficiaries in the urban region; of their limited capacity (e.g., they have no and (d) capacity to address needs of the power to tax), other activities such-as population that varies greatly across infrastructure provisionand housing are jurisdictions. omprehensive legislation handled by central ministies. Some on indcustnal pollution municipalities have grown up around Environmental Management control and freshwater traditional villages that have maintained their 2.60 There is a wealth of resource management, nor ineednePoiclythycmune 260Tresawafhf afe there water and air independence. Politically, they come under environmental legislaton in Fiji - 25 Acts quality standards. the Ministry of Fijian Affairs; provincial administered by at least 14 different councils supervise land use in the urban ministries, statutory bodies, or other agencies. villages, and municipalities often provide However, most laws are outdated, services, though village residents are not unenforced, or irrelevant. Strikingly, there is At prmsent, the Ports Authority obligated to pay for them. no comprehensive legislation on industrial is the sole mndustnal and urban pollutbon monntonng pollution control and freshwater resource agency, though its lunsdcon 2.59 Two sets of these jursdictons are management, nor are there water and air is limited to the port areas. growing together into metropolitan areas - quality standards. One of the few pieces of Metro Suva (the Lami-Suva-Nausor modem legislation is the set of pollution conurbation) and the Nadi-Lautoka corridor. regulations authorized for the Ports Authonty However, There is no regional planning to of Fiji in 1990. This concems all forms of guide or control urban growth beyond pollution entering port waters from land or 17 vessel-based sources and is applicable to standards, and remedial actions are not Suva, Lautoka, and Levuka. recorded. 2.61 Following preparation of a National 2.63 The NLTB has recently developed Environmental Strategy, a Department of an environmental charter to protect natural Environment was recently established in the and cultural heritage, conserve natural MHUDE, with responsibility for coordinating resources, and plan for urban development. It environmental planning and management at is now seeking to operatonalize the charter the national level. It will gradually assume by developing guidelines to govem the responsibility for waste management and development, conservation, and protection of pollution control. the land resources at its disposal, including those slated for urban development. Other 2.62 Monitoring of water quality is the actors with an environmental portfolio include: responsibility of the Ministry of Health which the Department of Town and Country carries out regular bacteriological monitoring Planning (preservahon of historic buildings of drinking water supplies. Monitoring for and sites); Commissioner of Water (pollution chemical contamination is carried out by the of catchment areas); and Ministry of Health National Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) (inspection of buildings, water and sewerage of MIPW. There is no formal procedure for works). response to non-compliance with adopted 18 Ill. Meeting Medium-Term Needs 3.05 In the principal tounist areas around Nadi, there is a need to increase source supply as well as to expand 3.01 This section reviews the medium- distribution systems. Medium-term plans call term service needs in each sector. Steps to for a 25 per cent increase in supply to serve strengthen the institutional arrangements for a projected 53 percent larger connection the sector and to improve pricing and cost base by the year 2000. To this end, priorities recovery are outlined. These are intended to include: augmentation of the main supply maximize the effectiveness of investments pipeline (funding already committed by needed and to establish a more sustainable govemment) as well as expanded basis for provision of these services to the distribution networks and upgraded reservoir rapidly growing urban population and to and treatment capacity at an estimated cost support the industrial base in key urban of F$ I million. Conservation measures areas. should also be incorporated into a water use strategy. 3.02 The medium term-economic outlook for Fiji is heavily dependent on 3.06 In the other major towns in further growth in tourism centered on westem v7tI Levu, the modest system Nadi/Lautoka and Sigatoka in Westem Viti expansion of about 12 per cent in the Levu and export-oriented manufacturing connection base and volume supply needed concentrated in metropolitan Suva and by the year 2000 would cost about F$4.5 Lautoka. Further development in these million. Specifically, investment sectors is limited by capacity constraints in a requirements include: additional reservoir number of urban areas. capacity (FS1 million) in Lautoka; additional supply and headworks (boreholes) capacity 3.03 Priority urban environmental (FS2 million) at Sigatoka; and increased sanitation service improvements outlined trunk main capacity (F$1.5 million) and below have, therefore, been determined to: possible expansion of treatment plant at Ba. make best use of the considerable base of In addition, and in Ba in particular, existing investments; support increased agriculture and forestry operations in economic activity in these areas; and protect watershed areas must be monitored and public health, especially for the urban poor. regulated more effectively to protect the Investment strategies are identified quality of water supply. separately for Metropolitan Suva and for urban areas in Westem Viti Levu. 3.07 By comparison, Metropolitan Improving Water Supply Suva's short and medium-term priorities under the 1984 Water Master Plan call for 3.04 Water demand has outpaced the total investment of F$75 million in reservoirs, capacity of existing systems and facilities in pumping stations and additional reticulation, Substantial additional caat feiUgssesadfaie n primarily to serve new areas for investment will be needed all urban centers. Substantial additional in water supply. investment will therefore be needed. The development. However, it is likely that a high level of water suppl service can be pnncipal problems relate to access and w y reliability rather than quality, except where maintained through a first phase of critical stiefcinces inappropriate watershed management elements of the program at an estimated Existing deficiences . ..cost of FS40 million. Specifically, these pnmanly affect the urban practices prevail as in areas of Westem V ci poor and increasingly of all Levu including around Ba. in particular. critical elements would include: increased ethnic groups. Existing deficiencies primarily affect the water treatment and pumping capacity to urban poor and increasingly of all ethnic deliver bulk water to distribution reservoirs; groups. and increased reservoir capacity and 9 . reticulation to serve existing deficient areas enable at least public taps to be provided and priority new developments. within these communities. 3.08 To lay the basis for improving the Priority Improvements to Sewerage operating performance of existing assets and Wastewater Systems and proposed new investments, an Asset Management Plan (AMP) should be 3.10 The impact of human waste and To adequately protect formulated to cover source supply and industrial eluent on public health and the public health and the distribution networks. This plan should be environment is cause for increasing concer. environment, wastewater de d t To adequately protect public health and the eMuent standards should esigne o: environment, wastewater effluent standards be derined in light of the ability of receiving waters a) introduce improved system should be defined in light of the ability of to absorb discharges monitoring, operation and receiving waters to absorb discharges in maintenance and leak detection terms of the oxygen demand of pathogenic arrangements to improve pressure contamination, toxicity effects and the mass throughout the system and to of nutrients discharged. minimize risk of system failure that could result from the minimal standby 31s1 A comprehensive audit of all trade capacity presently available, waste connections and discharges is continued operator training will also required and a trade wastes policy should be be needed and public education, introduced which licenses discharges and beaneededlarlyondpuc waedcasti, incorporates appropriate incentives and particularly on water wastage: regulatory measures. In addition to b) improve management of water mandating effluent standards, industries catchments (incorporating better should be assisted in exploring improved, controlled use of land, fertilizer usage, lower pollution technologies. livestock levels, erosion control, etc.); 3.12 Attention should be focused c) introduce water conservation towards ensuring that effluents are treated techniques and reduce per capita on site or connected into suitably upgraded consumption (incorporating a review sewage treatment plants (STPs). These of facilities in dwellings and efforts should also include hazardous waste commercial properties); and solid waste currently being landfilled with inadequate precaubons. To implement this d) identify appropriate water treatment policy, the institutional responsibilities and techniques; and capacity for monitoring and enforcement must be strengthened (see later) and a full- e) identify an appropriate strategy for the time staff member within the PWD or disposal of treatment waste residues. Department of Environment should be devoted to working with industry to reduce 3.09 Improved policies and criterion for polluton. pnoritizing investment should be adopted to maximize public heafth benefits in existing 3.13 Just as for water supply, present Low-4ncome groups in communities. Low-income groups, which sector policies give priority to extending squanfer communett es aIl suffer the impact of service defiaences sewerage reticulation to new development in onty benefit from expanded most severely, will only benefit from peri-urban areas even though many existing wnpro.sed through a cevised expanded services if access is improved. urban areas are not connected. This policy to enable at least This will require a revised policy covering strategy is unlikely to have the maximum public taps to be provided informal settlements and squatter areas to beneficial impact on public health and does 20 Just as for water supply. a not make best use of existing assets and cost sewerage and sanitation including more balanced strategy for facilities. ventilated pit latrines for peri-urban areas sewerage and wastewater is required which moves and Zcondominial' sewerage systems which aggressively to remedy 3.14 In Metropolitan Suva, the resulting are proving successful in Brazil (see Box existing deroits as well as backlog is substantial and growing, and will 3.1). where service cal be likely cost upwards of F$60 million to provided most address through conventional sewerage. A 3.15 In towns in westem Viti Levu, economically. more balanced strategy is required which proposed sewerage investments amount to moves aggressively to remedy existing FS22.6 million and are in line with plans that deficits as well as targeting those new areas have been defined to accommodate where service can be provided most population growth and tourism. Specifically, economically. The following first phase investment priorities include: extension of schedule of works would support such a reticulation and connections in Lautoka - strategy: upgrading capacity at Kinoya FS3.0 million; extension of reticulation and 7he pnmary impact of poor Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) - F$20 connections - F$3 million and upgrading of drainage is economic rather than million; a staged program to extend STP - F$1 million at Nadi; extension of trunk environmental. reticulation (7,000 connections) - F$30 mains, reticulation and connections at million; and, as funding allows, reticulation to Sigatoka - F$1.2 million; and extension of serve new residential areas. A consultant reticulation, pumping station & rising mains - study has recently recommended expanding FS 3.2 million, and upgrading of STP - F$0.8 the capacity at Kinoya to serve a population million at Ba. Pretreatment at Ba Sugar Mill of 60,000 at present to over 300,000 people (to be bome by Utility) - F$0.5 million. As in ultimately. However, serious consideration Suva, measures should be introduced to should also be given to altemative, lower- encourage residents to connect to existing sewers and the viability of implementing Box 3.1: The Condominial System - Innovative Low-Cost Sewerage altemative, lower-cost technologies should in Northeast Brzil ; be examined. Wth a shorter grid of smaller and shallower feeder' sewers E running through backyards, costs have been cut to 20 to 30 per cent of Priority Improvements to Drainage and those with a conventional system. Flood Protection The more fundamental innovation, however, is the active participation of the population in choosing the level of service and in 3.16 The primary impact of poor drainage operating and maintaining the 'feeder' infrastructure. Families can choose is economic rather than environmental. In to continue with their present system, to connect to a conventional Suva, there is some loss of personal property waterbome system (which usually means a holding tank discharging into with damage tending to be greatest in areas an open street drain), or to connect to a 'condominial' system. Connection charges and tariffs for conventional systems are normally higher reflecting of squatter and low quality housing. In their higher capHtal and operating costs. Nausori, notwithstanding recent dredging, Experience to date indicates that most families that initially ! insurance premiums are continually choose not to connect eventually change their mind. Either they succumb increasing as a result of flood-related claims to pressure from neighbors, or they find the buildup of wastewater in and in recent years. In towns in Wester \ti Levu around their houses intolerable once the (connected) neighbors fill in the fing is ys se that someebusinessesui rest of the open drain. flooding is so severe, that some businesses in Individual households are responsible for maintaining the feeder' the Central Business District (CBD) areas of sewers, with the formal agency tending to the trunk mains. This increases these towns are relocating to higher ground. the communities' sense of responsibility for the system. Second, the misuse of any part of the 'feeder" system (by, say, putting solid waste 3.17 To address problems in Westem down the toilet) soon shows up as a blockage in the neighbors portion of the sewer. The consequence is rapid, direct, and informed feedback to the | ti Levu, pionty Investments amouning to misuser. This virtually eliminates the need to 'educate' the users of the I FS12.1 million have been identified. system about dos and don'ts and results in fewer blockages than a including: nver dredging and drain conventional system. Third, because of the greatly reduced responsibility maintenance/upgrading at Nadi - F$1 .3 of the utility, operating costs are much lower. I million; river dredging and levee construction 21 - F$10 million, together with drainage b) development of effective strategies system upgrading works - F$0.3 million at for the control of effluent discharges Ba; upgrading of drains at Sigatoka - F$0.3 into surface water systems; million; and realignment of creeks in Lautoka - F$0.2 million. c) research of catchment use, forestation techniques, farming 3.18 In Suva, drainage catchments are practices and soil erosion small and, though local flooding occurs from management; time to time, major drainage works are not d) consideration of retention systems to required. Priority repair of flood gates and reduce intensity of storm flows; widening of drainage outlets have been costed at F$0.5 million. By contrast, e) improved maintenance of flow Nausori, which is located in a flood plain, channels and control of use in flood suffers mainstream flooding of the Rewa plans; and River. Flood damage costs are high and f) review of use of controlling structures additonal priority flood control measures are that may exacerbate flooding costed at F$11.0 million. problems (e.g., road/rail embankments culverts too small etc.). 3.19 The Link With Urban Planning. Experience worldwide indicates that efforts Options for Improving Solid Waste to remedy existing deficiencies in these Management sectors are best framed within an overall urban development plan that targets areas 3.21 Solid waste disposal is a matter of where infrastructure development is likely to national concem. Not a single municipal Solid waste disposal Is a matter of national concem. be most economical as well as garbage dump is managed in such a way as Not a single municipal environmentally fragile coastal areas that to adequately protect public health and the garbage dump is managed in should be protected. Planning controls have fragile environment where most are located. such a way as to adequately protect public health and the already been instit,uted for low-lying coastal National legislation and codes of practice for fragile coastal environment areas in Suva under which developers of the sanitary disposal of waste need to be where most are located, marginal lands are required to undertake adopted and specific waste management flooding impact studies. However, as plans must be prepared for major urban indicated above, flooding problems are more settlements. These plans will require severe in other towns. development of policies for acceptance of hazardous wastes (rejecting liquid waste 3.20 A necessary first step involves: i) disposal at landfills) at municipal dumps and development of comprehensive catchment investigation of water quality (surface and and flood plain mapping analysis; ii) groundwater) in and around landfills. determining overall strategies for the effective management of catchments; and iii) 3.22 The potential for waste separation development of an Asset Management Plan by fostering compostng and recycling, as well to cover provision of services and facilities, as waste minimizabon has not been with particular regard to minimizing public aggressively pursued. There is a critical need health risks and economic costs. In to do so now. Expanded deposits, garden particular, effective flood protection and waste compostng, an aggressive waste drainage efforts call for minimization strategy (especially for hazardous wastes), and recycling are all a) integration of land use planning with practical altematives to relying solely on catchment management strategies; landfilling. These options need to become components of an overall waste management strategy. Articulating such a strategy is a first 22 order priority for the recently established Strengthening Institutions National Waste Disposal Committee chaired by the Minister, MHUDE. 3.24 Water Supply and Sewerage. As outlined in Chapter II, under the current 3.23 The current operating standards of institutional arrangements, the sector is standards of dump sites and dump sites and the scarcity of waste managed by PWD, along with its other the scarcty of waste minimization efforts are making the search for responsibilities for roads and buildings. PWD minimization efforts are new landfill sites more difficult. At the same is a large organization, with a total staffing of making the search for new landfill sites more difficult. time, a new waste disposal site is urgently about 4,000, of which about 900 are engaged needed for the Greater Suva area as well as in water supply and sewerage activities. Each for the westem half of Vti Levu. The Central of these sectors requires specialized skills. Govemment should play a leadership role in Further, unlike the other sectors, water and selecting these sites to help ensure that they sewerage are 'service' sectors, generating are located in areas preferred for their revenue, and requiring frequent interaction technical superiority to protect the with customers on reliability and quality of environment rather than simply the most supply, as well as on payments. politically expedient land available. Priority investments in the sector would amount to 3.25 In order to avoid a deteriorabon in just less than F$5.0 million, including: service quality and provide the basis for a sustainable expansion and, in the context of a) formulabon of regional waste its policy of reducing the scope and size of management strategies - FS 0.1 public sector activibes, the Govemment has million; been examining the feasibility of establishing an autonomous public agency to provide b) development and promoton of waste water supply and sewerage services in all diversion programs; e.g., for urban areas of Fiji. compostng and for recycling including deposits; 3.26 The separabon of these responsibilifies from MIPWwill enable one c) development of new regional disposal institution to focus its undivided attention on site and recycling facilities for Lami- these important urban services and to be held Suva-Nausori area: Assume 20 accountable for the quality and performance hectares required - F$2.75 million of the service. The costs of providing the induding site restoration at Lami; service, the amounts billed, and the revenues collected can be clearly and transparently d) development of a new regional identified. The agency will not be constrained disposal site and recyling facilities by the rules and regulabons that typically for LautokalNadi: Assume 10 result in slow decision making in govemment, hectares required - FS1 .4 million e.g., centralizabon, budget and procurement including restoration at existing site; procedures. Further, the agency can establish its own employment conditions, indluding pay e) development of new regional disposal s o attract andrtan qualfied saf site and recycling facilities for scales, to attract and retain qualified staff. Sigatoka area: Assume 5 hectares required - F$0.6 million including 3.27 In support of this reform agenda, an restoration and capping at former site; early decision should be made regarding the and establishment of a Nabonal Water and f) ongoing clay sealing at Ba site Sewerage Authority in Fiji. In addition to F$25,ODO. Parliamentary action to formalize its establishment, making the Water and Sewer 23 Authority operabonal will require the following actions to be taken: c) training all staff; Box 3.2: Institutional Options for Infrastructure Provision d) development and introduction of modem systems, especially on the commercial The World Bank's World Development Report 1994 (Infrastructure for side; and Development) discusses four main options for ownership and provision of infrastructure services: public ownership and operation by enterprise or department; public ownership with operation contracted to the private sector e) an immediate tariff increase, followed by private ownership and operation, often with regulation; and community and user periodic tariff reviews, to achieve an provision.obetvofaheig0&Mcs Public ownerhip and public operation. Public provision by a objective of achieving 0 & M cost govemment department, public enterprise, or parastatal authority is the most recovery in three - five years. common form of infrastructure ownership and operation. Successful public entities run on commercial principles and give managers control over operations 3.28 Technical assistance might be and freedom from political interference, but they also hold managers accountable, often through performance agreements or management contracts. required and donor support should be sought And they follow sound business practices and are subject to the same regulatory, for this purpose. In the meantime, as the labor law, accounting, and compensation standards and practices as private process of establishing an autonomous body firms. Tariffs are set to cover costs, and any subsidies to the enterprise are given for specific services and in fixed amounts. In the Asia Pacific region, this through the legislative process would likely is the most common institutional arrangement in the water sector a recent Asian take some tme, urgent attenton should be Development Bank survey found that of the 38 water utilities in its 23 developing given to te first necessa,y step of member countries in Asia and the Pacific, 16 are govemment departments, 18 are govemment enterprises and four have somnewhat more autonomy. implementing organizabonal changes to Public ownership with private provision. This option is typically separate the water and sewerage operabons implemented through lease contracts for full operation and maintenance of from other activibes within MIPW and to publicly owned facilities, or through concessions, which include construction and financing of new capacity. In the water sector, leases and concessions are delegate sufficient executive authority relating working well in Argentina (Buenos Aires) and Guinea. Countries with to priority setfing, staffing, accounting and concessions to build and operate water sector facilities include Malaysia and financial management. Mexico. In February 1994, UNELCO, a company operating the electric power supply in Vanuatu for over 30 years, took over the management and operation of the water supply system In Vanuatu. Pricing of Water and Sewerage Private ownership and private opration. Private ownership and operation of infrastructure facilities is increasing, both through new entry by private firms in infrastructure markets and through divestiture of public ownership 3.29 The general pnciple for pnung of entire systems. Such arrangements are becoming increasingly popular for water supply and sewerage, without telecommunications and power. distortng the allocation of resources is to Community and user provision. Community and user provision is most common for local, small-scale infrastructure, such as rural feeder roads, set prices to cover short-run marginal costs. community water supply and sanitation, distribution canals for irrigation, and In practice, actual tariffs are determined by maintenance of local drainage systems. It often complements central or the hnanual goals set for the water supply provincial services. Successful community provision requires user involvement in decision-making, especially to set priorities for expenditures and to ensure an agency and the need to provide a 'life-line' equitable and agreed sharing of the benefits and costs of service provision supply to the urban poor at an affordable Technical assistance, training, and compensation of service operators are also price. Economically sound pricing policies very importanL In the Pacific Island Counties, wfth their strong social structures, some aspects of urban sanitaton, solid waste management, typically result in: and drainage maintenance could benefit from greater community Involvement a) charging for water on the basis of consumption; and A realistic objective b) a progressive tariff structure for would be to recover a) constituting the Board, and appointing domestic consumers incorporating a recurrent costs in full on, say, five the key senior officials, including the social' block for a 'life-line' supply years, through General Manager, where affordability is constrained, while annual tariff eo"ases b discouraging excess consumption b) transfer of the required, qualified staff through higher rates for large volume (that is, not all staff) from PWD and domestic, industnal and commercial recruitment of other staff, especially on consumers. the commercial side: 24 A measure of subsidy for human waste of monthly family income for water bills and Subsidies of the cunrent magnitude, especially for disposal may be justified in view of the very 1.7 per cent of income for water and sewer recurrent costs, are high public health benefits arising. bills. Ability to pay is, therefore, not expected unsustainable. to be a constraint. 3.30 Chapter 11 indicated the dependency of the water and sewerage 3.33 Solid Waste, Drainage and sector on Govemment subsidies for both Sanitation Services. The organizational recurrent and capital costs. Subsidies of this arrangements for solid waste collection, magnitude, especially for recurrent costs, drainage and septic tank emptying in the are unsustainable. In view of the size of the various urban areas are appropriate as is deficit, it is recognized that cost recovery financing these services directly and through can only be accomplished over time, starting property taxes. However, disposal of solid first with recurrent costs. For the near-term, wastes would be better managed on a capital expenditure would have to be regional basis for Metropolitan Suva and for financed through grants. the Nadi/Lautoka area. 3.31 A realistic objective would be to A Direct Community Role in Service recover operating costs (excluding Provision and Quality Monitoring depreciation) in full in, say, five years, 3.34 Establishing an autonomous water through annual tariff increases. Initial sw ageng an asinomous are A "compact wlth the estimates indicate that annual tariff and sewer agency and increasing tariffs are consumer' would need increases of 20 per cent would be necessar necessary conditions to maintaining high not only to improve cost w quality services. Without understanding on recovery, but to paya for this purpose. To ease the burden on the direct role in maintaining urban poor, the tariff could be made more the part of consumers of the urgent need for services such as drain progressive than at present and care should these measures, however, implementation of cleaning and solid wasteafinwilbdifct.W tisrqre colecbtion wihi be taken to insure affordability of a 'lifeline' actions will be dficult. What is required neighborhoods. consumption level (see below). Other amounts to a "compact with the revenue enhancement steps that would be consumer". Such a compact would aim to Community leaders, necessary include: increase consumer awareness of the costs of women's groups, NGOs, neesr nld:providing high quality urban water and and churches would play a crucial role in a) improved collection efficiencies, through sewerage/sanitation services as well as the mobilniing community prompt installation of the new hygiene and health implications of poor senlices computerized billing and collection quality services. It would focus on: the accounting system under development, importance of water quality; the steps being and effective follow-up of unpaid bills; taken to provide safe water, the cost of treating and distributing water, the need to b) reduction of system leakages from the conserve water through careful use and current estimate of 30 per cent, to a reducing leaks and waste; and the need to more satisfactory 20 per cent, through charge for water on the basis of metered continued systematic leak detection and consumption and to collect water charges. It improved 0 & M; and would call for recognition of a community role in quality control through consumer feedback c) charging Govemment establishments on service deficiencies and clear for water. accountability by the service agency for service performance. Community leaders, 3.32 Affordability analysis (see Annex 4) women's groups, NGOs, and churches would indicates that at current tariffs, for 50 liters play a crucial role in this effort and the full Affdrcablih t analysis per capita per day (I/c/d) - significantly support of the Govemment would be is not a constraint. higher than 'lifeline consumption levels - essential. the urban poor would pay about 0.8 per cent 25 3.35 Such a compact would also seek to Suva area (Olsen, 1991; UNCHS, 1991; increase community consultation on, and Willcox, 1991; Crosby, 1992). To date, no participation in building and/or maintaining actions appear to have been taken in the urban infrastructure, targeting service- direction of metropolitan govemance. deficient areas, and gearing choice of urban Consequently, the chronic problems identified technologies to a communitys willingness-to- in Chapter II have persisted, along with acute pay for services. manifestabons such as the lack of municipal coordination and consultabon that resulted in 3.36 treatment plants require trained strong oppositon to re-siting the Lami dump technical staff and, to be economical, water at a recent public hearing. Indeed, the need to and sewer reticulation systems must be organize waste disposal on a regional basis is planned on a system-wide basis. Other amongst the most pressing insttutional functions can be more effectively (and more inibatives now required. economically) carried out directly by communities without a substantial 3.39 Perhaps one reason why there has 'bureaucratic' overhead cost. Solid waste been no movement from theory to practce in collection, from within low-income implementing a metropolitan-level authority neighborhoods especially, is a community has to do with process. Worldwide experience responsibility in many countries and can be indicates that it is invariably more difficult to linked to recycling efforts, with disposal move to a new system of power-sharing handled by municipal authorities. Similarly, without building consensus and a vision of local govemments are seldom able to keep what the new structure can accomplish. neighborhood drains clean and community Therefore, two steps are recommended: action is often more effective. In appropriate conditions, septic tanks provide a satsfactory, a) a consultative process should be initiated low-ost means of human waste disposal, to develop a metropolitan-wide vision of provided they are emptied when necessary - the future of the Suva region. This could a responsibility which falls to the individual take several forms: updabng the 1974 family. Even clearing blocked sewers can, if Greater Suva Structure Plan; preparabon appropriately designed (see Box 3.1 on of a Regional Agenda 21; or preparing a .condominiar sewerage systems), be handled Suva 2010 plan. The title is less by communibes directly. important than the initiative of bringing together central and local actors from the 3.37 In summary, considerable scope public and private sectors to discuss exists for effective, direct community action in opbons for the future of the metropolitan efforts to improve the quality of a number of area; and key urban environmental sanitaton services with beneficial impact on environmental health b) at the same btme that consensus is being and at lower cost than through insttutions. built, information should be acquired Creative thinking is required to structure about altemative forms of metropolitan incentives to help stimulate community govemance that exist in other countries. initiative in these areas. At this stage, the functions of a metropolitan authority might include: land Urban Management use planning of a regional nature; solid waste disposal; transportabon planning 3.38 Getting Senous about and coordination; and management of Metropolitan Govemance. A number of crossjurisdictonal green spaces. recent reports to the Fijian Govemment have stressed the need for a regional planning and decision-making structure for the Metropolitan 26 3.40 A similar process could be initiated d) Fiji has no national pollution or water to develop a vision and consensus about a quality standards and no usable Nadi-Lautoka metropolitan area. pollution legislation; and Creative thinking is 3.41 Land Use. Creative thinking is e) Environmental legislation is contained in mquirehed about expanding required about expanding the availability of at least 25 acts and administered by at the availabilit of affordable serviced affordable serviced residential land, least 14 different ministries, statutory residential land, particularly for the urban poor, and the bodies or other agencies. Most of the particularly for the urban effectiveness of govemment programs laws are old and ineffective in a modem including through the Fiji Housing Authority. environmental management context. Options could incdude: Under the aegis of the Cabinet-level Squatter regularnzation of squatter Committee, successful intematonal and local 3.44 Town planning schemes have settlements. options could be explored. generally been prepared and/or reviewed with little direct regard to resource 3.42 Broader land use planning would requirements. Pressures on central and benefit from updated land suitability analysis municipal agencies to secure economic as a basis for steering development away development (and job creation) have from hazardous or fragile lands. The Fiji Land resulted in inappropriate or poorly controlled InfoDmation System Support Center is well- development. In many instances, this is qualified to do this work. Their local area known to exert undue pressures on urban network could be expanded (along with sanitation services, or result in the pollution appropriate technical assistance) to both of water courses and maritime environment. provide and acquire information from local govemments. This would have the dual 3.45 Tackling industrial pollution should benefit of enriching the FLIS database and be at the top of the urban environmental strengthening the planning capacity of management agenda for the new municipalities. Environment Department. As the Departments capacity for this responsibility is Environmental Management and limited, it should start modestly and build Planning gradually. A first step would be to develop a Tackling industnal pollution 3.43 The National Environmental realistic set of standards and effluent charges, should be at the top of et heona Environmental urban environmental Strategy (Reference Nemp. 23) provides a along with a monitoring capability. This management agenda for the critical summary of current legislation and new Environment practice. Of particular relevance to this study polluter pays" approach in Fiji's National Department practce. foparticularfrelncet Environment Sbategy (NES). As the are the following references: Departments experience and resources grow, a) Fiji has no national land use plan and it could supervise the contracting and this is a major constraint to prudent implementation of environmental audits that resource allocation and management; identify no and low-cost measures for industries to minimize pollution. Eventually, b) Effectively, Fiji's freshwater resource is this could be supplemented with an industrial not managed. The existing legislation is pollution control fund, financed by effluent outdated and inadequate, while its charges, to make loans for plant and drafted replacement has not been equipment changes to lower emissions and adopted; improve productivity. c) Fiji has no hazardous waste site or 3.46 The strategy for institutionalizing management infrastructure, even environmental oversight does not rely on the though there are hazardous chemicals Environment Department alone. Rather, it and materials in common use; seeks to building capability for environmental 27 management in sector ministries and b) developing targeted public awareness agencies directy. campaigns about urban environmental risks and responsibilities (NES, 9.2.4); 3.47 Other options for improving urban and environmental management include: c) gradually decentralizing responsibility for a) transferTing responsibility for peri-urban pollution monitoring and control (but not solid waste management and standard-setting) to the municipal level environmental monKoring from the (NES, 9.5.4). Ministry of Health and local authorities, as appropriate (NES, p. viii); All of these optons are in the NES that was endorsed by Cabinet in 1993. 28 IV. Priorities for Action management are outside the control of the operational managers. Separate accounts relating specifically to water and sewerage 4.01 This section presents a strategy operations are not prepared to enable the for action by: (a) identifying the key sectors' performance to be monitored problems that need to be tackled; (b) effectively by the Govemment. outlining strategic objectives and principles; Notwdhstanding the relatively high existing and (c) suggestng the elements of a service levels, and urban incomes, tariff strategy to solve priority problems, revenues finance a low and reducing consistent with stated objectives and propprtion of inadequate O&M. principles. 4.04 The institutional framework for Defining the Problem disposal of solid and industrial (including hazardous) waste through local authorities 4.02 Fiji faces a number of challenges i udtdadiefcie at oue Present management and related to the management of urban are increasing but, given poor past rinanring am'angements are environmental sanitabon services that, areicesi c uty renceoo loct now impainng the unless resolved, will increasingly hamper pracniss, community resistance to locating Govemment's abilitv to new disposal faclibes remains high and ensure quality and reliability the potential role that Fiji's towns and cities has become an intractable problem. of existing services, much can play in national social and economic less respond to grwth in development. Present management and demand. Fpnancng arrangements are now impairingatons ihe Govemment's ability to ensure quality 4.05 Water supply and sewerage have and reliability of existing services, much conbibuted significardly to F5i's budgetary less respond to growth in demand. deficits - subsidies for operations and There is an ulgent need for Notwithstanding the relatively high service maintenance have averaged F1s0 million new investment in water coverage, the urban poor lacks adequate per year. with a similar amount for capital supply and waste access and remains at significant health expenditure. In the context of even the management not only to most pressing sector needs identified at prntect the value of existing risk. There is an urgent need for new ms pressing csetofroneds i ifid,a assets, but to help support investment in water supply and waste an investment cost of around F$50 million, grwits ,n demand anm management not only to protect the value the Govemment needs to address the manufactunng. of existing assets, but to help support issue of finandcng water supply and growth in demand from residents, tourism sewerage services In terms of: and manufacturing, on both of which the near-term prospects of the economy are a) subsidies for operations and heavily dependent. maintenance - should be phased out through revenue enhancement and Management and Financing. cost control. Tariffs have remained unchanged since 1984 and significant 4.03 The relatively high coverage for tncrased be nded tariff increases would be needed Existing institutional urban water supply and sewerage services aurangements for the water bear testament to effective use PWD has (about 20 per cent annually) if supply and sewerage sector subsidies are to be eliminated within need to be modemized. made to date of limited resources. (say) five years; and However, existing institutional The insttubonal framew for arrangements will not serve the water and *sposal of solid and industrial b) capial expenditure - a combinaton of (nwdudcng hazardous) waste sewerage sectors adequately for the future, bilateral grant funds, goverment tvough local authonbes is and need to be modemized. Many grant lonsi reqiena outdated and rieffecti v. functions that are critcal to effective shnt and ium term to nedce short and medium term sector needs. management including, in particular, The proportion of grants should be staffing, procurement and financial 29 decreased over time and over a period Development Consequences of (say) ten years, service tariffs 4.09 Chapter I summarizes the should make a significant contribution increasingly important contribution being to investment needs. made by urban-based economic activities. Without expanded provision and imnproved management of urban water supply and 4.06 The urban poor are gravitating to environmental sanitation services, infomial and squatter settlements and are prospects for continued growth in key effectively denied access to these basic economic sectors could be threatened. urban services. Increasing, and poorly targeted subsidies reduce the availability of funds for Overall Urban and Metropolitan productive activities and other priorities. Management. 4.07 Urban water supply and waste Shaping the Strategy management systems are being planned in isolation from overall land use and National development objectives ... . ~~~have, hitherto, placed emphasis on development strategies for Fiji's rapidly hv,htet,pae mhsso By itself, establishment of new growing towns and pei-urban areas with smaller urban centers and rural areas as urban focal govemments may a means to provide a more equitable not provide a sufficient remedy the resuKt that infrastructure costs are for these service deficiencies. higher than necessary. Chapter II indicates distnbution of the benefits of the muliplicity of agencies that are in some development. It has become apparent, way rsponiblefor and ue plnnin andhowever, that policies and strategies are way responsible for land use plannmng and most urgently needed in the rapidly environmental management. However, no most areas in the rapidly growing areas in the Lami-Suva-Nausori major urban center yet has an apprved corridor and around a number of towns in land use plan and monitoring andWestemViti Levua including Lautoka in enforcement capability for pollution control Weste t u dn ta remains weak. partcular. 4.08 The very substantial 'peri-urban' 4.11 The Govemment has formulated: population enjoys the benefits of access i) a National Urban Policy; and ii) revised to the urban economy but makes little Planning and Infrastructure Standards contribution to the cost of services that are designed to improve the provided. For its part, the Ministry of efficiency of land use and to reduce proide. Fr is prt,theMinistry of Health, that has administrative jurisdiction infrastructure costs. These initiatives Strategles are the in these peni-urban areas lacks the constitute key elements of the framework rapidly growing areas in the mandate and capacity to manage even now needed to manage urbanization and Lami-Suva-Nausor corridor the basic range of planning and service should be implemented quickly. The and airund a numbervu. delivery functions required. By itself, objectives of this urban policy should be including Lautoka, in establishment of new urban local incorporated into national development particular. govemments will not provide a sufficient planning more explicitly than at present, remedy for these service deficiencies. and include: Unserved pockets remain within existing a) minimizing health risks to urban town boundaries and in any event water supply and sanitation are managed by the residents, partcularly the poor; Central Govemment not by local authorities. More effective mechanisms b) improving urban economic are needed for services that should be productivity, and planned and managed on a regional c) prtectng the envirnment from basis. further degradation. 30 Box 4.1: Tuming Constraints into Opportunities Island countries typically suffer severe constraints when formulating strategies for management of wastes. Relatively small land areas, sensitive ecologies, isolation and a heavy reliance on imports make disposal of wastes difficult. Pacific Island countries have not, until recently, considered waste disposal to be serious since the local environment was generally able to absorb most wastes generated. With increasing urbanizabon, this long-standing tradition is no longer practical, and waste management has become one of the most intractable problems facing many Pacific Island countries. At the same time, small island countries share many unique attributes that can, in fact, be used to create superior waste management strategies. In Fiji, almost all non-organic waste materials are imported. Through the judicious application of import restrictions (and encouragements) the waste stream can be relatively easily cleaned up. Very few larger countries have this opportunity since they have much larger waste volumes and have less control over imports and the relatvely larger range of locally manufactured products. Taking a relatively small number of products out of the waste stream can have a significant effect on improving ease of handling and disposing waste, particularly hazardous waste. Island countries can apply waste minimization and deposit schemes more easily. This is especially encouraging since deposits enjoy greater than a 95 per cent return rate in Fiji. The heavy reliance on shipping a local importers, also enables the govemment to work more easily with local importers to identify more environmentally sound product and packaging altematives, as well as exploring the possibility of obtaining preferential backhawl prices for shipping recyclables to market or hazardous waste to proper disposal. Pacific island countries have an ideal climate for composting, and other biological treatments of organic waste. Actively encouraging composting would divert over 50 per cent of the region's waste stream, while producing a soil amendment that is much needed in many countries in the region. The most important component of an effective waste management strategy is not technical, however, but I attitudinal. Cumulative community actions are what make good waste management strategies work well. A unique strength of Island countries is their close knit community structure that is usually better able to disseminate information and to quickly adapt programs to changing circumstances. 4.12 In view of the considerable d) strategies, promote conservation investment in service provision, the need and environmentally responsible for additional capital, both immediate and behavior. medium-term actions are necessary to achieve these objectives. The following 4.13 Addressing the managerial and principles should underpin action: financial issues will require: (a) acceleration of essential capital a) make the best use of investments investments to expanded provision of that have already been made services; (b) strengthening sector through improved O&M and institutions and the operational targeted new investment to expand relatonships between them; and (c) the consumer base which can be improving their financial viability particularly served by the installed base of trunk for water supply and sewerage. In addition, systems; i will be necessary to (d) implement the 'building blocks' for guiding urban land use b) incorporate community consultation more efficiently and reducing the cost of more actively in decision-making on infrastructure provision. sector priorities and increase public Fiji's achievements in awareness of the costs of providing Elements of a Strategy providing quality services; and environmental sanitation services in the country's Building on the Strong Record of towns and cities are c) use the present impasse in locating Achievements. cdditional nvestment, newwaste disposal sites as an 4.14 Fiji's achievements in providing however, service standards opportunity to implement quality environmental sanitation services will decilne. progressive waste minimization in the country's towns and cities are 31 considerable. Coverage of urban water population growth is relatively modest and supply is almost universal and, relative to provides an opportunity to target new most developing countries, a high investment to areas where the impact can proportion of the urban population has be most beneficial. access to satisfactory sanitation. Availability of these services has Inclusive Sector Policies to Alleviate undoubtedly contributed to the relatively Poverty. low incidence levels for communicable 4.18 Notwithstanding expanding disease related to poor environmental employment opportunities in the urban sanitation and to growth in the urban economy, recent surveys indicate that an economy that now contributes increasing number of urban families, from approximately 60 per cent of GDP. all ethnic groups, are slipping into poverty and gravitating to informal and squatter 4.15 What is now needed is a second seKtlements where environmental phase expansion in water and sewerage conditions are poor and incidence of to increase service coverage and spread water-bome diseases remains high, high fixed costs of conventional particularly amongst children. This trend technologies over a larger consumer is exacerbated by sector policies which base. Near-temm investment priorities are target limited available investment funds outlined in Chapter III and suggested at new development areas ahead of the rankings are illustrated in Table 4.1 increasing backlog of unserviced below. communities. 'Poverty pockets' should be accorded high and urgent priority in SDetting Piorities. sector plans. As indicated below, the 4.16 Hitherto, investment has tended cabinet-level Squatter Committee should to be applied on an ad-hoc, piece meal review options for expanding the basis, with local imperatives frequently availability of serviced and titled taking precedence over priorities based residental land. on good system management (e.g., prematurely extending water reticulation Supporting Business Activity. into new areas, at the cost of reduced water pressures and intermittent supplies 4.19 Improving provision of urban to existing consumers). In Lautoka, where environmental sanitation services is not 'Poverty pockets' should solely a 'poverty problem, however. be accorded high and a 25 year development plan remains Already, plans for new tourism facilities urgent priority in sector largely unimplemented since 1981, capitalAled,pasfrnwtuimaciis plans. investments that have been made (e.g., are being rejected because of inadequate Improving provision of extension of rural mains along the King's water supply. Moreover, solid waste urban environmental Road to Vitogo) were not identified as a management has become a national sanitation services is not dilemma and discharges of industrial solely a 'poverty problem'. . effluents are becoming a concem and will however. Many urban water and sewerage eventually impose increasing costs on the Without increased systems are already at or beyond economy and health risks on the attention, and funding, capacity. Without increased funding, community at large. Without increased service deficiencies could attention and funding service undercut further growth in development programs for water and a a tounsm and export- sewerage will continue to fall further deficiencies could undercut further growth onented manufacturing on behind and the quality of service provision in tourism and export-oriented which Fiji's medium term- manufactunng on which Fiji's medium economic prospects are will decline sharply in the face of even heavily dependent. gradual growth in urban population and term-economic prospects are heavily industry. Moreover, the overall urban dependent. 32 Rationalizing the Management process of establishing an autonomous Framework. body through the legislative process would likely take some time, urgent attention Improved cost recovery and 4.20 Improved cost recovery and should be given to the necessary step of operational efficiency of water operabonal efficiency of water and implemenbing organzational changes to and semWorg services would contribute directy to Me sewerage services would contribute separate the water and sewerage Govemment's program to directly to the Govemment's program to operabons from other activities within improve public sector improve public sector management. To MIPW and to delegate sufficient execubve achieve this, fundamental changes are authority relating to setting priorities, required in the management and staffing, accounting and financial financing of urban environmental management. management services if maximum benefit is to be realized from additional Urban/Metropolitan Management investment. In this context, the Govemment has been examining the 4.23 Actions are urgently needed in feasibility of establishing an autonomous the areas of metropolitan management national public agency for the water and and land use: Establishment of an sewerage sector. Though establishment of autonomous Water and such an authority would not, by itself, a) there is no regional planning to guide Sewerage Authonity would guarantee the desired improvements, it or control urban growth beyond step in the ght direotaon would represent an important step in the municipal administrative boundaries, right direction. or even any reliable information on its pace or direction. A consultative 4.21 In addition to Parliamentary action process should be initiated by the to formalize its establishment, making the MinistryoufdHousing, ban a) A consultative Water and Sewerage Authority operational Ministry of Housing, Urban a) A consuftative 'Nater and Sewerage Authority operabonal Development and Environment, with process should be will require the following actions to be the Municipalities of Suva, Nausori, initiated on regional taken: planning by the Nasinu and Lami. This should Ministry of Housing, formulate a vision of the future of the Urban Development a) constituting the Board, and appointng metropolitan area and to explore and Environment, with the key senior officials, such as the p p the Municipalities of General Manager altematives for metropolitan Suva, Nauson, management; and Nasinu and Lami. b) transfer of the required, qualified staff (tha is,not ll taff fro PWDandb) the cabinet-level Squatter Committee recruitment of other staff, especially on should review options for expanding the availability of serviced and titled the commercial side; residential land, drawing on c) training all staff, experiences of effective approaches in other countries. This work could go d) development and introduction of hand in hand with updating land modem systems. especially on the suitability analysis to steer commercial side; and development towards the most a) Options shouJd be productive urban land. reviewed for e) an immediate tariff increase, followed expanding the by periodic tariff reviews, to achieve Environmental Management serviced and titled an objective of achieving 0 & M cost 4.24 Industrial pollution is a growing residential land. recovery in three - five years. problem for Fiji's urban areas that risks falling through the cracks. It is not within 4.22 Donor support should be sought the direct responsibility of local for these activities. In the meantime, as the 33 govemments and, for the time being, it is intestinal diseases and malaria, beyond the capacity of the Environment particuladly for the urban poor, Department. To begin to address the problem, the MHUDE should pursue a O Environment - in terms of improved modest, incremental strategy: develop environmental health, reduced marine appropriate standards and effluent and foreshore contaminabon from charges and then add a monitoring direct discharges of untreated sewage, capability (possibly in coordination with and reduced pollution from solid and the Ports Authority). The capacity to industrial wastes; and contract for, and supervise environmental audits could then be added. O Economy - in terms of increased economic productivity, affordable 4.25 As noted in Chapter III, local provision of services to poor management of solid waste disposal is so households and industries and deficient that a new, National code of reduced financial and economic practice was proposed under the Policy burden on govemment. Recommendations for Housing and Urban Development. In view of the significant An Emerging Consensus on Actions industrial base in and around Suva and 4.27 Durng consultatons and a the nature of the waste stream; the growth of peri-urban development; the public forum with a broad range of difficulties of coordinating waste disposal stakeholders including community leaders. between local jurisdictions; and the consumer groups, industry, local worsening impact on the environment and govements and central sector agencies, public health, the time has come to an agenda of measures were endorsed to formulate a regional waste management mintral govemment planning and finance strategy and establish a regional agency ministries and donors: to administer it. In addition, financial incentives might be effective in Fiji in Water and Sanitation: The tbme has come to encouraging the private sector to invest in fornulate a regional waste recycling programs as a means of a) corporatize services and strengthen management strategy anpdcosnerlanstimov establish a regional agency minimizing solid waste volumes and, consumer relatons to improve to administer it. thereby, reducing municipal solid waste efficiency and accountability; management costs as well as lessening b) extend water service to squatter and the overall environmental impact. informal settlements within urbanized area - user pays principal should Measuring Progress apply; 4.26 The ultimate test of a strategy is whether it achieves its objectves. Recalling c) consider altemative, lower-cost the health, environmental and economic technologies in planning system objectives outlined at the beginning of the expansions; and section, the following broad indicators of progress can be used: d) work to establish an associabon of Pacific water and sanitation O Health - in terms of a higher level of authoribes. hygiene educabon, further improvements on indicators for morbidity and mortality from gastro- 34 Solid Waste management b) improve efficiency of land use by: i) streamlining the approval process for a) improve dumpsite management land development; ii) servicing and through rehabilitation of old sites and a developing inner-city land; iii) participatory approach to new site implementing the Perry Report on locabon and development; appropriate development standards; and iv) providing better public access b) enhance public awareness through to land information; and multi-media campaigns, and school programs; and c) initiating national land use planning. c) strengthen waste minimization through Urban Environmental Management i) community-based pilot programs for waste recycling, ii) use of incentives to a) amend the Local Govemment Act to minimize waste generation and levying allow for better inter-jurisdiction of charges by volume for solid waste coordination (e.g. through a metro service; iii) expanding recycling Suva structure for solid waste operations; and iv) separate collection disposal, land use and transportation and re-use of garden wastes. planning); Land Use Management b) local govemments should mobilize resources for land use planning; and a) amend theTown Planning Act to allow for public consultation; c) implement and enforce industrial pollution standards through regulations and incentives. Table 4.1 - Suggested Priorities for Environmental Improvements 1 = top priority Suva Lautoka Nadi Ba Sigatoka Water Supply Headworks 2 2 1 2 2 Reticulation 4 1 3 3 3 Improved operation 8 1 2 2 2 3 maintenance Public Education 3 3 3 3 3 Sewerage Headworks 1 3 1 1 4 Reticulation 1 3 3 1 4 Improved operation & 3 3 3 4 3 maintenance Trade Waste 1 1 2 1 4 Public Education 1 1 2 1 1 Drainage Flood Management 4 4 1 1 2 Capital Works 3 3 2 2 3 Improved operation & 2 3 1 1 2 maintenance 35 Annex 1 Table 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Growth of Major Urban Centers Urban Center 1/ 1976 1986 Total Pop. Urban Pop. Peri-Urban Pop. Total Pop. Suva 117,827 69,665 71,608 141,273 Lami - 8,597 8,110 16,707 Nausori 12,821 5,242 8,740 13,982 (Greater Suva) 130,648 83,504 88,458 171,962 Lautoka 28,847 28,728 10,329 39,057 Labasa 12,956 4,917 11,620 16,537 Nadi 12,995 7,709 7,511 15,220 Ba 9,173 6,515 3,745 10,260 Vatukoula 6,425 4,789 Sigatoka 3,635 2,097 2,663 4,760 Rakiraki 3,755 3,361 Levuka 2,764 1,106 1,789 2,895 Savusavu 2,295 2,179 693 2,872 Navua 2,568 2,775 Tavua 2,144 2,227 1 / Excludes the unincorporated township of Korovou (340). Lami was included with Suva in 1976. Source: Bureau of Statistics national censuses. 36 Annex 1 Table 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Urban Squatting 1986 Urban Area Total Dwellings Squatter Dwellings Suva City 12,716 1,503 Suva peri-urban 12,235 1,142 Lami town 1,342 7 Lami peri-urban 1,209 4 Nausori town 889 10 Nausori peri-urban 1,509 100 Total Metropolitan Suva 29,900 2,766 Lautoka City 5,402 95 Lautoka peri-urban 1,918 2 Labasa town 1,011 11 Labasa peri-urban 2,178 229 Nadi town 1,614 0 Nadi peri-urban 1,387 118 Ba town 1,243 123 Ba peri-urban 677 14 Vatukoula 814 23 Sigatoka town 393 0 Sigatoka peri-urban 429 0 Rakiraki 626 13 Levuka town 218 0 Levuka peri-urban 303 1 Savusavu town 399 1 Savusavu peri-urban 115 0 Navua 479 0 Tavua 411 16 Korovou 59 0 Totals 49,576 3,412 37 Annex 2 Table 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji SOURCES OF HOUSEHOLD WATER SUPPLY Well Piped Piped Roof Bore River Metered Communal Tank Hole Creek 1. Suva City 97% 1% 0% 0% 1% Suva peri-urban 92% 1% 2% 1% 5% Suva Total 94% 1% 0% 0% 3% 2. Lami Town 90% 0% 3% 3% 4% Lami peri-urban 70% 10% 3% 2% 14% Lami Total 81% 5% 3% 3% 9% 3. Nausori Town 98% 0% 0% 0% 1% Nausori peri-urban 93% 1% 2% 1% 4% Nausori Total 95% 0% 1% 1% 3% Total Suva Metro Area 93% 1% 1% 1% 3% 4. Lautoka City 97% 1% 0% 0% 2% Lautoka peri-urban 84% 8% 1% 1% 6% Lautoka Total 94% 3% 0% 0% 3% 5. Nadi Town 99% 0% 0% 0% 1% Nadi peri-urban 87% 3% 0% 1% 9% Nadi Total 93% 1% 0% 0% 5% 6. Ba Town 82% 6% 0% 0% 12% Ba peri-urban 75% 1% 0% 1% 22% Ba Total 79% 5% 0% 0% 16% 7. Sigatoka Town 91% 1% 5% 1% 3% Sigatoka peri-urban 97% 0% 0% 1% 1% Sigatoka Total 95% 0% 2% 1% 2% (Source habtat: Reference 4.3) 38 Annex 2 Table 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Household Sanitation Facilities Flush/ Flush/ Water- Shared Pit Sewer Septic Sealed Toilet Laterine Other 1. Suva City 33% 50% 3% 1% 12% 1% Suva pen-urban 19% 35% 13% 1% 31% 1% Suva Total 26% 43% 8% 1% 21% 1% 2.LamiTown 2% 59% 21% 1% 16% 1% Lami peri-urban 0% 16% 45% 6% 32% 1% Lami Total 1% 39% 32% 3% 23% 1% 3. Nausori Town 0% 88% 3% 1% 7% 1% Nausori peri-urban 0% 41% 9% 3% 46% 1% Nausori Total 0% 59% 7% 2% 32% 1% Total Suva Metro Area 22% 44% 10% 1% 22% 1% 4. Lautoka City 56% 9% 3% 1% 3% 1% Lautoka peri-urban 13% 23% 15% 9% 39% 1% Lautoka Total 45% 13% 6% 3% 32% 1% 5. Nadi Town 57% 27% 1% 0% 14% 0% Nadi peri-urban 44% 2% 12% 1% 39% 1% Nadi Total 51% 16% 6% 1% 26% 1% 6. Ba Town 0% 76% 2% 6% 15% 1% Ba peri-urban 0% 30% 3% 5% 61% 1% Ba Total 0% 60% 2% 6% 32% 1% 7 Sigatoka Town 28% 47% 2% 0% 22% 1% Sagatoka peri-urban 9% 22% 45% 1% 23% 1% Sigatoka Total 18% 34% 24% 0% 23% 1% (Source habtat: Reference 4.3) 39 Annex 3 Table 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Urban Services - Suva Meteropolitan Area Population Served 200,000 Water Supply - Piped to Households 93% Treatment Capacity 94,000 m3/day Reservoir Capacity 69,000 m3 Water Usage 1/ 75,000 m3/day (375 I/p/d) Connections 49,000 Sewer Connections 13,300 Loading EP 76,000 Receiving Water Bodies Laucala Bay, Vatuwaga & Rewa Rivers Industrial Waste Discharge Severe Solid Waste Collected (1993) 60,000 tonnes Taken to... Lami Dump 95%, Nausori Dump 5% 1 / Includes industrial users and an estimated leakage of 30% 40 Annex 3 Table 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Urban Services - Western Viti Levu Town Lautoka Nadi Ba Sigataka Population Served 46,000 22,000 12,000 21,000 1/ Service Coverage - Water (1986) Urban 97% 99% 82% 91% Peri-urban 84% 87% 75% 97% Water Treatment Capacity m'/day 13,000 43,000 11,000 5,300 Water Connections (metered) 14,000 9,500 4,900 2,700 Water Reservoir Capacity m3 16,400 12,700 12,400 6,400 Water Usage m3/day 13,000 13,100 6,000 5,300 Capital Funding Requirements (For works to 2000 - million FJD) 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.1 Sewer Connections 4,600 2,000 0 110 Loading EP 31,000 11,200 NA 800 Treatment Capacity EP 41,000 10,000 NA 4,000 Receiving Water Body Coastal Nadi Bay Ba River Sigatoka River Industrial Waste Discharge Severe Minimal Severe Minimal Capital funding Requirements (For works to 2000 - million FJD) 3.0 4.0 4.5 1.2 Solid Waste Collected (tonnex - 1993) 31,000 17,000 8,000 13,000 Taken to ... Lautoka Dump Lautoka Dump Ba Dump Sigatoka Dump Capital Funding Requirements (For works to 2000 - million FJD) 1.6 Regional Site 0.1 (op.impr.) 0.6 (new site) Capital Funding Requirements For Drainage Works (million FJD) 0.2 1.5 8.2 0.6 11 Includes equivalent population from tounst resorts. 41 Annex 4 Managing Urban Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji Affordability for Water and Sewerage Services Affordability Table 1: Water and Sewerage Tariffs (F$1 WATER.. per cubicmeater per quartw. * Ffrs 51 80 m3-t 1i;-i;it:- -;TL f: ;0 2c7;;jt::0 - ;; iCommnerciail. -- *-. . - . .. - ... . .. 34 .... ..... .. . .... i; f ; ;S W. .. ::.:-. :. . : ..-.f - f- .; .- .:- .. . ... .. ..A .... A . ... .....i . ... ......- Special }R.edl§-lftg i-00- :-00 0:j gtt|0i F$5 88 :- 0:0-0 -:-;0- - t -TestWinFee- P$7.0-0t i ;-$-- ;09;;i-058 New:Connecition ::::;- A;;- ; .W:A::: : Sf -;-:SXS;- ;SE Domestic l : 2 i; i;: l F$10.O?7gii; l i0:ii SEWERAGE:0 :; :4i :t 00 ;0 : ia: -O74 t-::--: -: At a consumption level of 150 I/c/d, it is estimated that the present water bill would amount to about 1.6% of household income (for a household of six persons)1iat the poverty threshold, estimated by the Fiji poverty task force as FS63 per week in 1989 and updated to FS73 in 1991. Similarly, at a basic consumption level of 50 llc/d considerately above a Zlifeline' supply, the water bill would account for only about 0.3% of household income and the combined bill for water supply and sewerage would account for about 0.7% of household income. Under the current tariff schedule, it appears that households at the poverty line can afford the water supply and sewerage services. Table 2: Water and Seweraae Characs as % of Monthly Household Income |Household Income Consumptin Leve Water Fee Water anid Sewerage Fee (literslcapltalday) (aS % of HH (as % of1* Income) | i~~~~~~~~~~~ncome} FS292 150 1.6 2.9 50 0.3 0.7 I ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ,. ..._.. ..... . .. The average household in Fiji ranges between four and six persons; low-income families tend to have a large household of six. 42 Management Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Fiji FIJI Organization of Water and Sewerage Activities PERMANENT SECRETARY PWD Deputy Secretary Operations Deputy Secretary _ | _ | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Planning & Designl Divisional Divisional Divisional r rector Engineer Engineer Engineer oa rectr West North East A s ewerae Buildings Principal Engineer Sewerage -Water Supply Di rector Administration/Finance Planning -Roads Quantity -Building - Personnel Survey -Mechanical Accounts Mechanical Engineering -Personal -Accounts Summary of Key Findings - Solomon Islands i. Very rapid population growth in Honiara and other urban centers has outpaced the capacity of agencies to provide adequate water supply and environmental sanitation services. Although access to water supply is widely available, problems of water quality and service reliability will become increasingly serious without action on a number of fronts. Unsatisfactory disposal of sewage, garbage and industrial waste is worsening environmental conditions and the incidence of disease related to poor environmental sanitation is reportedly increasing. ii. Improving urban environmental sanitation services can contribute to the Govemment's preventive health care strategy. Only modest investment is needed at this time in Honiara. The key priority is to upgrade operations and maintenance of the water system and connect already sewered residential areas to sea outfalls. Even though, contamination of the near shore marine environment will continue in Honiara, it is most important that existing waste discharges should be removed the from points of contact with human activity. The strong community traditions provide the potential for mobilizing considerable community initiative for improving maintenance of drains and solid waste collection services within neighborhoods. Community leaders, churches, women's groups and NGO's can play a crucial role in this effort. iii. The recent establishment of an autonomous public agency responsible for water supply and sewerage functions is and important initiative. This should enable the limited technical and financial resources to used to maximum effect, particularly with the AIDAB funded institutional development assistance now in place. The recent tariff increase will to contain the contribution by government from scarce budgetary resources, particularly in view of the prevailing fiscal situation. Further periodic increases in service charges will be needed. However, care should also be given to protecting affordable access to water supply for low-income families which generally have a larger family size, through 'lifeline" consumption tariffs. iv. The time has also come to redefine the core functions of the Honiara Municipal Authority to enable it to focus its limited administrative and financial resources on improving priority services and consideration should be given to transferring health and education functions to other govemment agencies. v. Priority attention should also be given to clarifying institutional responsibilities for land use planning and to revising planning standards. The overall consequence of present land use planning standards that regulate residential lot size is a much higher marginal cost of extending services and infrastructure to Honiara's newest, and often poorest, residents. Fully one quarter of the Honiara population living in temporary housing areas are effectively outside the formal framework for urban planning and service provision. This will inevitably add to the costs of providing infrastructure services at some point. Providing reticulated water to the remaining land now being developed along highland ridges will be more difficult and expensive. vi. The prevailing view to emerge from a range of stakeholders during consultations and a public forum in September and October 1994 was that solutions to urban environmental problems are not technical and are likely to be more sustainable if they engage the community at large. Particular pnorities endorsed to govemment policy makers during a public forum included: i) undertaking urgent investments to upgrade water and sewerage systems and mobilize community action to improve drainage; ii) rationalizing the service functions of the Honiara Municipal Authority; and iii) amending legislation to process planning decisions through a Land Management Board and regularizing the status of the Temporary Housing Areas. 44 1. Urban Development - Background growth rate of over 7 per cent, current estimates suggest that this may now be as Trends high as 10 per cent. This is markedly higher than the 3.4 per cent growth rate for the 1.01 The Solomon Islands form an country as a whole. archipelago nation consisting of six main, 1.03 The national population growth rate and many small islands. The country has a is amongst the highest in the world and has total land area of 27,990 km2 spread across resulted in a relatively young population with 1300 km. of the Pacific Ocean. With 80 per 49 per cent under 15 years. The present age cent of this land under forest cover, human structure will provide substantial momentum settlement has concentrated along the coast for future population growth in the Solomon and river fronts. Honiara, the capital, is the Islands and will sustain the trend of high only sizable urban center in the country. migration to urban areas, especially Honiara. Auki and Gizo are smaller towns that have Much of this migration will continue to come been included in some parts of this study. om Mais Fig.a1.1) where ecomi from Malaita (see Fig. 1.1) where economic Demographic Trends and Urbanization activity is insufficient to absorb population growth and because a strong presence of The Solomon Islands has 1.02 The Solomon Islands has the Malaitans already exists in the 'temporary the lowest rate of lowest rate of urbanization (32 per cent) and housing areas' in Honiara (see section on urbanization (32 per cent) and one of the fastest one of the fastest growing urban centers in Urban Settlement, Land Use, and Planning growing urban centers in the Pacific region. Despite consistent below). The very substantial migration to the the Pacific region, emphasis on decentralization and provincial Guadalcanal plain, and especially to the govemance since independence in 1978, areas in and around Honiara, indicate the Despite severe problems urbanization remains primarily a spread of Honiara's influence. of service provision in the phenomenon of Honiara alone, which is very 1.04 When civil administration resumed smaller towns, it is much a primate city. Honiara has an aRer World War II, the administrative center apparent that the prncipal estimated 1994 population of 45,000 - 12 was moved from the devastated town of are concentrated in per cent of the total national population; Auki Tulagi to a new site at Honiara on the north Honiara which continues and Gizo are much smaller, with respective coast of Guadalcanal. However, Honiara has to grow more rapidly than ppltoso 00ad20.Bten cato udlaa.Hwvr oir a other urban centers. populations of 2000 and 2200. Between only recently acquired some of the 1981 and 1986, Honiara had an annual characteristics of an established urban Figure 1.1: Migration Trends center. Until the early 1970s, growth of a SOTA MOU 4 s :permanent urban population in Honiara was ', \ | v MALAITA PR0VINCE slow, in part, because of low urban wages. In 1976, more than three out of four residents of Honiara were bom elsewhere. By 1986, this proportion had declined slightly as Honiara-bom children became more of a factor, pointing to the slowly growing stability of the urban population. 73 _ Z r ~ Nevertheless, more than nine out of ten _ _ ; ffi e~~ = ' i adults usually resident in Honiara at that time were bom elsewhere. . ,, a v 1.05 Other towns, especially Gizo, are GUAOALCANAL also significant lifetime migration destinations but on a much smaller scale. PROVINCE Despite severe problems of service provision in these smaller towns, however, it 45 is apparent that the principal challenges of of the Solomon Islands. The service sector urbanization are concentrated in Honiara accounts for 57 per cent of all formal wage which continues to grow more rapidly than employment in the country and most of this other urban centers. is in Honiara. Economic Sefting 1.09 The economic preeminence of Because of Ets preeminent Honiara is likely to grow in the future. In the position as the center of 1.06 The Solomon Islands economy is agriculture sector, the successful joint venture services, paid employment. and industry, Honiara's largely dominated by subsistence agriculture development of palm oil is concentrated in the economic performance and cash crop production in forestry and North Guadalcanal plains and has resulted in signifcantly influences fisheries. In 1991, gross domestic product considerable migration into the area around national economic growth. (GDP) was estimated at around US$220 Honiara. Other main areas of growth have also million, or about US$660 per capita. been in agro-industries that are mostly Agriculture, forestry and fisheries accounted concentrated in Honiara (rice milling, fish for about 31 per cent of GDP, 20 per cent of canning as well as other industries, such as formal employment, and almost all of the the manufacture of biscuits, coarse tobacco, Solomon Islands' exports. Copra, timber, fish soft drinks, nails and soap). Tourism makes a (mainly tuna), and palm oil, together account small contribution to the economy and is for 85 per cent of total export receipts. currently centered mainly in and around Employment and production have been very Honiara. Structural adjustment may reduce the sensitive to both changes in commodity public service contribution to the salaried labor prices and the level of foreign assistance. In force. recent years, the latter has accounted for about 21 per cent of GDP. 1.10 Urban Incomes and Poverty. Income distribution in Honiara is quite skewed, 1.07 A structural adjustment program is in part because of the higher expatriate being developed which, in conjunction with incomes: less than 1 per cent of the natural resources management, is aimed at households eams 50 per cent of the total promoting sustainable economic income. According to the Honiara Household development. Initiatives include promotion Income and Expenditure Survey 1990191, 45 of small manufacturing to raise value-added per cent of households eam less than SI$750 in the country's products, as well as the (US$190) a month (with a mean monthly streamlining of the public sector in the face household income of SI$430 compared to a of large fiscal deficits, estimated at Sl$24.7 mean income of SI$840 for the city as a million for 1993. These initiatives will further whole). Lower-income groups tend to have stimulate urbanization. large families ranging from 6 to 8 persons 1.08 The Urban Economy. Govemment compared to about 5 persons in families with statistics indicate that, in 1987, the urban monthly incomes exceeding SI$5,000. economy contributed about half of national Understandably, this low-income group spends Land use presents two sets GDP. Because of its preeminent position as more than half (55 per cent) of its household of challenges for the provision of environmental the center of services, paid employment, expenditure on food. sanitation to Honiara's and industry, Honiara's economic residents uncontrolled and performance significantly influences national Urban Land Use low density settlement invotwng higher economic growth. Currently, Honiara infrastructure capital and accounts for 50 per cent of total formal 1.11 Problems Of Land Use and operatng costs: and need employment in the Solomon Islands and 61 Environmental Sanitation. Land use to expand into customary presents two sets of challenges tor the lands where land acquisition per cent of all wages paid. The economy of presen o etsiofmchallengestfor th is problematical. Honiara is oriented to administration and provision of environmental sanitation to commerce, and the resultant employment Honiara's residents. First, uncontrolled land structure is thus very different from the rest development has resulted in settlement in 46 areas that are both difficult to serve and low will remain high, particularly since continued density. This implies much higher capital population growth is forcing development in and operating costs for providing these the upland areas with difficult topography areas with infrastructure and services, (see Fig 1.2). particularly in the hilly areas now remaining. Second, while the city now occupies most of Figure 1.2: New residential areas the area within its formal boundaries, expansion into customary lands will present problems of land acquisition for water supply, a proposed dam behind the town, and siting of a new dump. * ._.,_ _.. , 1.12 Land Use Histofy and Market l, Settlements grew slowly in Honiara until the 1970s. A system of temporary occupation licenses (TOLs) was used to prevent people from permanently settling illegally on public - land, but this system had broken down by the late 1970s. During that decade, over two thirds of all conventional housing was 1.15 A sites and services project subsidized, either as a benefit of supported by the European Community is govemment employment or as public currently being implemented as a means of housing. Still, even the cheapest both providing low income families with govemment housing was unaffordable to a access to land and introducing a measure of large and increasing proportion of the controlled land development. Six areas are population. being developed that will eventually yield over 1100 serviced sites. These were 1.13 During the 1980s, the number of designed to be affordable to all but the residents in informal settlements, officially lowest 10 per cent of the population in full- designated as 'temporary housing areas time formal employment. (THAs) grew by 19 per cent per year. By 1989, there were 33 such areas 1.16 Role of Land Use Planning. accommodating 15 per cent of the Honiara Physical planning is relatively new in population. This proportion has since Solomon Islands, dating back only to the increased to about 23 per cent, despite 1979 Town and Country Planning Act. The deficient water supply, sanitation problems, framework for urban planning in Honiara is poor health conditions, and limited access to the 1988-1992 Town Council Development educational services that characterize these Plan, prepared in 1987. While never officially areas. approved and now seven years old, the document is still used as a general 1.14 Low-density development has background to urban development and resulted in relatively high infrastructure management. It raises a number of problems development costs. Only 40 per cent of the and issues, few if any of which had been land in the city is developable - the rest resolved at the end of the planning period. being too steep or above the practical water 1.17 Land use planning is further limited supply service height of 150 m. and very by the fact that the Honiara Municipal little space (less than 200 ha.) remains for Authority's (HMA) jurisdiction does not cover development. Without revised planning THAs or customary land. Attempts to extend standards which allow more intensive use of physical planning legislation to cover the urban land, infrastructure development cost 47 area owned by the Govemment were twice defeated in parliament in the 1970s. Illegal subdivisions by THA headmen were temporarily halted in 1992 but squatting has since resumed. Development was controlled by permit in the THAs during 1993, but no longer. 48 11. Status of Services, Environment Inadequate pipeline capacity is the main and Institutions cause of low pressure problems in the and______________________________________________________ systems. 2.01 This chapter reviews the current 2.03 Honiara's water supply system is in status of four major urban services: water urgent need of improvement inspite of the supply, sanitation and sewerage, and present funding constraints. Unaccounted drainage (all grouped together) and solid for water is high compared to other countries waste. It reviews the impact of service in Asia and the Pacific (see Fig 2.1). deficiencies on the environment, human Contamination of the drinking water system health, and the urban poor. Lastly, there is is common and none of the water supply an analysis of the institutional framework for systems receive any form of treatment. urban services, including their financing. Fecal coliform readings of up to 240 per 100 ml in all three urban centers are not atypical. Status of Urban Services Residents have reported dirt, and other impurities - including tadpoles - coming from Water Supply their taps. Honiara's water 2.02 In Honiara, over 90 per cent of supply system is in residents have access to government- 2.04 In Gizo and Auki, service provision improgent neei supplied water through some 5,500 metered is poor. In Gizo, people rely mainly on of the present connections. This relatively high coverage catchment water for drinking requirements, funding constraints. rate is diminishing as rapid urban growth and 35 per cent of homes are not connected proceeds in a haphazard fashion, with piping to the reticulated system. Delivered water is and reservoirs no longer able to meet not treated since the turbidity of intake water increases in demand, particularly in the dry far surpasses the capabilities of the current season. Potable water supply is intermiftent sand filter. These filters have not been used because it depends on an unreliable electric for years and are now beyond repair. Water power grid for pumping and because of meters no longer function, having been difficulties in maintaining a system which destroyed by high silt loads. Conditions are was developed in a piecemeal fashion, with similar in Auki where all available water the original supply network dating back to sources are susceptible to contamination, the US military presence in the 1940's. particularly after heavy rains. Leakage in both supply systems is reportedly very high. Figure 2.1: Percentage Unaccounted For Water . - .- .- . - ..- - : - : - ........ 2.05 Adequacy Of Water Resources. Jha _ _:.::: :.:..: ~ ~..::: .:..:... .......:'::::: :::.:X::. ;:::::: : : .::.::::::.::::::. :.:.-.::.:::.::.::::::.:.::. :Water supplies for Honiara were significantly ... . . . . ........... _ I. . .. . . .., ........... .......... Hoara_ ... improved in the late 1980's when the White ............. ........ _River spring source was developed. This ..........~~~~~~~. ............. ..... . ..... ..... ......... ....I...source now supplies the majority of HNulo: .... .:..::..... .: :*....I.,..,., Honiara's water. However, after heavy t..: -............. rainfall, water supplies remain vulnerable to ...........__: ........... ......... ..-...... . . turbidity; conditions are deteriorating as Colonbo I more trees are cleared by logging and land clearing for building sites. There is no backup supply for the White River; Suva _....:....:.:..........:..::: considering its vulnerability, this is a major concem. An altemative supply from the I 18 20 31 40 so 61 Komarindi River has been identified but has Ncntap yet to be developed. Source: ADB 49 Sewage and Wastewater discharged in areas used for swimming and 2.06 In Honiara, approximately 30 seafood gathering. In 1992 tests, fecal 2.06 I Honiaa, appoximatly 30 coliform readings at inhabited areas along per cent of residents are connected to main coast range fo 240 (per 1 lona sewers; the rest rely on septic tanks and, to Ranadi beach to 1100 (offshore of the a lesser degree, pit latrines. Blockages of cenal hospital an thoum olice sewers, which can still occur daily, are now stntoa high of ove 2400 atlthe quicky aftnded o though egulaizedstation) to a high of over 2400 at the fishing quicklynattendced toahrough reguntlarid village. This compares to a World Health maintnancearragemens recntlyOrganization (W/HO) maximum standard of instituted by SIWA. Sewage is not treated 3rg 100aml. WHOu ta tmntar but rather is discharged at the shoreline 30pr10m.Wtotteteto bthratghe is dischargedoat t henty oulshoe improvements to the ouffalls, conditions are through a total of twenty outfalls. The expected to worsen as more consumers are treatment plant at the national hospital is not conected to thesew sstem. being operated and should be integrated into the sewerage system. 2.10 Site-specific pollution is also caused by improper wastewater disposal. In 2.07 A Sewerage Master Plan was some of the valley areas, the valley floor is prepared in 1966pbutahas largelyoeent sealed with alluvial deposits and septic tank ignored as haphazard development proceeds. For example, the Mbokonavera soakaways do not work efficiently. housing area has had sewers laid but these 2.11 Gizo and Auki have small (each have not been connected to the town system.t Thee wonester d to the Rawnad with less than 25 connections) sewerage syste. Th wesem en of he Rnadi systems. The systems are prone to frequent Industrial Estate is served by a reticulated stems The ems are prnetonfeun breakdowns and, even when functioning, sewerage system. Within Ranadi, the local they discharge raw sewage within a few brewery treats its own wastewater and discarge thrugh 200mete outall. meters of shore. Most buildings are connected to septic tanks that are virtually never emptied and discharge directly to 2.08 Areas that are not connected to the stormwater drains. In Gizo, some houses reticulated sewage system largely rely on htoiestat overhang the harbor septic tanks and soakaways. Indeed, most horle. new housing is being built with septic tanks. However, these tanks are not required to Stomwater Drainage meet any construction standards and can quickly become ineffectual. There are about 2.12 In Honiara, storrnwater drainage 2500 septic tanks in Honiara, including in and flood control systems provide limited commercial areas and communal household coverage, and flooding has occurred on systems. The tanks are emptied by the numerous occasions after heavy rains. The Honiara Municipal Authority (HMA) on predominant reason for this appears to be request by households and firms for a fee lack of system maintenance. Culverts and which does not cover operating costs. Many drains are often heavily silted and clogged septic tanks are never emptied. For those with garbage and unchecked vegetation. which are. septage collected is emptied into Flooding problems in Honiara have been local near-shore outfalls. exacerbated as improvements to roads have Severe water proceeded without necessary upgrading of contamination along the shoreline is especially 2.09 The proximity of discharge and lack drainage. problematic since the of sewage collection for over half of sewage is discharged Honiara's residents has led to severe water 2.13 The environmental effects of the in areas used for swmming and seafood contamination along the shoreline. This is limited drainage system in Honiara occur gathenng especially problematic since the sewage is mainly in THAs around trafficked areas. With 50 little development control, most THAs, which collection for hospital wastes. Industries are are also often located in low-lying areas that responsible for collecting and disposing their are prone to flooding, have no micro- own wastes. drainage and resultant risks of mosquito breeding are high. After rains, water also 2.16 An estimated 8,000 to 10,000 tons ponds along roads, resulting in mud of waste are said to be collected from nuisance, restricted access, and breeding Honiara annually, which likely represents a grounds for insects. These problems are collection efficiency of over 75 per cent of expected to worsen if unplanned settlement waste generated. This implies a daily waste increases in river valleys, quantities of runoff generation rate of 0.6 to 0.8 kg. per capita increase, road maintenance continues to per day. This relatively high rate is primarily worsen, and the sewerage system becomes due to the high percentage of organic more heavily loaded. material in the waste stream including food waste which is not consumed by pigs at the 2.14 In Gizo and Auki, there are no household level because pigs are not proper stormwater drainage systems and permitted in Honiara. both towns are subject to flooding during frequent heavy rains. 2.17 The reported collection efficiency is relatively high for the Pacific. This suggests Solid Waste Management that either a reasonably good service is being delivered, or that the volume of waste 2.15n area,waste iscollecteon. I the HonMA reportedly collected, which is not regularly urban area, waste Is collected by the HMA. moire,sntacut. The HMA operates two aging compactor monitored, Is not accurate. The dump at Honiara has trucks for more-or-less daily collection in the been considered a health y 2.18 Waste Disposal. All wastes hazard by the World commercial area and private contractors collected from Honiara are taken to the Heafth Organization operate six open trucks to collect residential Ranadi Dump, about 5 kilometers east of the waste. Contractors are supposed to collect residntia wase ona wekly asistown center. The dump covers about 10 residential waste on a weekly basis; hectares in a low-lying coastal area. Waste however, this service often lapses into is spread over a large area and remains monthly collection. Yard wastes are not co*llected and are usually bumed or dumped uncompacted and uncovered for up to one cnolocaleedraind ahereusually burnedort dummonth at a time (see Fig 2.2). A bulldozer is hired about once a month to spread garbage Figure 2.2: Ranadi garbage dump, Honiara and cover material. Very little cover material is used because of the high cost (SlS251m3). 2.19 The dump in Honiara is being eroded on the seaward side and is 4~~~~ ...^K1...1m,.x.h obstructing Brown's Creek, exacerbating \ ~~~~~~~~~~~~upstream flooding. The dump has been considered a health hazard by WHO; it is a , 'e ^f- --.Xx breeding site for insects and rodents, a contributor to marine pollution, and a source of foul odors. --t j _ t2.20 Efforts have been underway for . _ _ , t . # * ~ - several years to establish a new dump site. Several potential sites have been identified. However, as there are land acquisition 51 difficulties, it is likely that no site will be results in higher populations of mosquitoes available for several years. With improved with likely correspondingly higher incidence operating practices and adoption of of malaria, which is endemic to the Solomon programs that reduce the waste stream, the Islands. Annual treatment costs for malaria, current dump site could be used for another as well as infectious and parasitic diseases, four to six years. in Honiara are estimated at a minimum of SI$1.8 million (see Annex 2). This is a 2.21 In Gizo and Auki, the Provincial minimum estimate for the economic costs of Govemment collects waste from the town environmental health; a complete estimate center (mainly the market) daily, and would cover the costs of decreased worker residential wastes are supposed to be productivity and lost wages due to sickness. collected weekly. This schedule is rarely achieved with residential waste often being Coping Strategies of the Urban Poor collected only monthly. In Gizo, wastes are dumpd alngsie a oad ome hree2.24 Background surveys for this study were conducted in low-income communities kilometers from the town. In Auki, the wastes in Honiara, Gizo, and Auki. These surveys are dumped along the foreshore where they wintended to assess aTernativey are frequntly wased away.were intended to assess altemative arrangements made by communities - Environmental Hot Spots. including low-income urban families, in parbcular - that do not have direct access to 2.22 Three environmental hot spots exist municipal services or when service is throughout the city; two are site-specific and unreliable or of such poor quality that it the third is scattered in many locations. In imposes health risks on consumers (for the first category, (a) the environment and example, intermittent and/or contaminated health in the Ranadi area are being water supply, regular prolonged flooding or degraded by the sewage outfall, pollution ineffective treatment/disposal of wastes). from the industrial estate, disease vectors Surveys in all communities indicate a high and waste from the dump, and coastal level of dissatisfaction with the quality and erosion, and (b) the Kukum-Vura foreshore, reliability of water supply and environmental with its ten sewage ouffalls, poses health sanitation services. The incidence of beliun risks to its residents as well as anyone (diarrhea) is high in all three towns. Low- eating seafood from its waters. In the third income residents rated water supply and category, many of the 33 THAs can be sanitation worst in Gizo, but service quality considered mini-hot spots that are plagued was not rated much higher in Auki or with health and other problems associated Honiara. By contrast, garbage collection with poor drainage, inadequate water supply rated as satisfactory in Gizo - better than in and sanitation, and lack of solid waste the other towns surveyed. Health services collection. These areas are presented in were highly rated everywhere confirming the Annual treatment costs Map 26037. * emphasis given to curative health care. for malana. as well as infectious and parasitic diseases. in Honiara are Impacts on Health and the Urban Poor 2.25 Health education programs appear estimated at a minimum to have had only partial success. While low- of SISIB. 8 million. Health Risks income communities understand the link 2.23There is a significant incidence of water between mosquitoes and malaria, no strong related diseases in the Solomon Islands. connection is made between mosquito Indicatively, the 1993 incidence of diarrhea breeding and stagnant water. So, drainage in Honiara increased by about 60 per cent improvements are not identified as a priority over 1987. Serious outbreaks of disease for govemment action. Even so, there is a could occur at any time. Poor drainage 52 great deal of community action to maintain Municipal Authority (HMA), supervised by neighborhood drains in some communities. the Honiara Town Council, is responsible for environmental health, solid waste, and 2.26 When frequent disruptions to water drainage. The HMA also used to be supply occur, residents in all three towns responsible for sewerage. In the other urban generally use a nearby stream or river, or centers, the provincial govemments provide visit friends in neighboring communities that limited services. are not affected. Toilets are not used when water supply is cut off. At such time, Water Supply and Sewerage residents dig pits or use the beach. Septic 2.30 The Solomon Islands Water tanks are emptied fairly regularly in these communities to reduce offensive smells. Atoiy(IA a salse nlt 1992 as an autonomous agency to take over Kitchen refuse is normally used in vegetable responsibility for water supply and sewerage gardens and yard waste is generally bumed, initially in Honiara and eventually also in the buried or dumped in drains. Disposal in the sea was also noted. ~nine provincial capitals. Presently, SIWA operates primarily in Honiara. SIWA has a 2.27 Honiara residents felt that services Board of Directors comprising a Chairman were poor in the 1980s and have (significantly, the current chairman is not derieporated firther since then. They are, part of the civil service), appointed by the however, optimistic about the likelihood of Minister, MTWU: the Permanent Secretary, future improvements to water supply, waste MTWU; five members appointed by the collection and drainage, but not about Minister, of whom two are public officials; *-olectin an dranage butnot boutand the General Manager of the Authority. sanitation. They express willingness to pay the General Manager is the Drtorothe significantly more for better water supply, g former Water Division - a Solomon Islander with a degree in civil engineering. SIWA is Only in Honiara were 2.28 Expressed willingness to pay more organized in two parts: people willing to pay for improved services was very low (a few signmi'cantly mome tor cents) in the other two towns. This is despite a) Engineering, covering Water, better water supply, Sewerage, Environment and Planning sanitation and solid the sense that services were somewhat waste disposal, better than in the 1980s and expectations are relatively high in Auki and Gizo that b) Corporate services, covering services will be improved further. These accounting, personnel, and planning. responses may reflect the greater permanence felt by residents in Honiara 2.31 SIWA has an approved staffing of compared to Auki where outmigration is high 132 positions for both water and sewerage and Gizo where immigration has slowed operations, 42 above that of its predecessor since the opening of the nearby port at Noro - the Water Unit in the MTWU's which was which has drawn employment away. also made responsible for the sewerage system from 1992. Moreover, 35 of these Institutional Framework new positions are for the provinces, and, to begin with, only about 75 positions would be 2.29 As in most developing countries, filled. Currently, there is no specific staffing management of urban services in Solomon allocation for the maintenance and operation Islands is in the public domain. The Ministry of the water systems in the provinces. Chart of Transport, Works, and Utilities (MTWU) 1 indicates the summary organization was, until recently, responsible for water structure of the Authority. supply in Honiara, while the Honiara 53 2.32 A major institutional development of: (a) a 12 per cent tariff increase in program is currently underway in SIWA, with Honiara; (b) an 11 per cent increase in financing provided by AIDAB. The program billing volume, through more efficient billing includes: (a) an organizational enhancement procedures; (c) introduction of a sewer (twinning) component, which provides for surcharge, at 50 per cent of the water bill; five engineers from the Hunter Water and (d) revenue from water sales in the Corporation in Australia to take up senior provinces. However, as a result of carrying technical positions in SIWA for a five year out regular maintenance and increasing staff period; (b) a succession component, which salaries, expenditure will also go up, provides for up to three Solomon Islanders resulting in a (nine-month) 1994 deficit of to attend universities in Australia each year, SIS0.59 million, close to the full year deficit for a total of 15 person-years and take up for 1993. Nevertheless, 0 & M cost recovery technical positions in SIWA on retum; and, is expected to go up from 72 per cent to 79 (c) provision for in-country training through per cent. specialized courses at the Solomon Islands College of Higher Education (SICHE) for Solid Waste, Drainage, and Sanitation junior staff, and training in Australia through 2.35 The Works Department of the HMA short courses and attachments at the Hunter Water Corporation for middle-level staff. is responsible for solid waste management and drainage in Honiara. Waste collection from residential areas is contracted out, Table 2.1 Summary Financial Results while departmental staff are responsible for for Urban Water Supply and Sewerage collection from the commercial areas as well (SIS million) as management of the disposal site at 1993 1994 Ranadi. The HMAs Health Department is Revenue 1.66 2.27 responsible for sludge removal from septic Expenditure 2.30 2.86 tanks. In the provincial urban centers of Gizo and Auki, the provincial Ministries of Health Deficit 0.64 0.59 are responsible for solid waste management. There are no proper O&M Cost stormwater drainage systems that are Recovery 72% 79% institutionally maintained in these two towns. based on 9 month budget 2.36 The total cost of solid waste management services in Honiara in 1993 is 2.33 Until the formation of SIWA, estimated to be about SI$750,000. This finances of the water and sewerage sector in represents half of HMA's works budget and Honiara came under the MTWU which 15 per cent of total municipal expenditures. prepared the budgets, exercised budget While no charges have been imposed by control over expenditure, and maintained the HMA for solid waste collection so far, it accounts. No expenditure details are proposes to charge domestic and . available for services in the provinces, and commercial customers SI$50 per year and no revenues were collected. Table 2.1 SIS250 per year, respectively from 1994. summarizes the financial situation of This would result in almost full recovery of Honiara water supply in 1993 (results of the O&M cost. Water Unit) and 1994 (nine months budget of SIWA). 2.37 The estimated sanitatfon costs incurred by the HMA in 1993 for sludge 2.34 Operating revenues were expected removal from septic tanks is Sl$120,000. to increase substantially in 1994 as a result The Authority charges SI$50 and SIS150 for 54 sludge removal from residential and through the Municipal Authority. The commercial properties respectively. In 1993, Committee is expected to issue its report these charges resulted in an estimated later this year. revenue of SIS46,500 or an O&M cost recovery ratio of only 39 per cent. However, 2.41 Although Honiara has a Town and in view of the significant beneficial impact on Country Planning Board, responsible for public health, some measure of subsidy is physical planning, there are no guidelines on justified to encourage residents to empty which to base zoning of land and to allocate septic tanks on a timely basis. services, other than the now-outdated, Subsidies for water unofficial 1988-1992 Plan. The Board has suppey, tgether with 2.38 Government Funding. Subsidies the power to enact a local planning scheme the National Govemment for water supply, together with budgetary to ensure orderly urban development. for operating expenses of support from the National Govemment for However, it must be developed through environmental sanitation services in Honiara operating expenses of environmental fifteen legally-required steps before it can amounted to about Sl1 sanitation services in Honiara amounted to become operational. million in 1993 - about about SIS1 million in 1993 - about 4 per cent 4 per cent of the total Government budgeta/ of the total Government budgetary deficit for 2.42 The Board and the HMA are also deficit for the year. the year. limited in terms of expanding the area that constitutes the legal city. The legal 2.39 Capital Expenditure. No major constraint to Honiara's physical expansion is capital works have been undertaken in any the acquisition of customary land to the west of the sectors during the last few years. A and south, the alienated lands to the east number of donors, including AIDAB, WHO, and southeast, and Guadalcanal Province ADB have funded various studies (see land within and immediately outside the Annex 1 for details). Some modest town. investment support is being provided under AIDAB's present TA and the EC is presently 2.43 The HMA is empowered to raise financing development of the Kombito rates and charges. its main sources of boreholes as part of its housing revenue are: (a) land rates levied on the development project. unimproved value of land; (b) basic rates; (c) business licenses; and (d) other charges Urban Management such as those for septic tank services Government is currently mentioned above. 1994 revenues projected examining the feasibility 2.40 The HMA and its political oversight at SI$6.60 million, leaving a projected deficit of providing local urban body, the Honiara Town Council, established of SIS360,000, after receiving a Govemment services directly in in 1969 under the Local Govemment Act, through the Muncipal are responsible for town planning, subsidy of almost Sl$1 milion. Authority. education, health and sanitation, Planning Problems maintenance of feeder roads and bridges, 2.44 In Honiara, and the Solomon drainage and solid waste management. Chartag 2n shows thetorganizationest.cture o Islands in general, planning problems are Chart 2 shows the organization structure of exacerbated by the lack of trained people (a the HMA. Education, health, and road eaebtdb h ako rie epe( situation which is equally true of service maintenance services are all heavily provision, inciuding housing and water dependent on central government grants supply) and by the lack of coordination and staff seconded from the relevant minstns. goernentappintd Cty ill between HMA, Guadalcanal Province and inistres. A govemment appointed City Bill the National govemment. The Commissioner Committee is currently reviewing the role of Lands (Ministry of Agriculture and Lands) and functions of the Town Council including the feasibility of providing local urban hs, and ues,oth or toe lan use planning decisions of the HMA Town services directly in Honiara, rather than 55 and Country Planning Board. For example ECD to undertake these responsibilities the Board reserved the foreshore of the countrywide. Kukum area for a beach park but the Commissioner overrode that decision and 2.46 The Town and Country Planning allocated the land for individual home Act of 1979 allows the PPD to ensure that construction. land, other than customary land, is used in accordance with govemment policies. Environmental Management including environmental guidelines. This 2.45 At the national level, the key responsibility will terminate at the end of agencies that have responsibility for urban 1994 and is being devolved to local environmental management are the govemment. Environmental and Conservation Division 2.47 At the local level, environmental (ECD) of the Ministry of Natural Resources, and the Physical Planning Division (PPD) of sanitation is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. The the Chief Health Inspector of the HMA. The Environment Act of 1993 empowers the ECD Inspector has a staff of nine who are to prevent pollution and reduce health risks responsible for: (a) inspection of food by regulating discharge of all pollutants, premises; (b) vector control through by regulating dischmaragemeof , allpoluant, neighborhood inspections; and (c) regulating waste management, and environmental health, including monthly promoting recycling, re-use and recovery. eniomna hat,icung motl promover,ting re ling, Seree andmirecover, bacterial sampling of water sources and the Howeer, he PblicServce Cmmision supply system, and inspection of septage, has authorized only four positions for the supyyte,adipcioofetge public toilets, and the dump, but only for Hloniara at this stage. 56 111. Meeting Medium-Term Needs b) improve and replace current chlonnators (US$75,000 capital, $4,000 annual costs), also being 3.01 This chapter reviews the medium- implemented already by SIWA; term service needs in each sector, discusses steps to strengthen sector c) protect current water sources through institutions, and considers pricing and cost the introduction of enforced legislation recovery issues in some detail. The and education and ensure that Govemment faces the challenge of disturbances in catchment areas are efficiently utilizing scarce financial resources minimized (US$25,000 annually); and to provide adequate water supply and d) upgrade and replace current facilities environmental sanitation services to a (US$3 million); Phase 1 - Treatment growing population urban. Under the and Reservoirs US$1.75 million; and ongoing AIDAB-financed technical Phase 2 - Transmission and assistance project, a five year investment Reticulation US$1.25 million. strategy for water supply and wastewater has been drawn up and is already approved by SIWA's Board. This strategy was Medium-term needs include: formulated on the premise that only limited a) develop a new water source (US$4.5 funds would be available and gives priority million); to providing continuous water supply and to ensuring that the existng sewerage systems b) prepare a land use suitability analysis meet at least minimal environmental identifying areas that can be serviced standards. The cost of this engineering plan more cheaply and investigate ways to is estimated at about SI$20 million. Quality minimize pumping requirements for and reliability of water supply and water supply. The plan should have a rehabilitation of aging facilities is deferred phased and zoned land development until additional funds can be made available. strategy, and this zoning should be enforced. The development plan Priority Improvements for the Water should also provide strategies to Supply System minimize infrastructure maintenance costs. The existing Integrated 3.02 Most of the water supply system's Development Plan for Honiara could deficiencies in Honiara are known and be revised to form the basis of this priorities for improvement have been document (US$50,000); and identified. The following is a prioritized c) develop a water supply and master compilation of identified immediate needs. plan as part of the above strategy Budget estimates are only rough (US$40,000). approximations. Immediate priorities include: a) educate the general public about 3.03 Work is currently underway in Gizo water supply and the need for careful to replace the existing water treatment and usage as the most cost-effective way supply facilities. This work is being funded to reduce water system losses by AIDAB and is expected to be complete (US$25,000 annually) - now before 1995. This work is expected to underway by SIWA. Fitting new remedy the water quality problem. However, washers to domestic taps is another additional priorities include development of low-cost way To significantly reduce new water sources and rehabilitation of water losses; reticulation systems in Gizo and in Auki. 57 Priority Improvements to Wastewater activities when unsafe. Also, System education is needed to illustrate the Environmental trade offs connection between disease and poor 3.04 Efforts to fully remedy deficiencies sanitation, providing practical Whilst contamination of the in wastewater collection, treatment and examples of how people can reduce near shore manne environment will continue to drainage cannot proceed in isolation of an their health risks. (US$25,000 worsen, the first priority in overall urban development plan. Even so, annually); Honiara should be to remove there are steps that can be taken the existing discharges frm c) update the 1984 Sewerage and direct points of conflict with Immediately to improve conditions that Dateate M1984 Sewerage and human activities, require little capital investment. The Dane Mastoderlanmfo Honia following is a list of immediate priorities to Preparation of a land improve the provision of wastewater then and to identify two or three use and integratedpeerdofallctos h urban development services in Honiara. Approximate "order of preferred outfall locations. The plan holds the key to magnitude" costs are given, resulting Master Plan should be improving drainage and incorporated within an overall urban wastewater a) identify an altemative location for development plan. Caution is needed management. disposing of pumped septage, and an 'up front' commitment to The strong tradition of preferably on land (US$15,000 ensure that the same fate as the 1966 community involvement and annual operating costs); study does not await this new study consensus in the Solomon U$000) Islands would considerably b) create and implement a public (US$100,000) facilitate implementation of a education campaign that dissuades 'condominial sewerage people from using foreshore areas 3.05 The towns of Gizo and Auki require for recreational and food gathering sewage works improvements as well. A first, urgently required, phase of US$85,000 is Box 3.1: The Condominial System - Innovative Low-cost needed to make the current systems Sewerage in Northeast Brazil operational. A second phase of US$1 million will be needed to replace and With a shorter grid of smaller and shallower 'feeder' sewers improve the current sewage and drainage running through backyards, costs have been cut to 20 to 30 per cent of works for both towns. those with a conventional system. The more fundamental innovation, however, is the active participation of the population in choosing the level of service and in 3.06 Construction of a sewage operating and maintaining the 'feeder' infrastructure. Families can treatment facility for Honiara is not included choose to continue with their present system, to connect to a in the above list. Ideally, the discharge of conventional waterbome system (which usually means a holdTing tank discharging into an open street drain), or to connect to a *condominial untreated sewage to the sea should be system. Connection charges and tariffs for conventional systems are avoided, however, considering the high normally higher reflecting their higher capital and operating costs. capital and operating costs required, it is not Experience to date indicates that most families that initially realistic to recommend the construction of a choose not to connect eventually change their mind. Either they succumb treatment plant at this time. Whilst to pressure from neighbors, or they find the buildup of wastewater in and around their houses intolerable once the (connected) neighbors fill in the contamination of the near shore marine rest of the open drain. environment will continue to worsen, the Individual households are responsible for maintaining the first priority in Honiara should be to remove "feeder' sewers, with the formal agency tending to the trunk mains. This the existing discharges from direct points of increases the communities' sense of responsibility for the system. conflict with human activities. These Second, the misuse of any part of the 'feeder' system (by, say, putting discharges should be combined into two or solid waste down the toilet) soon shows up as a blockage in the neighbor's portion of the sewer. The consequence is rapid, direct, and three extended outfalls with a view to informed feedback to the misuser. This virtually eliminates the need to adding a treatment facility in the future. "educate' the users of the system about dos and don'ts and results in fewer blockages than a conventional system. Third, because of the 3.07 Nor has additional reticulation greatly reduced responsibility of the utility, operating costs are much been costed. The Master Plan should lower.bencse.TeMsePlnsod consider least-cost options including 58 improved septic tanks and 'condominial' The programs would be further improved if sewerage systems, which experience in they meshed with some form of a regional other countries indicates, can reduce costs recycling program. Waste minimization is substantially compared to conventional another important tool for addressing waste systems. The strong tradition of community management problems. The quantity of involvement and consensus in the Solomon waste could also be reduced through import Islands would considerably facilitate restrictions. However, all of these programs implementabon of a 'condominial' sewerage are heavily reliant on improved public system (see Box 3.1). education and accountability. 3.08 Cost Recovery for Drainage. Only 3.11 The following is a list of immediate minimal costs are incurred in the actions to improve the provision of waste maintenance of the drainage system in management services to be implemented Honiara. As a 'public good', drainage simultaneously: expenditures should be financed from a) increase public education on ways to HMA's general revenues. However, a reduce wastes, particularly through substantial effort should be mounted to rsoup soup vegetable gardens and establish community-based drain pig feed (US$25,000 annually); maintenance programs, possibly with materials and equipment provided by HMA b) introduce a broader range of deposits and annual awards given to the cleanest with a corresponding recycling neighborhoods. program (US$10,000 annually); c) improve collection efficiencies -Options for Improving Solid Waste truhbte otata M1anagement Services through better contractual arrangements and increases in 3.09 When addressing waste budget allocation (US$50,000 Solid waste management management issues, the first and best annually); is best approached by option is to reduce the quantities of waste d) improve operations at the Ranadi reducing the quantities ofd)ipoepraonatheRai waste requiting disposal. requinng disposal. Waste generabon rates in dump site by better regulating Recycling and waste Honiara appear to be high relative to similar incoming wastes, reducing open minimization are viable in communities in the Pacific. This increase is buring, allocating a bulldozer full- partly because of the high levels of organic time, and increasing the amount of matter in the waste stream. This material cover material used (US$50,000 could be collected separately and used as annually); and pig feed or composted. More household disposal of organic waste could be achieved e) identify a new dump-site for Honiara by expanding the "Soup Soup' vegetable and begin the process of land garden program. This program advises acquisition. This process should residents on how to compost and improve include a significant component of gardening activities. public participation. Acquiring a new dump site for Auki and Gizo is an 3.10 Solid waste management is best urgent priority and should be approached by reducing the quantities of completed before the end of 1994. waste requiring disposal. Recycling and waste minimization are viable in Honiara and 3.12 Pricing and Cost Recovery. must play a much larger role. The current Charges proposed by the HMA for solid deposits are extremely effective on glass waste collection (see section on Sector bottles. These could be expanded to include Finances) are estimated to fully meet the other materials, such as battenes and metal. estimated costs of providing the service. 59 These charges would need to be and (ii) to establish the financial complemented with deposit schemes to help sustainability of the SIWA. expand recycling efforts and, thereby, minimize the wastes requiring disposal. 3.14 The recent establishment of SIWA as an autonomous public agency, is a major Box: 3.2 Institutional Options for Infrastructure Provision step in the right direction. It is recognized The World Bank's World Development Report 1994 (Infrastnucture that in many developing countries, the for Development) discusses four main options for ownership and provision of setting up of autonomous water enterprises infrastructure services: public ownership and operation by enterprise or has not resulted in significant improvements department; public ownership with operation contracted to the private sector, i private ownership and operation, often with regulation; and community and in service However, there are no practical user provision. altematives immediately available in the Public ownership and public operation. Public provision by a Solomon Islands: there is neither a well govemment department, public enterprise, or parastatal authority is the most common form of infrastructure ownership and operation. Successful public developed private sector nor a sufficiently entities run on commercial principles and give managers control over strong regulatory capacity in govemment to operations and freedom from political interference, but they also hold monitor a corporatized private water managers accountable, often through performance agreements or management contracts. And they follow sound business practices and are monopoly. subject to the same regulatory, labor law, accounting, and compensation standards and practices as private firms. Tariffs are set to cover costs, and 3.15 The separation of water and any subsidies to the enterprise are given for specific services and in fixed amounts. In the Asia Pacific region, this is the most common institutional sewerage from MTWU will enable one arrangement in the water sector a recent Asian Development Bank survey insttution, i.e., SIWA, to focus its undivided found that of the 38 water utilities in its 23 developing member counties in attention on the important urban services of Asia and the Pacific, 16 are govemment departments, 18 are govemment enterprises and four have somewhat more autonomy. water supply and sewerage, both in Honiara Public ownership with private provision. This option is typically and the other urban centers in the country, implemented through lease contracts for full operation and maintenance of publicly owned facilities, or through concessions, which include construction and also be held accountable for the quality and financing of new capacity. In the water sector, leases and concessions and performance of the service. are working well in Argentina (Buenos Aires) and Guinea. Countries with concessions to build and operate water sector facilities include Malaysia and Mexico. In February 1994, UNELCO, a company operating the electric 3.16 The costs of providing the serice, power supply In Vanuatu for over 30 yearn, took over the management the amounts billed, and the revenues and operation of the water supply system In Vanuatu. collected can now be clearly and Privat ownership and private operstion. Private ownership and operation of infrastructure facilities is increasing, both through new entry by transparently identified. SIWA will not be private firms in infrastructure markets and through divestiture of public constrained by the rules and regulations that ownership of entire systems. Such arrangements are becoming increasingly typically result in slow decision making in popular for telecommunications and power. Community and user provision. Community and user provision govemment, e.g., centralization, budget and is most common for local, smallscale infrastructure, such as rural feeder procurement procedures. Furthermore, roads, community water supply and sanitation, distribution canais for SIWA can establish its own employment irrigation, and maintenance of local drainage systems. It often complements central or provincial services. Successful community provision requires user conditions, including pay scales (and has involvement in decision-making, especially to set priorities for expenditures already done so), and attract and retain and to ensure an equitable and agreed sharing of the benefits and costs of qualified staff from throughout the labor pool. service provision. Technical assistance, tramining, and compensation of service operators are also very important. In the PacIfic Island Countries, It also contracts for goods and services with their strong social structures, some aspects of urban sanitation, directly, rather than through the slow, central solid waste management, and drainage maintenance could benefit from procurement procedures. greater community involvement 3.17 SIWA is off to a good start: it has a Strengthening Sector Institutions chairman, and three non-govermental The two major challenges for members on Rs Board; by March 1994, after the water and sewerage sector Water and Sanitation are (i) to provide affordable 3.13 The two major challenges for the two meetings, the Board had approved services to the large low- SIWAs organization structure, employment ncome population in Honiara; water and sewerage sector are: (i) to provide conditions and pay scales, and a tariff and (i) to restore the financial affordable services to the large and rapidly sustainability of the SIWA. growing low-income population in Honiara inprrease A major institutional development project, funded by AIDAB, is already 60 The separation of water and underway. Now, a number of additional the project, in place of one of the engineers. sewerage from MTWVJ .will steps need to be taken, both immediately If this were not feasible, SIWA would need to enable one institution, i.e.. SIWA, to focus its undivided and on an on-going basis, to enable SIWA to immediately seek additional technical attention on the important provide an efficient service on a financially assistance for this purpose. urban services of water viable basis. supply and sewerage, both in Honiara and the other 3.20 Successful Implementation of urban centers in the country, 3.18 Staffing and Takeover of Institutional Development Project The accountable for the quaidty Operations. As of March 1994, SIWA was AIDAB project presents SIWA with an and perfonmance of the essentially a shell. Although the structure, excellent opportunity to get off the ground service. employment conditions, and pay scales had quickly, while Solomon Islanders are trained been approved, operations in Honiara through short courses in-country and in continued to be managed by Water Unit Australia. The appointment of qualified staff. SIWA had also not taken over technical staff from the Hunter Water operations in any of the other urban centers. Corporation as line managers is likely to be The following actions have recently been more effective than as advisers during this taken: critical period when SIWA must be put on a a) transfer of the required, qualified staff sound footing. However, experience in other (that Is, not all staff) of the Water countries has shown that unless proper Unit; steps are taken to follow through on timely implementation of the project, dependence Measured progress b) recruitment of other staff, especially on expatriates will continue at the end of the toward timely for the position of Chief of Corporate project. Measured progress toward timely disengagement by expstnate lmne Services, and other key positions in disengagement by expatriate line managers managers and advisers corporate services e.g., Chief and advisers holds the key to effective holds the key to Accountant, Policy and Planning institutional development for the Water effective institutonal development for the Officer; and Authority and should be monitored by SIWA Water and Sewer adteADB Authority c) negotiations are underway for SIWA and the AIDAB. to take over operations in provincial centers starting with Gizo and Noro, Pricing Water Supply and Sewerage in the first instance, and then in Auki. 3.21 The general principle for pricing water supply and without distorting the 3.19 Development of Modem allocation of resources is to set prices to Systems. SIWA is developing modem cover short-run marginal costs. In practice, technical and operational, as well as actual tariffs are determined by the financial commercial, systems and procedures. The goals set for the water supply agency and AIDAB project is expected to develop the need to provide a 'life-line' supply to the systems and procedures for 0 & M of the urban poor at an affordable price. distribution system, including leak detection Economically sound pricing policies typically and repair; O&M of the treatment plants; result in: water quality testing; pipe laying and service connections; and stores management. The a) charging for water on the basis of priority areas on the commercial side, e.g., consumption; and accrual accounting system, budget and cost control systems, are however currently not b) incorporation of a 'social' block for a part of the AIDAB project. It would be worth 'life-line' supply where affordability is examining the feasibility of having an expert constrained, while discouraging on the commercial side as one of the five excess consumption through higher Hunter Water Corporation in SIWA during rates for large volume domestic, the second (and perhaps the third) year of industnal and commercial consumers. 61 A measure of subsidy for human servicing costs for higher-income consumers waste disposal may be justified in living on ridges above the city. view of the very high public health benefits arising. 3.24 The SIWA Board has endorsed the .user pays' principle with a view to reducing Figure 3.1: Water Charges (US$ per m3) subsidies. The 1995 tariff has approved and future increases are being scheduled to 0.5 ensure that revenues are more closely 0.45 - aligned with operating costs, even with up to 0.4 i 10% inflation (see Fig.3.2 below). 0.35 -ImPort Vila 0.3 - * Nuku'alofa USS 0.25 *OHoniara Figure 3.2: Projected SIWA Expenditure & Revenues 0.2 Osuva 0.15 - . * Api* *Ap i 1999 0.15 1999 0.15 1998 - Revenues 0.05 1997 = luExpenditure| 10 20 30 50 1996 m3 m3 m3 m3 1995 Source: ADB 0 2 4 6 SIS million Budgetary Support for 3.22 Financial Viability of SIWA. Low Urban Services tariffs (see Fig: 3.1 for 1992) and low Source: SIWA Even after SIWA's recent collection performance have led to repeated 3.25 A review (and consequent tariff increase, and the deficits. Revenues have been insufficient introduction of solid waste even to cover recurrent expenditures. In an adjustment) every two years would appear charges in Honiara, the to be a good balance between frequent e.g., urban services sector would effort to narrow the shortfall in revenue, a need budgetary support new tariff structure was established by SIWA annual, but small changes and large O&M of the order of as of April 1, 1994. The first section below increases every three to five years. In this US0. 80 million a year ., , context, given the potential delay in assesses the affordability of the new tariff Budgetary (or bilateral structure and suggests equity considerations obtaining Ministenal approval for tarif donor) grant support would for future tariff increases. The second increases, it would be worthwhile to consider be needed for capital amending the Act to provide the Board the expenditure in the next section suggests financial improvements for amending teA povide the Bardfthe three - five years. SIWA. authorty and responsibility to revise tarffs, Thereafter, SIWA would as required, to meet its financial obligations. need to become financially Only exceptional tariff inueases should self-suffiaent, and rely on 3.23 SIWA 's revised tariff, which Oexeptial arifflinReaseseshould soft-loans from the became effective in April 1994, would still require Ministerial approval. Representatives Govemment or from result in an operating deficit of about SIS0.6 from the public and the Govemment, who multilateral aid agencies. million (over 21 per cent) in 1994. Tariffs are on SIWA's Board, would ensure that the tariffs are raised only to the levels essential would need to be reviewed at periodic frfnnilvaiiy intervals, in light of current costs, to ensure for finanaal viability. that the medium-term objective of full recovery of operating costs (excluding3.6 Ithssepartkn,SW deprecvation) ispmerat. costs (xculdi alsob would be able to fully meet operations and madepmoreiation) istmeep pgrefssi t atso be maintenance costs in three to five years. In prdesent particularly inrlghteofshigher tthe short run, however, it would need to rely on grant support for capital expenditures. 62 3.27 Affordability. SIWA's new tariffs service performance. Community leaders, are affordable by the urban poor (see Annex women's groups, NGOs, and churches would 3 for details) even at relatively high play a crucial role in this effort and the full consumption levels of 150 l/cid. In the support of the Govemment would be traditional housing areas, where several essential. families rely on a single standpipe, the higher marginal rates and monopolistic 3.30 Such a compact would also seek to prices charged in some cases by the increase community consultation on, and standpipe operator could, however, result in participation in building and/or maintaining higher water bills that some families may urban infrastructure, targeting service- find difficult to pay. However, attention is deficient areas, and gearing choice of urban already being given by SIWA to minimize technologies to a community's willingness-to- these abuses. pay for services. 3.28 The absence of reliable income 3.31 Some functions require data in other urban centers makes it more institutionalized management arrangements. difficult to assess affordability with precision. Water treatment plants require trained However, water bills at consumption levels technical staff and, to be economical, water of 50 Vc/d. - considerably above lifeline' and sewer reticulation systems must be consumption, would be affordable by planned on a system-wide basis. Other households with incomes as low as SI$50 functions can be more effectively (and more per month. economically) carried out directly by communities without a substantial A Direct Community Role in Service 'bureaucratic overhead cost. Solid waste Provision and Quality Monitoring collection, from within low-income neighborhoods especially, is a community A "compact with the 3.29 Establishing an autonomous water responsibility in many countries and can be consumerw would be agency and increasing tariffs are necessary needed not only to improve condions to improving services. Wdhout lnked to recycing efforts, wt disposal oos reoey but also codtosttipoigsrvsoihu handled by municipal authorities. Similarly, play a dirct rmle in understanding on the part of consumers of the local govemments are seldom able to keep maintaining services such urgent need for these measures, however, as drain cleanng and solid . . . . . neighborhood drains clean and community waste collection within implementation Of actons wil be difficult. action is often more effective. In appropriate neighborhoods. What is required amounts to a "compact conditons, septc tanks provide a satisfactory, Community leaders, Ath the consumer". Such a compact would low-cost means of human waste disposal, vlomensgmups ,eaurs, aim to increase consumer awareness of the provided they are emptied when necessary - and churches would play a costs of providing high quality urban water a responsibility which falls to the individual cnrial role in mobilizing and sewerage/sanitation services as well as community acton in the hygiene and health implications of poor appropriately designed (see Box 3.1 on improving services quality services. It would focus on: the . . qualty ervces Itwoul fous n: he condominialr sewerage systems), be handled importance of water quality; the steps being by communities directly. taken to provide safe water the cost of treabng and distributing water, the need to 3.32 In summary, considerable scope conserve water through careful use and exists for effective, direct community action in reducing leaks and waste; and the need to efforts to improve the quality of a number of charge for water on the basis of metered key urban environmental sanitabon services consumpbon and to collect water charges. It with beneficial impact on environmental health would call for recognition of a community role and at lower cost than through instuions. in quality control through consumer feedback Creative thinking is required to structure on service deficiencies and clear incentives to help stimulate community accountability by the service agency for initiatve in these areas. 63 Urban Management can result in insufficient capacity (in planning) and arbitrary decisions (in 3.33 Strengthening HMA. Given the enforcement). One authority, preferably limited financial resources, and the serious accountable to a local constituency, should shortage of qualified staff, the time has have the ability and power to make and Delineation of clear lines of come to define a set of core functions that enforce land use decisions. Delineation of authority for land use the HMA is best qualified to perform and clear lines of authority for land use planning planning will require a leave the rest either to the Central will require a political decision by the political decision by the national Govemment. Govemment or to other public (or private) national Govemment. agencies. Providing services such as The time has come to redefine education, health care, and road 3.37 The first steps towards effective a set of core functions that the maintenance directly through govemment land use planning need to be taken in order Honiara Municipal Authority is departments, rather than through the HMA, that land can be used more intensively best qualified to performn and leave the rest either to the is a good solution. A case could also be through smaller lot sizes (where practicable) Central Govemment or to made for transferring drainage to the and, thereby, reduce service delivery costs, other public (or private) agen appropriate govemment departments. Solid efficiently utilize land resources, and protect waste management would probably need to environmentally sensitive areas. These remain a part of HMA's responsibilities, with steps include: (a) obtaining consensus with an even greater role for the private sector, affected communities on priority land uses; especially in collection. and (b) establishing clear lines of institutional authority for land use planning. 3.34 Once the decision on the role and functions of the Authority is taken, an 3.38 To obtain consensus on land use, assessment should be made of efforts consultations should be organized to needed to upgrade the quality of its staffing, discuss participatory land management especially in financial management and options and to update the land use plan that accounting. It should be noted that accounts dates from 1987 which was never gazetted of the HMA are maintained on a manual and is enforced in an uneven manner. This basis, and have not been finalized in ten could be done under the auspices of the years. A staff training plan would need to be Honiara Municipal Authority and the Ministry drawn up and implemented. Seeking donor of Lands and Housing. support for preparing the training plan and financing its implementation would be a Strengthening Urban Environmental priority at that time. A twinning arrangement Management. of the type enjoyed by SIWA could be considered for this purpose. 3.39 Improving the performance of urban services, municipal management, and the 3.35 Land use planning. Inadequate utilization of urban land will go a long way provision of services and infrastructure, towards protecting and enhancing the quality especially to poor and new communities, is of the urban environment. Two actions could very much linked to the uncontrolled help focus existing govemmental capacity to residential development prevalent in mitigate the negative effects of development Honiara. on the environment and monitor environmental quality. At the national level, 3.36 In the current situation, the key staff in the Environmental and responsibility for planning is devolving from Conservation Division should have an the national to the local level, but the power explicit urban dimension added to their to make and enforce decisions is shared portfolio, particularly the GIS officer, the between the Town and Country Planning environmental awareness coordinator, and Board and the Commissioner of Lands. This the environmental impact assessment 64 officers. At the local level, the HMA's Chief Health Inspectors office needs to be given the power to enforce the results of its investigatory work, especially in the area of drain maintenance. Staff also need to be involved in outreach and community education activities, as part of their monitoring work. 65 IV. Priorities for Action (c) the waste dump is not maintained in a sanitary fashion, creating health risks and reducing the site's useful life. 4.01 This section presents a strategy for action by: (a) identifying the key 4.04 Financial problems go in tandem problems that need to be tackled; (b) with managerial ones. Services, especially outlining strategic objectives and principles; sewerage and solid waste, do not cover and (c) suggesting the elements of a their operating and maintenance costs. strategy to solve priority problems, Thus, sufficient funds are not available for consistent with stated objectives and O0M, let alone for expansion of service principles. coverage and infrastructure provision. This situation creates a vicious cycle whereby Defining the Problem services and facilities deteriorate, 4.02 The Solomon Islands is increasing both O&M costs as well as the challenged by two sets of problems related need to replace assets; concomitantly, the Ongoing budgetary support to .. .consumer's low willingness to pay for a SIWA and HMA, especially for to urban environmental sanitabon services consum ersilo williness tokpay fo operations and maintenance, is that could hamper the potential role deterorating service decines, making it a burden on the Govemments Honiara plays in national development. harder to recover costs. limited resources. The first problem is that current Fiscal Implications management and finance practices impose a significant burden on the Govemment's 4.05 The Solomon Islands has had budget, and are lowering the quality and substantial budgetary deficits for a number threatening the sustainability of existing of years. These are projected to remain at The imbalance between the infrastructure, both with negative public over 10 per cent of GDP during the period demand for and supply of health consequences. The second problem 1994-97. As a resuft, the Govemment is urban land and services is is that the imbalance between the demand currently (June 1994) discussing a increasing the oost of for and supply of urban land and services structural adjustment program with the IMF providing environmental sanitation. is increasing the cost of providing and the World Bank. In this context, environmental sanitation. ongoing budgetary support to SIWA and HMA, especially for operations and Management and Finance Issues maintenance, is a burden on the 4.03 Problems wih managing Govemment's limited resources. environmental sanitation services affect the Govemrnment has already recognized this quality and sustainability of those services. and has asked SIWA to improve cost Management capacity and human recovery. To this end, a tariff increase has resources are either weak or not used recently been approved. In addition, effectively. These problems are however, and on an ongoing basis, the compounded by wasteful overlaps between Govemment must press: the national, provincial, and local authorites. Examples of these issues a) SIWA to maintain tight rein on costs, include: (a) the functioning of the water while maximizing revenue, so that supply and the sewerage systems are subsidies are eliminated for water hampered by unreliable electric power supply and are markedly reduced supply, a problem that is beyond the for sewerage within three to five immediate control of SIWA; (b) drain years; and maintenance is a local responsibility but not a priority, leading to flooding, health b) HMA to immediately implement hazards, and the imposition of charges for solid waste to filly maintenance costs on communities, and recover operating costs. 66 In addition, the Govemment should actively overall consequence of this land use seek bilateral support for grant financing of pattem is a much higher marginal cost of essenbal capial improvements (discussed extending services and infrastructure to earlier) to these urban environmental Honiara's newest, and often poorest, santation services. residents. 4.06 In the absence of the steps Development Consequences outined above, the fiscal impact of 4.09 While Honiara is playing an subsidies could spiral upwards. increasingly important role in the macroeconomy, constrained provision of SupplylDemand Imbalance environmental sanitation services is 4.07 Wih rapid populabon growth in reducing the city's ability to serve as the Honiara, there is a growing demand for prncdpal engine of national economic urban land and services. At the same time, growth. This happens in three ways. First, the supply of marketable urban land is very society pays for the higher marginal cost of limited, as is govemment's ability to provide service provision mentioned above, additional environmental sanitation thereby reducing the availability of funds services, for the manageral and financial that can be invested in productive activities The overall consequence reasons mentioned above. and other priorities. Second, the lack of of the existing land use serviced land imposes higher costs on both pattem is a much higher marginal oost of 4.08 This situation, combined with a industries and households that must pay extending services and lack of effective land use planning, results for atemative, less efficient means of infrastructu,s to oiren's in uncontrolled land development that is: obtaining water and disposing of wastes. newost, and often poorest, residents. (a) low density; (b) often located on Third, environmental health problems lead environmentally fragile or risk-prone land; to lower worker productivity and increase and (c) usually distant from existing society's bill for medical treatment. infrastructure and service routes. The Box 4.1: Tuming Constraints Into Opportunities Island countries typically suffer severe constraints when formulating strategies for management of wastes. Relatively small land areas, sensitive ecologies, isolation and a heavy reliance on imports make disposal of wastes difficult. Pacific Island countries have not, until recently, considered waste disposal to be serious since the local environment was generally able to absorb most wastes generated. With increasing urbanization, this long-standing tradition is no longer practical, and waste management has become one of the most intractable problems facing many Pacific Island countries. At the same time, small island countries share many unique attributes that can, in fact, be used to create superior waste management strategies. In the Solomon Islands, almost all non-organic waste materials are imported. Through the judicious application of import restrictions (and encouragements) the waste stream can be relatively easily cleaned up. Very few larger countries have this opportunity since they have much larger waste volumes and have less control over imports and the relatively larger range of locally manufactured products. Taking a relatively small number of products out of the waste stream can have a significant effect on improving ease of handling and disposing waste, particularly hazardous waste. I Island countries can apply deposit schemes more easily. This is especially encouraging since deposits enjoy greater than a 95 per cent return rate in the Solomon Islands. The heavy reliance on shipping a local importers, also enables the Govemment to work more easily with local importers to identify more environmentally sound product and packaging altematives, as well as exploring the possibility of obtaining preferential backhaul prices for shipping recyclables to market or hazardous waste to proper disposal. Pacific island countries have an ideal climate for composting, and other biological treatments of organic waste.' Actively encouraging composting would divert over 50 per cent of the region's waste stream, while producing a soil amendment that is much needed in many countries in the region. The most important component of an effective waste management strategy is not technical, however, but attitudinal. Cumulative community actions are what make good waste management strategies work well. A unique I strength of Island countries is their close knit community structure that is usually better able to disseminate information I and to quickly adapt programs to changing circumstances. 67 Strategic Objectives and Principles was identified as a high priorty in the recently prepared National Environmental 4.10 To respond to this challenge, both Management Strategy. Recovering costs immediate and medium-term actions are and improving the efficiency of public services is part and parcel of a structural necessary to achieve these objectives. The adjustment program. Thus, the proposed The basic strategy to following principles should underpin action: strategy can be partly implemented on its improve financial viability of urban services is to own but must also entail a series of gradually recover a) make the best use of investments adjustments to policies and programs in operating and that have already been made; other sectors. replacement costs. This will require an incremental b) incorporate the community in approach decision-making while increasing Addressing Management and Finance public awareness of the costs of Challenges providing services; and 4.13 Ratonalizing Sector c) promote conservation and Insttutions. The responsibilities and environmentally responsible relationships of many sector institutions behavior. should be clarified in order to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of service 4.11 Keeping these objectives and delivery. Specific institutions and principles in mind, four types of actions will improvements include: be necessary to tackle the two sets of problems stated above. Addressing the a) SIWA - Al DAB project should ensure managerial and financial issues will require that there is a transition to (a) clarifying the responsibilities of sector management by local professionals at institutions and the relabonships between the end of the assistance period; them; and (b) improving their financial invest in the modemization of viability. To lessen the supply/demand management systems; develop a imbalance, it will be necessary to (c) partnership with the public to address implement more effective arrangements to water and sanitabon issues via guide land use. To support both sets of consumer educabon, assessments of actions will require (d) investing in essential willingness to pay, and public hearings capital improvements. on critical investment options; Elements of a Strategy b) HMA - streamline the Authority by returning certain functions, such as 4.12 The most important point to make responsibi fuction, health, about this strategy is that it will not be fully responsibility for educabon, heamth, effective if acted upon in isolabon. Rather, cntral or proincinment, as it must take into consideration, and be incorporated into, the activibes and policies appropriate; focus on monioring and of a number of sectors. Investment in enforcing environmental health, public of~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~nomto an eduction serin astr. nehmn better sanitation services, for example, is infomation and educabon, serving as a spokesperson on local issues to an important element in a preventive public a governmen an suesing health strategy. Improving service delivery pentra cto to sureisint in the THAs is part of a poverty alleviabon anh qualty so waste strategy. Expanding public awareness and high quality solid waste management; train appropriate staff to about waste managment needs to befulfill these more limited roles through integrated in the educabon curiculum. Reducing coastal and industrial pollution twinning and other arrangements; 68 c) Ministry of Lands and Housing - c) finding mechanisms for coordinating devolve both the authority and the peri-urban development, both by resources for land use planning to the involving traditional landowners in HMA; organize, with the HMA, a land use planning, and by consultation on participatory land expanding the HMA's boundaries management options; assist the HMA and jurisdiction where possible; in updating the land use plan and d) simplifying the building permit advise on mechanisms for process so that it is both easier to enforcement; and.. administer and more affordable to comply with (this could have the d) Ministry of Natural Resources - twin effect of increasing the capacity develop, with the HMA and community of govemment to handle more participation, an urban environmental permms and drawing more home management strategy and action plan; buildes int the syse ho,f assist the HMA with public education; various reasons, have evaded the monidor environmental quality in and vis ieast); ad around Honiara. ~~~~~~system in the past); and around Honiara. e) drawing on the preliminary results of 4.14 Improving Financial Viability. the EC sites and services program, For all services, the basic strategy is to identify additional land for site gradually recover operating and development and prepare a site replacement costs. This will require an upgrading program for the THAs incremental approach that indudes that are deemed to be in the worst selective increases in fees, public shape (in tefms of poverty, public education, gearing future investments health, and service deficiency). (including choice of technology) to the willingness of consumers to pay for them. Investing in Essential Capital Improvements Getting Serious About Land Use 4.16 An attempt has been made in 4.15 If services are to be provided in a chapter IlIl to prioribze the investments more efficient and effective way to required in the short term or the medium Honiara's growing population, land use term according to the following criteria: (a) pattems must allow for denser impact on safeguarding human health; (b) development, environmentally sensitive extent to which services are expanded to areas must be protected, and costly meet underserved and low-income constraints on the land market should be communities; (c) improvement in urban removed. Several steps in this direction economic productivity; (d) reduction of include: environmental degradation, including unsustainable resource consumption; and a) recognizing one authority that has (e) affordability. the responsibility to engage in and enforce land use planning; 4.17 Some of these capital b) bringing the THAs into the land use improvements have been detailed in past planning process, especially by studies. Others will require more consulting the residents of these elaboration. The preparation of medium- areas directly and through village term options should be coordinated with headmen; the preparation of an integrated infrastructure development plan. Implementabon, on the other hand, should 69 be through existing institutions, with greater improved environmental health. involvement of communities and the private Marine and foreshore contamination sector in both planning and execution of will continue from direct discharges of investments. untreated sewage however. Lower- cost sewerage and sanitation The Role of the Donor Community technologies that are being 4.18 Realistically, some of the implemented in a number of countries technical assistance and much of the funds should be reviewed for their feasibility for capital investment to support this in the Solomon Islands. Better waste strategy will have to come from the donor management should reduce the community. Some assistance already concentrated set of pollution problems exists and could be re-oriented in support in Ranadi, and less uncontrolled of the strategy. Additional support will also development will lessen the negative need to be mobilized in as coordinated a environmental impact of THAs and fashion as possible. While "donor similar areas. coordination" is often more a myth than a reality, there are upcoming venues for 0 Economy - The improved quality, collaborative discussions. The planned coverage, and reliability of urban consultation to discuss this strategy and its environmental services will foster implementation should seek to involve a increased economic productivity. wide range of active and potential donors. Affordable services will be available to The elements of an urban environmental households and industries, fair costs sanitation services strategy should be on will be recovered for their continued the agenda for the upcoming Solomon provision, and health problems will Islands donor roundtable that UNDP will be impose less of a financial and sponsoring in Suva. economic burden on society. Measuring Progress An Emerging Consensus on Actions 4.19 The ultimate test of a strategy is 4.21 Consulations were held with a whether it achieves its objectives in terms broad range of stakeholders including of: (a) minimizing health risks to urban community leaders, consumer groups, residents; (b) protecting the environment churches, NGOs, local businesses and from further degradation; and (c) increasing industries, provincial and local the contribution urban-based economic govemments and sector agencies, central activities make to overall output. govemment planning and finance ministries and donors to identify which 4.20 The following broad indicators of measures could be implemented in the progress can be used: near-to-mid term. The prevailing view to emerge was that solutions to urban 0 Health - As more people have access environmental problems are not technical to better water, sanitabon, and solid and are likely to be more sustainable if they waste collection services, and a higher engage the community at large. Particular ievel of hygiene education, the priorities endorsed to govemment policy morbidity and mortality from gastro- makers during a public forum included: intestinal diseases and malaria in Honiara should decline. O Environment - Serious attempts to improve sewerage should result in 70 Management and Finance covering fees and service development costs; and a) the Temporary Occupation License (TOL) system should be scrapped in d) customary land allocation in the urban favor of a more planned process; area should be in accordance with recommendations (a) and (b). b) institutional responsibilities of service providers should be rationalized and clarified, particularly for Honiara Municipal Authority (HMA); and c) communities should be mobilized to support municipal service planning and delivery. Capital Investments a) upgrade the water system and identify new sources of supply; b) centralize the sewage outfalls so effluent could be handled by a new treatment plant; c) develop a new sanitary landfill and improve collection services; and d) upgrade and extend the existing drainage system to cover the entire town. Land Use Management a) existing legislation should be amended so that land is allocated by a Land Management Board in an open and transparent manner with provision for appeal; b) future land allocation should be made only in serviced areas in accordance with approved local planning schemes; c) the process of issuing TOLs should be hafted and Temporary Housing Areas should be converted to Fixed Term Estates in exchange for payment 71 Annex 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Solomon Islands Agencies Which Have Provided Bilateral and/or Multilateral Assistance Within the Last Decade Agency Service Sector Urban Centre Year Reference (See appendix C) Asian Development Bank Water Supply Honiara, Gizo 1986 1 Other World Health Organisation Solid Waste Honiara 1990/1991 13, 14 Australian International Water Honiara & Other Various Development Assistance Bureau Supply/Sewerage Centers (AIDAB) New Zealand Ministry of Water Supply Gizo, Auki and 1988 15 External Relations and Trade Other Centres World Health Organisation Sewerage Honiara, Gizo 1989 11 United Nations Water Honiara, Auki, Various Development Programme Supply/Sewerage Gizo & Other Centres New Zealand Ministry of Water Honiara, Auki, Various External Relations and Trade Supply/Other Gizo & Other Centres Asian Development Bank Water Supply Honiara Various During 1980's European Community Water Supply 72 Annex 2 Page 1 of 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services In Selected Pacific Island Countries - Solomon Islands Environmental Health Risks and Costs in Honiara Whilst the Solomon Islands has made substantial progress in terms of its overall health status in the past 20 years, infectious diseases continue to have a significant impact on morbidity and mortality rates, especially among children. In 1990, infectious and parasitic diseases were responsible for 41% of deaths among children under five years old. Table 1 presents the incidence rate per 1,000 persons in 1993 for the most common infectious diseases. Table 1 Incidence Rate of Disease in 1993 (per 1.000 Rersons) Disease Under 1 Year Old Under 5 Year Old 5 & Over Total Population ARI 817 1,073 285 422 Diarrhea 194 140 35 53 Fever 1,587 1,302 689 796 Red Eyes 111 83 28 38 Skin Diseases 1,330 420 255 284 Yaws 13 93 93 93 Total 4,052 3,111 1,385 1,686 Source: Statistics Unit (1993), Ministry of Health and Medical Services. This data suggests that children under one year old, on average, suffer four incidents per year of infectious diseases. In addition to infectious and parasitic diseases, an increased incidence of malaria was also reported among infants. Malaria cases in infants rose from 170 per 1,000 in 1989 to 267 per 1,000 in 1990. For the population as a whole, 440 cases per 1,000 persons were reported in 19921 . This represents an increase from about 350 cases per 1,000 persons reported in 1990. This rising trend in the incidence of malaria is attributed to disruptions of vector control following cyclone Namu in 1986 as well as parasite resistance to chloroquine and to poor drainage. It is generally acknowledged that the lack of adequate sanitation services, in addition to malnutrition and poor hygiene practices, is a major cause of infectious and parasitic diseases. Water supply is often contaminated; poor maintenance of drainage causes frequent flooding as well as stagnant water which provides a breeding ground for mosquitoes; and inadequate human waste disposal services contribute to groundwater pollution. Health Costs There are five private clinics in Honiara, providing a total of about 60,000 consultations per year. Consultation fees range between SI$20 and SIS25 per consultation depending on whether cash or credit arrangements are made for payment2 . Since there is no accurate information on total costs of treating each of these infectious diseases, the consultation fees are used as a proxy, even if understated, for treatment costs. 'The National Antimalaria Plan of Operation 1994-1998," Ministry of Health & Medical Services National Antimalaria Programme, Dccmber 1993. 2 "The Solomon Islands: Hcalth Sector Issucs and Options," p. 33. 73 Annex 2 Page 2 of 2 At these consultation fee rates, spending on treatment of these infections diseases would amount to about SIS1.35 million each year for the Honiara population of 40,000.3 This excludes the cost of public and traditional treatments which the poor would tend to seek first. It is also estimated that the total value of sales for two private pharmacists in Honiara amounts to SI$600,000 per year (this figure probably covers pharmaceutical sales for much of the population outside Honiara also, however, since there are no pharmacies in the other provinces). The service charge for malaria tests is between SIS5 and SI$6 each4. Thus, estimated cost of malaria for Honiara residents would be approximately St$440,000 a year. This is assuming that the treatment of malaria requires only one doctor consultation and one laboratory test per incidence (at a total of SI$25 per visitation). To summarize, the total cost to residents of Honiara of treating the most common infections diseases and malaria would be at least SI$1.8 million per annum (excluding pharmaceutical costs to residents). The estimated per capita annual medical expenditure of Honiara's 40,000 people can be estimated as being SI$45 which is equivalent to SI$360 per household of eight persons. This ignores the value of decreased productivity and lost wages due to sickness. Improvements in the reliability and the quality of water supply and in the effectiveness of drainage would represent a very cost-effective contribution to preventing communicable diseases. If people were willing to pay even 20% of the annual medical expenditure (SI$6 per household per month)5 to reduce or prevent the incidence of infectious and parasitic disease through improved sanitation services, then a total of about SI$400,000 per annum could be spent on better preventive maintenance of sanitation services. 3 The incidence of diseasc in Honiara is assumed to be the same as that of the Solomon Islands. 4 The number of tests for malaria done privately is estimated to be at least 40,000 each year. 5 Accounts for about 1.5% of monthly household income of SIS400 for the lowest one-fourths of income families (equivalent to the combined monthly fee for water supply and sewerage services. with lifeline consumption of water of 4.000 gallons per household). 74 Annex 3 Page 1 of 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services In Selected Pacific Island Countries in Solomon Islands Water and Seweraae Pricina and Affordability Water tariffs in Honiara remained unchanged since the mid-eighties untill 1992, when they were rationalized. A 12% increase was effected by SIWA in April 1994, along with a 50% surcharge for sewerage. Table 1 indicates the earlier and current tariffs. Current tariffs are not adequate to fully recover O&M costs. However, they do incorporate a number of sound principles intended to: a) change for water on this basic of consumption; b) provide a basic, per capita 'lifeline' supply which is affordable to the poor; and c) provide a progressively higher charge for large volume domestic, industrial and commercial users to conserve water and cross-subsidize low-income consumers. Table 1: Current and Earlier Tariffs for Water and Sewerage . Cwm Taiff.: Earlir wTariff. ' ' . '' -' ' .: ' ... ' .. ' . ' .F ' . . . 4. ' 11111111. w il ........ .. .. .. '. - ' ''.''. .'. '..'..'' ' '.:'.:'..'..'..:' ' ..'' '..' . '' .:' .' ' .." ..' ..'' .', ' '. (11090 gahas (111000 g.lan Consumption -a-er Water & Corsumpuon Wafer.......... . . .. . ................. ...... ..... . ,, ,. , , ,, ~~~ ...... . ... . .. ..... .. M^ic--''~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ,'.-.'.'-.--.-.-',C -Wtei C*smtor , X:: -:::WtZW- :- -::: Wow& 8--: f-- Dometic .S........ ... rate or: all 0y : ,00s .. .. .' : . ' 0 0. 1.. 2,001- 8t : -8,000S - .-1-i:.... . . :.... - .. 1..00. :1.$6 - :- above I9,00. ................ ..-..10 Commercil t .ndu.stria. - . - Is 0- 20,0 . . . .. .22 ...-: .50.. . . I - - .. tM inimum charge. .. ..).............. . . ..- . ... 10,001 - 20,000 - 230 345 above 20,000 3.4: 5.10 - - Affordability at water and sewerage tariffs. Table 2 indicates the water (and where applicable, also sewerage) bills under the earlier and current tariffs, for an average Honiara family of 8: (a) for a household with a median income of SIS840 per month, at a per capita consumption of 150 I/c/d; and, (b) a low income household, with an income of SIS400 per month, at a per capita consumption of i) 150 l/c/d, ii) 50 lClcd. It is evident that under current tariffs, the water and sewer bills for low income households are well below the accepted threshold affordability of 5% of monthly household income, even at high levels of consumption. In the traditional housing areas, where families rely on standpipes, the higher marginal rates and rent seeking by standpipe operators could result in household water bills In excess of 5%, even for line supplies. SIWA would therefore need to monitor this situati on a an on-going basis. 75 Annex 3 Page 2 of 2 Table 2 Water and Sewerage Charges at Target Consumption Levels Median Income Low income: Household: Houehold . . .......... . . .... .. ........ ....{SIS.4 pm ) .... . S 4 pm ) | Target conumtonsumphon lIcId .j.0: t.:titt1Si;:;;t ;$9 j ;!--t tt ;i :0 50 15 - 0 i 500 5 :.-it : M I fatlty9:-:: t: # -ff-E - .;: - ; ii f i D:: :: i . ............. .. .. ..... .. .. . ...... : coum ptionrf i 0 tit ;:: t: - tX;: 7: --t 0 I : -: -t - t t t i 0 i . 0 .0 . .... t::CurraittatX f; l -} :-$0 - i - 1 0.4 0.4 :2-: f. Current t--r-if 5-.---$ 5.-6; t:E; ~Ai ; -er tar- f- - ,- :: f -:-S02 0.2 3-.1- -0- 4 % Of: Hueld Inco me t i g Current Tariff - Water ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .............. .....6 ... ... .........6...$ ........ &Se erage: 1: :: -:f: :::::: .10 :: :::- :: 2.3 -0.78i : -:X 76 Chart 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Water Authority Summary Organization Chart Board | General Manager Chief of Chief of Corporate Engineering Services Honiara Water Accounting & Sewerage Personnel Province Water & Sewerage Policy & Planning Environment & Planning 77 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services In Selected Pacific Island Countries - Solomon Islands Honlara Town Council Executive Members President Town Clerk Deputy Town Clerk S nn In. u ry -4 |Department Sporb Department Principal |rea u Works | Department nouth Head Co-dinator Head Planin Engineer Head Co-Ordinator PruiinicI Principal | Principal ega P| School A l Dpt Supervisors Senor Assistant !1 Heauthrincipal Medical s O Advisor urer Offic Youth Officer Officer Oticer Officer Co-Ordinator St[ Staff | Stat] Staff | Staff ] 3 C 3 #< E< @ 3H 3 | Statf | Staff | [::s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: 0 _U Summary of Key Findings - Western Samoa i. Recent investment in improving water supply in Apia, the country's major urban center, has the potential for a major beneficial impact on public health. Similarly, the new waste disposal site can lessen the health, environmental and economic impacts of dumping at the shoreline. Without changes in the institutional and financing arrangements for these services and in consumer practices, however, these benefits will not materialize and spiraling costs will place an increasing burden on limited govemment budgetary resources. ii. The strategy now needed should be designed to: a) make the best use of investments already made; b) increase community awareness of the costs of providing services; and c) promote conservation and environmentally responsible behavior. iii. Central to this strategy is reduction of water use that is presently very high by standards of developing and developed countries. If this can be achieved, plant can be operated in line with design capacities, costs could be reduced and the health risks resulting from additional supply drawn directly from untreated sources can be minimized. Lower water use rates will also improve the functioning of existing sanitation facilities and drainage systems, thereby further reducing health risks as well as periodic costs for septic tank emptying. Unless water use is reduced, reticulated sewerage will need to be designed to carry an unnecessarily high hydraulic load, at significantly higher capital and operating cost, adding further to the impact on the Govemment's budget. iv. A decision on the proposed sewerage system for Apia should be deferred at this time. Health benefits could justify some measure of subsidy for improved waste water treatment and disposal. However, under present conditions, it is likely that only minimal recovery of the costs of the proposed system, which are high even compared to conventional sewerage systems in other countries, would be achievable. Altemative, lower-cost approaches to reticulated sewerage, which are being successfully implemented in other countries, including in similar ground conditions should be evaluated first. In addition, reticulated sewerage should not be implemented until: a) water use has declined to more reasonable levels; b) a meaningful level of cost recovery is being sustained for water supply; and c) operabon and maintenance capability has been substantively improved. v. Establishing the Water Authority is.a step in the right direction. It should focus available technical and financial resources more sharply on providing a sustained improvement in water service to urban Apia and its environs. Without the support of the community at large, however, it may not succeed. The task at hand is to mobilize the strong tradition of community consensus in support of the Water Authority's program and the beneficial effect this should have on improving health and stemming the worsening environmental conditons in Apia. Community consensus, which is a distinguishing characteristic of Westem Samoa, could also be instrumental in facilitating implementation of lower-cost sewerage systems and improving the functioning of drainage and solid waste collection. vi. There is a definite need for a framework and legal basis to manage infrastructure development and land use for the Apia urban area in order to promote economic and social development, protect human health, and minimize damage to the fragile ecosystems. It is not clear, however, that establishing a Municipal Authority would be an effective means of achieving this objective, even if sufficient technical staff were available to run it. As a practical first step, the pnority for the Apia urban area would be to develop basic ground rules on land use; improve coordination between central govemment departments and agencies that provide city-level infrastructure and services; and a streamlined process for obtaining building permits. DLSE would be ideally suited to take the lead in these matters in the short run. 79 vii. The draft strategy outlined in the report was broadly endorsed by a range of stakeholders during consultations and a very well attended and bi-lingual public forum in September and October 1994. Stakeholders decisively rejected the need for a municipal authority for Apia, asserting that existing community-based structures (the pulenu'u, women's, church and youth groups) and agencies could serve more effectively and at less cost. An aggressive public education campaign was recommended to address the issue of high volume water use and the need for water metering to identify high leakage areas and introduction of gradually increasing water tariffs based on use were endorsed. Standards for construction of domestic septic tanks as well as for treatmentdisposal of industrial effluent were called for. Finally, the need to strengthen town planning including environmental assessment procedures was recognized. 80 1. Urban Development - Background doubled from about 15,800 to 30,300, an Trends annual growth rate of over 3 per cent. As a result of emigration to New Zealand, American Samoa, Australia, and the USA, 1.01 Westem Samoa is an island nation population growth has since slowed and the in the South Pacific, comprising two main 1991 population was only about 34,000. islands, Upolu and Savai'i, and seven small Apia and the north coast of Upolu now islands. The country has a total land area of support about 20 per cent and 75 per cent 2,934 square kilometers and an exclusive respectively of the national population of economic zone of some 130,000 square about 162,000. kilometers. The capital city Apia is one of the oldest port-towns in the South Pacific. It is Economic Setting located in Upolu, and is the only sizable urban center in Westem Samoa. 1.04 Westem Samoa has a largely Past efforts at developing other urban subsistence agricultural economy, heavily centers, especially in Savai'i, have not been dependent on remittances and foreign aid, successful and Apia is expected to retain its and is vulnerable to natural disasters such status as the principal urban center in the as cyclones. In 1991, at the end of a medium-term. decade of recession during.which GDP fell at about 1 per cent per annum, Westem Settlement History Samoa had a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$670 and a gross national 1.02 Ironically, Apia owes its existence product (GNP) of US$930. Following a The capital city Apia Is to its unfavorable location rather than its further decline of 4.3 per cent per annum one of the oldest port-. .. durnn 1990-1992 due to the cicones, the towns in the South supportive environmental features. Apia Pacific. It is the only was selected as the first site for European economy has now begun to recover. sizable urban center in Westem Samoa. setlement in the 1830s because extensive swampland and river estuaries created 1.05 The agriculture sector employs 64 unhealthy living conditions and made them per cent of the laborforce; the commercial unattractive for Samoans. It was only later and social service sectors employ 21 per The Apia urban area that Apia's natural harbor and central cent, followed by trade and tourism, with 4 plays a central role in the location became important factors in its per cent each. The recent cyciones, the economic activity of the development. Apia began to develop as a current taro leaf blight, increasing country. city through successive waves of British and employment opportunities in the industrial French missionary activity, and the colonial and service sectors, and changing lifestyles interests of Britain, Germany and the U.S. that require cash incomes, have combined Modest public works activities were initiated to greatly increase the share of secondary in the 1880s, which continued and expanded and tertiary sector employment. during the periods of German (1899-1914) and New Zealand (1914-1956) colonial rule. 1.06 The private sector accounts for With full independence in 1962, further two-thirds of the 15,000 people employed in Withful indpenencein 962,furher the monetized sector. Private sector infrastructure investments and development emont seo Private tor took place, which consolidated Apia's employment has been increasing in the preeminence in Western Samoa's economic secondary and the tertiary sectors, which political and cultural life, are concentrated in the Apia area. Figure 1.1 indicates the sectoral distribution of 1.03 Between 1951 and 1971. the private sector employment in Westem population of the Apia urban area almost Samoa during 1988-93. 81 Urban Economy Christianity is an integral part of Samoan 1.07 The Apia urban area plays a central culture, and plays a strong role in local and role in the economic activity of the country. national affairs. Any efforts at influencing Most of the activities in the secondary and the behavior of Samoans on issues such as tertiary sectors (including manufacturing, water use, sanitation practices etc., would distribution, restaurants and hotels, and need to respect these cultural govemment services), which account for underpinnings. over 40 per cent of GDP, are located in Apia. Apia is the center of the small tourist 1.10 Land. Much of the land in Westem industry, which contributed US$16 million in Samoa is under customary ownership. foreign exchange eamings in 1992. Almost However, in the Apia urban area, about two- all of the country's hotel rooms are thirds of the land is freehold, with much land concentrated in the city. being owned by the churches; the rest is either govemment land or under customary Figure 1.1: Private Sector Employment 1988-93 ownership. Lack of free-hold land in the urban and pen-urban areas affects development, limits housing availability and encourages squatting in low lying swamps, 10000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~and constrains urban service provision e.g., ewo. r R _ - ; land rights for spring water sources, rights of 8W0- r - ^ _ = _ ,^ way for water channels, land for waste 4000. 1> _ 7 x = _ _ > disposal sites etc. Govemment has taken a number of steps to address the land issue, 1S 18 _ including a review of the Alienation of 19881969 1990 1 91 2 Customary Land Act; encouraging villages to 1993 register land; and leasing of lands owned by the Samoa Land Corporation. 1.11 Remittances. Remittances from 1.08 Over 90 per cent of paid overseas Samoans to their families back employment in the country, both in the public home have always supplemented the local and private sectors, is in Apia. 65 per cent incomes of Samoans. In 1992, in the wake of the country's unemployment of over 5100 of Cyclone Val, remittances shot up to in 1991 was in Apia and north west Upolu. US$41.2 million - 28 per cent of GDP - from 85 per cent of those unemployed in Apia had the previous year's level of US$12.7 million. lived there for more than five years, which In 1993, they declined by 40 per cent, but suggests a reluctance to retum, or move to still remain sizable. This source of rural areas. additional income has encouraged Samoans to consumption levels which are Distinctive Characteristics unsustainable based purely on local incomes. Such behavior may have 1.09 Social structure. Westem Samoa implications for any conservation strategies has a Polynesian social structure, based on in urban services. the 'aiga (extended family), and matais (chiefs), who are responsible for the control Future Role of Apia of 'aiga land and property. This social 1.12 As the seat of Govemment, and the organization is important in most aspects of center of most moder sector activities, Apia contemporary social and economic life, and will continue to have a pre-eminent role in underpins fa'a Samoa. the Samoan way. WsenS oaecomcdvlpnt Westem Samoa's economic development. 82 The city will need to generate employment opportunities for those currently unemployed, as well as additional job seekers through growth in the labor force, rural -urban migration, and lower levels of emigration. A key challenge to the promotion of economic growth in the Apia area is the availability of essential urban environmental sanitation services i.e., water supply, sanitation and sewerage, solid waste, and drainage. 83 II. Status of Services, Environment system was unable to meet consumption and Institutions needs and serious water shortages and_________Institutions _________________________ occurred. 2.01 This chapter reviews the current 2.03 In response to a Cabinet directive, status of four major urban services: water total daily production has been increased to nearly 37,000 cubic meters, which is more supply, sanitation and sewerage, drainage, than double the p etede d which and solid waste. It reviews the impact of service deficiencies on the environment, the system design was based. Throughput in human health, and the urban poor. Lastly, some water treatment plants has been there is an analysis of the institutional increased by almost 50 per cent above framework for urban services, including their designed performance levels, and 11,000 cubic meters of untreated water from the financing. Vaisigano river are being distributed through Status of Urban Services the system daily. Whilst this overcame the supply shortage in most areas, water Water Supply supplied is now affected by solids and 2.02 The Apia water supply system, bacterial contamination. Consumers are nhe pnncipal water which was significantly upgraded in 1989 at a being advised that drinking water must be supply issue in Apia cost of approximately WSS32 million, now boiled. is, curbing unconstrained provides virtually 100 per cent coverage to a demand. population of 45,000 in urban Apia and its 2.04 The princpal water supply issue in immediate hinterland. A major objective of the Apia is, therefore, curbing unconstrained upgrade was to achieve a phased reduction demand (see Fig:2. 1). Old distribution in excessive overall water use to a mains, leaking house plumbing, and illegal sustainable level of 180 liters per capita per connections are other significant problems. day (1IcId) by the year 2010, through Together, they result in a supply of over 800 metering and charging for water on the basis Uc/d, which is among the highest in the of usage. However, as meters were not world. installed and consumers were provided Sanitation and Sewerage virtually free water (see Para. 2.32) the C2.05 There is no public sewerage system in Apia. The residential population is <20 DConnecom served either by flush toilets with a septic Dtiha r , Itank or a "Peace Corps" tank or by pit i latrines. Commercial premises generally use cAU : _ Iseptic tanks, with the effluent occasionally Vunr E 3 4 r being directed to stormwater drains. In woun E a is-a;.s u,almost every instance, septic tanks are too uq~a~ I ^ ^uxu. sel.a E Esmall to achieve effective treatment, and c1k many of the domestic septic tanks have been constructed without a bottom. Effluent disposal is usually to a soak- pit or, in low ,A&-ft g&VM A117" lying areas, to the nearest surface drain, ____________________________________________ since high groundwater levels normally A4M . prevent effective soakage. Septage from 0 to No No am so septic tanks is disposed of at the solid waste disposal site. Source: ADS 84 2.06 Sewage treatment plants used at 2.09 Solid waste in the Apia urban area the National Hospital, the Kitano Tusitala is collected daily f weekly from the central On site sbnitation facilities Hotel, and in the two large, recently business area and the residential areas population, the few small constructed govemment office blocks in the respectively, and deposited at the country's sewage treatment plants used central area are not very effective. Waste only organized disposal site at Tafaigato. by commercial agencies / flows from the hospital are treated in a small which is about 10 km from the town center. office buildings, as well as the handling of industnal and extended aeration plant prior to discharge Industries are required to bring their wastes commercial liquid waste, are into a stream. The aerator in the Pasveer to the disposal site. The service collects only all unsatisfactory. oxidation ditch used by the Tusitala Hotel some 40 per cent of the total annual waste has not been operational and untreated of over 10,000 tonnes, with the rest being effluent is flowing directly into the bay. The fed to pigs, bumed or buried on-site, or used two office blocks have ground disposal near as fill in low lying areas. Altematively, it is the water front in central Apia. indiscriminately dumped on neighboring lands or waterways. The principal issues in 2.07 A number of significant industrial solid waste management and commercial liquid waste producers 2.10 Refuse was, until recently, collection, poor discharge untreated or partially treated disposed of at Vaitoloa, a mangrove area. management of the wastes into the ground, drainage canals, or No containment was provided and the absence of a into streams in an environmentally unsound insufficient cover material was used. As a hazardous waste manner, often in contravention of existing result, odors, flies, and floating debris were a management program. laws. major problem, and near shore damage was severe. (See Fig:2.2). The Vaitoloa site Figure 2.2: Old dump site at Vaitoloa _____________ stopped receiving waste in 1992, afthough neighboring residents are still using it. The Tafaigato site is a marked improvement, but still has problems of leachate generation, odors and pests; in addition, there is only limited compaction, which will eventually result in a reduced life of the site. 2.11 Waste minimization efforts in ;'''- ._ Westem Samoa inciude: a successful deposit program for glass beverage containers (beer and soft drinks), which has 3..>;!t - ^ - - a return ratio in excess of 95 per cent; and a ~it,, X -S, s,' less successful deposit program for EF.lF X j* 4it->< ; i:<:1 , _t\ t -Saluminum cans, lead/acid batteries, used motor oil and scrap copper, which has been Solid Waste Management affected by changing market prices, which make the program uneconomic. 2.08 Waste generation rates in Apia are about 0.4 to 0.5 kg per person per day, Storm Water Drainage and Flood which is similar to other low-income The pnncipal issue in developing countries. The waste stream is drainage is on-going largely putrescibles (degradable food and 212 The pintnpal ssue In drainage Is maneate sesl h ngigmaintenance, especially the removal of solid wastes, garden wastes), with packaging probably removal of solid wastes, which cause which cause blockages, and making up less than 20 per cent of the waste blockages, and control on pigs, which control on pigs. whi,ch stemblcae,adcnrlopi,whh damage the drains stream. damage the drains (see Fig: 2.3). 85 Figure 2.3: Poorly maintained drains contribute to the current unsatisfactory environmental quality in the Apia urban area. 2.16 Untreated wastewater contaminates Apia's water supply sources: a) the most important surface water sources - the Vaisigano and Fulu'asou Rivers and the Malololei system - have high bacteria counts, low dissolved oxygen saturation, high BOD levels, and high total nitrogen concentrations; and 2.13 A Drainage Master Plan for the Apia urban area was prepared in 1984 to b) of the main spring sources, the Alaoa address the problems of a number of low Springs are plagued by lying areas that have historically bacteriological contamination similar experienced flooding. An Immediate to the surface sources, while the Improvement Program, comprising a Vaitele Springs are contaminated by program of canal construction and sewage from the industrial area, rehabilitation, together with some infilling of particularty during the wet season. swampy areas, was completed in 1993. The program has markedly improved living 2.17 The urban coastal zone is also conditions in the beneficiary areas. contaminated by urban runoff and sewage, affecting the offshore West Reef, Vaiusu Detenoration of water quality 2.14 The few other drains are mostly in Bay and Pallo Deep. Deterioration of water in the Vaiusu Bsay has the central business district; these are quality in the Vaiusu Bay has reduced the reduced the annual mullet frequently either partially or fully blocked by annual mullet catch to 10 per cent of the cac o10prcn fteana ultcatch to 10 per cent of the 1988 levels, and garbage and sediment. They are also 1988 levels, and bacteriological bactenological contamination generally undersized and do not significantly contamination makes the consumption of makes the consumption of reduce the incidence or severity of flooding local seafoods, especially shellfish, a health local sea foods, especially duigtoiastrsThfeunieloasefosesealyhlfs,ahah shellfish, a heelth hazerd. during tropical storms. The few unlined hazard. Urban wastewater runoffs can result surface channels in residential areas have in high concentrations of bacteria and been damaged by free-ranging pigs and are nitrogen in the Palolo Deep Marine Reserve, not very effective. particularly during the wet season. Some of the reserve's reef is dead and other areas Impact on the Environment are affected by algae. 2.15 The quality of the environmental media - aquatic sources (surface waters, 2.18 Inadequate solid waste the urban coastal zone and fisheries), land management is one of the causes of resources (wetlands and low lying areas, the degradation of the Vaisigano watershed watershed), and the airshed - in the Apia (which is Apia's principal source of potable area is affected by urbanization and water). The Vaiusu mangrove wetlands have development, insufficient environmental been disrupted by poor management at the awareness, as well as lack of funds for old waste disposal site at Vaitoloa. Solid mitigating actions. Inadequate urban waste dumped in drains, especially in the services of sanitation and sewerage, solid new market area, is washed down into and industrial liquid wastes, and drainage Vaiusu Bay and Apia Harbor during periods of heavy rain. Industrial waste, both solid and liquid, affects: surface water sources, 86 e.g., coconut processing waste in the drainage, introduce agro-forestry and Taufusi area: residents in the neighborhood, conservation practices, and educate the through emission of noxious odors, e.g., public.) The Vaiusu Bay and its foreshore Vailima Brewery and the meat processing have problems of high concentrations of plants in Vaitele; and the environment in bacteria, nitrogen and solid wastes, shellfish general, through small quantities of contamination, and reduced fishery hazardous industrial wastes from a number productivity caused by industrial pollution, of sources, including waste oils, unspent destruction of the mangrove habitat, urban pesticides, and photoprocessing chemicals. runoff, and wastes from the old disposal site. Low lying areas of the city are affected by 2.19 Lack of maintenance to the property damage, disease vectors, and drainage system contributes to flooding of unsanitary conditions caused by flooding low lying areas. Improperly disposed of solid and sedimentation. waste is blocking even some of the recently constructed drains. Increasingly dense Coping Strategies of the Urban Poor settlement in the low lying areas, especially in the central area around Fugalei and 2.21 Four villages in urban Apia were Saleufi, has worsened the problem. surveyed as part of this review. The survey confirms that deficiencies in the above 2.20 Taken together, these deficiencies services exacerbate the living conditions of in providing environmental sanitation and the urban poor. While they have adopted enforcing environmental guidelines have had various coping strategies to deal with the identifiable impacts throughout Apia. Three situation, they nevertheless consider types of environmental hot spots exist in the improved treatment/disposal of sewage, city (See Map). The Vaisigano watershed is domestc sullage and industrial effluent to experiencing problems of erosion, have priority. Problems associated with sedimentation and water supply and solid waste are considered Figure 2.4: Poor drainage in low-lying areas contaminated to be more manageable. - ,5.- - . adrinking water due , to land conversion, 2.22 Disposal of sewage and domestic .. = - <>. livestock grazing sullage are major problems, especially for and uncontrolled those living in low lying areas (see Fig: 2.4). ...W waste disposal. During the rainy season, sewage frequently ;= _- ,, - (The UNDP and rises to the ground and the overflows are _w <.* t , *- ' * FAO have already generally released straight into the drains. ;9N8 >1. --\ ", t1' ' - Jt been supporting With blocked drains, the sludge, with its *N d. \ \\< ^the Department of unsightly appearance and stench, often r . ' ..\ . . Agriculture, Forest remains in the neighborhood and is a health *~ _ __-and Fisheries with hazard. Domestic sullage also collects in the , : a Vaisigano River drains and is similarly a problem. Watershed r . Management 2.23 Residents of affected Project. This is a neighborhoods frequently complain to the good example of a authorities about these problems. Most *o _. ~ *^ . .)^< low-cost program households with waste water around them which is working to have also taken community action, including 5.... ,, ,w...# protect critical filling the area to raise the ground level, areas, rehabilitate digging drains to divert the water and eroded lands, cleaning the drains. They are also in favor of provide proper 87 a reticulated sewerage system and have system, the poorer sections of the expressed a willingness to pay for the population do not view water supply service; however, it is not clear if they are, improvements as a priority. Although they as yet, aware of the full costs of such a are aware that the piped water supplied is Figure 2.5: Contaminated well unsuitable for drinking, most do not heed the Govemment's advice to boil water because of the cost, and are, therefore, at risk. Diarrhea, gastroenteritis, and conjunctivitis, which are attributed to drinking or washing with contaminated water, are common in Apia and have been on the rise during the last three years. During service interruptions, residents resort (at least for washing) to wells and streams - all of which are known | . .| to be contaminated (see Fig: 2.5) - and/or go to a nearby community still receiving supply. service. There is little appreciation of the costs 2.27 There is little appreciation of the of public water supply. 2.24 Residents living near industrial costs of public water supply. As no charges As no charges were areas, especially in Vaitele, are affected by were levied when the supply was upgraded levied when the supply the inadequate treatment and disposal of in 1989, residents want water quality to be was upgraded in 1989,in18,rsdnswnwaequlttob residents want water industrial wastes. Problems include foul improved now, but did not express quality to be improved smell, smoke and soot, as well as a drop in i n qrow, but did ntot expryss _ ' ' willingness to pay increased tariffs. It willingness to pay appears that poor families are also unwilling increased tariffs. normally use tarpaulins to protect against (or unable to afford) to invest in rainwater soot and smell; in extreme cases, they leave catchment. the neighborhood for a few hours, and occasionally even for a few days. They have Institutional Framework frequently lodged complaints to the authorities (to little effect) and have also turned to the media. 2.28 As in most developing countres, management of urban services in Westem 2.25 Solid waste collection from the Samoa is in the public domain. The PWD poorer areas is irregular due prmarily to was, until recently, responsible for water supply through its water division. It is poor contractor performance and weak y g oversight. Most poor communities, however, currently responsible for the removal of have a low expectation of service, and many human waste from septic tanks and for havilies ase lowlextastin dofserc, wande, ma drainage and flood control. The Department families use solid waste - domestic waste, fLns uvy,adEvrnet(LE garden waste, as well as non-degradables ofLnsSuvy,adEirmetDSE gardn wate,as wll s no-deradales is responsible for solid waste management. such as plastics - as landfill to protect The Division of Environment and against flooding in low lying areas. As a Conservation in DLSE is responsible for resuft, although there is considerableeniomtamngmn. littering and some awareness about possible health risks, solid waste collection is not Water Supply and Sewerage considered to be a serious problem. 2.26 In the case of water supply, owing 2.29 After a review of the overall 2.26 n thecase f waer suply, wing situation in the water sector, the to the near universal coverage and the plentiful availability of water from the piped Govemment decided to strengthen the 88 institutional arrangements by setting up an 2.33 It is evident that while revenue has autonomous public enterprise for declined, expenditure has risen, resulting in management of the sector. The Water declining 0 & M cost recovery. The 0 & M Authority Act (Act No. 9, 1993/1994) cost recovery of 6 per cent is the lowest established a new Water Authority to take among the Pacific Island countries, and has over responsibility for water supply and declined steadily in recent years. sewerage throughout Westem Samoa. The long term goal of the Authority is "to operate 2.34 The dismal picture on 0 & M cost as a successful business without support recovery is due to the extremely low tariff the feasibility of transferring from the Govemment." The Act provides the rates. Although meters were installed some the sludge removal service Authority with wide powers to discharge its years ago for a few large customers, and a from the PWD to the Water functions, including the power to determine consumption based tariff structure (albeit Authority should bexsaemnusdy and charge appropriate tariffs for the supply low) exists, the meters are no longer of water and disposal of wastewater. functioning and all 15,000 customers are now billed flat rates, ranging from WS$48 2.30 The Authority has a Board of per year (for domestic customers) to for the Water Authority Directors comprising nine members (of WS$192 per year (for non-domestic and are to takeover the whom three are consumer representatives), non-agricultural customers). These rates are management of water with the Minister of Public Works as the among the lowest in the region and are supply operations, and address the key issues Chairman. The recently approved affordable by practically the entire facing the sector, viz., organization structure of the Authority has: population. Nevertheless, even these unconstrained demand. (a) three divisions viz., a technical division, a minimal charges are paid by only about 45 financial division, and an administration per cent of the customers, who generally division; and (b) a total staffing of about 160, feel that water is a (free) gift from God. The compared to the Water Division's staffing of Water Division, however, has been reluctant 209. Chart 1 indicates the summary to disconnect delinquent customers as organization structure of the Water Authority. provided in the procedures. 2.31 In March 1994, the first General Manager of the Authority (a Samoan engineer from the PWD Water Division) was Table 2.1 Summary Financial Results of the Water appointed. However, the Authority was D milison) essentially a shell, with the operations still FY being managed by the PWD's Water tm9/ I=929 vimL4 Division. Water rate 0.350 0.350 0.250 receipts 2.32 Finances. Until the recent Recovery of O & 14% 10% 6% formation of the Water Authority, the PWD M Costs Water Division prepared the budgets, Total budgetary 3.986 6.716 5.525 including development exercised budget control over expenditure, support expenditure, the total and maintained the accounts for: current budgetary support forON water supply has been expenditures (covering salaries and wages, substantial. at over WSS5 plant and vehicle operation, energy, million dunng each of the past twv years 3-4 per cent chemicals, spare parts, maintenance costs, Sludge Removal. of total govemment etc.; development expenditures (govemment 2.35 The PWD, which is responsible for expenditures contributions to investment and rehabilitabon sludge removal, does not have any projects); and revenue (from water sales and functioning sludge removal trucks, but has service connections). Table 2.1 summarizes appointed a contractor to provide this the financial results of the Water Division for service. Costs of sludge removal are the past three years. 89 recovered by the private contractor through Authority for Apia and the much smaller charges of WS$200 levied for each service. town of Salelogo in Savaii, with responsibility In the context of establishment of the Water for land-use planning and enforcement; Authority as an autonomous agency for sub-division of land; development and water supply and sewerage, the feasibility of enforcement of building codes; roads, transferring the sludge removal service from sewers and drains; public facilities such as the PWD to the Water Authority should be libraries, theaters, and education centers; seriously examined. conservation of natural areas; and preservation of historic and cultural heritage. Solid Waste The draft legislation for the authority and related issues are being discussed by the 2.36 DLSE has contracted out the Mnaa ucmiteo h aie collection of domestic waste to two private Municipal Subcommittee of the Cabinet agencies. PWD operates and maintains the Development Committee. Concurrently, DLSE is working with the Attomey General's bulldozer at the disposal site, while theofiendrtngaTwPlnngA. health department monitors public health aspects of the site. Given the fragmentation 2.40 Given the size of the country, it is of responsibilities between DLSE and the important to examine whether a municipal PWD, and the need for improved solid waste authority is needed for Apia, especially in management (discussed earlier), institutional light of the poor experience of other Pacific arrangements for solid waste management Island Countries, before making a final need to be strengthened. As the principal decision in the matter. (See next chapter for focus of DLSE is (and will likely continue to a discussion.) be) regulatory rather than management of a service, either PWD or another agency should be given the responsibility for solid waste management. 2.41 The Lands and Environment Act (1989) consolidates the legal framework for 2.37 No charges are levied (either environmental protection, pollution control directly or indirectly through property taxes) and planning. The Act established the for solid waste collection and disposal. Division of Environment and Conservation in Estimated solid waste management costs of DLSE to develop procedural mechanisms to WS$250,000 are met through budgetary address competing priorities and resolve support. conflicts. Other functions of the Division include development of an Environmental Given the size of the Urban Management Impact Assessment process, increasing examine whether a public awareness and monitoring the status municipal authon ty Is 2.38 Unlike most other countries, of environmental issues. Greater needed for Apia, especially Westem Samoa does not currently have a cooperation with village communities is in light of the poor separate municipal agency for the provision needed on matters relating to customary experience of other Pacific Island Countn es of muniapal services e.g., water supply, land (parts of urban Apia are also customary drainage, sanitation, solid waste collection, land). Owing to a lack of trained personnel street lighting, etc.. in the Apia urban area. and inadequate funding, the Division's Instead, the various municipal functions are effectiveness is severely constrained. performed by the respective departments of the National Govemment (some of them, Capital Expenditure now, by the new Water Authority). 2.42 Capital expenditure incurred in the 2.39 Govemment is currently water supply sector during the past few considering the establishment of a Municipal years includes the major upgradation project 90 completed in 1989 at a cost of WS$32 million, financed primarily through donors. Capital expenditure on the Govemment's own account has averaged about WS$2.2 million per year in the last three years. In the case of drainage, the Immediate Improvement Program, costing WS$2.7 million, was financed by the German Govemment. No capital expenditure is reported to have been incurred in the last few years on solid waste management or sludge removal. Donor Support 2.43 Donors for capital works in the urban services sectors, as well as for studies and technical assistance, include Australia, Canada, China, the EEC, Japan, UNDP, and WHO (see Annex I for details). Besides donor support for capital works described above, govemment has requested support for some other projects. These include funding from KfW for: assistance to the Water Authority in meter installation, and a water billing and accounting system (DM3.3 million); the proposed Apia Sewerage Project ( WS$42 million in 1992 prices). 91 111. Meeting Medium-Term Needs 3.03 Authorities in Westem Samoa are already aware of the potential for a crisis 3.01 This chapter reviews the medium- situation in water supply. They recognize the term service needs in each sector, need to reduce water consumption to the discusses steps to strengthen sector limits incorporated in the design of the institutions, and considers pricing and cost system through adoption of the "pay for use' recovery issues in some detail. principle and improved O&M to minimize leaks. A public education program to raise Improving Water Supply the awareness of the value of potable water and the cost of providing a reliable supply of 3.02 Chapter II identified curbing potable water has started. Discussions are Under current unconstrained demand as the principal issue in progress with KfW for assistance with a arrangements, without intervention, the quality of in water supply. Under current Meter Installation and Water Billing and water supply service in the arrangements, without intervention, the Accounting System. The proposed project, Apia urban are8 will quality of water supply service in the Apia to be implemented over a three year period, detenorate at an increasing rate. urban area will deteriorate at an increasing would support: rate. With no incentive to limit demand, water use will continue to rise. Meanwhile, a) improved leak detection and repair of the catchment areas for water supply intakes the distribution system, including a are being increasingly impacted by forestry leak detection program and and agriculture, thereby increasing silt loads disconnection of old, leaking pipes; and contaminants. Taken together, these will reut*n b) procurement and installation of water result In: meters for individual connections a) increasing frequency of periods of low initially as a means primarily to pressure and intermittent supply, identify areas of high water loss particularly at the extremities of the rather than for cost recovery and system; and starting with industrial and commercial users; Raw water quality b) deteriorating water quality, as raw c) improved O&M of water treatment would be degraded if water quality worsens through plants; development in the development in the catchment area, catchment area d) establishment of a computerized continues unchecked. and the proportion of untreated water water billing and accounting system; in the system increases. and and Figure 3.1: Desilting water treatment e) implementation of a Public plat _Information and Customer Education Program. 3.04 The Bank considers the above actions to be absolutely essential short-term #>_-.: - 4 steps for improving the quality of water supply in the Apia urban area. 3.05 Once these improvements are carried out, the system would be capable of meeting the medium-term water requirements of the Apia urban area, with 92 expansion of the water supply network as d) discharge of screened raw sewage appropriate. In the longer term (after 2000), beyond the reef, through a long ouffall. expanded water treatment facilities will be 3.09 The unit costs of the system required. (estimated at US$1,430 equivalent per connection in 1992 prices) are high. 3.06 Raw water quality would be Experience in other developing countries degraded, and more extensive treatment (e.g., Brazil) indicates that lower cost options processes, including flocculation, might be available. Financial and economic sedimentation, and chlorination will be analysis of the proposed project, discussed required, if development in the catchment subsequently, indicate that it is not viable. area continues unchecked. In order to avoid additional treatment of water, planning controls ought to be enacted and enforced, Table 3.1: Indicative Costs for permitting only environment-friendly Conventional Sewerage Systems economic activity, with appropriate sanitation and erosion control practices. Tighter Country controls on pesticide application are also Cost/Connection necessary. Options for Sewage Disposal Brazil 2850350 3.07 The current sanitation and Thailand $120 sewerage situation in the Apia urban area is Peru $350 dearly unsatisfactory. If no improvements Global Average $1,500 are made, water quality in drains and foreshore areas will slowly deteriorate with Westem Samoa $1000 increasing population and development, and (exdudes treatment) the risk of increased incidence of disease is high. Recent engineering studies on addressing the sanitation needs of the Apia 3.10 Altemative, lower-cost options urban area have concluded that the should dearly be evaluated in relation to installation of a reticulated sewerage system conditions in Apia including ventilated pit is essential. latrines for peri-urban areas and *condominial' sewerage systems being 3.08 The Apia Sewerage Master Plan, implemented successfully in similar prepared in 1984/85, and the feasibility conditions in Brazil (see Box 3.1). The very review completed in 1993 with KIW funding, strong tradition of community involvement, recommend a program of improvements and consensus decision making in Westem comprising: Samoa would considerably facilitate implementation of such schemes. a) sewering of about 317 hectares of priority areas, primarily in the densely 3.11 In the meanwhile, significant populated areas of the central business improvements can be made by non- district, in three stages; structural means, including: b) construction of five pumping stations; a) reduced water usage, to decrease the quantity and improve the quality of plant; and o septic tank effluent being discharged; 93 b) elimination of direct connections from the ground to safely absorb them, and it is septic tanks to the storm water estimated that the reticulated sewerage drainage system; system would be required in about ten years. c) making the existing treatment plants at the hospital and the Tusitala Hotel 3.13 Financial Analysis of the Apia fully operational; Sewerage Project Financial analysis of the proposed WS$42 million (in 1992 prices) d) installing trade waste treatment sewerage project in the EEC report indicates facilities at various industries such as that the operating costs of the system for the coconut products factory, the beneficiaries would be of the order of meat processing plants, the brewery, WSS0.60 per cubic meter, and the total etc.; and costs (including investment and operating costs) would range from about WS$6 to over e) monitoring the operation of these WSS9 per cubic meter, depending on the facilities by the new Water Authority. discount rate used. Box 3.1: The Condominial System - Innovative Low-cost 3.14 The implications of the analysis Sewerage in Northeast Brazil outlined above are profound: With a shorter grid of smaller and shallower 'feeder' sewers a) the capital costs of the proposed running through backyards, costs have been cut to 20 to 30 per cent of those with a conventional system. system (about WS$4,200 per person) The more fundamental innovation, however, is the active cannot be recovered from the participation of the population in choosing the level of service and in beneficaries, as it is not affordable; operating and maintaining the "feeder' infrastructure. Families can grant funds, either from donors, or choose to continue with their present system, to connect to a from govemment, are therefore conventional waterbome system (which usually means a holding tank discharging into an open street drain), or to connect to a 'condominial' essential; system. Connection charges and tariffs for conventional systems are normally higher reflecting their higher capital and operating costs. b) the operation and maintenance costs Experience to date indicates that most families that initially are also high. A sewerage surcharge choose not to connect eventually change their mind. Either they of around 50 per cent on succumb to pressure from neighbors, or they find the buildup of wastewater in and around their houses intolerable once the Recommended Water Tariff B (the (connected) neighbors fill in the rest of the open drain. likely scenario for water; see Individual households are responsible for maintaining the subsequent discussion) would be 'feeder' sewers, with the formal agency tending to the trunk mains. required for recovery of operation and This increases the communities' sense of responsibility for the system. maintenance costs; and Second, the misuse of any part of the 'feeder' system (by, say, putting solid waste down the toilet) soon shows up as a blockage in the neighbor's portion of the sewer. The consequence is rapid, direct, and c) the willingness of the population to informed feedback to the misuser. This virtually eliminates the need to pay even partial (but still high) O&M 'educate' the users of the system about dos and don'ts and results in costs of the sewerage system has not fewer blockages than a conventional system. Third, because of the been established. If these costs are greatly reduced responsibility of the utility, operating costs are much lower, not recovered, the shortfall would have to be subsidized by govemment. 3.12 With the interventions described 3.15 Economic viability of the Apia above, water quality improvements would 3.15 Econmc The Apie reduce health risks, and delay the need for Sewerage Project. The proposed capital investments in the sewerage system. sewerage proje does not appear to be However, as development increases, eecnomically riab aed on cost t effluent volumes will exceed the capacity of 94 of WS$0.75 million (in 1992 prices), when Improvements in Solid Waste allocated to the 1100 beneficiary Management households, would amount to almost WS$700 per household. This is over three 3.18 Waste volumes are unlikely to grow times the cost currently incurred by each substantially (see Annex 3). Improvements household for septic tank emptying. Put in solid waste management will, therefore, another way, after netting out the savings be management intensive, rather than from septic tank cleaning, the project would capital intensive. The first stage of an Action still require generation of environmental and Plan would comprise: public health benefits aggregating to over WS$0.5 million annually, in order to recover a) improved collection - Providing more O&M costs. It would be difficult to impute waste receptacles in public areas, benefits of this magnitude for the beneficiary enabling separate collection of some population of about 10,000, as sanitation is organic wastes, and collecting wastes only one of the factors (albeit an important more regularly; one) contributing to better environmental and public health conditions. The situation b) improved operation of the disposal would obviously be even worse if the capital site - Carrying out a hydrogeological cost is factored in. investigation, enforcing controls on incoming waste, and using more daily 3.16 Under the circumstances, it is cover material; and evident that a decision on implementation of A decision on the the proposed sewerage project should be c) establishment of a hazardous waste implementation of the deferred until the Water Authority is able to management program - Registering, sewerage system should te make the non-structural improvements tracking, and placing specific types of levels are lowered and outlined earlier. (This will also enable the hazardous waste in specially altemative options are fully Water Authority to gauge public reaction to prepared areas in the disposal site, revieved tariff increases for water.) The costing and or, if feasible, shipping off-island for economic analysis of the project would need treatment. to be revisited at that time, and tariff options would need to be developed. Some of these 3.19 The second stage would consist of could include partial recovery of O&M (and a comprehensive deposit scheme, capital) costs such as the secondary encouragement of backyard composting, on- system; costs of the secondary system and going monitoring of the disposal site, an the primary system, up to the treatment industrial waste minimization program, an plant; and the full cost, including the outfall. anti-littering program, incineration of hospital waste, and an overall public education 3.17 Given the expected significant strategy. In the third stage, centralized sewerage charges on customers, it would be composting would be introduced, with advisable to consult the community separate collection of organics from extensively prior to proceeding with the households. Other steps would include the project. In view of the significant social and introduction of tipping fees for industrial economic implications, it might even be waste and further improvements at the worth considenng a referendum on the disposal site through better waste subject. compaction. 3.20 Public education would need to be an important element in the successful implementation of the Action Plan. The health aspects of waste, composting, 95 recycling, deposits, and the need for a litter- a public good, it would be appropriate for free environment would all need to be an govemment to finance drainage works integral part of an overall environmental without cost recovery. Drainage education program, targeted particularly at maintenance costs would be minor, school children. especially if improvements described earlier are made to water supply, 3.21 Pricing and Cost Recovery of sanitation/sewerage, and solid waste Solid Waste Services. In order to upgrade services; these could also be bome by the service to an acceptable level, operating govemment, at least in the medium term. expenditures may need to be doubled to about WS$450,000 per annum. This would Institutional Strengthening result in a per capita O&M cost (in Apia) of about WS$10 per annum. These costs The Water Authority could be recovered by charging customers 3.25 The separation of water supply for (a) either the collection of solid waste and sewerage responsibilities from the The recent and its disposal; or (b) the disposal (where PWD/Govemment will enable one institution, establishment of the the wastes are brought to the disposal site i.e., the Water Authority, to focus its Water Authority for by the customer). providing water supply undivided aftention on the Important urban and sewerage services services of water supply and sewerage, and throughout Westem 3.22 To begin with, DLSE could levy also be held accountable for the quality and Samoa is a major step solid waste charges on industrial and perfommance of the service. The costs of in the nght direction. commercial customers as well as large providng th hesie,ithe a outs bl institutional customers, with the Govement providing the service, the amounts billed, subsidizing the domestic customers. Over anthrenusclcedanowb thebmedizig therm desa 5 c mears), domestic clearly identified. The Authority will not be the medium term (say 3-5 years)., ts constrained by rules and regulations that customers could also be charged, thus typically result in slow decision making in eliminating government subsidies. govemment e.g., centralization, budget and Drainage Improvements procurement procedures. Further, the Authority can establish its own employment conditions, including pay scales, and attract 3.23 Although the Immediate and retain qualified staff. Improvement Program has been completed, without the interventions described above in 3.26 Experence in other developing the water supply and sewerage sectors, countries has shown, however, that the water quality in drains will remain poor and formation of autonomous water authorities is will continue to deteriorate. In the short run, not a sufficient condition for efficient on-going maintenance is the priority for operations and improved service. A number drainage. Public education, legislation and of steps, which are discussed below, still enforcement on keeping pigs and dogs away need to be taken, both immediately and on from drains are other important measures. an on-going basis, to enable the Authority to Further capital improvements would only live up to the Govemment's and consumers' need to be carried out over the medium expedations. term, on the basis of the Drainage Master Plan, after it is updated and coordinated with 3.27 Staffing and Takeover of an integrated urban development plan for Operations. The following actions need to the Apia urban area. be taken urgently: 3.24 Cost Recovery for Drainage. In line with the practice of treating drainage as 96 Although there is a a) transfer of the required, qualified staff c) takeover of operations, as soon as serious shortage of (that is, not all staff) of the Water the minimum complement of technical skilled personnel in the country, recruitment to Division to the Water Authority; and financial/administrative staff are the new Water Authonty in place. is expected to be a b) recruitment of other staff, including senior technical the three division heads (these three 3.28 Although there is a serious positions. positions had been advertised in shortage of skilled personnel in the country, February 94) and other financial and the Authority's recruitment needs are limited administration staff; and and are, therefore, not expected to be a problem except for a few senior technical Box 3.2: Insttutional Options for Infrastructure Provision positions. At other levels, human resource development (see below) would address the The World Bank's Word Development Report 1994 (Infrastructure for staffing issue. Development) discusses four main options for ownership and provision of infrastructure services: public ownership and operation by enterprise or department; public ownership with operation contracted to the private sector 3.29 As discussed in Chapter II, as an private ownerhip and operaton, often wIth regulation; and community and user adjunct to its responsibility for providing provision. sewerage services, it might be appropriate Public ownership and public operation. Public provision by a for the Water Authority to take over (from the govemment department, public enterprise, or parastatal authority is the most PWD) the responsibility for sludge removal common form of infrastructure ownership and operation. Successful public entities run on commercial principles and give managers control over operastons from septic tanks. and freedom from political interference, but they also hold managers accountable, often through performance agreements or managemont contracts. And they 3.30 Development of Modem follow sound business practices and are subject to the same regulatory, labor law, accounting, and compensation standards and practices as private firms. Systems. As a commercially oriented, TarifFs are set to cover costs, and any subsidies to the enterprise are given for autonomous, modem water utility, the specific services and in fixed amounts. In the Asia Pacific region, this is the most Authonty would need to develop modem common institutional arrangemont in the water sector a rocent Asian Development Bank survey found that of the 38 water utilities in Its 23 developing technical and operational, as well as member countries in Asia and the Pacific, 16 are govemment departments, 18 commercial, systems and procedures. On are govemment enterprises and four have somewhat more autonomy. the technical side, the priorities would be Public ownemhip with prIvate provision. This option is typically systems and procedures for: O&M of the implemented through lease contracts for full operation and maintenanco of distribution system, including leak detection publicly owned facilites, or through concessions, which include construction and financing of new capacity. In the water sector, leases and concoessions are : and repair; O&M of the treatment plants; working well in Argentina (Buenos Aires) and Guinea. Countries with water quality testing; pipe laying and service concessions to build and operate water sector facilities indude Malaysia and connections; and stores management. On Mexico. In February 1994, UNELCO, a company operating the electric power the commercial side, prority areas would be: supply In Vanuatu for over 30 yearm, took over the management and operation of the water supply system In Vanuatu. accrual accounting systems; budget and cost control systems; and billing and Private ownorship and private operation. Private ownership and c operation of infrastructure facilities is increasing, both through new entry by collection systems. Computenzabon of private firms in infrastructure markets and through divestiture of public ownership i various technical, operational, and of entire systems. Such arrangements are becoming Increasingly popular for I commercial systems would also have a high telecommunications and power. priority. The proposed project for Meter Community and user provision. Community and user provision is Installation and Water Billing and Accounting most common for local, small-scale infrastructure, such as rural feeder roads, System would address the needs in some of community water supply and sanitation, distribution canals for irrigation, and maintenance of local drainage systems. It often complements central or ' these areas. Additional technical assistance provincal services. Successful community provision requires user involvement in would be needed on commercial accounting decision-making, especially to set priorities for expenditures and to ensure an and computerization equitable and agreed sharing of the benefits and costs of service provision. P Technical assistance, training, and compensation of service operators are also I very important. In the Pacific Island Countrbies, with their strong social 1 3.31 Human Resource Development structures, some aspects of urban sanitabon, solid waste management, andj The Water Authonty would need to develoP drainage maintenance could benefit from greater community Involvement T as a priority, the skills of staff at all levels. A detailed training plan would need to be 97 prepared as soon as possible, and would 3.34 Tariff Increases. Financial likely emphasize the following: independence, as envisaged in the Water Authority Act, can only be a long-term a) senior staff - Short courses on objective because the present level of cost management for senior engineers and recovery is a very low 6 per cent. of 0 & M division heads, off-island visits to costs. The Govemment has already sister institutions, attendance in indicated that it would expect the Water regional technical seminars; Authority to be in a position to fully recover 0 & M costs within three years. Five years b) supervisory staff - Attachments with appears to be a more reasonable period for sister institutions, selected short achieving this goal. Either goal would require technical programs; and a major increase in tariffs to generate additional revenue. c) junior staff - On-the-job training and in-house programs, tailor-made Figure 3.2: Water operations cost breakdown programs at local institutions such as (1992) the Westem Samoa Polytechnic. 3.32 Technical assistance would be needed for identifying training needs and Penonne preparing a training plan. Seeking donor 36% support for preparing the training plan and Other _ financing its implementation would be a _ priority. Pricing Water Supply Power 3.33 The general principle for pricing 18% water supply (as well as other public 3.35 Such an increase is particularly services) without distorting the allocation of important because 0 & M costs, which resources is to set prices to cover short-run appear to be high for a relatively new system marginal costs. In practice, actual tariffs are and when compared with other developing determined by the financial goals set for the countries, may rise further as a result of water supply agency and the need to efforts to carry out long deferred provide a 'life-line' supply to the urban poor maintenance, reduce leakage, improve the at an affordable price. Economically sound quality of water, and to attract and retain pricing policies typically result in: qualified staff. The cost breakdown in Fig: 3.2 below indicates an unusually high a) charging for water on the basis of proportion of 'other' expenditures. consumption; and 3.36 As can be seen from Fig: 3.3, the b) a progressive tariff structure for current water bills in Apia are the lowest domestic consumers incorporating a among Pacific Island Countries. 'social' block for a 'life-line' supply where affordability is constrained, 3.37 An EEC study on the Water while discouraging excess Authority's Organization and Tariffs consumption through higher rates for recommended the consideration of two sets large volume domestic, industrial and of tariffs, as possible options. Option A aims commercial consumers. to recover O&M costs and depreciabon as soon as possible, while Option B would only 98 recover O&M costs. Both of these altemative 3.41 On-going Budgetary Support For tariffs represent significant increases over Water Supply. Financial projections made the current tariffs. (Refer to Annex 2 for in the EEC report indicate that even if the details.) tariff changes became effective in fiscal Figure 3.3: Water Charges (US$ per m3) 1994, the Water Authority would still require budgetary support for O&M expenses 0.5 ranging from WS$2 million in 1994 to . a IL WS$0.15 million in 1996 under Altemative A; 0.4 . Port Vila the corresponding figures under Altemative 0.3 * * * *Nuku'alofa B would be WSS2.2 million and WS$1.3 0.2 OHoniara million. As it is difficult to envisage a more *i * * _ ElSuva optimistic tarff, revenue or cost scenario in 0.1 ||i || .1 || *Apia the short run, it is evident that the Water 0 . . . . Authority would continue to require n3 r3 m3 r3 significant budgetary support for O&M (of the order of magnitude indicated above), Source: ADB even if it is efficiently run. A Direct Community Role in Service 3.38 In order to make a start on meeting Provision and Quality Monitoring the financial goals set out in the Act, the Board would need to consider revising tariffs 3.42 Establishingt an autonomous water immediately. In the absence of metered agency and increasing tariffs are necessary connctios, te ne taiffscan e phsed conditons to improving services. Without connections, the new tariffs can be phased understanding on the part of consumers of the in, with non-domestic consumers being ugn edfrteemaue,hwvr metredfirt; urig tis erid (ay yer) urgent need for these measures, however, metered first; during this period (say a year). implementation of actions will be difficult. A 'compact wlff tFe domestic consumers would be charged the imoantabon lavis in be useiol consumer" would need new flat rates. Samoans have been lavish in their use of not only to improve ost relavely free water. What is required recovery, but to play a . amounts to a "compact with the direct role in maintaining 3 39 The taffs would need to beons coPact w services such as drain reviewed at periodic intervals, in light of consumer. Such a compact would aim to coeanng and solid waste current costs, to ensure that the objectives increase consumer awareness of the costs of collecbtion within of full O&M cost recovery are met. A review providing high quality urban water and (and consequent adjustment) every two sewerage/sanitabon services as well as the Community leaders, years would appear to be a good balance hygiene and health implicatons of poor and churoues Noup between frequent e.g., annual, but small quality services. It would focus on: the a crucialrole M changes and large increases every three to importance of water quality; the steps being mobileing rommun cay five ars taken to provide safe water, the cost of actyon in improving treabng and distributing water, the need to servies 3.40 Affordability of Water Tariffs. conserve water through careful use and Water charges under either of the EEC reducing leaks and waste; and the need to study recommended tariff options would charge for water on the basis of metered nevertheless be affordable by the urban consumption and to coliect water charges. It poor (Refer to Annex 2), provided would call for recognibon of a community role consumption is significantly reduced to 50 in quality control through consumer feedback L/c/d. The Water Authority would, however, on service deficiencies and clear need to launch a major educational effort in accountability by the service agency for order to be able to achieve even grudging service performance. Community leaders, acceptance of the increased tariffs and women's groups, NGOs, and churches would reduced consumption. play a crucial role in this effort and the full 99 support of the Govemment would be Should an Apia Municipal Authority essential. be Established? 3.43 Such a compact would also seek to 3.46 Most countries, developing and increase community consultation on, and developed, have three levels of govemment participation in building and/or maintaining - national, state, and local. This three-tier urban infrastructure, targeting service- structure enables govemment functions to deficient areas, and gearing choice of urban be decentralized and makes service technologies to a community's willingness-to- provision at the local level responsive to pay for services. local needs. Local govemments are legally empowered to levy taxes and charges (such 3.44 Some functions require as property taxes and business taxes) to institutionalized management arrangements. meet the costs of providing various Water treatment plants require trained municipal services e.g., water supply, solid technical staff and, to be economical, water waste, roads. Local govemments in most and sewer reticulation systems must be developing countries are dependent on grant planned on a system-wide basis. Other support from central govemments. They also functions can be more effectively (and more have problems in attracting and retaining economically) carried out directly by qualified and experienced staff, especially in communities without a substantal capital cities, where there are altemative 'bureaucratic' overhead cost. Solid waste employment opportunities. collection, from within low-income neighborhoods especially, is a community 3.47 In small Pacific Island states, the responsibility in many countries and can be benefits of layering Govemment are much linked to recycling efforts, with disposal less obvious. In the case of Westem Samoa, handled by municipal authorites. Similarly, a change from a situation with no municipal local govemments are seldom able to keep govemment to a full-blown city neighborhood drains clean and community administration for Apia could result in: action is often more effective. In appropriate conditons, septic tanks provide a satisfactory, c) possible duplication of services low-cost means of human waste disposal, provided by departments of the provided they are emptied when necessary - (central) Govemment and the Water a responsibility which falls to the individual Authority; family. Even clearing blocked sewers can, if appropriately designed (see Box 3.1) on the d) overburdening an already fragile lines of the 'condominial' sewerage systems, capacity to provide infrastructure and be handled by communities directly. deliver services; 3.45 In summary, considerable scope e) imposition of municipal taxes/charges exists fur effective, direct community action in in a climate of unusually vocal efforts to improve the quality of a number of taxpayer opposition to the newly key urban environmental sanitation services imposed VAGST, especially in the with beneficial impact on environmental health context of likely increases in charges and at lower cost than through institutions. for services such as water supply, A decision on Creative thinking is required to structure solid waste etc.; establishment of 8 incentives to help stimulate community municipal authonty should be deferred initiative in these areas. f) creation of a govemment structure that does not take advantage of the opportunities for community; and 1 00 g) particpation offered by the country's strong matai system. 3.48 Rather, the institutional strategy for Box 3.3: The Honiara Town Council local services in Honiara should aim to: a) Experience in other Pacific Island set clear goals; b) minimize overhead costs; Countries indicates that a municipal govemment in and c) demonstrate accountability. a small island setting adds administrative costs, but does not necessarily improve the quality of urban services. For example, in the Solomon 3.49 There is a definite need for a Islands, it is acknowledged that the municipal framework and legal basis to manage govemment in Honiara does not have the capacity to adequately undertake its mandates to provide infrastructure development and land use for health care, education, roads, drainage and the Apia urban area in order to promote planning. A rigid definition of the city's jurisdiction economc and ocial evelopent, potecthas hampered its ability to manage land-use; the economic and social development, protect Town Council cannot regulate traditional housing human health, and minimize damage to the areas within the city boundary or construction on fragile ecosystems. It is not dear, however, customary land outside its boundaries, aithough that establishing a Municipal Authority would the latter resuatsin dservmices The Town Council be an effective means of achieving this depends on the Central Govemment for the objective, even if sufficient technical staff majority of its senior staff, it is also dependent on were available to run it. As a practical first grant support from the Central Govemment. step, the priority for the Apia urban area would be to develop basic ground rules on land use; improve coordination between central govemment departments and agencies that provide city-level infrastructure and services; and a streamlined process for obtaining building permits. DLSE would be ideally suited to take the lead in these matters in the short run. Strengthening DLSE 3.50 The DLSE, especially the Division of Environment and Conservation, has a key role to play in overall environmental management. Increased staffing, particularly the recruitment of qualified staff, and training are major requirements. Donor assistance for secondment of expatriate staff and training of local staff would be a priority. 101 IV. Priorities for Action strengthening sector institutions; (b) improving financial viability; and (c) investing in essential capital improvements. Such a 4.01 This section presents a strategy for strategy should also: i) reflect appropriate action by: (a) identifying the key problems that land use and settlement pattems; and ii) need to be tackled; (b) outlining strategic recognize the important operational linkages objectives and principles; and (c) suggesting between individual service sectors - the elements of a strategy to solve priority excessive water use results in unsatisfactory problems, consistent with stated objectives performance of existing sanitation facilities, and principles. and the effectiveness of recent investments to improved drainage continues to be The Need for a Strategy impaired by deficient garbage collection arrangements. Key building blocks of such a 4.02 Urban Apia is already a major strategy would include a multi-sectoral contributor to national economic output and investment plan and a land use plan as well is expected to become even more significant as measures to strengthen the regulatory in future. Increased economic activity, framework and institutional capacity for coupled with even modest growth in environmental protection through more population, lower levels of emigration and effective monitoring and public participation. retuming emigrants, will compound existing deficiencies in basic urban environmental 4.05 Most importantly, changes in sanitation services. To respond to this community attitudes and practices will be challenge, a strategy for action should be needed to achieve maximum benefit from based on the following objectives: service improvements. Village councils and mayors, women's groups and churches can a) minimize health risks to urban all play a key role in increasing community residents; awareness of the costs of providing services and in promoting conservation and b) protect the environment from further environmentally responsible behavior. The degradation; and viability of the strategy must be premised on the community at large buying into this c) improve urban economic productivity. agenda. 4.03 Both immediate and medium-term 4.06 At present, Westem Samoa has an actions are necessary to achieve these implicit urban environmental sanitation objectives. The following principles should strategy that is based on conventional underpin action: wisdom that: (a) sanitation problems will be solved if an expensive sewerage system is The strategy set out here a) make the best use of investments built for the population in the low-lying areas challenges the already made; of the city; and (b) creation of a municipal assumptions that: a) authority holds the key to better- building an expensive sewerage system: and b) b) increase community awareness of the management of services in Apia. The creating a municipal costs of providing services; and strategy set out here challenges these authonty hold the key to assumptions and suggests an altemative improving the delivery of urban environmental c) promote conservation and path of action. sanitabon servces and environmentally responsible behavior. suggests an ettemative Fiscal path of action Impications 4.04 Three types of action flow from 4.07 Western Samoa has a sizable these objectives and principles: (a) budgetary defiat, which peaked at 29 per 102 cent of GDP in 1991-92 and still remains a) eliminating subsidies for operations and Govemment needs to high at around 10 per cent. In 1993/94, maintenance for water supply and solid determine the level of on- water supply and solid waste services waste management in the medium term goingQ subsidies for urban environmental sanitation contributed WS$5.5 million and WS$0.25 through raising consumer awareness of services that are million respectively to this deficit, through costs, immediate promotion of sustainable. subsidies for operations and maintenance, conservation immediate promoting as well as for capital expenditure. conservation, and subsequently, Govemment needs to determine the level of periodic) tariff increased and stringent on-going subsidies for urban environmental cost control; sanitation services that are sustainable. Whilst a policy has already been outlined, b) examining the recurring cost specific action needs to be taken: implications of future large capital works Box 4.11: Turing Constraints Into Opportunities (e.g. the proposed Apia Sewerage Project), and undertaking them only Island countries typically suffer severe constraints when after the financial and economic viability formulating strategies for wastes management. Relatively small land is fully established; and areas, sensitive ecologies, isolation and a heavy reliance on imports make disposal of wastes difficult. Pacific Island countries have not, c) ensuring that new public institutions until recently, considered waste disposal to be a serious since the (e.g the proposed Apia Municipal local environment was generally able to absorb most wastes generated. Wdth increasing urbanization, this long-standing tradition Authority) are only established if they do is no longer practical, and waste management has become one of not depend on govemment subsidies. the most intractable problems facing many Pacific Island countries. At the same bme, small island countries share many A Coordinated Program of Actions unique attributes that can, in fact, be used to create superior waste management strategies. In Westem Samoa, almost all non-organic 4.08 Indeed, i is a concerted effort waste materials are imported. Through the judicious application of involving a number of agencies that can import restrictions (and encouragements) the waste stream can be have the most significant beneficial impact relatively easily cleaned up. Very few larger countries have this opportunity since they have much larger waste volumes and have on public health, the environment and the less control over imports and the relatively larger range of locally Govemment's budget in the immediate-to- manufactured products. Taking a relatively small number of medium term. These actions would, in any products out of the waste stream can have a significant effect on event, be a pre-requisite to possible future improving ease of handling and disposing waste, particularly investments in sewerage. hazardous waste. Island countries can apply deposit schemes more easily. This is especially encouraging since deposis enjoy greater than a 4.09 Building /nstitutional Capacity. A 95 per cent return rate in Westem Samoa. The heavy reliance on i clear set of objectives has been articulated shipping a local importers, also enables the Govemment to work I by govemment for the water sector, more easily with local importers to identify more environmentally particularly in Apia. To bring these sound product and packaging altematives, as well as exploring the o t f b m b possibility of obtaining preferential backhaul prices for shipping recyclables to market or hazardous waste to proper disposal. from existing investments through better Pacific island countries have an ideal climate for operations and maintenance and through composting, and other biological treatments of organic waste. improved cost recovery, a strong sector Actively encouraging composting would divert over 50 per cent of .i institution with a dJear mandate is now the region's waste stream, while producing a soil amendment that is much needed in many countries in the region. required. Section III discusses the The most important component of an effective waste * immediate actions needed to strengthen the management strategy is not technical, however, but attitudinal. I newly established Water Authority, which is Cumulative community actions are what make good waste the key sector institution. These are: management strategies work well. A unique strength of Island countries is their close knit community structure that is usually better | able to disseminate information and to quickly adapt programs to I a) staffing and takeover of operations; changing circumstances. j__ _ __ b) tariff increases; 103 c) public education; connections, routine maintenance, extensions to the distribution network etc. d) development of modem systems; and Over the next ten years, one could also envisage the possibility of privatizing the e) human resource development. Water Authority. Over the medium-term, as the Water 4.13 Enhancing Demand Management Authority begins to function more effectively, through Public Education. Water use it could also take over responsibility for must be reduced to more reasonable levels. sludge removal. Conservation, cost recovery, and raising community consciousness on urban 4.10 For the environmental problems of environmental sanitation issues are the key urban management, steps include: elements in the proposed strategy. Experience has shown that these are difficult a) strengthening urban environmental to implement successfully. Westem Samoa, management capabilities, through with its plentiful use of 'free' water and improved staffing and better funding strong traditions, is unlikely to be different. of the Division of Environment and Section III emphasized the need to treat Conservation in DLSE; public education on water conservation and water costs as an important on-going b) deferring the establishment of an Apia responsibility of the Water Authority. Municipal Authority for the time being, Community leaders, churches, Matais, and concentrating instead on addressing NGOs can be effective assets in support of priority land-use issues; and govemment leadership in this area and their active involvement is essential for the Water use must be c) confining of free-ranging pigs. success of this campaign. reduced to more reasonable levels. Conservation, cost 4.11 A strengthened DLSE will need to 4.14 Cost Recovery. The current recovery, and raising work with concemed Departments such as reliance on govemment subsidies for capital community Public Works, as well as with existing urban expenditure and for 0 & M (except for a consciousness on urban environmental sanitation authorities, both de jure (the pulenu'u) meager 6 per cent cost recovery for water) is issues are the key and de facto (matais, women's, sports and unsustainable. As indicated by govemment, elements in the pmrposed youth groups, the business community). In the objective should be to recover 100 per strategy. order of priority, the following conflicting land cent of 0 & M costs for water supply and use issues should be addressed: solid waste (sludge removal already operates on a cost recovery basis) in the a) degradation of the Vaisigano next 3-5 years. However, given the nature of watershed; the challenge, a well thought out strategy will be needed to gain public understanding and b) development in fragile and flood- support for gradually increasing charges for prone low-lying areas; and these basic services. In addition to the public education effort referred to above, the c) industrial/residential conflicts. following measured approach would be appropriate: 4.12 Private Sector Participation. The current involvement of the private sector in A. Water Supply sludge removal and solid waste collection should be built on. The private sector could a) Operationalize Altemative Tariff B (see also be involved in the water sector through Section III for details) immediately; contracts for meter installation, service 104 b) Begin meter installation, starting with collection and disposal facilities for solid nQn-domestic consumers; waste management (WS$0.6 million), and capital improvements to the drainage system c) Charge non-domestic consumers first (WS$2.1 million) should be adequate. The on the basis of metered consumption proposed Apia Sewerage Scheme (to be and gradually phase in cost recovery reviewed in 5-10 years) is the only major for domestic consumers on the basis capital project on the horizon. of the new flat rates; No significant capital 4.17 Donor Support Westem Samoa investments are d) Complete metering of domestic has been fortunate to obtain substantial needed in the next consumers and charge all consumers donor support for urban environmental three years for any of the urban services on metered consumption; and management. The benefits of future donor under review, support would be maximized, if such e) Improve collection efficiency from the assistance is in support of the proposed current 45 to 90 per cent in stages, priority actions. In the short run, donor with measurable targets. support would be required for: B. Solid Waste a) meter Installation and Water Billing and Accounting, for which KfW has a) Charge quarterly tariffs, at full cost, to already been approached; all non-domestic consumers (including tipping fees) with b) assistance to the Water Authority on immediate effect; and commercial accounting and computerization; b) After three years, charge domestic consumers as well. c) assistance to the Water Authority for preparing a staff training plan and Cost recovery on capital expenditure, at any financing implementation of the plan; level, does not appear to be feasible in the next ten years. d) secondment of expatriate staff to the Division of Environment and 4.15 Investnent Considerable donor Conservation and training staff; and financing has been provided in the recent past to improve water supply (WSS32 million e) a hydrogeological investigation of the - US$10 million equivalent) and drainage in current waste disposal site, along with Apia (see Annex 1). As indicated above, assistance to the current collection concentration on addressing supply and disposal program. constraints alone through additional donor financing will not provide a cost-effective 4.18 In the medium-term, donor support strategy. would be required to update the Drainage Master Plan and re-examine the feasibility 4.16 Indeed, no significant capital for the Apia Sewerage Plan. The Apia investments are needed in the next three Sewerage Project, which would probably years for any of the urban services under require implementation in about ten review: water supply, sewerage, drainage years, would be the largest single project and solid waste (assuming no major works requiring donor support are required at the present dump site). As discussed in Section 1I1, the emphasis should be on operations and maintenance. Over the medium-term, improvements to 105 Measuring Progress and donors, the need to take a comprehensive view of the interrelated issues 4.19 The ultimate test of a strategy is within a clearly articulated urbaniation policy whether it achieves its objectives. Recalling as well as an agenda of measures was the health, environmental and economic endorsed to govemment policy makers. objectives outlined at the beginning of the These were refined by working groups in a chapter, the following broad indicators of final consultative workshop. progress can be used: The municipal authority group decisively 0 Health. As more people have (a) conduded that there is no need for a fully- access to better water, sanitation and developed local govemment tier at present solid waste collection services, and because of cost implications, the potential for (b) a higher level of hygiene duplicating central govemment functons, education, morbidity and mortality limited human resources, the complexity of from gastro-intestinal diseases in the taxing land, and economies of scale. Instead, Apia urban area should decline. existing community structures (the pulenu'u, women's, church and youth groups) should be 0 Environment Apia's 'hot spots' consulted to help set rules for urban land use should cool down as problem areas. and improve coordination of services and Serious attempts to resolve land use infrastructure development in the Apia area. conflicts should result in better use of The results of such consultabons should be the watershed, less dense and incorporated by the Cabinet in an urban policy unplanned settlement in low-lying and a land management framework. areas, and reduced degradation of the coastal area. Residents will The wasbwater group recommended that: become more actively involved in environmental management at the a) for sanitation, standards should be set for community level as the role of the septc tank construcion and treatmentl matai, women's groups, and churches disposal of liquid industrial wastes; increases in these areas. b) to improve land use, a town planning 0 Economy. Improved quality and functon should be developed, baseline reliability of urban environmental data need to be collected, and roles sanitation services will foster should be clarified within Govemment; increased economic productivity. Appropriate quality of water will be c) Improved drainage requires community available and affordable to industrial involvement in maintenance; and manufacturing enterprises, fair costs will be recovered for the d) drain maintenance competitions should provision of reliable sanitation and be initiated between communities; and solid waste collection services. e) pigs should be banned in the town area. An Emerging Consensus on Actions The water supply group reached consensus 4.20 During consulations with a broad on the following points, in order of range of stakeholders induding community priority: leaders, women's groups, consumer groups, churches, NGOs. local businesses and industries, sector agencies, central govemment planning and finance ministries 106 a) a public education campaign was f) a computerized billing and accounting needed for demand management and system should be developed; and introduction of water metering; g) the Water Authority and other govemment agencies should b) the existing system should be repaired coordinate to prioritze water use. and should be maintained through a leak detection program; The solid waste management group recommended: c) rainwater harvesting should be encouraged; a) a public awareness campaign and local enforcement to prevent littering; d) water quality should be improved by catchment protection and expanding b) cost recovery for waste management; capacity of water treatment plants; levies on imported inorganic material entering the waste stream; e) cost recovery should be achieved by gradual tariff increases and installabon c) improved management of the of meters, beginning with large-scale Tafaigata dump; and commercial consumers; d) depoliticizabon of contracting for waste collection. 107 Annex 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Westem Samoa Bilateral and Multinational Assistance for Urban Services Project Donor Year Currency Value USS Equivalent (at current exchange rates) Water Tanks Malifa Canada 1983 CN$ 6,317 5,126 Water Tanks Vaipouli Canada 1983 CN$ 51,428 41,730 Fugalei Flood Protection Netherlands 1984 Guilder 1,009,000 314,438 Water Supply Project Canada 1984 US$ 400,000 400,000 Siuniu Water Supply Canada 1985 CNS 33,000 25,481 Water Reservoir Lotofaga Canada 1985 CN$ 40,000 30,886 Water Resources Assessment Canada 1987 CNS 30,000 22,624 Drainage/Land Reclamation Canada 1987 CN$ 37,000 27,903 Water Pumps Canada 1987 CNS 10,000 7,541 West Coast Upolu Water Supply PRC 1987 Yuan 4,510,000 1,211,682 Apia Water Supply FRG 1/ 1988-1991 DM 10,000,000 5,694,112 Apia Water Supply NZBAP 1988-1991 NZ$ 3,086,105 1,834,689 Watershed Management UNDP/ADB 1989-1995 USS 2,000,000 2,000,000 Community Water Supply WHO 1988-1993 USS 79,800 79,800 Water Training NZBAP 1990-1993 NZS 150,000 84,702 Rural Water Phase 3 ABAP 1990-1991 AUSS 900,000 702,180 Water Supply Lata UNDP 1990-1992 USS 58,000 58,000 Water Supply Savaii UNDP/SPR 1991-1992 USS 300,000 300,000 Rainwater Supply UNCDF 1991-1993 na na na National Hospital Sewerage NZBAP 1990-1993 NZS 396,000 223,613 Rural Water Supply EEC 1991-1994 ECU 9,000,000 10,400,400 Apia Water Drainage FG 1990-1992 na na na EIS Apia Sewerage FRG 1991-1992 DM 2,500,000 1,552,217 Water Metering/Legislation FRG 1992-1994 DM 3,000,000 4,751,700 Total 29,768,824 Notes: 1/ part of a total investment of WS$30 million. 108 Annex 2 Page 1 of 2 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Westem Samoa Water Supply Pricing and Affordability The section on sector finances highlighted the dependence of the urban services sectors, especially water supply, on subsidies from government for O&M expenditures, and from govemment as well as bilateral and multilateral donors for capital expenditures. Although such budgetary support is typical of developing countries in general, the level of cost recovery for water supply (at 6% of O&M costs) is particularly low in Western Samoa. Government has already indicated that it would expect the Water Authority to recover a significant percentage of O&M costs in the next three years. This would require a major increase in tariffs to generate additional revenue. Indeed O&M costs are expected to rise as a result of efforts to carry out long deferred maintenance, reduce leakage, improve the quality of water, and to attract and retain qualified staff. Water tariffs. Water tariffs were recently reviewed by the EEC study on the Water Authority's Organization and Tariffs. The study's draft report, issued in September 1993, recommended the consideration of two sets of tariffs, as possible options. Option A aims to recover O&M costs and depreciation as soon as possible, while Option B would only recover O&M costs. Table 1 indicates the current tariffs and the two recommended tariff options. As is evident from the table, both of these alternative tariffs represent significant increases over the current tariffs. Table I Current and Alternative Water Tariff L . : -- Xr t ..... :- - ......~~~~........ . ..l Type of consumn ... -.-. Rte -- nsum n Rat. A . at . DZle. :.- . . 0*g. :. ::-: X,... .. --O . - t3-...... .. . .... o .: .- (me kred t , *S ... -0+1o - - jSo j ......~~~. . . . .. . . . .:.-;06.: *°..l Domestic 0-225 0,06 0-60 0.30 0,2S...00- (metered~~ 225.450 0,10 0- 10~~0 110.60 0.420. . - .."450 0 ... .-16.. $e00---. 1,20-: 0.8 lndtstlial - 0-g 25 0-20 Throuhou ;,0 0,8 CommerclaJ Z25 - 450 - 0.25- - --: -: - : (rnetered} "450 0.. .30: ;. .. lnstitutlonalf 0-# 25 0Q.0$ - Througho . X,0:: 0.40- social 225 -450 0.10 (metered} >450 0.15 . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . .. . . . Flat rates per quarter - Domestfc NA 12.00 hA 65.00 4400 (eAgriclte N.A 24.00 N.A 260.0 17600 - Others MA 48.00 N.A 260.00 176.00 Annex 2 109 Page 2 of 2 Affordability of water tariffs. Table 2 indicates the resulting water bills under either alternative tariff, for a standard household of 9, using a (target) consumption of 150 litres per capita per day (I/c/d) for an 'average income' family and a (target) consumption of 50 I/c/d for low income families. it is evident that: (a) water charges increase dramatically for the 'average income' households, but are about the same as they are now for 'low income' households; and (b) the tariffs (both alternatives A and B) would be affordable to both the average households and the 'low income' households. It should be noted, however, that to ensure affordability, low income households would have to substantially reduce their per capita water consumption levels from current (very high) average water levels. This, coupled with the past history of even very low water bills not being paid by over half the customers, and the recently demonstrated resistance to new taxes (VAGST) and price increases, makes it obvious that the Water Authority would need to launch a major educational effort in order to be able to achieve even grudging acceptance of the new tariffs that are essential to meet the projected goals of a more sustainable performance for the sector and beneficial impact on health. Table 2 Water Charaes at Taraet ConsumDtion Levels i: . E. -. ...~~... - -.- , : . - - ,f- ,- i - i7- --- .. ................................................................................ w I , ....' . i,, .. . ... . ..- ..' --" .. .' ..............''' '' V''' '' ' ' -' Ff i' , -- T i :i:: -- - ---E-i -: F-EtE ---:T. ----:- - . - - i --E iTafgt p.r capia cnsumpin - ---150 Wd --0 Ycdd ralily coim sum ptiQft per q.... .. . 1 .0 . ....4.....X... Quarterl ,wter brn::: :-- Adterw~~~~atIv. B~~~ ............ ....S.S.S..: '. ..- '....... . .... T'"''; ....'' ...... ........''';'.'' L ;i't: ': '' - 'S '-:: a ; ...i. et Q , er.ly ..t .ill ..... ... .. E Q a l . t . l 0... : ;g0 ;;l it ;; - --0 .; :- .... .. .0 .... .. it; . .- -% I -O f:cre se ovrren t'b ig .:i'S ,'. cu...rrent.... .........i........:....... :.......: IT .... t... . .... .....'." : : .....:.''...'......'.:': - .' . -. -.........':.................... ..-.....' .1.' . .... i..... i.... ........ i'-. .Altrntv B .-0: - -W 3Xi0 t ;0 (33} In this context, while the situations are not entirely comparable, it is noteworthy to review the. experience of the Electric Power Corporation (EPC) in Western Samoa and the American Samoa Power Authority (which is responsible for both water and power). The EPC, which provides an efficient service, has had little difficulty collecting average monthly bills in the range of WSS30 - 40, which amount to 6 - 8% of average household income of WSS600. The American Samoan water tariff is equivalent to WSS1 .57 per cubic meter, well above the maximum tariff proposed in Western Samoa. 110 Annex 3 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Westem Samoa Estimated Waste Quantities and Composition 1994 2010 Population Served in Apia 45,000 59,000 Generation Rate Resiential (kg/person/day) 0.5 0.65 Commercial (tonnes/day) 9 12 Annual Generation Rate (tonnes) 10,500 17,000 Estimated Residential Amount Collected 40% 60% Total Requiring Disposal (tonnes per year) 4,200 10,250 Residential Composition (% by weight) Putrescribles 60% 50% Paper 11 16 Textiles 3 3 Metals 8 9 Plastics 5 7 Glass 3 5 Other (including fines) 10 10 Moisture Content (%) 40 to 60 30 to 60 Density (kg/m3) 250 to 500 150 to 400 Energy Value (kg/kcal) 900 to 1200 1050 to 1450 111 Chart 1 Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries - Westem Samoa Western Samoa Water Authority: Summary Organization Structure Board General Manager | Financial | l l | Administration Manager Chief Engineer Manager _ Financial Production Customer Operations Relations Planning Meter Apia Personel & Reading Operations Training Stores Upolu Administration Operations Accounts Transport Savaii Intemal Operations Audit 112 IBRD 25951 1 78-F 179 r175 ubu 0 20 40 60 80 100 N ' :' Tobwen, cKILOMETERS P A C I F I CO C E A N - tkAft Bucc -,KIOA YASAWA - + < = - --LAUCALA BYa QA'iAWA t Buc l / So-osom ) OAME4 YASAWA D amc GROUP TAVEUNI Nobou-aio - V A N U A L E V U NACULA VANUA _ , E~~~~~ALAVU 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~KORO~,)lNomoku WAYA Roliiroki_. 'v' KORO,>Qmcku .......... FIJI - NORTHERN '*=CV, - - FIJI MAGO - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~LAU NsiI_og& IlV&tUkoUIt 0. - a MANAGING URBAN GROUP - 0 OVALAU WAKAYA ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES Louloka - OV AAU TUVUKA Lawo Og0? VLevuoVUK _ Nud_ )) <=> X / .+Levuka _ Malor Roods ± CICIA N0~., ~ - Minor Raads /- P _ ~Korovou NAIRAJ < Highlonds(over 1,000 feet) Vunidoo ? . Rivers Z ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PortsNAU ~~~05O5u .~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~~ AirstripsPA I C NVU1 Lomowor ->* Xf;> Lor-s Ncvrs GAUJ + International Airport O C E A N S~goi_ko~. _O _0 _ S*VA ' 1 Tubou > . -N-tcirhtof - Tu b. o , VITI LEVU _ EA __ - r EQA_ iX MOALA , VATU- -- LELE . _ . SOUTHERN 0 LAU GROUP MOCE The ooun,dories. colors. ONO GSOUP MOCE 0 _ _ _ .. d i-N---0 der,omnnot,ons rand a ny _ _, -- other inio-mtio- sho-.n-- on this mop do not - KABASA A- '9* n,ply. -n the Port of KADAVU - Th. Wiord t3o0k GrouP. 1 V - -t -t any ,udgment on the legol _ -- -A 4ATUIKL_ stotus of ony ter-tory, Vnsea E A or _nY endorsement or ocreptonce ouh17 179u FU su-h JUNE '994 ..... ... .. MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL / '.~~~~- ~SANITATION SERVICES I:: \AsR / / ~~~~~~~CITY OF SUVA I: 0 S~~~~~~~~~OUD WASTE DUMP SITE '' ...... . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AREAS COVERED BY SEWERAGE RErISCULATION ~ T ME SEWAE TREATMENT PLANTS ..\REI ..SEWERAGE OUITEALL.5 ST AREAS PRIMARILY SERVED RY SEPTiC TANKS '~AREAS PRIMARILY SERVED BY 'TIDAL TOILETS' N'&AE TA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ SELECTED SGUAETER SETTLEMENTS -~~~~~ .'~~~~~~~~' ~~~~~~ ~MANGROVES -~~~> $.-~~~~~~.R** ~~~CITY OF BA -- RIVERS. CREEKS DUMP LAUTOKA ~~~~/ > ii > __ rnY/TOASNSIVPROVNDARY A~~~cREA TONSI BLOUNDARY, DUMP souo~~~~ 5 X fl .STEPM,ICTNESRL7 Soa H br a RE 110- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~PRESOEAE E5ERVnOpJ15 __ AESCOVERED RY SEWE"GE IK.S SUklEM TO FL ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~REICLSATO Y ~~~~~I.VERS CRIEEKS. ro CITY OF LADUNTOKaAA IR.Opn., sm, -5~~~~~~~~~~~,I AIRPORT *0Sr, AGVATNUAMEW AN E . A SR IEA T 5 I?' 17'~~~~~~~~~~2 3 \' C PAIFCEOEA 0 RESEAVOIRS -~~~~~~S R I SS~E 1 E ICTI,K To 'ETCALATION LOCAIONOF RBA COTER INFIJ SY'~ SEWUAT TREATMENT PlNT A-W RVES BCRES TO I Ty E.A,.lCV PTO "SE~EBRQ ~ ARES PRD.ARLY SRVEDBY SPTICTAP.S -- CIT I TWNSHPEBONDAR .S.IP SMND.AY ..W SUMECI TO FIOCD~~~~~~~~~~~~~NC -AND THEIR POPULATION~~SY 99 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' I .. lO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IRD 25952 PAPUA ASOLOMON ISLANDS NEW GUINEA11 'Sot PaicOen'MANAGING URBAN BOGAINVILE ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES NukiC-IISLI ___ -.COISULROADS -' - Pungoe RIVRS N-. - Nra \C)t Soicmungga ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~HIGHLANDS(OVER 1,000 FEET) ISEANSRY S± INTERNATION'AL AIRPORT j§j. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AIRFIELD Nik-arnror POR VELLA LAVELLA PR Ratio '' ~~~~~~~~~~INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BoIkm DKROM4BANGARA 0 - + ita0 ± ¾o o< - SANTA ISABEL0 20 0 60 0 10 PANONGGA K. k+- u J~ Sarnasodtj 0 0 6 8 GIZO -R,ngg, NEW S.' ul KILOMETERS kale RENDOVA GEORGIA VAGN& S j:i The boundaries, colors. - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Poptmba"ukaol on this mop do not TETEFARE -- ~agh. VNGUNUTOKAE1 The WorldSanies colrousRIELILD LRD SAD dtausofinatiny tandor anyagAUK ' Si` a orany jugend orsemen legbrrr boundaries.Maooo-1!'Huli t HONIA~- tira A0l ' MOSt I Tongoro "' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'iRer MARAMASIKE -- - - - . U 'p ~~~~~~~~~gi~~ UADALCn~AL NRkr2 4- ISLANDS~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~Rbnaia+ aoaa-i IAW "'~"'5 AtNANsO t GIJANEA - SOLOMON ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~SNT CU Tc~~~~~~~* NISLANDS * -- *' Ft. - N.mbaa> U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J~~L~~ ¾-. II ~~~~SAN CRISTOBAL MISThAIJA ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RENNELL - .USTRA,UA ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~THE PACIFIC VANIKOLO. SZue JUNE 1994 IBRD 2603' i' u,< :.^ WESTERN SAMOA Sal o- MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES CITY OF APIA - ENVIRONMENTAL HOT SPOTS VAISIGANO WATERSHED: /2 'P,- /\ iL Xe fr S o m rDobi" -ovir-, .onumlsio o d..kinoo o r, dgio obihon. / INDusrR§At//,i^2215 VAiUSU BAY AND FOREESHORE: ½ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~kpo'Harbor Pnbo-l.n'i,ghioo.lnon 0* 6oa.ei.. flwrgon & olid -1.Is, % rd..d hO-y *7: =idr /% POOR W ;C...: ndwri.l p.i", | ..nga ,hobr-i -rCON*. o/ I2EVELOPME r .0,15 Inoos -ld dm Id d t . 3 LOW-LYING AREAS: omi Lnong,ng pigs. infdrmo aondAo_n on M OU U3 f- - d_ig on tA- hefol shOhs oi ony hrrfsory. or o Laulooo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A.d.g& d-~i. d. . -,i.l"- hg - ROADS ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~0Ro0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ n~~~~~~~S' SEWAGE (WASTE) TREATMENT PLANTS ony enCforsemenr or occeoh>nce oi / } - ~~~~~ -~ ~ / S 0 U T H P A C I F I C O CLI EORALNREEF R-HIGHLANDS (., 400 n-ote,) VAI2g; _ / 172 C l ol-20' 72 1Z1 @4s1 JULY l i / N.ndn ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN SAVA ('I Sands~~~~~~~~~~~~30 TAPAPATA 0 12 3// KILO mETER LEOAS4 Thn on.,, ao. .onnh. IF.o1 UPOou ,ho, do no m,o IA. porno a-y .dnaraoroopn. *SOUTH P AC IF IC OCEANCON ,.,h b-ud-, ,.,2 X m l7rtO 17220. mni 17-40 IBRD 25950 17rjo 17ri' 17;w 1il4f WESTERN SAMOA MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION SERVICES - ' ; - - ; [ 's - - UNIMPROVED ROADS SOUTH PACIFIC UNPAVED ROADS 2e . w:-'\ OCEAN PAVED ROADS + INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT a- ' t AIRPORTS SAVAI'I ' L PORTS -1.'.t - "E\ - - RIVERS Iwrer @ ' r' / i NATIONAL CAPITAL Ire HIGHLANDS OVER 1,000 FEET 'N,~C- N,-O N TIal CArfllr ;'ohoOd'U '' P J . / IA 'NMU4II 1,DSAAMHALL NORTH PACIFIC 551 '. - L EDAA D STATES' OF A40CRONESLA '-.\ w 1 * = t - ~~~lonlnATi ~- . - VJBBATI ~~" \L>m v r ^\VANUAT .-0 coo.i nx Q < p ,A z4 _ RJ- '97 + { ' r"M The boundoris, colors, SOUTH PACIFIC woPfZano@s+, _ __ _ J ' deno-inatio.. and any AtJSTEAUS other informotion shown OCEAN LOW o~~I n this ma d- o iThe World Bank GrouP. _ aO ,H 2 8 ony judgment on the legal tjouno 4 a 12 16 A SOUTH Al1sttu of an teria PACIFIC NEW or any endorsment OCEAN N or acceptance of such I^ ir-s z1 boundanes. Ca JUNE 1994 iSRt 260375 0 ! 2 KILOMETERS IrGn Bottom Sound 10 I /RANADI /,// RUBBISH POINT CRUZ MARINE OUTFALL CONTAMINATED T IP IRECOMMENDED FOR FUTURE OUTFALL) FORE-SHORE AREA "' 13 - ' ' 14 FORE-SHORE KUKUM MARINE OUTFALL 2 -- i IAHE a . t DEVELOPMENT AREA CONTAMINATED (RECOMMENDED FOR FUTURE OUTFALL) . - ~ |: I FORE-SHORE AREA 4 3 \ - - RANADI - - ~~TASAHEB i - r1 11 7 6t -t -m I' 412\lno ~8 7 i ' ------------ - . CRUJZ ' , t1f \ \ \1> N - POVE -- ' 1 - ------ VURA MEiBOKONAVERA - , KUKUM >- LIG CREEK (,OT CZ_NNECEC ,' LI/ UCR / ....-..- - A VALLEY~ - ./ - I C'Es79 -K .. !/ - i Ao_. , , LJ - NAHA OMBITO SOLOMON ISLANDS VALLEY MANAGING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL . / WATER CONTAMINATION ! n-. SANITATION SERVICES I A FROM SILTATION, CITY OF HONIARA AGRICULTURE, KOMABITO I., - . it. .inugaJ ya 17 AND FORESTRY- /- ENVIRONMENTAL HOT SPOTS i7-, R RANADI AREA: i TUVARUHU - Problems: woter contaminotion, industrial effluents disease vectors, coastal erosion. ' - I -' Causes: untreated sewage outfall, industrial estate, uncontrolled dump. >-- --_- - - -- - - - - - -=. W KUKUM-VURA AREA: ------- - -- P- - NEW - , NEW Problems: high concentrations of bacteria, seafood contamination. GIttNEA, Causes: untreated sewage via near-shore outfalls. -- EsotsEuL - SOLOMON ISLANDS W TEMPORARY HOUSING AREAS. ; F3_1 Problems: flooding, disease vectors, water contamination. I -Sn-h P-cJ.c Causes: poor drainage, inadequate water, sanitation & solid waste services. N- EXISTING OUTFALLS (1986) N ..SANrA ISABEL Oce.n 1. K.G. YI SCHOOL 9. BAHAI NO.2 ISLANOS 4 2. RANADI 10. HOSPITAL NO.1 e MALAIrA. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY 3 UAI1 OPTLN. E-HOUSIPANG INFRASTRUCITUR PROJECTS 4. NAHA VALLEY 12. HOSPITAL NO.3 1? GUADALCANAL HOUSING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS ~~~~~~5. KUKUM NO.1 1 3. POINT CRUZ SANi CRISrOBAL SEWERED AREAS 6. KUKUM NO.2 14 ROVE CRAKtR .- 7. KUKUM NO.3 1 CITY LIMITS 8. BAHAI NO.1 16 TUVARUHU C - - - - - -- - ' . 7. Sr Ir - - 'r Ar IMAG'TINGi Report No: 15250 Type: UNP