Volit ne fwo liii u n Dnn URBAN ACAE Arumbero ie Fall 1993 U R B A N Tr R A N S P O R r A T I O N I S S U E Bangkok's Urban Transport Crisis IWtfl___ 1 Bangkok's Urban Transport Crisis by Rod Stickland by Rod Sticklanid 2 A Tribute to Jorge Hardoy by MichacelA. Cohen 7 Urban Transport in Lagos by BANGKOK. The horrendous traffic in the Bangkok Metropolitan also contributed to high-rise, high- T4ji Bolode Region is widely known: anyoine who has travelled to Thailand has his or density developmiients that put additional 10 Latin American Mass Transit her own favorite horror story of being stuck in gridlock for hours. Traffic pressures on existing local infrastruc- Ftienne lenly conditions in Bangkok are gencrally recognized as being among the worst turc. especially roads. It Transport and the Environme in the world. In recent years, traffic volumes on in Santiago de Chile by Unplanned and. uncoordinated development in this metropolis of 9 the main roads have been growing at Oscar kigoeroo million (14 percent of the country's population) is characterized by between 15 and 20 percent per year. 14 The Effects of Warsaw's Risi massive urbanl sprawl radiating up to 50 kilometers in all directions. representing a doubhing in volume every Car Travel by Wo]ciech Traffic congestion and air pollution from vehicles are causing substantial five to six years. More than 500 new Sue-horewski economic losses and serious health effects, which mean lost work days vehicles are added to the streets of 15 Auto Dependency in the Unit anid lower productivity (see box on page 4j. Bangkok daily, and average travel States by C. Keinneth Orski Sprawling development along major road corridors and inefficient speeds of less than 10 kilometers per patterns of urbanization have "frozen" substantial areas of land from hour drop to a mere 5-6 kilometers per development since access to the surrounding road networks is lacking. As hour in peak traffic periods. This should 3 World View Transportation land prices escalate, the govertitnent has had itiore difficulty acquiring riot be surprissing, since roads only and the Economic Survival ol land for local distributor roads and major highways. High land values have occupy 11 percent of Bangkok' s total Cities by Nigel Harris = - ..... :, t X ffi land area, compared with 20-25 percent s Nai Tanoan the in such cities as Lonidoni, Paris, and New 'Taxi Mafia" in South Africa 54, by Mes k i....Khosa wit .Whilc the city's roads are clogged 12 Mayor's Column with vehicles, its river, canals, anid Amsterdam's Bold Approach railway carry relatively few passengers. to Reduce Car Traffic by Ed . Although mass rail transit systcms have i'an Trab been proposed for many years, as yet no 13 Q & A Tehran's Air Pollutic '~systemi has been implerniented. The road Control Program by Poinrane system consists of a limited number of Hastelz major arterials, a network of wide main 16 Communities Speak Bicycl roads, and many small local access Overtake Bus Travel in [lavai yF l 8kiz tm<_-N||- F3 ilill . il S |- lroads, or soi. Many of the main roads. by Manuel Alepuz particularly in the inner areas, are Bicycles in Mozambique: operated one-way, witli six or more Competing with the Myth of f1lanes of traffic. This makes them Cars by Curios Cardoso cxceedingly difficult for pedestrians to 18 Roundtable "'Bus Driver's cross. Outside the Middle Ring Road Syndrome" in Buenos Aires I surrounding the inner city, the network Sergio Federovisky is sparsely developed. Several proposed 21 From the City Manager's major roads and expressways are in Desk various stages of niegotiationi, arid mianiy 22 Book Reviews smallerroads are under construction. 23 The Urban Calendar 24 Letters to the Editor Barriers to Progress Proposed solutions to the transport problem abound and public support for such efforts has been genuine, but disorganized. Delays and difficulties in carrying oot such solutions have plagued the development of conitintied on pcage 4 l ~IalstivM17... or Bal ....gok has wudespK-adl ecoooiotrti -urd wocial cost.r Danida e A Tribute to Jorge Hardoy riran ' bs Michael A. Cohen Fb ti rr ~~Managemenl I Mdndgeoomeu s 4iti hiel A. Coheiit is divisisori cltiwf 0!the U rbaot Devel/opment Di;tiion;o rtie Wriorld Bank. This issiie of Th Ufrban Age is tunldcd by It is with ercat sadness that we Icarned of One of his irost eniduring contributions was the Danish Aecncy for Itiiei nationial Developmentiih, the FederaLtion of Canadian ithe death ol' Jorge Hardosy oni Septemrber 19, his abilits to establish awiI nurture institutions Municipalities. the Dutch Ministrs of 1993. For rimany years, .iorge was one of the and nietworks. Sortie of these have included the Foreign Aliairis, Faninie Mae. and the leading scholars architect, historian, platitter. Center fr t lJrhan asnd Regional Research in Woitd Bansk. Derhelopental p undind b or and geographel-of urbanization in developing Buenos Aires anti the International Institute for UNDP UNtCHS(Hahitai a-Vorld Bank cointries. His wide range of intellectual Environment and l)evelopment in Latin Ut bart Matnagement Progerarine atid interests included the deeveloping role ol America., and a large nuimber of networks of the Worild Bank. intermediate size uirban centers. the tirbitn Laitin Amercan scholirs and activists which __ Iensvironnent. street children, historic presers a- have served as focal points for discussion and _ - __ I I tioni. and urban health. He served as a valued support for individuals, particulalxIv during Jeb Brueatinam advisor to govrcnments. foundations, and periods of political repression. ICLe, Torontlo. Ciinidai des clopmcnt agencies. He helpcd to train a Perhaps his most important professional J.ames H. Carr wholc gcneration of LLtin Amocrican urban legacy was his strong belicf that -we can do 0/fite of Housoii,, Rcicari Ii Fan/ie Aloe, It' Vr iiqi ii D, C.l 1 ' specialists, both by itivolvirig studeists it better," that urban specialists bavc the piofcs- G. Shabbir Cheertia ongoing activities and by mobilizing the sional obligation to find solutions tor probleims. UVDP. Nevt York. USA finaricial resources to support thieir work and to provoke anld riurtule change. ali(t to focus Charles Corrcai leai-rihl). Mariv u-baii specialists around the special attentiort otn the nieeds of the poor. Ehis Zsunsa Daniel world claim hint as their mentor. bclicf coupled profound professional knowledge Re,earc/ hinsie i 4I/e Huitgortiis In addition to his intemational work. he sas with a strong social commitment. I le ssill be Mrinim o1v { F/ias a' BudM peiq. Hilang si, tan activist on local issues in his hoaiie city ol' long rerriembered for the content of his profes- Mainadou Diop Buenos Aires. firequently with hNs wile, Ana, sionial work and his beliet that this work shouild Diakr Cuiaisuitinii Coititi/ alatso a leading irbhan specialist tocusitig on contribute IO social] juslice. Ni /l Seneglri commonity development. Jorge combine(i his I am sure that many contributors and readers Developmet Pla/n')iilog Lnii strong professioinal interest in individuals with ot TIhe Uribani Age join me in conveying our Londi/on. Lioigid genuine personal warmth and caring. One of deepest sympathy to his wife and family. We Th- H KlVstee t of -oreign airs his legacies is the large number of people who will miss a respected colleague and a dear Die Ha'srie. NVet/ei/aiid coLtnted bins as their frieid. friend. Aprodicio Laqtiani U BC C'niirni for fHiiiuin Setlemi enits Jainic Lei rier Edlitor's anOe Ci hi//isi, Bracil Akii MNtaogstn;e I/tatatsl Nigeria "Urban transportation" means more than how in a number of major cities, including Tehran. Pablo Ti iselli people move from one part of the city to another, The global epidemic of lead poisoning, especially ri iiio tlaniaigems' PirFogralinin or the kinds of mechanical devices and csystems of children, is a preventable tragedy throughout Quitro. ECitimdor they use. As Nigel Harris discusses in his guest the world, including the USA. In itiost developing Jatisae Valenauela IL'LAICFLCADEL. Qtito, LEcuador editorial, transportation is ecitral to the flow of countries, lead's loiig-tetur and damaging effects knowledge, infonuiation, and conunercial goods. carl be linked most clearly and dramatically with The types of available transportr and how they are the continued use of leaded gasoline, which M VHIII IIIKGN I | | used, tell ais a great deal about a society and its disperses lead throughout the environment. The values. In several articles, the mix of transport article from Buenos Aires, and the companion Arit Hasan inodes reveal deep-seated distinctions among piece that adjoins it, raise critical issues on this Kirii(hii Pakistan social classes: the rich, the poor, and the middle topic. Hilda Heizer class; the elite and the disenfianchised. There are vast resources atid literature Cenilit tsti/ditos 5o, ii,' i A contunon therne, itt articles from ''hailand, available on urban teraisportationt. sonme of which Alt/i/ utile s iiwa Ss-i ,tfArccitiiii the United States, Cuba. and Mozanbique, is tIre are hIighlighted on the following pages. We hope U,NC 'HS Naii 't, Kei' v'a notion of "the car as king." The desire to have that this edition of The Urban Age will help create one s own personal automobile persists despite a better understanding of some of the major I I t I I the expense involved in owning and operating concepts and controversies in the area of urban thern, and kitowledge of their environmental transportation worldwide. costs. sNori-tilotonzed transport, most notably This past Septeiiaber, Mary McNcil began a Acting Editor aRonnie Bradf'rd biccles, are sccit by tire majority of people in 10-nsonth study leave at the Ketiiredy School of Editor uoti leave) Mller LvcNeil ak rany countries as "backward" and utiappealing, Goveriinrent at Harvard Univcrsity. I have been Distributioni Cotistclo Powell especially for the upwardly mobile. However, the acting editor for this issue, and will be the bicycles are gaining popularitv in a nutnber of editor for the Winter 1994 and Spring 1994 issues. Tih( Urbrn Age is pablished fiour tires a countries, for diverse reasons. as described in Mary will return in time for the Summer 1994 year and is available to developing articles from Cuba. Mo7ambique. and The edition. couintrv subscribhrs tree ol cha-r e. Developeed country subscribers are Nether lands. As always, we look forward to receiving yoirr citaiged USS40.00 nitnually. Editorial Airy discussioni of tubaii transportation would comisents and feedback on this and all issues of Oflices aitc located at Rotoim S4 01t. The bc incorilplete without sonic rlciltion of health The Urbatrt Age. Wo tId Ban k. 1 SI8 H Street NW. and environmtental issues. Large scale air Washinrgion D.[. 2/1433. U.S.A. pollution control progra rts are being carried out -Bonnie Bradford Facsinsile: 2025 522322N4. please note oair nev, riorti and Cax nmumbers. Transpc'rtation and the Economic Survival of Cities by Nigel Harris Nigel Harris is prqfessor of developtmet planning. Development Planning Unit. at University College Lonzdon, Uniited Kingdonm. In a world economy character- but is also moving away from big comes a boom in city airport wheelers) added to India's ized by the movement of a cities toward green field sites on construction. The same competi- stock annually, most of them growing avalanche of goods, the edge or beyond the reach of tive forces are at work in the in cities. Vehicle domination of the capacity to transport metropolitan regions. competition between close roads collides with the masses of efficiently is essential to eco- Agglomeration economies European airports. people still dependent on muscle nomic growth, employment, and become far more effective for city Sea and air transport are or animal powcr, with severe income. concentrations of finance, increasingly important for the threats to life and limb. Cities are no longer fixed transport terminals. markets, economic survival of cities. but Furthermore, the growing locations for production; they are tourism, culture and educationi, for most people, transport still volume of motorized movement the switchgears in a global health. research, and develop- means movement on land, is inflicting yet further damage on exchange system, logistical ment-the great services now whether on foot. by animal, by the environment; poor traffic centers for managing flows predominating in many cities and vehicle, or by train. These management and badly serviced between distant points. supplying wide geographical movements are no less vital. The vehicles combine in traffic jams Those who manage the giant areas, even global markets. But growth of urban productivity to inflict the greatest damage on projects of urban transport the dispersed output still comes to depends on swift and cheap air quality, cspccially in hot infrastructure-from docks, the city's transport junctions for connections between homes and sunlight. Aircraft yet further airports. railway and trucking distribution. workplaces, between ports or damage the atmosphere. The terminals, to telecommunica- Few areas of city transport are airports and factories. 420,000 annual ship movements tions-play a decisive role in the more starkly contrasted between The heart of the modem in the North Sea pose major economy. It is important to keep developed and developing metropolis is also the movement threats to the cities and habitat in mind, however, that the mode countries than seaports. Innova- of information and finance. In the surrounding the waters. of movement for the majority of tions in loading and shipping; in case of finance, the past 20 years Urban management can the world is still by muscle ship design. navigation and have seen extraordinary growth, provide the leadership for the power-walking, bicycling, communications; and in land transforming central busincss efforts to secure the economic lugging headloads., or pulling transport access. have made ports districts. But participation future of the city by mnaintaining rickshaws. Swift global and slow so expensive that major shipping depends on increasingly sophisti- an efficient system to manage local movement are equally lines often refuse to carry cargoes cated telecommunication systems flows: people, goods. services, crucial in creating and sustaining to developing countries because connecting cities as well as on a information, and finance. The the output. employment, and of the cost (port operations can facilitating political and adminis- paradox of development is incomes of people. cost between a fifth and a half of trative framework. In many present in each element- The pace of growth of trans- total transport costs). The developing countries, private increasingly swift and cheap long port is phenomenal, not least difference is not simply in the capital is being brought to bear to distance movement for a minor- because trade grows faster than quality of capital equipment, but develop this capacity. ity, slow and extravagant city production. Given the signifi- even more in the management of Compared to the investment movement for the majority. cantly higher rates of growth of city transport movement, lavished on intemational move- The present failures of manufacturing in (leveloping Airports are assuming the role ment. city transport is a management trap the poor in countries, exchanges between in urban development previously Cinderella-even though the isolated islands between high- developed and developing played by seaports and railway economic advantages of the city speed routes, crisscrossed by countries are scheduled to grow terminals. They stimulate local and the productivity of the city aircraft and rail and road viaducts. disproportionately fast. Global manufacturing and agriculture work-er depend on swift and cheap Transport, which should be a networks of supply stretch and become major centers of local movement. means to escape from poverty, processes that were formerly economic activity. The situation is getting becomes a means of locking enclosed in one factory over The competition to build or painfully worse in most cities as a people into ghettoes. On all many countries, so shipmenit upgrade airports is fierce-and generation of investment reaches counts-the amelioration of between these diverse suppliers expensive. In East Asia, the new exhaustion, without being poverty, the enhancement of becomes crucial for the final Kansai airport, built on an renewed, while the numbers productivity, and the improve- output. Maintaining the world's artificial island near Osaka, requiring to travel grow spectacu- ment of the environment output increasingly depends on competes with brand new airports larly. There are said to be 1.7 effective urban management is a rapid and absolutely reliable in Seoul and Hong Kong, and million vehicles (including two- key to progress. movement. upgraded facilities at Bangkok The city's agglomeration and Sinigapore. The People's gg The ideas expressed in "World Viewv" are not represenztative of any> agerncv or economies no longer seem Republic of China is expanding or-ganization, bzut reflect the personal comments of each auitlzor. They are izcluded effective in much of manufactur- air traffic at an extraordinary pace to stimuilate lively debate and interaction on various issues in the developed and ing. Dispersal is nottjust global, (20 percent per year), and with it developing worlds. THE URBAN RGE Fall 1993 BANGKOK continuedfrom page I Bangkok's urban transport infrastructure. A key constraint is the lack of Bangkok's P'roposed Megaprojects More Cars, More PollJIuion any one agency with clear responsibihty for the coordination of the Emissions from the transiport sector, Bangkok metropolttsn region various transport projects. A central agency is needed to appraise and help The proposed solutions to (lhousands of tons a year) define projects so that all efforts are effectively integrated before Bangkok's traffic problems include the 1,000 Carboi monoxce I being presented to the cabinet. construction of a series of transport U Responsibility for the transport sector is divided among a "megaprojecls" involving mass rapid number of ministries and agencies within each ministry, leaving no transit and expressways. Most of these single body with the power or authority to tackle the complex issues projects rely, at least initially, on a Boo involved. It is the failure of each of the agencies to implement individual significant level of private finance. 0 projects, rather than the absence of central guidance and policy direction, Some of these proposals have been that has led to the lack of progress. Examples of this abound, most around in one fonn or another for noticeably with regard to responsibility for the development of rapid many years, if not decades. o transit systems. The following major transport The current confusion, and controversial nature of Bangkok's traffic projects for Bangkok are generally problems, has also led to a high degree of political interference in referred to as megaprojects: Bangkok's transport planning process. The country's present political *The Bangkok Transit System, 400 structure (a coalition government with five constituent parties) has helped previously known as the produce a series of conflicts and policy reversals, accompanied by highly Tanayong project, is currently public debates over government policy. the most advanced of the mass Local attitudes are another barrier to progress. Many drivers seem to rapid transit schemes. It 200 N trogen dioxide have the attitude that the situation is out of control and little can be done involves construction of 25 Hydrocarbons about it. Add to this the status of the private car, as well as its comfort and kilomeiters of elevated rail Sulfur d oxide convenience, and it is likely that most drivers will continue using their cars transit, entirely above streets of particulatex even after mass public transit is improved. Thailand's production of cars inner Bangkok. The project, 01 1 Lead and commercial vehicles has risen from less than 80,000 units in 1986 to under a. concession from the SOurce ThaildDe-elop-nxRtsc--chIn,iite. more than 300,000 in 1992. To improve the quality of locally produced Bangkok Metropolitan Admnis- vehicles and increase competition, the Thai goverrunent also reduced the tration, was originally scheduled to open in 1996 but had, until duties on imported vehicles in 1991 from 300 percent to 20-60 percent, recently, been delayed pending the identification of a suitable depot providing additional encouragement to potential car owners. In 1992, the site. number of new private car registrations rose 85 percent over 1991 levels. * A second proposed rapid transit scheme, being developed by the Metropolitan Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA), involves 20 kilometers of mostly elevated track. These tracks would generally [conol}m ic [nvrl ad H h [ s of t follow the alignments of the "Skytrain" project that was canceled in 1992. The original schedule envisaged completion of the project by __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _1997, but this is now behind schedule. Persistent transprt * Hopcwell Holdings Ltd. and the State Railway of Thailand havc life of B angkt fi signed contracts for the first phase of the Bangkok Elevated Road Pollutin, a and Transit System. It includes the provision of rapid transit and serious poluinpolm.Teaonso abnnooie ed n suspnde s in B suburban commuter rail services on the two main railway align- levoels, anid threaten the health of the population atlarge.Contributing menls rnorth to Rangsit (28 kilometers) and east to Hua Mak (13 factors include rapid growth in highw ay traffic, the high percentage of kilometers). The contract specifies that these routes will be opera- motorcycles on the road, traffic congestion; and the extensive use of dicodl tional by 1996, but the project is behind schedule. afs ;0;f00 ;X;:;; ;0 a;0;ff:S;-ff00;0;0W;;;f t porg:f ;..0;f.S\g tationX\ fuel. * The Hopewell project also includes provision of a six-lane Elevated T0000 Xhe numbers are powerful: 0 0 \ ;t: < X XExpressway and four-lane service roads within the city's northern fThe environmental costs of air and waterpollution ;in Bangkok and eastem rail corridors. These roads will duplicate other elements ex eed $2 billion a year.of Bangkok's expressway networks, however, and could lead to * Each severe overloading of the local roads that connect with them. days each y in r j * When completed, Bangkok's system of expressways will provide a * The t comprehensive system network totalling 135 kilometers within the prOduct due to c Outer fing Road, providing the metropolitan area with an adequate estimat, this quatesto alos of $4milliona day.network: of high capacity routes to service and access the existing * If peak-h car urban areas. The city's First Stage Expressway (27 kilomcters long) econmcvleo iesvnsi etmtda bu 40mlinhas beeni in use for 10 years. The first 20 kilometers of Bangkok's annually. 00 = ~Second Stage Expressway recently opened after protracted public * ; -Excessive levels of tend (largely from ehicee) in Bangkok's air debate between the govemment and the private concessionaire. coeitribute tod 200,000-400,000OcEasesof hypertension and some 400 Expressways in Bangkok are the general responsibility of the deaths a?X;;;0;; ycar.;0 S 0 t\ X\00 ; 0 X< \!vt 4\Expressway and Rapid Transit Authority. * Rough estimates suggest that excessive lead in Bangkok'saircan * The Third Stage Expressway is currently the subject of financial cause childr toleo te nts feasibility studies and discussions with prospective investors. A >,;u:of fseven, withlong-term limplications fortheir productivt as adlults:.f"i0 continued on page 5 THE URARR AGE Fall 1993 BANGKOK coot/inud fro177 page 4 further section of expressway (at Narong-Ram Intra Expressway) is efficicntly and allow continued development and growth of the center. proposed to serve the expanding norLh-eastern suburbs and may be However, while niass transit is frequently touted as the potential funded by a lapanese loan. solution to Bangkok's traffic woes, the rapid transit projects now under A 20 kilometer elevated tollway is being built to the Don Muang consideration will not solve all the city's traffic problems. A new airport as a concession let by the Department of Highways. but rapid transit system wil] also unleash a significant amount of sup- progress on the Don Muang Tollway remains mired in detailed pressed demand. As the local press put it: '"All the couch potatoes _ design issues. who stay at home watchlinlg television because going anywhere in Bangkok is such a nightmare will venture out when the train is opera- Megaproject Conflicts and Delays tional." A new mass transit system will also not do much to reduce the The lack of a central planning agency has created numerous potential number of cars and motorcycles on Bangkok's roads, since a massive conflicts among these megaprojects. A recent study of the megaprojects defection from pr.vate cars to public transit systems is not expected. revealed a total of 33 locations where the construction, as designed, would Instead, the bulk of future transit patronage is expected to come from be impractical due to a physical conflict between the schemnes. In some existing bus passengers. Typically, in the rapid transit systems of other instances. a duplication of facilities was proposed along with initiatives cities, less than 5 percent of transit riders have been diverted to public that conflict with olher government policies and objectives. transit from their cars. The development of the secondary and distributor road networks is of Thus, while an altemative, non-road-based means of rapid transit is critical importance. Each proposed exprcssway megaproject. for instance, sure to be popular (as long as the fare is right). additional measures will be must be complemented by an expanding neLwork of secondary roads to provide access to the development areas and to distribute expressway traffic efficiently and effcctively. The plans to expand the existing - highway to the Don Muang Airport illustrate the problem. The current , ,, highway has a total of ten lanes (five in each direction) with flyovcrs at each junction. Expansion plans would increase this to 26 lanes (1 3 in eachl direction) by the addition of a six-lane elevated tollway plus the adjacent r , Hopewell Project, wvhich consists of a six-lane freeway and four local . traffic lanes. Yet congestion on the cunrent highway occurs al thejunctions and exit ramps. not on the main carriageways. This is with traffic fed from the present five lanes: increasing this to 13 lanes in each direction will t; ' only increase the amiounit of traffic seeking access to the local street 45r'fl o systemn. A second example of megaproject problems is the recentLy built - flyover in the downtown area, where two rapid transit schemes potentially : - cross. Any solution at this location would result in a three-level structure, 'pi" ' - with the upper rail system at 27 meters above ground level, or approxi- r - mately at the level of the eighth floor of surrounding buildings. Both I ; systems will need a station near the juncture . with platformn level s 25- meters above street level. These stations may be over 100 meters long. a i with dimensions siminlar to a 30-story building laid in the street. rai ild Thus. the existing flyover (see photo on this page) would somehow i - 'tis cnstzagflxoie; have to accomunodate two levels of elevated railway above it. This mega- junction would be located in the heart of the city, immediately outside one of the city's premier hotels. The challenges this poses are both technically - - ' and aestheticalls dauntinlg. As a result of these and other issues, progress with the construction of expressways is behind scheclule. And despite the fact that all transport needed to restrict the use of private vehicles. Regulatioins to limit the studies of Bangkok over the last two decades identify a segregated mass number of cars on the road may prove unrealistic in Bangkok. But some transit system as an urgent prerequisite to improving the city's traffic forms of restraint on car travel will be needed, such as parking controls conditions, each of the schemes currently under coinsideration is rio nearer and higlher road tolls. implementation than a year ago. The Role of the Government Mass Transit Trade-offs The confusion over ultimate responsibility for Bangkok's transport The addition of a rapid transit system to Bangkok will enable people projects can be clearly seen in the development of mass transit priorities to make their current trips with greater comfort, convenieince. and and projects. The goverinent was initially expected to take a central role reliability than at present. and to travel at chosen times to arrive (at the in promoting (and funding) a mass rail transit project that would catalyze office, for example) at predictable times. Tt should reduce the need tor the creation of a more coordinated and integrated network of rapid transit people to leave homne at 5:00 a.m. to gouarantee anival at the office by 8:00 systems in the city. Instead, after the collapse of negotiations over the a.m. and also ensure that it doesn't take until 10:00 p.m. to get home. A Skytrain elevated rail proposal, the govemment created the MRTA to rapid transit system will also permit the city center to ftnction more contiued on page 6 1 THE UROAN RGE Fal 1993 BANGKOK continuedfrom page 5 review new mass transit proposals and seek private sector fiancial participation. oIoni Fact f FT Far from clarifying the situation, the collapse of the Skytrain project has been followed by a confusing array of mass transit proposals. 0ral rubber. 20 I Thcse have included a series of underground "subway" projects. steelpin, 10pe lumiumprdut and despite the fact that construction cost of an underground system is rue twe of roadfoer hicleinthe major generally expected to be at least double that of a comparable elevated cities. system. 2 Pbitanrctrban tr in The government's role in financing mass transit is also open to u b y t in t Ua debate. No rapid transit system in the world has generated sufficient Atrips are by revenue to cover operating costs, maintenance, renewals, construction public trnpt mds and 2 p o f or bicycle. costs, and debt servicing. Many are lucky to cover their operating costs I nia p o trc with alone. Thus, it seems extremely unlikely that Bangkok would offer an workers. opportunity for a financialy self-supporting rapid transit system. The city's conditions are not particularly favorable: residential densities aren Afri betwen 0 a 0 pre o relatively low, there is no single clearly defined urban center, and car ati in Asia. ownership levels are high and rising. Yet potential private investors, who I hallefleet operates in the claim to be able to build a self-financing transit project, continue to be ctes in Sao Paulo. vocal, discouraging any serious government role in fiancing and In eg aebu hebeffectively to effectively postponing the day when a transit scheme will exist in achieve flows as high as 20,000 passengers per hour. Bangkok. * A qt d p o iis ge worse, while in OECD The continued government goal of major private sector involvement itit isi nT mm ensare mnainlyf due tocleaner in the city's mass transit projects may be unrealistic. Unless extremely aclaner techno s. attractive incentives can be offered to potential investors (such as the arit 2 2 times asmuh massive property development rights in the Hopewell rail and road hoons 10 tiesmonoxide as automobiles project), it is unlikely that investors will ultimately proceed. (noed t U.s. 1978 levels). The government needs to provide an enabling environment that is I Mexic iins thougt to resultin 140, children attractive for private financing. In the recent case of the Second State r ie d0 ul sr from hypetenion,of hom330 ie earl frmhartatacks. Mexican Expressway, the government threatened to amend the toll rates and only h u paentswi sa cmovethem out of complied with the contractualy agreed amounts after protracted negotia- te city. tions; the government can also be seen to be in default over other ceantair is five to sixtirertan associated issues, including the provision of land. Potential investors need glo snn t i bl of cir iCr to see that a fair relationship can exist in which risks are shared between i t to fv times m t c in rr Egypt the government and investors, within an equitable legal and regulatory * U o n s in Ned, on average framework. Changing the rules, particularly those linked with the fixing of b 85 pe and ila E c percent, due la tO tariff rates and risk sharing, can only discourage potential investors. reuaios he designofengines, The public sector will ultimately be obliged to pay, either directly or eisons control devices, and t o s indirectly, for the provision of rapid transit. Given this situation, it may be m 50 p e i acie. Seventy preferable for the govemment to take a more active role in the develop- contis Tohirds of ment and evolution of these projects. This would not only allow the public dea ep t o nhre n. The costs sector mole control, but would help determine the timing and extent of of ain re bte I a public financing requirements. s pg. 24 for Although the government is aware of these arguments, it still appears determined to minimize its financial involvement in rapid transit. As long as this policy is maintained, progress toward completion of Bangkok's Significant improvement in Bangkok's traffic congestion is unlikely much-needed rapid transit systems may be slow. in the near future, as the expected rate of continued growth will rapidly erode any benefits that accrue from the construction of new infrastructure. Questions for the Future In the long run, the city needs significant (and politically difficult) restrictions on the use of private cars, substantial investment in transport Bangkok needs to accelerate the expansion of existing transport facilities, and clarification of organizational responsibilities. On the networks to catch up with current demands, as well as to set the ground- environmental front, consideration should be given to installing vehicular work for the longer term development of the region. A major transport emission controls and to reformulating transport fuels to reduce emissions infrastructure investment program cannot be avoided if Bangkok and of key pollutanits. Other changes could include reforms to fuel and road Thailand are to retain their preeminent position in southeast Asia. pricing, vehicle pricing and taxes, and other demand management Yet progress on the ambitious program of transport improvements measures such as staggering of work hours to reduce peak traffic. laid out for the Seventh Plan period (1992-1996) is clearly slower than Without at least some of these reforms, conditions will continue to desired. The reasons for this include organizational confusion, resulting in deteriorate, andl Bangkok will suffer at the expense of other cities in Asia. the absence of clear direction or decisiveness on particular projects; the Rod Stickland, director of Traffic & T ransport Consultants Ltd., lives in continued expectation of major private sector financing; escalating costs, Bangkok. He has been advising the Thai government on transport planning and especially for land; and political interference. policy issues for the past two years. THE UREGN RBE Fall 1993 Urban Transport in Lagos by Tunji Bolade Twtji Bolade is th!e deputy director of the Federal Urbanu Mass Transit Programmne in Lagos, Nigeria. LAGOS. Among the problems Existing Transport Services and leave Lagos Island and its over 95 percent, while the public confronLing the city of Lagos, adjoining Ikoyi and Victoria road transport's component would urban mobility presents the greatest Road transport provides over 90 Islands for the mainland each day. be up to 80-85 percent. Annual challenges. Urban transport and percent of the commuting services Urban rail transport in Lagos urban rail passenger traffic, even in traffic management problems in in Lagos, primarily through cars, is not significant. A narrow 1988 and 1990 when the mass Metropolitan Lagos are complcx huses, and taxis. section (about 20 kilometers) of transit rail services were intro- and multifaceted. 'They range from The fleet of state-owned and the Nigerian Railway Corporation duced, was under 4 million gross inadequacies of public some of the 15 local government- network used for urban commuter passengers per year, while the transport, overcrowded buses, poor owned transport companies service in Lagos carries less than Lagos State Ferry Service trans- road inlfrastructure, environmental includes over 500 buses. The total 50,000 passengers daily. Simni- ported less than I imillion pollution, and absence of integrated vehicular fleet in Lagos State larly, substantial use of water passengers per year. Total annual traffic management measures to increased from 53,270 in 1967 to ferry service on about 14 possible passengers for the Lagos State combat congestion. 165,000 in 1984 before declining routes in Lagos has yet to be Transport Corporation fluctuated The geographical region of to about 100,000 in 1988 in line explored. from 90 million in 1978 to 53 Metropolitan Lagos traverses about with the declining fortune of the million in 1983, 76 million in 1,800 square kilorneters and is economy. Newly registered Urban Transport Demand 1986, 87 millon in 1989, and inhabited by over 5 million people. vehicles increased from 17,000 in possibly less than 60 million in It is the fastest growing urban 1971 to 72,000 in 1982 and Estimates of urban transport 1992. center in Nigeria, and the largest declined to 17,000 in 1986 and demand in Metropolitan Lagos in Other Lagos local govern- comrnmercial, financial, and 10,000 ini 1988. while new public 1990 ranged froiii 7-10 millioni nient-spoiisored bus operatioiis, industrial center in the country. transport vehicles went down from passenger trips daily. The share of which commenced in 1991. could 16.500 in 1983 to 1,500 in 1988. road transport in the modal split is conrinned7onpoge8 Unconventional Transport The advent of the milass transit Widespread program in 1988 and the increas- ing importation of used cars and i - In the last decade or so, the buses fronm western Europe have -X mobility of the urban poor and significantly altered this deterio- working class have presented new rating situation. For instance, over challenges along with the rapid 80 percent of the estimated .- decline of new vehicle acquisition 35,000 used vehicles imported k due to economic problems. Yet the into Nligeria in 1991 were , i city's dynamic transport system has concentrated in Lagos. Many of U been adaptve and. innovative with these used vehicles are used to the stream of used imported operate the public transport Et minibuses and olcl cars used for services known as "kabu-kabu." unconventional, unregulated, and A survey of the "kabu-kabu" 44V unregistered public services called services in December 1991 "kabu-kabu." recorded 3,961 of such mini- Unconventional and other buses on 24 of the over 300 adaptive bus and car services have public transport routes in been providing the stop gap Mctropolitan lagos. between the escalating rate of Metropolitani Lagos has about 5-, demand for public transport and 2,700 kilometers of road network. the level of services available in about 40 percent of which is Lagos. Problems related to traffic tarred. Three main bridges link congestion and management, the island portion of the city with transport coordination, the mainland. Lagos Island, as the expansion of transport services, commercial nerve-center of and creation of an. integrated urbani Metropolitan Lagos, has less than transit system are yet to be 3 percent of the Lagos populabu resolved. But even more funda- tion, but handles about 50 poercents ccoun for aboutt mental and pressing is the need of the state's traffic. It is esti- 40 per-cent ofpublic for affordable services for the mated that over 250,000 vehicles otraosport in Lagos. urban poor. and 2 million passengers enter EFa lRlRN RGE Foil 1993 LAGOS continuedfrom page 7 not have yielded more than 50Irnnf nIho"i Iffi Suhirti percent of the Lagos State Trans- iI!l Utltii port Corporation's capacity. The 14,000 taxis in operation carried bMsakM hs :Iabout 1.12 million passengers Msak.Kaasalcue nteDprmn fGor~hc1adEvriina cecra h ---in 1989. In total, the minibus UnvriyoNaa,Dub,SutAfit and miidi-bus operators in SuhArc so h rn f Teeaetxepplrmdso Metropolitan Lagos must haveamao taniinrbnpbctrsprinouhiprntlcentenwubn been carrying about 4.5-5 million eetnsshdldfrArl Arc:bss(rvddb h tt igelretsaeo h fia passengers daily or 1.2 to 1.5 19.Qco h aycalne n rvt etr,mnbstxs cmue akt krceigfo billion passengers per annum. They thtwl ofotheovrmn (poielaglbybak,an viulyzrosrssme1yas are therefore the most significant o ainluiyi h rnpr ris( epoie) U ntii g setbe.Teeegneo h means of public transport in Lagos. mlinbakwreswotetn f$0 ilo) iiu e rbessc stx ilne Transport Needs of thepeid.Tetasotcii veilscutyiearntRas,ots,adRbs Urban Poor mnfssisl ndfeetfrs usdzd iiue r sal With the changing structu-re pvywgs ogtae nona eteet,sakad,ad i ot fiabten18 n and fortune of the economy, public dsacs ilneaantsute ra.wihhv pugu ue19.Tevs aoiyo transport vehicles drastically cnntr,adtx as(hc vrteps eaeaentyt tee(3pret eekle ic declined between 1986-88 as aUcaedou20vcts priiewihaeue,fcen;ad tengitonrcssbann described previously. The shortfall ti er.afral rnpr.AtouhFhur 90 oiia ilnei also exacerbated the increases in taeigb iiu ai sprl otdi oet,sulr n public transport fares. However, the drastic effects of the decline in SuhArc lc okn ls omtr a h atefrmre hr mn acquisition of new public transport Tecniin fbakafr hi ae~Arcntx wes vehicles followinig escalating prices woercomininSuhntefistremnhsf193 are now beingz cushioned by twoAfiaaeanldeiefrm TeMnbsTxRehtinsm20polewekledntx- new forms of adaptive transport. aatedssailegneig These are old, often rickety usedwihisatfcalwiesprio Univeyrzny.pbicaresnofhemtiail cars; mini-buses imported from SuhArc~h plcto f otdrlcorpectonnh ereN~t,mundta W westemn Europe; and motorcycles,. ersielw uha h~Gop wiesae hi ako hr nte hv ece tg hr ebr The old cars and buses are used AraAtfrm15anth caiaiteooyanthtviisofaxvolcevedy to operate "kabu-kabu" services in fre eoa fut ilo icuinfo ra ra xet eeyhu nti onr. ocr a demand-responsive manner. This pol e oteuiuega lar~gely unregulated public transport whpriosylvdnaciy verwedanunofral cneeatre-acnfenen accounts for about 40 percent of cneswr potdt h ra hrce ftepbi rnpr uut19 ofruaesrtge public transport service in Lagos. prpey h vrg ouo- ntokpoie ytesaepae obigpaeotetx nuty Indeed, they are the only means of igdsac fbak 2 notehns0'tebaktx vrteps ieyasteehv public transport available on some kioeesAstiea oga htidsr,wih a bet rvd enioaidaifusi routes. There has been no officialUni19,whtsttofiil twsip;Mtdrvsarame sanction against their operation, Cnrr otasotcniin nue aiu prhi asicuig wt uoai K7nfe.T and their services seem to have weetepo etei n become acceptable to the state aon eta uiesdsrcs orglt h sun ftx iess wa ultpofvssdrn govemnment. The second adapfive teaatedct eisti obak.Frislr,tesaeoeainhus ai'as r service is the use of mnotorcycles to conuugeprecofte poiinoransottruhdthnddtutonfpoetyA carry passengers froim the suburbs caulpoantemaoiyo deeuainadpiaiaonith taiwrntewsenCpewih to the main transport interchanges blcsiSotAfiai Os twsathhegtflsedorwoyr,camd10 or termninals. The motorcycles are nihmr.Utlhengtain rssacthtddwiesaeiv,adtevleofppry called "Okada." This is the carrier prcsbeain19,lakdi deeeteninbuein98.amgdnthtxivone name for the largest domesticnohaeonrlTetxopatoocuisncoiudo ag9 private airline company in Nigeria. o rnpr h I4TCftgtII~tIlttf These two adaptive services mjrt fwie have provided substantial relief to inSthArc the working class and urban poor onarfe Tt al unserved by conventional public blcshoee, R k 25% 1.2 :i9 149 & %: 08 transport. ~ ~ ~ ~ luurou raspr THE HRSHN ROE Fall 1993 amounted to $8 mdllion, Taxi feuds have become so wides read that even the So lh African Black TaxiA Association---a natinnal taxi organization ~vith some 50,000 i he' bers- admitted that "taxi operators have tut-ned the taxi industry into a battlefield rather than a business venture_! The, iational president of ta South African Black Taxi Association, James a Ngcoya, lamnented,- w aore shooting ourselves in rs- t the feet! We are destroying ourselves! By the time the fight is nyer A Stdie ricer outing there will be no grass , '.",' from which to gain 4 sustenance-xve wvill find- thc economic house furldh strategty to eliminate legal taxi associations. It appears that the to lear from interational experi- We will crumble uander our own operators. "Pirate" gangsters pretended pattern of taxi feuds teinds to be enee Worldwisde evidence staggests weight." to he passengers and boarded taxis in worse during periods of recession, that the twin process of privattzation order to kill the resgistered taxi ownerss possibly due to inter-capitalist aned derenglaion of transport is Underlying Factors Behind the Battlelines are often drawn betweenl competition. disadvantaging poor working people. Taxi Wars legal taxi operators and "pirates." One White ownership in the taxi Studies earnied out moer the past Taxi wars, as with political taxi rank in Soweto has been a war inudstry. Ajiother cause of friction decade in South Africa confirmn this. violence, have outraged the public to zone for the past three years. in thc taxi industry is the increasing Deregulation and privatization such an extent that a hComnission of Access to routes and ranks, number of whites entering the policies as envisaged by the state fall Inquiry (under Judhge Gotdsrone) was Teritorial conflicts in the taxi industry market. The South African Black short of offering practical ways of charged with the responsibility of are mainly associated with access to Taxi Association has made reducing commuter distance, created investigating the causes of taxi taxi ranks and routes. Fights usually numerous claims aboit white by apartheid policies, and providing violence. The root of taxi-related break out when taxi drivers cross the ownership in the taxi industry, cheaper fares to the majority of the violence lies in the legacy of boundaries into other territories. This allegig that finPres of white black working class. Deregulation apartheid andt in competition over has been a cause of several taxi wars in ownership vary from 30 percent to and privatization policies serve the resources such as routes, ranks, and Johannesburg's surrounding black 60 percent. Black operators interests of powerful elements among licenses. The drawing of boundaries townships. suspected of fronting for whites the capitalist class and offer very little plays a very important role in taxi Deregulstion o'tlie narket. The have been attacked by black taxi in the advancement of the working Althudss ithvers som taxi opeurators gintroduction of deregulation in the taxi operators. Several taxi drivetS have and uiemployed people. feuds asd vait d g tlasives somerutsAgaby taxi operatorsanTh omto ftdeNinl exclusive rights to operate in certain industry in 1987 resulted in many more been killed in Pretoria and tenitories. Not onely do rebels reject perrins being granted, intensifying the Johaisogesburg in taxi wars at the these boundaries. the) also resort to commercial competition. There is also ranks between drivers of white- machine gun confliet resolution evidence of corruption in the issuing of owned vehicles. rather than dispute negotiation. licenses. Taxi killings art linked to the Although the roots of taxi feuds are glut of taxis operating on lucrative Towards a New Transport Policy manx and varied. at least five broade routes. Arguably, taxi operators and The formation of the National strands can be identified, drivers seem more concerned about Transport Policy Forum in 1992 Unlicensed vs. legal operators. keeping, each other out of business than brouight together a ranige of interest Taxi wars are as old as the taxi giving comimuters the best service. groups that had bcen excluded from industry itself. One of the first High interest rates. The high rates contributing to the formulation of recorded taxi wars broke out in the charged by financial institutions on transport policy in South Africa. 1960s in Johannesburg between hire purchase contracts anid ever- The National Transport Policy registered taxi owners and unilicensed increasing running costs combine to Forum aims to rally all stakeholders taxi drivers ("pirates"). The "pirate" contribute to the pressure for taxi behind the task of developing a operators vowed to wipe time operators to convey as many passen- transport policy for post-apartheid registered owners off the street. This gers as possible. This creates unbridted South Africa. culm-inated in what became known as commnercial rivalry and intolerance As delegates negotiate a new the "death from the back seat" among rival taxi operators and transport policy, they may do well THE URORN RGE Fall 1993 Latin American Mass Transit by Etienne Henry [I Etienne Henry is research director at INRETS-France, the French National Institute coResearch on Transport and Safety, and visiting professor at FGV-FAFSP in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Latin America has four of the There has been a particularly and Porto Alegre, Brazil, to an the dynamics of private entrepre- world's most heavily populated serious impact in areas where the experimental system in Campinas, neurs. Innovative technical and cities, and about 50 cities with over urban layout and infrastructures Brazil. The Medellin, Colombia, institutional experiments (from half a million inhabitants. The are not designed to handle large and Lima, Peru, light rail systems bus-only lanes and bus caravans to transport challenge is one of the numbers of cars. (LRT), under construction for five the use of transport vouchers most serious problems faced by years, arc still far from becoming covering part of the workers' travel these Latin American cities. Rail Transit Systems operational. While these new costs) are found in Brazilian cities. Technological advances, financial systems carry barely over 150 Curitiba* has started to use efforts, and other political measures The railroad accounts for million passengers a year, the LRT articulated buses, an excellent cannot keep pace with the growth barely 15 percent of all trips in 37 seems destined to develop in the example of a city adapting aspects of these economic and regional Latin Amencan cities. Mexico region, if only because more of its mass transit system to cope capitals as they undergo massive City and Sao Paulo, with very measures are being taken to with present-day urban realities. urban development. differently configured rail systems, facilitate its introduction. Brazil's public transport strength is its modem bus fleets-the average _ 4 X = _ Minibuses age of its 40,000 vehicles is 4.67 years (2.6 years in Rio de Janeiro). Minibuses are a direct expres- sion of a transport supply that Privatization developed in parallel with the urban development process. This In recent years, many bus and mode of transport was well suited trolley companies have been to the organization of the private privatized. The municipality of Sao transport sector. Large numbers of Paulo is now ending 50 years of small owners grouped together in a direct service by awarding to two business structu:-e to offer at least enterprises the operation of half of minimal satisfaction of riders' the lines formnerly handled by the demands, ill meL by public service. CMTC (Municipal Transport The minibus is currently Company). Mexico City is experiencing serious difficulties as attempting to divest from Ruta 100, The development of rail beat world records for peak-hour it attempts to kezp up with the which, with a 6,500-strong fleet, transport in Latin American cities travel per line, but Buenos Aires numbers of people needing to be has for 10 years held the city's bus has been sporadic, and privately and Rio de Janeiro saw their transported daily. Even deregula- service monopoly (although it has owned buses have become the ridership decline in absolute terms. tion has not improved its functional not succeeded in preventing the major mode of transportation. In Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, productivity, as shown by the city from being invaded by 70,000 While the number of privately and Rio de Janeiro, suburban trains experiences of Chile and Peru. The minibuses). owned cars has increased sharply, were partially able to meet the minibus, which zan enter a city's Meanwhile, other public so too has the number of citizens needs of the poor, with 1.2 billion most outlying areas, will probably enterprises continue operating, and with no access to mass transit. trips in 1991. Between the continue to meet the urgent needs some new ones are being created. extremes of saturation and of those living on the outskirts, but They are taking up the challenges Surge in Car Travel underutilization of Latin America will also contribute to congestion in of productivity and innovation. But rail transit systems, there are the downtown areas. they are not winning a large share Statistics do not give a clear subways of Caracas and Santiago of the market from the private picture of the increasing share of de Chile, which serve as major Buses Dominanit sector, or even achieving successful private car travel in Latin American development poles. integration with the rail systems. cities. In Caracas, Venezuela, there In the last decade, investments Buses represznt the dominant are over 150 cars for every 10,000 in traditional subway operations mode of transportation in Latin Old and New Trends inhabitants, while in Sao Paulo, have concentrated on existing America today. More than 80,000 Brazil, cars account for over 55 systems, most of which were built vehicles carry over 65 percent of Other modes of mass transit, percent of motorized travel. in the 1970s. Eight recent mass transit riders in 37 Latin such as ferries or trollies, could be The increased freedom of development projects, however, American cities. developed more profitably, but automobile travel has had familiar have concerned smaller scale Brazil, with the strongest bus account for a very small share of consequences on urban life as well altermatives, from three single-line system in Latin America, has modal trip distribution. as on traffic, safety, and ecology. trains in Belo Horizonte, Recife, adapted its regulations to factor in continued on page]] 11 THE URBRN ROGE Fall 1993 LATINANMERICA ,4< contonued froin page 10 Modal trip distribution in Latin Transportation and the Environment in American cities is relativcly simple. Santiago de Chile Out of 10 daily trips, eight are taken by bus or mninibus. more than one by subway. and less than one by Oscar Figue-oal by rail. sea, or river. I Throughout the region, less than Osctir Figu eroa is a senior- resear-cher cind professor at the Institute of Urban Studies ot the Catholic one-third of trips are handled by University of Chile. public sector enterprises. This proportion will drop to below one- fifth following privatization of the SANTIAGO DE CHILE. 400.000 to over 1.4 million, a 350 withdrawal of 2,600 buses. Buenos Aires railroad and the Latin While deregulating urban pcrcent incrcase in absolute The government is also acting American bus ccmpanies. As long transportationi in Santiago, the terms. In relative terms, the share to prohibit access to the used as the central or local authorities do new municipal government is of car travel in overall motorized vehicle fleet and is attempting to not develop new mass transit striving to blend free market travel practically doubled ban imports of used spare parts systems, this will remain a clear principles with the need for a between 1977 and 1991. Thus, for buses. sign of their intention to divest. system to regulatc serviccs and while total travel in Santiago There is a also a program for traffic patterins. increased by 6.2 percent per the gradual reduction of bus Fares Increase annum, the annual growth rate of emission levels, and for improved A Growing Vehicle Fleet automobile travel was 9.1 emission controls, both at The trend toward privatization percent. inspection stations and on the is corroborated by the quasi- The rapid growth of Santiago's street. Lastly, operators are bcing disappearance ol direct subsidies to vehicle fleet appears to be linked A Disorganized Mass Transit invited to bid on certain routes. private operators in most Latin with the growth of household System This should reduce the number of American cities, which impacts on income. Between 1982 and 1991, buses operating downtown by fares, and hence on mobility. In GDP growth was close to 70 Deregulation in mass transit about 30 percent. This will also the 1 970s, the cost of a public pcrcent; the number of automo- led to a doubling of the city's bus reduce the average agc of the transit ticket was around $t'S 0.10. biles increased by practically the fleet from 5,200 to 10,500 buses traveling in the downtowni Today it is estimated at over suS same percentage. between 1979 and 1989. The area to four years, compared with 0.30 cents (SUS 0.27 on average According to a 1991 survey present fleet is over 12,000 buses. around I0 years for the city's for 53 Brazilian cities), and may go carried out in Santiago, the city During the 1979-1989 period, the overall fleet. up to as much as $tJS 0.50 in had 405.000 vehicles. almost bus fleet agcd considerably. The The government is continuing several cities. ln large urban areas, twice the number recorded in a result was a marked oversupply of to keep 20 percent of private cars many trips involve the use of two 1977 survey. Over the past few buses and aggressive competition off the streets during weekdays. It or three vehicles, and it is rare to years, however, this growth rate on the street for passengers. has also started to enforce the use find fare combinations between has tended to stabilize at 6-7 This behavior had harmful of cars with catalytic converters, one operator an(d another. percent a year, but has reached up consequences. Competition made mandatory for all new Fare costs have also risen due to 10 percent in very high growth among buses and the absence of vehiclcs in September 1992, and to increased inpluts, longer dis- years such as 1992. Assuming an any order regulating stops, routes, intends to require toll payment for tances traveled, and othcr factors annual growth rate of 7 percent, or trip frequency aggravated the access to the most congested resulting from urban sprawl. Such Santiago will have around congestion problem. With the streets. fare increases have resulted in a 940,000 vehicles in the year surplus of buses on the roads and tangible decrease in the mobility of 2000. This is an enormous the difficulties of operating them, Future Directions the most impoverished groups, number in relation to the capacity their drivers became reckless and which cannot afford to spend over of its roads. irrational. In addition, particulatc The outcomes of all these 25 percent of their income on even This problem will be com- emissions increased considerably. measures have been mixed, both the most essential transport needs. pounded by the uneven distribu- since in their anxiety to make a in terms both of traffic organiza- Without efficient and affordable tion of income and vehicles in the profit, the bus companies tended tion and on pollution. mass transit systems, Latin urban environment. The 1991 to neglect their vehicles' condi- Deregulation has meant American cities will find that survey showed that almost half tion. constanit expansion of the vehicle problems already hampering the cars in the city were found in fleet, which, finding its operations productivity will become insoluble. the highest income areas: 48.5 Government Remedies restricted in the city center, has The challenge faced is clearly one percent of the city's cars belonged started to clog up adjacent areas. of productivity at both the modal to a population group represent- The present government has There have been no substantive and the urban levels. ing only 16.7 percent of the city's been proinoting a number of changes in the operating and inhabitants. corrective measures designed to organizational procedures of the *[Editor's Note: For more Private automobile use has restore proper service. One of the transportation companies, except information on Curitiba, see The grown at an even more alarming first such steps was to weed out those that have successfully bid [Jrban Age Spring 1993.] rate. Between 1977 and 1991, the number of old vehicles in the on a particular route. As a result, trips by car rose from just over fleet. This resulted in the continued on page 20 o THE URERN RGE Fall 1993 'i---------------------------------- Amsterdam's Bold Approach to Reduce Car Traffic by Ed van Thijn r Ed van Thijn is the mayor of Amsterdam. AMSTERDAM. Millions of the narrow margins between sures will be put into effect in 1993 e Upgrading park-and-ride tourists flock to Amsterdam every opponents and supporters led to a and 1994, while more difficult facilities near one of the year to enjoy the city's restaurants, step-by-step approach, so each step steps will be caried out over 10 existing metro stations; museums, historic streets, and can be reviewed and fine-tuned years, between 1995 and 2005. * Making private garages canals. To keep Amsterdam while going along. Some of the simple measures available for residents, while attractive for visitors and inhabit- Under the plan, simple mea- include the follo wing: moving towards prohibiting ants, the city government has been on-street parking; active for decades in regulating *, jjjwih " *Reducing the speed limiit to traffic. Of course, there is more to i30 l/hr in one of the city be done. Recently, to reduce auto M Dl Neh[OHfiS center's residential neighbor- traffic, the city of Amsterdam has hoods;and embarked on an ambitious effort to UkHwae~ne,~~t ~ ~ ~ te*Giving the right of way to drastically cut the number of ars t bicyclists on one of the main in the downtown area by 2005. ErWeavctui oftepaasbugttnaeadththestreets that has a bicycle Like most older cities of pawilhl ine ofAed tecemrelvab."route. Europe, Amsterdam was not built O Amsterdam is studying how to for cars. Until the early 20th vrimoan.Winedtsutitisyekngabaceewenhe reduce auto traffic by restricting century, people and goods moved ironment at oiparking. Currently there are about quickly about the city using an 20,000 on-street and9,000 off- extensive canal system created in nar cn 4 t t ct street spaces. Amsterdam will the 17th century. Car traffic wasn't t _ yenesy differentiate between residents and a significant problem until the early E n g A v , in th visitors through parking fees, 1970s when autos became more m t 0 E od d licenses, and route guidance. It affordable, urban sprawl increased, m the c e v v a c will then cut the number of parking and improvements to public spaces by 20 percent by 2005 and transportation slowed. replace 7,000 on-street places with Amp sterdam has inade many an equal number in garages. improvements since then. It has ~" Residents will be encouraged to use encouraged bicycle use by on-street park-ing, while visitors constructing bike lanes, and bike will be encouraged to use garages. parking lots, and has built a Planners project that traffic will be motorway ring around the city to reduced by 35 percent as a result. funnel traffic. However, it hasn't For now, the city is content to tackled the thorniest issue: reducing accept this target rather than a auto traffic significantly. larger one because businesses are To bolster debate and get already worried about losing residents more involved in customers to theft suburban decision-making, the city held a counterparts. referendum in March 1992. The Amsterdam plans to improve city developed two scenarios: a m traffic flows with one-way streets continue the existing traffic policy, e a t n on major thoroughfares. With only or aim at cutting traffic "drasti- n t t due w h one direction of traffic, the city can cally," by about 50 percent. Fifty- improve tramlines that also take three percent of voters chose the w c space on the same street, encourag- drastic course, with residents hav teti f u a r change? - ing more riders. Urban planners farther out understandably less in hT w b also hope to redesign blocks where favor than those closer in. Though l air there will be no cars. the margin in favor of a drastic cut c due to i It is expected that these and was small and though only 28 other measures will maintain a percent of voters turned out, the U Do yo livable and accessible city center city council decided to implement EV:Eeyct suiu n ed ln u aial h nwr over the next decade. the result and came up with a final i yes. plan in December. Awareness of THE URARN RGE Fall /993 Tehran's Air Pollution Control Program by Paimaneh Hasteih Paimnaneh Hasleat is a consultant to [le mayor of/Tehran on7 environmental affcirs. Shle is talso the managinig director oftlhe Air QualiAy Control Comnpanizy in Tehrani. Irau. 1 UA4: How serious is Tebran 's air Tehrat 's air? Coeuld you discuss 'We are extending the above pany work nost closely ? pollution problem? What are the its prinicipal goals? study to the huses and motor- PH: Clearly, air qtiality control is primary causes of air pollution in PH: In June 1992, the Air Pollution cycles as well, a multi-faceted problem. As Tehran ? Division was established in the In addition to these, we have such, we have a close working PH: Tehran's air pollution Tebran Traffic Control Center. a major air quality monitoring relationship with various institu- problem is very serious. A recent which is a division of the munici- program under way. This tions and organizations. Among report by the World Health pality of Tehran. In less than one includes installation of perma- them arc the Ministry of Hcalth, Organization indicates that year, the continuing growth in the nent and mobile monitoring die Oil Ministry, the Ministry of Tehran is the most polluted city in technical activities and various stations to measure the concen- Heavy Industries, and certain the world in terms of smoke, and projects conducted by the division tration of major air pollutants. other institutions (private and the second most pDlluted in S02 necessitated a reorganization of the public). Also. we have a rela- concentration. division to the Air Quality Control ltA: To what extent have you tively good relationship with UrbanX transport is generally Comzpany in May 1993. used mass mnedia campaignts or somiie of the local universities in believed to be responsible for Our major goal is to study. other programs to disseminate the form of joint projects and between 70 to 80 percent of the adopt, propose, and implement air iniforination and encourage technical consulting. emissions causing air pollution in quality control measures with public participation in your the greater Tehran area. It is emphasis on urban transport efforts to improve air quality? ETA: Environmental issues are a interesting to note that while emissions in order to improve the PH: I thinrk that public aware- global concern. Do you constult about 1 3 percent of the country's capital's air quality. These ness about Tehran's air quality environmental experts and/or population (7.5 million) live in measures span a wide spectrum of is basically high: the problem is practitioners from other nations? Tehran, up to 45 percent of the technical, educational, and legal too obvious to be ignored by the PH: We welcome expert opinion country's transportation fleet activities. general public. Our problem from international environmental operates in the city. seems to be the lack of a general consultants and seriously consider UA: What specific steps have you and cotrprehensive national various environmental programs UA: What are the principal taken to reduce air pollution in policy to deal with the issue. I which have provcn successful in means of transport used in Tehraiu ? think our major task is to help other parts of the world. Al- Tehran? PH: We have established a major crystalize such a policy and to though I believe any air quality PH: It is estimated that there are data base for the city's air pollution see it implemented by our legal control measure for Tehran has to about 750,000 cars and light duty status during the past 10 years. This and executive bodies. take our specific environmental as trucks in the greater Tehran area. project has been carried out in We have also been instru- well as social, economical. and On any given day, there are about cooperation with the Ministry of mental in producing radio and political structure into account. 500.000 passenger cars, about Health. We now have a quantita- television prograrnis addressing Aklmost sinice our company' s 10,000 taxis, 2,500 buses, 3,500 tive assessment of the air pollution this Issue. Another program to inception, we have been in minibuses, and up to 600,000 for this period and can evaluate raise public awareness is the frequent contact with the World motorcycles in operation. various control measures to PULSE project, which is going Bank and the Bank's environmen- Presentlv, passenger cars, light improve the air quality based on to bc implemcnted in coopera- tal experts. In particular, we are trucks. and taxis account for this data. ton with UNDP and the working on a World Bank GEF about 55 percent of all passenger The Passenger Car Tune-Up Mfinistry of Education. This is (Global Environment Fund) trips in the city. Project was a research study to an educational program for project to study and improve Urban transport accounts for a evaluate the effect of engine tune- elemnentary school children to Tehran's air quality through a daily gasoline consumption of 7 up on the improvement in the air teach the importance of clean air comprehensive traffic manage- million liters and diesel fuel quality. We have concluded that and the need for air quality ment program. consumption of I million liters, by launching a comprehensive regulation. The program We have also recently been in which directly contributes to the engine tune-up campaign in includes films, slides, and contact with the Japan Intema- air pollution problem. A metro Tehran, we could drastically reduce posters and will be carried otut in tional Cooperation Institute by svstem is under construction, and CO and HC concentrations as well several elementary schools in Tehran Municipality to establish a there are also a lirnited number of as a 13 percent reduction in selected areas of Tehran in major air pollution research trolley buses operating in the city. gasoline consumption. Based on conjunction with their formal center in Tehran. Through this this study. Tehran Municipality has education. center, we will be able to receive UA. When was the Air Quality purchased 150 automated tune-up expert consulting as well as Control Company first estab- systeimis in order to initiate a UA: With which miniistries does technical assistance from our lished to improve the quality of comprehensive tune-up program. the Air Quality Control Com- Japanese counterparts. THE U9RHR R6E Fall J9193 E m ------------------------------- The Effects of Warsaw's Rising Car rravel by Wojciech Suchorzewski > Wojciech Suchorzewski is a professor at the Warsaw University of Technology and a consultant. WARSAW. During the Second decades, capital investment, automobiles. Although dispos- more traffic, and worsening World War, 90 percent of including purchasing vehicles, able income of the majority of the public transport. It cannot be industrial plants and 72 percent of was financed from the central population is very low, passenger expected that the metro (which in residential buildings in Warsaw budget. Fares were kept low, and cars appear tc be the main the last 10 years absorbed most were destroyed. At present, the high subsidies were accepted. preference. financial resources) will, in the city has 1.65 million inhabitants, This policy, combined with a low foreseeable future, be expanded about 2.5 million if the entire car ownership ratio, meant that, Traffic Congestion Grows enough to meet a substantial part metropolitan region is considered. for a long time, a very high of travel needs in the city. proportion of mechanized trips Growing traffic congestion Central Planning Dominant (85-95 percent) were made by affects public transport operation. What Can and Should Be Done? public transport. In many sections, the average During the post-war period, The road network, although speed of buses is 8 kilometers per The existing road and public Warsaw followed a controlled not complete, is often considered hour. The situation is made transport system have great development path. Ambitious by foreign experts as quite well worse because of outdated traffic potential that can be used to urban and transport planning developed, with wide arterial management/control and lack of alleviate the undesirable conse- provided for a transport-efficient streets even in the central part of priority for puiblic transport. With quences of rapidly growing urban system in which single the city. The tramway system, the growth of motorization and motorization and radically function zones (i.e., residential which has great potential, has fares, the share of public transport improve public transport opera- and industrial) were to be linked been neglected because of the decreased from 93 percent of tion. Limited resources will not with rail transport. Main develop- prevailing view that the city non-walking trips in 1970, to 80 allow investment in new, expen- ment axes were to be served by should be served by metro percent in 1980, 79 percent in sive systems. Therefore, options the improved suburban railways system. 1987, and 61 percent in 1992. such as making better use of and a planned metro system. Metro construction, planned There is an acute shortage of already existing means of public transport through modernization GUwtbnoffortunatelo, ic Pofland ainde 1927,uwas not started until parking places, especially in(first of all, of the tramway 1960 1980 1985 1990 1992 ~~~~~system) and better operation of resources, plans have only 1983. The pace of work has been city center, but lack of any ashouldombeiconsidered.cThisrwould Population Poland 29,800 35,700 37,300 38,183 38,4t10 ~~have results in a short time (thousaplementeds) n Warsmawl part. very 1,139 and 85 1,he0 1,651 1,656 ofte akigpoiy tmelmisan/r period. However, political will is needed to do the following: Passdengel careas sepanated 117,400 2p270,000 3,671,000 5261,000 6,505,000 1995.Itwill theus p give priority to conventional public transport using well-known opasenger carrirs, Polandwere to 3nitial9y, 63vernmen6al 112ic 4 1f7r 169.4 unsuccessful.suotrafficngn trmeasures and, pe served thousanlrapid Warsaws 10.0rds pri7at 0 192.5obiles 2w2a2 321.9ic hazardstopublichealthbyin the longeroterm, to upgrade the existing tramway system; Unfortunately, because of lack since 1927, was not started until parking places, especially in the introduce a parking policy of resources, plans have only 1983. The pace of work has been city center, but lack of any and automobile traffic constraints been implemented in small part. very slow, and the first leg of the parking policy (time linits and/or in the highest density areas; The development of large first line (1 2 kin) will start charges are net used) encourages * establish and enforce more residential areas separated from operation in 1994 or 1995. It will the use of private cars for stringent environmental standards employment centers created an serve 2.5 to 3 percent of public commuting. Attempts to intro- for motor vehicles; and excessive travel demand. Devel- tansport trips made in Warsaw. duce charges for parking have so a use financial instruments opment corridors, which were to Initially, governmental policy far been unsuc cessful. supporting new transport policy, be served by rail rapid transit towards private automobiles was Traffic hazards to public health by first introducing the "polluter (metro), tend to be served by not favorable. In the 1970s, this and safety are drainatic. In a and user pays" principle. buses. policy was changed and motoriza- growing number of locations, the Nevertheless, Warsaw is tion started growing faster than concentration of pollutants served by an extensive, multi- GDP. Unfortunately, the most exceeds norms that are not very Theato rprdti ril modal mass transport system rapid growth took place in the stringent. About 36 percent of the haedauthor prepenaredn this martce consisting of suburban railways largest urban centers. Recent Warsawv population is sujc o at the OECD Conference, "Travel serving seven corridors, 1 19 political and economic changes unacceptably hiigh noise levels, in the Citv: Making it Sustain- kilometers of tramway lines, and have brought about accelerated Warsaw is entering the viciOus able, " 7-9 June 1993, an extensive bus system. For increases in the number of cycle of more cars, more roads, Dii sseldorf. THE URURN RGE Fall 1993 --------------------------------------- Auto Diependency in the United States by C. Kenneth Orski C. Kenneth Orski is president of the Urbanz Mobility Corporation, a Washington DC.-baised transportation consultingfirmel. He wasfo nerl I r a senior official a, the U.S. Department of Transportation. WASHINGTON, D.C. Despite A key rcason for the continu- contained more jobs than central schedules are bccoming more considerable investmient in public ing auto dependency in the United cities, a trend that continues flexible, so that many people can transit over the last 20 years, and States has been the low density today. no longer use commuter-oriented despite concerted public efforts to development pattern of American The migration of employment transit services that operate only change commuters' travel habits, metropolitani areas. Over the last to the suburbs compLicated in the peak period. Americans are driving today more half century. American cities have enormously the job of public Finally, surveys conducted at than ever before. Between 1983 followed a different path of transportation. As long as the suburban employment sites show and 1990, vehicle trips grew by evolution thani those of Europe bulk of jobs was in the central that many people use their cars 25 percent and vehicle miles of and other parts of the world. city, public transportation could for the trip to work even if they travel increased by 40 percent. From the 1930s on, Americans function relatively effectively; have other travel options. Some Overall, private automobiles have voted massively 'with their buses and trains collected do so because they value the account for 87 percent of all trips, feet" in favor of low-density commuters at suburban stations comfort and privacy of their having risen by 5 percentage suburban living. A number of and transported them directly to automobiles, but many others points since 1983. Conversely, factors facilitated this mass their places of employmiient in the drive because they have to. They transit ridership has declined, suburban exodus: the availability city core. Today, with a vast need their cars to drop off and from 6.4 percent of total commut- of cheap and plentiful land on the proportion of commutes ending as pick up children at day care ing in 1980 to 5.3 percent in outskirts of the cities, rising well as beginning in dispersed centers, to run errands and keep 1990. Transit's share of total travel has continuied its down-FulPisinSecdCotrs,oga 13 ward trend. declining from 2.4 Fuel Prices in Selected Łnunrres. ]anuai4 1393 percent of all person trips in US Cents per Liter 1977 to 2.2 percent in 1983 and 2 U.S.A. 0.29 percent in 1990. Taln P ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Thailand 0.33 What accounts for this Chile persistent attachment of Amern- Australia 04 cans to their automobiles? The New Zealand 0,5 low price of fuel is certainly a Zealand 0,5 factor. Despite rncent icreases, Brazil the price of gasoline in America United Kingdom 0.72 is comparatively low, as illus- South Korea 77 trated in the table. Even though Germany 0 _ _ 0.88 European and Japanese automo- France Y 0-9 biles are generally more fuel Japan 0|99 efficient and thus cheaper to The Netherlands 1.01 operate (average fuel consunip- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 tion of automobiles driven in Europe and the F'ar East is 15-25 percent lower thalL autos in the incomes enabling more and more suburban locations, there simply medical appointments during the United States). American drivers people to afford personal automo- is not enough "mass" to make day, or to attend evening classes. pay 30-40 percent less per biles, favorable federal tax mass transit work effectively. For employees with young vehicle-kilometer of travel than policies, low mortgage rates, and Travel to work in the city center children or elderly parents, having drivers in the rest of the world. mass production of inexpensive has ceased to be the dominant a car at work provides ensures Low fuel priccs, however, do housing. commuter pattern. Instead. about that they can get away in casc of a not fully explain Americans' This residential out-migration two-thirds to three-quarters of family emergency. dependence on the automobile. was followed in the 1980s by a daily comimlutes in America's While conventional wisdom Studies have shown that automo- migration of employment. metropolitan areas are from one would have us believe that people bile use throughout the motorized Companies found it more suburb to another. Virtually all of will gladly leave their cars at world is fairly price inelastic- efficient and economical to be these trips are made by personal home if they are offered other people drive roughly as much located near their employees' auto, commuter alternatives, the reality whether the cost of fuel is high or residences, and modern telecom- Another cause for the growing is that to a growing number of low. Thus., for a full explanation, munications reduced the impor- auto dependency in America has Americans, driving is not a luxury we must look to factors beyond tance of locational factors. By to do with the changing nature of but a necessity. economics. 1988, mctropolitan suburbs the country's workplace. Work THE UREoRN RGE Fall 1993 --------------------- Bicycles Overtake Bus Travel in Havana by Manuel Alepuz Manuel Alepuz is the director of the Transportation Research Institute in Havana, Cuba. HAVANA. Until 1990, bus 1990, climbed to 770,000 by 1993. becoming obstacles. These include ICIODI (Cuban Institute for travel was the most common mode Bus traffic fell by 50 percent and the introduction of cycle buses in Research and Channeling of of transportation in Havana, Cuba's cars by 35 percent. the tunnel that runs under the Domestic Demand): capital city of 2 million people. An To accommodate this growth, a channel of the bay, and launches Safety: Many potential cyclists extensive system of electric trains comprehensive program was that carry bicycles. Bridges have do not use bicycles regularly, since was in operation until the 1930s, developed, with emphasis on road been constructed, for example, to they fear the hostile environment and a network of trolleys served the education, transit priority for facilitate access by cyclists to the created by motorized vehicles, city until the 1950s. Both these bicycles, bicycle maintenance and largest technical university, the primarily trucks and large buses. modes have since disappeared. By repair services, and parking areas Jose Antonio ]Echeverria Superior The fewer motorized vehicles on 1960, there were 100,000 passen- for bicycles. By October 1993, the Polytechnic Institute. the roads, the faster they tend to go. ger cars in the city, and over 1,000 program had reaped the following * Most gas stations have air Distance: Havana is a very large-capacity urban buses. By benefits: pumps for use by cyclists, and the extensive city, sprawling over more 1980, there were 80,000 cars and * One out of every three trips in number of placxs where flat tires than 50 kilometers along the coast 2,000 buses. and 20 kilometers inland. A transportation study con- People travel an average of 7 ducted between 1981 and 1985 by kilometers to study and work, the Transportation Research which means that most trips are Institute (UIT) showed that public longer than 5 kilometers--the buses accounted far 86 percent of distance usually accepted as the trips by motorized transport and maximum journey for an average automobiles only 6 percent of trips, cyclist. Buses restricted to use by certain Slopes: Although Havana does companies (6 percent) and not have slopes that are steep for launches across the bay accounted motorized transit, manv extended for the remainder of trips. Trans- slopes are challenging for cyclists. portation by bicycle during this This, together with the fact that the time period was insignificant. existing bicycles, for economic In 1990, in the wake of reasons, are single speed, makes breaking-off economic relations the effort required even harder. with the Socialist bloc, and the fall Climate: The humid tropical of sugar and nickel prices (thel climate is not ideal for bicycle country's main exports), Cuba's travel, since unexpected down- imports plummeted from US$ 8 pours not only drench people, but billion in 1989 to only US$ 2 make the streets unsafe. billion in 1992. the city is made by bicycle. can be repaired has increased. Practices of drivers: Drivers The most dramatic effect of the * Bicycle travel today competes A broad information and firmly believe (and Havana is no decrease in purchasing power was with buses in terms of number of publicity campaign on road safety exception) that they have eminent a plunge of more than 50 percent in trips, although these trips are for was carried out, stemmring from the domain over the streets and that oil imports and the virtual disap- shorter distances. growing trend -in the early months pedestrians and cyclists are pearance of imported vehicles and * A network of bike lanes and of 1991 of accidents with victims intruders. Also, cyclists have the spare parts. bike paths, more than 100 kilome- that involved cyclists. mind set of pedestrians, but travel In response to this situation, the ters, now covers the entire city. * The maximum speed autho- faster. For example, cyclists think Government of Cuba decided to Some of these bike paths are not rized on a nurmber of the most that stop signs at corners and traffic subsidize the sale of bicycles to yet in use, however, because of a heavily traveled roads was reduced, lights are only for cars. workers anid students. More than a paint shortage for pavement and a program for the widespread Parking: Parking facilities in million bicycles were purchased markings. introduction of speed limits, and public, commercial, and recre- from China and sold on installment * More than 8 kilometers of bike other measures to slow down ational buildings or multi-family plans at prices of $60 for students lanes have been constructed to traffic in residential areas have dwellings are inadequate. In some and $120 for workers (the average provide access to the beaches in the been launched. cases, the necessary security is not wage in Cuba in 1990 was $200 eastern area. The following were the main provided in existing parking areas. and the minimum $100). * Special solutions have been obstacles to the intensive use of Means of protection: Bicycles Havana's 70,000 bicycles, used implemented to prevent crossings bicycles, according to research solely for recreation and sport in at bridges and tunnels from conducted by the IIT and the continued on page 17 F THE RRRN R6E Fall 1993 CUBA ---- -------------------- - - CUBA continuedfronm page 16 are not sufficiently equipped with Bicycles in Mozambique: liohts, or other ways of enhancing fte cyclist's visual perception at Competing with the Myth of Cars night. Spare parts and servicin7g: bv Carlos Cardoso Although spare parts are sold at 'V very reasonable prices, the Carlos Crirdoso is a Mozambicarn journalist. After independence he work-ed for 15 years with the necessary parts are not alwavs goveriinient newspaper Noticias. ThrEee years ago he co-fitnded the independent daily niewsletter Mediafax. wh 1ere h1e currentily ivork-s available and the network of repair shops is inadequate. Mozambique's one bicycle counatv where the m-inimum bicycles," he recalls. The idea of Lessons Learned factory. the Fabrica de Bicicletas de monthly salary is $US 12. There riding a bicycle today. he adds, is Mocambique (FBM), is owned by is some competition from bicycles repugnant to any "nouveau riche." The following are some of the some 200 shareholders. The imported from India at about Honwana's mother, 73-year-old many lessons the city has leamed bicycles are partly produced in the $US 55. Ncly Nyaka, remembcrs the 1920s in these three years of intense work factory and partly assembled. In northene provinces such as and 1930s when there were very to facilitate the intensive and FBM's 120 employees can Nampula that did not experience few cars. "Then. everyone rode widespread use of bicycles. These produce up to 70,000 bicycles per the tragic drought between 1990 bicycles. In those days, the main lessons can be applied in other year. In 1979, the factory produced and 1992. there has been some objective of a young man was to cities as well: 65,000 bicycles. Since then, there economic recovery and orders for build his house and then get The bicycle can be used in the has been a steady decline to the all- bicycles are increasing. married." Today, she says with a overall transportation system if it is time low figure of 3,000 in 1990. The main buyers of bicycles are sigh, "young people want cars considered another mode and the Mozambique has had a year of peasants. Bicycles are looked down above all else." appropriate conditions are estab- peace after more than a decade of on by the new urban elites, who The Mozambican poet Jose lished. In addition, financing war, which reduced average annual have their dreams set on cars, Craveirinha agrees: "'Bicycles are arrangements must be broadened GNP per capita to $US 64 per year, preferably Mercedes anad BMWs. not symbols of power today. so the entire population can afford the lowest in the Nworld. FBM' s Raul Ho-onvana. a social analyst They're for lesser human beings. It bicycles. director general, Capucho Paulo, is in Maputo, maintains that the will take a generation to change * The main problem is road optimistic about the future. Paulo historical point of reference for such a deep-seated preconception." safety. In this area, awareness- expccts to produce up to 15,000 today's urban black elite was the It would help, Craveirinha sug- raising and education on the part of bicycles in 1994, some of which privileged class of Portuguese gests, if schools began '"to undo drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians is will be exported to Malawi and settlers who, by the early 1960s. the myth of cars," which are used essential. South Africa. had already replaccd bicycles with .not as means of locomotion but * The cost of creating the Adult bicycles sell for as much cars. "Only some white famiers as means for the transport of physical safety conditioins for as 450.000 meticals (SUS 82) in a and a few urban whites rode ostentation." bicycles is minimal. consisting sinsply of painting, the pavemnenit IeWolsro Pufi e'onlI'osr M and putting signals on many roads, The World's Most Popular Personal Transport Modp erecting simple physical harriers, by Paul Guitink, secretax cf the World Bcmk's Non-motorized Tran7sport Task Force. and constructing bike lanes 5 meters wide with Lightweight- Most people in the world rely on total lack of infrastTuctural provisions dream for many. bearing pavements and lo-w-cost human- and animal-powered for pedestrians, cyclists, and handcarts. In Eastem Europe, a shortage of bridges. transport to meet their mobility Cultural constraints for bicycle usage bicycles and services to maintain needs. Bicycles in Asia alone by women have been aggravated by them are factors resulting in low * The bicycle cannot be seen as transport more people than all of the the absence of models designed for usage of bicycles for daily transport. a low-class mode of transportation. world's automobiles. China's annual women and simple provisions to carry However, in many regions (as in the It is a sustainable transportation production of 41 million bicycles small children. Baltics, Russia, Ukraine, and policy and a way of providino ouitpaces world automobile In Asia. increased motori7ation has Byelorussia) cycle-tourism and transportation at m,linimal cost, In manufacturing. led to a reduction in available street cycle-sport are very popular. 4After two decades of space: non-motorized vehicles have Pilot projects in Lima, Peru, and addition, it benefits human health motorization-oriented transport not been adequately considered in Accra.Ghana, as well as ongoing and the environment and decreases policies, traffic planners in many urban transport planning and studies in Africa and Asia, will energy consurmption. industrialized countries are becoming investment programs; and non- provide new information on mobility more concerned with pedestrian motorized transport is believed to be needs and the bicycle's role in urban zones and freeing cities from cars. the main cause for congestion. transport systems. In most regions of the world, A Latin American dream is "a car The future of personal and goods major constraints on greater bicycle for everybody." But only a small transportation in urban areas should use include unsafe operating minority actually use motorized nor be a "winner takes all" contest conditions, a view that bicycles are a transportation: in Haiti, only five of between motorized and human- symbol of "backwardness," and high every thousand inhabitants own cars. powvered modes. Well-balanced and prices relative to incomes of the poor. seven in Bolivia, 60 in Brazil, and 90 integrated transportation systems are Iti most urban areas of sub- in Venezuela. Without access to credit, likely to be the best way otut of the Saharan Africa, there is an almost even owning a bicycle is an elusive urban transport jungle. THE URERN AGE Fill 1993 The purpose of the "Roundtable" is to create a forum for interchange and debate among people with different points of view. Our hope is that readers will find it a starting point for generating their own discussions, both within their cities and in response to The Urban Age. : "Bus Driver's Syndrome" in Buenos Aires by Sergio Federovisky Sergio Federoviskv is a journalist with CLARIN in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he specializes in environmental issues. [Editor's Note: In reviewing this had to put up with the arrogance of any is overlooked, then the driver is This is the origin of one of the article, the symptoms of "bus drnver's the usual driver, so when you begin in danger of failing at one of his comtnonest "occupational dis- syndrome" seemed too much like lead poisoning to be coincidental. We the job you promise yourself you'll two main functions: to drive the eases" of the colectivero, namely asked the Alliance To End Childhood be different. But the years go by vehicle safely and to be fully up on severe chronic kidney lesions. Lead Poisoning, one of the leading and you are never able to keep that his fare-collecting responsibilities. Given their low salary scales, authorities on lead poisoning promise. The worst is thatyou In addition to operating his minibus drivers work an average of worldwide, to give us their reactions to develop into a naslv person. The vehicle like any other motorist, the 11 or 12 hours a day. Overtime the article (please see the box on this j c page). Our hope is that the jobchangesyou. Youjustauto- mumbus driver in Argentina has to typically represents about half of combination of these two articles will matically become callous; if you be aware how many newv passen- take-home pay. In other words, a open up a dialogue on these important didn't, you'd end up crazy. " gers are getting on, issue each of minimum of three and a half hours issues.] [Juan Bustos, age 37, colectivero.] them a ticket, collect fares, make of overtime is added to the regular BUENOS AIRES. When the change, open the rear door for eight-hour work day. Argentines enumerate the things The colectivo is the only means those who want to get off, close it The end result of this explosive they have invented throughout their of public transport in Argentina when they have alighted, keep his mix is not surprising. According to history, two things head the list: where the driver has the double job money tray in order, stay on the Dr. Julio Cesar Cupeta, chief of dulce de leche (a sweet dessert) and of driving the vehicle and collect- right route, fill in the route time psychiatry at UTA, 45 percent of the colectivo. Colectivos are the ing fares. The drivers are regarded sheet, listen for the rear-door bell, drivers on passenger transport lines small buses that are the country's as veritable human robots. A note whether people waiting at bus in Buenos Aires suffer serious main means of urban public psychological study carried out by stops signal for him to stop, and psychological disturbances. transport. But the job of the doctors from the union that come to a halt whenever anyone According to data from the minibus minibus driver, or colectivero, has represents bus drivers (UTA) wishes to get on1 or off. drivers' own health services group, become an unhealthy occupation, revealed that when working at full All this the driver must do on 70 percent of them receive some with its own pathology. tilt, a bus driver in Buenos Aires joumeys that are an hour and a half kind of psychiatric attention. has to perform 15 almost simulta- long on average (although on somc Doctors regard emotional "In the beginning, you work neous tasks. The worst of it, and lines they can last up to three disturbance as the typical work- with allfive senses alert and the most stressful factor as far as hours), so that in addition to related ailment of the colectivero. prepared to do your level best, the driver is concerned, is that they cverything c]se he has to be able to You've been a passenger too and are all just about indispensable. If control his physiological needs. continued on page 19 1 by the Alliance TO EdCidodLa osnn Thank yo o h potnt o tpclyocrwe xouetola pligsil,po ecpulaamnl ag uatities in much of review this pom t . Unfortuatly, bumring0 forward to be ntawth th T f tim ed linis a very effective way; authorto dicss oreaioe s inid c: c o de to the exhaust to collaborate ii1 o fal fro earsitinyprtles of D Clearly, the syrssl t i s - memry p iare inled and in the article on i bs fr la o g Ig my vredreat 'f absbdbyth ahnost 100 drivers (includirilitu t to ilm h physicafectlein percent efcny fatigue, kidney lesions, steep pingoocanlts is auts incl i sease nma he se same leadices make disorders, psychological t culrit i blood presure impire their wa i the rodsst and disturbances, a im are L i toi thatauss a myriad fertility, a ipec il. O i so, lead periss classic symtomsoflead poisog. o r t eft rg f We hav no of E t y i intas an elementitdoes The fact that their symptoms sutl behao hg at low f n Yt idta snot Le-cntainated dust gradually increase over time is a la ande deth an eloal h adirtly kicked up. tyical of chronic leadIpoisoning. levels. ea pion ctu t fnd isefole .a inb ofe That certain symuptoms ab ate when: in ch 0fildre cuses decreasedl Lead 0on0ound hav beenaddedto whocomes in otac ith it. SSoil: 000they nolonger div a buswoud be:0\ ineleta pefrmne imaie gasoin snc te 92 t eras la repreetsassentially 0 0consistent with what wold short-term mermory, poorraigad egn ncigadi o sdi emnneevoir tha ca poison0: THE URERN RGE Fall 1993 BUS DRIER'S SYNDROME continuedfrooin page 18 It cai manifest itself after as little 10 percent of themia were unable to no brakes. Finally, the so-called Specialists who observe the as two years on the job, the meet their job aptitude requirements. obsessions of the colectivero work of minibus drivers point out symiiptoms being bad temper, The main causes of failure to do so emerge: fear of lunning over an that issuing tickets absorbs between brooding. and aggressiveness. A were psychological (36 percent). old person or a child: impulses to 30 and 35 percent of the survey of the wives of mimubus ophthalmological (25.8 percent). crash into other vehicles: driver's attention capacity, fi drivers. carried out by UTA's cardiological (12 percent). and forgetting the bus route: giving diverting it from the business I lealth Division, revealed that neurological (10 percent). the wrong change. By the time of actually driving the bus. almost without exception each of Dr. Hector Seia, who for 13 years lie gets to this stage, the However. historically, bus them felt her husband's character served as attending physician to the colectiv ero can no longer regain owners have opposed the addition had begun to change for good after minibus drivers of the city of control, and the typical physical of conductors or drivers' assistants. he had been on the job about a Cordoba, included this entire ailments he might be suffering a familiar sight on the streetcars in year. The usual picture painted complex of symptoms in what he from (hemorrhoids, deviation of Buenos Aires in the 1 960s. Their was that the man gets home from labeled "sub-acute anxiety reaction." the spinal column, kidney arguinent (although their revenues work, talks to nobody, cannot bear According to Seia, sub-acute problems) seem to him merely total 1-S$ 990 million per annum) to be spoken to, and wanits to do anxiety reaction occur-s when an secondary. is that the payroll cost of putting a nothing but sleep. Sexual difficul- individual is expected to perform In Seia' s opinion, however, second employee on each bus ties also appear, including multiple simultaneous tasks. It can there is a cure for all this: the would be equivalent to 30 percent impotence. which are associated affect any healthy person and does symptoins abate automatically of present fares. with psychological disorders. not require a predispositon to when the external causative Not surprisingly, the drivers In Dr. Cupeta' s professional irritability. Instead, irritability is the factors are removed. It doesn't have demanded that every bus opinion . .. the disturbances chief symptom: small frustrations. take much to deduce from this carry a conductor, but no one pays begin to reveal themselves after the previously tolerable, now provoke that there can be no cure as long them much attention. There is man has been on the job two years; anger. as the present working conditions always someone willing to replace they are progressive, and by the This irritability appears in tandem of Argentina's colectiveros the driver who chucks it in. and to third or fourth year the symptoms with another symptom. which may reiimaini unchanged. take his turn as yet another victim arc full-blown." iCupeta regards be mistaken for physical tiredness. "As the driver, yoLt have to be of "bus driver's syndrome." this as the typical medical picture The dliver begins by feeling doin so many things at the same of the colectivero, and believes that depressed during the final hours of g it makes the man a danger to his workday, but the feeling grows craze. After 12 hIours behind the society, since he discharges many until it is preseirt the enitire day. The wheel doing all that fused to get of his aggressive impulses when he man ends up by turning into the homle anld tio/ want themn to so is behind the wheel of his bus. robot mentioned earlier. much as speak to nie. Of course. Twelve months ago, the This state of affairs causes the it doesn 't occrur to anyone that Transportation Department colectivero great personal distress. t eIet3lwhere else in the woId mandated that all colectiveros begins with insonmia. Then come buses have crews of two the undergo physical and psychologi- nightmares. among them one any of dtiver anid the conduictor. cal assessment by a private health us cam have: we are driving along. (Alberto Paez, 65 years. services group. The result was that when we suddenly discover we have former colectivero) children and others for decades or will be very interested to learn whether the symptoms of lead poisoning (in Environmental Defense Fund are centLries. this legislation was enacted and whether both adults and children) are often jointly releasing a report, 'The Global The United States began phasing it is has been implemented. difficult to recognize and often Dimensions of Lead Poisoning" in lead out of gasoline in the 1 970s. As If it is determined on the basis of mnimic other physical and emotional December 1993. This report fewer cars ran on 1eaded fuel, accurate testiIg that lead poisoning is problems and diseases. Accurate represents the first systematic effort to children's lead levels dropped a indeed an occupational hazard to blood testing of populations at risk collect and analyze biological and dramatic 40 percent in less than 15 colectivo drivers. measures ought to be for lead poisoning is necessarv in environmental data from around the years. The U.S. ctrrently allows .026 taken immediately to reduce the current order to recognize the disease. world. It offers policy gAl of lead in gasoline and will and future exposure for this population. recommendations at the international, completely ban leaded gasoline by Included in such protective measures are national, and regional levels to prevent 1996. In contrast to the USA, many reducing the pennissible lead content in * * lead poisoning. For more information, developing and Eastern European leaded gasoline and encouraging the and to obtain a copy of the report. countries still widely use highly leaded increased use of unleaded gasoline. contact the Alliance To End gasoline. As of 1990. Argentina The article on "bus driver's The Alliance To End Childhood Childhood Lead Poisoning, 227 allowed .4 gAl of lead in gasoline. syndrome" illustratcs at least two Lead Poisoning is a IJ.S. non-profit Massachusetts Avenue, N.E., Suite However, there was legislation important points. One, lead poisoning is organization dedicated to the 200, Washington, D.C., 20002. pending at that tirre to reduce the a pmblem worldwide and uses of lead elimiination of childhood lead Telephone: 202-543-1147; Fax: 202- amount of lead to .1 5 by 1993. We must be more strictly regulated. Second. poisoning. The Alliance and the 543-4466. EHE ORERl 9E9 Fall 1993 SANTIAGO DE CHLE continuedfrom page 11 congestion and pollution levels pollution. The introduction of have remained comparable to automobiles with catalytic convert- those of previous years. ers is a good way of avoiding Gentle n Ub Tras Pa i This has led the govern- increased exhaust emissions, but __: = __ v _ _ __ _. ___ X, __ _ ment to propose repeating the since such vehicles are exempt process of inviting mass from the restriction system and transit operators to bid on specific therefore not required to stay off T t r tt e i n ing routes, this time within a larger the street one day a week, they still l a to bea a burdens s o s area of the city. This would result add to congestion and pollution. o t, e and c f i o in about 30 percent of the city's Introducing tolls, which has not trasoraion t p i higher total area being serviced by been approved by Parliament, may icm rus oee,wti operators to whom specific routes not represent an adequate solution lo-nmeubncmnies have been awarded. to the problem, since automobile s n b o t In terms of pollution, effective users are usually mhgh-income d control of particulate emissions individuals who will probably be a sct These dsic needs has been possible for new buses, quite willng to pay to drive in the but it has been very difficult to city center. CnLv~ nGne n service ad even arelativeSantiago' maDevelopneentn no Paratical Gude . ,S0 reduce the emission levels of old There is clearly a need to es t t buses, continue to develop ways of carrie o on women's travel Nevertheless, the process of regulating mass transit services, p s t a grea bidding on routes has resulted in probably by introducing conces- de s more orderly and better quality sion-operated bus lanes along patterns of m a w F e i a su of v~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Iaeqil uater hand peooey plnanned tnransporutuneedors n Beto Houzonte, service and even a relative Santiago's major arteries and not tr or vce us f reduction in fares. Expansion of simply within certain areas. Int t the area for which bids are invited the same way, for reasons ofb will improve the system. equity and freedom of the market, neaiempcsothgnrl tatw enadtieasuhfr car drivers should pay the costs wlaeo oshls seily tasotto smn n oe' Controlling Cars Difficult that the city incurs on their behalf. lwicm oshls al vrg rvltm a he A fund could be set up, consistiog prbeswmnfcinteL-noewmntndoue The daily restriction on of contributions from car drivers, trnprseo.sugtsCole pbicraprainmtehn veh-icle numbers has become to finance infrastructure works Msri ete lnigad mn n hyuepbi virtually ineffective. The number designed to facilitate the introduc- Dvlpet hny rcie& tasotto o uspeatvte of automobiles owned and in tion of even more improvements srie r fe raie ome eae is nadto owr circulation is rapidly increasing, as in mass transit and in the quality thsceuscfmnitewok rp.Wmnmstaemnyf is the resultant congestion and of life within the city. f w b t r p4plation) depe~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~tngdlas Fall 1993 fi~ ~ K We actihelv seek our developing counltry readers iniputtfor this sectioni. Ouir intention is to broaden our network am7oing developing counlry city managers and tldei urbanz representatives. HONG KONG USE ESCALATORS AS PUBLIC initial feedback TRANSIT SYSTEM The cscalator system, which has been described as a huge dragon Contac1: Dr. Ernest Shiu Wing Lee, Assistantt Commissioner, Tranisport linking the central business districts and the residential areas, has Departnment. Hong Kong Gov,ernment. Tel: (852) 829-5206, Fax: (852) received generally positive reviews; about 90 percent of users regard 824-0433. it as convenient and useful. During its first week of operation, the system attracted approximately 15,000 conimuters per day, some of whom would Some 90 percent of the daily trips in Hong Kong are made on public otherwise have commuted by taxi, bus, minibus, or private car. transit. Modes include underground railway, clectrified train, tram, light rail, double deck bus. mrinibus, taxi, and ferny. The latest innovation is an escalator-travelator system designed to transport residents, students, and office workers between the mid-levels residential areas and busy husiness districts on Hong Kong Island. NON-MOTORIZED TRANSPORT IN LIMA - ,S , - ' . 0 E ........... Contact: Jenny Samanoez de Testina, Executive Director Non-Motorized Escalators anid travelators Vehic le Transport Pr-ogramz, Mtunicipalitv of Lima, Natalio Sanchlez 220 con passengers through Piso 9, Jesus Maria, Limo. Peri. Tel andfax: 51-14-33-7519. 77 .*7 ' '. " central HoIlg Koiog. Y, 4' jI,,7 ' - <. tn 1990, the city of Limna established a program to promote the use of bicycles as an alternative mode of transport. especially for work and study trips. Lima initiated the program to provide transport for people who walk ~ " E'f 4 lll long distances reduce the cost for low-inicome public transport passen- .~ i -1 wf:i |l: gers, which would save them time and improve their health; and reduce air 4 Lt pollution. In Greater Lima, with a population of 3 inillion, public tranispor-t to low-income areas is irregular. Cars. trucks, and buses contribute signifi- cantly to air pollution and congestion in Lima. Thc cost of public transport is expensive for half the residenits of the city, who have low (US$ 208) or very low (1US$ 80) average monthly incomes. People in these income groups typically spend about 12 percent of their income on v l l ,>l - 7 ;>utransportatioin. Moreover, accident rates are high, with about 70 percent of ,,; ! . O 2;DR g' fatal accidents resulting from vehicle-pedestrian incidents. Studies indicated that Lima would be a good place to start a bicycle program given its warn climate, level topography, and lack of rainfall. Pilot studies have shown early promise. As a result, Lima will build Conceived in the mid-1980s. the system was designed to help relieve three trunk bicycleways, primarily to help low- and middle-income the overloaded bus and minibus services, and to meet the high demand for workers conunute to and from the Lima-Callao industrial area. A fund public transport in the mid-levels areas, where steep relief and dense will be established to help people buy low-cost bicycles, and the city will developmcnt make road building and widening difficult. It was also hoped also conduct promotional and educational campaigns. Lima plans to that the system would decrease private car usage, thereby reducing road ImioInitoI the results of the project for a city-wide plan to use bicycles. congestion. System characteristics Measuring 800 meters long and climbing 135 meters in height. the movinag walkway consists of 20 escalators and three travelators (travelators . _ _ are "flat" escalators used in many airport passenger corridors). Transparent polycarbonate roofing protects commuters against bad weather conditions. At a speed of 0.65 meters per second, the trip takes about 20 minutes and is d A free of charge. The construction cost is estirmated at about US$ 27 mrillion, and the annual maintenance cost at about $US 0.5 million. Because of site constraints and the need to provide a 3.5 mcter emergency vehicle access throughout, only a one-way tidal flow system can. be provided; a 3 -meter wide footpath is constructed alongside. The escalators go downhill from 6am to lOam, and uphill from lOam to 1Opm. A group of four attendants patrol the system to help users, and a supervisor controls the operation through a closed circuit television and public announcement system in the control room. THE uRDAN AGE Fall 1993 SEMM--------------------------------- Fast Wheels, Slow transportation companies over the trucks, and motorbikes in cities, graphically outline motor vehicle Traffic: Urban Transport last decade. Using case studies with drastic increases in enforce- use since the 1930s, the effects of Choices from Europe, Asia, the United ment of such policies. He also ozone on the human body, and States, and Latin America, the argues for promotional policies other information that powerfully T by Charles L. Wright, Temple authors analyze varying degrees of favoring non-polluting forms of supports the authors' recomnmenda- }Ij University Press, Philadel- success in privatizing highways transportation oiver polluting tions. rlii phia, PA, USA, 19122, 1992, and bus lines. methods by allocating separate ISBN 0-87722-911-2. 1 Privatizing lanes to buses and giving prefer- a given system ence to electric tramways and Moving Toward Moving people and goods in cities needs to make trolley buses. Integrated Transport is a global problem, and examples economic - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Planning: Energy- , from around the world illustrate sense,ubut key points throughout this book. should also Motor Vehicle Air Environment, and By tailoring different transportation take into Pollution: fublic Health Mobilitv in Four Asian methods to the specific needs of a account the political and social Impact and Control Cities given city, the author proposes that structure of a given country. For economically and cnvironmentally example, income transfers, Measures by Mia Layne Rirk and P. Christo- sound solutions can be developed. environmental considerations, and by David T. Mage and Oliver Zali pher Zegras, Intemnational Institute In the "characteristics ap- the attitude toward government (eds.), WVorldHoalth Organization, for Energy Conservation, 750 First proach" to urban transport plan- intervention are all key elements Division of Environmental Health, Street, NE, Suite 940, Washington, ning, both planners and the public that governments should consider Geneva, Switzerland, and the DC 20002, ZJSA, 1993. can see the big picture of transpor- when contemplating the Republic and Canton of Geneva, tation. Using this approach, privatization of a specific transit Department of Public Health- Developing countries ought to economists system. ECOTOX, Geneva Switzerland, think creatively, and in an inte- evaluate 1992. grated way, when they design their potential user transportation systems. If not, they reactions to Environmental Limits to Cities throughou-t the world have, are likely to repeat the same various Motonsation: Non- or will soon have, traffic conges- mistakes other countries have alternatives motorized Transport i tion and serious air pollution made. Many developing countries rather than Transport caused by automobiles. This allot most of their transportation simply Developed and nF means budget to expanding roads and calculating Developing Countries excessive highways. This is a short-tern costs and benefits at the end of a by Urs Heierli, Swiss Centre for levels of view of a city's transportation project. The public can be better Development Cooperation in - ozone, lead, needs and creates many hidden inforrned from the start and Technology and Management, carbon costs, such as high levels of political will can be generated. Vadianstrasse 42, CH-9000, St. - monoxide, and pollution and congestion and the Wright tends to favor buses Gallen, Switzerland, 1993. ISBN 3- - & ' nitrogen need for high expenditures on over cars or rail, but examnines all 908001-41-2. , - dioxide. upkeep and expansion. modes of transportation, including People who live in cities in a - , . The authors walking and cycling. He argues The author predicts worldwide developing countries are particu- - advise urban that traditional mass transit urbanization trends will lead to larly vulnerable due to the lack of - planners in strategies often do not work well in "unbearable congestion" and emnission controls and the fact that developing high-income cities. Wright also intense pollution. However, city many people work close to countries to exarmines the failure of city residents rarely roadways. adopt "Inte- planners to take into account the a travel more The authors, maintain that grated needs of commuters. than 10 effective ways to cut down on 2 Transport kilometers, and congestion and pollution include Planiing," which compares often far less, encouraging car pools, increasing transportation options not only on Going Private: The for most of fuel and vehicle prices, limiting up-front costs but also with regard International Experience t - , M _ their trips. urban parking, and providing low- to environmental costs of conges- with Transport distances are Such short fare mass transit. While emission tion, costs to security by increasing distances are perfect for biking, controls can impede economic dependence on imported oil, and Pnvatization waLking, and using a rickshaw or growth in the short run, the authors long-term maintenance costs. The by Jose A. Gomez-Ibanez and John an oxcart, which also allows people conclude that emission controls authors base their views on four R. Meyer, The Brookings Institu- to exercise. But these methods of help in the long r-un by improving case studies: Surabaya, Indonesia; tion, 1775 Massachusetts Avenue, transportation are considered public health. Bangkok, Thailand; Varanasi, N. W, Washington, D.C. 20036, "backward" to those who aspire to The book includes illustrative India; and Islamabad, Pakistan. USA, 1993, ISBN 0-8157-3178-7 the lifestyle of people in western case studies from Geneva, Los Europe and the United States. Angeles, Manila, Mexico City, Many countries have sought to The author advocates restric- Bangkok, Taipei, and Surabaya. privatize rail, bus, and other tive policies toward private cars, Well-organized charts and tables THE UBR3N RGE Fall 1993 11m110 --------------------------------- Belowv is a list of urban events and training courses culled friom The Urban Age's currentfiles. We regret tizat mtore eventsfl-om developing countries are not listed. If you wt,ould like your event to be includedk please send anvnouncements to tIze Fditor, The Urban Age Rln. S4-031, Thze World ank;, 1818 H Street NW, Washington D. C. 20433. Facsimile: 202-522-3224. Conferences Liverpool, UK 'Mlarch 20-24, 1994. Health in Cities: A Global The University of Buenos Aires Program in Urban and Regional Conference. For more details contact: Health in Cities Conference, Dept. Planning-Postgraduate courses begin each year in April. For more of Public Health, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX UK, Fax: 051-794 details contact: David Kullock. Program in Urban and Regional Planning, 5588. Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellon II, 4to. Piso, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argen- tina, Fax: 541-782-8871. Birmingham, UK-April 12-24. 1994. Housing for the Urban Poor: Housing, Poverty and Developing Countries. For more details contact: Rick Groves, Centre for Urban and Regional Studies. The University of Birmingham. Edgbaston, Birmningham B 15 21T, UK. Tel.: 44-214-145- Ne msl e tte rs 027, Fax: 44-214- [43-279. Washington, D.C., USA-May 19-20,1994. Global Dimensions of A selected list of newsletters and THE CUCES NEWSLETTER Lead Poisoning: The First International Prevention Conference. For journals carrying information on The Centre for Environmental more details contact: Alliaince To End Childhood Lead Poisoning. 227 urban development issues. Studies Massachusetts Ave. N.E.. Suite 200. Washington. D.C., 20002, Tel: 202- The Chinese University of 543-1147, Fax: 202-543-4466. URBANENVIRONMENT Hong Kong NEWSLETTER Shatin, N.T. Nairobi, Kenya--June 13-16, 1994. International Seminar on Gender, GTZ-DOLA Urban Environmental Hong Kong Urbanization ancd Environment. For more details and a call for papers Management Guidelines Project Tel.: 609-6972 form, contact: Diana Lee-Smith, Mazingira Institute, P.O. Box 14565. Wagn Sunatha, Ratchasima Road Fax: 603-5174 Nairobi, Kenya, Tel. 254-2-443219. Fax: 254-2-444643. Dusit, Bangkok 10300 Thailand Manchester, UK--June 24-July 3 1994. Global Forum '94: Cities and Tel.: 2-243-0540 CITIES INTERNATIONAL Sustainable Development. For more details contact: Global Forum '94, Fax: 2-243-1812 and Eastgate Castle Street, Castlefield, Manchester M3 4LZ. UK. Tel: 44-61 ENVIRONMENTAL 234-3741, Fax: 44-61-234-3743. AFRICANTECHNOLOGY PARTNERSHIPS FORUM ICMA Colombo, Sri Lanka-Au=ust 21-26, 1994. Twentieth WEDC Confer- MIT Branch 777 N. Capitol St. N.E. Suite 500 ence-Affordable Water Supply and Sanitation. For more details and a P.O. Box 171 Washington, DC 20002-2401 call for papers form, contact: John Pickford, Water Engineering and Cambridge, MA 02139 Tel.: 202-289-4262 Development Centre. Loughborough University of Technology, LEt I USA Fax: 202-962-3500 3TU. United Kingdon, Tel.: 44-509-211079. Fax: 44-509-222390/1. Tel.: 617-225-0339 NEWSLETTER Hong Kong-November 7-12, 1994. World Congress on Urban POPULATION HEADLINERS European Network for Housing Growth and the Environment. For more details contact: Congress Economic and Social Commission Research Secretariat, 10 To:sley Place, London SW 18 IBP, UK, Tel.: 081-871- for Asia and the Pacific The National Swedish Institute 1209, Fax: 08 1-875-0686. United Nations Building for Building Research Bangkok 10200 Box 785 S-801 29 Gavle Thailand Sweden Education Programs and Courses Tel.: 46-26-14-77-00 HEALTHY CITIES Fax: 46-26-14 78 02 Centre for Development Planning Studies, The University of Department of Public Health Sheffield-Courses to be offered in 1994 include: Planning for Sustain- P.O. Box 147 able Cities. and Participatory Planning and Environmental Responsible Liverpool L69 3BX RESEARCH BULLETIN Development. Both will be held July 4-September 23, 1994. For more UK School for Advanced details contact: The Director, Center for Development Plaining Studies. Tel.: 51-794-5582 Urban Studies The University of Sheffield, Western Bank. Sheffield, S 10 2TN, UK. Fax: 51-794-5588 University of Bristol Tel.: 0742-826180, Fax: 0742-722199. Rodney Lodgc, Grange Road UNDP UPDATE Bristol BS8 4EA Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies-Master's and One UN Plaza UK Diploma programs in Urban Management are offered in English. For New York, NY 10017 Tel: 0272 741117 more details contact: IHS Rcgistrar. P.O. Box 1935. 3000 BX Rotterdam, Tel.: 212-906-5304 Fax: 0272 737308 The Netherlands, Tel.: 31-10-40-21-540, Fax: 31-10-40-45-671. Fax: 212-906-5364 THE URERN RG Fall 1993 mommmw-------------------------------- We welcome your comments, thoughts, and criticisms on future issues of The Urban Age. The following were among those residents, heaps contempt on city family, and alienation from society. Editor: received in response to the Summer authorities. Young men undcr these stresses are Your Summer issue arrived the 1993 issue on "Urban The root cause of the macabre particularly inclined to violence, same week the mayor of Washing- 'X Violence " violence depicted throughout your and minorities, women, and ton, D.C. requested the National -411 Summer 1993 issue could possibly children are disproportionately the Guard to help police neighbor- Editor: be viewed in the above light in victims. Racial and ethnic biases hoods the regular policemen are I read your Suimner edition with Nairobi, where violent criminals of police often aggravate the afraid to enter. So your focus on utmost interest, especially the and glue-sniffing children ex- turmoil. urban violence was right on the write-up on the city of Nairobi, change morning greetings with Urban areas in poor countrics, news. Especially apt was Pinheiro's where I currently reside. While the central authority policemen (the especially, are rapidly growing comparison of Rio with Washing- new mayor of the city, Steve arresting agents) every morning as because of a combination of ton, D.C., and Coleman-Miller's Mwangi, and T belong to two each go their way. unequal land distribution, resource focus on Washington, D.C. I have different parties, I support his Ngoima wa Mfwaura degradation, and population growth read the entire issue and it's first- initiatives and considerable HABITATNews in the countryside, which causes rate in telling it like it is, rather than personal efforts towards bringing NVairobi, Kenya people to migrate to cities, and how it would be if economic self-government back to city population grcwth within the cities growth and development, residents. Previously, the city themselves. Historical research hyperindustrialization, and growing government was run by govern- shows, however, surprisingly little inequality were more benign. ment cronies, and corruption was Editor: correlation between rapid urbaniza- Congratulations on a fine the rule of the day. I must commend you on an tion and violence; and the issue. Nairobi's situation is not excellent issue on urban violence. exploding cities of the developing unique. Most large towns and cities Widespread violence arises world have been remarkably quiet Kent MacDougall are the seats of the central authori- when there are high levels of until recently. Graduate School of Journalism ties, while the local or municipal grievance in a society, and few Your issue on urban violence University of Califomnia, Berkeley power structures are at best opportunities to express and shows that this pattern may now be regarded as unnecessary, cumber- remedy these grievances except changing. But cities do not have to some, and redundant anomalies to through violence. Too often, it be violent; it is the social conidi- the dictates of the central powers. seems, both of these conditions are tions within them that provoke The dichotomy is not complemen- present in our urban areas. Your violence. tary. The police force, traffic, articles show the causes of violence criminal cases, and so on are left to to be remarkably similar across the central government. Mayors are cities as varied as Karachi, Dakar, T7wmas Homer-Dixon left with street sweepers, meter Rio, and Los Angeles: miserable Peace and Conflict readers, and watchmen. The poverty, extreme economic Studies Program trickle-down effect both from the inequalities and exploitation, rising Departnent of Political Science powers-that-be and the city expectations, the fragmentation of Universitv of Toronto, Canada Photo credits: page 1: AP/Wide World Photos; page 5: Rod Stickland; page 7: Curt Camemark; page 9: Meshack M. Khosa; page 10: Gerhard Menckhoff; page 12: Mayor's Office, Amsterdam; page 16: Lynn Adamson; page 21: Ricardo Murillo (Lima). Sources for box on page 6: data on motorcycles: "Automotive Air Pollution: Issues and Options for Developing Counties" by Asif Faiz, et al., the World Bank, Washington, The Urban Age is print D.C., 1990; all other citations drawn from: "Environmentally Sustainable Urban ge IS printed Transport: Defining a Global Policy" by Ismail Serageldin and Richard Barrett, the by PRESSTAR printers Eu tu reissues World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993. Won recycled paper using soy-based inks. The Winter19issue o THE URRRH ROE Fall 1993