Global Economic Prospeets and the Developing Countries February 1995 International Economics Departnt Development Economics The World Bank This bibliography is part of a study of the management of urban enviromnental sanitation services in Pacific Islands. The study was partly supported by AIDAB and was managed by the Infrastructure Division, Country Department III, East Asia and pacific Regional Office (EA3IN) of the World Bank. The findings, interpretations and conclusions contained in this annotated bibliography are those of the consultant, and should not be attributed to the World Bank, its Board of Directors, its management, or any of its member countries. Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation Services in Selected Pacific Island Countries Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Pate No. Preface. South Pacific Region ...... ....................................... 1 Melanesia F ij i .... . .. ... . .... . .. . . ..4 8 Solomon Islands................ -......101 Va nuat u -......-.-..--.... - ..137 Polynesia To rnga ................... 167 Weste rn Samoa.......................24 Micronesia Federated States of Micronesia ...... --..........236 Kir ibat i .... .. ... .. . ... .....26 Marshall Islands . 304 Appendix Bibliography for Papua New Guinea ..... ..332 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources PREFACE This study contains a review of urban sector * cultural and sociological factors affecting research and project work conducted in all the urban life. World Bank member countries of the South Pacific region, together with a partially annotated The design of the study was to be arranged as comparative listing of work undertaken in Papua follows: New Guinea. The nine countries covered comprise all the independent island states in the South * brief country-by-country overviews of Pacific region other than Tuvalu. The study forms settlement and urbanization; a precursor to the World Bank's Study on * key literature sources for listed subject areas; Managing Urban Environmental Sanitation * grouping of items by country, subject and Services in Selected Pacific Island Member author category; countries (PMCs). * annotated assessment where possible of selected key items; The primary objective of this review of data * comments on coverage, relevance and gaps in sources and literature is to provide the sector the literature resources. study teams with a comprehensive base on which to build the sector work studies. The terms of The review was commissioned in October 1993 reference require the review to identify, categorize and involved library research in Australia and assess the key literature sources on urban (Canberra and Sydney) and fieldwork visits by the infrastructure and services provision for the PMCs authors to Fiji, Western Samoa and Tonga in and also for Papua New Guinea in view of its November 1993, together with incorporation of relevance for the Melanesian PMCs. The relevant reports collected on previous visits to foIlowing areas were to be specifically covered: Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji in late 1992. A request for relevant * roles of urban centers in economic materials was also made to Australian development; International Development Assistance Bureau * urban customary land; country posts in October 1993 with the assistance * growth in urban population including rural- of the AIDAB Pacific Regional Team in Sydney. urban migration; The total study comprises commentary on the key * urban poverty and extent of relationship to data sources in each country together with a informal settlement and the implications of regional overview report and an annotated urban services provision; bibliography of some 2,000 entries. * price factors in demand management; * strengths and weaknesses in urban Literature Assnsment: The study has endeavored management in general and utility operations to select and annotate all relevant works but in and management in particular; some cases it has had to rely on citations of * variations in urban governance in the region; reliable sources without direct viewing the documents themselves. Such references have been i Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources included but are not annotated. Studies conducted on poverty and coping strategies followed by before 1980 have only been included if they were urban low-income dwellers over the whole region. thought to be of particular value or have not been Environment and tourism are the focus of several superseded. Consultants' reports in particular are recent studies but the tendency has often been to difficult to obtain and are rarely available outside treat the subjects as being more discrete than they the countries themselves. So too are many actually are. It is necessary for example to link academic theses and ephemeral conference and urban administrative and legislative capacities to occasional papers. Most of the relevant and the practical difficulties in implementing current reports of this kind have been reviewed for environmental recommendations in South Pacific the countries visited in 1993 and, to a rather lesser urban areas where few control mechanisms exist. extent, those visited in 1992 but further investigation, including a field visit, may be The depth and coverage of the urban literature necessary to cover these aspects of the study in the reflects the settlement history and size of the three Micronesian states. In many instances economics of the various countries. Problems of consultants' reports funded by foreign aid urbanization are perceived as a significant social, comprise the most valuable and relevant work political and economic issue in Melanesia due to about the condition of urban services in the region. pressures of urban growth in the post-colonial era. Very little substantial commentary exists outside In Polynesia and Micronesia the concerns are these reports on urban physical infrastructure in more to do with urban management and 'good the South Pacific, though a range of studies housekeeping' under circumstances where many of provide data of various kinds. the disbenefits of urban living have become apparent. Traditional organization is not well Urban institutional development and urban finance equipped to manage urban growth and change are poorly covered over the whole region as are v6here few land use control mechanisms exist. In attempts to examine the urban condition in its Micronesia the problems of urbanization are now totality. Other areas such as population studies, becoming social and political issues. Throughout migration and land issues are relatively well the region the effects of continuing inter-island covered. Apart from several studies in Papua New migration and urban pollution have led to a new Guinea and Fiji and a new consultants' report in environmental consciousness but policies have Western Samoa, housing is not examined in much lagged behind. These issues are discussed further depth Similarly there is little empirical research for each of the countries considered in this report. ii Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SOUTH PACIFIC URBAN ENVIRONMENT CONTENTS Commentary Population Growti .............................................................................................3 MWigration And Urbaniatio ..................................................................................4 The Urban Pacific ...............................................................................................6 An Ur ban Futur e? ...............................................................................................8A Selected References Key ...................................................................... ....................... 13 Economic And Social Developnent ..................... ...............................o.............. 14 Population And Migration.................................................................................. 26 G overnanace An d Plan nin g .................................... ...... ..................................... 31 Finance And Development .............. o . ... ........................ o...o..............o.....o. ..... 36 Urban Land ..................................................................o.............................. 39 Res id ential Devwelop ment ..................................... .......................................... o41 Urban Sanitation Anad Environ nimt .................................. 43 1 I ' I ExCC 140c, 160*E 10* . 160W 140' W 120W* *0O COMMONWEALTH o HAWAII . ** OF NORTHERN ** - MAmIANAS '. -MICRONESIA GUAM FEDERhTED STATES OF . ,. MICRONESIA ASHALL IDS ) .* * * .-- . '. ISLANDS Yap .. . *Koprae * r - PALAU Chuuk. Pohnpal \ . o* NAURU. IKIRIBATI Bonaba .. *POLYNtSIA 6 LANDS TUVALU TpKE*, .\ .4 ""WESTERN. ISAOA COOK FRENCH POLYNESIA VANUATU b. .FUTUNA AMERICAN ISLANDS SO*SAMOA .20S ' NIUE . **IS INEW a.20. CATEDONIA . TONG WEEASTEN AUSTRALIAO MELAESI ocNC PAOLYNES--IASTRA /LNIS 0 200 400 600 800 000 100 TONGo* SCALE LAATL MENEWSI OCEA IS Eo* STER 140'E 80* E 18*0w 140*W 120W I I ' 9 7'0 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The population of countries in the region tend Islands, annual growth rates are over three per either to be widely dispersed over large islands of cent. This is a faster rate of growth than in the rugged topography or scattered throughout very economy with consequent effects on small islands, often at considerable distances from unemployment and pressures on urban services of any urban centers. The transformation of society all kinds. In Polynesia natural increase is also high and economy which accompanied western (apart from French Polynesia) but is cffectively intrusion into the area caused major changes in the siphoned off through the safety valve of high growth and distribution of the regional population. emigration. If international migration These changes and movements are a reflection of opportunities contract (as they must in the the region's incorporation into the world economy. particular case of movement from Kiribati and They have often emphasized the distinct Tuvalu to the nearly depleted Nauru phosphate characteristics of the Pacific nations: their small mine), or return migration increases, population size, limited natural resources, isolation and a pressures will intensify and demand for services short experience of monetary exchange economies. will rise. Historic colonial interests demonstrated in the establishment of plantations, mines and trade have Even in the smallest states population growth has given way to more demanding and complex usually contributed to some degree of inter-island economic circumstances and the strengthening of migration placing additional pressure on urban the various links between the island nations and infrastructure. Between 1979 and 1991 the their Pacific Rim neighbors. These influences have population of Funafuti, capital of Tuvalu, grew at resulted in considerable economic change and an average rate of almost 5 per cent, as the town variations in economic development as societies expanded from 2,120 to 3,840 people. This and nations have shifted from subsistence to cash occurred in an island of just 2.8 square kilometers, orientation and also to a general dependence on resulting in a population density of 1,376 persons foreign aid. The economies of most countries are per square kilometer. Similar situations have dominated by agriculture and fishing, but also by occurred in Kiribati and the Marshall Islands, on services which are primarily the preserve of the islands where resources are exceptionally limited. government sector in the South Pacific. Higher life expectancy has followed a drop in infant mortality and the overall general decline in Population Growth mortality has been accompanied by a change from infections and parasitic to non-communicable Populations of the Pacific states are generally as diseases. In some parts of the region, notably large as they have ever been and, despite recent Papua New Guinea, Kiribati and the Marshall declines in fertility, the growth rates in most Islands, infant mortality rates remain high by countries are still at high levels. The current rate world standards and their reduction will see for the South Pacific region as a whole is around increasing rates of population growth. Several 2.4 per cent per year. Until recently, the countries have responded to high fertility rates demographic pattern has been one of high birth with family planning policies and programs. Fiji and declining death rates. This incomplete achieved such a substantial reduction in its demographic transition has produced rapidly fertility levels in the 1970s that its program (along growing populations in many areas, especially in with that of Singapore) was regarded as a model Melanesia and parts of Micronesia. In some for the Third World. In recent years there are countries, notably Solomon Islands and Marshall indications not only of increasing fertility but of 3 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources considerable resistance to family planning, concentrations of Pacific islanders on a scale that especially in Melanesia. A number of countries in is scarcely paralleled within the Pacific itself. different parts of the region, but especially in Auckland is the largest Polynesian city in the Melanesia, have still to develop and implement world containing more than 75,000 Polynesians of population policies. Where there are policies, Pacific Island origin (excluding Maoris). There financial support for them is often limited. Thus a are four times as many Niueans in Auckland as critical issue for the fiture development of the there are in their home state and more Cook region is that of maintaining, let alone improving, Islanders than in the Cook Islands. Honolulu has existing standards of living in the face of rapid more than 25,000 Pacific Islanders (including population increase and intensified competition 20,000 Samoans), Los Angeles has more than between the requirements of economic growth and 20,000 and Vancouver has more than 12,000 the need to include welfare considerations in Indo-Fijians. More Tokelau, Pitcairn, Cook and development policy. Nine islanders and American Samoans now live outside their countries than within them. Migration and Urbanization Since the mid-1980s migration from Micronesia has also increased as the regional population Movement of peoples within and between islands (especially from impoverished and overcrowded has intensified in volume, increased in distance Chunk State, FSM) have utilized the terms of the and become more complex in pattern and purpose Compact of Free Association to migrate to Guam over the past century. Internal and international and Saipan (Northern Marianas) where unskilled population flows are now the major regulators of labor is in demand. Here, as elsewhere, colonial demographic change in many of the small Pacific and ex-colonial ties have been manipulated to nations. With the development of modern ensure preferential migration opportunities. Over transport the opportunity for migration has time it seems probable that Micronesians from increased in a region which has historically been FSM and the Marshall Islands will follow those characterized by high mobility. This has led to an from Guam and American Samoa as international increase in migratory flows and a change in their migrants to the USA. pattens. Whereas in the past these movements tended to be circular or repetitive, often seasonal In contrast to the Micronesian and Polynesian and usually over short distances, more permanent experience, the Melanesian states have and long-distance migration is becoming general. experienced minimal international migration. It is Nevertheless, circular migration and mobility tend here that urban populations are growing most to be more characteristic of the Pacific than rapidly and, with the partial exception of Fiji, elsewhere and, in island states like the Federated resulting in considerable unmet demand for urban States of Micronesia (FSM), a combination of services. Kiribati and Tuvalu have also not been mobility and limited urban employment has able to negotiate significant overseas migration slowed urban growth. opportunities, beyond those on Nauru, leading to similar pressures of urbanization in these two International migradon: is primarily a states. Polynesian phenomenon and the principal destinations are almost entirely urban and located International migration in the Pacific is an in New Zealand, the USA, Canada and Australia. extraordinary and growing phenomenon which has This kind of movement is resulting in urban had a significant effect not only on the welfare of 4 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatme and Data Sources the migrants but on their attitudes and contribution Calculations of urban growth rates (urban to development in their home countries. Much of population increase) are extremely difficult to this migration is channeled through the capital make with accuracy and the data are not cities of the South Pacific, sometimes as 'step- necessarily accurate. In the case of Melanesia migration'. However, its major influence on there i evidence that urban growth rates may not urbanization is in the return migration of those have increased since the 1970s and, in Papua New who have been overseas and become urban folk - Guinea, have actually been falling. Micronesian unwilling to step back into a rural environment data are sparse but the evidence suggests that and culture - and, in different ways, now place urban rates have also slowed even though, and considerable demands on urban services. probably partly because, urban populations are generally very high. For Polynesia, urban Pophlbaon and urbanizadon: Within the boundary problems prevent clear conclusions from Pacific the effects of urbanization are being drawn but there too the urban centers have considerable and are emphasized by other not grown substantially in recent years. Perhaps population trends. Depopulation of small the most encouraging fact about population islands appears to be ubiquitous to the extent movement in the Pacific is that there is little that in a number of countries some have been evidence that urban growth rates are either abandoned in the present increasing or doing so much more quickly than mltl those of the country as a whole. Towns and cities In all multi-island states the larger islands are arnertelscoiungogowntolyn are neeteescontinuing to grow, not only in gaining population relative to the smaller the large countries but also in the smaller ones like ones. This is especially true in Micronesia Kiribet and Tuvalu. where high islands dominate atoll peripheries but is also apparent in Fiji, the Cook Islands, There is some evidence that over time migration New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Western has become less significant as a contributor to Samoa. The reasons are straightforward: urban growth (especially in Polynesia) than employment and services are concentrated in natural increase within urban areas. Consequently, the urban centers. Small island incomes and second and third generations of urban residents opportunities are fewer. have become apparently permanent town dwellers, especially in circumstances where they are The most important of all population movements Vapped and 'disposssed' in the cities without are rural-urban migration and urbanization, the easy access to rural land and, perhaps, without the crude dimensions of which are indicated in Table skills required for return migration. Others have a 1. This shows the relatively low level of conmtniient to urban hfe and its particular social urbanization in Melanesia and parts of Polynesia, and economic attractions, advantages and values. measured as the proportion of the national It is because of the growth of this more permanent population within urban areas. In icronesia, urban population that the demand for urban with the exception of FSM, the proportion of the services has increased and the necessity for more population in towns is relatively high, a function adequate urban planning and management has of the significance of goverment employment grown. opportunities and the lack of income-earning opportunities and services in the outer islands. 5 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The Urban Pacific things: firstly, it is about urban unemployment; secondly, about aspects of visual amenity Throughout the Pacific there has been an (primarily the growth of shantytowns); thirdly, increasing concentration of the population in over increasing urban crime rates and other social urban centers underscored by rapid population problems; and fourthly, over breakdowns in urban growth and limited family planning almost service provision and delivery, leading to the very everywhere. The urban population growth has real threat that many urban dwellers will not be increased densities reducing opportunities for able to gain access basic services in the future. urban subsistence through agriculture and Consequently it is feared that the quality of urban fisheries as land and marine resources are life, and the extent of inequality in urban areas, depleted. It is no longer possible to regard Pacific will both worsen in the year to come. Islanders as solely rural people; only in Melanesia, Western Samoa and the very smallest states (all of In recent years the environmental aspects of which have large urban populations elsewhere) are urbanization have received greater prominence as less then a quarter of the national populations much urban housing no longer meets the rigorous living in towns or cities. In at least five states standards imposed in colonial times, as traffic more than half the population now lives in urban problems worsen and as rivers and open spaces in areas. The increasing significance of commuting urban areas become polluted with the wastes of from rural areas has disguised urban growth in the consumer society. As consumption increasingly larger Polynesian states and, to a lesser extent, takes on more modern forms, so the demand for elsewhere. roorn to dispose of solid waste increases. At the same time, where urban land often remains under There were few towns in the region before the customary tcoMe, the tasks of obtaining land for twentieth century. Even as late as 1960 only Suva waste disposal have become very great. In extreme and Noumea had populations of over 25,000, cases, as in Tarawa lagoon (Kiribati) and Chuuk demonstrating that urbanization is a very recent lagoon (FSM) the disposal of sewage in places and dramatic change in the history of the South where shellfish are an important food resource has Pacific: 'The rapid growth of towns equals in precipitated outbreaks of cholera. More generally significance any of the changes that have swept appropriate landfill sites are often difficult to find, across Melanesia since World War 1H. In its volumes of solid waste have increased (as consequences for the integration of colonies into recycling has had a limited impact) and hazardous new nations, it may even be the most far-reaching waste (such as electric batteries) has posed special of all changes, yet these places are still essentially problems. Outside Papua New Guinea, only one communities of migrants' (Brookfield with Hart minor urban center (Vatukoula in Fiji) is not on 1971: 384). The reasons for this rapid expansion the coast; where a growing proportion of Pacific are well-known and based primarily on post-war populations live, hence the discharge of untreated and post-independence expansion in government sewage and other wastes into coastal waters, and spending and a resulting boom in public sector especially lagoons, not only puts fragile employment for the educated elite and skilled ecosystenis at risk but reduces the productivity of workers, followed by growth in service sector subsistence fisheries. Air pollution (from vehicles jobs. Widespread concern over increasing and burning waste) is a new phenomenon, as is urbanization and its apparent permanence to the noise pollution. extent that the towns are no longer only 'communities of migrants', is a function of several 6 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Planning of service provision has usually been particular difficulties being experienced in Port piecemeal, ad hoc, poorly integrated or simply Moresby, Port Vila and Apia. In other cities, like inadequate. In most towns a significant proportion Suva or Nuku'alofa, tenure problems are of households are without piped and potable water expressed in the c-istnce of 'traditional urban supplies or access to adequate sanitation. Much villages' located in the urban area or the absence the same is true for electricity. Urban services of suitable building land which can accommodate have generally been provided by the public sector new migrants. In some situations reclamation of which in some places, notably the FSM, has meant lagoons is seen as a way of providing government that some facilities may not e. md beyond the with new urban land which is not subject to public sector. Many public services are poorly customary control. organized and are subsidized because they lack the capacity to achieve more than a token level of cost Growth in most of the towns in the South Pacific recovery. A substantial proportion of water in is due to government expenditure on infinfstructre many urban supply systems is wasted or otherwise and administration. This weak economic base has unaccounted for and not only cannot generate placed the few urban managers in a difficult revenue but contributes to significant losses. position of coping with uncontrolled squatter Throughout Micronesia and in several towns settlements, to mount an expensive search for elsewhere water supplies are contaminated and water and fuel and to adjust to growing urban water is not potable. This kind of situation, dependence on imported food and energy. This as in Vanuatu, has led to increasing interest in gives little time to consider the long-term effects of privatization or corporatization of such services. economic planning on the physical environment or At present this rarely extends beyond garbage on the future stability of the towns themselves. collection. By contrast, in almost all Pacific Urban public agencies have had great difficulty towns, transport services are efficiently provided hiring and retaining qualified staff in the sector by the private sector. The development of because of the small number of local engineering appropriate institutional mechanisms for urban resources, in part a function of international services provision and delivery in situations where migration. There are few parts of the region where much of the population is too poor or unwilling to urban physical planning exists and in some states pay for services, which may often be without cost there are no building codes or land use plans. in rural areas, is a major challenge throughout the There are few effective policies in place for the region. resolution of the region's environmental problems despite a comprehensive array of environmental A particular problem for Pacific towns continues management studies stimulated by the UNCED to be the resolution of customary land tenure (1992) conference in Rio de Janiero. issues in an urban setting. The large extent of private (communal) ownership of urban land in Underlying many approaches to urban growth in some countries has made it very difficult to the South Pacific is a deeper concern that the provide some forms of public development in the Pacific way of life is a rural way and that towns and made it hard for some residents to gain urbanization, or at least its negative connotations, access to land. Many peri-urban areas where is not part of the Pacific way. Data on urban squatting is most pronounced are outside the unemployment are notoriously difficult to assess, control of municipal authorities and are organized are rarely comparable and depend on concepts through customary arrangements. The situation is such as 'seeking work' which are hard to quantify. not uniform across the regional capitals, with However, where data do exist, specifically in Fiji 7 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and Papua New Guinea, the evidence is that An Urban Future? unemployment has increased significantly in the past decade. Youth unemployment is far in excess A consensus over inexorable, inevitable and of the other categories and there is nowhere in the apparently irreversible urban growth has Pacific where this is not true. necessarily limited any policy approaches that might have slowed migration and with it In terms of social change there has been a urbanization. This was in keeping with a period movement away from more extended an groups when urbanization and accompanying industrial towards the nuclear family, or at least smaller development were seen as important and essential family groupings. Nonetheless this is a matter of development strategies. The past decade has degree. It is particularly true of Fiji, Westen demonstrated that whilst some industrial Samoa and Tonga but less so of Vanuatu, where development is possible in larger towns, this rarely urbanization has been more recent or of the extends beyond import substitution and, when it Marshall Islands where the speed of urbanization does occur, it is usually as a result of various has been so rapid and substantial that extended preferential schemes. Urban economic families exist in the urban areas. Smaller familial development in the South Pacific has failed to units provide less social and psychological support keep pace with the rate of urbanization so that than larger groupings. Traditional authority social problems have multiplied. As a consequence established in the larger groupings is either greater attention is being paid to rural undermined or absent. The weakening of development and slowing down, if not reversing, mechanisms of social control, coupled with the the direction of internal migration. generation gap, results in various problems. Everywhere there is a gulf between large youthful The essence of decision-making in relation to populations and older members of island societies. migration policy lies in the economic potential of Education, employment, and other western alternative development strategies. Whilst the influences such as movies, videos and contact with regional population is becoming increasingly foreigners contributes to the divide. All this has urban, the principal export goods - and led to some rejection of parental values and consequently the basis of economic growth - guidance, and of traditional authority. continue to come from rural areas. The implication of this is that policies which favor the Rapid social change in urban areas and the decline rural sector may help to slow migration and of family influence and 'tradition', including reduce the rate of urbanization, as well as Christianity, has posed problems beyond crime. contributing to agricultural development and Suicide has reached high levels in the recent past reducing a worsening balance of payments. in most of Micronesia and Western Samoa, However, where urban growth rates have slowed, especially in urban areas. Alcoholism has the evidence suggests this is mainly a result of contributed to a rapid rise in domestic violence. international migration and slow growth in urban The growth of alcohol consumption is employment opportunities. Populations remain in symptomatic of other trends in food consumption the rural areas either through inertia or soon in the substitution of local foods for imported commitment to rural society and land, as much as products resulting in nutritional, medical, to improved incom-earning opportunities and economic and social problems. Few welfare services in these areas. provisions are in place to cope with these developments. 8 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Most development plans say little about therefore often strong political pressure for the population change and the influence of planning creation of more urban employment at high wage on population distribution. Priority is generally levels, even at the cost of overstaffing and given to economic growth. Since most inefficiency (rather than the superior provision of governments have not identified long-term social services). However expanding employment in and economic goals, firm planning is largely urban-based services quiddy ceases to add absent. Indeed, there is a suspicion that much significantly to real production but instead tends to 'planning' comes about as a result of direct action spread the work amongst a larger workforce, by donor governments concerned about the whilst payment of the additional wages adds more effectiveness of foreign aid. An example of this to the burden on public finances than it does to was the series of regional plans prepared in Tonga public revenues. As a result, such a policy can over the 1987-1989 period for the Vava'u and only be sustained when a high level of revenue Ha'apai island groups, despite their subsequent derives from large foreign aid inflows into the utility. budget, as has been the case in the Cook Islands, Niuc, FSM and the Marshall Islands. The same In French Polynesia the Foods d'Aet situation is broadly true of government stimulation de Development des Iles de la Polynesic Francaise of the construction industry. This emphasizes the (FADIP) has an integrated development scheme need for both private sector economic growth in for remote islands; Kiribati has attempted to Pacific urban centers and privatization of service allocate existing employment more equitably by provision to enable cost recovery and restricting government employment in Tarawa and maintenance. rotating workers on Nauru; employment but not population movement is tightly controlled. Some Throughout the region towns are growing faster provinces in Papua New Guinea have considered than viflages suggesting that the South Pacific has the introduction of passes or identity documents; an urban future. The present increasingly in one province unemployed migrants have been unmanageable scenario is not however inevitable; repatriated to their homes. These direct urban problems need not worsen, urban approaches to population movement are relatively unemployment and population growth rates do not rare in the South Pacific but they indicate same have to increase as fast as they are. however, as recognition of the growing seriousness of more children are born in town and remain there, urbanization. None have significantly changed the more urban jobs and services will have to be overall distribution of the national population. provided. The social, economic and environmental future of urban life depends on resolving this Whilst the effects of increasing urbanization are dilemma. Crucial to the urban future will be the often seen as social problems it is apparent that success of planning and management More than their causes are economic and have their origins in twenty years ago it was written of Melanesian the emerging inequalities between urban and rural towns, in a viewpoint that was largely true life. Urban problems often have rural roots though throughout the Pacific, that 'Town planning is the growing permanence of urban populations has still rudimentary, but its necessity is at last made these links more tenuous. Consequently appreciated... But in the main planning has been a urban problems must increasingly generate urban mater of ad hoc adjustment, usually a stage or solutions. Govermments tend to be concerned at two behind the needs of the moment. However, the inability of the economy to meet job and more comprehensive planning is urgently needed, income expectations of its voting public. There is and it is necessary to probe more deeply than 9 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources hitherto into the nature of the future towns, and overall control of planning legislation. Sustained their role in national economies. Most planning maintenance of urban services - the kind of good still seems to be geared to essentially European housekeeping that involves forward planning, town layout .... All the necessary preconditions for repairs, billing, revenue collection and explosive urban growth now exist, and stagnation accountability - tend to be conspicuous by their of development in rural areas is more likely to absence. There are often limited financial increase than to diminish the rate of urbanization. resources for urban planning and management, a Governments do not welcome the prospect, and situation true of many services (including can be expected to resist it, but it seems quite education and health), and poor or non-existent certain that the problems of finding employment coordination between different service delivery for people, of social and economic adjustment, and agencies, same of which are publicly-owned and of generating political and cultural activity are some private and which operate at national and going to be shifted decisively into the towns during local levels. the coming generation .... To cope with such changes, Melanesia will require a great deal more It is readily apparent from what follows in this of something that has, until very recently, been report that there are considerable problems in the signally lacking among its leaders, planners and urban areas of the eight countries discussed here, advisers - a capacity for thinking big' (Brookfield alongside Papua New Guinea. Such problems are with Hart 1971: 411-412). also apparent elsewhere, even in such small urban centers as Funafuti in Tuvalu. Though there have Despite continued growth this remains true today. been various studies of these problems, most of Physical planning is still in its infancy and the them have been of a technical nature, often legacy of the situation is apparent in many places, focusing almost entirely on engineering issues. notably Port Moresby. Planners, developers and Only recently have there been broader attempts to politicians have not yet come to terms with the cover social, economic, institutional and particular problems of customary land tenure and environmental implications of development few places have town plans. Urban local proposals. What is even more apparent is that government is everywhere weak and poorly there has been very little consideration of Pacific equipped to implement well conceived plans when urban populations in development planning, or they are eventually prepared. Part of the problem even in most academic studies. This is not the lies in the post-colonial inheritance of urban place to speculate why this should be so but little governance arrangements which require is known about coping strategies, the socio- modification to suit local conditions. This process economic and health status of the many and very of modification has begun in Part Moresby with different urban populations and the extent of its National Capital Development Commission and urban poverty in different social, economic and in the plans to adapt government in Suva and its demographic contexts. hinterland to accommodate changing population distribution. In other parts of the region, especially Without a much greater understanding of the in Polynesia, urban local government has yet to needs and probiems of urban residents and appear. especially the poor, urban planning and services delivery are likely to remain inadequate. As urban Urban planning and management are often more places in the South Pacific grow such difficult because the towns are rarely under the inadequacies will become more visible, more jurisdiction of a single local authority, or under the costly and less amenable to solution. 10 • . � TnЫe One PACIFIC ISLAND POPUIЛTION AND URBANISATION Cennfгy/Гerгfleryr I�в! Cмws PopufвlWe МfА.уевг [ллд Ага Рориlвlkа Аsливl Аnвивl Urbвn Iпhnf lJГа в1 lвsl Рпри1в11оп (km =) 1kлвl�у Рери1в11еn UгЬвn Рпраlвlbа F1аг1в8lз Frрееlввсу Csa�Yf fд11тв1е (Pмplclkm 1) Сгоиlh (Т.) Popnlвlkw ('�) Ra1e (д) al П1гtЬ (е) lяяа иео, сгеиlа (�ь) мsслиеsи P1ji 19Q6 11S 71f 761 ВОО(!) 1В 171 ]9 10 2б 79 72 (19l6) 61(19lб) ни с�lгловlв юм 1ы 1зз ne боо 19 t03 9 хо х1(в) �о 11(w� av лsмl г,р.. rгви авма . lяsо 7 воз 9s1(q 7 еа: з0о (л 1б:713 е г3 а1 1s п рябq so (19ео) 5еlов�а Ьqедi 19lб 7AS 17б ц3100 17 SSб 10 3.1 б.t 13 ]е (19�6) б1(1916) v,...fr 19б9 ит 11я 1s9eoo п 1оо 1: хе (.) г3 1е 1s (19е� ы(19е9) rew ма,wlв 1 я1s о9з s пе 1ао s7я аб1 я ы - - - - м�сnоивsи Pa�.�w suw вг мьгввввlв юеs.l9м т 1оо зю 1а еоо зо1 111 гя . х7 s: (1+м) ы tlvev) ави� 1990 1]] 1S2 1Ч 100 311 216 2] 1.9 3б 9(1991) 71(1997) 1�-� Кtг�вд 1990 72 ]!S 7б бП0 б11 б9 х] 1t 3S бS (1990) б9 (I990) � ммь.а wа.ь 19бе и 7ео s� soo 1е1 х1о 1.: ai р) ss ы(1яа) б1(юа) llма . 1991� 9919 10700 71 172 29 19 100 ъб(199!) 3б(19i1) NобМел Мггl+вв 1�в�дв 1490 q 313 33 200 (� 171 92 9.f 9.1 3] б(Ht'� бе (1я91) гв1в+ 19эо 1s1:: lбгао 1ее а1 г: . гз б9 и(юsо) бз(199о) тоwмl�в.�1в luon 1>вяоо 3sи 1ц ьs - - - - POLYNI+Sи м.�. s,.мв 199о /б п3 s: бпо 1оо ц1 з.я е.: и 11 p99q то р9и) сввk ьи.ав го9r и б1з и 9оо �т зя 1л х1 s9 в(199q то(19ее) нw 1яя1 ivя i10o гsя 9 -г1 _го ю 1=t1я9о) бб(19rr) гlwм Ьw�ь 1я93 ss sa s 1: .ав о - - praкьpwyrar. 1яи 1ие11 iliгoo зsil s� a гi sз 1эt19п) �о(wm Тоа�и. 1991 t si� 1 soo а ив -1.а о ю(юе9) бе(1+es) тп.е. 19ев и ыч яз еоо за 1я� ns ьs з1 зб р9и7 и(19ее) �rr..м t9v1 • аз 9 3оо � >!е ы 1.е 1: .1(199n бт (1991) w�u. а wв.. 199а и гоs 1� гоо иs s1 t.7 = о и p+n) м(1+9о) агимлs,в�п. н91• 1б1ре 1б:еоо гi3s ss as 1.х т1 �1(ю9к) вsр991) тw1 рыз.в�tв s>в л1 я19оо е юs бs 1s - - - - ALL PAC1F[С 18t�1N1)4 � еб9 а� s>,б та� sso гf� 11 и - - - - Notes to Table One Provisional results; CCnSU3 MAYSIS Still In Progress. (a) 7hesc am simple ][near estimates. based on recent infer-cenSal growlb rates, as up-to-date fertility and mortality estimates are met yet available for all Pacific Island Countries (PNG. Solomon Islands, Kiribati. Nauru. Cook Islands). (b) A growth rate of 0.9% was used to arrive at this estimate, which accounts for large-scale emigration after the political events of 1987. (c) 7hese growth nie3 differ slightly from official figures supplied by New Caledonia with the latter providing an urbanisallon rare of 60% compared to 10% used in then lables,which includes urban localilics outside Noumea. (d) This Figure excludes The population of North Solomons Province (BougainvilleX recently estimated at 155 000; this would Increase the 1990 total to some 3 761 9S4 people. which would provide a 1993 mid-year population estimate of4 028 600 people, which would bring the M mid-year regional population estimate to 6 512 600. (C) U4 Vanuatu growth rate refers to the ni-Vanuatu population component (139 475) of the 142 419 total population. Considering (hit the 1979 census was taken Just [be year before Independance, when several expatriates left the country, The calculation of growth rates using total population data would give a misleading piclun: ofpopulation development during the 19803. (f) "is Is an estimate. As each of the four states held their own census at different dates (198S, 1986. 1987. 1989). the 1989 total is an estimate based on projecting the populatim ot Pohapel. Roarse and Yap to 1999, kmsed an the Wer-censal growth rates since 1990. I'he currcn( development plan refers to an annual out-migration rate of 2%: hcnce the M mid-year estimate is based on a 1% growlb rate. (g) A growth rate of 6.5% wit used to arrive of this estimate, which represents the average population growth over a 20-year period. (h) Us high urban growth rate Is a result of The dcrinillon of the whole of Majuro atoll as 'urban' In 1988. Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date. 13 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL Bakker, M. L. (1990). Populations of the South DEVELOPMENT Pacific: An Overview of Demographic Levels, Patterns and Trends. Suva: Population Studies, Ahlburg, D. (1986). Population and economic University of the South Pacific. development in the island nations of the South Key: Reg over pop/mig Pacific. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. 86/7. Canberra: National Center for Development Bakker, M. L. (1991). Basic demographic and Studies socio-economic indices of women in selected Key Reg pop/mig countries in the South Pacific region. Suva: The effect of population growth in the South Pacific University of the South Pacific, Population nations is discussed in relation to land use, savings Studies, Mimeo. and investment, structural change in the economy, Key: Reg over pop/mig econ/dev health, education, employment, internal migration and urbanization. Bartsch, W. (1990). Planning for rural employment creation in Melanesia: some Association of South Pacific Environmental educational and labor market considerations. Institutions (1989). A Climate of Crisis: Global Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 1 08-127. Warming and the Island South Pacific. Port Key- Reg econ/dev Moresby: UNEP/ASPEIISPREP. Overview of employment and labor market dynamics Key: Reg over environ in the four Melanesian states. Australia Council For Overseas Aid (1992). Aid Baucr, P., Siwatibau, S., & Kasper, W. (1991). for a Change: A Plan to Reshape Australia's Aid and Development in the South Pacific. Overseas Aid Canberra- ACFOA. Sydney The Center for Independent Studies Key: Reg over finance govt Pacific Papers 2. Key- Reg over finance econ/dev Australia Intemational Development Assistance Bureau (1991). Poverty Alleviation Through Bedford, R. (1987a). Islands, Islanders and the Australian Development Cooperation. world: poverty in the periphery? Palmerston International Development Issues No. 15. North: New Zealand Geographical Society Canberra. AIDAB Conference Series No. 14. Key: Reg over poverty Key: Reg poverty over econ/dev Australia International Development Assistance Bedford, R. D. (1987b). Pacific populations in Bureau (1992). Australia's Overseas Aid the 1980s: an overview. Paper presented to Expert Program 1992-3. Canberra- AIDAB. Meeting on New Approaches to Development Key: Reg econ/dev finance Cooperation with South Pacific Countries Institute This book substantially based on Budget Related for International Relations, Bonn. Paper No. 4 provides an invaluable overview of Key: Reg pop/mig over Australia's aid program, curent international development issues and the international economic Bertram, I. G. (1986). 'Sustainable development' context. It also reports on AIDAB's country programs, in Pacific Micro-Economics. World Development, global programs and corporate services as wel as the 14 809-822 Australian Center for international Agricultural 14(7), 809-822. Research.Key: Reg environ econ/d popmig 14 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Socrces Based on a study of the micro-economies of selected Britton, S. (1987b). Tourism in Small Developing nations. Presents data on trade, government finance, Countries. Development issues and Research population and balance of payments estimates. Needs. In S. Britton & W. C. Clarke (Eds.), Outlines the major options open to the region's Ambiguous Alternative. Tourism in Small planners. developing Countries. Suva: University of the South Pacific. (pp. 167-194). Bertram, I. G. (1993). Sustainability, aid and Key: Reg econ/dev material welfare in small South Pacific economies. World Development, 21(2), 247-258. Brookfield, M., & Ward, R. G. (1988). New Key: Reg c / Directions in the South Pacific. Canberra. Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1985). The Nationlal University. MIRAB economy in South Pacific microstates. Key: Reg over plan/man econ/dev Pacific Viewpoint, 26(3), 497-519. Ke3r Reg econ/dev finaice pop/mig Browne, C., & Scott, D. A. (1989). Economic development in seven Pacfic countries. Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1986). The Washington DC: IMF. MIRAB process: earlier analysis in context. Key Reg finance econ/dev Pacific Viewpoint, 27(1), 47-59. Key Reg econ/dev finaice pop/mig Brown, R. P. C. (1992). The sustainability ofaid nJ., & Da Deckker, P. (1993). nd remittance dependent Padfic Island economies. Economic Division Working Paper Sociocultural development issues: state needs and No. 92/2. Canberra- ANU National Center for stateley societies in the Pacific Islands. In Development Studies. UNCRD, Development and Paning in Small Key Reg econ/dev Island Nations of the Pafic. Nagoya: UNCRD. (pp. 19-26). Bryant, J. J. (1990). Assistance in Human Key Reg social ecn/dev Resources Development for Improvement of A brief note on social issues in development planning. Shelter and Settlements Planning in Small Island Developing Countries of the Pacific. Port Vila- Booth, .r (1993). A compilation of data relating Report to ESCAP Consultative Meeting of to the welfare of children in the South Pacific an National Experts in Human Settlements of Small an assessment of the awailability and quality of Pacific Islands. such data. Suva: UNICEF. Ke3r Reg social poverty pop/mig Key: Reg squatter plan/man over Bryant, J. J. (1992). Urban Environment in the Britton, S. (1987a). Tourism in Pacific Island PaicReonBnga SC .Rprto States. Constraints and Opportunities. In S. Pacife Region. Bangko ESCAP. Report to Britort W.C. Cark (Eds), mbigous State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific Britton & W. C. Clarke (Eds.), Ambiguous Prjc Alternative. Tourism in Small developing project. Countries. Suva: University of the South Pacific. Ke3r Reg environ over (pp. 113-139). Buchholz, H. J. (1983). The role of small cities in Key Rg spatial development in South Pacific Island 15 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources countries. Malaysian Journal of Tropical Cole, R. V., & Tambunlertchai, S. (Ed.). (1993). Geography, 8, 1-9. The Future of Asia-Pacfic Economies: Pafic Key: Reg over islands at the crossroads? Canberra- National Center for Development Studies, Australian Cameron, J. (1988). Notes on food production in National University. the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. Key: Reg econ/dev finance London: Combined for the Pacific Environment Conference, Commonwealth Institute. Connell, J. (1980). Remittances and rural Key: Reg econ/dev development: migration, dependency and inequality in the South Pacific. Occasional Paper Carew-Reid, J. (1989). Environment, Aid and No. 22. Canberra: Development Studies Center Regionalism in the South Pacific. Pacific Australian National University. Research Monograph No. 22. Canberra- National Key Reg pop/mig econ/dev Center for Development Studies, Australian National University. Connell, J. (1982). Increasing urbanization in the Key: Reg environ govt over plan/man finance South Pacific: an inevitable development? New Zealand Population Review, 8(3), 21-56. Chand, G. (1990). Transnational corporations Key. Reg econ/dev over and Pacific underdevelopment. Working Paper No. 16. Suva: School of Social and Economic Connell, J. (1984a). Islands under pressure. Development, University of the South Pacific. population growth and urbanization in the South Key: Reg econ/dev Pacific. Ambio, 13(5-6), 306-312. Key: Reg pop/mig econ/dev over Chung, M. (1992). Reproductive rights in the Overview of migration and urbanization in the Pacific South Pacific. Suva: Paper to DAWN Workshop with particular reference to environmental aspects and on Women, Environment and Development. implications. Key Reg pop/mig s i Connell, J. (19 84b). Under pressure: population Clarke, W. C. (1990). Learning from the past: growth and urbanization in the Pacfic. traditional knowledge and sustainable Honolulu: East-west Center. Pacific Islands development. The Contemporary Pacfic, 2(2), Development Program. 233-253. Key Reg poprug over con/dev Key: Reg govt over social environ ldConncl, J. (1984c). Urbanization and labor Cole, R. V. (1985). Women in development in the mobility in the South Pacific. In R. Bedford South Pacific. Canberra- Development Studies (Eds.), Essays on Urbanization in South East Center, Australian National Univri. Asia and the Pafic. Christcurck University of Key: Reg social Canterbury. (pp. 175-196). Keyr Reg over Cole, R. V. (1993). Pacfic 2010: challenging the Overview of trends in urban growth in the South fidure. Pacific Policy Paper No. 9. Canberra: Pacific region with particu!ar reference to the role of National Center for Development Studies rural-uran migration in contributing to this growth. Australian National University. Key: Reg pop/mig over econ/dev 16 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Connell, J. (1987). Migration, employment and Connell, J., & Curtain, R. (1982b). Urbanization development in the South Pacific. Noumea: and inequality in Melanesia. In R. J. May & H. South Pacific Commission. Nelson (Eds.), Melanesia: beyond diversity. Key: Reg pop/mig econ/dev over Canberra. Australian National University. (pp. Overview of a regional program on migration, that 461-500). refers to the conclusions from twenty five separate Key: Reg over econ/dev poverty reports, on each of the countries in the region. The reports cover migration policy, urbanization and Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1992). "My country will development policy. not be there": global warming, development and Connell, J. (1988). Sovereignty and survival the plannin respon in small island state. Island Microstates in the Third World Cities, 9(4), 295-309. Department of Geography Research Monograph No. Syney:Uniersiy o Sydey.Key- Reg over environ plan/man water No. 3 Sydney: University of Sydney. Describes expected impacts of sea level rises due to Key: Reg over econ/dev pop/mig global warming, including water supply, erosion and Overview of development problems and possibilities agricultural production. Examines the potential for, in small island states, especially independent Pacific and accessily of long term envronmental plnning in states, that examines migration (internal and atoll nations of the South Pacific. international) and various issues relating to development planning. There is a long bibliography ConnclL J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. on South Pacific island development issues. Anning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010 Connell, J. (1991). Island Microstates: the Policy Paper No. 11. Cberra: National Center of development. The Contemporary Pacifi, 3(2), for Development Studies. 251-287 . Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev housing Key: sue econ/dev scwplaman popnig Assesses the changing structure of development in Examines population, economic development, land island states, particularly in the Pacific region, with policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation special reference to the nature of links with issues in Melanesian countries metropolitan states, including migration, tourism and Connel, J., & Lea, J. P. (1994). Cities of parts, investment. cities apart? Changing places in modem Connell, J. (1993). Integrated human resource Melanesia. The Contemporary Pacfic, 6, development: people and planning in the Pacific. forthcoming. In United Nations Center for Regional Key: Reg over social Development Development and Planning in Small Examines special mix of characteristics found in Island Nations of the Pacific. Nagoya: United modern Melanesia capital cities and relates these to Nations Center for Regional Development. (pp. industry tonomy and soca and especially to socia 67-94). Key: Reg econ/dev Couper, A. D. (1989). Development and Social Connell, J., & Curtain, R. (1982a). The pChange in the Pacific Islands. New York economy of urbanization in Melanesia. Singapore Routieps Journal of Tropical Geography, 3(2), 119-36. Key- Reg econ/dev 17 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatme and Data Sources Coyne, T. (1984). The effects of urbanization and services foreign trade, external payments and debt, western diet on the health of Pacfic Island and, trade and investment regulations. populations. Technical Paper No. 186. Noumea: South Pacific Caninission. ESCAP (1993). State ofurbanization in Asia and Key: Reg over social the Pacific. Bangkok: ESCAP. Detailed overview of health and nutritional trends and Key: Reg over changes, reviewing all the available literature on the Detailed account of contemporary urban economic, region. social and environmental issues. In general little reference is made to Pacific cities and some data are Curtain, K. (1982). Urban growth, unemployment iaccurate and outdated. and poverty in Melanesia: problems of definition an esu et SPC/IL~O Coneece on ESCAP/UNCTC (1985). Transnational Migration, Employment Deopmt i the corporations and the developing Pacific Island South Pacifc, Noumea. (unpublished), countries. Publication Series No. 9. Bangkok: Key R feg over poverty United Nations. Key Reg econ/dev Dahl, A. (1984). Oceania's most pressing environmental concerns. Ambio, 13(5-6), 296- Fairbairn, I. (1982). Rural development and 301. employment in the South Pacific. Regional Key: Reg over environ econ/dev Development Dialogue, Special Issue, 16-30. Key Reg econ/dev Dell, S. E. (1973). The urban life of Pacific islanders: a select bibliography. Wellington. Fairbairn, T. I., & Tisdll, C. (1983). Economic Library School. growth among small Pacifi countries: can zt be : Siol sustained Working Paper No. 83-5. Nagoya: A historic but c rnsiv and amaotatted bibliography of all the early studies of urban issues. Key Reg econ/dev Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Fairbairn, T. I. J. (1985). Economic prospects for the Pacific (1991). Economic and Social Survey the Pacific Islands. In R. C. Kiste & R. A. Herr of Asia and the Pacfic 1990. New York (Eds.), Pacfic Islands in the Year 2000. ESCAP. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Key. Reg over eccndev University of Hawaii. Key Reg econldev Economist Intelligence Unit (1986-). Fii, Solomon Island, Western Samoa, Vanuatu, Fairbairn, T. I. J. (1987). Subsistence economy Tonga. Country prof, Economist Intelligence and policy options for small island economies. In Unit, London. A. Hooper at al. (Eds.), Class and Culture in the Key: Reg econ/dev South Pacifc. Auckland: University of Auckland, For each selected nation following topics are (pp. 56-70). discussed and data provided* political background; Key Reg econ/dev finance population and society, currency the economy and national accounts; employment; wages and pdces; Fairbairn, T. I. J. (1988). Entrepreneurship and agricultme, foresty and fishing; mining and nergy, economic growth. In T. I. J. airbairn (Eds.), manufacturing and construction; tourism ed 18 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Island Entrepreneurs. Problems and Gannicott, K. (1993). Population, development Performance in the Pacific. Honolulu: Pacific and growth. In R. Cole (Eds.), Pacific 2010. Challenging the Future. Pacific Policy Paper No. Islands Development Program, East-West Center. 10. Canberra: National Center for Development Key: Reg social econ/dev Studies. Key: Reg pop/mig social Fairbairn, T. 1. J., Morrison, C. E., Baker, R. W., Examines the effect on edv:ation of colonial rule, the & Groves, S. A. (1991). The Pacific Islands: skills shortage in the region, the quality of education Politics, Economics and International Relations. in the region, the lack of educational resources and Honolulu: East-West Center. the relationship of employment to education. Key: Reg over con/dev finance Griffen, V. (Ed.). (1989). Women, Development Falvey, R., & Gemmell, N. (1993). Issues for the and Empowerment: a Pacific Feminist service sector in Pacific Island development In R. Perspective. Kuala Lumpur- Asia and Pacific V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Future Development Center. of Asia-Pacific Economies. Pacific Island at the Key: Reg over social govt econ/dev Cross Roads. Canberra: National Center for Development Studies, Australian National Hailey, J. M. (1987a). Business and economic University. (pp. 236-74). development in the Pacific Islands: a selected Key: Reg econ/.ev finance bibliography. Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Feinstein, C. (1986). Privatization Possibilities Key: Reg econ/dev Among Pacific Island Countries. Research Report Series No. 2. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Hailey, J. M. (19876). Entrepreneurs and Development Program, East-West Center. irndgenous business in the Pacific. Research Key: Reg econ/dev finance Report Series No. 9. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Force, R. W., & Bishop, B. (1975). The impact of Key: Reg social ecn/dev urban centers in the Pacific. Honolulu: Pacific Science Asoiain Hamnett, M. P., & Kiste, R. C. (1988). Issues Key: Reg over and interest groups in the Pacific Islands. An early collection of mainly brief and sperficial Honolulu: U.S. Information Agency, Ofce of accounts of urbanization in the Pacific, which is Research. mainly on Micronesia and other areas of American Key: Reg econ/dev social interest, but covers some urban land tenure issues. Harr6, J., & Knapman, C. (Ed.). (1977). Living Forum Secretariat (1992). Private Sector in Town: problems and Priorities in Urban Development. Suva: Forum Secretariat. Planning in the South Pacific. Suva: University Key: Reg econ/dev finance of the South Pacific. Key Reg over social pop/mig Freeman, L. (1984). Bibliography: energy in the Collection of papers, mainly by Islanders, on urban Pacific Region. Honolulu: Pacific Islands conditions in the 1970s. Development Program and Resource Systems Institute. Higgins, B., & Sukhdeo, M. (1983). Policy Key: Reg econ/dev response to the International Development 19 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Strategy (2DS) in the developing Pacific countries Larmour, P., & Qalo, R. (1985). Decentralization of the ESC P region: a report to the ESCAP. in the South Pacific: local, provincial and state Suva: Center for Applied Studies in Development, government in twenty countries. Suva: Institute of University of the South Pacific. Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Key: Reg over econ/dev pop/mig housing Key: Reg econ/dev Describes the socio-economic conditions of the Overview of the issues related to decentralization region. Recommends alteration to the goals of the throughout the region, though parts are now quite International Development Strategy because of the dated. region's unique situation and problems. Discusses issues in: agricultural production, industry, transport, Lea, J. P., & Small, J. J. (1988). Cyclones, riots telecommunications, tourism and energy, public and coups: tourist industry response in the Pacific. finance and fiscal policy- trade, aid, itra-regional In B. Faulkner & M. Fagence (Eds.), Frontiers in cooperation, and monetary dependence, population, Australian Tourism. Canberra: Bureau of employment, education, health, housing, participation Tourism Research. (pp. 305-15). of women, and the cost of social services. Ky R e p Holthus, P. (1990). Impact of industrial Examines instability in tourism industry caused by the development on coastali e ecosyste of Fiji military coups, communal unrest in New Pacific Islands. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop Caledonia and political unrest in Vanuatu. on Environmental Management and Sustainable Lewis, N. D. (1989). AIDS and tourism. Development in the South Pacific Region. implications for Pacific Island States. Honolulu: Key: Reg eniron or pla/man Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Hooper, A., et al. (Ed.). (1987). Class and Culture in the South Pacific. Auckland and Suva: Key- Reg social University of Auckland Center for Pacific Studies Lini, H. (1989). Pacific development strategies. and University of the South Pacific Institute for In V. Griffen (Eds.), Women, Development and Pacific Studies. Empowerment: a Pacific Feminist Perspective. Key Reg s Kuala Lumpur Asia and Pacific development Hughes, H., Ahlburg, D., & Lee, S. H. (1986). Center. (pp. 68-71). Human resources development in the Pacific Ke3r Reg ecotidev popthig Island developing countries. In ESCAP Human Linnekin, J. (1992). The politics of culture in the Resources Development in Asia and the Pacific. Pacific. In J. Linnekin & L. Poyer (Eds.), Cultural Bangk o ESCAP. Identity and Ethnicity in the Pacific. Honolulu: YW. Reg govt ecan/dev plan/man University of Hawaii Press. (pp. 149-173). Kioa, S. (1993). Impact of exteral resources Key: Reg social inflow on the South Pacific Island economies. In Lloyd, C. R. (1988). Photovoltaics for remote R. V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Pacific Island communities. Hobart University of Future of Asia-Pacific Economies. Pacific Island Tasmania. Center for Environental Studies. at the Cross Roads. Canberra: National Center : Reg econ/dev for Development Studies, Australian National University. (pp. 108-134). Key Reg econ/dev finance in Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Lowanthal, D. (1985). Mobility and identity in the review and discussion of prospects. Honolulu: Island Pacific: a critique. Pacific Viewpoint, Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West 26(l), 316-326. Center. Key: Reg pop/mig social Key: Reg econ/dev finance Macpherson, S. (1982). Social policy and National Center for Development Studies (1989). economic change in the Asia Pacific Region. South Pacific Economic and Social Database. Social Policy and Administration, 26(1), 55-61. Canberra: National Center for Pacific Studies Key: Reg social econ/dev Australian National University. Key: Reg over econ/dev finance popimig housing McGregor, A., Sturton, M., & Halapua, S. Regularly updated data in spreadsheet form with (1993). Private sector development: policies and charting capability. Contains current and historical programs for the Pacific islands. Honolulu: statistics on: population, migration, demography and Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West housing; education; health; national accounts, Center international accounts; foreign aid; public finance, Key e e foreign trade; labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and distribution; transport and McMaster, J. (1990). Future role of international comnunication; and tourism. agencies and donors in private sector development in Pacific countries. Honolulu: Nihous, G. C., Syed, M. A., & Vega, L. A. Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West (1989). Conceptual design of a small open-cycle Center. OTEC plant for the production of electricity and Key: Reg econ/dev finance govt fresh water in a Pacific Island. Honolulu: Pacific International Center for High Technology McMaster, J. (1993). Strategies to stimulate Research. private sector development in the Pacific Island Key: Reg econ/dev economies. In R. V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Future of Asia-Pacific Economies. Norimarna, M. (1988). Problems to overcome in Pacific Islands at the Cross Roads Canberra. implementing renewable energy systems in island National Center for Development Studies, communities of developing countries. Hobart Australian National University. (pp. 275-313). University of Tasmania. Center for Environmental Key: Reg econ/dev finance Studies. Key Reg econ/dev Minerbi, L. (1993). A framework for integrated socio-economic and environmental development, Nunn, P. D. (1990). Recent environmental planning and management. In United Nations changes on Pacific Islands. The Geographical Center for Regional Development and Planing in Journal, 156(2), 125-140. Small Island Nations of the Pacific. Nagoya. Key- Reg environ over United Nations Center for Regional Development (pp. 29-46). Ogawa, H. (1990). Assessment and management Key: Reg plan/man econ/dev of envionmental health impacts in Pacific Island countries. Suva: INDP Regional Woakshop on Montes, M., & Finin, G. A. (1993). The Pacific Islands' trade and investment: A brief historical 21 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Environmental Management and Sustainable Rapaport, M. (1990). Population Pressure on Development in the South Pacific Region. coral atolls: trcnds and approaching limits. Atoll Key: Reg environ over econ/dev Research Bulletin, 340, 1-31. Key: Reg over pop/mig Ogden, M. (1989). The varadox of Pacific development. Development Policy Review, 7, 363. Reti, I. (1990). Environmental problems in the Key: Reg econ/dev South Pacific: an overview. UNDP Regional Workshop on Environmental Management and Pacific Islands Development Program (1991). Sustainable Development in the South Pacific Resource material manual. Policy analysis Region, Suva. training program/workshop in private sector Key: Reg environ over development and planning in the Pacific Islands. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Ritterbush, S. D., & Pearson, J. (1988). Pacific East-West Center. women in business: constraints and opportunities. Key: Reg plan/man econ/dev In T. I. J. Fairbairn (Eds.), Island Entrepreneurs: problems and Performances in the Pacific. Pollard, S. (1988). Atoll economies, issues and Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, strategy options for development, a review of the East-West Center. (pp. 195-208). literature. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. Key: Reg social econ/dev finance 88/5. Canberra: National Center for Development Studies, Australian National University. Robertson, A. (1988). Changing environment, Key Reg econ/dev plan/man changing roles - a health risk. In R. Va'a & J. Teaiwa (Eds.), Environment and Pacific Women: Pollard, S. (1989). Pacific Atoll economies. From the Globe to the Village. Suva: Fiji Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 3, 65-83. Association of Women Graduates. (pp. 19-24). Key: Reg econ/dev finance Key: Reg environ econ/dev social Pollard, S. J., & Qalo, R. R. (1993). Development Roth, G. (1987). The Private Provision of Public sustained by enterprise: towards policies for Services in Developing Countries. New York: economic stimulation. Fourth Pacific Islands World Bank and Oxford University Press. Conference of Leaders, Tahiti. (unpublished). Key: Reg over water sew solid/waste Key: Reg econ/dev finance land govt Contains overview of French privatized water provision in Vanuatu. Ranam, J. F. (1991). Towards a Framework for Participatory Subnational Development Planning Shuster, D. R. (1979). Urbanization in the in Pacific Island Countries. UNCRD Working Pacific: a tentative survey. Honolulu: Pacific Paper No 91-1. Nagoya: UN Center for Island Studies Program. Regional Development. Key: Reg over Key: Reg plan/man govt social An early overview of the issues related to urbanization Examines problems of land use planning in the South in the South Pacific region. Pacific and suggests strategies to strengthen capabilities. Siwatibau, S. (1991). Some aspects of development in the South Pacific: an insider's view. In P. Bauer, S. Siwatibau, & W. Kasper (Eds.), Aid and Development in the South Pacific. 22 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Sydney: Center for Independent Studies Pacific South Pacific Regional Environment Program Papers 2. (pp. 19-44). (1987). Balancing economic development with Key: Reg econ/dev govt finance environmental protection. Pacific Economic Bulletin, 2(1), 20-25. Slatter, C. (1991). Situation Analysis of Pacific Key: Reg environ water solid/waste econ/dev Children: A Regional Perspective. Suva: Outlines the problems identified by the governments UNICEF. of the region at a meeting held in Rarotonga in 1982 Key: Reg over econ/dev plan/man govt where a plan of action was drawn up. Issues identified: soil erosion, mineral extraction, fresh Sofield, T. H. B. (1991). Sustainable ethic water, forest loss, coastal zone management, waste Sofild, . H B. 199). Sstaiabl ethic disposal, toxic chemicals, and radioactivity. tourism in the South Pacific. Some principles. Journal of Tourism Research, 1(3), 56-72. South Pacific Regional Environmental Program Key: Reg econ/dev social iron (1992). The Pacific Way: Pacfic Island Developing Countries Report to the United South Pacific Commission (1970). Regional Nations Conference on Environment and seminar on health and social planning and Deelpet. Noumea- South Pacific urbanization. Noumea: South Pacific Cevelopmen. Commision.commission. Commission. Key: Reg over environ econ/dev Key: Reg socialin South Pacific report to the UNCED Conference A dated but useful account of social problems of in Rio de Janiero, with considerable detail on urbanization, with particular reference to hea environmental issues mil the Pacific stles. urban planning and the provision of social welfare services, with detailed statistical data on urbanization. Stone, L. (1990). Waste generation and South Pacific Commission (1984). Hazardous venlative opportunities in the South Pacific. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop on waste storage and disposal in the South Pacf.Sustainable Noumea: SPREP topic report No. 15. UNEP Development in the Sout Pacific Regio regional seas reports and studies No.48 Key Reg lidhvaste lariman environ eco48-v Key: Reg over solid/waste environ South Pacdfic Sturton, M. (1991). The macroeconomic Economies Statistical Summary No. 10. environment for private sector development. Eoumes Staiica Smmaon. 0 Honolulu: Pacific Islaxs Development Program, Noumea- South Pacific Commission. Key: Reg over ccon/devEatWsCeer Key: Reg finance econ/dev South Pacific Commission (1990a). Proposal: S M. (1982). Ireaing urbanization. an Pacific Islands Communityi Environment Health inevitable development? Suva: Center for Applied Project. Noumea South Pacific Comimission. Studies in Deeopment, University of the South Key: Reg social Pacific. South Pacific Commission (1990b). South Pacific y R over Commission Statistical Summary 1990. Taylor, M. J. (1986). Ideology,1ild and the Pacific Noumea: South Pacific Commission. Microstates. In P. Eldridge, D. K Forbes, & D. Key Reg over 23 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Porter (Eds.), Australian Overseas Aid. Sydney Overview of various human resource development & London: Croom Helm. (pp. 79-93). issues and policies, including health, education and Key: Reg econ/dev labor markets. Thaman, R. R. (1988). By the people and for the Tongamoa, T. (Ed.). (1988). Pacific Women: people: home gardening and national development Roles and Status of Women in Pacific Societies. in the Pacific Islands. In J. Hirst t al. (Eds.), Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. Small-cale Agriculture. Canberra: Key: Reg over social econ/dev Commonwealth Geographic Bureau and Australian National University. (pp. 167-182). Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1993). Key: Reg econ/dev over South Pacific Regional Tourism Statistics 1992. Suva: Tourism Council of the South Pacific. Thirlwall, A. P. (1991). Performance and K: Reg econ/dev prospects of the Pacific Island economies in the Overview of developments in tourism from 1987-1992 world economy. Research Report Series No. 14. for the thirteen member countries, including Marshall Honolulu: Pacific Islands Dt P m Islands, Kiribati, Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands, Tonga, s C r Vanuatu and Western Samoa. Key: Reg econ/dlev finance Tourism Council of the South Pacific (nd). Guidelines for the Integration of Tourism irtnet a d 'l e & o a i G.(99) Development and Environmental Protection in Environment and Development: A Pacific Island th.ot a~l.Sv TuimCuclo h Perspective. Manila: Asian Development Bank. South Pacific Key: Reg environ econ/dev over pop/mig S Presents summaries of the national analyses prescaled Key- Reg environ plan/man econ/dev to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) which discuss economic Travel Industry Management (TM) University of and demographic trends and environmental issues. Hawaii (1990). Pacific Islands tourism Case Describes each goveriment's response to studies: regional summary. Honolulu: Asian environmental issues and the opportunities for Development Bank and Pacific Islands sustainable development. Some summaries include a Development Program, East-West Center. matrix of issues, constraints and opportunities. Key- Reg econ/dev social Provides a synthesis report for the region with Summary of separate studies on tourism development discussion on economic structure, population grnwth in N. Marianas, FSM, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, and structure, urban and coastal environments, rural PNG, Solomon Islands, Cook Islands, French economy, managing development and the prospects Polynesia, Tonga and Western Samoa. for sustainable development. Makes recommendations for further action. Appendices include statistical United National Economic and Social Commission tables, official documents and additional background for Asia and the Pacific (1985). Urbanization in information. Asia and the Pacific. ESCAP population Throsby, C. D. (1987). Human resource bibliographic series; No. 5. Bangkok: United development in the Pacific. Pacific Policy Paper Nations Economic and Social Commission for No. 3. Canberra: National Center for Asia and the Pacific. Development Studies. Key: Reg over econ/dev pop/mig Keyr Reg econ/dev 24 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources United Nations Development Program (1991). Watters, R. F. (1987). MIRAB societies and Towards sustainable development for Atolls and bureaucratic elites. In A. Hooper ct al. (Eds.), other small islands. Suva: UNDP Atoll Class and Culture in the South Pacific. Development Project. Auckland and Suva. Center of Pacific Studies and Key: Reg econ/dev environ Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 32-54). Key: Reg finance econ/dev govt planiman over United Nations Environment Program (1987). Convention for the Protection of the Natural Wesley-Smith, T. A., & Hamnett, M. P. (1984). A Resources and Environment of the Somth Pacfic Melanesia Bibliography: selected references for Region and relatedprotocols. Nairobi- NEP. Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Key: Reg econ/dev over environ Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Irian Jaya. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Walsh, A. C. (1982). Migration, urbanization East-West Center. and development in the South Pacfic Countries. Key: Reg econ/dev Comparative Studies on Migration, Urbanization and Development in the ESCAP Region No. 6. Wilkinson, P. F. (198a). Future strategies for Bangkok: ESCAP. tourism in island microstates. Toronto: Faculty of Key: Reg Ton pop/mig over Environmental Studies, York University. Overview of migration and urbanization in the region, Key: Reg econ/dey for ten countries including Fiji, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga and KbatL The emphasis is Wilkinsn, P. F. (1988b). Integrating tourism pncipally staitial. planning into comprehensive national development in island microstates. First Global Conference Ward, R. G. (1973). Urbanization in the Pacific:. Toursm Vancove. facts and policies. In R. J. May (Eds.), Priorities rey: Reg planhnan econ/dev in Melanesian Development Port Moresby: Research School of Pacific Studies Australian Wiseman, G. (1993). Key issues of the Pacific National University, Canberra and University of Island Economies. In R. V. Cole & S. Papua New Guinea. (pp. 362-72). Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Future of Asia- Key- Reg over pop/mig econ/dev Pacifi Economies. Padfic Island at the Cross An early overview of urbanization and its problems. Roads. Canberra- National Center for Development Studies, Australian National Ward, R. G. (1990). Subnational development in University. (pp. 17-32). Pacific Island countries: a dimension forgotten? Key . (eg e 7o32)e Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 1-17. Key: Reg plan/man over econ/dev World Bank (1991). Pacfic Island economies. Overview of all the issues relating to regional Towards higher growth in the 1990s. Washington development and decentralization in the South Pacific DC: World Bank (2 volumes). ro Key- Reg econ/dev finance Ward, R. G. (1991). Culture and development Issues for Island countries. In UNESCO, Culture des iles et Development Islands' Culture and Development. Paris: UNESCO, (pp. 19-33). Key Reg econ/dev social 25 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: Key: Reg pop/mig Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growth, Vol 1, Overview. Washington DC. Bedford, R. D. (1980). Demographic processes in Key: Reg econ/dev small islands: the case of internal migration. In H. C. Brookfield (Eds.), Population-Environment POPULATION AND MIGRATION Relations in Tropical Islands: The Case of Eastern Fiji. Paris: UNESCO. Ahlburg, D. (1986). Population and economic Key: Reg pop/mig development in the island nations of the South Bedford, R. D. (199l). The variety and forms of Pacific. Islands/Australia Worldng Paper No. population mobility in South-East Asia and the 86/7. Canberra- National Center for Development Pacific: the case of circulation. In G. W. Jones & Suldics. H. V. Richter (Eds.), Population, Mobility and Key: Reg poplmig over Development: Soth-East Asia and the Pacfie. The effect of population growth in the South Pacific Development Soutea Asiaa h Paci27c nations is discussed in relation to land use, savings Development Center Monograph No. 27. and investment, structural change in the conomy Canberra Research School of Political Studies health, education, employment, internal migration Australian National University. and urbanization. Key: Reg pop/mig Ahlburg, D. (1989). Demographic pressures on Bedford, R. D. (1987a). Background information health, education, and employment resources in on Pacific populations: size, structures, the South Pacific region. Pacific Studies,, 12(2), distributions and related social issues. In H. 23-31. Buchholz (Eds.), New Approaches to Key, Reg poplmig Development Co-operation with South Pacific Uses population projections by age and sex for Countries. Saarbruchen: Verlag Breitenbach. (pp. selected nations to determine the increased demand 85-114). for infant and child health services, school places, and Key: Reg pophmig jobs over the next twenty years. Bedford, R. D. (1987b). Pacific populations in Bakker, M. L. (1990). Populations of the South the 1980s: an overview. Paper presented to Expert Pacfic: An Overview of Demographic Level, Meeting on New Approaches to Development Patterns and Trends. Suva: Population Studies, Cooperation with South Pacific Countries Institute University of the South Pacific. for International Relations, Bonn. Key: Reg over popnig Key: Reg pop/mig over Bakker, M. L. (1991). Basic demographic and Bertrm, . G. (1986). 'Sustainable development' socio-economic indices of women in selected in Pacific Micro-Economies. World Development, countries in the South Pacific region. Suva: 14(7), 809-822. University of the South Pacific, Population Key: Reg environ econdev pophig Studies. Mimeco. Based on a study of the mi-economies of selected Key: Reg over pophmig eCo/cdev nations. Presents data on trade, government finance, population and balance of payments estimates. Bakker, M. L., & Thaman, R. (Ed.). (1990). Outlines the major options open to the region's Population, food and development. Suva: planners. University of the South Pacific. 26 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1985). The economic change. In UNCRD (Eds.), MIRAB cconomy in South Pacific microstates. Development and Planning in Small Island Pacific Viewpoint, 26(3), 497-519. Nations of the Pacific. Nagoya: UNCRD. (pp. Key: Reg econ/dev finance pop/mig 113-152). Key: Reg pop/mig Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1986). The A wide-ranging overview of contemporary human MIRAB nrocess: earlier analysis in context. mobility, that focuses on Fiji, Solomon Islands and Pacific Viewpoint, 27(1), 47-59. the Cook Islands, and emphasizes the social context Key: Reg econ/dev finance pop/mig and lack of permanency of many migration moves. Bhattacharya, A., et al. (1991). Pacific island Chung, M. (1990). Integrating population in economies : toward higher growth in the 1990s. South Pacific regional planning : the question of World Bank, Washington, DC. data. Nagoya: United Nations Center for Regional Key: Reg poplmig Development Provides a regional overview that examines the Key: Reg plan/man pop/mig growth performance in the 1980s of the six Pacific Discusses the problems of availability and utilization nations that are members of the World Bank. of demographic data at the regional or local scale in Assesses the factors underlying the relatively weak the region. Examines the problems of using census performance and develops a framework for achieving data to assess local level population trends. Examines higher rates of growth in the 1990s. Provides country some less conventional sources of population surveys on the six Pacific members of the World information. Bank. The surveys contain detailed background information on the economies, review recent Chung, M. (1992). Reproductive rights in the economic developments, assesses development South Pacific. Suva: Paper to DAWN Workshop prospects and policies, and provides medium-term on Women, Environment and Development projections for the economy and the external Key- Reg pop/mig social financing requirements. Each survey contains a statistical appendix with data on: populatio and Cole, R. V. (1993). Pacific 2010: challenging the employment; national accounts; public finance, future. Pacific Policy Paper No. 9. Canberra: mo:ey and prices; balance of payments and trade; National Center for Development Studies external assistance and db Australian National University. Booth, H. (1993). A compilation of data relating Key: Reg pop/mig over eeon/dev to the welfare of children in the South Pacific and Connell, J. (1980). Remittances and rural an assessment of the availability and quality of development: migration, de such data. Suva: UNICEF. pendency and Key: Reg social poverty poplmig inequality in the South Pacfic. Occasional Paper No. 22. Canberra: Development Studies Center Chapman, M. (1991). Pacific island movement Australian National Univesity. and socio- economic change: metaphors of Key: Reg poplnig econ/dev misunderstanding. Population and Development Connel, J. (1984a). slands inder pressue Review, 17(2), 263-92.Cnel .(94) sad ne rsue Key: Reg pop/mig population growth and urbanization in the South Pacific. Ambio, 13(5-6), 306-312. Chapman, M. (1993). Moving populations: Key. Reg pop/mig ecoridev over metaphors of misunderstanding and socio- 27 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Overview of migration and urbanization in the Pacific Connell, J. (1989). Migrations, urbanization ct with particular reference to environmental aspects and sante dans le Pacifique sud. Cahiers d'Outre-Mer, implications. 42(168), 395-423. Key: Reg pop/mig Connell, J. (1984b). Under pressure: population Overview of the relationship between migration, growth and urbanization in the Pacific. urbanization, health and nutrition in the Pacific Honolulu: East-west Center. Pacific Islands region, that points to the emergence and consolidation Development Program. of non-commuimcable diseases in the urban areas. Key: Reg pop/mig over econ/dev Connell, J. (1990a). The last wave: Filipino labor Connell, J. (1987a). Migration, employment and migration in the Pacific. In C. Moore, J. Leckie, & development in the South Pacific. Noumea D. Munro (Eds.), Labor in the South Pacific. South Pacific Commission. Townsville: James Cook I Tniversity of Northern Key: Reg pop/mig econ/dev over Queensland. (pp. 128-132). Overview of a regional program on migration, that Key Reg pop/mig refers to the conclusions from twenty five separate reports, on each of the countries in the region. The Connell, J. (1990b). Modernity and its reports cover migration policy, urbanization and discontents. Migration and change in the South d opment policy. Pacific. In J. Connell (Eds.), Migration and Development in the South Pacific. Pacific Connell, J. (1987b). Migration, rural developmnt Research Monograph No. 24. Canberra- National and policy formation in the South Pacific. Journal Center for Development Studies. (pp. 1-28). ofRural Stuies, 3(2), 105-121. Key: Regpop/mig Key: Reg poplmig Overview of internal and international migration and Review of the context in which Pacific Island states its social and economic impacts - including have sought to enomrage rural and regional demographic change - throughout the South Pacific developments, by policies that stimulate this, region- discourage urbanization and seek to redirect migration, that focuses on the particular e Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacfic 2010. of Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati and Papua New Planning the Future Mehinesian Cities in 2010. Guinea. Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Center Connll, J. (1988). Sovereignty and SurvivaL for Development Studies. Island Microstates in the Third World Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev housing Department of Geography Research Monograph squatter sew plantman pop/mig environ No.3 Sydney: Uniersity of Sydney. Examines population, economic development, land No. 3 oyner: UnMity pop/Syny. policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Key:Reg m cmtdc pophugissues in Melaniesian countries. Overview of development problems and possibilities s in small island states, especially independent Pacific states, that examines migration (internal and Gannicott, K. (1993). Population, development international) and various issues relating to and growth. In R. Cole (Eds.), Pacfic 2010. development planning. There is a long bibliography Challenging the Future. Pacific Policy Paper No. on South Pacific island development issues. 10. Canberra- National Center for Development Studies. Key: Reg pop/mig social 28 AnnoLated Bibliography of Regional Literatre and Data Sources Examines the effect on education of colonial rule, the Hayes, G. (1992b). The use of scientific models in skills shortage in the region, the quality of education the study of Polynesian migration. Asian-Pacific in the region, the lack of educational resources and Migration Journal, 1(2), 278-312. the relationship of employment to education. Key: Reg pop/i An examination of the two dominant models of Gibson, K. D. (1982). International migration: a theories and causes of Pacific emigration - the development option in the South Pacific. MIRAB model and the dependency/structuralist SPC/ILO Conference on Migration, Employment model - and seeks to integrate these. The paper and Development in the South Pacific, Noumea. concludes by noting the need for further analysis, Key: Reg pop/mig interpretation and empirical research. Harr6, J., & Knapman, C. (Ed.). (1977). Living Higgins, B., & Sukhdeo, M. (1983). Policy in Town: problems and Priorities in Urban response to the International Development Planing in the South Pacific. Suva: University Strategy (IDS) in the developing Pacific countries of the South Pacific. of the ESCAP region: a report to the ECAP Key- Reg over social pop/hng Suva: Center for Applied Studies in Development, Collection of papers, mainly by Islanders, on urban University of the South Pacific. conditions in the 1970s. Key- Reg over econ/dev pop/mig housing Describes the socio-economic conditions of the Hayes, G. (1985). Population, human resources region. Recommends alteration to the goals of the and development planning in the Pacific. In International Delpment Stategy because of the Report Geneva- International Labor region's unique situation and problems. Discusses issues i agricultural production, industry, transport, Aition; United Nations Fund fr Population nications tourism and energy; public Activ s.(pp.11-47). fmance and fiscal policy trade, aid, intra-regional Key: Reg planhan poplmig cooperation, and monetary dependence; population, Outlines the use of population data, concepts and employment, education, health, housing, participation policies in the economic development plans of of women, and the cost of social services. selected nations. Hayes, G. (1991). Migration, inetascience a Levin, M. J., & Rutherford, R. D. (1986). Recent Hayelomes,nG. (199. ig i m and Polynesm-ThFertility trends in the Pacific Islands. East-West development policy in Island Polynesia. T Occasional Paper No. 101. Honolulu: East-West ContemporaryPacfic, 3(1), 1-58. Center Population Institute. Key: Reg pop/ig Key- Reg pomi Overview of population and migration problems and development issues in American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Nine, Tolulau, Tonga and Western Samoa. Lini, H. (1989). Pacific development strategies. In V. Griffen (Eds.), Women, Development and Hayes, G. (1992a). Polynesian migration and ft Empowerment: a Pacific Feminist Perspective. demographic transition. PaKuic VIeupoint, 33(1), Kala Lumpur. Asia and Pacific development 1-35.P w Center. (pp. 68-71). Key Reg poplig Key: Reg econdev pop/anig This article challenges current theories which treat Polynesian migration as reflecting econanic rather Loison, G., Bourke, A., Nalo, C., & Tanson, R. than demographic factors. Change in fertility behavior (1974). Health implications of uimanization in the reflect rational choice in the achievement of family South Pacific. Journal de la SocitJ des goals. Oc6anistes, 30(42-43), 79-104. 29 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Souces Key: Reg pop/mig National Center for Development Studies (1989). Valuable early overview of impacts of rural-urban South Pacific Economic and Social Database. migration on health and nutrition. Canberra: National Center for Pacific Studies Australian National University. Lowenthal, D. (1985). Mobility and identity in the Key: Reg over econ/dev finance pop/mig housing Island Pacific: a critique. Pacfic Viewpoint, Regularly updated data in spreadsheet form with 26(1), 316-326. charting capability. Contains current and historical Key: Reg pop/mig social statistics on: population, migration, demography and housing; education; health; national accounts, Lucas, D., & McMurray, C. (1986). Pacific international accounts; foreign aid; public finance- population trends. Islands/Australia Working foreign trade; labor, employment and wages; prices Paper No. 86/6. Canberra: Australian National and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and distribution; transport and University. National Center for Development communication; and tourism. Studies. Key: Reg poplmig Rapaport, M. (1990). Population Pressure on An overview of population statistics and components coral atolls: trends and approaching limits. Atoll of growth noting trends and their c . Research Bulletin, 340, 1-3 1. Lucas, D., & Ware, H. (1981). Fertility and Key: Reg over pop/mig family planning in the South Pacific. Studies in Taylor, R, Lewis, N. D., & Levy, S. (1989). Family Planning, 12, 303-15. Societies in Transition: Mortality Patterns in Key. Reg pop/ng Pacific Island Populations. International Journal McMurray, C., & Lucas, D. (1990). Fertility and ofEpidemiology, 18(3), 634-646. family paning in the South Pafic. g hic and epidemiologcal Island/Australia Working Paper No. 90/10. change throughout the Pacific which distinguishes the Canberra- Australian National University. Polynesian situation from that in Melanesia. Research School of Pacific Studies. National Center for Development Studies. istletwaite, R., & Votaw, G. (1992). Key: Reg plan/man pop/mig Environment and Development: A Pacific Island Presents a brief outline of the history of, and prospects Perspective. Manila. Asian Development Bank. for, population growth and family planning services Key: Rieg environ ccon/dev over pop/mg and policy for each nation in the region. Presents summaries of the national analyses presented to the United Nations Conference on Environment Mincrbi, L. (1990). Population redistribution and Development (UNCED) which discuss economic policies and development planning in the Pacific and demographic trends and environmental issues. Basin : rationale and objectives. Regional Describes each governments response to Development Dialogue, 11(1), 80-101. environmental issues and the opportunities for Key: Reg pop/mig plan/man sustainable development. Some summaries include a States that traditional subsistence, self-reliance, and matrix of issues, constraints and opportunities. 'moocality are threatened by inappropriate Provides a synthesis report for the region with development from outside, population pressures, discussion on economic structure, population growth changing aspirations, economic dependency and and structure, urban and coastal environments, rural political instability. Proposes a native-oriented economy, managing development and the prospects examination of population policies in national plans. for sustainable development Makes recommendations for further action. Appendices include statistical 30 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources tables, official documents and additional background Ward, R. G. (1973). Urbanization in the Pacific: information. facts and policies. In R. J. May (Eds.), Priorities in Melanesian Development. Port Moresby: UNESCO Office for the Pacific States (1985). Research School of Pacific Studies Australian Migration and urbanization in the Pacific: National University, Canberra and University of teachers'guide. Apia: UNESCO. Papua New Guinea. (pp. 362-72). Key: Reg pop/mig Key: Reg over pop/mig ccon/dev An early overview of urbanization and its problems. United National Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (1985). Urbanization in Ward, R. G., & Ha'ofa, E. (1980). The Asia and the Pacific. ESCAP population demographic and dietary contexts. In R G. Ward bibliographic series; No. 5. Bangkok United & A. S. Proctor (Eds.), South Pacifc Agriculture: Nations Economic and Social Commission for Choices and Constraints: South Pacific Asia and the Pacific. Agricultural survey 1979. Manila, Canberra- Key: Reg over ccon/dev pop/mig Asian Development Bank, Australian National University Press. (pp. 27-48). Walsh, A. C. (1982). Migration, urbanization Key Reg land pop/mig and development in the South Pacific Countries. Briely describes recent demographic and dietary Comparative Studies on Migration, Urbanization trends for selected nations. Addresses population and and Development in the ESCAP Region No. 6. land area, internal migration, urbanization, nutrition, Bangkok: ESCAP. evidence of dietary inadequacy, malnutrition, and Key: Reg Ton pop/mig over disease and dietary pattmns. Overview of migration and urbanization in the region, for ten countries including Fiji, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga and Kiribati. The emp7asis is principally statistical. GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING Walsh, A. C. (1992). The status of circular Australia Council For Overseas Aid (1992). Aid migration in the evolution of Melanesian towns. for a Change: A Plan to Reshape Australia's Asia Pacific Migration Journal, 1(2), 196-219. Overseas Aid Canberra- ACFOA. Key: Reg pop/mig Key. Reg over finance govt This article proposes a model of Melanesian urbanization and associated forms of migration, both Badcock, J. (1990). The role of food and permanent and temporary/circular. The model nutrition surveillance in national food and considers four stages of urban developmenL nutrition planning in the Pacifc. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. 90. Walsh, C. (1990). Urbanization and socio- Canberra- Australian National University. economic problems. Noumea. South Pacific National Cent for Development Studies. Commission. Seminar on population and Ntn e plan/mnan development. Mimeo. States that health status measurements are direct Key: Reg pop/mig indicators of quality of life and indirect indicators of An analysis of urbanization, mainly in Melanesia, overall socioeconomic development and are therefore that focuses on problems of definitions and increasingly seen as aids to development planners. boundaries. Eamines nutritional surveillance systems and their designs. Provides case studies. 31 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Bartsch, W. H. (1990). Planning for rural and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific employment creation in Melanesia : some Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at education and labor market considerations. scenarios dealing with an urban future in which Nagoya: United Nations Center for Regional poverty is on the inxease addressing issues in land, Development. manage povaty alle and research needs. Key. Reg plan/man Identifies the issues facing human resource plancrs in Melanesia. Advocates more emphasis on teaching C J (989) Environment, Aid and skils useful to the village setting as the opportunities Regionalism in the South Pacific. Pacific for formal wage employment are limited. Discusses Research Monograph No. 22. Canberra: National policies and programs that could shape labor supply to Center for Development Studies, Australian fit labor demand. National University. Key- Reg environ govt over plan/man finance Brookflield, H. C. (1990). Issues in envirnmenital Chung, M. (1990). Integrating population in management and planning. Regional Development South Pacific regional planning : the question of Dialogue, 11(4), 63-71. data. Nagoya: United Nations Center for Regional Key: Reg environ plan/man Development. Key: Reg plan/man pop/mig Brookfield, M., & Ward, R. G. (1988). New Discusses the problems of availability and utilization Directions in the South Pacific. Canberra: of demographic data at the regional or local scale in Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian the region. Examines the problems of using census National University. data to assess local level population trends. Examines Key: Reg over plantman econ/dev some less conventional sources of population Bryant, J. J. (1990). Assistance in Human Clarke, G. (1993a). Life and Living in Tuvalu: Resources Development for Improvement of Steps towards Sustainable Strategies with Shelter and Settlements Planning in Small rsland particular reference to housing, infrastructure Developing Countries of the Paafic. Port Vla& and land use, Vol I, indings. Sydney: Pacific Report to ESCAP Consultative Meeting of Regional Team, Australian International National Experts in Human Settlements of Small Assistance Bureau. Pacific Islands. Key- Reg housing plan/man Key: Reg squatter plan/man over Although dealing with Tuvalu, this report is of relevance to bousing strategies and the provision of Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the infrastructure and urban services in an atoll states. environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: Contains critique and suggestions about building University of New England. Department of regulations. Geography and Planning. Key- Reg WS Fiji poverty land plan/man Clarke, G. (1993b). Life and Living in Tuvalu, Examines the linkages between changing Vol 2: Strategies. Sydney- Pacific Regional Team, environments and increasing poverty in the urban Australian International Assistance Bureau. centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Key: Reg housing plan/man urbanization, poverty and nvironmental Co ins recommendations for national housing and legislation in the region, vai:ining cultural provision on a sustainable basis and draft factors and government/connauity responses. envionmental planning laws. Relevant to all Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues Pb countries. and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati 32 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Clarke, W. C. (1990). Learning from the past: Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra- National Center traditional knowledge and sustainable for Development Studies. development. The Contemporary Pacific, 2(2), Key Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev housing 233-253. squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Key: Reg govt over social environ land Examines population, economic development, land policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Cole, R. V. (1990). Donor financing of issues in Melanesian countries. development: trends and issues. Nagoya: Central Planning Department and United Nations Center Dinshaw, N. (1980). A review of techniques for for Regional Development. studying freshwater/seawater relationships in Kr Reg plan/man coastal and island groundwater flow systems. Outines donor policies concerning overseas Technical Report Nc. 11. Water Resources development assistance and the types of assistance Research Center, University of Guam. available Discusses trends in the region's Key: Reg water plan/man administration of aid and the trend toward sub- regional planning. Dubsky, R. (1986). Organization of development planning in the South Paafic. Honolulu: Pacific Cole, R V. (1992). Patterns of economic growth Islands Study Program Center for Asian and and structural change in sir South Pacific island Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii. states. Port Vila- United Nations. Economic and Key: Reg plan/man Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Key- Reg plan/man Griffen, V. (Ed.). (1989). Women Development Uses statistical data to determine patterns in the and Empowerment a Pacfic Feminist economic grwth and structural change of sc Perspective. Kuala Lumpur Asia and Pacific nations. Discusses the problems associated with this growth and transormnation encountered by these Key Re Cner. nations. Discusses policy and planning issues in relation to domestic and external resource mobilization, deregulation and liberalization, human Gunaseckera, H M. (1982). Trends in regional resources development and technological choice, and planning in the South Pacific. Regional infrastructre, environment and sustainable Development Dialogue Special Issue, 31-48. development. Key: Reg plan/man Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1992). "My country will Halapua, S. (Forthcoming). Sustainable not be there: global warming, development and development: from ideal to reality in the Pacific the planning response in small island states. Islands. Honolulu: Asian Development Bank and Cities, 9(4), 295-309. Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Key Reg over environ plan/man water Center. Describes expected impacts of sea level rises due to Key: Reg plan/man environ global warming, including water supply, erosion and agricultural production. Examines the potential for Hayes, G. (1985). Population, human resources and necessity of, long term environmental planning in ands dvopment planning in the Pacific. I atoll nations of the South Pacific. and Geevat in te Ptifnal Lb Report Geneva- Internationial Labor C=An J, & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. Organization; United Nations Fund for Population Planning the Future Mehmasian "ities in 2010. Activities. (pp. 11-47). Kyi Reg plan/man pop/mig 33 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Outlines the use of population data, concepts and Australian Tourism. Canberra: Bureau of policies in the economic development plans of Tourism Research. (pp. 305-15). selected nations. Key: Reg econ/dev plan/man Examines instability in tourism industry caused by the Holthus, P. (1990). Impact of industrial Fiji military coups, communal unrest in New development on coastal marine ecosystems of Caledonia and political unrest in Vanuatu. Pacific Islands. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop on Environmental Management and Sustainable McMaster, J. (1989). Foreign aid and private Development in the South Pacific Region. sector development in the Pacific Islands. Asian Key: Reg environ over plan/man Development Bank and Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Hughes, H., Ahlburg, D., & Lee, S. H. (1986). Key: Reg finance plan/man Human resources development in the Pacific Island developing countries. In ESCAP Human McMaster, J. (1990). Future role of international Resources Development in Asia and the Pacific. agencies and donors in private sector Bangkok: ESCAP. development in Pacific countries. Honolulu: Key: Reg govt econ/dev plan/man Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Hundloe, T. J., & Miller, G. (1987). Key- Reg econ/dev finance govt Environmental impact assessment: its role and processes. In D. J. Doulman (Eds.), The McMaster, J. (Forthcoming). Overview of major Development of the Tuna Industry in the Pacific policy issues related to privatization and Islands Region: an analysis of options. corporatization programs in the Pacific Island Honolulu: East-West Ceater. (pp. 383-394). economies. Asian Development Bank and Pacific Key: Reg environ water govt Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Provides guidelines for the application of an Key: Reg finance plan/man environmental impact assessment to a tuna fishingl processing operation in the region. Discusses in detail McMurray, C., & Lucas, D. (1990). Fertility and the measurement and monitoring of impacts on water family planning in the South Pacific. resources. Island/Australia Wo.king Paper No. 90/10. Kofe, S. (1990). Household food security in Canberra: Australian National University. Research School of Pacific Studies. National selected Pacific IslandC Center for Development Studies. South Pacif ic Comission. Key: Reg p t Key: Reg plan/man pop/mig Presents a brief outline of the history of and prospects for, population growth and family planning services Larmour, P., Crocombe, R, & Taungenga, A. and policy for each nation in the region. (Ed.). (1981). Land People and Government. Public Lands Policy in the South Pacific. Suva. Minerbi, L. (1993). A framework for integrated University of the South Pacific. socio-economic and environmental development, Key: Reg land plan/man govt planning and management. In United Nations Center for Regional Development Development Lea, J. P., & Small, J. J. (1988). Cyclones, riots and Planning in Small Island Nations of the and coups: tourist industry response in the Pacific. Pafic. Nagoya: United Nations Center for In B. Faulkner & M. Fagence (Eds.), Frontiers in Regional Development. (pp. 29-46). 34 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Reg plan/man econ/dev Rizer, J. P., & Hansen, J. (1992). Energy in the Paciflc islands : issues and statistics. East-West Minerbi, L. (1990). Population redistribution Center. Pacific Islands Development Program, policies and development planning in the Pacific Honolulu. Basin : rationale and objectives. Regional Key: Reg plan/man Development Dialogue, 11(1), 80-101. Provides recent encrgy statistics for the region. Key: Reg pop/mig plan/man Discusses supply and demand, petroleum, the power States that traditional subsistence, self-reliance, and sector, energy planning and management, and new 'multilocality are threatened by inappropriate and renewable energy sources including: hydropower, development from outside, population pressures, biomass, solar, wind, geothermal, wave, OTEC, and changing aspirations, economic dependency and ethanol. political instability. Proposes a native-oriented examination of population policies in national plans. Sazanami, H., & Newels, R. (1990a). Multilevel development planning and management in Pacific Islands Development Program (1991). Pacic island countries : planning as vision and Resource material manual. Policy analysis dialogue. Nagoya: United Nations Center for training program/workshop in private sector Regional Development. development and planning in the Pacific Islands. Key: Reg plan/man Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Examines the need for an integrated, East-West Center. multidisciplinay approach to development planning Key- Reg plan/man econ/dev and the necessity of personnel training in planning and management to achieve desired outcomes of Pollard, S. (1988). Atoll economies, issues and iment plh strategy options for development, a review of the Sami H., & Newels, IL (1990b). literature. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. Subnational development planning in Pacflc 8/5. Canberra: National Center for Development island countries. Nagoya: Center for Regional Studies, Australian National University. D Nulualofa. Key: Reg econ/dev plan/man Key: Reg planihan Discusses issues that constrain development planning Pollard, S. J., & Qalo, R. R. (1993). Development at the local level, and the links between national and sustained by enterprise: towards policies for regional planniny economic stimulation. Fourth Pacific Islands Conference of Leaders, Tahiti. (unpublished). Siwatibau, S. (1991). Some aspects of Key: Reg econ/dev finance land govt development in the South Pacific: an insider's Ranam, J. F. (1991). Towards a Framework for view. In P. Bauer, S. Siwatibau, & W. Kasper Participatory Subnational Development Planning (Eds.), Aid and 9zvelopment in the South Pacific. in Pacifc Island Countries, UNCRD Working Paper No 91-1. Nagoya: UN Center for Regional Development. Sydney: Center for Independent Studies Pacific Key: Reg plan/man govt social Papers 2. (pp. 19-44). Examines problems of land use planning in the South Keyr Reg econ/dev govt finance Pacific and suggests strategies to strengthen capabilities. Slatter, C. (1991). Situation Analysis of Pacific Children: A Regional Perspective. Suva: UNICEF. 35 Atnotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Reg over econ/dev plan/man govt Solomon Islands, Tonga Vanuatu, : project findings and recommendations. Rome: United South Pacific Regional Workshop on Housing Nations Development Program and United (1985). International Year of Shelter for the Nations. Food and Agriculture Organization. Homeless South Pacific Regional Workshop on Key: Reg plan/man Housing. Lae. Papua New Guinea University of Technology. Ward, R. G. (1990). Subnational development in Key: Reg housing Govt Pacific Island countries: a dimension forgotten? Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 1-17. Stone, L. (1990). Waste generation and Key: Reg planman over econ/dev preventative opportunities in the South Pacific. Overview of all the issues relating to regional Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop on development and decentralization in the South Pacific Environmental Management and Sustainable region. Development in the South Pacific Region. Key: Reg solid/waste plan/man environ econ/dev Watters, R. F. (1987). MIRAB societies and bureaicratic elites. In A. Hooper et al. (Eds.), Thaman, R. R. (1987). Urban agroforestry- the Class and Culture in the South Pacific. Pacific Islands and beyond. Unasylva: an Auckland and Suva: Center of Pacific Studies and International Journal of Forestry and Forest Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 32-54). Industries, 39(1), 2-13. Key: Reg finance econ/dev govt plan/man over Ke: Reg enrviron plan/man Wilkinson, P. F. (1988). Integrating tourism Thompson, L. (1993). Realizing the Potential. planning into comprehensive national development Pacfic Islands Monthly, 63(3),March, 32-33. in island microstates. First Global Conference Key: Reg housing plan/man Tounsm, Vancouver. Explores the search for a locally appropriate domestic Key Reg plan/man econ/dev architecture and planning system which is sensitive to Pacific values. Discusses several successful projects in PNG and Solomon Islands. FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT Thompson, P. (1983). A Model program for Australia Council For Overseas Aid (1992). Aid reducing housing vulnerability. ANL South for a Change: A Plan to Reshape Australia's Pacific Bureau for Economics Cooperation, Suva. OvraC Aid Canberra: ACFOA. Key: Reg housing environ plan/man Tourism Council of the South Pacific (nd). Key: Reg over finance govt Guidelines for the Integration of Tourism Austla International Development Assistn Development and Environmental Protection in Burea (1992). Australia's Overseas Aid the South Pacific Suva. Tourism Counced of the Program 1992-3. Canberra- AIDAB. South Pacific. Key: Reg econ/dev finance Key Reg environ plan/man econ/dev book substantially based on Budget Related of national Paper No. 4 provides an invaluable overview of United Nations (1990). Development ofna l Australia's aid program, current international food and nutrition planning and programs in the deve ent issues and the international economic South Pacific : Asia and the Pacific region : context. It also reports on AIDAB's country programs, Federated States of Micronesia Kiribati, global programs and corporate services as well as the 36 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Australian Center for International Agricultural Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Research. Center. Key: Reg finance Bauer, P., Siwatibau, S., & Kasper, W. (1991). Aid and Development in the South Pacfic. Cole, R. V., & Tambunlertchai, S. (Ed.). (1993). Sydney: The Center for Independent Studies The Future of Asia-Pacific Economies: Pacific Pacific Papers 2. islands at the crossroads? Canberra: National Key: Reg over finance econ/dev Center for Development Studies, Australian National University. Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1985). The Key: Reg econ/dev finance MIRAB economy in South Pacific microstates. Pacieic Viewpoint, 26(3), 497-519. Fairbairn, T. I. J. (1987). Subsistence economy Key: Reg ecou/dev finance pop/mig and policy options for small island economies. In A. Hooper ct al. (Eds.), Class and Culture in the Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R, F. (1986). The South Pacific. Auddand- University of Auddand. MIRAB process: earlier analysis in context. (pp. 56-70). Pacific Viewpoint, 27(1), 47-59. Key. Reg econ/dev finance Key: Reg econ/dev finance pop/mig Fairbairn, T. I. J., Morrison, C. E., Baker, K W., Browne, C., & Scott, D. A. (1989). Economic & Groves, S. A. (1991). The Pacific Islands: development in seven Pacfic countries. Politics, Economics and International Relations. Washington DC: IMF. Honolulu: East-West Center. Key: Reg finance econ/dev Key: Reg over con/dev finance Cabannes, Y. (1986). South Pacfic Sector Assessment Mission Habitat Overview: South Falvey, R, & Gemmell, N. (1993). Issues for the Pacific Region. Nairobi: UN Center for Human service sector in Pacific Island development. In R. Settlement. V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Future Key- Reg housing finance of Ar --.-Pacfic Economies. Pacfic Island at the Report of a 1986 mission to Fiji, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Cross Roads. Canberra- National Center for Solomon Islands, Western Samoa and Cook Islands. Development Studies, Australian National Contains overview of human settlements sector and University. (pp. 236-74). review of housing programs and housing delivery systems in each country. Summarizes technical assistance and capital funding for the region in the sector. Feinstein, C. (1986). Privatization Possibilities Among Pacfic Island Countries. Research Carew-Reid, J. (1989). Environment, Aid and Report Series No. 2. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Regionalism in the South Pacic. Pacific Development Program, East-West Center. Research Monograph No. 22. Canberra- National Key Reg econ/dev finance Center for Development Studies, Australian National University. Forum Secretariat (1992). Private Sector Key: Reg environ govt over plan/man finance Development Suva. Forum Secretariat. Key Reg econ/dev finance Cole, R. V. (1990). South Pacific Development Banks: Key Issues in Their Future. Honolulu: 37 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Guest, J. (1986). Macroeconomic stabilization McMaster, J. (1990a). Future role of policy with special reference to fiscal policy. In R. international agencies and donors in private V. Cole & T. G. Parry (Eds.), Selected issues in sector development in Pacific countries. Pacific island development. Pacific Policy Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Papers, No.2,. Canberra: Australian National East-West Center. University. National Center for Development Key: Re econ/dev finance govt Studies. (pp. 71-110). Key: Reg finance McMaster, J. (1990b). Incentives, regulatory Gives guidelines for fiscal policy methods of reducing mechanisms, and risk climate for private the impact of fluctuations in commodity prices, investment. Asian Development Bank and Pacific foreign exchange rates and foreign aid levels on Islands Development Program, East-West Center. balance of payments. Macroeconomic policy for Rg fne stabilization creates an environment conducive to medium and long term budgetary planning. Focuses on the macrocconomic situations of selected Pacific McMaster, J. (1990c). Scope for accelerating nations. private sector growth in the Pacifc Islands through the implementation of privatization Halapua, S. (1990). The role of financial policies. Asian Development Bank and Pacific institutions in Pacific Island countries. Honolulu: Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Asian Development Bank and Pacific Islands Key: Reg finance Development Program, East-West Center. Key: Reg fnance McMaster, J. (1993). Strategies to stimulate private sector development in the Pacific Island Kioa, S. (1993). Impact of external resources economies. In R. V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai inflow on the South Pacific Island economies. In (Eds.), The Future of Asia-Pacific Economies. R. V. Cole & S. Tambunlertchai (Eds.), The Pacific Islands at the Cross Roads. Canberra: Future of Asia-Pacific Economies. Pacific Island National Center for Development Studies, at the Cross Roads. Canberra: National Cet Australian National University. (pp. 275-313). for Development Studies, Australian National Key- Reg econ/definanc University. (pp. 108-134). Key: Reg econ/dev finance McMaster, J. (Forthcoming). Overview of major policy issues related to privatization and McGregor, A., Sturton, M., & Halapua, S. corporatization programs in the Pacific Island (1993). Private sector development: policies and economies. Asian Development Bank and Pacific programs for the Pacific islands. Honolulu: Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Key: Reg finance plan/man Center. Key: Reg econ/dev finance Montes, M., & Finin, G. A. (1993). The Pacfic Islands' trade and investment: A brief historical McMaster, J. (1989). Foreign aid and private review and discussion of prospects. Honolulu: sector development in the Pacific Islands. Asian Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Development Bank and Pacific Islands Center. Development Program, East-West Center. Key: Reg econ/dev finance Key: Reg finance plan/man 38 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources National Center for Development Studies (1989). Key: Reg finance econ/dev South Pacific Economic and Social Database. Canberra: National Center for Pacific Studies Thirlwall, A. P. (1991). Performance and Australian National University. prospects of the Pacific Island economies in the Key: Reg over econ/dev finance pop/mig housing world economy. Research Report Series No. 14. Regularly updated data in spreadsheet form with Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, charting capability. Contains current and historical East-West Center. statistics on: population, migration, demography and Key: Reg econ/dev finance housing; education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; United States Agency for International foreign trade; labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary D (USAID) (1992). Private voluntary industries and distribution; transport and organizations co-financing. Activity evaluation. communication; and tourism. Suva: Friendly Islander Marketing Cooperative. Key: Reg finance Pollard, S. (1989). Pacific Atoll economies. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 3, 65-83. Watters, R. F. (1987). MIRAB societies and Key: Reg econ/dev finance bureaucratic elites. In A. Hooper et al. (Eds.), Class and Culture in the South Pacific. Pollard, S. I., & Qalo, R. R. (1993). Development Aucldand and Suva. Center of Pacific Studies and sustained by enterprise: towards policies for Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 32-54). economic stimulation. Fourth Pacific Islands Key: Reg finance econ/dev govt plan/man over Conference of Leaders, Tahiti. (unpublished). Key: Reg econ/dev finance land govt World Bank (1991). Pacific Island economies. Towards higher growth in the 1990s. Washington Ritterbush, S. D., & Pearson, J. (1988). Pacific DC: World Bank (2 volumes). women in business: constraints and opportunities. Key Reg econ/dev finance In T. I. J. Fairbairn (Eds.), Island Entrepreneurs: problems and Performances in the Pacific. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. (pp. 195-208). URBAN LAND Key: Reg social econ/dev finance Brookfield, H. (1990). Issues in environmental Siwatibau, S. (1991). Some aspects of planning and management. Nagoya: United development in the South Pacific: an insider's Nations Center for Regional Development. view. In P. Bauer, S. Siwatibau, & W. Kasper Key Reg land (Eds.), Aid and Development in the South Pacic. Examines the implications of global warming, human Sydney: Center for Independent Studies Pacific interference and natural change for the Pacific islands. Identifies management of land and reef Papers 2. (pp. 19-44). resources as priorities for improvement with an Key: Reg econ/dev govt finance emphasis on local level involvement Focuses on the historical context of the islands' management of a Sturton, M. (1991). The macroeconomic changing environment environment for private sector development. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the East-West Center. environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: 39 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources University of New England. Department of Hau'ofa, E., & Ward, K G. (1980). The social Geography and Planning. context. In K G. Ward & A. S. Proctor (Eds.), Key: Reg WS Fiji poverty land pla/nan South Pacifc agriculture : choices and Examines the linkages between changing constraints : South Pacific agricultural survey environments and increasing poverty in the urban 1979. Canberra; London; Norwalk, Conn.: centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Australian National University Press, Manila: urbanization, poverty and environmental management Asian Development Bank. (pp. 49-71). and legislation in the region, examining cultural K land factors and governmenticomzmmity responses. Looks at social change in the region and its Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues implications for agriculture. Issues addressed include: and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati and anutu nd he ork f te SuthPacfic women in agriculture; magic and sorcery; residence and Vanuatu and the work of the Souh Pacific patterns, labor organization, education and the status Regional Enrviroinment Program (SPREP. Looks at of agriculture; and land tene. scenanos dealing with an urban future in which poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation Larmour, P., Crocombe, R, & Taungenga, A. and research needs. (EdL). (1981). Land, People and Government. Public Lands Policy in the South Pacific. Suva: Clarke, W. C. (1990). Learning from the past University of the South Pacific. traditional knowledge and sustainable Key: Reg land plankman govt development. The Contemporary Pacifc, 2(2), 233-253. Pak-Poy and Kneebone Pty Ltd (1989a). South Key Reg govt over social environ land con/dev Pacfic islands transport sector review. Country reports. World Bank, Washington, DC. Cole, R. V. (1986). Land policies and issues in Key: Reg land the South Padfic. Islands/Australia Working Presents information on the status and prospects for Paper No. 86112. Australian National University. development, and the implications for the transport sector, for selected nations. Contains data and Research School of Pacific StUdies. National set,fslcednio.Cnansaaad Ceserc o ol D ofwt Paic sie at l discussion on the transport sector in general. Reviews Center for Development S the land, sea and air transport sub-sectors in terms of Key: Reg land their development objectives and strategies; present Describes the differences in land management, land development, operations and policies; development tenure, land exploitation and government efforts to programs and prac; and major constraints. accommodate customary land and economic development in selected nations. Appendices include Pak-Poy and Knecbone Pty Ltd (1989b). South constitutional provisions affecting land ir. the region. Pacifc islands transport sector review. Regional C. (1981). Publc l a and country overview report. World Bank, Floyd, C.(91.Pbicln)n h rivate Washington, DC. sector. In P. Larnour, R. Crocombe, & A. K n D Taungenga (Eds.), Land People and Ke t: of on about Government. Public Lands Policy in the South the transport secatr in six nations. Provides Pacific. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies background information on the region and regional University of the South Pacific. (pp. 97-104). cooperation in the transport sector. Examines the Key: Reg land status of air, land and marine transport in the selected Reviews the issue of how much land, in urban and nations. Discusses aid for transport in the region. rural areas, should be owned by Pacific governments. Gives an overview of past studies and future needs of the transport sector in the region. 40 Annolatod Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Pollard, S. J., & Qalo, R. R. (1993). Development North: New Zealand Geographical Society sustained by enterprise: towards policies for Conference Series No. 14. economic stimulation. Fourth Pacific Islands Key: Reg poverty over econ/dev Conference of Leaders, Tahiti. (unpublished). Key: Reg econ/dev finance land govt Booth, H. (1993). A compilation of data relating to the welfare ofchildren in the South Pacfic and Roy, P., & Connell, J. (1989). Greenhouse : the an assessment of the availability and quality of impact of sea level rise on low coral islands in such data. Suva: UNICEF. the South Pacific. RIAP Occasional Paper No. 6. Key: Reg social poverty pop/mig University of Sydney. Key: Reg land water Bryant, J. J. (1990). Assistance in Human Concerned chiefly with the atoll nations of the South Resources Development for Improvement of Pacific and discusses implications of rising sea levels Shelter and Settlements Planning in Small Island caused by the greenhouse cffect, eg: loss of land aea, Developing Countries of the Pacific. Port Vila:- salinity of soil, erosion, salinity of fresh water lens, Report to ESCAP Consultative Meeting of and environmental refugees. Describes atoll National Experts in Human Settlements of Small formation and island ecology. Pacifi Islands. Ward, R. G., & Hau'ofa, E. (1980). The Key: Reg sqatter plan/man over demographic and dietary contexts. In R G. Ward Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the & A S. Proctor (Eds.), South Pacific Agriculture: environment in the South Pafic. Armidale: Choices and Constraints: South Pacific University of New Englande Department of Agricultural survey 1979. Manila, Canberra: eograpiy anf Na ngiD Asian Development Bank, Australian National Key: Reg WS Fiji povmry land planan University Press. (pp. 2748).between changing Key: Reg land pop/mig environments and increasing poverty in the urban Briefly describes recent demographic and dietary centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes trends for selected nations. Addresses population and u poverty and n ental management land area, internal migration, urbanization, nutrition, and legislation in the region, amining cultural evidence of dietary inadequacy, malnutrition, and factors and gov erment/com ni responses. disease and dietary paerns. Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT scenarios dealing with an urban future in which poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation Australia International Development Assistance andsc needs. Bureau (1991). Poverty Alleviation Through Australian Development Cooperation Cabannes, Y. (1986). South Pacfic Sector International Development Issues No. 15. Assessment Mission Habitat Overview: South Canberra: AIDAB. Pacific Region. Nairobi: UN Center for Human Key: Reg over poverty Sel e Key: Reg housing finance Bedford, R (1987). Islands, Islanders and the Report of a 1986 mission to Fiji, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, world: poverty in the periphery? Palmerston Solomon Islands, Western Samoa and Cook Islands. 41 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Contains overview of human settlements sector and Curtain, R. (1982). Urban growth, unemployment review of housing programs and housing delivery and poverty in Melanesia: problems of definition systems in each country. Summarizes techiical and measurement. SPCILO Conference on assistance and capital funding for the region in the Migration, Employment and Development in the sector. South Pacific, Noumea. (unpublished). Clarke, G. (1993a). Life and Living in Tuvalu, K Reg over poverty Vol 2: Strategies. Sydney. Pacific Regional Higains, B., & Sukhdeo, M. (1983). Policy Team, Australian International Assistance Bureau. ' response to the International Development .nan Re omnd p anfan Strategy (DS) in the developing Pacific countries Contains recommendations for national housing ofteECPrgn:aepttoheSA. provision on a sustainable bai an at of the ESCAP region: a report to the ESCAP. environmental planning laws. Relevant all Suva: Center for Applied Studies in Development, Polynesian C anties University of the South Pacific. Key Reg over econ/dav pop/mig housing Clarke, G. (1993b). Life and Living in Tuvalu: Describes the sooconomic conditions of the Starep ta Sus93b.Lftainl Strvigie Tu region. Recommends alteration to the goals of the Steps towards Sustainable Strategies with International Development Strategy because of the particular reference to housing, infrastructure region's unique situation and problems. Discusses and land use, Vol , Findings. Sydney: Pacific issues in: agricultural production, industry, transport, Regional Team, Australian International telecommunications, tourism and energy public Assistance Bureau. finance and fiscal policy; trade, aid, intra-regional Key: Reg housing plan/man cooperation, and monetary dependence; population, Although dealing with Tuvalu, this report is of employment, education, health, housing, participation relevance to housing strategies and the provision of of women, and the cost of social services. infrastructure and urban services in all atoll states. Contains critique and suggestions about building Kofc, S. (1990). Household food security in regulations. selected Pacific Island Countries. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. CoDnell, J., & Curtain, R. (1982). Urbanization Key: Reg poverty squatter plan/man and inequality in Melanesia. in R. J. May & H Nelson (Eds.), Meanesia: beyond diversity. National Center for Development Studies (1989). Canberra- Australian National University. (pp. South Pacific Economic and Social Database. 461-500). Canberra- National Center for Pacific Studies Key: Reg over econ/dev poverty Australian National University. Key: Reg over econ/dev finance pop/mig housing Connell, I., & Iea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. Regularly updated data in spreadsheet form with Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. charting capability. Contains current and historical Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra- National Center statistics on: population, migration, demography and for Development Studies. housing; education; health; national accounts; Key- Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over ocon/dev housing international accounts foreign aid; public finance; squatter sew planfman. pforeign trade; labor, employment and wages; prices squater plamapofmienvronand price indices; rural industries; secondary Examines population, economic development, land industries and distribution transport and policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation comunicto and tourism. issues in Melanesian countries. 42 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Rimmer, P. J., Drakakis-Smith, D. W., & McGee, the 10 years 1978-88. Contains summary of T. (Ed.). (1978). Foo4 Shelter and Transport in experience in various areas including project SouthEast Asia and the Pacific. Canberra: preparation, goals, implementation and evaluation. Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. Association of South Pacific Environmental Key: Reg housing Institutions (1989). A Climate of Crisis: Global Influential early study on the informal sector, though Warming and the Island South Pacific. Port mainly concerning Asia. Moresby: UNEPIASPEIISPREP. Key: Reg over environ South Pacific Regional Workshop on Housing (1985). International Year of Shelter for the Baines, G. (1989). Traditional management in the Homeless South Pacific Regional Workshop on Melanesian South Pacific: a development Housing. Lae. Papua New Guinea University of dilemma. In F. Berkes (Eds.), Common Property Technology. Resources: Ecology and Community-Based Key: Reg housing Govt Sustainable Development. London: Belbaven Press. (pp. 273-295). Thompson, L. (1993). Realizing the Potential. Key Reg environ Pacific Islands Monthly, 63(3),March, 32-33. Key. Reg housing plan/man Bertram, I. G. (1986). 'Sustainable development' Explores the search for a locally appropriate domestic in Pacific Micro-Economies. World Development, architectunre and planning system which is sensitive to 14(7), 809-822. Pacific values. Discusses several successful projects in Key Reg environ econ/dev pop/mig PNG and Solomon Islands. Based on a study of the micro-economies of selected nations. Presents data on trade, government finance, Thompson, P. (1983). A Model program for population and balance of payments estimates. reducing housing vulnerability. ANL South Outlines the major options open to the region's Pacific Bureau for Economics Cooperation, Suva. planners. Key: Reg housing environ plan/man Brodie, J. E., et al. (1990). State of the marine Woolard, D. S. (1988). Traditional Dwellings of environment in the South Pacific Region. the South Pacific. In Traditional Dwellings and Nouima SPREP Topic Review No. 40. Settlements in a2 Comparaive Perspective, Key Reg environ Proceedings of the 1988 International Overview of the status of the marine environment in Symposium. Berkley: University of California. the region, which covers the disposal of urban and Key: R industrial wastewaters, solid waste disposal and the exploitation of non-living and living marine resources. It considers the public health effects of change, reviews prevention and control strategies and URBAN SANITATION AND has an extremely detailed bibliography. ENVIRONMENT Brookfield, H. C. (1990). Issues in environmental management and planning. Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 63-71. AIDAB (1988). Water sector review. Canberra. Key Reg environ plan/man Key. Reg water Reviews AIDAB's experience in the water sector via a Bryant, J. J. (1992). Urban Environment in the database listing all water sector projects undertaken in Pacfic Region. Bangkok: ESCAP. Report to 43 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific Dahl, A. (1984). Oceania's most pressing Project. environmental concerns. Amblo, 13(5-6), 296- Key: Reg environ over 301. Key: Reg over environ econ/dev Carew-Reid, J. (1989). Environment, Aid and Regionalism in the South Pacific. Pacific Davis, D. (1994). Natural resources, Research Monograph No. 22. Canberra: National environmental accounting, and sustainable Center for Development Studies, Australian development in Pacfic Island countries. National University. Honolulu: Asian Development Bank and Pacific Key: Reg environ govt over plan/man finance Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Key Reg environ Carpenter, R., & Maragos, J. E. (Ed.). (1989). How to Assess Environmental Impacts on Dinshaw, N. (1980). A review of techniques for Tropical Islands and Coastal Areas. Honolulu: studying freshwater/seawater relationships in Environment and Policy Institute, East-West coastal and island groundwater flow systems. Center. Technical Report No. 11. Water Resources Key: Reg environ Research Center, University of Guam. Key- Reg water plan/man Clarke, W. C. (1990). Learning from the past traditional knowledge and sustainable Dupon, J. F., & Morhange, C. (1993). Not always development. The Contemporary Pacfic, 2(2), a pretty face: urban growth versus the 233-253. environment in Pacfic Islands. Apia: SPREP Key: Reg govt over social enviran land econ/dev Environmental Case Study No. 6. Key. Reg environ Connel, J., & Lea, J. P. (1992). "My country will Brief review of environmental issues in Pacific towns, not be there": global warming, development and with some focus on Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Fiji the planning response in small island states. andFrenchPolynesia. Cities, 9(4), 295-309. Key Reg over environ plan/man water Halapua, S. (Forthcoming). Susainable Describes expected impacts of sea level rises due to development: from ideal to reality in the Pacific global warming, including water supply, erosion and Islands. Honolulu: Asian Development Bank and agricultural production. Examines the potential for, Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West and necessity of, long term environmental planning in Center. atoll nations of the South Pacific. Key Reg plan/man environ Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. Holthus, P. (1990). Impact of industrial Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. development on coastal marine ecosystems of Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra- National Center Pacific Islands. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop for Development Studies. on Environmental Management and Sustainable Key Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev housing Development in the South Pacific Region. squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Key: Reg environ over plan/man Examines population, economic devlopment, land policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Hundloe, T. J., & Miller, G. (1987). issues in nesian. Enrnmental impact assessment- its role and processes. In D. J. Doulman (Eds.), The 44 Annotated Biblicgraphy of Regional Literature and Data Sources Development of the Tuna Industry in the Pacific Reti, I. (1990). Environmental problems in the Islands Region: an analysis of options. South Pacific: an overview. UNDP Regional Honolulu: East-West Center. (pp. 383-394). Workshop on Environmental Management and Key: Reg environ water govt Sustainable Development in the South Pacific Provides guidelines for the application of an Region, Suva. environmental impact assessment to a tuna fishing/ Key: Reg environ over processing opcration in the region. Discusses in detail the measurement and monitoring of impacts on water Robertson, A. (1988). Changing environment, resources. chang roles - a health risk. In R. Va'a & J. Maragos, j. E. (1989). Impact of coastal Teaiwa (Eds.), Environment and Pafic Women: Mansrgo o. e. rshore (9).matcostFrom the Globe to the Village. Suva: Fiji construction on nearshore ecosystems in' Association of Women Graduates. (p,p. 19-24). Oceania: A review. submitted draft Honolulu: Unites States Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Key: Reg environ econ/dev social Ocean Division. Roth, G. (1987). The Private Provision of Public Key: Reg environ Services in Developing Countries. New York World Bank and Oxford University Press. Marjoram, T. (1985). Pipes and pits under the Key: Reg over water sew solid/waste palms: water supply and sanitation in the South Contains overview of French privatized water Pacific. Waterlines, 2(2), 14-17. provision in Vanuatu. Key: Reg water sew Overview of water supply and sanitation problems in Roy, P., & Connell, J. (1989). Greenhouse : the eight independent island states and three territories. impact of sea level rise on low coral islands in the South Pacific. RIAP Occasional Paper No. 6. Nunn, P. (1991). Human and nonhuman impacts University of Sydney. on Pacific Island environments. Occasional Paper Key: Reg land water No. 13. Honolulu: East West Enviromnent and chiefly with the atoll nations of the South Policy Institute. Pacific and discusses implications of rising sea levels Key: Reg environ caused by the greenhouse effect, eg: loss of land area, Detailed overview of environmental change in the salinity of soil, erosion, salinity of fresh water lens, Pacific. that is principally concerned with long-term and environmental refugees. Describes atoll changes, but also covers recent changes, including the formation and island ecology. impact of hazards in urban areas. Sofield, T. H. B. (1991). Sustainable etmic Nunn, P. D. (1990). Recent environmental tourism in the South Pacific. Some principles. changes on Pacific Islands. The Geographical Journal of Tourism Research, 1(3), 56-72. Journal, 156(2), 125-140. Key: Reg econ/dev social environ Key: Reg environ over South Pacific Commission (1984). Hazardous waste storage and disposal in the South Pacific. Ogawa, H. (1990). Assessment and management Noumea: SPREP topic report No. 15. UNEP of environmental health impacts in Pacific Island regional seas reports and studies No. 48 countries. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop on Key- Reg over solid/waste environ Environmental Management and Sustainable Development in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific Regional Environment Program Key- Reg environ over econ/dev (1987). Balancing economic development with 45 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources environmental protection. Pacific Economic sustainable development. Some summaries include a Bulletin, 2(1), 20-25. matrix of issues, constraints and opportunities. Key: Reg environ water solid/waste econ/dev Provides a synthesis report for the region with Outlines the problems identified by the governments discussion on economic structure, population growth of the region at a meeting held in Rarotonga in 1982 and structure, urban and coastal environments, rural where a plan of action was drawn up. Issues economy, managing development and the prospects identified: soil erosion, mineral extraction, freh for sustainable development. Makes recommendations water, forest loss, coastal zone management, waste for further action. Appendices include statistical disposal, toxic chemicals, and radioactivity. tables, official documents and additional background information. South Pacific Regional Environmental Program Thompson, P. (1983). A Model program for (1992). The Pacific Way: Pacific Island Thompsn, P. (193).aMol A m or Developing Countries Report to the United reducing housing vulnerability. ANL South Nations Conference on Environment and Pacific Bureau or Economics Cooperation, Saa. Development. Noumea: South Pacific Key: Reg h e plnan Commission. Key: Reg over environ e Tourism Council of the South Pacific (nd). Main South Pacific report to the UNCED Conference Guidelines for the Integration of Tourism in Rio de Janiero, with considerable detail on Development and Environmental Protection in environmental issues in all the Pacific sta the South Pacific. Suva: Tourism Council of the South Pacific. Stone, L. (1990). Waste generation and Key Reg environ plan/man econ/dev preventative opportunities in the South Pacific. Suva: UNDP Regional Workshop on UNEP (1991). Water quality studies on selected Environmental Management and Sustainable South Pacfic lagoons. Noumea: UNEP Regional Development in the South Pacific Region. Seas Reports and Studies No. 136; SPREP Key: Reg solid/waste plan/nan environ econ/dev Reports and Studies No. 49 Key- Reg water Thaman, P, R. (1987). Urban agroforestry: the Discusses water quality on selcted South Pacific Pacific Islands and beyond. Unasylva: an lagoons in Fiji, Vanuatu, Kiribati, Tonga, Solomon Islands International Journal of Forestry and Forest United Nations Department of Economic and Inustries, 39(1), 2-13. Social Development (1992). Water Resources Key: Reg environ plan/man Management Techniques for Small Islands. New York: United Nations Department of Economic Thistlethwaite, R., & Votaw, G. (1992). md Social Development,. Environment and Development: A Pacific Island Key Reg water er:As= Development Bank. An overview of the problems of providing adequate Perspective. Manila: A veopm water supplies in islands and island states, that Key: Reg environ econ/dev over pop/mig considers economic and technical issues. Individual Presents summaries of the national analyses presented chapters on particular countries are referred to to the United Nations Conference on Environment clsewhem and Development (UNCED) which discuss economic United Nations Development Program (1991). and demographic trends and environmental issues. Towards sustainable development for Atoll and Describes each government's response to environmental issues and the opportunities for 46 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources other small islands. Suva: UNDP Atoll Development Project. Key: Reg econ/dev environ United Nations Environment Program (1987). Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacfic Region and related protocols. Nairobi: UNEP. Key: Reg econ/dev over environ Water Resources of Small Islands (1984). Report of the workshop on water resources of small islands, 27 June to 9 July 1984. London. CSC Technical Publications Series No. 143. Key: Reg water Indicates project priority areas for further research including: climatic variation effect guidelines for legislation fresh water lenses; role of coconut groves and appropriate technology. Wyrtci, K. (1990). Sea level rise: The facts and the future. Pacfic Science, 44(1), 1-16. Key Reg environ A review of the scientific information on the possibility, and implications of sea-level change. 47 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources FIJI CONTENTS Commentary Settlement H istory .................................................................................................................... Economy ................................................................................................................................... 51 Population And internalMigration .......................................................................................... 52 Em ploe ymen ............................................................................................................................. 54 Urbanization ............................................................................................................................ 5 Land .......................................................................................................................................... 57 Developm ent PlP annnninng ............................................................................................................ Housing.....................................................................................................................g............... Urban Services ...................................................................................................................... 61 Urban Sanitation ....................................................................................................................... 64 Selected References Key ............................................................................................................................................ so Econom ic And SocialDevelopment ........................................................................................ 67 Population And Migration ........................................................................................................ 78 Governance And Planning ....................................................................................................... 83 Finance And Developmen ...................................................................................................... Ur ban Land ............................................................................................................................... 90 Residential De vetopment ........................................................................................................ 91 Urban Sanitation And Environment ....................................................................................... 96 48 : �•� , VANUA I�VU ��--'� 0 Zokm � f АТА А; •�3 �RвЫ д �� '� ROV �1С1ов ��� • виА � � р �,t � • СО � � ii� .L��� Твпипl � р VR118W �о . � �к°г° • •• , , � g • �v.аав е�ь.о . кА г LомАп+т о :.; ' � "ди О р • � � dtoka и �М� � ��1 � ,4 � , � � Mlt1 -' 1 •� b в . S � � � ' � и�аовм'. нАпАэоll •1� .� ии р �-,�r NAVOIA "'1,, �' � ���, С�и ��ivмcos�l .�' � • 8аеоtв � �RUA� � 9 • � � . � 1вkеЬв0� 1�„ о • • � . � К� . � о зоlст о эо�и+ �! KADAVU 1Апиkи� ` � Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources iji is the second largest country in the South killed 21 people, displaced 6,000 to evacuation Pacific region, after Papua New Guinea, in centers and caused extensive damage, especially terms of population, and consists of over 300 around Nausori. islands, about a hundred of which are inhabited. Some 90 per cent of the population live on the Few bases of economic development (including two mzin islands Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, tourism, agriculture and fisheries) are not at which also have most of the land area of Fiji. nsk from severe hazards, partly because of the 'Me population consists of two pdricipal racial growing concentration of population and groups; indigenous Melanesians (referred to as economic activity in coastal zones. Fijians) constitute about 50 per cent of the total, whilst 46 per cent are of Fijian-born hdian Settlement History descent. The remainder are of diverse origins with a significant Polynesian group on or from The earliest settlement in the Fijian islands was the outlying island of Rotumit, some 390 Ian at least 3,000 years ago since Lapita. pottery has north of the main Fiji group, and the rest been dated back before that and probably pfimarily Europeans and Chinese. Fijians are onginated from the west. Pre-European contact Melanesians, but Fiji is the mterriniost part of times were marked by considerable ;nternal Melanesia so that social especially warfare and external confliM mainly with in the Lau islands is significantly influenced by Polynesians from Tonga. The European Polynesian social structures, for example in the discoverer of Fiji was the Dutch navigator existence of hereditary chiefs. Genetically too, Tasman in 1643 but it was not until 1789 that Fiji can be regarded as truly in=nediate the main islands were seen. Sandalwood between Melanesia and Polynesia and, traders began operating in. the early years of the linguistically, Fiji is exceptional in Melanesia in Nineteenth Ctntury but by 1814 most of the having only one indigenous language accessible wood had b=u cut ota. in the I M throughoil the country (apart from Rou=). a beche-de-mer trade was established and some The large islands of Fiji are primarily volcanic, traders and a number of beachcombers began to often mouminous and sornetimea rising steeply settle in the islands. At much the same tirne the ftom. the coast. The four largest islands of Fiji first missionanes amved but it was not until the (Viti Levu, Varnia Levu, Teven and Kadavu) conversion of Ratu Cakobau, the Chief of Bau, are characterized by generally uninhabited who then had considerable influence through a central mounWrts, which take up a large wide area of Fiji, that Christiamty made proportion of the Ind areas. The small outer significant progress. A British consul was islands are usually hilly, including the limestone appointed in 1858 and the first Governor of the islands of the Lau group and the volcanic island colony, Sir Arthur Gordon, was established in of Rotumit. Cyclones are not unusual. In 1979 Levuka in 1875 after Ratu Cakobau had ceded Cyclone Meh devasatted the country, especially the islands to Great Britain in the previous year. in Lau and Kadavu, and cLftned 21 lives as In the 1860s planters became established in Fiji, well as causing extensive damage. In 1980 pl=ing cotton on a large scale to meet the Cyclones Tia and Wally mused Ioss= of life global demands that followed the American and damage in Eastern and Central Divisions civil war. Since Fijians were not interested in and Cyclone. pWntation employment. labor recruiting was Oscar, early in 1983, caused further carried out elsewhere in the South Pacific, devastation. In Janury 1993 Cyclone Kina especially in the Solomon Islands. Wages and conditions in Fiji were inferior to those in 50 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Queensland hence Fiji required a new source of overthrew the elected government, from which labor; the importation of Indians was proposed. time a republic has been in place. Since then The first shipload of 498 laborers reached Fiji emigration of Indians has enabled Fijians to in 1879 and from then until 1916 there were regain the demographic majority and the about 2,000 immigrants each year. The economy has experienced some stress. There establishment of Indian migrants in Fiji remains have also been problems in establishing a new perhaps the most important event in Fiji's constitution. After the defeat of Rabuka's history, as the descendants of these migrants are budget in November 1993 new parliamentary almost as numerous as the indigenous Fijian elections were called for early in 1994. population. By contrast to the more homogeneous Fijian population the Indian community is quite In subsequent decades sugar established its diverse, both because of different geographical dominance of the colonial economy, especially origins (and hence linguistic divisions) within with the arrival of the Colonial Sugar Refining India and because of differences between Company (CSR) of Australia in 1881 and the Hindus and Muslims. While there is steady movement of sugar cane operations from considerable effective residential segregation the east to the west of the island. In 1882 the between Indians and Fijians in rural areas the capital was moved from Levuka, where processes of social and economic change within development possibilities were limited, to Suva. the Indian communities are not fundamentally Although the dominance of sugar was growing different from those in Fijian villages, although the copra industry was also being established, in most Indian communities the egalitarian ethos and became important principally in the smaller has been much stronger than in Fijian areas. islands where there was no sugar cultivation. Indian tenure of land, through leasehold rather The long history of commercial and plantation than ownership, has assisted in producing a development has given Fiji one of the most stronger Indian orientation towards participation diversified economies in the South Pacific in the cash economy, both through agricultural region although on a global scale it is a small development and business development, which country, with a restricted economit; base has resulted in the minimal significance of the dominated by the production of sugar. This subsistence economy for the Indian population. involves about a quarter of the active labor force yet is subject to considerable price Economy fluctuations. Within the South Pacific region Fiji has a Constitutional changes paralleled those in the rtive high Paperi n a ver o econmicsphre; n 104 wo Fjia chefs relatively high GNP per capita and a very open economic sphere; in 1904 two Fijian chiefs economy. The country's development in the were appointed to the Legislative Council and 1970s was closely linked to sugar production in 1916 the first Indian member was appointed. ados an in t sg thredwas In the 1920s and 1930s there were further an.ors n,i te18s hr a changsin the con shres , wr 1 , isignificant industrial development. Relative to changes in the council resulting, in 1966, in a most other countries in the South Pacific Fiji largely elected Legislative Council. In 1970 Fiji has rcntres in clui some became independent, one of the first countries mal depost so tgla d nd a in te Suth aciic egio toachive his mineral deposits of both gold and copper, and a in the South Pacific region to achieve this welduad poltin hnc hs a status. In 1987 the Fiji:n Labor Party, welduad poltin hnc hs a stats. n 197 te Fji~nLabr ~ considerable population base for diversified supported mainly by Indians, was elected to de le pecalin agrilriand power for the first time. Later in the year two fees. eps-ar yearcere a miliary oup ledby Clonl Rauka fisheries. In the post-war years there has been a military coups led by Colonel significant transition from reliance on the 51 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources primary sector towards an expansion in benefited from the country's central location in secondary and particularly tertiary activity. In the region, which has resulted in its becoming 1950 agriculture, fisheries and forestry the base for regional institutions such as the contributed 44 per cent of the GDP but by 1991 University of the South Pacific. the primary sector contributed 22 per cent. At the start of the 1970s the sugar industry was Population and Internal Migration stagnant and tourism was developing at a faster rate, which enabled parallel growth in the Ethnic variations within Fiji have produced a construction industry, but both were hit by the demographic situation that is relatively 1974 recession in the international economy. In complicated compared with that of many other the second half of the decade the sugar industry countries in the region. However the revived, tourist numbers increased, forestry availability of data on aspects of population expanded, and tuna canning developed rapidly change is also relatively detailed, hence some to the extent that, by 1979, canned fish became demopc variations have been recorded in Fiji's third most important export (after sugar detail for the two principal ethnic groups. The and gold) offsetting declines in the copra and first censuses were carried out in 1879, 1891 mining sectors. Thus the second half of the and 1901 and in the present century decennial 1970s was effectively a period of economic censuses were undertaken until 1921 and again diversification. Diversification continued in the from 1936 to the present. Ind*an were the 1980s, especially with the expansion of clothing largest ethnic group in the country, from the manufacturing in the post-coup years, to the Second World War until after the 1987 coups, extent that manufacturing in 1991 represented when they represented about half the total 12 per cent of the GDP, a very high proportion national population. In the 1980s changes in within the South Pacific region. Tourism is the both fertility and the structure of emigration led dominant sector in the overall economy. In to Fijians having the faster growth rate; this 1982 the GDP per capita was F$1175. was dramatically influenced by the coups which The overall growth of the economy in the 1980s led to substantial emigration, primarily of was slow, characterized by short-termi Indians, and the subsequent numerical instability, and real GDP per capita was no dominance of the Fijian populaon. higher in 1991 than it had been a decade earlier. From 1900 onwards the total population of Fiji This stagnation reflected declining levels Of began to grow after a period of decline, but the investment, especially in the first half of the growth was a result of the rpid increase in the decade. Expansion of garment manufacturing Indian population over the first two decades of and the revival of tourism in the wake of the the century following continued immigration. coups, resulted in improved economic By contrast the Fijian population continued to performance; the majority of the GDP decline into the 1920s; since the Indian originates in the services sector, which is population was concentrated almost entirely on dominated by tourism, the principal source of the two mai islands this resulted in significant foreign exchange. The economy slowed in regional differences in population growth rates. 1991, after industrial disputes in the sugar and The Fijian increase was a result of rapidly gold mining industries, and the impact of global declining mortality since the fertility level recession on tourism, grew in 1992 but again remained around the same. After 1921 the rate slowed in 1993. Growth in the past decade has of Indian population growth was very rapid by hovered around two to three per cent. Fiji's global and regional standards and between 1921 economy and employment have to some extent and 1952 the population situation was primarily 52 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources viewed as a racial problem with Fijians Total Fertility Rate for I:dians was 2.8 in 1986 concerned that there were inadequate resources compared with 4.1 for Fijians. The annual rate for the rapidly expanding Indian population, of population growth is estimated to have fallen and Indians concerned that there were to 0.8 per cent since 1986, mainly because of inadequate people to make the resources increased rates of emigration. The rate of productive. The year 1952 marked a turning emigration has now slowed, with reduced point in the way in which population problems concern over political and economic stability; were perceived in Fiji since in the ensuing there has been some return migration and the decade many people from both racial groups population is now increasing more rapidly. became concerned about rapid population growth and the introduction of a family Fiji is quite different from other Pacific states in planning program was considered. that there is much greater cultural diversity there with almost half the population being of Changes in the population growth rate: Indian origin. The relatively rapid rate of Population growth in Fiji continued to be rapid overall population increase, however, has been until the 1960s, but between 1966 and 1976 the kept in check by a family planning program. total increased at an annual rate of 2.1 per cent, The birth rate fell from 41.78 per thousand in a lower rate than any recorded since 1936, a 1959 to 27.81 in 1972. Since then there has result of declining fertility after 1960 and also been no real decline. The annual rate of significant emigration. The 1976 census population growth is estimated to have fallen to indicated a net migration loss of 23,764; all 0.8 per cent since 1986, exacerbated by ethnic groups other than Fijians had net losses emigration associated with the military coups. and Indians accounted for 57.4 per cent of the The national population is now estimated to be total loss whilst inter-censal growth rates around 750,000, and it is projected to grow to decreased for all the main ethnic components of between 831,000 and 958,000 by the year 2001. the population. At the time of the 1976 census Increasing rates of Urbanization could see there were therefore indications that Fijians metropolitan Suva containing around 68 per were gaining population relative to Indians to cent of the urban population and 30 per cent of the extent that, if both the rate of natural the national total by 2006. increase and migration had been maintained, the two groups would have again had equal Population density and characteristics: There populations in 1997, an event brought forward a are substantial differences in population density decade by the coups and resultant emigration. and distribution within Fiji and significant The social, economic and political implications changes in population have occurred since of population growth in Fiji are therefore 1966. Population densities which increased considerable and have scarcely diminished in from 26 people per square kilometer in 1966 to recent decades. 39 in 1986 (the highest national density in Melanesia), provide only crude indications of Fiji's rate of population increase has been population pressure due to the extensive areas slowed by social and economic development of rugged and uncultivable land in most and one of the most successful family planning provinces. Relatively heavy rural population programs in the South Pacific region. The birth densities occur in the Rewa Valley and delta, rate fell from 41.8 per thousand in 1959 to 27.8 the sugar growing areas of Ba and western in 1972, but since then there has been no real Macuata and in the Sigatoka valley. At a decline. The family planning acceptance rate provincial level, the lowest population densities amongst Indians in twice that of Fijians, and the are in those provinces, Cakaudrove, Bua and 53 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Namosi that have small or non-existent urban eight kilometers of a town or service center, centers. Relative to their resource base, the Lau hence most rural populations have reasonable Islands and Rotuma continue to have high access to markets and services; the principal population densities that are hardly relieved by exception is the Lau archipelago. Migration out-migration. from Rotuma, nearly 400 km from the main islands of Fiji, must be regarded as a special The ethnic distribution of the population is of case of internal migration, because of the considerable importance in a wide range of cultural differences between the Polynesian contexts in a plural society like Fiji. There is a Rotumans and the Melanesians and Indian major contrast between the highly localized populations of the principal islands. Rotumans pattern of Indian settlement and the much more migrated to the main islands and especially to dispersed Fijian pattern; however the provincial the Vatukoula gold mine and Suva from early population distribution does not adequately days. By 1956 some one third of Rotumans demonstrate the degree of segregation that were elsewhere in Fiji and this proportion has exists within provinces, localities and towns. continued to grow in subsequent years. as Indians are predominantly located in the three Rotumans have found a particular niche in the most developed regions, Central, Western and urban bureaucracy, and development on their Northern; in these regions in 1976 there was 87 remote island has been limited. per cent of the Indian population but only 60 per cent of the Fijian. By contrast, in the Island Although Fijian labor was used in the early provinces there were 13 per cent of the Fijian days of Suva and settlements were established population and only one per cent of the Indian, to accommodate migrants from various a heritage of the historic links between Indians provinces, the colonial administration from and cane farming. The eastern islands are the early in the Twentieth Century imposed an most characteristically Fijian in ethnic structure absentee tax on all Fijians who were absent and this is becoming increasingly so. However from their villages. The tax was not lifted until Fijians are found thrughout the country and 1966. This limitation on rural-urban migration only in the urban centers of the main cane for the Fijian population has been seen as partly growing regions, such as Labasa and Lautoka, responsible for restricting general socio- are Fijians heavily outnumbered by Indians. economic advancement. By contrast Indians migrated freely to the early towns and had Internal migration: Of the countries in the established a substantial urban population of region Fiji best exemplifies all the common wage earners and business people by the 1920s. trends of South Pacific internal migration, that Most internal migration within Fiji is between is from outer islands to inner islands, from rural and urban areas, and there is significant small islands to large islands, from mountains return migration, especially of Fijians. There is to coasts and from rural to urban areas. also migration within rural areas, some of Migration from island centers towards the coast which is seasonal, and there have been some occurred from the very earliest periods of settlement schemes such as that at Seaqaqa in colonization and coincided with the period of Vanua Levu. Christian conversion, the decline in indigenous warfare and the establislament of trade. Some small islands have experienced almost complete depopulation in the present century. As a result The structure of employment and economic of these long-standing trends two-thirds of the activity is characterized by the predominance of total population now live within approximately work in the agricultural sector, as the majority 54 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources of the population continue to live and work unit as access to land has become more outside the urban areas, where employment individualized; in many parts of Fiji individual outside agriculture is limited. As elsewhere in households are not only tending to become the the region there has been a steady movement owners and users of particular tracts of land but away from agricultural employment, combined are unwilling to lease or lend out parts of that with migration away from rural areas, a small land. Close kinship structures, with their increase in employment in manufacturing and a emphasis on reciprocity, inherited social status substantial increase in the service sector. In and rank, are being replaced by individualism 1986 agriculture accounted for just less than and egalitarianism. This is apparent in the half (48 per cent) of all employment; the increased emphasis being placed on universal industrial sector accounted for 15 per cent, with education, and access to wage employment, the the manufacturing component being responsible decline in the subsistence sector, increased for eight per cent; services, including tourism, participation pressure on resources, the accounted for 28 per cent. Of the working age increasing extent of cash crop cultivation, group some 55 per cent were economically market orientation and therefore magnetization. active; self-employed workers and unpaid Concepts of property and ownership have family workers made up half of this labor force. shifted from a group to an individual orientation Some 7.5 per cent of the workforce were and emigration and wage employment have unemployed, and the rate of unemployment for disrupted ritual obligations and communal both Indians and Fijians was the same; the rate activities. of unemployment was higher for women and three quarters of those unemployed were below Urbanization the age of 25. However these figures exclude 'discouraged' workers who were not actively Of the countries in Melanesia Fiji has much the seeking work, hence the rate of unemployment longest history of urbanization. By the 1850s may be substantially over 11 per cent, and be Longes had become a small urban center and especially concentrated amongst Fijian males, the focus of much Fijian trade. Levuka was the aged between 15 and 24, in urban areas. capital of Fiji from annexation in 1874 until Despite the expansion of m facturing ce 1882 when the first government offices were 1986 the extent of unemployment is unlikely to opened in the newly chosen site of Suva and, by have been reduced, and numbers in wage the mid-1880s, this had become the employment declined in the first half of 1993. administrative and commercial center of Fiji. The original town area of one square mile Throughout Fiji, as elsewhere in the South remained the official boundary of Suva until Pacific region, in recent decades there has been 1952 when it was extended to include Maunikau a decline in the significance of the extended and Samabula wards. Suva had a population of family and a corresponding increase in 15,522 in 1936, 25,386 in 1946 and 37,371 in importance of independent nuclear families, a 1956 while Lautoka, the second largest town, situation true both for Fiians and Indians. One had a population of 7,420 in 1956. The changed of the factors influencing this change has been conditions of urban employment brought about the migration of young men to ra by the rise of industrial unionism (after the thmge onseen. dis hasenpofstradtnwar), a rise in wage levels, an increase in marriage patterns. This has emphasized the occupational mobility (through early problems of urban unemployment. A further localization and superior education), expanding result of this change has been the edu urban industries and a greater provision of significance of the mataqa as a land-owning family accmodation all accounted for the 55 T- Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources post-war urban growth. Nevertheless it was not much of that increase was in the peri-urban area until 1966 that the official requirement that of Lami and the Suva-Nausori corridor. Fijians receive administrative permission to leave their villages was dispensed with. Urban Centers in Fi, 1976 and 1986 Urban places in Fiji are classified as either incorporated towns or cities and unincorporated Urban 1976 1986 towns for legal purposes but, for census Centera purposes, peri-urban areas are included with incorporated towns and cities to produce an Suva 117,827 141,273 urban area, and unincorporated towns also Lautoka 28,847 39,057 comprise urban areas. These revised definitions L2tk 28 39,07 were established in 1966. Although Fiji has Laba nd 16,707 eleven main urban areas and five unincorporated townships, its hierarchy is Nadi 12,995 15,300 dominated by metropolitan Suva with just over Nausori 12,821 13,982 half the total national urban population, and Ba 9,173 10,260 Lautoka with 14.1 per cent (1986 census). Vatukoula 6,425 4,789 Suva's primacy is declining, however: it was Sigaioka 3,635 4,730 4.1 times as large as Lautoka in 1976 but only Rakiraki 3,755 3,361 3.6 times as large in 1986. Much recent Lvuka 2,764 2,895 industrial growth has been centered at Lautoka Savusavu 2,295 2,872 and other western towns where there are large Nav 2,568 2,775 Indian populations. Tavua 2,144 2,227 Of particular significance is the growth of the Suva peri-urban area which is now estimated to a Exchldes Me unicorporawed township of Korovon (340). Lami contain a larger population than is found within was ichued with Suva in 1976. the city boundaries. The peri-urban area has Soum: naion enam seen a population increase of 107 per cent in the past decade compared with an increase of only This growing urban conglomeration has been 9.5 per cent in the city itself. "In absolute the central focus of concern over urbanization terms, the increase in the population of Suva's in Fiji. In 1986 the Lami-Nausori area held a peri-urban area was 16 times the combined quarter (24 per cent) of the national population, increase [1966-76] of all other peri-urban areas" though this proportion has not significantly (Chandra 1990). Lami, on the southern edge of increased in recent years. Suva absolutely Suva, became a separate urban center in 1986, dominates the urban scene, in its slowly emphasizing the extent of the Suva-Nausoni growing proportion of the population (despite corridor. By contrast some small towns, such as the rise of Lautoka), and its relatively high Vatukoula and Rakiraki, were losing population proportion of employment in the private sector. between 1976 and 1986 and few were growing Suva also has a relatively high proportion of the quickly. unemployed, and there is evidence of both The bulk of urban population increase in the growing unemployment, and the population past quarter of a century has occurred in Suva, resident in squatter settlements. demonstrating its increased primacy, although 56 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Migration has contributed a substantial Commission up-to-date. Since the 1940s proportion of the urban population. Despite the Fijians' rights to sell and lease their land have relatively long existence of towns in Fiji, been compulsorily transferred to a Native Land especially in comparison with other Melanesian Trust Board, a statutory body managed and countries, almost half the total urban population staffed almost completely by Fijians. It acts as aged over 15 in 1976 was of rural origin and the agent of the landowners in leases and migration has remained important. Of the major subdivisions of native land. This land is divided urban areas only Suva, Lautoka and Nausori into two categories: 'reserved' land, judged to had 50 per cent of more of their current be needed by the owners for their own population born in urban areas in 1976. The subsistence, and 'unreserved' land. If the Board pen-urban areas have even higher proportions wants to lease reserved land, it must get the of rural-born population, indicating that written consent of the owners, but it can lease migrants are concentrated on the fringes of out unreserved land without their consent rities. Despite this mobility, it was already (although in practice it consults them). pparent by the 1950s that a number of Fijians, alongside Indians, were becoming permanent The Native Land Trust Board is a bureaucratic urban residents, a situation then scarcely and expensive institution. It automatically takes apparent elsewhere in Melanesia, and evidence 25 per cent of the income it receives from of a more permanent urban population. A study leases (provided they do not exceed 6 per cent of squatters in 1975 found that some had been of the unimproved value) to cover its in Suva, in the same settlement, for more than administrative costs. But this has not been fifteen years (Reddy 1976). Such permanency enough, and it has had to seek additional has tended to increase further in later years. government grants, reducing its autonomy. The Urban commitment is greater for migrants from Board has also used foreign aid in the form of the eastern islands of Fiji, Kadavu, Rotuma and technical assistance. The payment of rents to other outlying islands where social and landowners supports the Fijian Chiefly system economic opportunities are limited. There is chiefs automatically get a percentage of the much greater commitment to permanent urban rents. After the Native Land Trust Board and residence, even in most squatter settlements, the chiefs take their automatic share, only 45 than elsewhere in Melanesia. per cent is left for distribution among ordinary members of the maraqaU. This situation has led Land to some disputes over the distribution of land rentals, occurrences which are likely to increase The position of land in Fiji is quite different in future. from that in most other parts of the region. Fiji The Native Land TrustBoard was set upas a still has private freehold land that can be bought way of making land available for development, and sold by non-citizens but the two largest wile protecting the interests of its Fijian categories of land are 'Native Land (customary owners. To do so it had to restrict Fijians' or traditional) and 'Crown land' (government rights to sell or lease their own land. More owned). Suva is built on private freehold land recently the Board has tried to play a more and Crown land. Rural customary land in Fiji Ais active role in the land market, as developer as nearly all registered, with the mataqaU as the well as agent for the owners. Its business arm, unit of ownership. The process of registration the Native Land Development Corporation, has began in the late nineteenth century and is still incomplete. An enormous bureaucratic effort is sudvedadlsdotntiead.ths incoplee. A enrmou bueatirafe ef-or is also bought government land and subdivided it required to keep the records of the Native Land 57 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources for middle-class housing and offices in Suva. sector, supplemented by tourism and some The urban operations of the Native Land agricultural processing industry. In the 1980s Development Corporation, particularly development planning focused increasingly on regarding the provision of land for low-cost economic growth, with reduced concern for housing on behalf of the Housing Authority, equity and regional development, and a greater were criticized in a recent United Nations emphasis on industrial development. report (UNDP and UNCHS 1991). The way the Interventionist and more obviously self-reliant contracts are agreed between the two bodies has strategies, characterized by barriers against resulted in the Authority being required to pay imports and extensive public sector participation most of the agreed lot price to the Corporation in business, gave way to a focus on export- before completion and sale of the houses, oriented growth, with deregulation of the resulting in the Authority having to finance the economy and a restraint on the growth of Corporation's operations and pay interest costs government expenditure. There has however over the contract period. The Housing been a greater emphasis on the environmental Authority calculated that selling lots provided consequences of some forms of development by the Corporation adds almost a quarter to the and, since 1987, in increasing the participation price charged to the end consumer before of Fijians in the more rapidly growing sectors adding the Authority's own mark-up. The of the economy. Regional policy is less report recommended that the govemment wind interventionist and more synonymous with rural up the Corporation and replace it with direct development policy, and not directed to leases of land by the Board to the Housing restraining urban growth. Authority and private sector contractors. The basis of income inequality in rural areas Housing (with potential to spread to the towns) is By the end of the 1950s unauthorized squatting unequal access to land. This is considerable in was alrady apparent and urban ualties Fiji, not only between ethnic groups where became visible, as some shantytowns had begun Indian access is restricted to particular tenure to develop, especially around Suva. In 1964 arrangements, but between mataqah' in there were substantial areas of squatter housing, particular areas. As cash croppig has increased especially in Raiwai and Samabula, to the extent its extent so pressures on land have also that around one fifth of the urban population increased. Tis has contributed to rural-urban. lived in such housing. In an attempt to cater for migration even though much rural land reinis lower-income workers and alleviate the housing unused. situation the government set up a National Housing Authority in 1958 whose principal Development Planning activity in its first six years of existence was to construct a 'low-cost' housing estate at Formal development planning began shortly Raiwaqa. The major problem encountered by after the end of the Second World war, and the Authority was to bring the cost of housing Fiji's experience of this form of planning is down to a point where the lowest paid workers, considerably greater than that of any other earning less than $10 per week, could afford country in the region. Most development plans rents. Demand for housing continued to until the 1980s emphasized the decentralization increase beyond the ability of the Housing of economic activity, sought to produce an AUthority to provide it. integrated approach to economic growth, In 1980 the number of applications made to the distribution and equity towards the primary Housing Authority reached a total of 1,852, the 58 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources largest recorded in the history of the Authority development. Even by 1978, there was concern and a 25 per cent increase from 1979, however that the stock of land available was rapidly in 1981 it fell to 1,084 and remained at that being depleted. Overall therefore the Housing level in 1982. In 1980, some 58 per cent of the Authority has provided homes affordable only applications were from Suva and together with by middle income, rather than low-income, Nausori and Navua the Central Division urban residents. Whilst housing programs aim received a little over 60 per cent of all at providing cheaper forms of housing and applications. Of those applying for housing in greater security of tenure for 'squatters' who 1980, 723 were Fijians and 1,031 Indians. Of have built with the landowners consent, these the Fijians, 70 per cent wanted housing policies have been almost impossible to put into assistance in Suva and 16 per cent at Lautoka; practice. the spatial distribution of Indian applications was wider, with about 50 per cent of the There are few 'site and service' schemes in Indians requiring assistance in Suva and the rest Suva and the gradual removal of squatter being spread over the Western and Northern settlements from central city locations in the Divisions. Outside the two large cities the guise of rationalizing land use has been viewed housing needs of Fijians are currently more as no more than an attempt to organize 'urban generally satisfied through the traditional rural space as an instrument for the perpetuation of housing system. Overall the structure of class and other sectional interests' (Walsh, applications suggests that the main demand for 1980: 344). Inevitably this rationalization is at housing assistance and therefore probably the the expense of the urban poor who are more substantial housing problems, are decentralized away from inner city employment concentrated in the Suva urban area, although opportunities, especially in the informal sector, the construction of housing schemes in and are denied centralized employment. Thus in particular areas has tended to stimulate demand Suva, at the end of the 1970s, squatters in those areas. constituted one-fifth of the labor force and made a significant contribution both to the city's food A substantial number of those applying for supply and to the production of tourist artefacts. assistance with housing have incomes so low In the circumstances housing problems have that they fall below the level that the Housing effectively worsened in the urban areas, Authority can actively assist; this group is shantytowns increased in extent and poverty and almost certainly sti increasing and may insecurity within the shantytowns became more account for a high proportion of the increase in apparent, whilst the backlog of applications for the number of squatters. Some 80 per cent of assistance has continued to grow. applicants for housing in 1973 could not afford the cheapest Home Purchase Plan available and The actual extent of squatter settlements in Fiji the situation has not improved since then. is partly unknown although various estimates Inflation, heightened by the necessity to import have been made. In the mid-1970s there were construction materials and also by land an estimated 3,800 squatter households in Suva speculation, has increased costs and also made alone. During 1978 tht Housing Authority it difficult for the Housing Authority to found some 1,000 unauthorized dwellings in the purchase suitable land for housing, that is land Suva area and a similar number, perhaps more, which is both appropriate for housing and not in Nasinu. A health department survey recorded located too far from work places. Even in towns a Suva squatter population of more than 7,000 like Labasa it has become difficult for the people. The Minister for Urban Development Housing Authority to obtain land for housing told Parliament that in July 1981 the number of 59 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources squatter shacks counted throughout Fiji was problems of urban poverty cut across housing 3,271; there were 1,063 in Suva and another groups. However squatters tend to be 544 around the city and 378 in Lautoka. increasingly characterized by their poverty and some squatter houses are inadequate in terms of All data on the actual extent of squatter shelter, size, density, water supply and settlements, must be considered suspect and sanitation, at least according to external criteria dependent on definitions, as must estimates of rather than the perceptions of the occupants. the rate of growth. There is no doubt that the squatter population is growing; natural increase Fiji housing literature: Three up-to-date alone ensures a steady growth rate, but no good sources on urban housing issues are UNDP and data exists on the location and speed of that UNCHS (1991), Bryant (1993) and Connell and growth or on the socio-economic structure, Lea (1993). The first Housing Act establishing origin and length of residence of much of the a housing authority was passed in 1955 and was squatter population. Official estimates made by substantially revised in 1987 with the creation the Suva City Council in 1986 and 1991 (Suva of a Public Rental Board. In recent years City Council 1992) suggests that numbers of political instability has affected the housing squatters in the municipal area have declined industry with the private sector coming to a somewhat in the five year period: virtual standstill after the 1987 coups. In the 10 years to 1988 the Housing Authority produced 15,000 rental and sale properties but investment Suva Squatte s 1986 1991 fell from a pre-coups figure of F$11.5 million in 1986 to F$4.7 million in 1989. According to Samabula Ward 4,612 3,382 press reports in 1992 plans for the 1993 Tamavua Ward 4,517 4,116 financial year involve F$20 million in lot Muamikau Ward 301 183 development and construction. Suva Central ward nil nil Source: Sava City Council Annual Report 1991 Most published research about Fijian housing is directed towards the informal sector, The City Council sees squatter re-settlement as represented by urban squatting in Suva. a national problem depending primarily on Research in this area began in the 1970s (Walsh housing provided by the Housing Authority and 1978, 1979) and includes surveys undertaken by NGOs. the Suva City Council (1983, 1986 and 1990). There is no simple correlation between poverty, Numerous investigations of society in the shantytown residence and applications for squatter camps have also been undertaken (cf. housing assistance; in any case few of those Barr 1990; Laqere 1987), as have studies of who applied for assistance were actually in other aspects of informal housing, including the squatter settlements. By the mid-1970s most extent of poverty, ethnic composition, squatters in Suva were generally satisfied with inequality and housing tenure (Bryant 1990, their residential environment and most showed a 1992, Bryant and Khan 1990). Little attention strong dislike of public housing because they has been paid to the institutional profile of Fiji did not like renting and could not afford a housing, the formal housing sector, private mortgage. The average Fijian weekly income in contractors and housing finance. This is an the squatter settlements was already greater tan omission that could easily be remedied. that of applicants for housing five years later, suggesting not only that many households in Government sponsored investigation of the squatter settlements are not poor but that the housing sector in Fiji is substantial with recent 60 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources studies being supported by United Nations investigation by Australian sources (AIDAB agencies (UNDP and UNCHS 1991), the Pacific Regional Team 1991). international development banks and bi-lateral aid (Crosby 1992; Olsen 1991; PADCO 1989; Housing Authorhiy Strategies in 1994: press PADCO 1991a, 1991b, 1991c, 1991d, 1991e; reports in November 1993 have highlighted World Bank 1990). public housing rental arrears amounting to F$5.3 million and the Housing Authority's Chief among the NGOs is the Housing target to reduce this to F$3 million. Another Assistance and Relief Trust (HART), objective is to match the long term use of funds established in 1970 by the Fijian Council of with long term sources. The Authority, despite Churches to help house the poor. In 1990 a satisfactory liquidity position, is constrained means-tested tenants with incomes up to $60 per through the narrow source of short to medium week make payments as low as F$0.50 a week. term funds accessible to it locally. This raises HART is supported financially by the Fiji the problem of matching long term loans with government (F$200,000 in 1991), charities and short tern funding. At present this is facilitated international aid. The Trust has built some 400 by a government guarantee and the ability to units housing almost one thousand people in borrow off-shore with the government taking 1991 (UNDP and UNCHS 1991). Among other the foreign exchange risk. Medium-term bond NGOs active in housing are the Rotary Club of issues have also been used to fund Lautoka with its 'Rotahomes' program for rural developments during 1993. Sixteen million prefabricated units supported by international dollars have been raised in this way. and Rotary Clubs with matching grants from Australian and New Zealand aid. Habitat for Future plans by the Authority in 1994 are to Humanity International provides matching sell 800 residential lots and 527 houses. Three grants to those from charities and local sources. hundred of the houses comprise 100 three- Target beneficiaries are those who can make bedroom houses in Nadawa, 42 three-bedroom some loan repayment, however small, to those and 58 terrace units in Muanikoso, and 100 who can afford to purchase housing. The cost terraced units in Tavakubu. They are part of a of Habitat housing is lower than that of the total package of 3,320 serviced residential lots Public Rental Board but also offers home and 4,490 new houses to be constructed ownership. Smaller numbers of poor families between 1991 and 1996. This total has been are assisted by the St Vincent de Paul Society, agreed under existing arrangements with the Muslim League, The Salvation Army and government, the World Bank, Asian the Poor Relief Society. Development Bank and the Housing Authority. Recent press reports demonstrate that the Urban Services Methodist Church is one religious organization putting considerable energy into housing In Fiji the Department of Town and Country provision. The Church has bought, for Planning which is located in the Ministry of example, a 15.25 acre site in Namadal (outside Suva) and is dividing it into 182 lots for sale to usi and Uran Dopent issu es low-income purchasers at a costs of around use approvals and coordinates all authorities F$4,000 a lot. NGO participation in a variety of concerned with the approval process through community activities is increasingly supported f Lands Act and the Town by forei aid and the nature of this Planning Act. There is a Forward Planning Unit involvement is the subject of separate to undertake special planning projects and 61 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources prepare town plans where local authorities lack the Fijian islands. Subdivision and planning facilities. Current urban planning development approvals are controlled in legislation is based on the United Kingdom conjunction with the Department of Town Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 and Country Planning. Urban management and services delivery in Fiji * The Ministry of Housing and Urban have not been devolved extensively to local Development is primarily regulatory, government. Most services apart from transport covering the performance of elected local are provided by central government, though the government councils, housing, the Public urban councils act as agents for the ministries in Rental Board and Department of Town and managing local services. Only Suva and Country Planning. The latter is responsible Lautoka Councils have their own planning and for urban and regional planning in all development control departments. Suva City settlements apart from the City of Suva. Council considered 15 applications for * The Fiji Electricity Authority is responsible subdivisional approval in 1990, amounting to for all power generation and distribution. 115 separate lots. In the same year the national * Fiji Posts and Telecommunications Ltd. is Department of Town and Country Planning responsible for all telecommunications and received 115 applications for subdivision the postal service. approval which amounts to a 40 per cent * The Native Land Trust Board manages most decrease from the number handled before the of the country's land resources covering the 1987 military coups (Crosby 1992). Although 83 per cent of the nation classified as all municipalities are required to prepare town customary land. It works closely with the planning (zoning) schemes for approval, no Department of Town and Country Planning forward-looking structure plans exist for the sharing responsibility with it for land use Fijian towns apart from the 1975 Greater Suva planning. The former determines standards Structure Plan. and the estimation of land requirements while the Board ensures an adequate supply Key responsibility for urban services provision for the required purpose. and management is exercised by central * The Housing Authority was reorganized in government institutional structures and regional 1987 and is now the chief provider of sites institutions. The various functions of the and housing for sale to low to medium different bodies are summarized in the Ministry income earners. of Housing and Urban Development's 1991 * The Public Rental Board was created in policy study (UNDP and UNCHS 1991). This 1987 to manage the 1,700 units of public report together with its supporting papers is the rental stock of the Housing Authority. most comprehensive practical examination of contemporary urban issues in Fiji. Regional Instiftudons * The Ministry of Fijian Affairs and Rural Central government institutions Development appoints Commissioners and District Officers. They have no statutory * The Ministry of Infrastructure and Public authority but have considerable executive Utilities looks after strategic roading, water power regarding all residents. and waste water. * Provincial government operates in the form * The Ministry of Lands and Mineral of a Council elected from the TI-Linas in Resources is responsible for cartography, each province and are responsible for mapping, valuation and survey control for promoting 'the health, welfare and good 62 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources government of Fijians resident in the As indicated in the UNDP and UNCHS (1991) province and to carry out such other duties study, current law in Fiji does not encompass and functions which the Minister of Fijian notions of 'metropolitanization', being designed Affairs Board may see fit to delegate' for discrete settlements separated by UNDP and UNCHS 1991: 16). This undeveloped rural land. This presents particular jurisdiction extends into urban areas where problems for the management of the greater there is traditional Fijian land in the form of Suva urban area, such as control of land use urban villages. These villages cannot be along borders, road construction and tax included as part of municipalities except for sharing. Possible advantages in the use of certain tax and building regulations and shared facilities and other resources are also most public health and other urban hard to achieve. The only possibility for such regulations are not applicable in the co-operative action is the formation of joint villages. committees among contiguous councils which is * Rural Local Authorities are sanitary allowed under existing law. districts under the Ministry of Health and control public health and building Key Issues Regarding Urban Services construction under the Public Health Act. They have no taxing powers and are under- In the most up-to-date study of Urbanization in funded. Fiji (UNDP and UNCHS 1991) the following * Rural Advisory Councils are elected bodies issues were selected as being of particular responsible to the Minister of Fijian Affairs importance: and Rural Development. They have few powers and are subservient to the * Investments in urban services have usually commissioners and district officers. been provided by central government from * Municipalities are controlled under the public revenues only but operating costs are provisions of the Local Government Act. recovered from consumption charges. The two types of municipality are cities and Capital costs are not recovered nor is their towns or districts. The only differences recovery sought. Matters to be resolved relate to their establishment and boundary over time include funding, capital cost changes, with cities and towns requiring recovery and devolution. popular initiative before being formed while * Rising population has led to increased districts can be initiated by the Minister of demands for urban services with particular Housing and Urban Development. backlogs in water and sewerage reticulation Municipalities may provide and maintain in the greater Suva area required by 1996 public utility services and works, acquire (water 34,576 meters; sewerage 85,576 and dispose of land, assess and collect meters). property taxes, accept and borrow money, * Urban roading needs are calculated at expend municipal funds and implement 32,562 meters to 1996, with another 39,000 housing schemes for low-income families. meters to 2001. Maintenance of roads is a They are required to prepare a town particular financial problem for all planning scheme for approval by the municipalities which receive no subsidies Minister. After approval municipalities are for this purpose and central government. authorized to implement the scheme and to Detailed costs are estimated by Olsen compensate those affected in ways identified (1991). in the Act. * Little information is available on the colection and disposal of solid waste apart 63 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources from information contained in municipal Water supply: in metropolitan Suva was annual reports and Watling and Chape improved in 1982 by the construction of an (1993). Responsibility for waste disposal is intake on the Waimanu River and a treatment a local matter and generally privatized. plant at Waila which increased supply capacity Estimates in Suva put the collection and to about 25 per cent above demand at that time. disposal rate at 0.6 metric tons per person The existing distribution system was deficient per year. Mitigation measures at the Lain and a water supply master plan was Dump site in Suva have improved local commissioned which was completed in 1984 environmental problems but the location of (Laurie, Montgomerie and Pettit 1984). an interim additional site to cope with Consumption in the mid-1980s in Suva was medium requirements has proved estimated at 160 L/d per person and 50 L/d per controversial. person in the Rewa Delta area. Anticipated Only a small proportion of urban residents improvements in living standards led to a plan in Fiji are ratepayers living within town and forecast of 200 L/d and 100 L/d per person for city boundaries. The urban boundaries of the two areas, respectively, by 2006. By this Lautoka and Ba have been recently extended time some 96 per cent of the population in the and those of Suva, Nadi and Labasa are study area (most of greater Suva urban area and under investigation. contiguous rural areas) would be served by the water system. Non domestic consumption was Urban Sanitation expected to increase in proportion to population growth. Some 30-35 per cent of treate water An up-to-dae assessment of infrastructure was unaccounted for in the mid-1980s and this services in Fiji has been undertaken by PADCO was forect to drop below 20 per cent by for the Ministry of Housing and Urban 2006. Minimum daily demand for treated water Development in 1991 and is available in a series including expected lose was projected to increase from 64 ML/d in 1983 to 146 ML/d in of reports supporting the 1991 UND)P and 2006. UNCHS (1991) study on urban development. The report by Olsen (1991) in particular examines the 1986 census to derive levels of Byu1991san a e ofn96.6l er ce services for water supply, electricity and hueod ntemmia ad a ie sericesfate. Rslriy wase metered connections and another 1.1 per cent sanitary facilities. Roads and solid waste hdappdcmua evc.I h ei werehad a piped communal service. In the peri- services data wecollected from muncipalities urban areas the level of service was 90 per cent. and relevant agencies. In addition there are the Those not served are likely to be residents of series of consultants' reports on water supply squat settlements or on the edge of the outer and sewerage funded by Australian foreign aid, urban area. No particular problems are which are not easily accessible but give a anticipated in the servicing of new residential detailed account of the history of service areas and it is likely that the small shortfall in provision in the Suva metropolitan area in existing services wil be made up with particular: expansion of the system. Sewerage before work commenced on the * Sewerage (cf. Harrison and Grierson and SmerSuv eere Schemenc1971 the Parters197, 171, 980 Autraian Greater Sava Sewerage Scheme in 1971 there Departmnent of Housing and Construction was only a very old system in the city center 1974) which discharged raw sewage into the harbor 1974) Wnear the Travel lodge Hotel and at Raiwaqa 1984). where sewage was treated from the Housing 64 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Authority estates. The first phase of the Scheme Solrd Waste: The three Suva municipalities was commissioned in 1974 covering part of the provide good services with collection three Kinoya treatment plant and trunk sewers times a week in Suva City and Nausori Town serving Kinoya, Nasinu, Laucala Beach and and twice weekly in Lami Town. In the peri- Tamavua Estates. Progressive phases were urban area the situation is not well studied but completed by 1984 with the second stage of the Olsen (1991) states that service is probably of a Kinoya plant, a 2 km tunnel to the city central low order and provided by organizations other area and trunk sewers serving Tacirua and than the Rural Local Authority. A study by the Fletcher Road. The cost of the regional City of Suva Health Department indicates that sewerage scheme was estimated at F$10.7 garbage weighing 51 metric tons was dumped in million by the end of the 1980s and provided 40 a week. Estimates by Olsen (1991) suggest that kilometers of trunk sewers and 75 kilometers of 0.64 metric tons of garbage is produced per reticulation. The Kinoya plant has an ultimate capita in Suva. design capacity for a population of 300,000. Disposal for all three urban municipalities is a Distribution for reticulated sewage is far less continuing environmental problem and the extensive in Suva than the water supply, with selection of a new site has been under less than one third of residential units in the consideration in 1993. Most of the projected metropolitan area being served. Over half the population growth will take place in the pen- households in Suva City have flush toilets with urban zones and it is here where services are septic systems. Very little treatment is available presently most limited. The municipal waste is in Nausori and Lami towns with less than two projected to increase by 2,000 tons annually by per cent of households connected. In the peri- 2001 over the present 45,000 tons. The peri- urban area the majority of households (over 40 urban projection is for another 24,000 tons per per cent) use pit latrines. The backlog of need is annum, presenting considerable disposal therefore considerable over most of the problems in the future (Olsen 1991). The metropolitan area. Detailed costings to 2001 are substantial environmental problems of both found in Olsen (1991). sewerage and solid waste disposal have been reviewed elsewhere (Watling and Chape 1993). 65 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date 66 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL Baker, R. (1992). Foreign assistance and DEVELOPMENT development in a small island economy: the case of Fiji. In R. Baker (Eds.), Public AIDAB Pacific Regional Team (1991). Report Administration in Small and Island States. West of review team on NGO participation in Fiji Aid Hartford: Kumarian Press. (pp. 208-218). Program. Sydney: AIDAB Center for Pacific Key: Fiji econ/dev Development and Training (unpublished). Examines the relationship between the bargaining Key: Fiji econ/dev power of the small state, aid distribution and donor Reports on the effectiveness of AIDAB-funded NGO priorities, which are sometimes overwhelming. projects in meeting their objectives. Bakker, S. (1986). Ceremony and complications Akram-Lodhi, A. H. (1992). Tax free in an urban setting. In C. Griffin & M. Monsell- manufacturing in Fiji: an evaluation. Journal of Davis (Eds.), Fiians in Town. Suva: Institute Contemporary Asia, 22(3), 373-393. of Pacific Studies University of the South Key: Fiji econ/dev Pacific. (pp. 196-208). Discusses the scheme for tax free manufacturing Key: Fiji over social econ/dev established in 1986, that has had considerable Examination of particular forms of social positive impacts on urban employment but has organization and ceremonial transactions that are as contributed to some long-term economic and political important in urban as in rural areas. problems. Bartsch, W. (1992). Employment and manpower Ali, A., & Mamak, A. (1979). Industrial in Fiji. Recent trends and outlook for the tenth Relations in Fiji and Bougainville. In Race class development plan. Suva: ILO EMPLA. and rebellion in the South Pacific. Sydney: Key: Fiji econ/dev Allen and Unwin. (pp. 21-43). Examines trends in labor supply and demand between Key: Fiji social govt 1986 and 1992 with reference to the necessity to A now rather dated account of the emergence of trade create new jobs - especially in the urban sector - and unions in Fiji and Papua New Guinea, in Suva (and at produce more skilled personnel. the mining town of Panguna), that examines the complexity of race, class and ethnicity in urban Bayliss-Smith, T., Bedford, R., Brookfield, H., environments. Latham, M., & with Brookfield, M. (1988). Islands, Islanders and the World: the Colonial Australia International Development Assistance and Post-colonial Experience of Eastern Fiji. Bureau (1992). The Economy of Fiji - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Performance, Management and Prospects. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev International Development Issues No. 25. A detailed examination of social, economic and Canberra: Australian Government Publishing political changes in the outer islands of Fiji that Service. considers environmental change, land issues, Key: Fiji econ/dev finance agricultural development, migration and the link This report presents a survey of recent developments between islands and villages, the urban centers and in, and prospects for, the Fijian economy. It provides the world system. an analytical overview of important developments and issues, drawing from a wide range of government, Bayliss-Smith, T. P. (1978). Batiki in the 1970s: international agency and academic sources, but Satellite of Suva. In R. D. Bedford et al. (Eds.), focuses on macro-economic management, including The Small Islands and the Reefs. Island Report allocative and distributional issues. No. 4. Canberra: UNESCO/UNFPA. 67 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev of the highway berween Suva and Nadi, which Bienefeld, M. (1984). Work and Income for the reviews the costs and benefits of the highway, and People of Fiji: a Strategy for More than Just considers that the costs of the loan were severe. Survival. Final Report of the Fiji Employment and Development Mission Suva: Government Chandra, R. (1979). Urbanization in Fiji, 1966- Printer. 1976. 14th Pacific Science Congress, Key: Fiji econ/dev govt plan/man Khabarovsk. (unpublished). This is the most detailed and comprehensive study Key: Fiji over pop/mig ever undertaken of all aspects of employment and Overview of migration and Urbanization, that is development in Fiji. It covers population change and primarily statistical, but with a review and the labor force, labor supply and the market for labor bibliography of earlier work. and the creation of employment opportunities. There is an extensive discussion of land issues. Chandra, R. (1988a). Fiji and the New International Division of Labor: A study of the Bryant, J. J. (1987). A social geography of Fyi. Tar Free System. Paper No. 11. Suva: School Suva: University of the South Pacific of Social an Economic Development University (unpublished). of the South Pacific. Key: Fiji over econ/dev Key: Fiji finance govt econ/dev Cameron, J. (1983b). Patterns of Life in Fiji: an Chandra, R. (1988b). Urbanization in the South 'active life profile' analysis. Working Paper No. Pacific: a survey of levels, processes, problems 7. Suva: Fiji Employment and Development and implications. Working Paper No. 11. Mission. Suva: School of Social and Economic Key: Fiji social econ/dev Development University of the South Pacific. A review of statistical data that focuses on the quality Key: Fiji over plan/man of life in Fiji, according to various social and economic categories. Chandra, R. (1990a). Breaking out of import substitution industrialization: the case of Fiji. In Cameron, J. (1983c). Size and nature of acute D. G. Lockhart, D. Drakalds-Smith, & J. deprivation in Fiji. Geneva: ILO. Schembri (Eds.), The Development Process in Key: Fiji social Small Island States. London: Routledge. (pp. 205-227). Cameron, J. (1987). Assessing the quality of life Key: Fiji econ/dev for women and men in Fiji using active life Examines trends in the manufacturing sectors, with profile analysis. Journal of Pacific Studies, 13, particular reference to the growth of the garment 80-93. industry, and post-coup developments. Key: Fiji social Assessment of social development that relates to Chandra, R. (1990b). Pattemrns and processes of demographic and educational characteristics of men Urbanization in Fiji. In R. Chandra & J. J. and women according to ethnic group. Bryant (Eds.), Population of Fiji. Noumea: Chand, G. (1989). The World Bank in Fiji: the South Pacific Commission. (pp. 157-79). case of the Suva-Nadi Highway Reconstruction Key: Fiji over pop/mig Project. Development and Change, 20, 235-267. Key: Fiji econ/dev land Chandra, R., & Gunasekera, H. M. (1984). An examination of the World Bank's first project Regional planning and policy in Fiji. In B. lending to the Fiji government for the reconstruction Prantilla (Eds.), Regional Development: 68 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Problems and Policy Response in Five Asian Examines population, economic development, land and Pacific Countries. Nagoya: UNCRD. (pp. policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation 281-339). issues in Melanesian countries. Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man Crosby, A. R. (1992). Urban Trends. Working Chung, M. (1988). The impact of a road. In J. Paper 3.2, Urbanization and Monitoring Project. Overton (Eds.), Rural Fiji. Suva: Institute of Suva: Asian Development Bank Technical Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Assistance for Institutional Strengthening. (pp. 97-121). Key: Fiji pop/mig over Key: Fiji social econ/dev One of a series of 14 working papers commissioned An overview of road development, but especially in by the ADB in order to develop an Urbanization Wainimala, that examines the impact of accessibility monitoring system for Fiji. Relies mainly on census on rural development and marketing. material. Examines residential and housing patterns. Clarke, W. C., & Morrison, R. J. (1987). Land Durutalo, S. (1986). The Paramountcy of Fijian mismanagement and the development imperative Interest and the Politicization of Ethnicity. in Fiji. In P. Blaikie & H. C. Brookfield (Eds.), South Pacific Forum Working Paper No. 6. Land Degradation and Society. London: Suva: University of the South Pacific Methuen. (pp. 176-187). Sociological Society. Key: Fiji land econ/dev environ Key: Fiji govt social pop/mig Cole, R., & Hughes, H. (1988). The Fiji Emberson-Bain, A. (1992). Women, poverty economy: problems and prospects. Pacific and post-coup pressure. In D. Robie (Eds.). Tu Policy Papers No. 4. Canberra: National Center Galala. Social Change in the Pacific. for Development Studies. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. (pp. 145- Key: Fiji finance econ/dev over 162). Overview of Fijian economy, with reference to both Key: Fiji social long term trends and the impact of the military coups Examines economic and social aspects of women's on economic growth. lives, with particular reference to discrimination against women, poverty and employment in the Connell, J. (1985). Migration, employment and garment industry. development in the South Paaflc. Country Report No 4: Fiji. Noumea: South Pacific Fiji (1993). Opportunities for growth: policies Commission and International Labor Office. and strategies for Fyi in the medium term. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev Parliamentary Paper No. 2. Suva. Overview, with extensive bibliography, of studies of Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man migration, employment and Urbanization, which includes information on housing and poverty, Fiji Association of Women Graduates (1991). A especially in Suva, and assesses the difficulties of Study of Families in Two Low-Cost Housing regional decentralization. Development Sdemes in Suva. Suva: FAWG. Key: Fiji housing social plan/man squatter Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacfic 2010. Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1982). A report on the Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. Fiji Employment/ Unemployment Survey, June Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National 1985. Suva: Bureau of Statistics. Center for Development Studies. Key: Fiji econ/dev social Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ 69 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1985). Census of construction and housing, and social and community Building and Construction. Suva: Bureau of development. Statistics. Key: Fiji over Fiji Central Planning Office (1991a). National Economic Summit May 1991: review of Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988). Report on Fiji performance of the Fiji economy. Suva: population census 1986. Volume 6 - Housing Central Planning Office. and Services. Parliamentary Paper No. 11 of Key: Fiji econ/dev over finance 1988. Suva: Parliament of Fiji, Housing and Background paper for discussion on the future of the Services. Fiji economy at the 1991 National Economic Summit. Key: Fiji over pop/mig Covers economic development since 1987. evolution Detailed analysis of housing data by rur-A and u n of economic policy in the period, and actions taken to areas, ethnic groups, services etc implement policy. Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1989a). Social Fiji Central Planning Office (1991b). Situation indicators for Fiji. Suva: Bureau of Statistics. Analysis of the children in Fiji. Suva. Key: Fiji social Key: Fiji poverty social econ/dev pop/mig The fifth in a series of reviews of social indicators Examines situation of today's children, forecasts future impacts on children. Contains statistical whichs cers i convh al asutardtof, hlg annexures on health, education and economic issues. measures in such areas as nutrition, health, population change, housing, education, economic ... C activity, income levels, crime and welfare levels. Fi Concil of Social Service (1988). Report Much of this is based on the 1986 census and recomnendations: A summary of evaluations on FCOSSfunded projects. Suva: Fiji Central Planning Office (1975). Fiji's (unpublished). Seventh Development Plan 1976-1980. Suva: Key: Fiji social Central Planning Office. Key: Fiji over plan/man finance econ/dev Fiji Council of Social Service (1990). Report and recommendations: development project Fiji Central Planning Office (1980). Eighth funding evaluations on USAID and ALDAB- Development Plan, 1981-1985. Suva: Central funded projects, 1989-1990. Suva: Planning Office. (unpublished). Key: Fiji govt plan/man econ/dev water sew Key: Fiji social solid/waste Fiji Council of Social Services (1991). Fiji Central Planning Office (1985). Fiji's ninth Voluntary Action Network Newsletter, 5(1), development plan, 1986-1990: policies, 1,10.11. strategies, and programs for national Key: Fiji econ/dev govt planiman development. Parliamentary Paper No. 69 of 1985. Fiji Department of Town and Country Planning Key: Fiji plan/man finance econ/dev govt water (1975). Greater Suva structure plan. Suva: sew solid/waste Department of Town and Country Planning. Provides a background to Fiji's economic Key: Fiji plan/man over environment and describes sectoral and regional Only detailed structure planning study for the Greater policies and programs in primary industry, tourism, Suva area. Revision of the draft regional plan of secondary industry, infrastructure and utilities, 1969. 70 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Fiji Ministry of Health (1991). Annual Report Gounis, C., & Rutz, H. J. (1986). Urban Fijians for the Years 1987 and 1988. Suva: Ministry and the problem of unemployment. In C. Griffin of Health. & M. Monsell-Davis (Eds.), Fijians in Town. Key: Fiji housing over Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 50-88). Key: Fiji social Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban A detailed account of employment and unemployment Development (1991). Urban centers and amongst Fijians in Suva, which suggests that identification and administration. Working unemployment is much higher than in official Paper No. 4. Suva: UNCHS. statistics. There is a useful account of employment Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev plan/man housing amongst man, women and youth in a range of housing contexts that covers aspirations, Fijian solutions to problems of unemployment, residential Fiji National Economic Summit (1985). Report choices, reciprocity, income redistribution and Fiiian of the task force in housing and building culture. sectors. Suva: National Economic Summit. Key: Fiji housing econ/dev Griffin, C., & Monsell-Davis, M. (Ed.). (1986). Fijians in Towns. Suva: Institute of Pacific Finseth, T., & Barr, K. J. (1991). Community Studies. Organizations/private sector. Prepared for the Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev social UNDP/UNCHS Urbanization/Housing Policy A collection of studies ( note elsewhere) that reviews Study. (unpublished). several facets of urban life, but especially social Key: Fiji poverty housing squatter social issues and questions of identity. Fisk, E. K. (1992). Fijian participation in the Hailey, J. M. (1988). Indigenous business in modem economy. Canberra: Australian National Fiji. In T. I. J. Fairbairn (Eds.), Island University (unpublished). Entrepreneurs: Problems and Performance in Key: Fiji econ/dev the Pacfic. Honolulu: Pacific Islands A lengthy study of Fijian participation in the Development Program, East-West Center. 'modem' sector of wage and salary employmnt. Key: Fiji social econ/dev which reviews the public service, entrepreneurial arenas, tourism and manufacturing, and reviews Hannif, M. S. (1982). Human Settlements: government policies on equity and participation. Situation in Urban and Raral Areas. Country Monograph for ESCAP, mimeo. Suva: Fong, P. (1980). Tourism and Urbanization in Department of Town and Country Planning. Nausori. In F. Rajotte & R. Crocombe (Eds.), Key: Fiji over Pacfic Tourism: As Islanders See It. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 87-88). Howard, M. C. (1987). The trade union Key: Fiji econ/dev movement in Fiji. In M. Taylor (Eds.), Fiji: A brief account of the impact of tourism on the small Future Imperfect? Sydney: Allen and Unwi. town of Nausori. Tourism has contributed to commerce and the town has grown into a small (pp. 108-121). industrial estate. Key: Fiji econ/dev over plan/man A study of the evolution of Fiji's trade union Gautam, J. P. (1987). Fiji Country Paper. In movement, the conflicts between unions and a Pgovernments and the significance of unionism in the Urban Poliy Issues. mimeo. Manila: ADB. formal sector and thus for the future of social and Key: Fiji over economic development. 71 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Jalal, P. (1988). The urban woman - victim of a Keith-Reid, R. (1983). The other side of changing social environment. In Environment of paradise. Islands Business, 9(3), 12-18. Pacific Women. Suva: Fiji Association of Key: Fiji housing social squatter Women Graduates in association with the A 'rief account o7 the situation of squatters in Fiji, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of South that considers the role of NGOs, and health, Pacific. unemployment and nutrition problems. Key: Fiji Kenyon, C. S., Dunn, L., Ali, S., & Johnson, J. S., & Lambert, J. N. (1982). 7Te Tuiwouwa, M. (1988). Suva's youth national food and nuridon survey of Fiji. Field unemployment - a plan for action. Australia: Document No. 6. Suva: UNDP/FAO. Department of Employment, Education and Key: Fiji social over Training and Fiji: Ministry of Youth and Sports. Key: Fiji social Jones, B. J. (1989). Human Setrlements in Fiji. Overview of programs to reduce the extent of youth London: Macmillan. unemployment. Key: Fiji over Lasaqa, 1. (1984). The Fijian People: Before Jones, D. R. W. (1982). Night life and cultural ad After dependence Canber Australian imperialism in Suva: an empirical riposte. National University Press. Pacific Viewpoint, 23(1), 77-82. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev social Key: Fiji social Lee, E. (1983). Wages and tie labor market in Kaim-Caudle, P. (1982). Talking socialpoicy in Fiji. Fiji Employment Mission Working Paper Fiji. Working Paper in Social Policy and Ky.. . cu v ov Administration No. 2. Department of Sociology Key: Fi econ/dev over and Social Policy University of Durham. Long, S. (1990). Fiji: no paradise for garment Key: Fiji socialJournal o Examines factors affecting social policy, the National wf Austral Political Provident Fund, health sciences, social welfare and Economy, 26, 101-110. education and makes recommendations for t fiture Key: Fiji econ/dev direction of social policy. Examines wage, conditions and the struggle to organise garment workers, the tax free factory Kanbur, S. N. R. (1986). Inequality, poverty scheme and the contribution of the scheme to national and development - with application to Fiji. economic development. Seminar Pof No 364, Stockholm. University Lucas, V. E. (1978). A comparative study of the f povery mautrition status of preschool children in a rural Key: Fyj poverty econ/dev and an urban community in Fiji. Fiji Medical Kaurasi, L. (1977). Rotuman communities in Journal, 6(12), 324-333. Fiji: Raiwai, Raiwaqa and Lomaivuna. In C. Key: Fiji over social Plant (Eds.), Rotrna: Split Island. Suva: M A. (1978). Colour, Culture and Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Conflc. A Study o South Pacific. (pp. 161-172). gmolct f Pluralism in Fii. Sydney: Key: Fiji pop/mig social Ke: Fio A detailed but dated study of social organization in Suva, undertaken at the start of the 1970s. It 72 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources examines the growth of Suva, urban migration and Robillard (Eds.), Social Change in the Pacific settlement of Fijians and Indians and economic life in Islands. London: Kegan Paul International. (pp. Sava. There are lengthy accounts of trade unions, 134-199). education, religion, voluntary associations and Key: Fiji social politics. A lengthy account of a century of social and economic change, though there is little information McInnes, L., & Connell, J. (1988). The world on change since 1980. system in a Fijian store. South Pacific Forum, 4, 116-121. Nair, S. (1980). Rural-born Fijians and Indo- Key: Fiji social econ/dev Fijians in Suva: a study of movements and Examines the origins of trade store goods in one linkages. Monograph No 24. Canberra: village on Vatulele island, that traces the links Development Studies Center Australian National between the village, urban centers and the global University. economy. Key: Fiji pop/inig squatter social Monsell-Davis, M. (1980). Buccaneers and National Center for Development Studies Chiefs: Muckers and the City. Crime and (1989). South Pa.fic Economic and Social delinquency amongst young Fjians. Suva: Database. Fiji. Loose-leaf file Canberra: School of Social and Economic Development, National Center for Pacific Studies Australian University of the South Pacific (unpublished). National University. Key: Fiji social poverty Key: Fiji over econ/dev finance pop/mig An early study of youth ployment and Contains current and historical statistics on: criminality in Suva. population, migration, demography and housing; education; health; national accounts; international Monsell-Davis, M. (1986). It's man's game - accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; identity, social role, social change and labor, employment and wages; prices and price delinquency in Suva. In C. Griffin & M. indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Monsell-Davis (Eds.), Fijians in Town. Suva: distribution; transport and communication; and Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 132-165). tourism. Key: Fiji social Overview of youth criminal behavior and delinquency Nayacakalou, R. R. (1978). Tradition and in Fiji, and especially Suva, that discusses Change in the Fijian Village. Suva: South employment issues, education, housing situations, Pacific Social Sciences Association University social changes, links with villages and the problems of the Sout& Pacific. of making out in the city, and reviews social and Key: Fiji social plan/man econ/dev economic policies. Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission Naibaru, T., & Schutz, B. (1986). Prostitution: reot-Fj.Sv:SuhPcfcBra o problem or profitable industry? In C. Griffin & economic Cooperation. M. Monsell-Davis (Eds.), Fijians in Town. Key: Fiji econ/dev Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 89-101). Key: Fiji econ/dev Nicholson, H. (1988). Socio-economic Examination of the various forms of prostitution in .itions of squatter setlements in Vatuwaqa, Suva, that considers its scale and economic impact Su. (unpublished) Suva: University of the and links to tourism. South Pacific. Naidu, V. (1992). Social change and the Key: Fiji econ/dev squatter survival of neo-tradition in Fiji. In A. B. 73 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Oliver, D. (1975). The Shoeshine Boys of Suva. Fiji. Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 34- Basic Research in Pacific Islands Geography 47. No. 3. Suva: School of Social and Economic Key: Fiji econ/dev social govt water Development, University of the South Pacific. Examines issues in the relationship between Key: Fiji econ/dev social infrastructural development and multilevel Examines the social world of the shoeshine boys and development with reference to case studies in Fiji. in particular the relationship of this group of youths Makes conclusions about the importance of to their families, the education system and the police. infrastructural development in overall economic planning. Oliver, D. (1977). My friends the shoeshine boys. Suva: YMCA of Fiji. Overton, J. (1990b). The role of infrastructural Key: Fiji social development as a basis for multilevel A study of the social life of a group of shoeshine development. Nagoya: Central Planning boys in Suva, that has considerable information on Department and United Nations Center for socio-economic life in Suva: though now somewhat Regional Development. dated. Key: Fiji econ/dev land plan/man govt environ Examines the relationship between infrastructure Overton, J. (1987). Roads, rice and cane. development and multilevel development, including Regional planning and rural development in the role of private and public capital, interaction of western Vanua Levu, Fiji. Pacific Viewpoint, state programs and wider macroeconomics forces, 28(1), 40-54. costs of establishment and running, and the nature of Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man land multilevel development. Refers to several Fijian case Argues that regional development has not been s compatible with national development in Fiji. Presents three brief case studies of agricultural PADCO (1991). Definitons, trends and projects in western Vanoa Levu. Reviews the ministerial relationships in urban development. development proposal commissioned from Atkins supporting paper for UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 Land and Water Management Ltd in 1983. Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Overton, J. (Ed.). (1988). Rural Fiji. Suva: Key: Fiji govt over Institute of Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Peet, R. (1980). The consciousness dimension of Key: Fiji land econ/dev Fiji's integration into world capitalism. Pacific Collection of studies on rural economic and social Viewpoint, 21(2), 91-115. development, including land issues, that are noted Key: Fiji social elsewhere Examines social life in Fiji, especially the emergence of modern characteristics in the social organizations Overton, J. (1989). Land and Differentiation in of Suva and their global linkages. Rural Fiji. Pacific Research Monograph No 19. Canberra: National Center for Development Pollard, C. (1987). Domestic service in Suva, Studies Australian National University. Fiji: social and occupational mobility of Fijian Key: Fiji land plan/man social housegirls. Journal of Pacfic Studies, 13, 36- A detailed account of rural social and economic 46. development and the impact of changes in different Key: Fiji social contexts on socio-economic mequality. Examination of the economic and social life of housegirls in Suva, most of whom are migrants from Overton, J. (1990a). Infrastructure and rural areas. The study traces their upward social and multilevel development: some examples from occupational mobility. 74 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Ponter, E. (1986). The growth of wage labor Examines structural changes in the clothing industry, and its consequences for a Fijian village. In C. following deregulation, which has more than half of Griffin & M. M. Davis (Eds.), Fijians in Town. all workers in the manufacturing sector. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. (pp. 29-49). Ravuvu, A. (1983). Vaka i Taukei: The Fjian Key: Fiji social Way of Life. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies An examination of the emergence of wage labor in University of the South Pacific. the village of Naila. close to Nausori, that examines Key: Fiji social econ/dev over other links between Naila, Nausori and Suva. Agriculture has partly given way to wage Ravuvu, A. (1988). Development or employment and new patterns of expenditure and Dependence: The Patterns of Change in a Fijian consumption. The data are from the late 1970s Village. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies through to 1980. University of the South Pacific. Prasad, G. J. (1987). Urban policy issues. Fiji Key: Fiji social econ/dev country paper. Regional Seminar on Major Robertson, R. T. (1993). "The greenery of well- National Urban Policy Issues, Asian engineered factory complexes": Fiji's garment- Development Bank, led export industrialization strategy. Bulletin of Key: Fiji over Concerned Asian Scholars, 25(2), 31-41. Key: Fiji econ/dev Prasad, S. (1988). Potential for the co- A detailed account of industrial development in the generation of electricity and heat from biomass 1980's, and especially in the post-coup years, which fuels in Fiji. Energy for Rural and Island covers wages and incomes, export strategies and the Communities, Center for Environmental limited contribution of garment factories to national Studies, University of Tasmania. social and economic development. Key: Fiji econdev Rutz, H. J. (1987). Capitalizing on culture: Prasad, S. (1989). Trade unions in the changing moral ironies in urban Fiji. Comparative Studies socio-economic environment in Fiji. Working in Society and Culture, 29, 533-557. Paper No. 13. Suva: School of Social and Key: Fiji social econ/dev Economic Development, University of the South Pacific. Sarnisoni, M. (1986). Fijian women in business. Key: Fiji social econ/dev In Indigenous Business Development in the Account of Fiji's economy, with particular reference Pacific. Final Report of Regional Workshop. to the emergence of tax-free zones and the garment Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development industry, as a basis for an examination of various Program, East-West Center. facets of trade union developwent, including the role Key: Fiji econ/dev social finance of women and ethnic fragmentation. Schroum, M. (1988). Changes in community Prasad, s. (1991). Fi's tax free garment lifestyles - does the urban woman pay the price. industry: what price for economic In J. M. Teaiwa & L. R. Va'a (Eds.), reconstruction. Suva: unpublished report for Environment of Pacic Women. Suva: Fiji International Confederation of Free Trade Association of Women Graduates in association Unions and Fiji Trades Union Congress. with the Institute of Pacific Studies, University Key: Fiji econ/dev of South Pacific. Key: Fiji social 75 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Schutz, A. J. (1978). Suva. A History and Spate, 0. H. K. (1990). The Fijian scene: some Guide. Sydney: Pacific Publications. reflections. Confidential report to the Colonial Key: Fiji plan/man over Office September 1959. Journal of Pacific An illustrated history of the growth of Suva from History, 25(1), 103-124. colonial times, that focuses on the construction of Key: Fiji over govt prominent buildings, and the reclamation of coastal areas, and discusses the significance of particular Stavenuiter, S. (1983). Income distribution in Staees. Fiji: an analysis of its various dimensions. WEP Research Paper, Geneva. International Sikivou, J. (1980). A conversation with two WEo Rgaizape. . sword sellers. In F. Rajotte & R. Crocombe Key: F ijoeeond (Eds.), Pacific Tourism. As Islanders See It. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 99-100). Sturton, M. (1989). Modeling the Fiji Economy. Key: Fiji social econ/dev Research Report Series No. 12. Honolulu: A brief account of the participation in the informal Pacific Islands Development Program, East- sector of woodcarvers, selling their wares to tourists W CeIsn. on the street of Suva. Key: Fiji econ/dev finance Siwatibau, S. (1988). Urban energy in Fiji: a survey of Suvas household, industrial and Sturton, M., & McGregor, A. (1991). Fiji: commercial sectors. Toronto: International economic aiustmen. Economic Report No. 1. Development Research Center. Honolulu, Pacific Islands Development Key: Fiji econ/dev Program, East-West Center. Survey of energy in a variety of homes, industrial and Key: Fiji econ/dev commercial establishment in Suva. Most households use kerosene for cooking needs. Petrol accounts for Suguta, A. B. (1983). Squatters and the Church: 38 per cent of all energy consumption by urban an inquiry into the Church's awareness of households. squatting as a social problem in Fiji. Suva: Columban Fathers. Slatter, C. (1987). Women factory workers in Key: Fiji squatter social Fiji: the 'half a loaf' syndrome. The Journal of Overview of urban development and the emergence of Pac;fic Studies, 13, 47-59. squatter settlements in Fiji, that focuses on the Key: Fiji econ/dev diversity of squatters, the reasons for squatting, the Examines the growth of women's employment at a coping strategies of squatters and the churches' national level, and within low-wage employment, response, with some statistical data on Suva and especially the clothing and food industries Lantoka from the late 1970s. Slatter, C. (1991). Economic recovery on the Sukhdeo, M., & Griffin, C. (1982). backs of women workers: women and tax free Urbanization and urban centers in the Pacific: a enterprises in Fiji. Review - Diversity in case study on Fiji. Suva: University of the South Development, 12(19), 18-28. Pacific, CASD. Key: Fiji over finance govt Key: Fiji over Compzehensive study of Fiji, Urbanization in Fiji (to Sofer, M. (1987). Core Periphery Structure in 1982), migration, dominance of Suva, services, Fiji. Environment and Planning D. Sociery and squatters. forms and functions of Suva (including Space, 6, 55-74. health, housing and traffic), Suva's function as a Key: Fiji plan/man econ/dev growth pole and urban life in Suva. 76 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Sutherland, W. M. (1984) The state and Vuetibau, 1. K. (1987). Squatting and the capitalist development in Fryi. Ph.D thesis, California highway settlement, Suva. In L. Christchurch. University of Canterbury, Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a (unpublished). Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, Key: Fiji econ/dev finance over University of the South Pacific. (pp. 145-54). Key: Fiji squatter social Taylor, M. (1987). Issues in Fiji's development: An overview of squatter settlements in Suva, that economic rationality or aid with dignity? In M. examines the contribution of squatters to the urban Taylor (Eds.), Fiji: Future Imperfect? Sydney: economy, and examines one settlement in terms of Allen and Unwin. (pp. 1-13). employment, income and expenditure, housing Key: Fiji finance over econ/dev conditions and the concerns of squatters. Overview of recent development trends and issues in Fiji, that consider land issues, aid, wage levels and Vunakee, A. (1981). Youth and crime in a markets, and the manner in which Fiji is linked into Fijian urban housing estate. In P. Thomas many world markets through particular concessionary (Eds.), Pacific Youth: Selected Studies on Youth arrangements. and Development in the South Pacific. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies in association with Turbin, A. G., & Drake, R. H. (1991). The Commonwealth Youth Program, University of energy situation in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the South Pacific. (pp. 53-63). Vanuatu. Los Alamos, New Mexico. Key: Fiji social housing Key: PNG Fiji Van econ/dev Provides the methodology, results and conclusions of a study of the correlation between socio-economic United Nations Development Program and UN background and youth's propensity for crime in the Center for Human Settlements (1991). Policy Raiwaqa Housing Estate. Recommendations for Housing and Urban Development. Suva: Ministry of Housing and Vunisea, A. (1991). The burden of poverty on Urban Development, women in Fiji, with special emphasis on women Key: Fiji housing econ/dev water solid/waste in the rural areas. Suva. University of the South Pacific. sew govt plan/man K Identifies key factors affecting Urbanization in Fiji ey: Fiji poverty pop/mig over and lists policy recommendations and strategies for better urban management. Also includes policy Walsh, A. C. (1975). Navua 1975. Town recommendations to improve housing supply for low baseline survey. Suva: SSED w.iversity of the to middle income earners. South Pacific. Key: Fiji over Utrecht, E. (Ed.). (1984). Fiji: Client State of Analysis of a survey of all households and businesses Australia. Sydney: University of Sydney in the small town of Navua, that provides much data Transnational Corporations Research Project. on demographic structure, incomes and occupations, Key: Fiji econ/dev housing structures, tenancy and lifetime migration but A lengthy account of the structure of economic without analysis of the data. development in Fiji with particular reference to global and regional economic linkages, that Walsh, A. C. (1978) The Urban Squatter considers food consumption, agricriture, fishing and Question: Squatting. Housing and Urbanization mining, forestry, manufacturing, labor relations and in Suva, Fiji. PH.D thesis, Massey University, Australian Companies in Fiji. Palmerston North (unpublished). Key: Fiji squatter housing plan/man over 77 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Source; Walsh, A. C. (1979). The Fijian and Indian World Bank (1987). Fiji: a transition to poor: different strategies for survival. manufacturing. Washington DC. Palmerston North: Massey University, Key: Fiji econ/dev Department of Geography. Key: Fiji social World Bank (1990). Fiji, performance and Examines the role of culture and income differences prospects of education, training and health in Suva squatter settlements, that suggests that services. Washington DC. Indians are more individualistic than Fijians. Key: Fiji social Waqa, M. (1977). The youth of Fiji. Suva: World Bank (1992). Fiji: post-secondary Institute of Pacific Studies University of the education and the labor market - Issues and South Pacific. options. Washington DC. Key: Fiji social Key: Fiji econ/dev Overview of youth issues in Fiji which covers unemployment and rural-urban migration, youth World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: work in urban areas, the Fiji National Youth Council Toward Efficent and Sustainable Growth, Vol and possible government programs. 2. Fi: Country Economic Memorandum. Ward, R. G. (1965). Land use and Population Washington DC. in Fiji: A Geographical Study. London: Key: Fiji econ/dev HMSO. Key: Fiji land econ/dev pop/mig A very detailed, but now very dated, study of POPULATION AND MIGRATION population and migration, rural development and land tenure Bayliss-Smith, T., Bedford, R., Brookfield, H., Watling, R., & Chape, S. (1993). Environment: Latham, M., & with Brookfield, M. (1988). Fiji. The national state of the environment. Islands, Islanders and the World: the Colonial Gland: IUCN, and Post-colonial Experience of Eastern Fiji. Key: Fiji environ econ/dev Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Overview of environmental issues in Fiji. This Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev detailed study examines population and other A p p of social, economic and Adetailed examinatinof oil cooi n resources, and assesses social and economic political changes in the outer islands of Fiji that development with reference to its impact on considers environmental change, land issues, resources. One section deals with urban issues, gricultura development, migration and the link including sewerage and solid waste management, and between islands and villages, the urban centers and the legal and institutional context is comprehensively the world system. discussed. Watters, R. F. (1969). Urbanization and social Bayliss-Smith, T. P. (1978). Batiki in the 1970s: change in Fiji. In J. R. McCreary (Eds.), Satellite of Suva. In R. D. Bedford et al. (Eds.), Urbanization and Resettiement in the South The Small Islands and the Reefs. Island Report Pacific. Wellington. (pp. 1-16). No. 4. Canberra: UNESCO/UNFPA. Key: Fiji social over Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev An early account of Urbanization in Fiji (that also considers even earlier analysis) that focuses on Bedford, R. (1985). Population movement in a migration, occupational changes, the social small island periphery: the case of eastern Fiji. organization of urban life and links to rural areas. In M. Chapman & R. M. Prothero (Eds.), 78 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Circulation in Population Movement. London: Examines migration from Rotuma to Viti Levu, Routledge and Kegan Paul. (pp. 333-359). historically to Vatakoula but, more recently, to Suva, Key: Fiji pop/mig where there is a substantial community of Rotummans. Examines emigration from the eastern islands of Fiji, Many Rotumans are employed in the public service. with particular reference to Urbanization and circular There is an analysis of the housing status and migration, that demonstrates the growing permanence occupational status of a sample of Rotumans in of urban residence. Raiwaqa. Most data are from the early 1980s. Bedford, R. D. (1981). Melanesian intrnal Bryant, J. J., & Khan, F. (1990). Population migration: Recent evidence from Eastern Fiji. and housing in Fiji. In R. Chandra & J. Bryant New Zealand Journal of Geography, 71, 2-6. (Eds.), Population of Fy)i. Population Key: Fiji pop/mig Monograph No. 1. Noumea: South Pacific Examines rural-urban migration and the growing Commission. (pp. 195-204). permanency of urban residence, alongside the Key: Fiji pop/mig housing plan/man continuity of circular migration. The data are mainly A detailed evaluation of the housing situation in Fiji, from the mid-1970s. based on 1976 census data and subsequent Housing Authority statistics, which considers land issues, the Bedford, R. D. (1984). Population movement facilities and services in housing and the future and the articulation of modes of production in development of the housing stock. eastern Fiji: a comment. In D. K. Forbes & P. J. Rimmer (Eds.), Uneven Development and the Chandra, R. (1979). Urbanization in Fiji, 1966- Geographical Tranmfer of Value. Human 1976. 14th Pacific Science Congress, Geography Monograpi No. 16. Canberra: Khabarovsk. (unpublished). Research School of Pacific Studies Australian Key: Fiji over pop/mig National University. (pp. 199-206). Overview of migration and Urbanization, that is Keyaiional opigt (primarily statistical, but with a review and bibliography of earlier work. Bedford, R. D. (1988). Population movement in Chandra, R. (1981). Rural-urban population post-colonial Fiji: review and speculation. movement in Fiji, 1966-1976: a macro analysis. GeoJounul, 16(2), 179-92. In G. W. Jones & H. V. Richter (Eds.), KE no poulation movements between 1970 Population Mobility and Development: Southeast and 1986 with particular reference to an acceleration Asia and the Pacyc. Monograph No. 27. of levels of migration overseas by Indians and the Canberra: Development Studies Center rural-urban migration of Fijians. There is also Australian National University. (pp. 329-354). speculation on the impact of the coups on population Key: Fiji pop/nig migration. Chandra, R. (1990). Patterns and processes of Bryant, J. (1990). Rotuma migration and Fiji. A Urbanization in Fiji. In R. Chandra & J. J. response to uneven development. In J. Connell Bryant (Eds.), Population of Fyji. Noumea: (Eds.), Migration and Development in the South South Pacific Commission. (pp. 157-79). Pacific. Pacific Research Monograph No. 24. Key: Fiji over pop/mig Canberra: National Center for Development Studies Australian Nat!cnal University. (pp. Chandra, R., & Bryant, J. (1990). Population of 136-150). Ffi. Noumea: South Pacific Commission and Key: Fiji pop/mig ESCAP. Key: Fiji pop/mig 79 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources An overview of population issues in Fiji that covers Examination of the compositions, growth and related issues including internal migration and distributions of the population until the 1980s, that emigration, Urbanization, housing, food and focuses on the complex relationships between national nutrition. It is based on the 1976 census with updated population policies and emigration, with particular material in most ara. reference to the social and political significance of all population issues. Chandra, R., & Chandra, D. W. (1990). Internal population mobility in Fiji. In R. Crosby, A. R. (1992a). Urban population Chandra & J. J. Bryant (Eds.), Population of forecasts. Working Paper No. 3.1. Suva: Asian Fiji. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. (pp. Development Bank Technical Assistance for 136-156). Institutional Strengthening. Key: Fiji pop/mig Key: Fiji pop/mig Chetty, N. K., & Prasad, S. (1993). Fiji's Crosby, A. R. (1992b). Urban Trends. emigration: an examinadon of contemporary Working Paper 3.2, Urbanization and issues. Population Studies Program Monitoring Project. Suva: Asian Development Demographic Report No. 4. Suva: University of Bank Technical Assistance for Institutional the South Pacific. Strengthening. Key: Fiji pop/mig Key: Fiji pop/mig over An examination of the social, economic and political One of a series of 14 working papers commissioned context of recent migration - that emphasizes by the ADB in order to develop an Urbanization political rather that economic influences of Indian monitoring system for Fiji. Relies mainly on census emigration - which emphasizes the loss of population material. Examines residential ar ; housing patterns. and skills and has case studies of the education sector and the sugar industry. Cutt, B. J. (1992) Rural transport and personal mobility on Kadava, Fiji. M.Sc. thesis, Chung, M. (1987) Structural Change and Christchurch: University of Canterbury Population Mobility: the impact of a road in (unpublished). Fiji. Master of Arts, University of Hawaii. Key: Fiji pop/mig Key: Fiji pop/mig Examination of transport systems and panerns of mobility in part of Kadavu, that examines the national Connell, J. (1985). Migration, employment and planning system, and its relationship to regional and development in the South Pacfc. Country rural development, and the link between Suva and Report No 4: Fiji. Noumea: South Pacific Kadavu. Commission and International Labor Office. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev Durutalo, S. (1986). The Paramountcy of Fijian Overview, with extensive bibliography, of studies of Interest and the Politicization of Ethnicity. migration, employment and Urbanization, which South Pacific Forum Working Paper No. 6. includes information on housing and poverty, Suva: University of the South Pacific especially in Suva, and assesses the difficulties of Sociological Society. regional decentralization. Key: Fiji govt social pop/mig Connell, J. (1987). Population growth and Fiji (1979). Census of Fiji, report on the census emigration: maintaining a balance. In M. Taylor of population. Parliamentary Paper No. 43. (Eds.), Fiji: future imperfect. Sydney: Allen Suva. and Unwin. (pp. 14-32). Key: Fiji pop/mig Key: Fiji pop/mig 80 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988a). Report on Pji Frazer, R. (1986). Fijian interprovincial population census 1986. Volume 6 - Housing migration and Urbanization: a study of age and and Services. Parliamentary Paper No. 11 of sex preferences. In C. Griffin & M. Monsell- 1988. Suva: Parliament of Fiji, Housing and Davis (E6ds.), FYlans in Towns. Suva: Institute Services. of Pacific Studies, University of the South Key: Fiji over pop/mig Pacific. (pp. 8-28). Detailed analysis of housing data by rural and urban Key: Fiji pop/mig areas, ethnic groups, services etc Examines interprovincial population movements by age and sex, and provides age-sex pyramids for Fiji's Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988b). Fiji Population urban centers indicating estimated in-migration and census 1986. Volume 1- general tables. out-migration. Notes that although the pace of Parliamentary Paper No. 4. Urbanization is slow there are problems of Key: Fiji pop/mig employment and housing. Contains the census' administrative report and data tables on popolation distributions, origin, sex, age, Griffin, C., & Monsell-Davis, M. (Ed.). (1986). religion, school attendance, educational attainment, Fijians in Towns. Suva: Institute of Pacific economic ac.ivity and housing. Studies. Key: Fiji pop/wig econ/dev social Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988c). Report on Fiji, A collection of studies ( notes elsewhere) that reviews Population Census 1986. Volume 5- Internal several facets of urban life, but especially social Migration. Parliamentary Paper No. 21 of 1988. issues and questions of identity. Suva: Bureau of Statistics. Key: Fiji pop/mig Kaurasi, L. (1977). Rotuman communities in Fiji Central Planning Office (1991). Situation Fiji: Raiwai, Raiwaqa and Lomaivuna. In C. Analysis of the children in Fiji. Suva. Plant (Eds.), Rotuona: Split Island. Suva: Key: Fiji poverty social econ/dev pop/mig Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Examines situation of today's children, forecasts South Pacific. (pp. 161-172). future impacts on children. Contains statistical Key: Fiji pop/mig social annexures on health, education and economic issues. Lasaqa, I. (1984). The Fijian People: Before Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban and After Independence. Canberra: Australian Development (1991). Urban centers and National University Press. identification and administration. Working Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev social Paper No. 4. Suva: UNCHS. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev plan/man housing Nair, S. (1980). Rural-born Fijians and Indo- Fijians in Suva: a study of movements and Fiji Ministry of Labor Industrial Relations and linkages. Monograph No 24. Canberra: Immigration (1981). Urban drift and Development Studies Center Australian National unemployment: problems and solutions. University. Seventh South Pacific Labor Ministers Key: Fiji pop/mig squatter social Conference, (unpublished). Key: Fiji pop/mig Nair, S. (1985). Fijians and Indo-Fijians in Overview of urban employment and social problems, Suva: rural-urban movements and linkages. In which discusses the rationale for migration, and D. Chapman & R. M. Prothero (Eds.), offers some strategies for resolving urban problems Circulation in Population Movement. London: through rural development, resettlement and gr Routledge and Kegan Paul. (pp. 306-329). centers. 81 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Fiji pop/mig Labor migration is a function of uneven development, Examination of migration to Suva in the late 1970s, but is often temporary, in this case study of villages including long-established and more transient urban in Kadavu, hence Urbanization is limited. populations in planned housing and squatter Stavenuiter, S. (1982). Internal migration in settlements, which indicates that Indians are generally South Pacific countries: a symptom of inequality more committed to permanent urban residence. and unemployment. SPC/ILO Conference on Migration, Employment and Development in the National Center for Development Studies South Pacific, Noumea. (unpublished). (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Key: Fiji pop/mig Database: Fji. Loose-leaf file Canberra: Examines inter regional migration and Urbanization National Center for Pacific Studies Australian in Fiji, with particular reference to changes in income National University. distribution and employment structures. Considers Key: Fiji over econ/dev finance pop/mig policies that might slow migration by stimulating Contains current and historical statistics on: rural and regional development and decentralization, population, migration, demography and housing; with reference to existing planning strategies. education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Tubuna, S. (1985). Patterns of Fijian return labor, employment and wages; prices and price migration in the Wainibuka River valley: Viti indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Levu, Fiji. In M. Chapman & R. Prothero distribution; transport and communication; d (Eds.), Oirculation in Population Movement. tourism. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (pp. 213- Reddy, K. M. (1976). Some Squatters in Suva. 224). Basic Research in Pacific Islands No. 4. Suva: Ex ton of the structue of Fijian migration and School of Social and Economic Development, return to a rural area of eastern Viti Lnvu. Most University of the South Pacific. return migration is for social reasons, though others Key: Fiji pop/mig housing return because of economic disappointments. An examination of three squatter settlement with basic data on thirty households covering housing Tuimaleali'ifano, M. (1990). Samoans in Fiji. status, tenancy, population and ehnicturei, Migradon, identity and communication. Suva: migration, health, social participation and residential . preferences, followed by four case studies of Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the particular households. The data are from 1975. Sout Piic. Key: Fiji pop/mig Detailed account of Samoans in Fiji from pre-colonial Soflae ecoom y (19) L r iratireonad toe times to contemporary issues, which examines land village economy in Fiji. Singapore Journal of isus lingistic change and identity. Tropical Geography, 13(2), 118-129. Key: Fiji pop/mig UNESCO/UNFPA (1977). Population, An examination of labor migration from Kadavu, resources and development in the eastern islands with income distribution data, which concludes that . . . circular migration preserves the village mode of of Fiilomt n for des m n. Canberra: Development Studies Center, production. Australian National University. Sofer, M. (1993). Uneven regional development Key: Fiji pop/mig and internal labor migration in Fiji. World Vinisa A. (1991). The burden of poverty on Development, 21(2), 301-310. women in Fiji, with special emphasis on women Key: Fiji pop/mig 82 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources in the rural areas. Suva. University of the Bienefeld, M. (1984). Work and Income for the South Pacific. People of Fiji: a Strategy for More than Just Key: Fiji poverty pop/mig over Survival. Parliamentary Paper No. 66. Final Report of the Fiji Employment and Development Walsh, A. C. (1976). The ethnic variable in Fiji Mission Suva: Government Printer. Urbanization. In L. A. Kosinski & J. W. Webb Key: Fiji econ/dev govt plan/man (Eds.), Population at Microscale. Hamilton: This is the most detailed and comprehensive study NZ Geographical Society and International ever undertaken of all aspects of employment and Geographicml Union. (pp. 163-77). development in Fiji. It covers population change and Key: Fiji pop!mig squatter the labor force, labor supply and the market for labor Review of demographic change between 1956 and and the creation of employment opportunities. There 1966, with reference to migration and Urbanization, is an extensive discussion of land issues. and the ethnic composition of Suva's subu'bs. Bryant, J. J. (1990). Self-help in Fiji: squatter Ward, R. G. (1965). Land use and Population housing and informal employment as responses in Fiji: A Geographical Study. London: to poverty. In R. B. Potter & A. T. Salau HMSO. (Eds.), Cities and Development in the Third Key: Fiji land econ/dev pop/mig World. Mansell in association with the A very detailed, but now very dated, study of Commonwealth Foundation. (pp. 86-99). population and migration, rural development and land Key: Fiji squatter housing plan/man tenure. Bryant, J. J., & Khan, F. (1990). Population and housing in Fiji. In R. Chandra & J. Bryant (Eds.), Population of Fiji. Population Monograph No. 1. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. (pp. 195-204). Ali, A., & Mamak, A. (1979). Industrial Key: Fiji pop/mig housing plan/man Relations in Fiji and Bougainville. In Race class A detailed evaluation of the housing situation in Fiji, and rebellion in the South Pacific. Sydney: based on 1976 census data and subsequent Housing Allen and Unwin. (pp. 21-43). Authority statistics, which considers land issues, the Key: Fiji social govt facilities and services in housing and the future A now rather dated account of the emergence of trade development of the housing stock. unions in Fiji and Papua New Guinea, in Sava (and at the mining town of Panguna), that examines the Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the complexity of race, class and ethnicity in urban environnent in the South Pacific. Armidale: environments. University of New England. Department of Geography and Planning. Atkins Land and Water Management (1983). Key: WS Kir Fiji poverty land plan/man Western Vanua Levu regional plan. Suva: Examines the linkages between changing Central Planning Office. environments and increasing poverty in the urban Key: Fiji water plan/man centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Urbanization, poverty and environmental management and legislation in the region, examining Australia Department of Transport a cultural factors and government/community Construction (1982). Fi: Suva water supply responses. Provides a case study of Fiji looking at augmentation project. Project No. 12. Canberra these issues and refers to the situation in Western Australian Development Assistance Bureau. Samoa, Kiribati and Vanuatu and the work of the Key: Fiji water plan/man South Pacific Regional Environment Program 83 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources (SPREP). Looks at scenarios dealing with an urban Key: Fiji plan/man future in which poverty is on the increase addressing Durutalo, S. (1986). The Paramountcy of Fijian issues in land, urban infrastructural management Interest and the Politicization of Ethnicity. poverty alleviation and research needs. South Pacific Forum Working Paper No. 6. Suva: University of the South Pacific Cameron, J. (1983). The Extent and Structure of Sociological Society. Poverty in Fiji and Possible Elements of a Key: Fiji govt social poplmig Government Anti-Poverty Strategy in the 1980s. Working Paper No. 19. Suva: Fiji Employment Fiji (1993). Opportunities for growth: policies and Development Mission. and strategies for Fiji in the medium term. Key: Fiji poverty govt Parliamentary Paper No. 2. Suva. Cameron, J. (1987). Fiji: the political economy Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man of recent events. Capital and Class, 33(Winter), Fiji Association of Women Graduates (1991). A 29-45. Study of Families in Two Low-Cost Housing Key: Fiji govt Development Schemes in Sava. Suva: FAWG. An evaluation of the economic and social context of Key: Fiji housing social plan/man squatter the military coups, that focuses on the extent of urban social discontent associated with urban unemployment Fiji C Pann Office (1975). Fi's levels for youth that reached 25 per cent. Seventh Development Plan 1976-1980. Suva: Chandra, R. (1988a). Fiji and the New C P Office. International Division of Labor: A study of the Key: Fiji over plan/man f ce econdcv Tax Free System. Paper No. 11. Suva: School F.i P Office (1980). Eighth of Social an Economic Development University Development Plan, 1981-1985. Suva: Central of the South Pacific. . Key: Fiji finance govt econ/dev Pann fie Key: Fiji govt plan/man econ/dev water sew Chandra, R. (1988b). Urbanization in the South solid/waste Pacific: a survey of levels, processes, problems Fiji Cetral Plaming Office (1985). Fiji's ninth and implications. Working Paper No. 11. development plan, 1986-1990. policies, Suva: School of Social and Economic strategies and programs for national Development University of the South Pacific. development. Parliamentary Paper No. 69 of Key: Fiji over plan/man 1985. Chandra, R., & Gunasekera, H. M. (1984). Key: Fiji plan/man finance econ/dev govt water Regional planning and policy in Fiji. In B. sew solid/waste Reginlplan ands- pegonl ineFijiIntB. Provides a background to Fiji's economic Prantilla (Eds.), Regional Development: environment and describes sectoral and regional Problems and Policy Response in Five Asian policies and programs in primary industry, tourism, and Paci1c Countries. Nagoya: UNCRD. (pp. secondary industry, infatructure and utilities, 281-339). construction and housing, and social and community Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man development. Donges, G. C. (1969). A regional planning Fiji Central Planning Office (1989). Policies and scheme for the Suva regional area. Suva: straegies for the short and medium term. Department of Lands, Mines and Surveys, Town Mimeo Suva: Ministry of Finance. Planning Section. RA Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Fiji plan/man finance 18.10.84: Kinoya outfall study: inoya Fiji Central Planninp Office (1990). sewerage treatment .... Canberra: Department of Construction, housing and local government Transport and Construction for the Australian group 6 report. National Economic Summit, Development Assistance Bureau. Suva. Ministry of Finance. Key: Kir Fiji sew plan/man water Key: Fiji housing plan/man Gale, I. N. (1981). Final report of the Nandi Fiji Council of Social Services (1991). groundwater evaluation project, Fiji. Suva: Voluntary Action Network Newsletter, 5(1), Geophysics and Hydrology Division. 1,10-11. Key: Fiji water plan/man Key: Fiji econ/dev govt plan/man Howard, M. C. (1987). The trade union Fiji Depar.. of Town and Country Planning movement in Fiji. In M. Taylor (Eds.), Fiji: (1975a). G- / Suva structure plan. Suva: Future Imperfect? Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Department of Town and Country Planning. (pp. 108-121). Key: Fiji plan/man over Key: Fiji econ/dev over plan/man Only detailed structure planning study for the Greater A study of the evolution of Fiji's trade union Suva area. Revision of the draft regional plan of movement, the conflicts between unions and 1969. governments and the significance of unionism in the formal sector and thus for the future of social and Fiji Department of Town and Country Planning economic development. (1975b). Town Planning Ordinance, general provisions (1970) including alterations 1-5. Jackson, J. B. (1989). Report on the extension Suva: Department of Town Planning. of boundaries for the City of Suva. Suva: City Key: Fiji plan/man Council. Key: Fiji plan/man Fiji Ministry of Housing & Urban Development (1993). National environment strategy. Suva: John, D. E. (1969). City of Suva Town Planning Environment Unit. Scheme. Suva. Key: Fiji environ plan/man Key: Fiji plan/man Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban Khan, J. (1991). Country paper: Fiji. Seminar Development (1991a). Housing development on Integrated Management of Public Urban costs and affordability. Working Paper No.!. Services, Paris. Suva: UNCHS. Key: Fiji plan/man Key: Fiji housing finance plan!-nan Krishnan, V. (1981) Appropriate construction Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban methods in F#i. M. Eng thesis, Christchurch: Development (1991b). Urban centers and University of Canterbury (unpublished). idenyfifcation and administration. Working Key: Fiji plan/man Paper No. 4. Suva: UNCHS. Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev plan/man housing Madigi, I. (1981). A youth group housing project in Vunidawamoli, Vanua Levu, Fiji. In Flutter, J. (1984). Visit report: Kiribati, P. Thomas (Eds.), Pacfc Youth: Selected 7.10.84-14.10.84: Tarawa sewerage project: Studies on Youth and Development in the South Tarawa water supply project: Fiji, 14.10.84- Pacfic. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies in 85 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Association with Commonwealth Youth Presents three brief case studies of agricultural Program, University of the South Pacific. (pp. projects in western Vanua Levu. Reviews the 79-90). development proposal commissioned from Atkins Key: Fiji housing plan/man Land and Water Management Ltd in 1983. Outlines the history of a youth self-help housing project and stresses the importance of consultation Overton, J. (1989). Land and Differentiation in planning and community involvement. Rural Fiji. Pacific Research Monograph No 19. Canberra: National Center for Development McInnes, L. (1988). The water resources of Studies Australian National University. Vatulele Island, south-west Fiji. The Journal of Key: Fiji land plan/man social Pacdfic Studies, 14, 2041. A detailed account of rural social and economic Key: Fiji water plan/man development and the impact of changes in different Based on a field study conducted in 1985, compares contexts on socio-economic inequality. and contrasts the water resources of four communities on Vatulele. Describes the availability and quality of Overton, J. (1990a). infrastructure and groundwater, storage facilities, and demand for water multilevel development: some examples from of different quality and its usage. Indicates changes Fiji. Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 34- since the completion of the water supply 47. improvement project. Key: Fiji econ/dev social govt water Examines issues in the relationship between Murray, W. (1992). Planning standards. infrastructural development and multilevel Working Paper No. 4. Suva: Asian development with reference to case studies in Fiji. Development Bank Technical Assistance for Makes conclusions about the importance of Institutional Strengthening. infrastructural development in overall economic Key: Fiji plan/man planning. Nayacakalou, R. (1971). Fiji: manipulating the Overton, J. (1990b). The role of infrastructural system. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land Tenure in development as a basis for multilevel the Pacific. Melbourne: Oxford University development. Nagoya: Central Planning Press. (pp. 206-26). Department and United Nations Center for Key: Fiji govt land Regional Development. An early definitive study of Fijian land tenure, and its Key: Fiji econ/dev land plan/man govt environ considerable flexibility. Examines the relationship between infrastructure devlopment and multilevel development, including Nayacakalou, R. R. (1978). Tradition and the role of private and public capital, interaction of Change in the Fjian Village. Suva: South state programs and wider macroeconomics forces, Pacific Social Sciences Association University costs of establishment and running, and the nature of of the South Pacific. multilevel development. Refers to several Fijian case Key: Fiji social plan/man econ/dev S PADCO (1991a). Dejinitions, trends and Overton, J. (1987). Roads, rice and cane. .nsei rela.n isin urb n nd Regional planning and rural development in m sterial relaonships in urban development. western Vanna Levu, Fiji. Pacific Viewpoint, supporting paper for UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 28(1), 40-54. Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man land Development. Argues that regional development has not been Key: Fiji govt over compatible with national development in Fiji. 86 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources PADCO (1991b). Metropolitan government: Key: Fiji govt plan/man form-fitting it for Fiji with ezisting law. supporting paper for UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 United Nations Development Program and UN Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban Center for Human Settlements (1991). Policy Development. Recommendations for Housing and Urban Key: Fiji plan/man Development. Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. PADCO (1991c). Urban centers idendfication Key: Fiji housing econ/dev water solid/waste and administration. supporting paper for sew govt plan/man UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 Suva: Ministry of Identifies key factors affecting Urbanization in Fiji Housing and Urban Development. and lists policy recommendations and strategies for Key: Fiji plan/man better urban management. Also includes policy recommendations to improve housing supply for low Qalo, R. R. (1991). Urban administration. to middle income earners. UNDP/UNCHS Urbanization/Housing Policy Study. Suva:: University of the South Pacific. Walsh, A. C. (1978) The Urban Squater Key: Fiji plan/man govt Question: Squatting, Housing and Urbanization in Suva, Fiji. PH.D thesis, Massey University, Schutz, A. J. (1978). Suva. A History and Palmerston North (unpublished). Guide. Sydney: Pacific Publications. Key: Fiji squatter housing plan/man over Key: Fiji plan/man over An illustrated history of the growth of Suva from Walsh, A. C. (1979). Appropriate and colonial times, that focuses on the construction of inappropriate housing for the urban poor: the prominent buildings, and the reclamation of coastal Fiji experience. ANZAAS Conference, areas, and discusses the significance of particular Auckland. (unpublished). streets. Key: Fiji housing squatter plan/man Reviews the problems of housing provision by the Slatter, C. (1991). Economic recovery on the Authority and the growth of squatter settlements. backs of women workers: women and tax free This has been largely superseded by Walsh (1984). enterprises in Fiji. Review - Diver*ity in Development, 12(19), 18-28. Walsh, A. C. (1980). Have we been squatting Key: Fiji over finance govt too long: a Fijian study. In R. Jackson, P. Batho, & J. Odongo (Eds.), Urbanization and Sofer, M. (1987). Core Periphery Structure in its Problems in Papua New Guinea. Port Fiji. Environment and Planning D. Society and Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea Space, 6, 55-74. Printery. (pp. 341-350). Key: Fiji plan/man econ/dev Key: Fiji housing plan/man Overview of a study of squatters in Suva conducted Spate, 0. H. K. (1990). The Fijian scene: some between 1974 and 1976, that examines marginality in reflections. Confidential report to the Colonial different contexts, and reflects on the paucity of data. Office September 1959. Journal of Pacific Walsh, A. C. (1984). The search for an History, 25(1), 103-124. appropriate housing policy in Fiji. Third World Key: Fiji over govt Planning Review, 6(2), 185-200. Key: Fiji housing planiman squatter Suva City Council (1992). Annual Report 1991. Explores both official and spontaneous responses to Suva. the deteriorating urban housing situation in the 1970s. This covers four schemes developed by the 87 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Housing Authority, and their limitations, and the Cole, R., & Hughes, H. (1988). The Frji significance of squatter' responses. economy: problems and prospects. Pacific Policy Papers No. 4. Canberra: National Center Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in for Development Studies. the Pacific: A survey of resource use and policy Key: Fiji finance econ/dev over in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Overview of Fijian economy, with reference to both West Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. long term trends and the impact of the military coups 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources on economic growth. University of the South Pacific. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man Fiji Central Planning Office (1975). Fiji's Seventh Development Plan 1976-1980. Suva: Wight, I. D. (1974). Draft town planning Central Planning Office. scheme for Suva Central Area. (unpublished). Key: Fiji over plan/man finance econ/dev Key: Fiji p Fiji Central Planning Office (1985). Fiji's ninth World Bank (1990). StajJ Appraisal Report: development plan, 1986-1990: policies, Republic of Fiji. Washington DC: Fiji Housing strategies, and programs for national Project. development. Parliamentary Paper No. 69 of Key: Fiji housing govt plan/man 1985. Key: Fiji plan/man finance econ/dev govt water sew solid/waste Provides a background to Fiji's economic FINANCE AND DEVELOPr UT"NT environment and describes sectoral and regional policies and programs in primary industry, tourism, secondary industry, infrastructure and utilities, Australia International Development Assistance construction and housing, and social and community Bureau (1992). The Economy of Fiji - development. Performance, Management and Prospects. Fiji Central Planning Office (1989). Policies and International Development Issues No. 25. strategies for the short and medum term. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Mime Suvr. Ministry of Fce Service. Key: Fiji plan/man finance Key: Fiji econ/dev finance This report presents a survey of recent developments . in, and prospects for, the Fijian economy. It provides Fiji Central Planning Office (1990). Roundtable an analytical overview of important developments and meeting on development assistance, issues, drawing from a wide range of govemment, requirements, Vol's , II, & III. Mimeo Suva: international agency and academic sources, but Ministry of Finance. focuses on macro-economic management, including Key: Fiji finance allocative and distributional issues. Fiji Central Planning Office (1991). National Chandra, R. (1988). Fiji and the New Economic Summit May 1991: review of International Division of Labor: A study of the performance of the Fiji economy. Suva: Tax Free System. Paper No. 11. Suva: School Central Planning Office. of Social an Economic Development University Key: Fiji econ/dev over finance of the South Pacific. Background paper for discussion on the future of the Key: Fiji finance govt econldev Fiji economy at the 1991 National Economic Summit. Covers economic development since 1987, evolution 88 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources of economic policy in the period, and actions taken to Island Entrepreneurs: problems and implement policy. Performances in the Pacfic. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Fiji Ministry of Finance (1991). Public Rental Center. Board: Financial options available to Key: Fiji finance government. Suva: Ministry of Finance. Key: Fiji finance Samisoni, M. (1986). Fijian women in business. In Indigenous Business Development in the Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban Pacific. Final Report of Regional Workshop. Development (1991). Housing development costs Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development and afordability. Working Paper No. 3. Suva: Program, East-West Center. UNCHS. Key: Fiji econldev social finance Key: Fiji housing finance plan/man Siwatibau, S. (1991). Some aspects of Grey, P. (1988). Availability of housing finance development in the South Pacific: an insider's and its effect on housing in Fiji. Suva: view. In P. Bauer, S. Siwatibau, & W. Kasper Department of Land Management University of (Eds.), Aid and Development in the South the South Pacific. Paciic. Pacific Papers 2. Sydney: Center for Key: Fiji finance housing Independent Studies. (pp. 19-44). Luckett, D. G. (1987). Monetary policy in Fiji. Key: Fiji econ/dev govt finance Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of Slatter, C. (1991). Economic recovery on the the South Pacific. backs of women workers: women and tax free Key: Fiji finance enterprises in Fiji. Review - Diversity in Overview of the economy with a detailed analysis of Development, 12(19), 18-28. commercial banking, non-banking financial Key: Fiji over finance govt intermediaries, financial banks, the role of the Reserve Bank and monetary policy. Sturton, M. (1989). Modeling the Fiji Economy. National Center for Development Studies Research Report Series No. 12. Honolulu: (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Pacific Islands Development Program, East- Database: Fiji. Loose-leaf file Canberra: West Center. National Center for Pacific Studies Australian Key: Fiji econ/dev finance National University. Key: Fiji over econ/dev finance pop/mig Sutherland, W. M. (1984) The state and Contains current and historical statistics on: capitalist development in Fyi. Ph.D thesis, population, migration, demography and housing; Christchurch: University of Canterbury education; health; national accounts; international (unpublished). accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: Fiji econ/dev finance over labor, employment and wages: prices and price Taylor, M. (1987). Issues in Fiji's development: indices; rural industries; secondary industries and economic rationality or aid with dignity? In M. distribution; transport and communication; and Taylor (Eds.), Fiji: Future Imperfect? Sydney: torism. Allen and Unwin. (pp. 1-13). Key: Fiji finance over econ/dev Qarase, L. (1988). Finance for indigenous Overview of recent development trends and issues in enterprises: the case of Fiji and the Fiji Fiji, that consider land issues, aid, wage levels and Development Bank. In T. I. J. Fairbairn (Eds.), markets, and the manner in which Fiji is linked into 89 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources many world markets through particular concessionary An examination of the World Bank's first project arrangements. lending to the Fiji government for the reconstruction of the highway between Suva and Nadi, which United Nations (1989). Mubilization offinancial reviews the costs and benefits of the highway, and resources for low income groups. Nairobi: considers that .he costs of the loan were severe. United Nations Center for Human Settlement. Key: Fiji housing finance Clarke, W. C., & Morris-n, R. J. (1987). Land mismanagement and the development imperative in Fiji. In P. Blaikie & H. C. Brookfield (Eds.), Land Degradation and Society. London: URBAN LAND Methuen. (pp. 176-187). Key: Fiji land econ/dev environ Bayliss-Smith, T., & Haynes, P. (1988). Land Greenwood, D. (1991). Urban land markets and settlement as a rural development strategy. In J. supply. Prepared for the UNDP Overton (Eds.), Rural Fiji. Suva: University of Urbanization/Housing Policy Study. Suva: the South Pacific. (pp. 123-145). University of the South Pacific. Key: Fiji land Key: PNG Fiji land Examines different kinds of rural settlement policies and practices, with respect to both Indian and Fijian Kamianica, J., & Davey, T. (1988). Trust on settlement, focusing on Seaqaqa in Vanua Lev, trial: the development of the customary land which has implications for development planning and trilt ept of th cusmr land population mobility, trust concept in Fiji. In Y. Ghai (Eds.), Law, Government and Politics in the Pacfic Island Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the States. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: University of the South Pacific. (pp. 285-304). University of New England. Department of Key: Fiji land Geography and Planning. Key: WS Kir Fiji poverty land plan/man Nayacakalou, R. (1971). Fiji: manipulating the Examines the linkages between changing system. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land Tenure in environments and increasing poverty in the urban the Pacfic. Melbourne: Oxford University centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Press. (pp. 206-26). Urbanization, poverty and environmental Key: Fiji govt land management and legislation in the region, examining An early definitive study of Fijian land teaure, and its cultural factors and government1community considerable flexibility. responses. Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues and refers to the situation in Western Overton, J. (1987). Roads, rice and cane. Samoa, Kiribati and Vanuatu and the work of the Regional planning and rural development in South Pacific Regional Environment Program western Vanua Levu, Fiji. Pacic Viewpoint, (SPREP). Looks at scenarios dealing with an urban 28(1) 40-54 future in which poverty is on the increase addressing K F issue inln,ubn M mngmn Key: Fiji econ/dev plan/man land poverty aneviation and resrd r needs. Argues that regional development has not been compatible with national development in Fiji. Chand, G. (1989). The World Bank in Fiji: the Presents three brief case studies of agricultural projects in western Vanna Levu. Reviews the case of the Suva-Nadi Highway Reconstruction development proposal commissioned from Atkins Project. Developmenr and Change, 20, 235-267. Land and Water Management Ltd in 1983. Key: Fiji econ/dev land 90 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Overton, J. (Ed.). (1988). Rural Fji. Suva: Ward, R. G. (1965). Land use and Population Institute of Pacific Studies University of the in Fiji: A Geographical Study. London: South Pacific. HMSO. Key: Fiji land econ/dev Key: Fiji land econ/dev pop/migA very detailed, A detailed account of rural social and economic but now very dated, study of population and development and the impact of changes in different migration, rural development and land tenure contexts on socio-economic inequality. Whitelaw, J. (1966) People, land and Overton, J. (1989). Land and Differentiation in government in Suva. Ph.D thesis, Canberra: Rural Fiji. Pacific Research Monograph No 19. Australian National University (unpublished). Canberra: National Center for Development Key: Fiji land housing squatter Studies Australian National University. Very dated but detailed account of Urbanization in Key: Fiji land plan/man social Suva, which covers such issues as the emergence of A detailed account of rural social and economic slums in Toorak. development and the impact of changes in different contexts on socio-economic inequality. Overton, J. (1990). The role of infrastructural RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT development as a basis for multilevel development. Nagoya: Central Planning Asian Development Bank (1989). Appraisal of Department and United Nations Center for Low Income Housing Development Project in Regional Development. Fiji. In Manila: Asian Development Bank Key: Fiji econ/dev land plan/man govt environ (unpublished). Examines the relationship between infrastructure Key: Fiji housing development and multilevel development, including the role of private and public capital, interaction of Barker, T., Lindfield, M., Waqabaca, F., & state programs and wider macroeconomics forces, Yanvoli, A. (nd). dousing sector resources costs of establishment and running, and the nature of mobilization study Fiji. Manila: Asian multilevel development. Refers to several Fijian case Development Bank. studies. Key: Fiji housing Overton, J. (1992). The limits to accumulation: Barr, K. J. (1990). Poverty in Fiji. Suva:: Fiji. changing land tenure in Fiji. Journal o Forum for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Studies, 19(2), 326-42. Creation. Key: Fiji land Key: Fiji poverty Examines processes of class formation and their An analysis of poverty in Fiji that is useful for its limited relationship to land accumulation. Co l wide range of case studies, balanced with statistical' data, from a number of rural and urban contexts, land tenure has meant that relatively little land has watch revie oicy and ma olicy been leased out, since effectively sovereignty over recommiendiations. land has been lost to the state and the gains from leasing are minimal. Rupeni, T. (1983). Dealing with foreshore land. Bryant, J. J. (1990a). The acceptable face of In P. Lal (Eds.), Mangrove Resources self-help housing: subletting in Fiji squatter Mn.agem en. Suva: Fisheries Division, settlements-exploitation or survival strategy? In Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. D. W. Drakakis-Smith (Eds.), Economic Key: Fiji environ land Growth and Urbanization in Developing Areas. London- Routledge. (pp. 171-95). Key: Fiji housing squatter 91 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Bzyant, J. J. (1990b). Self-help in Fiji: squatter Working Paper No. 19. Suva: Fiji Employment housing and informal employment as responses and Development Mission. to poverty. In R. B. Potter & A. T. Salau Key: Fiji poverty govt (Eds.), Cities and Development in the Third World. Mansell in association with the Chaudhary, T. R. (1987). The squatters of Commonwealth Foundation. (pp. 86-99). Sigatoka Sandhills, Fiji. In L. Mason & P. Key: Fiji squatter housing plan/man Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva:: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 155-172). Bryant, J. J. (1992). Poverty in Fiji: who are Key: Fiji housing squatter the urban poor? Singapore Journal of Tropical An analysis of a single squatter settlement outside the Geography, 13(2), 92-102. small town of Sigatoka. There is a detailed account of Key: Fiji poverty land issues, and an examination of the reasons for migration to the settlement, demographic structure, Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the occupations and housing structure, and sanitation, Brne. in (93 urbaipo.ermdan e which records that the conditions are deplorable. environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: University of New England. Department of Crosby, A. R. (1988). A review of the rental Geography and Planning. housing program of the Fiji Housing Authority. Key: WS Kir Fiji poverty land plan/man Suva: Asian Development Bank. Examines the linkages between changing Ke environments and increasing poverty in the urban y: Fiji housing centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Urbanization, poverty and environmental Fiji Association of Women Graduates (1991). A management and legislation in the region, examining Study of Families in Two Low-Cost Housing cultural factors and governmenticommunity Development Schemes in Suva. Suva: FAWG. responses. Provides a case study of Fiji looking at Key: Fiji housing social plan/man squatter these issues and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati and Vanuatu and the work of the Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988). Fi Population South Pacific Regional Environment Program census 1986. Volume 6- housing and services. (SPREP). Looks at scenarios dealing with an urban Parliamentary Paper No. 11. future in which poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, urban infrastructural management Key: Fiji housing water sew poverty alleviation and research needs. Presents census data on housing, households, water supply, electricity supply, lighting, cooking fuel, Bryant, J. J., & Khan, F. (1990). Population toilet facilities and tenure. and housing in Fiji. In R. Chandra & J. Bryant Fiji Central Planning Office (1990). (Eds.), Popuktion of Fiji Population Construction, housing and local government Monograph No. 1. Noumea: South Pacific group 6 report. National Economic Summit, Commission. (pp. 195-204). Suva. Ministry of Finance. Key: Fiji pop/mig housing plan/man Key: Fiji housing plance. A detailed evaluation of the housing situation in Fiji, based on 1976 census data and subsequent Housing Authority statistics, which considers land issues, the Fiji Central Planning Office (1991). Situation facilities and services in housing and the future Analysis of the children in Fiji. Suva. development of the housing stock. Key: Fiji poverty social econ/dev pop/mig Examines situation of today's children, forecasts Cameron, J. (1983). The Extent and Structure of future impacts on children. Contains statistical Poverty in Fiji and Possible Elements of a annexures on health, education and economic issues. Government Anti-Poverty Strategy in the 1980s. 92 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Fiji Ministry of Health (1991). Annual Report Seminar Paper No 364, Stockholm. University for the Years 1987 and 1988. Suva: Ministry of Stockholm. of Health. Key: Fiji poverty econ/dev Key: Fiji housing over Keith-Reid, R. (1983). The other side of Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban paradise. Islands Business, 9(3), 12-18. Development (1991a). Housing development Key: Fiji housing social squatter costs and affordability. Working Paper No. 3. A brief account of the situation of squatters in Fiji, Suva: UNCHS. that considers the role of NGOs, and health, Key: Fiji housing finance plan/nan unemployment and nutrition problems. Fiji Ministry of Housing and Urban Laqere, W. (1987). The Malekula settlement, Development (1991b). Urban centers and Suva. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In idendfication and adminitration. Working Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Paper No. 4. Suva: UNCHS. Studies, University of South Pacific. (pp. 56- Key: Fiji pop/mig econ/dev plan/man housing )* Key: Fiji squatter housing Fiji National Economic Summit (1985). Report Examination of a long-established (1939) squatter of the task force in housing and building settlement in Sava, which discussed employment and incomes, education status, migration history and the secto. ua: Ntonl particular problems of this settlement, including Key: Fiji housing econ/dev insecurity and lack of service provision. Finseth, T. (1990). Housing in urban Fiji. Madigi, I. (1981). A youth group housing Mimeo No. F. 155/191. Suva: Habitat for project in Vunidawamoli, Vanua Levu, Fiji. In Humanity International. P. Thomas (Eds.), Pacfic Youth: Selected Key: Fiji housing Studies on Youth and Development in the South Pacific. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies in Finseth, T., & Bair, K. J. (1991). ColAssociation with Commonwealth Youth Organizations/ private sector. Prepared for the Program, University of the South Pacific. (pp. UNDP/UNCHS Urbanization/Housing Policy 79-90). Study. (unpublished). Key: Fiji housing plan/man Key: Fiji poverty housing squatter social Outlines the history of a youth self-help housing project and stresses the importance of consultation Grey, P. (1988). Availability of housing finance planning and community involvement. and its effect on housing in Fji. Suva: Department of Land Management University of Monsell-Davis, M. (1980). Buccaneers and the South Pacific. Chiefs: Muckers and the City. Crime and Key: Fiji finance housing delinquency amongst young Fijians. Suva: School of Social and Economic Development, Hurley, F. D. (1967). Report on the low income University of the South Pacific (unpublished). housing situation in Fiji. Report to the Minister Key: Fiji social poverty of Social Services Suva: Government Press. An early study of youth unemployment and Key: Fiji housing criminality in Sava. Kanbur, S. N. R. (1986). Inequality, poverty Morrison, D., & Solly, R. (1978). Impact of and development - with application to Fiji. residential development on Laucala Bay and 93 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Suva Harbor. Institute of Natural Resources PADCO (1991a). Housing development costs Environmental Studies Report No. 2. Suva: and affordability. supporting paper for University of the South Pacific. UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 Suva: Ministry of Key: Fiji housing Housing and Urban Development. Key: Fiji housing Motilal, F. (1986) Urban squatters: a city's people or a city's curse? Case study, Suva, Fiji. PADCO (1991b). Policy matters and housing. Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning thesis supporting paper for UNDPIUNCHS study 1991 (unpublished). Armidale: University of New Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban England. Development. Key: Fiji housing squatter Key: Fiji housing Nair, S. (1980). Rural-born Fijians and Indo- PADCO (1991c). Rental housing. supporting Fijians in Suva: a study of movements and paper for UNDP/UNCHS study 1991 Suva: linkages. Monograph No 24. Canberra: Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Development Studies Center Australian National Key: Fiji housing University. Key: Fiji pop/mig squatter social Reddy, K. M. (1976). Some Squatters in Suva. Basic Research in Pacific Islands No. 4. Suva: Nicholson, H. (1988). Socio-economic School of Social and Economic Development, conditions of squatter settlements in Vmsuwaqa, University of the South Pacific. Suva. (unpublished) Suva: University of the Key: Fiji poplmig housing South Pacific. An examination of three squatter settlement with Key: Fiji econ/dev squatter basic data on thirty households covering housing status, tenancy, population and ethnic structure, Pacific Building Standards Project (1990a). migration, health, social participation and residential Home building manual Fiji. Suva: Fiji Building preferences, followed by four case studies of d Ce particular households. The data are from 1975. Key: Fiji housing Sikivou, S. K. (1985) Housing the urban poor: Contains detail of conventional timber and masonry sute stlmnsinSv,Fj.. F= construction prepared to cater for the specific squatter settlements in Sava, Fs. MEcon environmental constraints of Fiji. dissertation, University College, Swansea. Key: Fiji housing squatter Pacific Building Standards Project (1990b). National building code. Suva: Fiji Building Suguta, A. (1987). Squatting in Fiji. In L. Standards Committee. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Key: Fiji housing Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, Contains detailed performance requirements for University of the South Pacific. (pp. 131-44). dwellings, public buildings and group dwellings. Key: Fiji squatter housing An overview of squatter settlements in Fiji, that PADCO (1989). Housing needs in Fiji. focuses on historical change and their development in Supporting paper for UNDP/UNCHS Study Sava, in terms of approaches to the issues of legality 1991 Suva: Ministry of Housing and Urban and service provision. The diversity of settlements Development, and squatters is considered, and five of the twenty- three settlements are given more detailed Key: Fiji housing consideration, with reference to why they exist and why people choose to live there. 94 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Suguta, A. B. (1983). Squatters and the Church: Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, an inquiry into the Church's awareness of University of the South Pacific. (pp. 145-54). squatting as a social problem in Fiji. Suva: Key: Fiji squatter social Columban Fathers. An overview of squatter settlements in Suva, that Key: Fiji squatter social examines the contribution of squatters to the urban Comprehensive study of Fiji, Urbanization in Fiji (to economy, and examines one settlement in terms of 1982). migration, dominance of Suva, services, employment, income and expenditure, housing squatters, forms and functions of Suva (including conditions and the concerns of squatters. health, housing and traffic), Suva's function as a growth pole and urban life in Suva. Vunakee, A. (1981). Youth and crime in a Fijian urban housing estate. In P. Thomas Suva City Council (1923). Report of a survey of (Eds.), Pacific Youth: Selected Studies on Youth unauthorized structures t"squatter settlements") and Development in the South Pacgic. Suva: within the City of Suva. Suva City Council. Institute of Pacific Studies in association with Suva: (unpublished). Commonwealth Youth Program, University of Key: Fiji squatter the South Pacific. (pp. 53-63). Key: Fiji social housing Suva City Council (1986). Squatter Report. Provides the methodology, results and conclusions of Suva: Health Services Department. a study of the correlation between socio-economic Key: Fiji squatter background and youth's propensity for crime in the Raiwaqa Housing Estate. Suva City Council (1990). Squatter Report. Vunisea, A. (1991). The burden of poverty on Key: Fiji squatter women in Fiji, with special emphasis on women in the rural areas. Suva. University of the United Nations (1989). Mobilization of fmancial South Pacific. resources for low income groups. Nairobi: Key: Fiji poverty poplmig over United Nations Center for Human Settlement. Key: Fiji housing fa Walsh, A. C. (1976). The ethnic variable in Fiji Urbanization. In L. A. Kosinski & J. W. Webb United Nations Development Program and UN (Eds.), Population at Microscale. Hamilton: Center for Human Settlements (1991). Policy NZ Geographical Society and International Recommendations for Housing and Urban Geographical Union. (pp. 163-77). Development. Suva: Ministry of Housing and Key: Fiji poplmig squatter Urban Development. Review of demographic change between 1956 and y F hopgen 1966, with reference to migration and Urbanization, Key: Fiji housing econ/dev water solid/waste and the ethnic composition of Suva's suburbs. sew govt plan/man Identifies key factors affecting Urbanization in Fiji Walsh, A. C. (1978) The Urban Squatter and lists policy recommendations and strategies for better urban management. Also includes policy Question Squating. Housing and Urbaniation recommendations to improve housing supply for low in Sava, Fr)i. PH.D thesis, Massey University, to middle income earners. Palmerston North (unpublished). Key: Fiji squatter housing plan/man over Vuetibau, I. K. (1987). Squatting and the California highway settlement, Suva. In L. Walsh, A. C. (1979). Appropriate and Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a inappropriate housing for the urban poor: the 95 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Fiji experience. ANZAAS Conference, URBAN SANITATION AND Aucldand. (unpublished). ENVIRONMENT Key: Fiji housing squatter plan/man Reviews the problems of housing provision by the Atkins Land and Water Management (1983). Authority and the growth of squatter settlements. Western Vanua Levu regional plan. Suva: This has been largely superseded by Walsh (1984). Central Planning Office. Walsh, A. C. (1980). Have we been quatting Key: Fiji water plan/man too long: a Fijian study. In R. Jackson, Australia Department of Housing and Batho, & J. Odongo (Eds.), Urbanization and Construction (1974). Report on disposal of its Problems in Papua New Guinea. Port seweragefrom the west side of Suva. Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea Key: Fii sew Printery. (pp. 341-350). Report offered nine different schemes for Key: Fiji housing plan/man consideration. Overview of a study of squatters in Suva conducted between 1974 and 1976, that examines marginality in Australia Department of Transport and different contexts, and reflects on the paucity of data. .. Construction (1982a). Fipi: Suva water supply Walsh, A. C. (1984). The search for an augmentation project. Project No. 12. Canberra: appropriate housing policy in Fiji. Third World Australian Development Assistance Bureau. Planning Review, 6(2), 185-200. Key: Fiji water plan/man Key: Fiji housing plan/man squatter Explores both official and spontaneous responses to Australia Department of Transport and the deteriorating urban housing situation in the Construction (1982b). Lautoka effluent ourfall. 1970s. This covers four schemes developed by the Canberra Department of Transport and Housing Authority, and their limitations, and the Construction. significance of squatter' responses. Key: Fiji water solid/waste sew Whitelaw, J. (1966) People, land and Carter, R. (1990). Predicted storm surge and government in Suva. Ph.D thesis, Canberra: wave set up for Suva and Laucala Bay Harbors Australian National University (unpublished). on Vii Leva Fiji. Technical Report No. 115. Key: Fiji land housing squatter Suva: SOPAC. Very dated but detailed account of Urbanization in Key: Fiji environ Suva, which covers such issues as the emergence of Examination of potential impact of storm surges, slums in Toorak. resulting from tropical cyclones, on the harbor and the waterfront area of Suva, where new developments World Bank (1990). Staff Appraisal Report: are under construction. Republic of Fiji. Washington DC: Fiji Housing Project. Clarke, W. C., & Morrison, R. J. (1987). Land Key: Fiji housing govt plan/man mismanagement and the development imperative in Fiji. In P. Blaikie & H. C. Brookfield (Eds.), Land Degradation and Society. London: Methuen. (pp. 176-187). Key: Fiji land econ/dev environ Coffey Partners International (1990). Appraisal of Suva sewerage project. Sydney: AIDAB Pacific Regional Team. 96 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Somrces Key: Fiji sew areas, gravity sewers, pumped mains, pmping Investigates whether the proposed new outfall from stations and treatment plants indicated. Kinoya treatment plant should be constructed or funds spent on backlog sewerage. Recommends deferral of Fiji National Economic Summit (1985). Report the outall construction. Identifies several constraints of the task force on infrastructure sector. Suva. to further development of the sewerage system. Key: Fiji water sew soli waste Fiji Bureau of Statistics (1988). Fiji Population Fiji National Economic Summit (1989). Policier census 1986. Volume 6- housing and services. and strategies for the short term and the medirn Parliamentary Paper No. 11. term. Office for the Minister of Finance and Key: Fiji housing water sew Economic Planning. Presents census data on housing, households, water Key: Fiji water sew soli&waste supply, electricity supply, lighting, cooking fuel, Discusses infrastructure and utilities development. toilet facilities and tenure. Fiji Central Planning Office (1980). Eighth Fiji Public Works Department (1976). FijiCentral Plani Office985 ( . Ceigthl Preliminary teffr and observations made in Development Plan, 1981-1985. Sava: Central order to determine the possible effects of a raw Planning Office. sewerage outfall outside Suva 's main reef. Suva. Key: FiIa govt plan/man Water and Sewerage Section. Key: Fiji sew Concluded the reef could be affected and Fiji Central Planning Office (1985). Fiji's ninth recomnmended tests be carried out. development plan, 1986-1990: policies, strategies, and programs for national Fiji Public Works Department (1990). Suva development. Parliamentary Paper No. 69 of water supply master plan, final project report. 1985. Suva. Overseas Projects Corporatin of Key: Fiji planman finance econdev govt Victoria, Australia. water sew solid/waste Key: Fiji water Provides a background to Fiji's economic Considers aspects of implementation of the first stage environment and describes sectoral and regional of the Sava water supply master plan, 1984. policies and programs in primary industry, tourism, secondary industry, infrastructure and utilities, Flutter, J. (1984). Visit report: Eiribad, construction and housing, and social and community 7.10.84-14.10.84: Tarawa sewerage project: development. Tarawa water supply project: Fiji, 14.10.84- 1&10.84: Kinoya outfall study: inoya Fiji Ministry of Housing & Urban Development sewerage treatment .... Canberra: Department of (1993). 1ational environment strategy. Sava Transport and Construction for the Australian Environment Unit. Key: Fiji environ p Development Assistance Bureau. Key: Kir Fiji sew planiman water Fiji Ministry of Infrastructue Public Works ad Gale, I. N. (1981). Final report of the Nandi Maritime (1992). Greater Suva sewerage groundwater emluation project, Fiji. Suva, scheme. Suva: Water and Sewerage Section. Geophysics and Hydrology Division. Key: Fiji sew Key: FiJi water plan/man Summary 4-page leaflet describing the Kinoya Ky iiwtrpa/a Sumizy -pag leftetdesribig te Kioya Harrison and Grierson and Partners (1970). treatment plant project 1971-84. Contains map of the Greater Suva sewerage scheme with existing sowred Report on the disposal of sewerage from the inoya District of the Sum Region. Suva. 97 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Ministry of Works, Water and Sewerage Longworh and McKenzie (1988). Suva water Section. supply project Fiji, appraisal report. Sydney: Key: Fiji sew AIDAB Pacific Regional Team. Report limited to the Kinoya and north east part of Key: Fiji water the city. Examines implementation of augmentation work for Harrison and Grierson and Partners (1971). the Suva water supply system recommended in Laurie Greater Suva sewerage scheme. Suva: Ministry Montgomerie and Pettit, 1984. of Works, Water and Sewerage Section. Key: Fiji sew McInnes, L. (1986) The management of water The report which recommended that Kinoya became resources in Vatulele, Fiji. B Sc Hons thesis, the central treatment plant for the Greater Suva area. University of Sydney (unpublished). Establishment of the Walu Bay pumping station Key: Fiji water recommended. Examination of water resources of Vatulele Island with reference to both the physical characteristics and Harrison and Grierson and Partners (1980). availability of water supplies, and to the relationship Report on sewage flows and characteristics in between water supplies, individual aspirations and the Central Suva Cty area. Suva. development planning. Key: Fiji sew Determine sewerage properties and loadings which McInnes, L. (1988). The water resources of would eventuate at Kinoya as a result of diversion of Vatulele Island, south-west Fiji. The Journal of the existing sewerage of Suva to Kinoya, owing to Paafic Studies, 14, 20-41. concens about fresh and sea water infiltration. Key: Fiji water plan/man Based on a field study conducted in 1985, compares Lal, P. (1984). Environmental implications of and contrasts the water resources of four communities coastal development in Fiji. AMBIO, 8(5-6), on Vamlele. Describes the availability and quality of 316-321. groundwater, storage facilities, and demand for water Key: Fiji environ of different quality and its usage. Indicates changes Overview of environmental problems in Fiji, since the completion of the water supply focusing on coastal degradation, through the uprovement project. destruction of mangroves and damage to coastal reefs, especially through land reclamation and Morris, D. L. (1986). Village water supplies in sedimentation, mainly following poorly planned and Fiji. School of Engineering Report No. 409. executed development projects. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Auckland, NZ. Lal, P. (1990). Conservation or conversion of Key: Fiji water environ mangroves in Fiji. Occasional Paper No. 11. Honolulu: EWC EAPI. Naidu, S., et al. (1991). Water quality studies Key: Fiji environ on selected South Pacific lagoons. Reports and Studies No. 49. Noumea: SPREP. Laurie, Montgomerie, & Pettit (1984). Suva Key: Fiji Van Kir Tonga SI water environ water supply master plans study. Suva: Covers Laucala Bay, Suva Harbor, Vila Harbor and Ministry of Works. Erakor Lagoon, Fanga'uta lagoon and Marovo Key: Fiji water lagoon. Major study of Suva's water supply system. Contains projected water requirements to 2006. Study covers Odense, R. (1992). Environmental survey of the the Greater Suva Urban Area and contiguous rural Walu Bay wharf ectension site. Institute of areas. Natural Resources Report No. 57. Suva: University of the South Pacific. 98 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Fiji environ Rao, B. (1992). Assessment and development of ground-water resources in Fiji. In Water Olsen, R. Y. (1991). Infrastructure services in Resources Management Techniques for Small FUi. Washington DC: PADCO. Islands. New York: United Nations Department Key: Fiji water sew solid/waste of Economics and Social Development. (pp. Detailed examination of existing services in Sava 141-148). metropolitan area and adjoining towns, and Nadi Key: Fiji water town. Contains population growth projections and This is a summary of recent activity by the Mineral estimates of water, sewerage, electrical, roads and Resources Development Authority of recent studies of drainage, and solid waste needs. Includes cost ground-water assessment and development, that also assessment. examines legislation and policy and discusses recent projects and future programs. Overton, J. (1990a). Infrastructure and multilevel development: some examples from Roberts, S. (1989). Sfties of water-borne Fiji. Regional Development Dialogue, 11(4), 34- bacteria in Fiji and implications for public 47. health. Suva:: University of the South Pacific. Key: Fiji econ/dev social govt water Key: Fiji sew Examines issues in the relationship between infrastructural development and multilevel Rupeni, T. (1983). Dealing with foreshore land. development with reference to case studies in Fiji. In P. Lal (Eds.), Mangrove Resources Makes conclusions about the importance of Management. Suva: Fisheries Division, infrastructural development in overall economic Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Key: Fiji environ land Overton, J. (1990b). The role of infrastructural. development as a basis for multilevel Sinclair Knight and Partners (1985). Suva water development. Nagoya: Central Planning spply master plan, appraisal report. Sydney: Department and United Nations Center for AIDAB Pacific Regional Team. Regional Development. Key: Fiji water Key: Fiji econ/dev land plan/man govt environ Analyses the appropriateness and adequacy of the Examines the relationship between in cture planning and engineering assessments in the 1984 development and multilevel development, including Greater Suva water supply master plan. the role of private and public capital, interaction of state programs and wider macroeconomics forces, South Pacific Regional Environmental Program costs of establishment and running, and the nature of (1992). Fiji: national report to UNCED. Apia: multilevel development. Refers to several Fijian case SPREP. studies. Key: Fiji environ Penn, N. (1982). The environmental United Nations Development Program and UN consequences and management of coral sand Center for Human Settlements (1991). Policy dredging in the Suva region, Fiji. Institute of Recommendatons for Housing and Urban Natural Resources Report Suva: University of Development. Suva: Ministry of Housing and the South Pacific. Urban Development. Key: Fiji environ Key: Fiji housing econ/dev water solid/waste Very detailed 267 page study of wide ranging sew govt plan/man consequences of sand removal. Identifies key factors affecting Urbanization in Fiji and lists policy recommendations and strategies for better urban management. Also includes policy 99 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources recommendations to improve housing supply for low to middle income earners. Watling, R., & Chape, S. (1993). Environment: Fiji. The national state of the environment. Gland: IUCN, Key: Fiji environ econ/dev Overview of environmental issues in Fiji. This detailed study examines population and other resources, and assesses social and economic development with reference to its impact on resources. One section deals with urban issues, including sewerage and solid waste management, and the legal and institutional context is comprehensively discussed. Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and dange in the Pacific: A survey of resource use and policy in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatr and West Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources University of the South Pacific. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man Wood, A. (1981). Greater Suva sewerage scheme: review. Suva: Ministry of Works, Water and Sewerage Section. Key: Fiji sew Reviews the 1971 Greater Suva sewerage scheme and contains a summary of sewerage studies undertaken in Suva since the 1960s. 100 Annotated Bibliogr.phy of Regional Literature and Data Sources SOLOMON ISLANDS CONTENTS Cnastay sefnl fufnt Wisor y ..................................................................................................... 103 Economy................................................................................................................. 104 Developmn t Ptanang ................................................................................................ 107 Land Tensure ............................................................................................................ 108 Population And R ral-Urban M gration ......................................................................... 108 Ur baizatison ............................................................................................................ 111 Urban Services ......................................................................................................... 112 Housing .......................................................................................... 113 Urban Sa i tisn ...................................................................................................... 115 Fture Directou s ...................................................................................................... 116 Selected References Key........................................................................................................................ 118 Econoamic And Social Development................................................................................ 119 Population And M igratio ........................................................................................... 123 Governance And P nnning ........................................................................................... 126 mance And Deveelopmet ........................................................................................... 129 Urban A . ............................................................................................................. 129 Residential )emlop n t ............................................................................................. 131 Urban Sa nitation And Environumet .............................................................................. 134 101 I ZOT ,：기 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Solomon Islands consists of a double chain of six Setdement History large and smaller islands, extending over 1,400 kin. fi-orn the Shortland islands, off the coast of Solomon him& has been occupied for at least Bougainville (Paptia. New Guinea), to the remote 6,000 years being populated by Mclanesians eastern islands of Tikopia and Anuha. It has a moving easmards fi-om New Guinea. The land area of about 28,000 sq. Ian. and of all the Polynesian settlement of the outliers is believed to countries in the South Pacific region only Papua be more recent and probably resulted from New Guinea is larger. The biggest island is westwards movement. Anuba, at least, was Guadalcanal, at the center of the group, where the populated 3.000 years ago and was probably capital of Homara is located; the odw main settled fi-orn T&Wia. A number of the islands of islands being New Gcorgm, Santa babel, the group were discovered by the Spanish Choiseul, Malaita and Makira (San Cristobal). In explorer, Mendana, who s*Wcd Santa babel in general, these islarids are mountamous, bush 15 68 and whose search fi)r the 'Islands of covered and thuily populated rcl;ative to other Solomon! gave the country its name Ilie Spanish parts of the South Pacific. Ilere arc few plains, established small settlements both on Makira (San ffic principal one being on North Guadalcanal. Cristobal) and TaumakD, in the easterri islands, The country is situated in the humid tropics where but both were failures. In the early seventeenth rainfall is heavy (up to 900 cm. per annurn an the century Dutch expeditions visited Solomon appropriately named Weather Coast of South Islands, and Ontong Java was named after island and is also prone to cardquakes off Java in Indonesia. Europeans did not revisit and occasional cyclones. Natural hazards arc a the group for another 120 years until the late regular fcature of many parts of the country- The Eight=& Century and, except for whalers. economy was devastated by Cyclone Namu. in contact was LWdy sporadic until the mid- 1986, in which many people were kffled - Nineteenth Century, when the Melanesian particularly on the Guadalcaiml Plains - where Mission slowly became established. A major early there had been subsumdal munigration and influence on Solomon Islands was the amval of settlement. mcruiters seeking labor fbr the plantations of Fiji and Queensland. The first raiding vessel arrived Solon= Islands has a relatively low population in 1870 and such operations supplying density although only a small proportion of land Queensland continued until 1904, and until 1911 is suitable for agricultural development. The great for Fiji. Between 1890 and 1911 more than half majority of the population (94 per cent in 1986) of Queensland!s kanak recruits were Solomon are Melanesian but included arc the outliers of Islanders and Melancsians. The end of the Rcrinell, Bellona, Sdmiana, Ontong Java, Tikopia, Queensland labor trade coincided with the and Anuha, each of winch have an entirely ishomt of coconut plantations in Solomon Polynesian indigenous population. 'Mere are also Islands and this economy absolutely domfimted relatively small Micronesian (Gilbert=), Chinese for more: than half a century, until. the 1960s, and European populations who are recent when the first signs of dmnification occurred migrants, or are their descendants. (Connell 1983: 1-2). Solomm Islands, especially Guadalcanal and the New Georgia Sound, became a major battleground during the Second World War. When civil -ion resumed after the war 103 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources it was decided to move the administrative center in secessionist sentiments in some areas, notably from Tulagi, which had been destroyed, to a new in the Western Province, and also within the site at Honiara on the north coast of Guadalcanal. present provinces. About 87 per cent of all land is The Advisory Council, first created in 1921, was under customary ownership; the rest is mainly replaced in 1960 by a legislative Council that was occupied by plantations or by the capital city, gradually given more authority. In 1970 a new Honiara. Governing Council was established and, in 1974, a new constitution changed the Governing Council to a Legislative Council with 24 elected Economy members, and the leader of goverment business became Chief Minister. In mid-1975 the name Solomon Islands is primarily an agricultural Solomon Islands replaced that of the British country and, as in the other Melanesian countries, Solomon Islands Protectorate; in January 1976 there is an important division between the village- Solomon Islands became internally self- based subsistence, and partially cash-oriented, goveming, and followed in July rural economy and large-scale commercial 1978. The executive council became the Cabinet, agricultural developments. Agriculture (including numbering 15 ministers, and the Legislative forestry and fisheries) accounted for 50 per cent Assembly became the national parliament, with of the GDP in 1990 (of which the subsistence 38 elected members. Below the national component is perhaps one half), some 20 per cent government were created a tier of seven and, of formal employment and almost all exports. The more recently, nine (with the establishment of four main exports, copra, timber, fish (mainly Choiseul and Rennell/Bellona) elected provincial tuna) and palm oil provided 85 per cent of total councils, designed to respond to regional issues. export receipts in 1991, although exports of The size of parliament was increased to 47 seats cocoa beans are growing. This variety of export before the May 1993 general elections, in which a crops represents a major change from the coalition of six opposition parties (and same situation in the 1960s (and earlier) when copra independents) was narrowly victorious, installing and timber exports alone represented over 90 per Francis Billy Hilly as Prime Minister. cent of all exports. Large scale commercial operations are important for the production of a Sociey The fragmentation of Solomon Islands major share of the export crops, and the economy has resulted in a situation where there are about remains centered on primary production. 90 languages within the country, none existing over very large areas. Consequently the official There is potential for mining development - administratian language is English but the most primarily for gold - but this potential has useful lingua franca is Solomon Islands Pidgin, a remained dormant for decades. Although the more anglicized form of the Pidgin languages of manufacturing sector grew significantly during Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. There are the 1980s, it grew from an almost non-existent considerable cultural differences throughout the base and is still small, accounting for only about country, not only between those peoples of 4 per cent of GDP and 6 per cent of formal Polynesian and Melanesian origin, but most employment. Beyond some commerce and obviously between the peoples of the west (who infrastructure-related activities there has been are black-skinned, like those of Bougainville in limited development of a tertiary sector, hence Papua New Guinea) and those of the east. most workers remain in the primary sector. The Cultural and economic differences have resulted economy grew rapidly during the 1970s, but the 104 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources rate of growth fell in the early 1980s, growing at oil production is through joint venture around 4-5 per cent per annum in the first half of development concentrated on the North the 1980s. The rate of growth increased to 8 per Guadalcanal plains, and its success has resulted cent in 1988 but slowed sharply to about 2 per in considerale migration, especially from cent in 1990, though picking up to around 4 per Malaita, into the area. Palm oil has been the most cent in 1991. In the early years economic growth consistent component of Solomon Islands primary was partly a result of significant foreign aid. Over production; the output of 100,000 tons in 1991 the past decade the averse annual growth rate was 2 per cent up on the previous year, though has hovered around 4 per c .t, however this was world prices were low and, indeed, at one point accompanied by a very high population growth fell below Solomon Islands Plantation Limited's rate, that was close to that of the economic cost of production (which also led to a phased growth rate (see below). This has helped to reduction of the permanent workforce from 1800 explain what the Central Bank of Solomon to 1500). Islands describes as the 'running on the spot' feeling, experienced since independence. It also In the second half of the 1980s copra production highlights the significance of the high population revived, after Cyclone Namu, being stimulated by growth rate for national development. Per capita improved commodity prices. However prices fell income was around US$430 in 1988, and has in 1990 and again in 1991, so that output of remained around that level subsequently, putting copra declined to 23,700 tons, the lowest figure Solomon Islands among the low-income group of for almost twenty years. The fall of 9,000 tons countries. from the 1990 total was almost all on the part of small holders, a result of domestic shipping Health and education services are not well inadequacies and the possibilities of earning developed, especially in rural areas, where rapidly superior rural incomes in relatively new areas, growing populations have placed considerable such as small-scale sawmilling or beekeeping. demand on these services. Malaria remains a World prices began to recover in mid-1991 and considerable health problem, and has experienced copra production and exports were again a resurgence in recent years. Less than 50 per increasing in the first half of 1992. By contrast, cent of all children of primary school age attend cocoa production has increased, with output in school and only 27 per cent go on to secondary 1991 being 4,615 tons (worth, SI13.4 million), school (World Bank 1991: 204). Little data are just 0.2 per cent of world production. There is available on access to services of all kinds - considerable potential for the expansion of cocoa including water supplies - but there are production. considerable income differences within Solomon Islands, with Guadalcanal and Western Provinces Timber production in Solomon Islands, especially faring best, and access to services is likely to in the Western Provinces, has increased in follow similar lines. significance in the 1980s, as Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea are the only two countries to Agricultural commodYty produdin: The central allow the export of logs. This has led to concern element of the rural, primarily agricultural, by some landowners over damage to land, and economy remain copra, oil palm and timber more widespread concern over the ecological and production. Palm oil production had returned to economic implications, as attempts to increase the pre-1986 levels, within three years of the extent of processing within Solomon Islands have devastation that followed Cyclone Namu. Palm not been successful. Logging licenses have been 105 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources granted without consideration of long-term social soap represent some movement towards import and economic costs of deterioration; licenses in substitution. the relatively large size of Solomon force in 1992 were reported to allow about 1-2 Islands, within the Pacific area, enable further million cubic meters of timber exports per year, opportunities for import substitution industries, several times greater than any estimates of the especially for beer, footwear and timber-related maximum sustainable yield of the natural forest. industries but, other than a planned brewery, Log output of 329,000 cubic meters in 1991 fell these have not been taken, and there has been no by 25 per cent from 1990, due mainly to development of export-oriented industrialization. corporate financial problems; more than 80 per cent of this output was exported as logs. There Tourism: Tourism makes a small contribution to was only one reafforestation project in place, on the economy, because of the remoteness of Kolombangara, where there were ownership Solomon Islands from major metropolitan disputes between different groups of claimants countries, and the government has generally from this island. adopted a cautious attitude towards tourist development especially outside Guadalcanal. The Fishing industry: The fishing industry of the number of visitors has remained static for some Solomon Islands is more developed than in most years although there has been increased interest in other Pacific states. Solomon Islands was the first visiting the Second World war battlefields. There Melanesian state to conclude a significant joint were 14,000 visitors in 1991. Because of its venture interest with the Japanese, when in 1972 relative self-sufficiency in basic foodstuffs and Solomon Taiyo Ltd (STL) was established, vith the high quality (and wide origins) of handicraft its main fleet based at Tulagi, and cannDrics there production, Solomon Islands have considerable and, later, at Noro. production of tuna doubled in potential for tourist development especially on the the 1970s, but declined in the first half of the outer islands. There is currently some 1980s, with the loss of markets in North America concentration in and around Honiara. Tourist and Europe. In the second half of the decade it development in urban areas has been criticized for grew and in 1991 the total catch of 99,500 tons its stimulation of rural-urban migration and was the highest since the fishery began in 1972; ultimately frustration and crime although these the bulk of this was caught by STL, whilst a relationships are limited. Overall the history of Canadian company and a Filipino joint venture the tourist industry in the Solomons has been one shared the remainder. However international tuna of uncertainty [and] this lack of decision ... will prices declined to the extent that the domestic probably be seen to have been a wise one' export price was below the cost of catching the (Boutillier 1981: 45), especially since most tourist fish. Licensing agreements with Japanese and developments outside Honiara have been Taiwanese vessels in the EEZ have boosted accompanied or followed by land disputes. In the income from fisheries. second half of the 1980s the government sought t stimulate tourist development, at various levels, Manufacturing: The manufacturing sector grew towards a target visitor figure of 70,000 by the rapidly in the 1970s but growth slowed in the year 2000. following decade. The main areas of growth have been in agro-related industries such as palm oil Mining: Solomon Islands has a great diversity of milling, rice milling, fish canning and sawmilling mineral resources although none of the known other industries, such as the manufacture of minerals exist in sufficient amounts and purity to biscuits, coarse tobacco, soft drinks, nails and interest mining companies at the world metal 106 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources prices which have prevailed in recent times. This Development Planning has been true for a decade. There are also concerns over land tenure and the lack of The first national development plan with legislation relating to the mining sector (where significant local participation was drawn up in only informal mining currently exists); difficulties 1975 to cover the 1975-79 period leading up to of obtaining access to customary land have and after Independence. Its major objectives were dampened the interest of prospectors. Bauxite, those of decentralization, greater self-reliance, a nickel, phosphate and gold deposits all exist, but more equitable regional distribution of there has been considerable local opposition to employment and localization, similar to themes phosphate mining on Bellona. Alluvial mining on expressed earlier in Papua New Guinea's Eight Gold Ridge (Guadalcanal) has continued for Point Plan. A plan for the second five-year many years, and gold exports in 1991 were 47 period, 1980-84 was completed in draft form in kilograms. 1980 but after various revisions and updating was finally shelved in 1981 when a new government Employment: Formal sector employment is took office; the new government issued a briefer relatively limited, in the mid-1970s there were document, the Program of Action 1981-1984, around 16,600 full-time wage and salary earners, which had none of the detailed analysis of data of many of whom were employed in the primary the first plan or the draft plan. Decentralization sector. By 1991 the extent of formal sector was a recurrent theme of the earliest Solomon employment had only grown to around 26,000, Islands governments since Independence; it was a and was then growing at around 2 per cent per cornerstone of the first Five Year Plan (1975-79) annum, less than the rate of population increase and was re-iterated by the government that took (though there are some uncertainties over all office late in 1981 and in the 1983 budget the employment data, mainly because of the difficulty funding of the Provincial Governments was of defining full-time formal employment in some regarded as a priority area (Solomon Islands areas). 1982: 27). Since 1975 there has been a transfer of services (especially in the areas of agriculture, In Honiara in 1986 some 54 per cent of males and education and health) to the provinces. The 21 per cent of females aged over 14 were in the greatest pressure for decentrali2at0o has come wage and salary workforce; thus about one third from the richest and most commercialized part of of all males who were working for wages and the country, Western Province, which has salaries, and half of all women, were employed in regarded the benefits received from national the urban area of Honiara. The economy of government as not being commensurate with the Honiara - oriented to administrative and tax revenues generated in the province. Interest in commercial development - and the resultant decentralization 'also appears to be in part a employment structure is thus very different from reaction against the success of the enterprising the rest of Solomon Islands. The service sector Malaitans in finding jobs in other islands, to accounts for 57 per cent of all formal wage which they have tended to migrate from their own employment and most of this is in Honiara. relatively densely populated island, and their importance i the public service' (World Bank 1980: 3). Subsequently development plans have attached less significance to decentralization, and more to participation by the private sector. In the previous governments' 'rogram of Action 1989- 107 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources 1993' there were proposals for new financial Land Tenure institutions and privatization of several government undertakings, such as the national Land tenure issues are of some concern in rural airline, Solair. Government policy has however areas, having contributed to recent disputes continued to emphasize the importance of concerning forestry on Kolombangara and improving land tenure arrangements and the tourism at Anuha (Guadalcanal), but are not of decentralization of government fimctions to the general importance for Honiara. There is no provinces, although little has been achieved in customary ownership of land in the capital city, these areas. The public sector continues to play a but there are increasing problems for urban dominant role in the national economy, despite expansion beyond formal city boundaries and for recent privatization. the new 1993 government the sitting of such facilities as a new garbage has sought to strengthen rural development and dump. In rural areas land disputes can be enable greater foreign investment without undue expected to intensify as population pressures bureaucratic intervention. increase and the cash economy grows in importance. The only lasting solution will be to At the end of the 1980s the Government made demarcate, survey and record customary land. major changes to the structure of the public This process will allow land to be used by the service. the old Ministry of Economic Planning communal owners or leased out (with greater was abolished and an Economic Planning Unit security to the tenant than in the past). To established under the Ministry of Finance. This facilitate this process, the Government proposed unit was also responsible for multilateral aid. to introduce a Customary Land Act during 1990 This fragmented structure of planning and and strengthen the Lands Division of the Ministry budgeting increased the need for effective of Agriculture and Lands (World Bank 1991: coordination and weakened the effectiveness of 213). However the recording of land is an national planning. The new government installed extremely slow process, with limited human in 1993 was considering re-establishing a resources, and progress towards facilitating the Ministry of Economic Planning. It is doubtful leasing of customary land is likely to be extremely whether the Government has enough trained slow and often difficult. personnel to manage such a fiagmented structure. A similar situation has raised problems for successful decentralization, in such a fragmented Population and Rural-Urban Migration island state; the principal constraints are limited administrative and technical resources, when Census-taking in Solomon Islands is of quite central government itself has few skilled recent origin. The first census in April 1931, personnel to call upon. Similarly, the which was effectively a head count, recorded a Development Bank of Solomon Islands has made total of just over 94,000 people including 478 losses every year since 1981, because of poor Europeans and 164 Chinese. A second census loan appraisal and supervision procedures and was begun in 1949 but had to be abandoned weaknesses in management and staffing (World because of disruptions during the period of Bank 1991: 216). Human resource development is nationalist struggle (Maasina Rule). A third essential for individual welfare and for national census was carried out in 1959 but was limited to and provincial economic development. a sample of the Melanesian population, because of a shortage of skilled enumerators. This gave a total for the country of about 124,000 (of whom 108 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources 4,625 were Polynesians, 781 were Europeans and subsequently fallen. Guadalcanal and Honiara 366 were Chinese) a relative ethnic distribution had high growth rates of 4.7 per cent and 4.9 per which has subsequently been relatively cent respectively whereas Malaita grew at only unchanged. By this time the population was 2.5 per cent; whilst these variations cannot be growing quite quickly, after periods in the early solely due to migration, the relatively uniform part of the century when some districts were natural increase within Solomon Islands suggests losing population and also during the war when that migration played the largest role in some occupied areas lost population. The first contributing to differential growth rates. The modem census was carried out in 1970, the highest growth rate in the country was recorded in second in 1976 and the third in 1986; these are the West Tasimboko ward on the Guadalcanal the principal sources of data on population plain, with an annual growth rate of 14 per cent, change in Solomon Islands as a whole. Whilst where growth in the agricultural sector was there were a number of minor distortions in the substantial. A high growth rate of over 8 per cent 1970 census data (Walsh 1972: 51) and minor was recorded for females in Honiara, indicating undercounting in the 1976 census, the basic data, that between 1970 and 1976 there had been especially for 1986, is probably more accurate significant female migration to Honiara, a than in other censuses in the Melanesian countries situation which significantly reduced the male (excluding New Caledonia and Fiji). bias in the urban population. The census of 1976 recorded a total Solomon Since 1976 the rate of migration has increased Islands population of 196,883 (of whom 102,808 and was especially marked for Malaita where net were males and 94,015 were females). Unlike migration loss more than doubled between 1970 most developing countries the life expectancy for and 1986, whilst the population of Malaita males was marginally higher than for females, a increased relatively slowly. Isabel was also situation that has been attributed to 'the work characterized by heavy out migration. By contrast burden that is often unfairly distributed so that since 1976 Honiara's net gain has increased by women do more and also to the detrimental effect 140 per cent and that of Guadalcanal by 94 per to women's health, and therefore their life cent. The most notable change after 1976 was in expectancy, caused by too frequent child bearing Western province, previously an area of in- and reduction of the time interval between each migration, which experienced a net loss in the separate birth' (Solomon Islands 1980: 26). In subsequent decade. Outside Guadalcanal the only 1986 the census recorded a population of other area of overall in-migration was Central 285,176, as the annual rate of increase has tended Province, but the rate of gain decreased because to rise, from around 2.4 per cent between 1959 of lack of growth in the plantation sector in and 1970 to around 3.5 per cent in the 1980s. By Russell Islands, and no losses from Rennell, the start of the 1990s the national population was Bellona and Savo. well over 3 00,00. Since 1976 migration has therefore increased Between 1970 and 1976 the annual population focused on Guadalcanal and especially Honiara. growth rate for the whole of Solomon Islands was In 1976 more than three out of four residents of 3.4 per cent. This overall rate is one of the highest Honiara were born elsewhere, but by 1986 this in the world and therefore in the South Pacific proportion had declined slightly as Honiara-born region and would lead to a doubling of the children became more important, pointing to the population within twenty years. It has not slowly growing stability of the urban population. 109 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Nevertheless more than nine out of ten adults (Connell 1983: 21-22). The establishment of a usually resident in Honiara were bom elsewhere population policy has thus been slow to follow. (other towns especially Gizo, are also significant The infant mortality rate rapidly declined from 70 lifctime migration destinations but on a much per thousand in 1970 to 46 per thousand in 1976, smaller scale). There was also very substantial and by 1986 had declined further to 40 for males migration to the Guadalcanal plain, and especially and 36 for females. In 1986 the total fertility rate to the arcas that border Honiara, an indication of was still high at 6.1 children per woman, hence the spread of Honiara's influence and the the rapid population increase in the last inter- development of commuting. censal decade. It is probable that fertility peaked around 1984 and was beginning to decline in Rapid population growth has resulted in a 1986 (McMurray 1993). There was no relatively young population, since 49 per cent are population policy in Solomon Islands until 1987 under 15 years, hence the dependency ratio is when the Ministry of Health prepared a Solomon very high. the present age structure will therefore Islands Population Policy. Central to this policy provide a substantial momentum to future was the intention to reduce the total fertility rate population growth in Solomon Islands. A greater to less than four within a decade; however the degree of emphasis is consequently being attached policy stressed no ideal family size and it was not to family planning; however, in 1979 it was apparent what policies would be implemented to estimated that less than 7 per cent of all women ensure that the target would be reached. There were acceptors but 'family planning programs were and are a number of constraints restricting cannot be expected to have a significant effect the development of population programs including unless the country's political leadership low education levels, a preference for large communicates the importance of reducing families and a lack of awareness at the political population growth to the mass of the population. level of the implications of a rapid population This remains to be done in the Solomon Islands' growth rate and its adverse consequences, the (World Bank 1980: 42) so that the World Bank limited extent of family planning program, and concluded their review of the economic situation the difficulties attached to spreading such by noting that 'a strong commitment to reducing programs in a complex archipelagic state. the rate of population growth is essential to Significantly the first specific objective of the safeguard the country's standard of living in the policy was 'to obtain support from the long term (World Bank 1980: 68). Most of the Government and Non-Government Organizations acceptors were in the Honiara area and many for the population policy and institute systems of already have more than five children, a situation cooperation between them and the people' similar to that in Papua New Guinea. Discussion (Solomon Islands 1987: 13). The Policy also over the rate of population growth intensified ion sought to encourage rural development and the 1982, with unfavorable comments on the high rate growth of provincial centers in order to reduce of population growth being made by the Duke of migration to Honiara. The existence of a Edinburgh and by the Governor of the Central population policy is a significant move towards Bank of Solomon Islands, who commentated that awareness of the harmful social and economic population growth was the single most important consequences of a very rapid population grwth, factor determining future levels of living in but there is little indication of widespread support Solomon Islands; the rate of growth was however for the policy or for the institutions, programs and defended by the Prime Minister who stated that projects that are crucial for its success. Solomon Islands was 'grossly underpopulated' 110 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Urbanization areas after less than six months in town (Conell 1983: 48). In some respects, Honiara is only just Urbanization in Solomon Islands has been acquiring some of the characteristics of an extremely limited and the current proportion of established urban center, especially in terms of the population in urban areas is the lowest in the there being a permanent (and second-generation) South Pacific region. This is surprising for a urban population. The first low-cost housing country with one of the largest populations in the scheme was carried out in 1968 yet, until the region and reflects the limited diversification of early 1970s, there was still little evidence of the the Solomon Islands economy. Although there are growth of a permanent urban population. Some administrative centers outside Honiara, it is only migrants, especially public servants, were then possible to regard Auki and Gizo as urban centers purchasing houses and remaining in Honiara (with significantly different functions and whilst others, from some relatively disadvantaged employment structures). Only Honiara is an rural areas, such as Sikaiana and parts of urban center comparable to other towns in Malaita, were also choosing to remain in town. Melanesia and only Honiara has significant areas For many years low urban wages tended to reduce of shantytowns or has significant 'urban' the extent of permanent migration. problems. Population growth in all the provincial centers is scarcely faster than the national average Settlements grew slowly until the 1970s (Oram although populations have grown more rapidly 1980) and most have long been referred to as since Independence with the establishment of a 'temporary housing areas'. Nevertheless by 1989 provincial bureaucracy in those centers. the fifteen per cent of the Honiara population, most of provincial centers demonstrate a number of urban whom came from Malaita, lived in such houses. characteristics, both as administrative and Little information is available on the growth or commercial centers. Despite the emphasis on socio-economic situation of these housing areas. decentralization and provincial government, Initially those who built settlement houses were urbanization remains primarily a phenomenon of expected to obtain a temporary occupation license Honiara alone, which is very much a primate city. (TOL), but this system had broken down by the late 1970s. By then various problems in the Honiara was only founded after the Second World expanding settlements had been identified, war and by 1959 the population had grown to just including inadequate water supplies and 2,805. By 1970 it had passed 11,000; it reached sanitation, poor health and limited access to 15,000 in 1976 and had grown to 35,000 by the educational services. beginning of the 1990s. As early as the 1950s some urban problems were recognized, At the end of the 1970s the majority of housing in exacerbated by housing shortages and the Honiara was tied to employment; in 1976 some emergence of some informal housing. Urban 69 per cent of all conventional housing was 'tied' migration remained temporary, though Malaitans housin& more than half of which was owned by were more likely to be seeking customary land for the government. By 1979 a quarter of urban housing construction on the fringes of Honiara. households could not afford even the cheapest Until the 1970s all Melanesians in town were government housing, constructed by the Solomon wage earners and indigenous entrencurial Islands Housing Authority (Oram 1980). Those activity in Honiara was virtually absent; urban who could afford government housing were being unemployment rates were low as most of those subsidized- those who could not received no who could not find work returned to the rural subsidy of any kind, but were constrained to 111 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources provide their own accommodation. In this context of their attitudes to duration of residence in the 'temporary housing areas' were sometimes Honiara, their attitudes to formal sector housing, seen as a more ideal version of the model housing services, and so on) as is basic information on situation than the formal housing estates. There their socio-econonic status. The extent to which are indications that, in some cases at least, the providing services in THAs, would influence the advantages of more traditional housing in urban rate of growth of settlements, contribute to longer environments are recognized and preferred. The periods of urban residence or simply improve residents of one settlement, Matarin, 'view their urban well-being, is thus largely unknown. counterparts (meaning those who may be in the same income bracket and are living in either company or Government provided houses) as Urban Services being foolish. Some stated that these people are foolish and unfortunate to be living in such In Solomon Islands as a whole provision of most houses which are often not spacious enough, and services exhibits a strong urban bias in they have to pay for electricity, water and rent, distribuon, most evident in healt and educeton besides food for the family' (Kome 1979: 188). services but apparent also for water and However, the residents of Matarinu are relatively electricity supplies which are generally available poor Malaitans, with limited aspirations to only in Honiara and the other sman urban centers. permanent urban residence, whose views may However there has been considerable pressure on well not have been typical of those in better-paid urban services. By the early 1980s there was a employment with less intention of returning to 120 per cent occupancy rate at the hospital and a rural areas. In 1986 some 58 per cent of the shortage of space in primary schools, and thse urban population could not afford the cheapest situations have worsened as urban growth has formal housing constructed by Solomon Islands become more rapid. Moreover the lack of Housing Auhority (SIHA), hence the rapid facilites has been exacerbated by the lack of growth of settlements. skilled workers. At the end of the 1980s, for Within Horiara there were 33 Traditional example, about half of all primary school teachers were untrained and there is only one qualified Housing Areas (THAs) in 1988, which compares water engineer in the country. A crude measure of with 6 in 1976 and 16 in 1981. Between 1981 and the need for improved urban services was 1988 the THA population increased from 3,363 established in a national weekly newspaper at the to 7,258, with an annual growth rate of 19 per end of 1992: Investing funds in cleaner water, a cent. Thus the THAs accounted for 23 per cent of functioning hospital, reducing malaria and the Honiara urban population. There ar likely to keeping the city clean and attractive helps, first be fewer new THAs in the future, because of and foremost, the Hoiara citizen' (The Solomons constraints imposed by topography, access to Voice, 11 November 1992). water supply and the development of formal residential subdivisions. Housing densities and Physical planning: Physical planning is household sizes (which were 7.6 in THAs in relatively new in Solomon Islands, dating back 1986, compared with 6.9 for Honiara as a whole) only to 1979 when the Town and Country are likely to increase in the future. At no time Planning Act was passed by parliament The Act since (or before) Indepcndce have there boen aimed to: 'ensure that land in Solomon Islands detailed studies of settlements in Honiara, hence (other han customary land) is developed and used the aspirations of settlers are unknown (in terms in accordance with properly considered policies 112 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources that are formulated on adequate information and with landowners about land for water supply and are directed to promote the welfare of the a proposed dam behind the town. There is a small inhabitants of Solomon Islands ... and to ensure piece of customary land within the town , and that there is proper integration and coordination in urban expansion has extended onto some the development of land (Likaveke 1992: 2). Thus customary land to the west. Attempts to extend in Solomon Islands physical planning is physical planning legislation to cover the area distinguished from economic planning, and the owned by the government were twice defeated in former is situated within the Ministry for parliament in the 1970s. The Lands Department Agriculture and Lands. Most urban centers have manages all urban land directly. no development plans nor even guidelines on which to base zoning of land and the allocation of services. Each province and the Honiara Housing Municipal Authority (HMA) have a Town and Country Planning Board, responsible for local Housing functions were undertaken by the physical planning, though the provinces have Department of Lands and Physical Planning until neither an adequate skilled workforce nor the establishment of the Ministry of Housing in sufficient resources to ensure efficient physical 1989. The Solomon Islands Housing Authority planning. (SIHA) was set up in 1970 to construct and finance houses especially for low-income earners The functions of Honiam Municipal Authority are in Honiara. Its target was 100 houses per year but relatively limited. Its direct responsibilities are few were constructed because of limitations on limited to education, health (including garbage the House Financing Scheme. The Authority collection and septic tank pumping) and feeder gradually undertook more work on the provision road maintenance. Significantly, as the Honiara of public buildings, even copra sheds. Severe Town Council Development Plan 1988-1992 inflation in the 1980s, the devaluation of the records, 'it is impossible to intelligently discuss Solomon Islands dollar and problems of providing development in Honiara, however, without infrastructure substantially increased the costs of discussing the sectors outside of the Town houses, particularly as attempts to use local Council's control such as industry, housing, timber were not very successful. Hence the physical infrastructure etc. (Honiara Town Authority could no longer build houses that were Council 1988: 126). Added to these should be affordable for low and middle income groups. As water, which is currently provided by the elsewhere in Melanesia, unsatisfied demand for Ministry of Transport, Works and Utilities. As new homes has led to an increase in occupancy elsewhere in the Pacific therefore, the urban rates (which in Honiara averaged seven persons authority controls only some planning functions per household in 1986) and to the expansion of within the urban area as it has not been able to Traditional Housing Areas. develop an integrated urban management plan. There is relatively little customary land in the The SIHA, with its wider role of constructing and towns to complicate urban planning. leasing out housing, was scrapped in 1989 and Part of the land in Honiara had been alienated for replaced by the Home Finance Corporation use as a copra plantation and purchased by the (HFC). The HFC found itself with large debt government at the time of independence. The burdens, a kit-home-producing factory running at inland area was obtained by compulsory purchase a substantial loss, and an inability to take action in 1947. There have been continuing disputes on providing home finance. It has achieved little; 113 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literanre and Data Sources few if any loans have been given out in contrast to The original proposal suggested that as many as expenditure on salaries and overheads, and it has 92 per cent of the population in formal only operated in Honiara. Here, as elsewhere in employment could afford loans and repayments of Melanesia, it has proved extremely difficult to SIS25 per week. But even workers with good develop a form of financing that genuinely caters wages find it hard to repay loans. The scheme to the needs of low-income households. Schemes may therefore, at considerable cost, be able to have flopped, sometimes because of inadequate meet the needs of only a limited number of settlers finance or limited administrative skills, but also in a few THAs: indeed, principally the sort of because of the limited availability and consequent settlers who have been able to provide for high cost of accommodation to which such themselves within the existing system. There has schemes might apply. been concern about a number of features of the scheme: In Solomon Islands there have been no site and service schemes, though these are currently being * the macro economic situation in the Solomon introduced. Nor have settlers been removed from Islands, which will make housing finance the sites they have chosen in the city, which may diffioult; begin to explain why informal housing in Honiara * the high housing standards set, which will is more formal than its counterpart, in Port result in lower occupation densities than are Moresby in Papua New Guinea. A second and appropriate in a Melanesian context; and significant reason is that squatter settlements in * the weak capacity of the HFC, which will Honiara have not been built on privately owned probably be only able to establish selection land. Residents, in fact, are rarely squatters, in criteria and allocate sites. the illegal sense. Site and service schemes are now being developed for six sites in Honiara, and Thus, although there has been support in Solomon the Honiara Municipality has e that Islands for the development of site and service all settlements (THAs) be incorporated within a schemes, it has occurred in vacant sites (only one zoning plan that will also provide space for of the 6 sites has existing houses) and is unlikely subsequent settlements. to meet the needs of the poorest groups. While goverments have opposed settlements, mainly on This positive approach to housing the poor amenity grounds, some settlers have received contrasts with the lack of policies in some other permission or even encouragement from their states. An European Community financed Home employers, including assistance with building Finance Corporation scheme is now working on materials. At Malarim, Honiara, both the Public 1,000 residential sites in Honiara for private Works Department and local building contractors, housing development. Infrastructure costing S1S6 who were the main employers, provided direct million will be constructed at Kobito I and 2, Lio assistance, and churches also provided assistance Creelc North Naha and Tasahe 1 and 2, and plots (Nage 1987: 100). Employers have recognized the will be tendered to households who will receive virtues of supporting self-belp initiatives among loans of up to SIS20,000 from the HFC to their workers - such initiatives have cut housing constrct their own houses. The project was costs and ultimately wage bills. How general such developed an the basis that people could afford to assistance has been is not known. take out substantial loans since they had been able to build large homes valued at up to SI160,000. 114 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Urban Sanitation a surface source and a treatment plant from which the water is pumped to a reservoir and supplied to Tcre have been substantial u n w r Noro township by a gravity system. A tuna problems and not only in Honiara, though the cannery is its min consumer. problems are more severe there, rartly because of In provincial urban centers water resources a prominent dry season. In October 1992 the consist of surface sources (Tulagi, Gizo), springs Ministry of Health declared a water emergency in (Buala, Auki, Kirakira, Lata, partly Gizo), Honiara after one of the four main water sources ground water (partly Gim, Munda) and roof was found to be polluted. Urban residents served catchments (Gizo) KuWdwa, Lata, Buala and by the Rove reservoir reported dirt and other Tulagi have gravity systems; the supply of Auki impurities, including tadpoles, coming from their and Gizo includes pumping. No treatment is taps; tap water was banned for drinking and carried out In three centers (Auki, Tulagi and cooking while restaurants were ordered to close Gizo), consumers are metered; elsewhere, they down unless they had alternative supplies. The pay a flat rate. Becuse of a lack of qualified reasons for Honiara's problem were manifold: personnel and finance, all these systems are in a first, the water treatment plant was old and no seriously rundown condition resulting in longer wholly adequate; second, tilapia were bred in the reservoir to reduce the frog and tadpole euatonC, low press d poor w r popuatin bt te rsingcos ofurbn ~quality. Consequently, meters do not work or population but the rising cost of urban living had cnuesaentwligt a.I oecssi consumers are not willing to py. In some cases it led to urban residents fishing out the bulk of the i impossible phicallyto disconnect the system tilapia population, and third, the long dry season to enforce payment, with the result that revenues had resulted in the water level falling to the point are to low to operate and maintain these systems where the outlets were inadequate. Management adequately In most provincial centers the of urban service provision is difficult with. delinin rvne provision andiiult aaie situation is worse than in Honiara, since there is declining revenue provision and limited available evnls tchia exrieaalbead kill - speial thetecuucl ~even less technical expertise available and skills - especially the tedmnical skills that are mntrn in h etri ndqae necessary for the planning and maintenance of complex engineering systems - or even the ability Only in Haniara is there an urban sewerage to collect water rates. In theory, if payments for scee in sere arba seerge urba waer re nt frthomin frm ~ scheme, which serves most parts of the city, though some areas discharge waste via septic the Water Unit closes them down In practice tanks into the Natan&o River or diety into the payments may not be collected efficiently and se The 14 or so outfalis are in poor condition, there is considerable wastage and loss of revenue. causing serious pollution. High water tables in the The bulk of the population in Honiara has a piped Honiara area oft Preclude the use of septic systems and accentuate marine pollution. The water supply system, though on the fringe of the Naha station intermittently pumps out untreated tow some of the poplaio aredpdn on seaeat Kukum and there is inadequate stream and springs. The supply is fed from three seae tKuman thrisndqae strems nd prigs.Thesuppy i fb frm tree capacity to empty septic tanks as regularly as is springs and five boreholes. Because of the karst capaci a emtatontican as rer alth limeton criironentthesprigs ometmes required, a situation that creates fiurther health limestone environment the springs sometimes become turbid, and there is also concern that the Panatina borehole may become polluted if there is poorly planned urban expansion in that area. The itesutrstlmnssataonfciis poory panne uran epanion n tat aea 'he vary from customary bush disposal to pit latrines recently completed Noro water supply system has 115 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and a few septic tanks. About 30 per cent of the Future Directions 1986 urban population were served by a conventional sewerage system, but this proportion Despite problems of service provision in the has now decreased. A 1986 study recommended smaller towns, it is apparent that the principal that an augmentation and rehabilitation scheme be challenges of urbanization are concentrated in urgently implemented, to eliminate most of the Honiara which continues to grow more rapidly contaminated outfalls into the sea and the than other urban centers. The city now occupies Mataniko River. This was never undertaken, most of the area within its formal boundaries; hence, regardless of the future population there is expansion into new areas will present problems of an existing deficit which requires action. land acquisition and land tenure, and make service provision more difficult. The most In most provincial centers in Solomon Islands, pressing problems are associated with the growth sewage is generally disposed of through septic of settlements and provision of services to them, tanks and soakaways. Sewerage systems serve water supplies (which may worsen after a parts of Kirakira, Auki and Gizo. In Auki, brewery is constructed), sewage disposal and Kirakira, Buala and Gizo, septic tanks drainage is garbage dumping. At the time of Independence a often poor because of the high ground water number of reports were commissioned on various tables. Often these tanks drain into surface drains urbanization issues, notably censuses of housing (Buala, Gizo) or directly into the sea (Gizo), and detailed studies of migration, and there were causing serious pollution. In Gizo, overhang also several related academic studies. In the past latrines are also being used. In Honiara, Gizo and decade there have been few if any of these. This is Auki the upgrading of sewage facilities is now particularly apparent in the case of housing; there urgent is neither good information on the extent of settlements, or on their socio-economic structure, Garbage collection has been privatized. There is nor about preferences, aspirations towards one dump at Ranadi that has been in use since the particular kinds of housing or of abilities to pay. early 1970s, and is coming to the end of its useful Similarly, the extent to which different kinds of life, though no replacement has been found. Only housing are provided with services, and the ability minimal management is undertaken and the site is to pay for them (default rates) is not known. unsanitary, no cover material is used at the dump. Much information in this area is either apocryphal It has also contributed to pollution of an adjoining or based on nmuch repeated statistics from historic stream. There have been no detailed studies of the evaluations. This is particularly true in the case of environmental impacts of present sewerage and water wastage (and, in general, unaccounted garbage disposal practices, or of the burning of a water), a situation which has limited attempts to variety of waste matter that has contributed to air review pricing practices. There is inadequate pollution. Industrial pollution is slight and management of the Ranongga dump site, and concentrated in the Ranadi area, which is also attempts to develop a new garbage site appear to where more sewage pollution occurs; this area is be at a stalemate, thus preventing the development also subject to coastal erosion. Drainage is rarely of more appropriate garbage collection services. a problem in Honiara. In the absence of appropriate institutional systems none of these areas of service provision are coordinated, let alone integrated effectively. The planned urban Water Authority will require suitable enabling legislation to operate effietively 116 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and there are several usefl precedents to be these aspects of service provision in the fonal gained from the experience of both neighboring housing areas of Honiara. The constraints to more Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. appropriate urban development are primarily those of limited finance and human resources. It The framework for urban planning in Honiara is would be valuable to review institutional the town council's Development Plan 1988-1992. procedures, especially in terms of housing This was a rare document by the end of that provision (a start was being made in this respect period, and moreover provides only a general by the World Bank at the end of 1992). The background to urban development and Ministry of Transport Works and Utilities, with management. It is however the first urban plan important urban service responsibilities in and raises a number of problems and issues, few transport, planning, architecture, building if any of which had been resolved at the end of the services and water supply, was recently plan period. Planning problems in Honiara and reviewed with Australian assistance. This has the Solomon Islands in general are exacerbated by led to the proposal for a new Water Authority the lack of skilled human resources (a situation (Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation which is equally true of service provision, Limited and the Mayo Group Pty. Limited including housing and water supply); the 1992a, 1992b; Snowy Mountains Engineering dichotomy between Honiara Town Council, the Corporation Ltd in association with the Mayo provincial governments and national government; Group and Murray North (SI) Ltd 1993). and some reluctance by governments to engage in physical planning when it conflicts with perceived economic objectives. In Honiara politicians and planners have tended to ignore ecological limitations to urban development, alongside cultural realities. There is little evidence that plans have considered the significant social divisions that exist in Honiara, or even the fact that migrants from particular places prefer to live in the same area. The task of translating policies into action has thus proved very difficult. Probably the most important area where a better understanding of the present system is overdue is that of housing. An evaluation of the socio- economic context of urban settlement is needed to provide clear indications of the origins of settlers (and their duration of residence, employment status etc. in Honiara), the appropriateness of the housing stock (with respect to matters such as aspirations of residents, their health and sanitation), the extent of present services, and willingness and ability to pay for improvements in the settlements (especially for water supply and garbage disposal). It is important also to review 117 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date 118 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL An early, but detailed, account of the growth of DEVELOPMENT Honiara, and the particular problems of urban development, that focuses on employment issues. Australia International Development Assistance Birks, S., & with H. Marau (1989). Manpower Bureau (1991). The Solomon Islands economy- and human resources development strategy in Prospects for stabilization and sustainable Solomon Islands: leading issues and policy growth. No. 21. Canberra: AIDAB. recommendations. Draft report to the Solomon Key: SI econ/dev finance Islands Government under the Human Resources This report presents a brief survey of recent Development Project jointly funded by the developments in, and prospects for, the Solomon Solomon Islands Government and the European Islands economy. It provides an analytical overview Community European Development Fund. 3 of important developments and issues, drawing from Vols. a wide range of government, international agency and Key: SI econ/dev academic sources. Boutillier, J. A. (1981). The nature scope and Bathgate, M. A. (1975) Bihu Matena Golo: A impact of the tourist industry in the Solomon Study of Ndi-Nggai of Western Guadalcanal and Islands. In R. W. Force & B. Bishop (Eds.), their involvement in the Solomon Islands cash Persistence and Erdrge. Honolulu: Pacific economy. Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Science Association. (pp. 37-50). Wellington. Key: SI econ/dev Key: SI land plan/man social Traces the emergence of the tourist industry and its The most detailed study ever undertaken of any group impact, which includes the construction of houses and of people in the country, that provides considerable the emergence of new forms of employment in depth of analysis on economic history, land terure, Honiara. participation in the market economy, migration and links with Honiara. Connell, J. (1983). Migraiano Employment and Development in the South Pacific. Countay Bathgate. M. A. (1978). The Structure of Rural Report No. 16. Solomon Islands. Noumea: Supply to the Honiara Market in the Solomon South Pacific Commission and International Islands. Occasional Paper No. 11. Canberra: Labor Office. Development Studies Center Australian National Key: SI pop/mig econ/dev University. Detailed overview of migration and urbanization until Key: SI social econ/dev the early 1980s - and provides a bibliography of A detailed account of the Honiara market in the early relevant works from earlier years. Evaluates 1970s (that has not subsequently been superseded) relationship between migration and development, that looks at price fluctuations, the differential policy and practice. involvement of different people and the impact of the market on the urban population. Connel, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Paayic 2010. Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. Bellam, M. E. P. (1971). The Colonial City: Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Honiara, A Pacific Islands' Case Study. Pafic Center for Development Studies. Viewpoint, 11(1), 66-96. Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev Key: SI over housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ 119 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Examines population, economic development, land Jones, S., Muqtada, M., & Ronnas, P. (1987). policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Solomon Islands: towards a strategy for rural issues in Melanesian countries. employment creation. New Delhi: ILO-ARTEP. Key: SI econ/dev Feinberg, R. (1990). The Solomon Islands Overview of national economic development, with Tenth Anniversary of Independence: problems particular reference to smaltholder agriculture, that of national symbolism and national integration. examines policies and programs for rural employment Padfic Studies, 13, 19-40. creation, and the constraints to rural development. Key: SI econ/dev An account of the construction of the nation, in terms Jourdan, C. (1985) Sapos iumi mitim iumi: of development planning and economic change, and urbanization and creolization in the Solomon especially the symbols of nationhood and the process Islands. Ph. D thesis, Canberra: Australian of regional integration and disintegration. National University. Key: SI social Frazer, I. (1985). Walkabout and Urban Movement: a Melanesian case study. Padfic Kinika, B., et al. (1981). The Road Out: Rural Viewpoint, 26, 185-205. Development in Solomon Islands. Suva: Key: SI pop/mig social Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the Examination of the social context of migration from South Pacific. North Malaita to Honiara, which focuses on the Key: SI econ/dev varied forms of movement and circulation within the A variety of perspectives on rural development that city, and between Honiara and Malaita. examines resources, human resources, education, technology, communications, politics and the Frazer, I. (1987). Growth and change in village relevance of self-reliance. agriculture: Manakwai, North Malaita. South Pacific Smallholder Project Occasional Paper Knudson, K. (1977). Gilbertese adaptation and No. 11. Armidale: University of New England. urbanization in the Western Solomons. ASAO Key: SI land econtdev Conference, Port Moresby. (unpublished). Examines the changing economy of North Malaita, Key: SI pop/niig social that focuses on agriculture, records increasing population pressure and growing land shortages, and hence a new policy of land, and traces some elements Kome, A. (1979). Matariu urban village. In P. of urban migration. Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 176-191). Herlihy, J. (1981) Always We are Last: A Study Key: SI land social of Planning, Development and Disadvantage in An account of one of the larger settlements in Melanesia. Ph.D. thesis, Australian National Honiara, populated mainly by Malaitans. The University, Canberra. residents experience water and sanitation problems Key: SI PNG econ/dev, housing plan/man but prefer residence in settlemenis rather than formal A comparative study of two areas of Solomon Islands housing. (south Santa Isabel and the north coast of San Cristobal) with two areas of Papua New Guinea (both Kudu, D. (1987). Outline for technical in East Sepik Province) that examine the relationship monograph on national experience in the between culture and development planning and the provision of low-cost shelter for the urban poor role of governments at different levels in iDring in the Solomon Islands. Ministry of Agriculture or inhibiting development and Change. and Lands, Physical Planning Division. 120 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: SI housing poverty Contains current and historical statistics on: population, migration, demography and housing; Manedika, D. (1981). Solomon Islander education; health; national accounts; international Businessmen. In P. Larmour (Eds.), Land in accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Solomon Islnds. Suva: Institute of Pacific labor, employment and wages; prices and price Souomon Islapp . 175. indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Studies. (pp. 167-175). distribution; transport and communication; and Key: SI land econ/dev Business development by Solomon Islanders in toursm. Honiara has been constrained by capital, lack of National Center for Development Studies and management experience and kin (wontok) pressure EMPLA (1993). Employment for women in the and demands. Some businessmen are not committed Solomon Islands. Suva and Canberra: ILO to urban life. EMPLA. Key: SI econ/dev McMurray, C. (1993). Solomon Islands. In R. A two part study of women's employment in the Cole (Eds.), Pacifc 2010. Challenging the formal and informal (including subsistence) sectors, Colue(s.) Pacific : which provides a statistical overview of the Future. Pacific Policy Paper No. 9. Canberra: o tsiaininhecuryndxmns NatinalCener or eveopmnt tudes.employmeDt situation in the country and examines National Center for Development Studies. (PP. possibilities for the generation of increased 91-104). employment opportunities and the strengthening of Key: SI social institutional capacity to address women's needs. Overview of population projections towards 2010 using various criteria which concludes that the Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energ mission national population is likely to continue to grow Neot K et an. (192) Energ mii extremely quickly until 2010, and for some time report - Solomon islands. Suva: South Pacific thereafter. This is likely to be accompanied by more Bureau for Economic Co-operation. rapid urbanization. Key: SI econ/dev Nage, 1. (1987. Inmigrant ss Pain, W. (1981). Rural Solomon Islands and the Honiara, Solomon Islands. In L. Mason & P. Role of Traditional Socio-economic Institutions. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Social and Administrative Studies, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the Monograph No. 2. Suva: University of the South Pacific. (pp. 93-102). South Pacific. Key: SI pop/mig social squatter Key: SI plan/man social Review of settlements, housing needs and housing policy in Honiara, which focuses on the particular People's Alliance Party (1989). Program of problems of squatter settlements and recommends Action. Honiara: People's Alliance Party. control of expansion of settlements and improved Key: SI econ/dev govt identification of land uses and thus land use policy formation. Potterton, P. (1979). The Solomon Islands today. Current Afairs Bulletin, 56(Novermber), National Center for Development Studies 24-31. (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Key: SI econ/dev Database: Solomon Islands. Canberra: National Overview of political and economic developments in Center for Pacific Studies Australian National the years immediately after independence. University. Key: SI over econ/dev finance pop/mig 121 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatu and Data Sources Rizer. J. P. (1984). Solomon Islands Business Solomon Island Government (1985?). 1985 Survey. Indigenous Business Development Annual review of the national development plan Project, Pacific Islands Development Program. 1985-1989. Honiara: Solomon Island Key: SI econ/dev finance Government. Key: SI over econ/dev pop/mig water sew Rofeta, J. (1989). The private sector in Solomon Reviews the Solomon Island macro-economic and Islands: its nature, structure, and performance. development performance for the previous year. Asian Development Bank and Pacific Islands Presents a sectoral review for: human resources and Development Program, East-West Center. community development; natural resources; Key: SI econ/dev plan/man commerce, industry and finance; physical Roughan, J. (1993). Development can work. In infrastructure; and government and security. A. C. Walsh (Eds.), Development that Works! Solomon Islands (1975). Solomon Islands Lessons from Asia Pacific. Development Naional Development Plan 1975-79. Honiara: Studies Monograph No. 3. Palmerston North: Office of the Chief Minister. Massey University. (pp. D1.3-D1.9). Key: SI plan/man govt econ/dev Key: SI econ/dev Account of operations of Solomon Islands Solomon Islands (1980). National Development Development Trust. Plan, 1980-1984. Honiara: Key: SI plan/man govt econ/dev Shireen, L. (1990). Women in development. Solomon Islands. Country Briefing Paper Asian Solomon Islands Curriculum Development Development Bank Programs Department (East). Center (1990). A Social Studies Atlas of Key: SI econ/dev Solomon Islands: An insight into the infrastruture of a developing Nation. Honiara: Sofield, T. H. B. (1991). Legislative Solomon Islands Curriculum Development impediments to local community involvement in Center. tourism development in Solomon Islands. A Key: SI econ/dev consultancy report prepared for the Solomon Maps, with brief commentaries, on most facets of development, including migration, population Islands Government James Cook University, grw, acteieanaleoomcstr. Australia.growth, land ternnie and all econom11iC sectors. Australia. Key: SI plan/man govt social Solomon Islands Government (1989). National Sofield, T. H. B. (19). Ini.igenous tourism Tourism Policy. Honiara: Government Printer. development in Solomon Islands: the concept of Key. SI econ/dev 'pioneer space'. Department of Tourism, James Tabal, J. P., & Oxenhar, S. (1981). Solomon Cook University. Townsville: (unpublished). Isands. Remnants of the Empire. In R. Key: SI land plan/man govt econ/dev Contains commentary on planning legislation (revised Crocombe (Eds.), Pac dians. Suva: (. version published in Annals of Tourism Research 5 20,1993). Key: SI over Sofield. T. H. B. (1993). Indigenous tourism Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1988). development. Annals of Tourism Research, Vistror Survey: Solomon Islands. Suva: Tourism 20(4). 729-50. Council of the South Pacific. Key: SI econ/dev govt social Key: SI econ/dev 122 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1990). Overview of migration issues in the Solomon Islands, Visitor Survey: Solomon Islands. Suva: Tourism which focuses on emergent problems of urbanization. Council of the South Pacific. Key: SI econ/dev Woolard, D. S. (1977). An ecological approach applied to Solomon Island housing. In J. Harr6 Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1991). & C. Knapman (Eds.), Living in Town. Solomon Islands Tourism Development Plan, Problems and Priorities in Urban Planning in 1991-2000 (2 vols). Tourism Council of the the South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific. South Pacific. (pp. 115-124). Key: SI econ/dev plan/man Key: SI econ/dev social UNDP (1988). Small scale inagenous tourism World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: business development in Solomon Islands. Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growth, Vol UNDP/WTO RAS/86/134. Madrid: WTO. 5. Solomon Islands: Country Economic Key: SI econ/dev finance Memorandum. Washington DC. Key: SI econ/dev UNICEF (1991). Situation of Solomon Island Children. Honiara: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning. Key: SI pop/mig poverty plan/man econ/dev POPULATION AND MIGRATION UNICEF (1993). A Situation Analysis of Women and Children in the Solomon Islands. Bobai, T. (1979). Gilbertese Settlement. In P. UNICEF/Government of Solomon Islands, Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. Honiara. Suva: (pp. 131-141). Key: SI econ/dev plan/man social Key: SI land pop/mig Examination of land issues in the settlement of Walsh, A. C. (1990). Popiulesin Blong Honiara Gilbertese migrants, resulting in problems of : Olketa Popiulesin Map Blong 1986 (Honiara: insecurity, at various centers in Solomon Islands. 1986 Census Atlas). Department of Statistics, Honiara and Board of Development Studies, Chapman, M. (1987). Population movement Massey University, Palmerston North. studies at microscale: experience and Kasey ppi y oversn Nextrapolation. GeoJournal, 15(4), 347-365. Key: SI pop/mig overKe:Spo/i Bilingual (English and Pidgin) Atlas, with detailed Key: SI poplmig commentaries on Honiara, that covers population Evaluation of the structure of population mobility of structure, migration, economic characteristics, villages in south Guadalcanal in relation to socio- household economies and demographic economic change. characteristics, education, fertility, religion and social areas, at city and ward level. Conell, J. (1983). Migration, Employment and Development in the South Pacific. Country Wilson, M. (1982). Solomon Islands. Report No. 16: Solomon Islands. Noumea: Migration, employment and development in the South Pacific Commission and International South Pacific. Working Paper to SPC/ILO Labor Office. Conference on Migration, Employment and Key: SI poplmig econ/dev Development in the South Pacific, Noumea. Detailed overview of migration and urbanization until Key: SI pop/mig econ/dev the early 1980s - and provides a bibliography of 123 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources relevant works from earlier years. Evaluates varied forms of movement and circulation within the relationship between migration and development, city, and between Honiara and Malaita. policy and practice. Friesen, W. (1981). Migration, in Solomon Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacfic 2010. Islands. In Report on the Census of Population Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. 1976. Volume 2. Honiara: Ministry of Finance. Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Statistical Division. (pp. 2149). Center for Development Studies. Key: SI pop/mig Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev Definitive statement and overview of migration as housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ revealed in the census, covering internal and Examines population, economic development, land international migration, duration of residence, return policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation migration, migration by language groups and issues in Melanesian countries. demographic, economic and educational Fitzpatrick, J. (1992). Planem Family Bilong lu characteristics of migrants. - Poster Art in the Solomon Islands. Pacific Friesen, W. (1983). Accessibility and Studies, 15, 261-282. circulation in the western Solomon Islands, Key: SI pop/mig paper to 10th Pacific Science Congress. Overview of emergence of population policy in Dunedin, NZ. (unpublished). Solomon Islands and the attempt to diffuse the notion Key: SI pop/mig of smaller families into various parts of the country Reviews migration and mobility in southwest as national policy. Choiseul, and the links between that area and Honiara, that have changed and developed as Frazer, I. L. (1981) Man Long Taon: Migration migration has become more permanent and more and Diferentiation among the To'ambaita, likely to be associated with education. The study Solomon Islands. Ph.D. thesis, Australian focuses on land issues. National University. Key: SI pop/nig Honiara housing survey (1988). Honiara housing survey: pre-test report. ABS. Frazer. I. L. (1985a). Circulation and the Key: SI housing poplmig growth of urban employment amongst the To'ambaita, Solomon Islands. In M. Chapman Kengava, C. (1979). Choiseul migrants m & R. M. Prothero (Eds.), Circulation in Honiara. In P. Larmour (Eds.), Land in Population Movement. London: Routledge. (pp. Solomon Islands. Suva: (pp. 155-166). 225-247). Key: SI pop/mig Key: S1 pop/ig Study of 21 migrants to Honiara, most of whom came for employment in the 1960s, and were living in Examination of mobility of migration from the northwest Malaita, which focuses on urban settlements on government land. Most claimed land emplymet ad unmplymet, n th mi 190s, rights at home, but had obtained garden rights in emplmen and uermneploymw t,initeHoniara, and were not experiencing substantial when urban permanence was limited, problems. Frazer, I. L. (1985b). Walkabout and Urban K K. (1977). Gilbertese adaptation and Movement: a Melanesian case study. Pacific urbanization in the Western Solomons. ASAO Viewpoint, 26, 185-205. Conference, Port Moresby. (unpublished). Key: SI pop/mig social Examination of the social context of migration from North Malaita to Honiara, which focuses on the 124 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources McMurray, C. (1989). Population growth in 1985-1989. Honiara: Solomon Island Solomon Islands: signs of slowing? Pacfic Government. Economic Bulletin, 4(2), 31-46. Key: SI over econ/dev poplmig water sew Key: SI pop/mig Reviews the Solomon Island macro-economic and Overview of population issues in Solomon Islands development performance for the previous year. based on the 1986 census and some other data, which Presents a sectoral review for: human resources and suggests that fertility rates have fallen since 1984. community development; natural resources; commerce, industry and finance; physical Nage, J. (1987). Immigrant settlements in infrastructure; and government and security. Honiara, Solomon Islands. In L. Mason & P. Solomon Island Statistics Office (1981). Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Household income and expenditure survey 1981. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the Bulletin No. 28/81. Solomon Island Statistics South Pacific. (pp. 93-102). Office. Key: SI pop/mig social squatter Key: SI pop/mig housing Review of settlements, housing needs and housing Presents and analyses data collected in survey of policy in Honiara, which focuses on the particular households in the provincial centers: Gizo, Buala, problems of squatter settlements and recommends Tulagi, Auki, Kira Kira and Graciosa Bay. Includes control of expansion of settlements and improved data on population, income and housing. identification of land uses and thus land use policy formation. Solomon Islands Ministry of Finance (1981). Report on the Census of Population 1976; National Center for Development Studies Volume 2: Demographic Analysis. Honiara: (1989). South Paaifc Economic and Social Solomon Islands Ministry of Finance. Database: Solomon Islands. Canberra: National Key: SI pop/mig Center for Pacific Studies Australian National Detailed analysis of the 1976 census, which covers University. migration. Key: SI over econ/dev finance pop/mig Contains current and historical statistics on: Solomon Islands Ministry of Health and Medical population, migration, demography and housing; Services. (1987). Solomon Island Population education; health; national accounts; international Polkcy. Honiara. accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: SI pop/mig labor, employment and wages; prices and price The first national population policy that seeks a indices; rural industries; secondary industries and decline in the fertility rate from 6.1 to 3.7 by 1996 distribution; transport and communication; and and to 2.6 by 2011. tourism. Solomon Islands Ministry of Health and Medical Pitakaka, V. (1979). Gilbertese at Titiana. In P. Services (1990). Solomon Iskland National Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. Health Plan. Solomon Islands Ministry of Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 142-146). Health and Medical Services. Key: SI land pop/mig Key: SI pop/mig Overview of Gilbertese settlement at Titiana on the outskirts of Gizo township. Most are involved both in UNICEF (1991). Situation of Solomon Island agriculture and in urban employment. Children. Honiara: Ministry of Finance and Solomon Island Government (1985?). 1985 Economic Planning. Annual review of the national development pSI pop/ig poverty plan/man econdev 125 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Walsh, A. C. (1990). Popiulesin Blong Honiara supply. Describes the activities of three sources of : Ofketa Popiulesin Map Blong 1986 (Honiara: housing finance: commercial banks, the National 1986 Census Atlas). Department of Statistics, Provident Fund and the Home Finance Corporation. Honiara and Board of Development Studies, Outlines recent activities aimed at developing sites Massey University, Palmerston North. suitable for housing. Key: SI pop/mig over Bilingual (English and Pidgin) Atlas, with detailed Connell, J., & Lea. J. P. (1993). PaCiic 2010. commentaries on Honiara, that covers population Planning the Putre Melanesian Cies in 2010. structure, migration, economic characteristics, Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National household economies and demographic Center for Development Studies. characteristics, education, fertility, religion and social Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev areas, at city and ward level. housing squatter sew plan/man poplmig environ Examines population, economic development, land Wilson, M. (1982). Solomon Islands. policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Migration, employment and development in the issues in Melanesian countries. South Paafic. Working Paper to SPC/ILO Conference on Migration, Employment and Ghai, Y. (1983). The making of the Development in the South Pacific, Noumea. Independence Constitution. In P. Larmour & S. Key: SI pop/mig econ/dev Tarua (Eds.), Solomon Islands - Politics and Overview of migration issues in the Solomon Islands, Government. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, which focuses on emergent problems of urbanization. University of the South Pacific. (pp. 9-52). Key: SI plan/man govt Hamnett, M. P., & Hurrell, S. (1984). Reducing GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING the vulnerability of housing to natural disasters: a proto-type development in the Solomon Islands. East-West Center. Pacific Islands Bathgate, M. A. (1975) Biu Matena Gold: A Development Program, Honolulu. Study of Ndi-Nggai of Western Guadalcanal and Key: SI housing plan/man environ their involvement in the Solomon Islands cash economy. Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Herlihy, J. (1981) Always We are Last: A Study Wellington. of Planning. Development and Disadvantage in Key: SI land plan/man social Melanesia. Ph.D. thesis, Australian National The most detailed study ever undertaken of any group University, Canberra. of people in the country, that provides considerable Key: SI PNG econ/dev, housing plan/man depth of analysis on economic history, land tenure, A comparative study of two areas of Solomon Islands participation in the market economy, migration and (south Santa Isabel and the north coast of San links with Honiara. Cristobal) with two areas of Papua New Guinea (both in East Sepik Province) that examine the relationship Central Bank of Solomon Islands (1991). The between culture and development planning and the financing of the housing sector in Honiara. role of governments at different levels in stimulating Quarterly Review (Central Bank of Solomon or inhibiting development and change. Islands), 2(3), 17-25. Key: SI housing finance land plan/man Honiara Town Council (1988). Honiara Town Presents data and discussion on household density, Council Development Plan 1988-1992. spatial distribution of housing, average costs, value Honiara: Honiara Town Council. of expansion/renovation, and the shortfall in housing Key: SI plan/man 126 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Leary, T. (1993). Solomon Islands: State of the People's Alliance Party (1989). Program of environment report. Apia: South Pacific Action. Honiara: People's Alliance Party. Regional Environment Program. Key: SI econ/dev govt Key: SI environ plan/man Rofeta, J. (1989). The private sector in Solomon Likaveke, S. (1992). A Handbook for Members Islands. its nature, structure, and performance. of Provincial Town and Country Planning Asian Development Bank and Pacific Islands Boards. Honiara: Ministry of Agriculture and Development Program, East-West Center. Lands. Key: SI econ/dev planlman Key: SI plan/man govt Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation Liligeto, W. (1990). Implementation of Limited and the Mayo Group Pty Ltd (1991). government policy to inscribe Solomon Islands Government of the Solomon Islands review of sites in the World Heritage Site Listings. In T. the Ministry of Transport, Works and Uilities. H. B. Sofield (Eds.), Education for Tourism in Honiara. the South Pacific SPFP Workhops. Key: SI plan/man Townsville: James Cook University. (pp. 55- Contains review of existing Ministry structure, 72). identifies many problems and recommends new Key: SI govt plan/man land organizational structure in areas such as transport policy and planning, architecture and building Mataraarachcic, S. K. (1986) An Evaluation of services, electrical services, engineering, and the the housing policy of the Solomon Islands. wt ui Grad. Dip. Urb. & Reg. Plan. dissertation, Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation Limited and the Mayo Group Pty Ltd (1992). Key: SI housing govt plan/man Government of the Solomon Islands review of Oram, N. (1980). Land, housing and the Ministry of Transport, Works and Utilities, administration in Honiara: towards a concied implementation progress report. Honiar Key: SI plan/man policy. O'o. A Journal of Solomon IlrKde pr on implementing the Examines progress on ipeotg th Studies, 1(1-2), 133-163. recmmndations contained in the 1991 review of the Key: SI land housing plan/man ministry. Wide-ranging overview of land and housing issues in the early post-independence years, which focuses on Sofield, T. H. B. (1991). Legislative land administration, reviews activities of SIHA and impediments to local community involvement in services in settlements and recommends policies in all tui dvelop in Solomon Islands. A these areas. consultancy report prepared for the Solomon Paia, W. (1981). Rural Solomon Islands and the Islands Government James Cook University, Role of Traditional Socio-economic Institutions. Australia. Institute of Social and Administrative Studies, Key: SI plan/man govt social Monograph No. 2. Suva: University of the South Pacific. Sofield, T. H. B. (1992). Indgenous tourism Key: SI plan/man social development in Solomon klands: the concept of 'pioneer space'. Department of Tourism, James Cook University. Townsville: (unpublished). Key: SI land planiman govt econ/dev 127 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Contains commentary on planning legislation (revised Background report on housing problems in Honiara, version published in Annals of Tourism Research with accounts of the six proposed areas for serviced 20,1993). development, covering development principles, implementation procedures and some assessment of Sofield, T. H. B. (1993). Indigenous tourism their impact and viability. development. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(4), 729-50. Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1991). Key: SI econ/dev govt social Solomon Islands Tourism Development Plan, 1991-2000 (2 vols). Tourism Council of the Solomon Islands (1975). Solomon Iads South Pacific. National Development Plan 1975-79. Honiara: Key: SI econ/dev plan/man Office of the Chief Minister. Key: SI plan/man govt econ/dev Tozaka, M., & Nage, J. (1981). Administering squatter settlements in Honiara. In P. Larmour, Solomon Islands (1980). National Development R. Crocombe, & A. Taungenga (Eds.), Land Plan, 1980-1984. Honiara: People and Government. Public Lands Policy in Key: SI plan/man govt econ/dev the Soutd Pacfic. Suva: (pp. 114-118). Key: SI housing plan/man squatter Solomon Islands (1981). Program of Action, Examination of the reasons for the expansion of 1981-1984. Honiara. settlements (mainly the cost of formal housing) and Key: SI plan/man govt the tasks of improving the administration and organization of settlements. Solomon Islands Goviernment (1978). 77 UNICEF (1991). Situation of Solomon Island Constirution of th Solomon Islands.Hnaa of the Solomon Islan&. Honiara: fCildren. Honiara: Ministry of Finance and Government Printer. Economic Planning. Key: SI govt Key: SI pop/mig poverty plan/man econ/dev Solomon Islands Government (1982). Town and UNICEF (1993). A Situation Anaysis of Women Country Planning Act 1982. Honiara: and Children in the Solomon Islands. Key: SI plan/man UNICEF/Government of Solomon Islands, Solomon Islands Government (1986). National Honiara. Building Code. Honiara: Government Printer. Key: SI econ/dev plan/man social Key: SI plan/man United Nations (1985). Local planning scheme Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture a for Honiara, Solomon Islands. United Nations Soloon slans Mnisry o Agiculureand Center for Human Settlement. Lands (nd). Cinatown redevelopment plan. Key: SI plan/man Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Physical Planning Division. Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in Key: SI plan/man the Pacific: A survey of resource use and pocy sMinistry of Housing ad in Fiji, Solomon Isands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands Miityo ouigad Ws Saoa Environmental Studies Report No. Government Services (1990). Urban Ws ao.EvrnetlSuisRpr o Dowernment Srojerc (199. Utr 43. Suva* Institute of Natural Resources Development Project. Honiara: Ministry of University of the South Pacific. Housing and Government Services. .nvriyo heSuhPcfc Ho:SInand govn t SKey: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man Key: SI plan/man govt 128 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Wolfers, T. (1983). Centralization and Center for Pacific Studies Australian National decentralization until independence. In P. University. Larmour & S. Tarua (Eds.), Solomon Islands Key: SI over econ/dev finance pop/mig Politics and Government. Suva: Institute of Contains current and historical statistics on: Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. population, migration. demography and housing; (pp. 146-163). education; health; national accounts; international Key: SI govt plan/man accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and distribution; transport and communication; and FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT tourism. Rizer, J. P. (1984). Solomon Islands Business Australia International Development Assistance Survey. Indigenous Business Development Bureau (1991). The Solomon Islands economy- Project, Pacific Islands Development Program. Prospects for stabilization and sustainable Key: SI econ/dev finance growth. No. 21. Canberra: AIDAB. Key: SI econ/dev finance Solomon Islands Government (1984). Foreign This report presents a brief survey of recent Investment Regulations 1984. Honiara: developments in, and prospects for, the Solomon Government Printer. Islands economy. It provides an analytical overview Key: SI finance of important developments and issues, drawing from a wide range of government, international agency and academic sources. UNDP (1988). Small scale indigenous tourism business development in Solomon Islands. Central Bank of Solomon Islands (1991). The UNDP/WTO RAS/86/134. Madrid: WTO. financing of the housing sector in Honiara. Key: SI econldev finance Quarterly Review (Central Bank of Solomon Islands), 2(3), 17-25. Key: SI housing finance land plan/man Presents data and discussion on household density, URBAN LAND spatial distribution of housing, average costs, value of expansion/renovation, and the shortfall in housing Bathgate, M. A. (1975) Bihu Matena Gol: A supply. Describes the activities of three sources of Study of Ndi-Nggai of Western Guadalcanal and housing finance: commercial banks, the National their involvement in the Solomon Islands cash Provident Fund and the Home Finance Corporation. economy. Ph.D. thesis, Victoria University of Outlines recent activities aimed at developing sites Weligton. suitable for housing. Key: SI land planlman social The most detailed study ever undertaken of any group Kerr, A. (1987). Report on Solomon Islands of people in the country, that provides considerable Housing Bank Government of the Solomon depth of analysis on economic history, land tenure, Islands. Port Vila: UN ESCAP Pacific participation in the market economy, migration and Operations Center. links with Honiara. Key: SI housing finance Bobai, T. (1979). Gilbertese Settlement. In P. National Center for Development Studies Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. (1989). South Pacic Economic and Social Suva- (pp. 131-141). Database: Solomon Islands. Canberra: National 129 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: SI land pop/mig in Honiara and the problems of land tenure in the Examination of land issues in the settlement of adjoining Guadalcanal plains. Gilbertese migrants, resulting in problems of insecurity, at various centers in Solomon Islands. Kome, A. (1979). Matariu urban village. In P. Central Bank of Solomon Islands (1991). The Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. financing of the housing sector in Honiara. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 176-191). Quarterly Review (Central Bank of Solomon Key: SI land social Islands), 2(3), 17-25. An account of one of the larger settlements in Key: SI housing finance land plan/man Honiara, populated mainly by Malaitans. The Presents data and discussion on household density, residents experience water and sanitation problems spatial distribution of housing, average costs, value but prefer residence in settlements rather than formal of expansion/renovation, and the shortfall in housing housing. supply. Describes the activi !s of three sources of housing finance: commercial banks, the National Likaveke, D. S. (1987) Land and Housing in Provident Fund and the Home Finance Corporation. Honiara: the role of the Temporary Occupation Outlines recent activities aimed at developing sites License. Graduate Diploma in Urban and suitable for housing. Regional Planning dissertation, Queensland Institute of Technology. Floyd, C. H. (1978). Industrial and Housing Key: SI land housing Areas in Honiara. Suva: UNDAT. Key: SI land housing Liligeto, W. (1990). Implementation of A report on the planning of the Kukum industrial government policy to inscribe Solomon Islands zone, the development of buildings and zones for handicrafts and small industries at various sites and a sites in the World Heritage Site Listings. In T. review of the housing situation in Honiara, that H. B. Sofield (Eds.), Education for Tourism in focuses on the provision of additional sites. the South Pacific SPFP Workshops. Townsville: James Cook University. (pp. 55- Frazer, I. (1987). Growth and change in village 72). agriculture: Manakwai, North Malaita. South Key: SI govt plan/man land Pacific Smallholder Project Occasional Paper No. 11. Armidale: University of New England. Manedika, D. (1981). Solomon Islander Key: SI land econ/dev Businessmen. In P. Larmour (Eds.), Land in Examines the changing economy of North Malaita, Solomon Islands. Suva: Institute of Pacific that focuses on agriculture, records increasing Studies. (pp. 167-175). population pressure and growing land shortages, and Key: SI land econ/dev hence a new policy of land, and traces some elements Business development by Solomon Islanders in of urban migration. Honiara has been constrained by capital, lack of management experience and kin (wontok) pressure Heath, I. (Ed.). (1979). Land Research in and demands. Some businessmen are not committed Solomon Islands. Honiara: Ministry of to urban life. Agriculture and Lands. Key: SI land Oram, N. (1980). Land, housing and Overview of land settlement schemes, land disputes administration in Honiara: towards a concerted and land use agreements in several parts of the policy. O'o. A Journal of Solomon Island country. There is also an examination of land Studies, 1(1-2), 133-163. shortages and the emergence of squatter settlements, Key: SI land housing plan/man with particular emphasis on squatters from Sikaiana Wide-ranging overview of land and housing issues in the early post-independence years, which focuses on 130 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Litetature and Data Sources land administration, reviews activities of SIHA and RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT services in settlements and recommends policies in all these areas. Australia International Development Assistance Pitakaka, V. (1979). Gilbertese at Titiana. In P. Bureau (1990). Home Buidiing Manual: Larmour (Eds.), Land in Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands. Canberra: Australian Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 142-146). International Development Assistance Bureau,. Key: SI land pop/mig Key: SI housing Overview of Gilbertese settlement at Titiana on the outskirts of Gi20 township. Most are involved both in Central Bank of Solomon Islands (1991). The agriculture and in urban employment. financing of the housing sector in Honiara. Sofield, T. H. B. (1992). Indigenous tourism Quarterly Re-dew (Central Bank of Solomon development in Solomon Islands: the concept of Ilands), 2(3), i7- 25. 'pioneer space'. Department of Tourism, James Key: SI housing finance land plantman Cook University. Townsville: (unpublished). Presents data and discussion on household density, Key: SI land plan/man govt econ/dev spatial distribution of housing, average costs, value Contains commentary on planning legislation (revised of expansion/renovation, and the shortfall in housing version published in Annals of 7burism Research supply. Describes the activities of three sources of 20,1993). housing finance: commercial banks, the National Provident Fund and the Home Finance Corporation. Solomon Islands Government (1984a). Land and Outlines recent activities aimed at developing sites Investment in the Solomon Islands. Honiara: suitable for housing. Government Printer. Key: SI land Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Paific 2010. Plmning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. Solomon Islands Government (1984b). The Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra- National Lands and Titles Act (and Amendments) 1984. Center for Development Studies. Honiara: Government Printer. Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev Key: SI land housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Examines population, economic development, land UNDAT (1978). Report on land research policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation project in Solomon Islands. Suva: UNDAT. issues in Melanesian countries. Key: SI land Floyd, C. H. (1978). Industrial and Housing Zoleveke, G. (1979). Traditional ownership and Areas in Honiara. Suva: UNDAT. land policy. In P. Larmour (Eds.), Land in Key: SI land housing Solomon Islands. Suva: Institute of Pacific A report on the planning of the Kukum industrial Studies: (pp. 1-9). zone, the development of buildings and zones for Key: SI land handicrafts and small industries at various sites and a review of the housing situation in Honiara, that focuses on the provision of additional sites. Gilson, L. (1987). An urban primary health care strategy for Honiara, Solomon Islands. Key: SI poverty 131 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Hamnett, M. P., & Hurrell, S. (1984). Reducing Kerr, A. (1987). Report on Solomon Islands the vulnerability of housing to natural disasters: Housing Bank Government of the Solomon a proto-type development in the Solomon Islands. Port Vila: UN ESCAP Pacific Islands. East-West Center. Pacific Islands Operations Center. Development Program, Honolulu. Key: SI housing finance Key: SI housing plan/man environ Kudu, D. (1987). Outline for technical Herlihy, J. (1981) Always We are Last: A Study monograph on national experience in the of Planning, Development and Disadvantage in provision of low-cost shelter for the urban poor Melanesia. Ph.D. thesis, Australian National in the Solomon Islands. Ministry of Agriculture University, Canberra. and Lands, Physical Planning Division. Key: SI PNG econ/dev, housing plan/man Key: SI housing poverty A comparative study of two areas of Solomon Islands (south Santa Isabel and the north coast of San Likaveke, D. S. (1987) Land and Housing in Cristobal) with two areas of Papua New Guinea (both Honiara: the role of the Tamporary Occupation in East Sepik Province) that examine the relationship License. Graduate Diploma in Urban and between culture and development planning and the Regional Planning dissertation, Queensland role of governments at different levels in stimulating Rin ofaTecngy. or inhibiting development and change. Institute of Technology. Key: SI land housing Honiara housing survey (1988). Honiara Honirahousing survey re-88s. repor. Martin, D. (1992). Environmental Review of housing survey: pre-test report. ABS.f Key: SI housing pop/mig Housing Feasibility Study for Solomon Islands Government. Sydney: United Nations Hughes, A. V. (1969). Low-cost housing and Development Program/ United Nations Center home-ownership in Honiara, British Solomon for Human Settlements. Islands Protectorate. South Pacific Bulletin, 19, Key: SI housing environ 19-26. Review of the environmental problems attached to the development of new site and service schemes in Key: SI housing Honiara. Intertect (1984a). How to Strengthen a Solomon Mataraarachchi, S. K. (1986) An Evaluation of Island House. Honolulu: Pacific Islands th housing policy of the Solomon Islands. Development Program, East-West Center. Grad. Dip. Urb. & Reg. Plan. dissertation, Key: SI housing environ QDI . U Intertect (1984b). Improvement of L Key: SI housing govt plan/man Housing in the Solomon Islands to Withstand Nage, 1. (1987). Immigrant settlements in Natural Hazards. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Honiara, Solomon Islands. In L. Mason & P. Development Program, East-West Center. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Key: SI housing environ Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. (pp. 93-102). Intertect (1984c). Minimum Structural Sndards Key: SI pop/mig social squatter for Low-cost Cyclone Resistant Housing in te Review of settlements, housing needs and housing Solomon Islands. Honolulu: Pacific Islands policy in Honiara, which focuses on the particular Development Program, East-West Center. problems of squatter settlements and recommends Key: SI housing environ control of expansion of settlements and improved 132 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources identification of land uses and thus land use policy Key: SI squatter formation. Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture and Oram, N. (1980). Land, housing and Lands (1987). Worting paper for I.Y.S.H. administration in Honiara: towards a concerted Program and housing policy paper. No. policy. O'o. A Journal of Solomon Island TNAT/29/1. Physical Planning Division, Studies, 1(1-2), 133-163. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. Key: SI land housing plan/man Key: SI housing Wide-ranging overview of land and housing issues in the early post-independence years, which focuses on Solomon Islands Statistics Office (1978). land administration, reviews activities of SIHA and Honiara Housing Census. November 1976. services in settlements and recommends policies in all Honiara: Statistics Office. these areas. Key: SI housing Pacific Building Standards Project (1990a). An extremely detailed but now dated, study of m Bpopulation and housing in Honiara that examines Hoe:SI huing M ahousing tenare, construction materials, rooms and Key: SI housing services and also garden use, which is also broken Contains details of conventional timber and masomry down by wards. construction prepared to cater for the specific environmental constraints of Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands Statistics Office (1992). Honiara household income and expenditure Pacific Building Standards Project (1990b). Hoar 1990/91. ic a l end169 National Building Code for Solomon Islands. sre 909.SaitclBlei o 69 Sava l Report 2. Honiara: Statistics Office, MOFEP. KuvS hoKey: SI housing Key: SI housing Contains detailed performance requirements for Tozaka, M., & Nage, J. (1981). Administern dwellings. public buildings and group dwellings, squatter settlements in Honiara. In P. Larmour, Solomon Island Statistics Office (1981). R. Crocombe, & A. Taungenga (Eds.), Land Household income and ependiture survey 1981. People and Government. Public Lands Policy in Bulletin No. 28/81. Solomon Island Statistics the South Pacific. Suva: (pp. 114-118). Office. Key: ST housing plan/man squatter Key: SI pop/mig housing Examination of the reasons for the expansion of Presents and analyses data collected in survey of seents (mainly the cost of formal housing) and households in the provincial centers: B the tasks of improving the administration and Tulagi, Auki, Kira Kira and Graciosa Bay. Includes organization of settlements. data on population, income and housing. UNICEF (1991). Situation o UNIEF 199).Siratin f Solomon Island Solomon Islands Housing Authority (1988). Chidkr!,. Honiara: Ministry of Finance and Proposed housing projects for Honiara. Draft Economic Planning. Report Solomon Islands Housing Authority. Key: SI pop/mig poverty plan/man econ/dev Key: SI housing Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (1986/7). Kombito traditional housing area upgrade study - 1987. Physical Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. 133 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources URBAN SANITATION AND Islands. Technical Report No. 152. Suva: ENVIRONMENT SOPAC. Key: SI environ AIDAB Pacific Regional Team (1992). Joint Study of the impact of mining of beach aggregate review of the Solomon Island rural water supply from Ranadi, the industrial estate of Honiara, the and sanitation program, Working paper 3, beach is eroding with potential for damage to nearby . and t .ation. commercial and industrial sites from erosion, and Social analysis and comnay partpation. also from cyclones. Sydney: Pacific Regional Team. Hamnett, M. P., & Hurrell, S. (1984). Reducing Key: SI water sew .the vulnerability of housing to natural disasters: heaminer sociey and cO omy, ui mtys a proto-type development in the Solomon Islands. East-West Center. Pacific Islands Boer, B. (1992). Solomon Islands: Review of Development Program, Honolulu. environmental law. Apia: SPREP. Key: SI housing plan/man environ Key: SI environ Intertect (1984a). How to Strengthen a Solomon Cameron McNara (1987/88). Honiara landfill Island House. Honolulu: Pacific Islands study. Cameron McNamrar, now para of the Development Program, East-West Center. GHD Group, Sydney. Key: SI housing environ Key: S1 solid/waste Intertect (1984b). Improvement of Low-cost J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. Housing in the Solomon Islands to Withstand Coning .h Ftr L ea Natural Hazards. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Planning the Future Melanesian aties in 2010. DvlpetPorm atWs etr Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Development Program, EasWest Center. Center for Development Studies. Key: SI housing environ Key: Reg Fiji V.n SI PNG over econ/dev Intertect (1984c). Minimun Structural Standards housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Examines population, economic development, for Low-cost Cyclone Resistant Housing in the policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Solomon Islands. Honolulu: Pacific Islands issues in Melanesian countries. Development Program, East-West Center. Key: SI housing environ de Haan, S. (1992). Urban Water supply in the Solomon Islands. In Water Resources Juvik, S. P. (1992). Articulating attitudes and Management Techniques for Small Islands. assets for sustainable development, Marovo New York: United Nations Department of Lagoon, Solomon Islands. In Coastal Resources Economic and Social Development. (pp. 186- and Systems of the Pacific Basin: Investigation 92). and Steps Towards Protective Management. Key: SI water Regional Seas Report and Studies No. 147. Account of the particular problems of water supply in Nairobi: UNEP: Honiara and other urban centers, which examines the Key: SI environ administrative organization and develops plans and Examines environmental attitudes and awareness of priorities in various areas. the people of Marovo Lagoon, which considers attitudes to resource use and environmental Gillie, R. D. (1992). Ranadi beach coastal management and development. Considers the erosion study, Honiara, Guadalcanal, Solomon significance of land tenure, which is not agreed upon 134 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources by Marovans and hence constitutes a source of future Covers Laucala Bay, Suva Harbor, Vila Harbor and conflict. Erakor Lagoon, Fanga'uta lagoon and Marovo lagoon. Leary, T. (1991). Solomon Islands state of the environment report. Honiara: South Pacific Rearic, D. M. (1991). Baseline study of coastal Environment Program, Environment and erosion Gizo township, Western Province Conservation Division, Ministry of Natural Solomon Islands. Technical Report No. 40. Resources. Suva: SOPAC. Key: SI environ Key: SI environ Leary, T. (1993). Solomon Islands: State of the Coastal erosion is substantial in parts of Gizo environment report. Apia: South Pacific township and protective measures are urgently Regional Environment Program. required. Key: SI environ plan/maun Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation Martin, D. (1992). Environmental Review of Limited and the Mayo Group Pty Ltd (1991). Housing Feasibility Study for Solomon Islands Ministry of Transport Works and Utilities Government. Sydney: United Nations Solomon Islands Water Authority Project, draft Development Prograi/ United Nations Center design project. Honiara: Ministry of Transport, for Human Settlements. Works and Utilities. Key: SI housing environ Key: SI water Review of the environmental problems attached to the Covers analysis of existing situation; major development of new site and service schemes in constraints; existing program; and potential for Honiara. assistance. Discusses Gizo water supply and strategies for implementation of introductory stage. Murray-North International (1988). Solomon Islands water resource app raisal. Honiara: Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation s nIslands Ministry of External Relations Limited and the Mayo Group Pty Ltd (1992a). Solomon a Government of Solomon Islands Ministry of Key: SI water Transport, Works and Utilities, NWA options Wide ranging examination of the Provincial Center paper. Honiara. Water Supply Project, covering Anki, Gizo, Tulagi, Key: SI water Kirakira and Buala. Contains assessment of social, Identifies the pros and cons of establishing a new environmental and general economic consideration Statutory Water Authority. such as water use practices; :ost of water and ability to pay; opportunities for community involvement; Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation and organizations which could assist with Limited and the Mayo Group Ply Ltd (1992b). implementation. Covers financial and management Government of the Solomon Islands Ministry of aspects such as capital and operating cost estimates; Transport, Works and Utilities Solomon Islands cost benefit analysis; cash flow priorities and HRD Water Authority Project. Honiara: Ministry of requirements. Transport, Works and Utilities. Key: SI water Naidu, S., et al. (1991). Water quality studies Covers same ground as draft design document. on selected South Pacfic lagoons. Reports and Studies No. 49. Noumea: SPREP. Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation Key: Fiji Van Kir Tonga SI water environ Limited in association with the Mayo Group, Hunter Water Corporation and Murray North 135 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources (SI) Limited (1992c). Solomon Islands Water Tolia, D. (1992). Assessment, planning, Authority project capability statement. Cooma: development and management of water restricted document. resources in the Solomon Islands. In Water Key: SI water Resources Management for Small Islands. New Describes expenses and capacity of consultants and York: UN Department of Economic and Social their approach methodology. Development. (pp. 329-335). Key: SI water Solanes, M. (1988). Mission report to the Overview of water resources, planning, management, Solomon Islands. New York: Water Resources assessment and development that reviews the situation Branch, Natural Resources and Energy in both rural and urban areas. Division, United Nations. Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in Key: SI water the Paci-c: A survey of resource use and policy in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Solomon Island Government (1985?). 1985 Wat Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. Annual review of the national development plan 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources 1985-1989. Honiara: Solomon Island University of the South Pacific. Government. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man Key: SI over econ/dev poplmig water sew Reviews the Solomon Island macro-economic and development performance for the previous year. Presents a sectoral review for: human resources and community development; natural resources; commerce, industry and finance; physical infrastructure; and government and security. Solomon Islands Government (1980). The Environmental Health Act 1980. Honiara: Government Printer. Key: SI environ Solomon Islands Ministry of Transport Works and Utilities (1992). Solomon Islands Water Authority Project. Honiara Ministry Transport, Works and Utilities. Key: SI water Soule, L. (1987). Solomon Islands green belt movement. Rural Services Project Honiara: Agriculture Information Unit. Key: SI environ SPREP (1992). Solomon Islands: National report to UNCED. Apia: SPREP. Key: SI environ 136 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources VANUATU CONTENTS Commentary Settlement History..- - - - -- ......--- 139 Enmy. d140 Employment 143 Development P14ning4 id LandA.--nd ne.-.................. - . 145 Populatin And Intermel Migration. 1dR Urbanization ---...-.--.-..............149 Housig- - 151 ITrhen Serwics- 152 Selected References Key. 154 Econmic And Social Dvbinpment 155 Population And Mgration 158 Governance And Planning. 161 Finance And Development .162 ITrhan Land-- -163 Residential Development i 163 Urban Sanitation And Enviroment ... 164 137 dTORRES ISLANDS a 60 Uteparapam NORTII SMota Lava Vanua Lava oMota BANKS ISLANDS aus .Merig (Santa Mari) Mre Lava Anbne eMawo Snto(Aba LUGANVJILL AoT (SANTO) . ,-'te~cosu I -CENTRAL DISTRICT No. 2 Ambryn Malakuba Epi1I - - - - .- - -NTongaa - - .~ *Tongariki SIll0'IIERD Ngun ISLANDS PORT VILA Efte CENTRAL DISTRICT No. l "Aniwa. Tank -&FuFuna SAneityum . ookm 138 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Vanuatu was known until Independence in 1980 fragmentation of the country pose many as the New Hebrides. It is a chain of about problems for development. eighty islands stretching between the Solomon Islands and the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia and covers a distance of some 800 Settlement History kms. Efate, on which is located the capital city Port Vila, is one of three large islands, the The islands of Vanuatu have been settled for others being Malakula and Espiritu Santo. several thousand years and were almost Although few of the islands rise to great certainly first occupied by Melanesians moving heights, the highest being 1,877 m. on Santo, southwards from the Solomon Islands. More several, like Tanna, are mountainous and recently there has been westwards migration of volcanic, and have limited agricultural Polynesians who settled in several parts in small potential. In recent decades eruptions on both numbhers, particularly in Futuna and Anwa Lopevi and Ambrym have resulted in the southern group. The first European to see population migration. The northern islands are Vanuatu is thought to have been Quiros who more tropical than those in the south where a sighted several of the Banks Islands and Macwo greater range of crops are grown. Both in 1606. There was no further European contact droughts and cyclones are occasional hards until 1768 when Bougainville recorded the affecting agriculture especially and contributed positions of Pentecost, Aoba and Malakula. Six to slower growth in 1992. years later Cook was the first European to visit almost all the remaining islands and he named the group the New Hebrides. The last to be Vanuatu has greater linguistic diversity for its located were the Torres Islands in 1850. size than any other country in the world. There are as many as 110 languages but the Sandalwood was discovered on Tanna and constitution declares the national tongue to be Erromango in 1825 and a rapacious trade Bislama (Pidgin English), with two other developed. A few years later the London official languages being English and French. Missionary Society placed Samoan catechists on Moreover, there are some seventy populated the five southern islands and, in 1839, the first islands which is a greater number than in most European missionaries were killed when they other countries in the region. The many island landed at Erromango. In the mid-1850s the groups and linguistic diversity have resulted in southernmost island of Aneityum eventually considerable cultural distinctions and this is also became the place where a mission was emphasized in significant religious differences. successfully established. The first Melanesians Traditional societies in Vanuatu were were recruited to work in Australia in 1847 and competitive, with the accumulation of wealth this marked the start of a long period of through pigs and the achievement of status 'blackbirding' and labor migration. To some being essential to the acquisition of leadership. extent this was associated with declining There are however many variations including migration and population. differences between the matrilineal societies of the north and patrilineal societies south of Conflicting colonial interests in the New Pentecost. Whilst almost all the population are Hebrides resulted in Britain and France setting Melanesian and known as ni-Vanuatu, the up a Joint Naval Commission in 1886 for diversity of cultures and languages and the safeguarding order. Twenty years later when German interests were trying to gain a foothold 139 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources in Vanuatu, the British and French governments and did not take their seats. Meanwhile Jimmy agreed to establish a Condominium and so Stephens, the Santo Nagriamel leader, declared began a unique experience of colonialism in the a Provisional Government of the Republic of South Pacific. French commercial interests Vemarana in Santo and his supporters in other developed more rapidly and there were more islands in the northern group and in Tanna French than British settlers. It was an uneasy declared their own governments. Land tenure alliance and one which Britain generally had and land rights were important elements in little interest in, to the extent that in 1950 it Nagriamel concerns. attempted without success to devolve authority to Australia. In the circumstances development In mid-1980, immediately after Independence, was both limited and chaotic. troops from Papua New Guinea were brought to occupy Santo and the separatist rebellion Before Independence there were three separate ended. Thus Independence coincided with a administrations in the country, English, French difficult time in the evolution of Vanuatu, and New Hebridean, hence the occasional making it the only country in the region that did references to 'pandemonium' rather than not achieve independence peacefully. It has 'condominium'. Employment in the government resulted in some friction between different sector was, and is, higher than might have been regions and although there has been no expected for a country of this size. There was resurgence of secessionist movements since always some degree of opposition to the Independence, there has been a continuation of Condominium system and to administration in some regional religious and political general. Often this took traditional forms, such differences. as the establishment and development of the John Frum cult of Tanna from the 1940s and, to The Vanuaaku Party governed Vanuatu from a lesser extent, in the Nagriamel movement of Independence but in late 1991 the Party, still Santo and in other custom groups. Such led by Walter Lini, was unseated by its movements tended to represent a return to Francophone opposition. However, Lini's new tradition rather than a direct confrontation with party subsequently joined the Francophone administration. leader, Maxime Carot, in a coalition government. Since then there has been Opposition to American attempts to develop considerable political instability. Government land in Santo and Efate resulted in the policy, especially in relation to foreign affairs, foundation of the New Hebrides National Party has tended initially to be more radical than in in 1971 which was oriented to majority rule and other South Pacific states but increasingly the self-government, eventually becoming the similarities in national policies between Vanuaaku Party. There was no program for Vanuatu, Solomon Islands and Papua New Independence until well into the 1970s as, in Guinea became apparent. As elsewhere in general, Britain wished to leave and France to Melanesia traditional values (kastom) play a remain. In the first general election in 1975 the strong part in both local and national life. Vanuaaku Party won a majority but it did not take its place in the House. In the third general election of 1979 the Vanuaaku Party won a large majority and Father Walter Lini became Chief Minister; the other parties, collectively The economy of Vanuatu is primarily dependent known as the 'Moderates', disputed the results on agricultural production and there are significant variations between the village economy with its combination of subsistence 140 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources production and some cash cropping and the US$3.2 million. Most production comes from plantation sector (principally copra and cattle the two main islands of Efate and Santo and is production) oriented towards overseas markets. dominated by ranches and smallholders, Agriculture, which is much the most important respectively. There is considerable potential for sector of the national economy, is the principal expansion but depends on improved incentives, source of employment and economic activity diversification of markets away from Japan and and, alongside fisheries, constitutes the main growth in the domestic market. Efforts to area of potential future economic development. diversify have met with limited success so that the two other characteristic cash crops of Agriculture: The most important part of the Melanesia, coffee and cocoa, are relatively agricultural system is the subsistence sector unimportant. Coffee production reached a peak involving a variety of root crops. Kava (Piper of 100 tones in 1979 but has since declined to a Mysticwn) is grown throughout Vanuatu, point where it is scarcely significant being just especially in Tanna, and is of significance as a 37 tones in 1989. Potential for expansion, cash crop. Local cultivated food supplies are especially on Tanna, remains considerable. supplemented by hunting, gathering and fishing Greater success has been achieved with cocoa and it is not unusual for Flying Foxes to be sold and exports rose at the end of 1970s to 1,096 in urban markets. Pigs and poultry are raised tones, reaching 2,580 tones in 1990 when throughout the country but pigs are primarily of exports were valued at US$2.4 million. Almost ceremonial importance. There is some local all cocoa output now comes from village marketing of agricultural produce in Santo and smallholdings, especially on Malakula. There is Efate. interest in further diversification into pepper production whose high value/low weight ratio Although the subsistence sector is the single makes it appropriate for the more remote, hilly most important agricultural component of the or relatively densely-populated islands. The GDP, copra is most significant commercially. climatic variations from north to south provide Plantations have long experienced labor opportunities for a range of innovations but shortages, hence most agricultural production constraints on marketing small quantities from now comes from smaltholdings. This has been scattered islands pose problems for agricultural more or less stable during the 1980s at around development. 32,000 tones, but has varied in response to price fluctuations. Almost all copra is produced Fisheries: Until the mid 1980s the second most on the larger islands between Santo and Efate important export from Vanuatu was fish. The and, in 1982, transport allowances were South Pacific Fishing Company, a large introduced to encourage production in more Japanese concern, was established in 1957 at remote areas. There is little prospect of copra Palekula in south-east Santo. The freezing plant production growing significantly in the future employed more than a hundred ni-Vanuatu at its since there has been minimal replanting but it peak but the operation closed in 1986 because provides some income for producers in distant of low tuna prices. Currently commercial areas where other forms of income generation fishing is carried out under lease agreements are impossible. amounting to an income of about 25 million vatu annually but Vanuatu's waters are of low Livestock production is of some significance, productivity. Efforts to develop local fisheries and its export value is second only to copra. have not been particularly successful primarily Vanuatu is one of the biggest beef exporters in because of language problems and a shortage of the Pacific with exports in 1991 being valued at skilled managerial and technical expertise. 141 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Forestry and mining: There is some potential recently. A parallel shipping registry has been for forestry in Vanuatu, and the government has less successful. sought joint venture partners for developing plantations and related operations in the two Tourism: is a major source of income and has main islands. There was some growth in the been the fastest growing industry in the country early 1990s and timber exports were valued at since 1971. Despite some stagnation in the 146 million vatu in 1992. Vanuatu had a small 1980s, growth resumed at the end of the 1990s mining industry until 1978 when the manganese and, between 1987 and 1992, Vanuatu was the mine at Forari (Efate) closed with depressed fastest-growing tourist destination in the South world prices. Manganese deposits exist and Pacific. In 1992 the number of tourist arrivals there are indications of gold on Santo and reached 42,670 plus 59,350 cruise ship visitors. Malakula. However, land tenure constraints, The former was a record number but the latter uncertain world prices and political instability was less than in the mid-1980s. Most of the reduce the prospects of establishing a mining tourist sector is concentrated in and around Port industry. Vila (where there are 70 per cent of all tourist beds) with secondary centers on Santo and Industry: Industrial development is very Tanna. Further development is limited by restricted and is largely confined to a meat shortages of skilled labor, relative remoteness cannery, a brewery, a soft-drink factory and a from major tourist exporting countries, high biscuit factory. There are also about fifty small transport costs within the country and few construction firms which include furniture- facilities outside the capital. The future for a making and boat building. The whole larger and more viable industry is promising if manufacturing sector is concentrated in and the Japanese market can be expanded. Total around Port Vila and contributes around five foreign exchange earnings from tourism in 1992 per cent of GDP, employing around 1,600 were estimated at US$44.7 million (Vatu 94 people. Growth of manufacturing has averaged million) which is more than double the value of more than 15 per cent a year since 1986, all merchandise exports. Tourism contributed assisted by a national focus on individual some 26 per cent of the GDP and employed development and considerable protection. around 1,300 people. Further expansion of the manufacturing sector is limited by the high cost of wages and Services: In a country as fragmented as Vanuatu services, shortages of skilled workers and a services tend to be centralized; the principal small domestic market. hospitals are in Port Vila, Santo, Tanna and Aoba and most doctors are located in the two Finance: Vanuatu has the most significant urban centers. The major diseases are offshore finance center in the South Pacific tuberculosis which is a major cause of death in region. This grew particularly rapidly in the some areas (especially on islands away from 1980s though slowed at the end of the decade Efate and Santo), and malaria. The 1982-83 with Australian restrictions on offshore tax National Nutrition Survey recorded that many avoidance schemes and some loss in investor children under five years lacked protein and confidence. At the start of the 1990s the finance energy foods in their diet and there was a very sector employed 390 people, more than 300 of high percentage of malnutrition among small these being ni-Vanuatu. After a steady increase children. The incidence was highest inland and in numbers from earlier years overall in some of the more densely populated areas of employment has not significantly increased the larger islands and also in some of the densely populated and remote small islands. 142 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources This is unlikely to have significantly changed. modern economic activity in the two main The main constraint to better health is the great towns. shortage of health workers, especially in the rural areas. Overall, economic growth was relatively slight in the 1980s partly because of problems in the The education system is unusually complex tourist sector. There was a resurgence at the because of the dual anglophone and start of the 1990s, though it has rarely grown at Francophone systems. Almost all education was more than two per cent a year. In 1990 GDP provided by the missions until as recently as per capita was around US$1,050. Aid levels are 1959. Sixth form courses are only available in high and Vanuatu receives more aid per capita Port Vila and the only tertiary education than any other fully independent Pacific state institutions (the Vanuatu Technical Institute and apart from Tuvalu. The country has some the Vanuatu Teachers College) are in the potential for further economic growth if it can capital. Other tertiary and training institutions secure better resources of trained personnel, such as the Tagabe National Agricultural especially in the agricultural and tourist sectors. School and the USP Center are also in Port Vila. The degree of urban bias in the education Employment system is almost inevitable in a country like Vanuatu but this has been a cause of rural-urban migration. Tertiary education is mainly Employment is characterized by the overseas and there are relatively few highly predominance of agriculture in a situation trained pannel. where the majority of the population live and work outside the two towns. The first attempt Because of the geographic fragmentation, good to evaluate the structure of employment and inter-island transport is crucial to development economic activity in Vanuatu took place in the and national integration. Land transport, by 1967 census, at which time some five per cent contrast, is of limited extent and there are roads of ni-Vanuatu were still primarily subsistence on only some of the larger islands other than agriculturalists. By contrast there were only Efate and Santo. The costs of road provision in 6,484 people employed outside agriculture, and difficult terrain, the sparse population and short only 4,363 (67 per cent) of these were ni- lives of vehicles limit the potential for Vanuatu. Only 25 per cent of the total expansion of land transport. The most important workforce were in the monetary sector. A 1972 part of transport infrastructure is shipping, only census of the two urban areas indicates that Santo and Port Vila having deep sea wharves there were substantial increases in the number and those for inter-island shipping found only of ni-Vanuatu employed in the five-year period on Aore, Malaikula, Pentecost an Ambrym. bu that there were no real changes in Elsewhere, ships must anchor off-shore and be occupational concentration. Melanesians were serviced by lighters. This means that long concentrated in the low-status, poorly-paid, periods of time must be spent at anchorages and unskilled areas of the wage workforce. A there are sometimes cargo losses, damage and decade later the formal sector had grown extended delays. This is uneconomic for the considerably but, by 1983, some 77 per cent of shipping lines, most of whose boats are already the economically active population remained in old and expensive to maintain. Transport thus agriculture. This trend has subsequently limits development outside Efate and Santo and continued with numbers employed in the formal this has contributed to the centralization of sector steadily increasing but the proportion of those in agriculture remaining much the same. 143 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources One significant change in the 1970s was in the unemployed also increased in the 1980s as urban economy where there was expansion and population exceeded economic growth and, in diversification of bureaucratic and service some densely populated rural areas such as the employment and with it an unusually rapid Shepherd Islands, the rural sector could not expansion in female employment in the formal absorb the workforce adequately. In the 1989 sector. Between 1967 and 1979 the number of census there were just 360 people defined as females employed in the formal sector outside unemployed and 306 (85 per cent) of these were agriculture increased from 1,516 to 3,023. Most in the two urban areas. Some 261 of the were employed in the service sector. It was not unemployed were males and 218 were in Port therefore until the 1980s that female wage Vila. More than half the unemployed were aged employment became of any real significance. between 15 and 24 and once again the census underestimated the real extent of unemployment The 1989 census recorded that 84 per cent of and underemployment. the population aged 15 and over were economically active and that 76 per cent of the workforce were engaged in agricultural Development Planning activities. This was only a slight change from a decade earlier. Nevertheless, this change The condominium years were characterized by a reflected the growth in urban population and the period of non-development in the sense that increased dependence on wage employment. neither the French nor British administrations The most rapidly growing employment sector provided appropriate infrastructure for either was that professional, managerial and economic or social development and few ni- administrative workers, where numbers grew Vanuatu were educated or achieved positions of from 2,721 to 4,171 over the decade. This responsibility. This left Vanuatu with one of the sector thus constituting 6.7 per cent of the least developed economies in the Pacific. There workforce. The trade, restaurants and hotels was no coordinated development planning of sector was most important industry after any kind until well into the 1970s when a agriculture, with 2,713 workers (4.3 per cent of resource survey was undertaken as a prelude to the workforce) and manufacturing had just 892 an anticipated Development Plan for 1978-80. (1.4 per cent). Both manufacturing and finance Before that there had however been a joint services have grown slightly since 1989. 'plan' prepared in 1970 by the British and French Resident Commissioners which came to Unemployment was first recorded in the 1967 be known as the 'New Hebrides Joint census though never defined. Some 172 Development Plan, 1971-75'. This set out 126 recorded themselves as unemployed; some 109 projects, most of which were in urban areas. of these were ni-Vanuatu (80 being male) and The transitional plan for 1978-80 was never 69 and 16, respectively, lived in the urban areas produed, hence it was not until the end of of Port Vila and Luganville. The 1972 urban 1982, more than two years after independence, census recorded a total of 187 unemployed in that the first National Plan appeared and even the two urban areas of whom 153 were ni- this was to some extent only a list of projects Vanuatu. The 1979 census recorded only 200 and an agenda for more detailed surveys, plans unemployed of whom 76 were in Port Vila. and proposals. Thus integrated development This small number of urban employed was planning is still in its infancy in Vanuatu. particularly low since many who unsuccessfully sought work preferred to return to their villages The First National Development Plan of 1982 rather than remain in town. The number of was intended to be the first stage 'Transition 144 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and R-construction' of a fifteen-year program to Land achieve economic self-sufficiency where import requirements are met from foreign exchange As in other parts of Melanesia land tenure is an earnings and fiscal requirements from domestic issue of critical importance and the ownership revenues. Its objectives included balancing of land, especially that held by foreign regional and rural growth, enhancing the interests, has been a subject of much debate. private sector's contribution to development, Prior to independence over 12 per cent and especially in industry and commerce, and perhaps as much as 20 per cent of the land area developing skilled human resources. The of Vanuatu had been alienated. Ten per cent government identified three principal problems was registered in the name of French interests relating to economic development as being, a and companies and two per cent to mainly heavy reliance on external sources for financing Australians and an increasing number of the public sector, the domination and control of Americans. Most of the alienated land was on the magnetized sector of the economy by Santo and Efate. Much foreign-owned land foreign business interests and a disproportionate reverted to ni-Vanuatu ownership on distribution of government expenditure - or Independence as the constitution ruled that 'all 'urban bias' - in favor of the towns rather than land in the Republic belongs to the indigenous the rural areas. Other problems included custom owners and their descendants' and, by considerable linguistic and cultural diversity, the end of 1982, only five per cent was foreign- substantial regional differences in attitudes to owned. The actual means of transfer, the the government, a large number of small islands compensation for this and the eventual with rapidly increasing transport costs, and a ownership of previously alienated land have dualistic educational system. All of which been a source of some contention and posed factors have tended to hinder national problems for the future of investment in the integration. An important theme of the Plan was large estate sector. therefore for regional development and a Traditional land tenure is similar to that in separate Regional Development Plan was other parts of Melanesia though there is a completed towards the end of 1983. A key myriad of minor variations on any norm. Land element in this was the encouragement of was historically owned by small-scale social regional specialization: of cocoa in the north, groups based on common descent, residence in coffee in the south, forestry in Erromango and a particular area and participation in various Pentecost, and cattle in Santo and Efate. activities. Individuals derived their status and their land through membership of and/or The Second National Development Plan (1987- marriage into particular social groups. Primary 1991) was published in 1989 and continued to rights were usually held by males. In the islands emphasize self-reliance, greater involvement north of the Shepherds land tenure was more and accelerated development of human flexible, whether there were matrilineal or resources and began to emphasize patrilineal systems. To the south the system was environmental issues. It sought to consolidate less flexible because land ownership was related what had been achieved in the first plan period to titles. However, most land tenure systems and recognized the need for continued though rigid in principle were flexible in investment in infrastructure. It also emphasized practce and have been influenced and put under decentralization of some administrative pressure by magnetization and population activities to regional councils in order to growth. achieve a more even structure of development. 145 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Though alienated land, including the small Disputes over VULCAN led to serious public amount of government land, was returned to ni- disturbances. Vanuatu ownership at the time of Independence, Vanuatu's constitution allowed special provision The urban land corporations in Port Vila and to be made for urban land. The new Luganville have now been disestablished and government adopted a policy that would allow it their functions assumed by two Urban Land to declare that some customary land would Leases Selection Committees made up of become public. This meant it would be representatives from the Lands Department, the managed but not owned by the government or Survey Department a. d the Physical Planning by statutory bodies set up for that purpcse. The Unit (and/or municipality officers). Four customary owners would be involved in the petitions from the customary owners contesting management and share part of any revenue the declaration of urban public land (including raised. It was to be rather like a compulsory one from the Shepherd Islands) have been lease with the amount of rent paid to customary declared legal until a court decides otherwise owners being dependent on revenue collected. but remain unsettled regarding the matter of compensation payable. Disagreements persist Port Vila, with slightly amended boundaries, among the groups involved. The question of the was declared public land on Independence Day, rights of traditional landowners to land in both and the Vila Urban Land Corporation urban areas surfaced again in 1992 when the (VULCAN) was set up to manage it. The idea government offered compensation payments to was that the Corporation would create substitute people in the villages concerned. On Efate, on leases to replace the freehold titles voided at which Vila is located, the village of Erakor Independence and pay a share of the rent to the accepted the compensation payment. The chief customary owners. The genesis of these urban of Pango village also accepted the payment, but land problems has been discussed in detail was criticized by some fellow villagers. Some elsewhere (van Trease 1987). In practice the of the villagers claimed that the sum offered customary landowners of Port Vila (the was insufficient relative to the funds allocated villagers of Erakor, Mele and Pango) were to Erakor and Ifira, while others argued that the influential in government and well represented lands should be leased to the municipality, in cabinet. The policy was consequently rather than ceded permanently. This view was amended so that all the rents raised by the also held in Ifira village where the people government from public land, not just a share, refused the proposed settlement and called for would go to the owners after VULCAN's the payment of rents under leasing administrative costs had been covered. However arrangements that would recognize their they could not decide how the money should be ancestral claims to the land. The status of land divided up between the three villages. Five tenure in urban areas remains the subject of years after Independence hundreds of thousands debate and disagreement. of vatu were accumulating unspent in VULCAN's bank accounts while landowners Lad use planning: Urban planning in Vanuatu were deciding how to divide it. The board of is governed by the provisions of the Physical VULCAN, of which Barak Sope was chairman, Planning Act No. 22, 1986 which allows attracted criticism in 1987-88 when government councils to decide on future development policy investigations revealed that no income had been and preprxe land use plans for the distributed to landowners and there had been municipalities but not for adjacent peri-urban maladministration and misappropriation. land, most of which is held under customary ownership. 146 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources It is short but workable legislation although it Home Affairs, and by the municipality. This could be improved in some respects. For somewhat complex process results in a report to example, processes for the notification of the Urban Land Leases Selection Committee, planning area declarations, plan preparation, which subsequently makes a recommendation to and changes and reviews of planning schemes the Minister of Lands. However, little urban are either unspecified in the law or land in Port Vila remains unleased - estimated inappropriately brief. Appeal rights only apply to be less than five per cent in 1992, with a to applicants for development permission, and further 15 per cent leased but undeveloped to those affected by development or by new (Halliburton 1992). This suggests the existence schemes or changes. Again, pertinent to the of considerable land speculation. When these present situation in Vanuatu, the statute does circumstances are linked to the large proportion not specify how long a council cannot have an of urban leases held by foreigners, the approved scheme: remedial provisions, in preconditions exist for future instability. addition to stating a maximum preparation time, say two or three years, could also allow central Local government in Vanuatu is governed by government to step in and institute a plan if and the Municipalities Act, 1985 which gives when councils fail to approve a plan councils power to 'control, manage and (Halliburton 1992: 14-5). administer their areas; safeguard public health; and develop, control and manage land taken on Draft plans for Port Vila and Luganville have lease' (Cap 126, Part VI, Section 25). The existed for several years but have yet to be municipalities are additionally empowered to approved by the respective councils. The initiate, maintain and control a range of reasons for the delay lie in disputes over urban possible urban infrastructure and services such land at the time of independence in 1980 and in as public transport, and to make by-laws. They misunderstanding of the purposes and effects of have had difficulty fulfilling their potential role statutory planning. As a result, development and have not carried out systematic policy controls have been applied inconsistently and at formulation or development planning in relation the moment the provisions of the draft plan do to public works and infrastructure. not have to be taken into account. Additionally, specific policy problems that hve At the time of Independence about 20 per cent arisen, particularly in Port Vila, have typically of national territory was alienated from not resulted in a response from the customary ownership. The new constitution municipalities. A recent example is in relation returned all land in the Republic to the to appropriate plot sizes for Port Vila indigenous customary owners except for the (Halliburton 1992: 28). This provides further urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville which evidence of the need to reassess whether local were declared public land in a decision which is government is in a suitable condition to exercise still under dispute. Additional provisions have its assigned powers. Though land is a relatively set up Urban Land Leases Selection Committees abundant resource throughout Melanesia, land in the two towns to manage the leasing of tenure has posed problems for national public land. These and other land management development projects, especially in and around orders fall under the Land Reform Regulation urban areas where demand is greatest. which lays down the principles for existing land Approaches to land issues have invariably policy. Applications for leasing urban public focused on the relatively straightforward task of land are considered by the Director of Land in managing alienated land. But this is sometimes the Physical Planning Unit of the Ministry of a small proportion of all urban land, and 147 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources pressures on customary land are constantly - and therefore use - land with productive increasing. potential has constrained urban development, made infrastructure construction more In a relatively sparsely populated country like complicated and costly and has thus hindered Vanuatu the extraordinary situation has economic development. developed where it is predicted that no further land will be available for urban development in Population and Internal Migration Port Vila within ten years. Additional land exists in the peri-urban area and there is a Inormation on the procedure via a 'negotiator's certificate' granted Inatio on theearly population history of by the Minister of Lands whereby terms may be Vanuau is thin though it is more detailed than agreed with the customary owners. A lease is in the other Melanesian countries to the north. subsequently issued by the Rural Leases More recently there have been three national Selection Committee. Unfortunately, as in so censuses, in 1967, 1979 and 1989. The 1979 many other land disputes in Melanesia, thi census was incomplete since some households procedure demands agreement as to who are the refused to co-operate. First official counts were conducted in 1936 and further estimates were customary owners and what are existing made at intervals through the 1950s and 1960s. interests in the land concerned. Resolution of such difficulties is unlikely in the absence of land title registration of some kind or even the In the nineteenth century there was some introduction of freehold title with some inbuilt depopulation from epidemic diseases which is protection of customary rights. The acquisition well documented for Aneityun (Anatom) of customary land in the public interest is hard island. It appears to have continued on some to ahiev inVanutu t prsen but=~' islands until around the Second World War legislation with this objective is close to being when the national population was about 40,000. peglasd b h pa isent e iHowever, by the time of the 1967 census the population was definitely increasing and was Government has decided new compulsory then recorded at 78,000. The 1979 census acquisition legislation is required and a Bill has recorded a total of 111,250 people and been prepared, Bill for the Compulsory confirmed that the rate of growth was Acquisition of Land Act, 1989. This draft continuing to increase. From 1979 to 1989 the legislation appears to be a viable option for population increased to 142,219 at an annual acquiring land for urban development: The rate of 2.8 per cent and is now around 160,000. definition of 'public purposes' for which Although the population growth rate between acquisition would be made, appears to be broad Atog the opuati growth rate e enough to encompass urban development. Also 1979 and 1989 fell, it was still a high rate. The the draft Bill provides for due notice of total fertility rate declined from 6.5 in 1979 to intention to acquire land, due investigation, 5.3 in 1989 but the Crude Birth Rate remained assessment of compensation which includes an high at 38 per thousand. The Crude Death Rate appeal process, and allowance for the return of declined from 12 per thousand in 1979 to 9 in land to the original owners if it becomes 1989. The Infant Mortality Rate has fallen unwanted for the purposes for which it was substantially from 94 in 1979 to 45 in 1989 but taken. An apparent shortcoming is the lack of remains relatively high for the Pacific region. requientfor an attempt at voluntary Infectious disease remains common and reuMiemnt fra atep atvlnry malnutrition is also present. Population growth acquisition to be made (Halliburton 1992: 67). is al present. Poplato th The inability to identify, mobilize and transfer - is likely to remain high until well into the next century. Family planning has never been 148 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources emphasized, there is no national population which lies close to islands of dense population policy and the number of family planning such as Paana and the Shepherds and has acceptors is small. In some places there is even become an attractive destination. All other local interest in achieving a more rapid population government regions experienced net migration increase. losses over the decade. The Shepherds was the only part of Vanuatu that actually experienced a Internal migration has, over time, been declining population, but it remains the most increasingly characterized by rural-urban densely populated part of the country. movement. In 1979 the Santo and Efate regions were destinations for 25 per cent and 33 per cent, respectively, of all lifetime migrants. Urbanization Indeed, the most notable change in migrant destinations between 1967 and 1979 was the There has been a legally defined town in increased significance of Port Vila and Vanuatu since 1911 following an official Luganville. In 1967, 45 per cent of all migrants regulation 'To Define the Limits of the were enumerated in towns but by 1979 this had Municipalities of Port Vila and Mele' but no increased to 53 per cent. At that time all other real urban development occurred until after the regions, except the small islands of Epi and Second World War. Indeed it was not until Banks/Torres, experienced migration losses 1955 that Luganville officially became a town. though all islands had some in-migration. The Whilst Port Vila remained the administrative main areas of emigration were Paama, and commercial center of Vanuatu, boom Malakula, Ambae/Maewo, the Shepherds and conditions in the copra industry enabled some of the more densely populated islands in Luganville to become an established commercial the country where development opportunities center. However, in 1955, neither town had were relatively few. more than 2,000 people. Port Vila's population more than doubled between 1955 and 1967 The most significant change in the composition whilst that of Luganville increased by some 80 of migrant streams between 1967 and 1979 was per cent and even more so in terms of the urban an increase in female migration, especially to ni-Vanuatu population. Moreover, in the 1960s, urban areas, reflecting both an increase in the ni-Vanuatu began to purchase land in both Port movement of families and young women to Vila and Luganville. In the early 1970s there towns in search of employment. These trends was a further boom in urban development reflected changes in the structure of the urban characterized by the expansion of the labor market which now offered propects of construction industry and the diversification of long-term, relatively skilled employment, rather the urban economy although, unlike in other than short-term and unskilled work. areas of the South Pacific, the prelude to Independence did not coincide with further Between Independence in 1980 and the 1989 rapid urbanization. This urban development census, internal migration became even more boom accompanied a shift in government characterized by urbanization. Greater Port Vila expenditure from rural to urban areas. The and Greater Luganville were the two most political problems in Santo at the time of prominent areas of in-migration in that period independence led to emigration from and, apart from there, net gains were also Luganville, the decline of the urban population experienced in the rural areas of Santo and there and the more rapid growth of Port Vila. Efate where the two towns are located. The Between 1967 and 1979 the urban population only other area of net in-migration was. Epi grew from 5,636 to 15,102 and it tripled in 149 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources size. Port Vila grew at roughly twice the rate of sense that almost all urban residents have some Luganville. a distinction which was emphasized legal status and hence security of tenure in their further in the 1980s. Rapid urban growth in the homes. Nevertheless, by the 1970s, a wide 1970s was a consequence of a crisis in the rural range of problems was apparent in the urban economy (following cyclone damage and falling areas, including marital breakdown, higher copra prices), the diversification of the urban crime rates and excessive alcohol consumption economy and the increased demand for but the social dislocations and problems of secondary education and other urban services. urban residence appear to be much fewer and By 1989 the population of Port Vila had less important than in other parts of Melanesia. reached 19,311 and that of Luganville, growing No detailed studies appear to have been made again, had reached 6,983. Thus some 18 per in recent years of shantytown settlements in cent of ni-Vanuatu now live in urban areas. Vanuatu, hence there is little information on the Most of the migrants to Port Vila are from origin and age-sex structure of migrants, their nearby islands, especially from the Shepherds occupations, length of residence, pattern of and the Tafea islands south of Efate. Neither of incomes, and expenditure, except for those these two areas provided significant numbers of from parts of Pentecost and Paama (Haberkorn migrants to Luganville where most migrants 1989). came from the north (as far south as Paama). Recent projections suggest that Port Vila will Over time urban populations have become more grow to a total of some 40,000 persons by the permanent and committed to city life indicated turn of the century though this figure may be an by household migration and the greater underestimate because it does not include continuity of urban residence. However in the substantial and rapidly growing peri-urban 1970s, migration was almost entirely circular settlements like Blacksands and Federation. with few residents being born in town and little Moreover, several villages beyond the urban evidence of a committed urban workforce. boundaries, such as Maat and Mele, are Subsequently, some migrants have purchased substantially influenced by urbanization and urban houses and land whilst more long-term urban unemployment. emigration from densely populated islands was a response to the considerable difficulty in Particular areas in the towns are characterized achieving a rural livelihood. The growing by residents from different areas of Vanuatu. In commitment of migrants to Port Vila from Port Vila this is nowhere more true than at Pentecost and Paama has been discussed in Seaside which is principally occupied by detail (Haberkorn 1989) in relation to changes migrants from Tongoa and Paama. In in the urban economy, disenchantment with Luganville a similar situation exists in Mango rural life and new forms of urban social which is almost entirely occupied by migrants organization. Significantly, when urban from the Banks Islands. Other areas such as residents were asked in the 1989 census to state Tagabe have a much more mixed population. their 'home island', almost the entire urban Whilst urban growth has not been uncontrolled population claimed to be of migrant stock. Few in the sense that few urban households are claimed Vila or Luganville as their home place, squatting on land to which they have no rights an indication that even the most committed of tenure, many shantytowns were constructed urban residents have important social ties at very high densities and amenities (especially elsewhere. toilets and water supplies) are extremely inadequate. There are therefore no real squatter settlements in Port Vila or Luganville in the 150 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Housing Although Port Vila is a very small city by international standards and the scale of its The government's objectives for housing during housing needs is correspondingly modest, the the Second National Development Plan period difficulties it has encountered are severe and (1987-91) were to: likely to accelerate. Besides the largely artificial shortage of land suitable and available for * ensure that acceptable housing is available development, it is estimated that some 25 per for those who must live in towns; cent of existing housing stock is substandard * significantly reduce overcrowded housing and that at least 5,000 new houses will be and illegal squatting; required by the year 2000 at projected growth * legislate to ensure that new housing is of an rates and an occupancy level of five persons per appropriate standard; house (Halliburton 1992). * increase the supply and range of houses available to those who wish to purchase Present government policy places responsibility their own homes (Vanuatu National for public housing in the hands of a small Planning and Statistical Office 1987, Vol 1: National Housing Corporation, established by 551). an act of parliament in 1985. Of chief concern is the lack of coherent government policy to A 1986 environmental health survey by Port guide the Corporation in its objectives, Vila Municipality listed six characteristics of priorities and means of financing and providing housing in the low income areas c' Tagabe, dwellings. The Corporation appears unable to Anabrou and Seaside, comprising about a service the needs of low-income ni-Vanuatu, as quarter of the urban population of the city in pointed out by Halliburton (1992). Recently the late 1980s: developed estates like that at Fres Wota Central produced housing 40 per cent more expensive * gross overcrowding with densities of up to than anticipated and out of reach of the income 19,000 per square kilometer and eight of half of all households. Generous new house persons per room; lots of 500 square meters were being developed * poor conditions, seen in the accumulation of by the Corporation in 1992 at a house/land uncollected rubbish; package cost of some 3.5 million vatu. * high rents of up to 7,000 vatu per month Recently, six high-income houses were built for for a single room out of a monthly income rental at Tassirili. These developments are hard of 12,000 vatu; to reconcile with the charter of the Corporation * poor or non-existent sanitation, with to provide houses and ancillary buildings for inadequate sewerage and pollution of the sale or for leasing to persons of modest lagoons and Harbour resulting in a serious incomes ' (National Housing Corporation Act health hazard; No. 37, 1985). * problems in implementing municipal by- laws and other legislation. Coordination is minimal among the many * helplessness among those without security central and local government agencies with of tenure who have no incentive to help interests and responsibilities in housing, with themselves or engage in improvements the result that the effective steps to deal with (Vanuatu National Planning and Statistical major problems like urbar. squatting are Office 1987, Vol 1: 553). paralyzed. Close to the new parliament buildings are the densely settled areas of Seaside, Futuna, Tongoa and Paama, housing 151 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources some 3,000 people. Suggested solutions include Sanitation Advisory Group established in 1984. upgrading the Housing Corporation to authority These roles are not proscribed in legislation but status, giving responsibility for housing to one they are clarified in a draft Water Resources of the central government ministries to establish Bill which provides for the setting up of a firm policy guidelines, improving access to National Water Authority and preparation of a suitable sources of finance and investigating national Water Resources Development Plan productive roles for the private sector. If a with all water resources being vested in the greater proportion of the urban poor are to be people of Vanuatu. The passing of the new adequately housed, some compromises in legislation and implementation of its provisions dwellings standards will be necessary and will clearly strengthen the govermment's resettlement of existing overcrowded areas will capacity to manage urban water supply in Port be required. The World Bank recommends the Vila but the existing system will need development of smaller lot sizes and the modernization. In addition, new and much more availability of loans at reasonable levels of expensive sources of supply from outside the interest from local banks (World Bank 1991). existing urban area will have to be found and paid for. Urban Services The Service de 1'eau which had been a state enterprise since independence was privatized in Water: supplies in Port Vila come from a December 1993 and will be run for forty years spring and three bores near Tagabe River and by the Societe Unelco-Vanuatu Ltd (a branch of are thought to be close to the limits of the group Lyonnaise des Eaux-Dumez) which extraction from the acquifer. A study is had previously run the system. The new underway to establish the boundaries and can ill rgnize potion nd capcit ofthesuply nd prvinial company will organize production and capacity of the supply and a provicial distribution of water in Port Vila for this protection zone has been delineated (which has period, and try to achieve WHO water quality no legal effect). Urban squatters have moved standards. into this area and although enforcement notices have been issued for their removal no action has Sewerage: Neither Port Vila nor Luganville in been taken. The piped distribution system is Vanuatu possess a reticulated sewerage inefficient with up to 35 per cent of water collecting and treatment system. Some 63 per wasted because of leaking pipes in 1988, and cent of urban households were found in the the submersible pumps in the bores are near the 1986 census to use flush toilets connected to end of their economic life (Halliburton 1992). septic tanks (Halliburton 1992). Sewerage plans The majority of urban households receive a were prepared for Port Vila by the WHO in piped supply (84 per cent in 1989) and 12 per 1986 to address the increasingly unsatisfactory cent utilize tanks. Of the urban households, situation of sewage effluent being treated only 4,595 received the piped supply in 1989 (38 per in five small mechanical plants - at the three cent sharing), while 649 obtained used tanks resorts of Radisson Royal Palms, Le Lagon and (25 per cent sharing). Iririki Island Resort, at the Central Hospital, and at the Reserve Bank. In 1992 only two of Urban water supply is presently managed on an these plants were working properly and have ad hoc basis. Governmental responsibilities e not met adequate standards, reflecting the shared by the Public Works Department, the problems of reliance on such plants for sewage Department of Geology, Mines and Rural Water treatment in a developing country (Connell and Supply, the Environmental Health Unit of the aea 1993). Department of Health, and a Water and 152 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The only legislation in Vanuatu specifically (World Bank and the Government of Vanuatu irected towards sanitation dates back to 1929 1991). and relates to an administrative structure long defunct. As Halliburton (1992: 39) comments: 'A main issue relating to institutional and legal arrangements for sewerage is that no one agency has a clear responsibility to develop and manage reticulated sewerage systers... Options for the establishment of appropriate responsibilities include obliging the Municipalities which ... already have compatible general duties and considerable relevant powers. However, at least in the short term, the Municipalities lack the experience and probably also the expertise to establish and operate sewerage systems'. Solid waste: Within Port Vila, the need to find a new location for the rubbish tip is an environmental issue that is now of some urgency. The present Port Vila tip is within the urban area at Fres Wota; the tip is now saturated and its presence conflicts with the continued development of a low-cost housing project in the vicinity. Like the previous tip which is further downslope, water draining through it may flow into a little bay at the north end of the Harbour where local residents bathe as well as collect shellfish. The location for a new tip has been found to the southeast of the town which is technically appropriate and provides a long term solution if a land dispute over the site can be resolved. Waste disposal is also a problem in Luganville and is becoming a concern throughout the rest of the country as non-biodegradable rubbish accumulates. In general urban pollution is a significant threat in Port Vila depending as it does on the tourism sector for future economic development. Calls have already been made to strengthen local government capability to cope with the supply of necessary services and investigate the establishment of an independent authority 153 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date. 154 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources report No. 5: Vanuatu. Noumea: South Pacific DEOOMAND SCommission and International Labor Office. DEVELOPMENT Key: Van pop/mig econ/dev Overview of migration, urbanization and economic ADB/AIDAB (1987). Vocational training and change that provides a detailed analysis of the 1979 the labor market in Vanuatu. ADB/AIDAB joint census and reviews migration policies. technical assistance team, Vanuatu. Key: Van social Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. Blanchet, G. (1991). The Labor Market and the Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Vanuatu Institute of Technology. Center for Development Studies. Island/Australia Working Paper No. 91/2. Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev National Center for Development Studies, housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Australian National University. Examines population, economic development, land Key: Van econ/dev policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation A study of labor market trends in Vanuatu and the issues in Melanesian countries. role of the Institute in creating a more skilled labor force. Connell, J., & Pritchard, W. (1990). Tax havens and global capitalism: Vanuatu and the Bonnemaison, J. (1977). Syst&me de Migration Australian connection. Australian Geographical et Croissance Urbaine a Port Vila et Luganville Studies, 28(Aprill, 38-50. (Nouvelles-Hibrides). Paris: Travaux et Key: Van finance econ/dev Documents de l'ORSTOM No. 60. Examines the impact of the development of the tax Key: Van pop/mig over haven in Vanuatu and its impact on national economic Examination of the changing structure of migration in development and employment in Port Vila. Vanuatu, the evolution of the ni-Vanuatu labor market in Port Vila, the growth of Vila (with de Burlo (1989). Land alienation, land tenure particular reference to housing) and the social and tourism in Vanuatu, a Melanesian Island organization of Luganville. Nation. GeoJournal, 19(3), 317-321. Key: Van land econ/dev Bonnemaison, J. (1986). La Derniere Ile. Examines the history of land alienation, the nature of Paris: Arlea/ORSTOM. traditional land tenure and the relationship between Key: Van social current claims, in Vila and Tanna, on the future of A long history of Vanuatu, with particular reference tourist development. to Tanna, and the cultural difference and dissonance of that island's inhabitants with respect to recent Garae, A. (1990). A study on the private sector economic and political change. development in Vanuatu. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Bule, W. (1990). The Country Profile of Center. Vanuatu. Discussion Paper for ESCAP Key: Van econ/dev Consultative Meeting of National Experts in Human Settlements of Small Pacific Islands, Haberkorn, G. (1989). Urbanization. In R. Port Vila: Oct 3-6. Bedford (Eds.), Population of Vannatu: analysis Key: Van housing over squatter of the 1979 census. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. (pp. 71-86). Connell, J. (1985). Migration, employment and Key: Van pop/mig over development in the South Paciffc. Country Examination of the historic growth of Port Vila and Luganville, but with particular reference to the 1979 155 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources census. Stresses growing permanence, changes in the labor, employment and wages. prices and price structure of rural-urban migration and the localized indices; rural industries; secondary industries and migration fields of both towns. distribution; transport and communication; and tourism. Halliburton, T. W. (1992). Urban Policy in Vanuatu: a review. Port Vila: United Nations Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission Economic and Social Council for Asia and the report - Vanuatu. Suva: South Pacific Bureau Pacific. for Economic Co-operation. Key: Van over water sew solid/waste plan/man Key: Van econ/dev govt squatter housing Major review of urban issues covering most aspects Philibert, J. M. (1976) La Bonne Vie: le reve et of urban development. Key references on la realite. Ph.D. thesis, University of British contemporary urbanization in Vanuatu. Columbia, Vancouver (unpublished). Key: Van social pop/mig Hung, M. (1983). National nutrition survey Detailed but dated account of historic and report. Port Vila: Department of Health. contemporary social and economic changes in Erakor Key: Van social econ/dev village, Greater Vila, that examines changes in the patterns of migration and income-earning Jabre, B., Raoult, A., Richard, C., & Speake, J. oppormtuities. (1976). Study of the suburban district of Tagabe (Vila. New Hebrides). Noumea: SPC. Philibert, J. M. (1981). Living under two flags: Key: Van social econ/dev Selective modernization in Erakor village, Efate. A dated but useful multidisciplinary study of health In M. Allen (Eds.), Vanuatu. Politics, and housing at Tagabe, that covers agricultural Economies and Ritual in Island Melanesia. production, food consumption, nutrition, dental Sydney: Academic Press. (pp. 315-336). health and the availability of and access to services. Key: Van social Examines changes in Erakor village, on the fringe of McGee, T. G., Ward, R. G., & Drakakis- Vila, as it has become incorporated into the cash Smith, D. (1980). Food distribution in the New economy and various aspects of urban life. Hebrides. Monograph No. 25. Canberra: Australian National University Development Philibert, J. M. (1986). The politics of Center. traditions: toward a generic culture of Vanuatu. Key: Van econ/dev Mankind, 16, 1-12. An examination of the distribution and marketing of Key: Van social imported and locally-produced food in Vila and Luganville, in stores and markets. Most food is Premdas, R. R., & Steeves, J. S. (1992). marketed through commercial outlets. Decentralization in a Ministate: the case of the Republic of Vanuatu. In R. Baker (Eds.), Public National Center for )evelopment Studies Administration in Small and Island States. West (1989). South Padfic Economic and Social Hertford: Kumarian Press. (pp. 84-98). Database: Vanuatu. Loose-leaf file Canberra: Key: Van econ/dev National Center for Pacific Studies Australian An account of proposals for decentralization of National University. administration in the early 1980s. These were not Key: Van over econldev finance pop/mig implemented and this study reviews the problems that Contains current and historical statistics on: resulted in this failure to implement the proposals. population, migration, demography and housing; education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; 156 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Quille, H. (1985). Enquetes sur I'emploi en Tonkinson, R. (1985). Forever Ambrymese? 1983: le secteur prive urbain. Port Vila: Identity in a relocated community, Vanuatu. National Planning and Statistics Office. Pacific Viewpoint, 26(1). Key: Van econ/dev Key: Van social Examination of the migration and identity of migrants Rodman, M. C. (1989). Deep Water. from Ambrym, now resident in Maat village on the Development and Change in Pacific Village fringe of Vila, and the relationship between village Fisheries. Boulder: Westview Press. life, employment and other activities in Vila, and Key: Van econ/dev links to their 'home area' of Ambrym. Provides an overview of colonial and post-colonial development strategies, with particular reference to Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1988). the development of fisheries on Santo, that points to Visitor Survey: Vanuatu. Suva: Tourism Council the complexity of local, national and international of the South Pacific. policy formation. Key: Van econ/dev Sturton, M. (1989). Policy modeling in the Turbin, A. G., & Drake, R. H. (1991). The small island economies of the South Pacific. energy situation in Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Research Report Series No. 11. Honolulu: Vanuatu. Los Alamos, New Mexico. Pacific Islands Development Program, East- Key: PNG Fiji Van econ/dev West Center. Key: Van econ/dev finance UNICEF (1991). A Situation Analysis qf the Children and Women in Vanuatu. Port Vila: Sturton, M., & McGregor, A. (1991). Vanatu: Vanuatu Government. toward economic growth. Economic Report No. Key: Van poplmig econ/dev poverty plan/man 2. Honolulu, Pacific Islands Development Major contemporary reference on population, family Program, East-West Center. and other social issues. Key: Van econ/dev Vanuatu Government Laws of the Republic of Tonkinson, R. (1977). The exploitation of Vwauu, with anendmtents: ambiguity: a New Hebrides case. In M. Lieber (1) Ahtenated Land Act No.12 of 1982; (Eds.), Eiles and Migrants in Oceania. (2) Decentralization Act (Cap 127); Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. (pp. 269- (3) Joint Regulation 6, 1929; 295). (4) Land Leases Act of 1983 (Cap 163); Key: Van social (5) Municipalities Act (Cap 126); Explores the social aspects of migration and (6) National Housing Corporation Act No. 37 of resettlement from Maat village, Ambrym to Maat in 1985; peri-urban Vila, and notes that suburban residence is (7) Physical Planning Act No. 22 of 1986; preferable for access to services (including water (8) Land Reform Regulation No. 31 of 1980 supplies) and because of sorcery, rather that for (Cap 123); economic reasons. (9) Land Reform (Declaration of Public Land) Order No. 26 of 1981; Tonkinson, R. (1982). Vanuatu values: a (10) r Reform (Pornt Vila Urban Land changing symbiosis. Pacific Studies, 5(2), Corporation) Order No. 30 of 1981 Spring, 44-63. (11) Land Reform (Luganville Urban Land Key: Van over socialCoprio)odrN.I8f19; Overview of the changing significance of historic Corporation) order No. 118 of 1981; cultures, Christianity, kastom and cargoism aoh (12) Land Reform Order No. 9 of 1980. elements of social change. Key- Van govt plan/man land over 157 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Vanuatu Government (1982). First National 1987-1991. Port Vila: National Planning and Development Plan, 1982-1986. Vila. Statistics Office. Key: Van plan/man econ/dev Key: Van plan/man govt econ/dev A very detailed review of development issues, Vanuatu Ministry of Home Affairs (1991). practices, procedures and prospects. Vanuatu National Report for UNCED. Port Vila. Vanuatu Ofis Bilong Plan (1983). Rijional Key: Van plan/man econ/dev govt environ Divelopmen Aoutlaen. Port Vila: Key: Van plan/man econ/dev Vanuatu Government Department of Education This is the first national regional development plan (1991). Urban growth: Implications for primary that reviews programs for eleven regions and schools in Port Vila. .examines the administration and institutional issues that relate to regional planning. (in Bislama). Key: Van over social World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: Vanuatu Government South Pacific Commission .Effcient and Sustainable Growth Vol and United Nations Development Program 7. Vanuatu: Country Economic Memorandum. (1982). Workshop on the effects of urbanization Washington DC. and western diets on the health of the Ni- Vanuatu population. Noumea: South Pacific Key: Van econ/dev Commission. Key: Van social A review of changes in health and nutritional status POPULATION AND MIGRATION of the Vanuatu population, with particular reference to the urban population, that traces the Ala, A. (1987). Mango urban settlement, epidemiological transition, sources of stress in urban Luganville, Vanuatu. In L. Mason & P. areas and changing patterns of food consumption. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics O e South Pacific. (pp. 198-205). (1982). Increasing Urbanization: an inevitable Key: Van land poplmig development. 22nd South Pacific Conference, A study of migrants from the Banks and Torres (unpublished). islands, which covers land issues, employment, urban Key: Van over services and the links of settlers with their home A brief account of the growth of Vila and Luganville areas. that reviews policies appropriate to urban development and housing. Arif, G. M. (1993). Vanuatu population Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office projections, 1990-2014. In R. Cole (Eds.), (1986). Report of the Vanuatu urban census Pacfic 2010. Challenging the Future. Pacific 1986. Port Vila: National Planning and Statistics Policy Paper No. 9. Canberra: National Center Office. for Development Studies. (pp. 80-90). Key: Van pop/mig econldev Key: Van pop/mig Describes the census methodology and presents and Analysis of potential population change in Vanuatu, analyses the results on: population profile; migration based on the 1979 and 1989 censuses, which points to and urbanization; education and employment and continued rapid population growth. marriage and fertility. Bastin, R. (1985). Weasisi mobility: a Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office committed rural proletariat. In M. Chapman & (1987). Second National Development Plan R. Prothero (Eds.), Circulation in Population 158 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Movement. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Overview of mobility and identity in Vanuatu with (pp. 175-190). particular reference to Tana, and change in the Key: Van pop/mig structure of mobility in post-colonial times. Discusses the changing structure of labor migration from part of Tanna, that focuses on return migration Brookfield, H. C., & Brown Glick, P. (1969). and the distaste for urban migration. The People of Vila: report of a census of a Pacific town. Canberra: Department of Human Bedford, R. D. (1973). New Hebridean Geography, Research School of Pacific Studies, Mobility: a study of circular migration. Australian National University. Publication HG/9 Department of Human Key: Van pop/mig Geography Research School of Pacific Studies Account of the growth of Vila, with reference to land Australian National University. tenure and economic change, with the first census Key: Van pop/mig analysis of Port Vila. Detailed analysis of migration from the Shepherd Islands of Tongoa, Emal and Makura, with particular Connell, J. (1985). Migration, employment and reference to urbanization. The study covers land development in the South Pacfc. Country issues, purchase of land and housing and the duration report No. 5: Vanuatm. Noumea: South Pacific of urban residence. Commission and International Labor Office. Key: Van poplmig econ/dev Bedford, R. D. (Ed.). (1989). Population of Overview of migration, urbanization and economic Vanuatu: analysis of the 1979 census. Noumea: change that provides a detailed analysis of the 1979 South Pacific Commission. census and reviews migration policies. Key: Van pop/mig Analysis of the 1979 census data that covers natural Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. increase, migration, urbanization and the socio- Planning the Future Melanesian Cties in 2010. economic characteristics of the population. Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Center for Development Studies. Bonnemaison, J. (1977a). The impact of Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev population patterns and cash-cropping on urban housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ migration in the New Hebrides. Pacific Examines population, economic development, land Viewpoint, 18, 119-132. policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation Key: Van pop/mig issues in Melanesian countries. Haberkorn, G. (1985). Recent population trends Bonnemaison, J. (1977b). Systme de Migration in Vanuatu. Island/Australia Working Paper et Croissance Urbaine d Port Vila et Luganville No. 85/4. Canberra: Australian National (Nouvelles-Hibrides). Paris: Travaux et University. Documents de l'ORSTOM No. 60. Key: Van pop/mig Key: Van pop/mig over Overview of population change in Vanuatu based on Examination of the changing structure of migration in the 1979 census. Vanuatu, the evolution of the ni-Vanuatu labor market in Port Vila, the growth of Vila (with Haberkorn, G. (1989a). Port Vila: transit particular reference to housing) and the social station or final stop? Recent development in ni- organization of Luganville. Vanuatu population mobility. Pacific Research Monograph No 21. Canberra: National Center Bonnemaison, J. (1985). The tree and the canoe: for Development Studies Australian National roots and mobility in Vanuatu societies. Pacfic University. Vienpoint, 26(1), 30-62. Key: Van pop/mig Key: Van pop/mig 159 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources A recent account of changes in mobility of migration Contains current and historical statistics on: from two parts of Pentecost and Paama islands. The population, migration, demography and housing; study examines the growing permanence of urban education; health; national accounts; international residence which is linked to changes in both the accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; urban economy and the rural economy. This is the labor, employment and wages; prices and price most detailed account there is of the socio-economic indices; rural industries; secondary industries and organization of Vila, and of rural-urban migration. distribution; transport and communication; and tourism. Haberkorn, G. (1989b). Urbanization. In R. Bedford (Eds.), Population of Vanuatu: analysis Philibert, J. M. (1976) La Bonne Vie: le reve et of the 1979 census. Noumea: South Pacific la realite. Ph.D. thesis, University of British Commission. (pp. 71-86). Columbia, Vancouver (unpublished). Key: Van pop/mig over Key: Van social pop/mig Examination of the historic growth of Port Vila and Detailed but dated account of historic and Luganville, but with particular reference tu the 1979 contemporary social and economic changes in Erakor census. Stresses growing permanence, changes in the village, Greater Vila, that examines changes in the structure of rural-urban migration and the localized patterns of migration and income-earning migration fields of both towns. opportunities. Haberkorn, G. (1990). Paamese in Port Vila. In Tonkinson, R. (1979). The paradox of J. Connell (Eds.), Migration and Development permanency in a resettled New Hebridean in the South Pacic. Pacific Research community. Mass Emergencies, 4, 105-116. Monograph No. 24. Canberra: National center Key: Van pop/mig for Development Studies, Australian National A discussion of resettlement of Ambrymese migrants University. (pp. 151-69). to Maat village, in the Greater Vila area, following a Key: Van pop/ig volcanic eruption, which covers the task of coping An examination of the manner in which migration with a new environment, the establishment of more from Pama has tended to become more permanent permanent residence, social change and the nature of and the implications of this for both rural and urban links with Ambrym. areas. UNICEF (1991). A Situation Analysis of the Haberkorn, G. (1992). Temporary versus Children and Women in Vanuatu. Port Vila: permanent population mobility in Melanesia: a Vanuatu Government. case study from Vanuatu. International Key: Van pop/mig econ/dev poverty plan/man Migration Review, 26(3), 806-842. Major contemporary reference on population, family Key: Van pop/wig and other social issues. Examines the recent substantial increase in urbanization in Vanuatu. Although much of this is Vanatu National Planning and Statistics Office intended to be temporary it has considerable (1983). Report on the Census of Population implications for urban service provision. 1979. Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office. National Center for Development Studies Key: Van pop/mig (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Database: Vanuatu. Loose-leaf file Canberra: Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office National Center for Pacific Studies Australian (1985). Survey of Public Sector Employment National University. 1985. Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Key: Van over econ/dev finance pop/wig Office. Key: Van pop/mig 160 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office Dominello, E. (1991) A Review of Hazard (1986). Report of the Vanuatu urban census Awareness and Preparedness Plans and 1986. Port Vila: National Planning and Statistics Procedures. BA(Hons) dissertation i. Office. G-ography, University of New England, Key: Van pop/mig econ/dev Armidale. Describes the census methodology and presents and Key: Van environ plan/man analyses the results on: population profile; migration Halliburton, T. W. (1992). Urban Policy in and urbanization; education and employment and Vanuatu: a review. Port Vila: United Nations marriage and fertility. Economic and Social Council for Asia and the Vanuatu Statistics Office (1991). Vanuatu Pacific. National Population Census May 1989 Main Key: Van over water sew solid/waste plan/man Report. Government of Vanuatu Statistics govt squatter housing Office. Major review of urban issues covering most aspects Key: Van pop/mig of urban development. Key reference on This census volume analyses census methodology and contemporary urbanization in Vanuatu. has interpretative chapters on population distribution and demographic characteristics, intenal migration, Luganville Municipal Council (1988). Draft education, economic activity, employment and the Physical Plan for Luganville. social characteristics of the population. Key: Van plan/man Port Vila Municipal Council (1987). Draft GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING physical plan for Port Yila. Port Vila Municipal Council. ADAB Pacific Regional Team (1993). Vaur Key: Van plan/man land use planning project, design docronent. Temakon, S. J. (1992). Water resources Sydney: Pacific Regional Team. potal and water supply i Vanuatu. In UN Key: Van land plan/man ptn an Eoupyin ana IncUN Examines national land use planning and sustainable Department of Economic and Social resource management planning possibilities. Development (Eds.), Water Resources Considers the use of the Vanuatu Resource Management Technique for Small Islands. Information System (VANRIS). New York: UN Department of Economic and Social Development. (pp. 201-208). Cameron McNamara (1988). Vanuatu: review Key: Van water plan/man study of the Public Works Department. Draft Analysis of water supplies that points to the problems Report Cameron McNanara now part of GHD of providing adequate water supplies in many areas. Group, Sydney. Many projects are aid-funded, land disputes have affected installation and there are inadequate skills to Key: Van plan/man govt plan and maintain facilities. Connel, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. UNICEF (1991). A Situation Analysis of the Planning the Future Melanesian Cies in 2010. ChUdren and Women in Vwtuatu. Port VikL Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Vanuatu Government. Center for Development Studies. Key: Van pop/mig econ/dev povety plan/man Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/de Major contemporary reference on population, family housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig ei and other social issues. Examines population, economic development, land policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation issues in Melanesian countries. 161 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Vanuatu Government. Laws of the Republic of World Bank (1991). Staff Appraisal Report: Vanuatu; with amendments: Republic of Vanuatu. Washington DC: (1) Alienated Land Act No.12 of 1982; Housing Project, World Bank. (2) Decentralization Act (Cap 127); Key: Van housing govt planiman (3) Joint Regulation 6. 1929; (4) Land Leases Act of 1983 (Cap 163); (5) Municipalities Act (Cap 126); FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT (6) National Housing Corporation Act No. 37 of 1985; Connell, J., & Pritchard, W. (1990). Tax (7) Physical Planning Act No. 22 of 1986; havens and global capitalism: Vanuatu and the (8) Land Reform Regulation No. 31 of 1980 Austral.n Australian Geographical (CaL 123); Studies, 28(April), 38-50. (9) Land Reform (Declaration of Public Land) Key: Van finance econ/dev Order No. 26 of 1981; Examines the impact of the development of the tax (10) Land Reform (Port Vila Urbanl Land haven in Vanuatu and its impact on national economic Corporation) Order No. 30 of 1981 development and employment in Port Vila. (11) Land Reform (Luganville Urban Land Corporation) order No. Il8 of 1981; Denjean, C. (1989). Le center jinancier du (12) Land Refrorm Order No. 9 of 1980. Vanuatu. Port Vila: CCCE. Key: Van govt plan/man land over Key: Van finance Vanuatu Government (1982). First National National Center for Development Studies Development Plan, 1982-1986. Vila. (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Key: Van plan/man econ/dev Database: Vanuatu. Loose-leaf file Canberra: National Center for Pacific Studies Australian Vanuatu Ministry of Home Affairs (1991). National University. Vwwatu National Report for UNCED. Port Key: Van over econ/dev finance poplmig Vila. Contains current and historical statistics on: Key: Van plan/man econ/dev govt environ population, migration, demography and housing; education; health; national accounts; international Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; (1987). Second National Development Plan labor, employment and wages; prices and price 1987-1991. Port Vila: National Planning and indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Statistics Office. distribution; transport and communication; and Key: Van plan/man govt econ/dev tourism. A very detailed review of development issues, Sturton, M. (1989). Policy modeling in the practices, procedures and prospects. small island economies of the South Pacific. Research Report Series No. 11. Honolulu: Vanuatu Ofis Bilong Plan (1983). Ryional Pacific Islands Development Program, East- Divelopmen Aoutlaen. Port Vila. West Center. Key: Van plan/man econ/dev Key: Van econ/dev finance This is the first national regional development plan that reviews programs for eleven regions and examines th. administration and institutional issues that relate to regional planning. (In Bislama). 162 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources URBAN LAND only part of Ambae (Aoba) island it reviews processes common throughout the country. AIDAB Pacific Regional Team (1993). Vanuatu Vanuatu Government Laws of the Republic of land use planning project, design document. Vanuatu; with amendments: Sydney: Pacific Regional Team. (1) Alienated Land Act No.12 of 1982; Key: Van land plan/man (2) Decentralization Act (Cap 127); Examines national land use planning and sustainable (3) Joint Regulation 6, 1929; resource management planning possibilities. (4) Land Leases Act of 1983 (Cap 163); Considers the use of the Vanuatu Resource (5) Municipalities Act (Cap 126); Information System (VANRIS). (6) National Housing Corporation Act No. 37 of 1985; Ala, A. (1987). Mango urban settlement, (7) Physical Planning Act No. 22 of 1986; Luganville, Vanuatu. In L. Mason & P. (8) Land Reform Regulation No. 31 of 1980 Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: (Cap 123); Institute of Pacific Studies University of the (9) Land Reform (Declaration of Public Land) South Pacific. (pp. 198-205). Order No. 26 of 1981; Key: Van land pop/mig (10) Land Reform (Port Vila Urban Land A study of migrants from the Banks and Torres Corporation) Order No. 30 of 1981 islands, which covers land issues, employment, urban (11) Land Reform (Luganville Urban Land services and the links of settlers with their home Corporation) order No. 118 of 1981; area. (12) Land Reform Order No. 9 of 1980. de Burlo (1989). Land alienation, land tenure Key: Van govt plan/man land over and tourism in Vanuatu, a Melanesian Island Woi, N. (1984). Fresh Wata estate Port Vila. In Nation. GeoJournal, 19(3), 317-321. P. Larmour (Eds.), Land Tenure in Vanuatu. Key: Van land econ/dev Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of Examines the history of land alienation, the nature of the South Pacific. (pp. 62-64). traditional land tenure and the relationship between current claims, in Vila aDd Tanna, on the future of Key: Van land housing tourist development. Outlines the creation of a low-cost housing estate on the outskirts of Vila. Expresses concern about westernization, the loss of tribal identity and the Howard, V. T. (1987). The polities of land in xctfiscuiyoetnrenhsetts Vanutu.Suv: Istiuteof aciic tudes, extnt of insecurity over tenure in these estates. Van uatu. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. Key: Van land A detailed analysis of land tenure in Vanuatu that RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT covers the genesis of contemporary urban problems, and the particular significance of land in national Bule, W. (1990). The Country Profile of development. Vanuatu. Discussion Paper for ESCAP Rodman, M. C. (1987). Masters of tradition. Consultative Meeting of National Experts in Consequences of customary land tenure in Human Settlements of Small Pacific Islands, Longana, Vanuatu. Vancouver: University of Port Vila: Oct 3-6. British Columbia Press. Key: Van housing over squatter Key: Van land An excellent review of land tenure, and the pressures Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacific 2010. placed upon it by cash cropping and new forms of Phaning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. social and economic inequality. Though it covers 163 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Outlines the creation of a low-cost housing estate on Center for Development Studies. the outskirts of Vila. Expresses concern about Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev westernization, the loss of tribal identity and the housing squatter sew plan/man pophmig environ extent of insecurity over tenure in these estates. Examines population, economic development, land policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation World Bank (1991). Staff Appraisal Report: issues in Melanesian countries. Republic of Vanuatu. Washington DC: Housing Project, World Bank. Halliburton, T. W. (1992). Urban Policy in Key: Van housing govt plan/man Vanuatu: a review. Port Vila: United Nations Economic and Social Council for Asia and the Pacific. URBAN SANITATION AND Key: Van over water sew solid/waste plan/man ENVIRONMENT govt squatter housing Major review of urban issues covering most aspects of urban development. Key reference on Carter, R. (1990). Hydraulic and water quality contemporary urbanization in Vanuatu. studies, Erakor Lagoons and Port Vila Harbour. Technical Report No. 117. Suva: SOPAC. Pacific Building Standards Project (1990a). Key: Van environ Home Builing Manual Vanuatu. Suva. Water quality in Erakor Lagoon is worsening, though Key: Van housing the deterioration of Port Vila Harbour is less marked. Contains details of conventional timber and masonry The report recommends the replacement of a construction prepared to cater for the specific causeway by a bridge to improve circulation. environmental constraints of Vanuatu. Chandler, B. (1991). Port Vila water supply Pacific Building Standards Project (1990b). development plan 1990-2000. National Building Code for Vanuatu. Suva. Key: Van water Key: Van housing Contains detailed performance requirements for Cheney, C. S. (1986). Luganville water supply dwellings, public buildings and group dwellings. - A review of past, present and future groundwater resources. Republic of Vanuatu. Phelps, R. W. (1980). A low-income housing Key: Van water scheme for Vanuatu. Key: Van housing Connell, J., & Lea, J. P. (1993). Pacfic 2010. Planning the Future Melanesian Cities in 2010. UNICEF (1991). A Situation Analysis of the Policy Paper No. 11. Canberra: National Children and Women in Vanuatu. Port Vila: Center for Development Studies. Vanuatu Government. Key: Reg Fiji Van SI PNG over econ/dev Key: Van pop/nug econ/dev poverty plan/man housing squatter sew plan/man pop/mig environ Major contemporary reference on population, family Examines population, economic development, land and other social issues. policy, housing, urban planning and urban sanitation issues in Melanesian countries. Woi, N. (1984). Fresh Wata estate Port Vila. In P. Larmour (Eds.), Land Tenure in Vanuatu. Dominello, E. (1991) A Review of Hazard Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of Awareness and Preparedness Plans and the South Pacific. (pp. 62-64). Procedures. BA(Hons) dissertation in Key: Van land housing Geography, University of New England, Armidale. 164 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: Van environ plan/man Key: Van water plan/man Analysis of water supplies that points to the problems Forster, M. (1991). Environmental Law in of providing adequate water supplies in many areas. Vanuatu, a description and evaluation. IUCN Many projects are aid-funded, land disputes have The World Conservation Union, Asian affected installation and there are inadequate skills to Development Bank. plan and maintain facilities. Key: Van environ Vanuatu Ministry of Home Affairs (1991). Halliburton, T. W. (1992). Urban Policy in Vanuatu National Report for UNCED. Port Vanuatu: a review. Port Vila: United Nations Vila. Economic and Social Council for Asia and the Key: Van plan/man econ/dev govt environ Pacific. Wallis, I., & Chidgey, S. (1988). Preliminary Key: Van over water sew solid/waste plan/man report on a proposed sewage scheme for Vila. govtPort Vila: WHO for the Vanuatu Gvernment. Major review of urban issues covering most aspects Port Van w fte V of urban development. Key reference Key: Van sew water contemporary urbanization in Vanuatli. World Bank and the Government of Vanuatu Knight, S. (1991). Report on water quality (1991). Report on water quality improvement improvement options for Port Vila. options for Port Vila. Washington D.C. Key: Van water Key: Van water Naidu, S., et al. (1991). Water quality studies World Conservation Union (1991). Review of on selected South Pacfic lagoons. Reports and environment legislation in Vanuatu. Noumea: Studies No. 49. Noumea: SPREP. SPREP. Key: Fiji Van Kir Tonga SI water environ Covers Laucala Bay, Sava Harbour, Vila Harbour and Erakor Lagoon, Fanga'uta lagoon and Marovo lagoon. SPREP (1992). Vanuata: National report to UNCED. Apia: SPREP. Key: Van environ Overview of environmental issues that focuses on primarily rural issues, tracing the relationship between population growth and environmental degradation, and makes proposals for developing a political and legislative framework for achieving sustainable development. Temakon, S. J. (1992). Water resources potential and water supply in Vanuatu. In UN Department of Economic and Social Development (Eds.), Water Resources Management Techniques for Small Islands. New York: UN Department of Economic and Social Development. (pp. 201-208). 165 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources TONGA CONTENTS Commentary Settlement Hi story.....................................................................................................1 Economy.................................................................................................................169 Employment ............................................................................................................172 Development Planning................................................................................................173 Land......................................................................................................................174 Population And Mi gration...........................................................................................175 Urbanization............................................................................................................177 Housi ng..................................................................................................................17 Urban Services .........................................................................................................178 Selected References Key ........................................................................................................................80 Economic And Social Development................................................................................181 Population And Migration...........................................................................................186 Governance And Pl aming1...........................................................................................189 Finance And Development...........................................................................................193 Urban Land.............................................................................................................194 Residential Development.............................................................................................197 Urban Sanitation And Envirnment ..............................................................................19 166 ·견 Annotated BibliogVhy of Regional Literature and T)ata Sourm The Kingdom of Tonga consists of a cluster of class structures incorporating and taking over low-lying islands, thirty-six of which are positions determined by rank. The principal inhabited, the largest being Tongatapu and religion is the Free Wesleyan Church which has Vava'u. The four groups (Tongatapu and 'Eua, had a profound influence on all aspects of life; Ha'apai, Vavau and the Niuas) are spread in a strict observance of the Sabbath precludes all north-south alignment over about 900 knis. work, trade, sport and, until quite recently, all Most of the islands are of raised coral with a motorized transport. The Church of the Latter fertile soil developed from volcanic ash and the Day Saints (Mormons) now plays an remainder, especially to the west, are of increasingly important role in local religious volcanic origin (several new islands having life. The combined influences of church, appeared in the past two decades). Tonga, is monarchical state and relative isolation have unusually subject to natural disasters and is in a given Tongan society and politics an unusually cyclone-prone zone; in 1982 a large part of the conservative nature. country was devastated by Cyclone Isaac causing some loss of life and considerable The Tongan language is spoken throughout the destruction. There is no surface water on country but with dialect versions in Niuafo'ou Tongatapu or several of the other islands and and Niiiatoputapu. Archaeological evidence agriculture is rain-fed and subject to occasional indicates that settlenient of the archipelago drought. occurred at least 3,000 years ago from the Fijian Group to the north-west. There was an elaborate Tonga, is unique within the South Pacific region social system in Tonga well before European as one of the few remaining exploration; these early kingdoms being monarchies in the world and one in which the responsible for a number of elaborate King exercises wide influence. The members of monuments. the Legislative Assembly consist of the Speaker, members of the Cabinet (who are appointed by the King and normally retain office until Settlement History refirement), seven nobles elected by the 33 nobles of Tonga and seven representatives of the The fim Europeans to sight the Tongan islands people elected by universal suffrage. Thus were Dutch explorers in 1616; the first directly elected members of the Assembly are in European settlers went ashore on 'Eua and a minority. The King has considerable power Ha'apai in 1796 and a year later the first and authority and his views of developtnent nussionaries arrived. In the early Nineteenth policy have increasingly prevailed. A strong Century there was much fighting and many democracy movement emerged during the late suMles for power between Tongan, chiefs; in 1980s and almost all the people's representatives 1852 Tupou emerged as indisputably the most are now in support of it. There are dim social powerful chief and became possessor of the groups (effectively classes): the Royal Family, three ancient titles of Tonga and, as King the nobles and the commoners, and a formal George Tupou, he established a constitution in hierarchy of rights and obligations- Tonga is 1875 to make the country a limited monarchy. probably the most sa-atified of all contemporary Tonga subsequently signed treaties with Polynesian societies. Increasingly this has seen Germany, Great Britain and the United States, 168 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources in each of which the Kingdom's independence extremely slowly in recent years; a combination was guaranteed. Although foreign affairs were of the low esteem of agriculture, poor returns, later transacted through Great Britain, Tonga government neglect of outer islands, drought was the only South Pacific state never to become and cyclone damage have all contributed to this. a colony. It was not until 1970 however that During this period more than half the total land Tonga became completely independent of Great area was planted in coconuts, mainly on the Britain and its relative isolation from allotments or small estates, and copra and other neighboring countries declined; the 1970s is coconut products were the main exports. Banana regarded as the period in which Tonga re- exports which accounted for 60 per cent of the entered 'the comity of nations' and subsequent New Zealand market in 1967-68 declined as a changes have resulted in more comprehensive result of natural disaters, disease and poor incorporation into a regional and global transport. A decade later this prop irtion had economy. fallen to below five per cent. Economy Increasingly a variety of fruit and vegetables took the place of the traditional staples as export The economy is predominantly agricultural; cash crops; these included root crops (whose export crop production is particularly important on the value was nearly twice that of bananas), water large island of Tongatapu and there is melons, vanilla and kava. Most fruit and considerable potential for increased agricultural vegetables were exported to New Zealand, in production. In 1979-80 agriculture contributed part for consumption by Polynesians, and the 43 per cent of GDP and represented 38 per cent large domestic market in Nuku'alofa was of GDP in 1987-88. Since then it has declined supplied mainly from Tongatapu and 'Eua. Both slightly, because of adverse climatic conditions vanilla and kava are important as intercrops and some recent declines in squash and vanilla under coconuts. Vanilla acreage was growing exports. Nevertheless this is a very high rapidly, especially in Vava'u, and it was proportion compared with most other South expected to become a significant component of Pacific countries and indicative of the role of world production. agriculture for both food production and exports. The agricultural system is dominated by During the 1980s Tonga's agricultural semi subsistence farming on the characteristic production was relatively static and failed to Tongan smallholdings; the basic cropping meet the expectations of the previous decade. system is a limited shifting cultivation with production of all the traditional commodities, short-term bush-following. Mixed cropping and coconuts, bananas, and watermelons stagnated inter-cropping under coconuts is a feature of the significantly. Copra saw real prices fall system; the principal root crops are taro and substantially and this, along with a rise in the yam. Soil cultivation is increasingly being cost of labor, resulted in the collapse of the carried out using tractor-drawn equipment. industry. Poor disease control led to quarantine restrictions being placed on exports to New Agricuitural exports: At the end of the 1970s Zealand which resulted in the termination of the agricultural products (principally coconut and export of watermelons in 1986. The same vegetables) accounted for about 90 per cent of restrictions were subsequently applied to banana total export earnings but the value of exports and this, coupled with adverse weather manufactured exports has subsequently increased conditions in 1989, saw this commodity whilst the agricultural sector has grown 169 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources completely disappear from the export market by the Japanese squash market the three months the end of the decade. from November to early January is one of short A collapse of traditional exports because of supply and high prices and coincides with the reduced profitability and export restrictions prime Tongan production period. In 1991 a resulted in an increased emphasis on vanilla and record crop of 18,500 tones of squash was the search for new export commodities. Vanilla exported from Tonga to Japan earning T$12.4 production continued to increase and by the end million but the financial return for the Japanese of the 1980s represented 20 per cent of the value importers was so low that there was a complete of all exports. Production peaked in 1990-91 loss of confidence in the Tongan product. with 45 tones being exported but since then Volume restrictions and quality controls were volumes have declined, with 25 tones being introduced in Tonga to ensure that exports exported in 1992-93. Prices have remained more would continue. The viability of both the vanilla or less static since a world peak in 1986-87. The and squash industries are dependent on world 1992 vanilla season was a poor one for the prices and the entry of new producers into the industry. A major change occurred during the market. season with a new company entering the market with technology that allowed the curing of Forestry and shing: A minor but growing quality vanilla from immature beans. This forestry industry exists on 'Eua and fishing also company began purchasing green beans early in makes a limited contribution to the GDP. Fish the season and some of the other companies and marine products have always been an followed suit in order to ensure they had raw important part of the Tongan diet, involving material for processing. Existing companies large numbers of people, but population growth were forced to process unripe beans without the has led to increased activity in the traditional correct technology and the end result was lower fishing grounds resulting in overfishing, a export volumes and prices received by the decline in catch rates and a shortfall in fish companies. Due to the problems experienced in production especially in Tongatapu and 'Eua. 1992 the government put into place new However artisanal fisheries grew rapidly in the regulations in July 1993 to bring the industry 1970s and 1980s with Development Bank under direct control. assistance for boat building and equipment; the introduction of improved boats, ice plants and The most important recent development in the cold storage facilities have all assisted in this agricultural sector has been the rapid growth in growth. Commercial fisheries remain relatively squash production for export to Japan. This undeveloped although it is a major concern of trade did not exist prior to 1987 but has now contemporary development strategies especially grown to the extent that squash dominates for Ha'apai and 'Eua. agriculture exports, representing 60 per cent of the total by value in 1992-93. During the fourth Fish export volumes peaked in 1986-87 earning quarter of 1988 Tonga exported its first T$2 million but since then have fluctuated consignment of squash to Japan realizing T$0.5 around the T$1 million level annually. Attempts million. In 1989 production rose to TS2 million have been made to establish fishing as a major and by 1990 had grown to TS4.7 million. The export industry for Tonga but results have only industry was heavily subsidized by government been moderate. Through the use of aid money during the first year of operation, but this has the government has been able to set up a tuna subsequently been removed since it now industry and to help establish a bottom fishery provides a very lucrative return to growers. For in Tonga. The tuna industry, revolving around 170 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources the long line vessel MFV Lofa, has seen furniture and related industries. While trend in volumes exported increase from 20 tones to 200 production for the domestic market has been tones in the last decade. Export earnings now rising the main export oriented manufacturing exceed T$O.5 million annually. The bottom industries of textiles and apparel faced major fishery has generated snapper exports to Hawaii problems with their overseas markets in the of around 100 tones annually with export 1990s. These industries export mainly to earnings of T$0.6 million in 1992. A number of Australia and have been adversely affected by private companies have also attempted to find economic conditions there. Output of the textiles niche markets for Tongan seafood products. A and clothing apparel industry declined by six per successful example is beche de mer which cent in the 1991-92 year. Manufactured exports earned T$0.5 million during the first year of by mid-1993 were at their lowest levels since export in 1992-93 to the Hong Kong and Japan the mid-1980s. Factories have laid off workers markets. and experienced temporary closures in the first six months of 1993. Manufacturing: The manufacturing sector is small although it grew rapidly in the 1980s, Tourism* makes a significant contribution to the following the formal establishment of a Small national economy; in 1978 it earned almost T$4 Industries Center in Nuku'alofa in 1980. Here, million compared with T$4.6 million for all via the Pacific Islands Industrial Development exports (including agriculture) and in 1981 it Scheme (PIIDS) and various financial grossed T$6 million, making it the most incentives, a number of new foreign-owned important revenue earner in Tonga after enterprises have begun operation. The principal overseas remittances. In 1992 tourist numbers industrial development is concerned with food, reached 23,000, a steady increase since the early beverages, wood and coconut products and is 1980s, and the foreign exchange earnings were primarily oriented towards import substitution. estimated at T$11.5 million, some 10 per cent of New industries have enabled the export of the total. Tourism is thus a major foreign leather goods, knitwear and other manufactures exchange earner, though it is a small sector of for the first time since 1982 when small amounts the economy in terms of its contribution to GDP of industrial machinery were made and exported and employment. The industry in Tonga has and paints were made for the local market. The only 4 per cent of the South Pacific market of woolen garment factory also expanded some 550,000 visitors per year. There are considerably so that the Small Industries Center proposals for new hutel developments and the employed more than 240 people by 1982. The industry could expand significantly. steady success of the Nuku'alofa Industries Center resulted in a second center at Neiafu in A new national tourism plan (Nicholas Clark Vava'u being opened in 1990. Despite strong and Associates (1993a, 1993b, 1993c) suggests export growth in the 1980s, with increased four possible options with increasing cost inputs employment and a contribution to the GDP of to promote the development of the Tongan 10 per cent by the end of the decade, the industry: industrial sector was faltering by the 1990s. The manufacturing sector has undergone major 1. low-cost institutional initiatives designed to structural change with a somewhat unusual maintain a small-scale, locally owned and move away from export-oriented manufacturing limited capacity industry providing high to production for the local market, notably in quality service standards; paints and chemicals, food and beverages and 171 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources 2. private sector initiatives added to the Of those in paid employment some 47 per cent provisions listed in option one; were in agriculture, fisheries and forestry; 3. joint public and private sector initiatives community, social and personal services involving greater government intervention to accounted for a further 25 per cent, commerce allow larger scale private sector initiatives; accounted for three per cent and manufacturing 4. proposals contained in the Sixth just three per cent. Whereas the agricultural Development Plan requiring substantial sector accounted for most male employment, it government and private sector expenditure was virtually non-existent for women. Of the on infrastructure to encourage selected large 4,046 women who were employed in 1986, the scale resort development. largest single proportion (29 per cent) was in professional activities and a further 28 per cent Overall, Tonga's real GDP grew throughout the were in administrative activities. In both these 1980s, averaging 2.2 per cent per year; the groups the actual number of women employed growth rate doubled in the two year period was scarcely less than that of men. Those aged 1989-91 but fell in the following year after a over 45 were more likely to be employed in severe drought, and is struggling to return to agriculture than younger members of the earlier levels. In 1992-93 total exports fell from, workforce, for whom administrative and T$19 to T$14 million (reflecting the problems professional activities were proportionally more of squash and vanilla crops) hence the trade important. balance deteriorated. However invisible earnings rose by T$16 million. The most important Total employment grew by around 1.5 per cent component of this was remittances which per year between 1976 and 1986; much of that increased by T$13 to T$16 million, a massive growth was in various small industry groups, component of national income and a clear notably financial services, electricity, water indication of the significance of international trade and manufacturing, whereas the share of migration. This volume was relatively high and the agricultural sector fell from 51 per cent. appeared not to be linked to a difficult economic There is little indication of the extent to which climate in the principal migrant destinations. this may have changed since 1986. The employment structure of Nuku'alofa is Employment necessarily different from that of Tonga as a whole. More than three quarters (77 per cent) of Limited detailed information is available on the employed persons in the capital were in paid current structure of employment in Tonga and employment, twice the proportion for the the most recent examination of the national country as a whole. A further seven per cent situation was contained in the 1986 census. worked in family businesses. However four per About half the population aged 15 and over was cent of the urban workforce were engaged in economically active; this represents an increase commercial agriculture and fully 10.5 per cent in the labor force participation since 1976 when claimed to be solely involved in subsistence 43 per cent was economically active. agriculture. Employment in the capital is thus Approximately half of the employed population not only in 'urban' occupations. (that is 10,800 persons) stated that they were in paid employment, whilst 37 per cent claimed In 1986 the population who described they were engaged in subsistence agriculture and themselves as unemployed answered for about seven per cent were in commercial agriculture. nine per cent of the economically active 172 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources population, a reduction, from the 13 per cent * enhance the quality of life by raising health recorded in 1976 (which may be a function of standards, maintaining national security and both changes in the means of data collection and continuing to promote the cultural heritage emigration). In Greater Nuku'alofa of the Kingdom; unemployment was 10.7 per cent, compared * develop beneficial relations with other with 8.2 per cent for the rest of Tonga. For nations; Tonga as a whole the male unemployment rate * ensure the continued protection and was 6.4 per cent compared with the female rate management of natural resources for of 18.7 per cent, whilst the comparable rates for sustainable development. Nuku'alofa were 9.3 and 13.9 per cent respectively. Unemployment is particularly high Within this context emphasis is being placed on amongst younger age groups. For youths aged the export and tourism sectors where certain between 15-19 it was as high as 27.6 per cent, competitive advantages are perceived and the and the female rate in this age group was more role of the private sector (other than transport). than 50 per cent, an indication of the growing extent of youth unemployment, especially in Regional planning: In the mid-1980s pressure Nuku'alofa, despite a high rate of emigration. from bilateral donors and the need to introduce better co-ordination in development planning led to the preparation of integrated regional plans Development Planning for parts of the Kingdom. Earlier in the decade a series of development workshops were held with For some years Tonga has engaged in formal communities in the regions, providing an development planning. The first two plans were indication of local development priorities (Tonga little more than lists of proposed development Central Planning Department 1982a, 1982c). projects and gave little attention to the Australia provided technical assistance in the possibility of limiting development in Tongatapu preparation of the Ha'apai regional plan (Central and encouraging regional and rural Planning Department 1988), a similar exercise development. Until into the 1980s plans was completed with EEC aid for Vava'u primarily emphasized increased production, (Atkins, W.S. International 1980) and especially in agriculture and fisheries, though it investment possibilities were examined in 'Eua was not until the 1980s that rural development (Sevele and Vete Consultants 1990). was given greater emphasis within the Development in both northern regions is now development planning process. The current Sixth directed under the guidance of Development Development Plan (1991-1995) emphasizes Committees and a number of recommendations seven national economic and social objectives: have been implemented. In Vava'u regional consciousness has been raised with the * achieve sustainable economic growth establishment of a Development Unit which conducive to a higher per capita income; publishes a regular bi-lingual newsletter (Neiafu * achieve a more equitable distribution of Newsletter). income and a more equitable access to goods and services between regional community Although the regional plans prepared so far are groups and between income groups; of an advisory nature only, their effects are * generate more employment opportunities; considerable in Tonga's centralized * restore and control external financial administrative environment. The new master balances; plan for Neiafu, for example, was one 173 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources recommendation which has been implemented some dwellings provided after Cyclone Isaac in recently (Kinhill Kacimaiwai in association with 1982 and now managed by the Ministry of Riedel and Byrne (1992), though there are Works, housing has generally been developed doubts whether it will be acted upon. by the private sector. Physical land use planning: is not well developed in Tonga but the introduction of enabling legislation has been under investigation Land since the early 1980s (Withy 1981; Tonga Ministry of Lands. Survey and Natural The land tenure system of Tonga is in most Resources 1992). Physical planning is a respects quite unique since, unlike other systems responsibility of the Ministry of Lands, Survey in the South Pacific, it provides for individual and Natural resources. A number of planning ownership of land with security. All land is initiatives have been introduced in recognition ultimately the property of the Crown but large of development pressures on Tongatapu which estates are owned and operated by the nobles. demand attention. Examples of these are Every male Tongan on attaining the age of 16 extensions to the Popua Township (Spennemann years is entitled to a bush allotment ('api) of 1987), the Popua Master Plan, including a septic about 3.3 hectares (on which rent is payable) system for a new Small Industries Center, and a town site of 0.16 hectares. The allotments designed to reduce the growing pollution of the are granted from the estate of the noble where Fanga'uta Lagoon; the relocation of the waste the applicant lives subject to the agreement of dump at Popua to a new site at Mulifonuna which the noble concerned. In other cases the land will include modern treatment practices; and a grant may be made from government land. In forthcoming urban development plan for Greater theory this system provides for considerable Nuku'alofa. equality in access to land, at least among the commoners, based on the belief that all Tongans One of the recommendations contained in the should take part in the basic agricultural Vava'u regional planning study of 1988 (Atkins, economy. Legally every holder of an allotment W.S. International 1989) was the preparation of was required to plant 200 coconut palms and a town plan for Neiafu. This small regional maintain them weed-free. Traditionally all men center is now the only settlement with a physical are allocated an 'api (tax allotment) so that they guide plan and recommended land use zonings can be agriculturally self-sufficient but many (Kinhill Kacimaiwai in association with Kinhill young Tongans no longer receive the 'api Riedel and Byrne 1992) but the plan has no because of population pressure on limited land more than advisory status because it has no legal resources. Although perhaps 60 per cent of land backup. in Tonga is farmed through these small allotments, some have been amalgamated. There There is considerable fragmentation in the are also larger farm units held by the King and provision of urban services. The Tonga Water the nobles, about 28 per cent of the total in the Board, which is more or less independent of the early 1970s, but since then some of this has Ministry of Health, is responsible for the been redistributed so that the proportion of these reticulated systems of Nuku'alofa, Neiafu, holdings is probably now less than 20 per cent. Pangai (Ha'apai), Hihifo and 'Eua. Sanitation is There are no recent estimates of the ownership directly controlled by the Ministry of Health. of land in Tonga. There is no Ministry of Housing since, with the Some idea of changes in the pattern of land exception of the small public housing stock and holdings can be gauged from earlier analysis. 174 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources During the inter-censal period 1966-1976 the principles of town and country planning' (Tonga proportion of eligible males with a tax allotment Central Planning Department 1991: 76). With decreased from 42 per cent to 35 per cent and population pressure in Tongatapu and the this decrease has subsequently continued as the shortage of good building land, environmentally population has grown. The individual nature of sensitive mangroves and marshland have been land tenure thus enables relatively precise allocated for residential use or assigned as measures to be made of landlessness and allotments. This development is due to the lack population pressure on resources compared with of adequate urban management and planning and less reliable measures where land is communally has resulted in severe drainage problems and owned and operated. Estimates suggest that less substandard sanitary and living conditions. Land than two per cent of the total land resources are sales are now increasingly common in urban suitable for redistribution, although the area areas, especially Nuku'alofa. under hereditary noble title constituted eight per cent of the total land area in 1979. Population and Migration Sub-division of allotments, although accommodated legally in 1958, has been made Early estimates of the population of Tonga are little use of and could lead to lower levels of unreliable. The first census for which data is production and limited commercialization of available was conducted in 1891 and recorded a development. Although this, in turn, might be population of 19,196. Censuses have been held offset by more equity in the distribution of land regularly in the Twentieth Century and show a suitable for subsistence production and hence steady growth in the period before the Second bring about a reduction in food imports. A World War and a faster growth since then. related concern is that of absentee landlords and These are features typical of other parts of the the possible redistribution of their land. Recent South Pacific. Four censuses have been evidence suggests that Tongans domiciled undertaken since the War; those of 1956, 1966 overseas are taking advantage of high housing and 1986 were de facto censuses and that of rentals in Nuku'alofa in the 1990s to build new 1976 a de jure census, hence there are some dwellings on their town 'api for commercial problems of data comparability. purposes. Between 1956 and 1966 the population increased Any land use planning law must recognize the very rapidly, growing frm 56,838 to 77,429, land tenure system and current practices for the an extraordinary 27 per cent increase. Since allocation of land. Where complex land tenure then the rate has slowed down remarkably; in systems exist there is sometimes an absence of the next decade the total grew to 90,085, though single comprehensive land use planning this was inflated by the de jure census and, by legislation but this does not mean the absence of 1986, it had grown to 94,649 and was then some legal provisions that regulate land use. estimated to be almost static. It almost certainly There is also a presumption in complex land remains below 100,000. During the periods of tenure systems that landowners will voluntarily 1966-1976 and 1976-1986 the annual growth exercise control over their own developments. rate declined substantially from 1.5 to 0.5 per The unique system in Tonga, developed at a cent respectively and is probably now around time when there was enough land available for one per cent. While the rate of natural increase distribution to all adult males, does 'not was still high in 1990, annual population growth conform to the generally accepted zoning was estimated at only 0.6 between 1986-1990 175 Annotatcd Bibliography of Regional Literature and Dat. Sources and the total population only increased by two Internal migration (which tends to be per cent. This is an extremely low rate of urbanization) largely began in the 1950s and growth by developing country standards in the 1960s. In 1956 migration to Nuku'alofa was Pacific region and elsewhere. The principal most significant from the more densely explanation for this trend being rising populated western part of Tongatapu, and from emigration from the 1970s accompanied by the Ha'apai islands of Lifuka and Ha'ano. more effective family planning. Neiafu, in Vava'u, made a greater contribution to the urban population of Nuku'alofa than all Although the present King was in 1966 the first the other islands in that group, hence most leader in the South Pacific tn openly advocate a lifetime migration to the capital at this time was family planning policy, and such a program has from the most densely populated areas of Tonga. been in existence since 1958. it has so far met Before 1956 the main population movement with limited success. In 1986 the total fertility appears to have been directed to rural areas of rate (TFR) was estimated to be seven. By the Tongatapu rather than to Nuku'alofa but 1986 census it was recorded at five children migration subsequently began to assume a more with a further decline to four in 1990. This urban character. Over time Tongatapu has decline in TFR is not impressive over three increasingly become important as a population decades. The slight fall reflects the high value center; in 1956 it held 55 per cent of the attached to children and the importance placed national population, by 1976 this had grown to on family relationships. In the absence of social 64 per cent and was 67 per cent a decade later. security services and welfare payments, children The principal area of decline has been Ha'apai. provide some security in old age and sickness. Both Ha'apai (10,792 to 8,919) and 'Eua (4,486 The decline in TFR may be attributed to the to 4,393) experienced absolute population rising age at marriage and organized family declines between 1976 and 1986. planning programs. Between 1966 and 1986 the infant mortality rate declined from 90 per In fact in the decade 1976 to 1986 Tongatapu thousand to 26 and is now around 22; and life was the only area that had a net migration gain. expectancy in 1990 was estimated at 67 years. Almost all of these migrants were attracted to Greater Nuku'alofa because of improved Internal migration: Within Tonga there have education and employment opportunities there, been a number of historic and contemporary hence the city grew at 0.7 per cent per year resettlement movements in response to various from migration alone. Rural Tongatapu types of hazards, all of which have contributed experienced a net loss. The largest population to the increased centralization and concentration gains for Nuku'alofa were in the age group 15- of the population on Tongatapu (and, to a lesser 24 (and, to a lesser extent, in the age group 10- extent resulting in population growth on 'Eua). 14) and female migrants outnumbered males and Internal migration has been recognized as a were more likely to remain in the city. The problem in Tonga far longer than in many other same pattern of migration appears to have parts of the South Pacific. The 1966 census continued since 1986. report stated: 'The movement of people between the islands, especially to Tongatapu, has reached International migration: The structure of a stage where governmental intervention in the population growth and migration in Tonga is supervision and planning of the migrations is substantially influenced by international urgently required'. These kinds of concern have movements. Emigration became particularly subsequently been repeated in similar form. important from the end of the 1960s and was 176 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources substantial during the 1970s and 1980s, primacy of the capital began to consolidate particularly to Australia, New Zealand and the through increased centralization of government, USA. Censuses in these three countries in 1990 expansion of urban services and the and 1991 recorded an overseas Tongan-born development of some manufacturing industry. population of 48,000 (whilst there are also The population of Nuku'alofa was nearly 4,000 substantial numbers in American Samoa and in 1939, 9,200 in 1956 and about 16,000 in elsewhere). This has reduced pressure on the 1964. Yet, as recently as the 1960s, it was in labor market and resulted in an important flow many respects a collection of large villages of remittances, though it has also resulted in a rather than a unified town. This has been loss of skills and rising dependency ratios. It subsequently emphasized in the relatively even was estimated that during the 1976-1986 period urban population density resulting from the the annual net migration rate was of the order of limited subdivision of urhan allotments. two per cent but, in the absence of departure statistics, there is no information on subsequent In the 1976 census three places were considered flows at a time when there was significant to be 'urban' - Nuku'alofa, Mu'a and Neiafu. unemployment in the principal destination, New the census provides no indication of the reason Zealand. This is likely to have led to both a for classifying these particular centers (rather slowing of the international rate and the step than others) as urban. At that time Mu'a had a migration of some Tongans from New Zealand population of 3,969 and Neiafu had 3,308, to Australia. An increase in the extent of return whilst Pangai-Hihifo, the largest center in migration would pose considerable problems for Ha'apai had a population of 2,464. By 1986 the Tonga. population of Nuku'alofa (defined as the villages of Kolofo'ou, Ma'ufanga and Kolomotu'a) had Urbanization grown to 21,383, whilst Greater Nuku'alofa including the Kolomotu'a and Kolofo'ou When the first missionaries arrived in 1826 districts (and thus the expanding industrial Nuku'alofa was already one of the five suburb of Haveluloto) had grown to 28,018. important centers in Tongatapu thus this town, Since there is substantial commuting to to a greater extent than in most other parts of Nuku'alofa from a wide area, covering all of the South pacific, has also had both a pre- Tongatapu, urbanization has been considerable. European contact origin and a longer history of No other urban center was separately growth and development. The long-established distinguished in the 1986 census and none were homogeneity of the Tongan population has growing quickly. Neiafu had grown to 3,879 contributed to the development of a town that is, and Pangai-Hihifo had fallen to 2,388, hence to a greater extent than anywhere else in the Nuku'alofa had effectively become a primate region, unusually indigenous in its population city. It is clear that both urban and rural outer and economic structure. By the start of the island settlements have failed to retain or attract Twentieth Century Nuku'alofa was a thriving population whereas before the War Neiafu commercial center alongside smaller settlements ranked close to Nuku'alofa in its level of at Mu'a, Neiafu and Pangai (Ha'apai); in the economic activity. The return of Tongans from years before World War One traders were as overseas has also emphasized population growth active in Neiafu as Nuku'alofa and there was rates in both Tongatapu and the capital. small-scale manufacturing in both places. After the Second World War trading activities outside A number of sources have commented (i.e. Nuku'alofa never fully recovered and the SPREP 1992) that the key urban development 177 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources problem facing the Kingdom is a severe 12,000 additional people will need to be constraint on building land which is not in accommodated over the next 20 years at present environmentally sensitive or problematic areas. rates of emigration. The key effects on In Nuku'alofa the combined effects of a lack of NukLi'alofa are summarized as follows (Kinhill planning and population growth has led to the Riedel and Byrne 1993: 3-4). use of low-lying land for housing close to the center, and flooding constitutes an intermittent * growth pressures will be greater if migrant problem, particularly where sanitation systems outflows are reduced. Unmet demands for are inadequate. urban housing land could increase the level of out migration; Housing * a proportion of the demand will be met by higher density development but this is Tonga's unique land tenure system extends to limited by social factors and pressure on some aspects of housing as well. Under the existing urban infrastructure; Town Regulations Act 1903 it is mandatory for * availability of new housing land is restricted every male Tongan reaching the age of 21 years almost entirely to low-lying government to build a dwelling on his town 'api (SPREP estates which are not fit for normal human 1992). The penalties for non-compliance, at up habitation. Subdivision in these areas will to T$10, are not severe! There is very little lead to slum development. Area-wide information on economic and social conditions improvements are necessary before in Nuku'alofa or any of the Tongan towns. No development takes place; studies of the housing situation have been * land demands * 3nnot be satisfied from the undertaken in the past decade and the one sources already indicated. Two other substantial study (Rew 1979) was completed IS potential sources exist - implementation of years ago. It was already apparent in the late mechanisms to allow redevelopment of 1970s that the worst housing problems were existing vacant leased land in the urban found in areas: of poor drainage and that the area; and production of new land by consequences for public health impacted most on reclamation from lagoons. women and children. Recommendations to overcome bad drainage problems in Nuku'alofa All possible solutions to the land and housing in particular and the utilization of local building problem will have important environmental materials are still valid today (Rew 1979). effects besides the obvious demands on urban infrastructure. Some form of acceptable physical There is no public housing apart from planning will be a necessity. government accommodation for some of its own civil servants and dwellings are generally Urban Services financed through housing loans from the Bank of Tonga. Since Rew's (1979) study further Water- supplies are a major development subdivision of low-lying areas of Nuku'alofa constraint in Tonga and problems have been have exacerbated drainage problems. With the exacerbated by over-pumping of freshwater assistance of Australian foreign aid a new study lenses; failing to enforce water regulations; and aimed at preparing management plans for the weak pollution control measures. resources are Fanga'uta Lagoon system and other low-lying managed by three different authorities, the areas is underway (Kinhill Riedel and Byrne Department of Public Health in the Ministry of 1993). Current estimates suggest that up to Health; the Ministry for Lands, Survey and 178 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Natural Resources, and the Tonga Water Board. Vava'u are poorly located and managed, being The Tonga Water Board looks after supplies in sited in mangrove swamps with no controls of the urban areas of Nuku'alofa, Pangai-Hihifo, any sort. Toxic and hazardous wastes such as 'Eua and Neiafu which cater for about one third paint, pesticide containers, batteries and of the national population. Of the 5.5 million industrial by-products are disposed of in the liters supplied per day in Nuku'alofa, one fifth Nuku'alofa dump with a consequence that is consumed by industrial and institutional users. contaminants enter the Fanga'uta Lagoon Some 27 per cent of daily output is lost through (ESCAP 1990; SPREP 1992). Solid waste is leakages (SPREP 1992). controlled to some extent under the provisions of the Garbage Act 1949, the Public Health Act The new Tonga Water Supply Master Plan of (Refuse Dumping Ground) Regulations, and the 1991 (PPK Consultants in association with Public Health Act, 1913, as amended. It has Riedel and Byrne 1992a, 1992b, 1992c) analyses been recommended that categories of waste be the existing legislation and responsibilities of specifically defined and that existing regulations various institutions and makes recommendations be amended to require the carrying out of an to improve present delivery services. The master environmental impact assessment before a plan for Nuku'alofa includes works to upgrade dumping ground is declared (and restoration be the wellfield, installation and replacement of made on dump closure) (SPREP 1992: 55). pipework, construction of new reservoirs at Mataki'eua, leakage detection and control, a public education program for conservation, and institutional strengthening. Sewerage: Sanitation is a considerable problem because of the lack of suitable disposal sites near the towns. There is no reticulated sewage treatment in Tonga and all wastes are disposed of in latrines and septic tanks. In Nuku'alofa some 70 per cent of households have septic tank systems, 20 per cent use pour flush latrines and 10 per cent pit latrines. The Department of Works collects sludge which is dumped in poorly secured enclosures to the east of the city (SPREP 1992: 52). An Environmental Management Plan (ESCAP 1990) considers these and other aspects of pollution control in the Kingdom. Among recommertdations made by SPREP is that Regulations in the Public Health Act of 1913 be expanded to include more control over securing waste disposal sites from animal and unauthorized human intrusions (SPREP 1992: 55). Solid Waste: Several recent studies have pointed out that nunicipal dumps in Tongatapu and 179 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econldev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date. 180 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL Presents a brief survey of recent developments in, DEVELOPMENT and prospects for, the Tongan economy. It provides an analytical overview of important developments and , issues, drawing from a range of governmemn, 'Atiola, M. L. (1983). A Preliminary study interaing and aaec s oue small entrepreneurs in Ha'apai, Tonga. Rural Development Center Project Management Series Brown, R. P. C., & Connell, J. (1993). The Discussion Paper No. 5. Nuku'alofa: University global flea market: migration, remittances and of the South Pacific. the informal economy in Tonga. Development Key: Tonga econ/dev and Change, 24, 611-47. A biief examination of business activity in Pangai Key: Ton econ/dev and rural Ha'apai, which reviews the nature of the K~:Tneo/e Examines aspects of remittances through a micro- enterprise, the status of the operators, land problems, economic study of the informal flea-market in attitudes to business and social obligations. Nuku'alofa, Tonga. This reveals that a significant amount of remittances could be perceived as elements 'Utoikamianu, F. (1993). Disaster preparedness of trade, whilst the use of remittances was related to planning and management in the Kingdom of investment and entrepreneurial activities. Tonga. In Development and Planning in Small Island Nations of the Pacdfic. Nagoya: United Clark, W. F. (1980). The rural to urban Nations Center for Regional Development. nutritional gradient: Application and Key: Ton econ/dev interpretation in a developing nation and urban situation. Social Science and Medicine, 14(1), Amjad, R. (1985). Employment and structural 31-36. change in Tonga. Issues for the fifth five year Key: Ton pop/mig over plan (1986-90). A preliminary analysis. Migration to Nuku'alofa was related to increasing ELO/ARTEP. rural population pressure and the superior social Key: Tonga econ/dev status of living in urban areas. Nutrition was superior 58 page review of major employment and manpower in rural areas because of greater food availability. issues including migration, population pressure, wage policy and the functioning of the labor market. Connelly-Kirch, D. (1982). Economic and social correlates of handicraft selling in Tonga. Annals Atkins W.S. International (1989). Vava'u of Tourism Research, 9, 383-402. regional development program, phase II- Final Key: Ton social econ/dev report, project and program dossiers. An examination of the socio-economic characteristics Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. of a small group of handicraft sellers in Nuku'alofa, Key: Tonga plan/man econ/dev finance which indicate that selling handicrafts and food to Lists a series of projects designed to promote tourists, mainly on cruise ships, is an important integrated regional development in Vava'u. Includes source of income for many. proposals to prepare a Neiafu master plan and upgrade urban services. Engleberger, L. (1983). Review of past food and nutritional surveys in Tonga. Nuku'alofa: Australia International Development Assistance Central Planning Department. Program (1991). The Tongan Economy - Setting Key: Tonga social the Stage for Accelerated Growth. Country Report No. 22. Canberra: AIDAB. Finau, S. A., Stanhope, J. M., & Prior, I. A. Key: Ton econ/dev finance M. (1982). Kava, Alcohol and Tobacco Consumption among Tongans with 181 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Urbanization. Social Science and Medicine, 16, Halapua, S. (1981). The islands of Ha'apai 35-41. utilization of land and sea. Suva: University of Key: Ton social over the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies in Kava consumption is primarily a rural phenomenon, association with Institute of Marine Resources. whereas alcohol consumption was almost exclusively Key: Ton land econ/dev an urban activity, and predominantly of males. Kava may have lost ground to alcohol as urban Tongans Halapua, S. (1982). Fishermen of Tonga. Their become more cosmopolitan. means of survival. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Fleming, S. (1983). Women and Waged Key: Tonga econ/dev social Employment in the Kingdom of Tonga: a Analysis of the organization and technical base of statistical overview. Nuku'alofa (mimeo). production amongst small-scale commercial Key: Ton econ/dev over fishermen in Nuku'alofa in the late 1970s. The study covers income and expenditure and the role of fishing Fleming, S., & Ratcliffe, J. (1982). Urban v. in economic development. Rural? The extent and nature of urbanization in the Kingdom of Tonga. Suva: Center for Hau'ofa, E. (1977). Overcrowded islands. Suva: Applied Studies in Development, University of Institute of Pacific Studies University of the the South Pacific (mimeo). South Pacific. Key: Ton pop/mig over Key: Tonga poplmig social Overview of the relationship between population Fleming, S., & Tukuafu, M. (1986). Women's growth and the physical environment, socio-economic work and development in Tonga. South Pacific and political change and the necessity for new Smallholder Project. Occasional paper; No. 10. development strategies. Armidale: University of New England. HD-ARTEP (1985). Employment and structural Key: Tonga plan/man social dOaRT(18. employment nd srcr Eramines women's role in smallholder agriculture change in Tonga. Issues for the fth Five Year Tonga in relation to the policy, planning and Plan (1986-90). A preliminary analysis. implementation of rural development. Details Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. women's work activities and compares these with Key: Ton econ/dev social information available to policy makers. Outlines shortfalls in information gathering systems. Lascelles, R., Mumtaz, B., & Safier, M. Discusses women's control over income and other (1978). Tonga, A Development Plan for Tourism resources, and reviews current rural development 1978-87. London: Development Planning Unit, efforts in light of women's rural activities. University College London. Gyles, A., Delforce, J., & Ika, K. (1989). Key: Ton econ/dev Production of handicrafts by women in Tonga. South Pacific Smallholder Project Research Note Manpowe Survey Sub-oiee ctC No.6 Arnidae: nivrsit ofNew nglnd.Planning Team (1985). Employment Structure No. 6. Armidale: University of New England.194admnoerqueetsNk'lf: Key:Tonecondev1984 and manpower requirements. Nuku'alofa: Key: Ton econ/dev Ministry of Education. A study of the amount of time spent by women Key r of econ. producing handicrafts, such as mats and tapa cloth, in Key: Tonga econ/dev villages in 'Eua and Vava'u, to indicate the role that Review of future employment change and the training handicraft production might play in nationalrequirements, which emphasizes educational development. priorities. 182 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Marcus, G. E. (1980). The Nobility and the Examination of New Zealand aid and its relationship Chiefly Traditions in Tonga. Wellington: The to social and economic development in Tonga - and Polynesian Society. especially the Banana Export Scheme - which shows Key: Ton social that the productivity concerns have been greater than equity concerns. Inequality has grown through aid McGregor, A. (1989a). The Tongan k r delivery. The study examines the central role of land McGrgor A.(199a) TheTonan nitear in social and economic relations. industry: a study of export manufacturing development in Pacific Islands. Pacific Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission Economic Bulletin, 4(1), 16-19. report - Tonga. Suva: South Pacific Bureau for Key: Tonga econ/dev Economic Co-operation. A brief account of one successful industry in Key: Ton econ/dev No fa, established by a return migrant, that em:. o - several hundred workers. Government assistance and other loans have been of considerable Nicholas Clark and Associates (1993a). Tonga significance. national tourism plan draft final report, Volume I - overview. Nuku'alofa: Government of Tonga McLean, E., Badcock, J., & Bach, P. (1987). and Asian Development Bank. The 1986 national nutritional survey of the Key: Tonga econ/dev Kingdom of Tonga. Nuku'alofa: National Food Contains details about contact of the plan; overview and Nutritional Committee. of the report; and tourism development options. Key: Tonga social Nutritional status of infants and Nicholas Clark and Associates (1993). Tonga but obesity was prevalent amongst adults. Though the national tourism plan dr4ftfinal report, Volume urban population was consuming more imported 17 - tourism development. Nuku'alofa- foods than those in rural areas, the prevalence of Government of Tonga and Asian Development obesity was not related to the types of food Bank. consumed. Key: Tonga econ/dev Contains tourism projections; tourism resources; National Center for Development Studies tourism product development; and regional tourism (1989). South Padfic -Economic and Social development. Database: Tonga. Canberra: National Center for Pacific Studies Australian National University. Nicholas Clark and Associates (1993c). Tonga Key: Ton over econ/dev finance pop/mig national tounsm plan draft final report, Volume Contains current and historical statistics on: XT - insiutional development. Nuku'alofa: population, migration, demography and housing; Government of Tonga and Asian Development education; health; national accounts; international Bank. accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: Tonga econ/dev labor, employment and wages; prices and price Contains markets and marketing; institutional indices; rural industries; secondary industries and framework; environmental and social issues* distribution; transport and communication; and infrastructure; and financial and economic issues. tourism. Pale, A. (1981). Tonga. A community of small Needs, A. (1988). New Zealand aid aid SDn traders. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Pacfc Indians. development of class in Tonga. Pa n Suva: University of the South Pacific, Institute North: Department of Geography, Massey of Pacific Studies. (pp. 73-83). University. Key: Ton econ/dev pop/mig Key: Tonga social 183 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Examines Indian 'migrants' in Tonga who are Development Project, Pacific Islands generally long established and highly assimilated Development Program, East-West Center. within Tongan society and economy. Key: Ton econ/dev finance Qalo, R. (1985). Tonga. In P. Larmour & R. Qalo (Eds.), Decentralization in the South Ritterbush, S. D. (1988). Entrepreneurship in an Pacrfic. Suva: University of the South Pacific. ascribed status society: The Kingdom of Tonga. (pp. 239-242). In T. 1. J. Fairbaim (Eds.), Island Key: Ton econ/dev pop/mig social Entrepreneurs: problems and Performances in the Pacific. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Ramanlal, S. (1990). Private sector development Development Program, East-West Center. (pp. in the Kingdom of Tonga. Honolulu: Asian 137-164). Development Bank and Pacific Islands Key: Ton social mn/dev Development Program, East-West Center. A history of busmess development with survey of Key: Ton econ/dev entrepreneurs (most of whom were indigenous Tongans) that focuses on the constraints to business Ratcliffe, J., & Dillon, R. (1982). A Review and development, the social and economic impacts of study of the human settlements situation in the business development and its structural impact on Kingdom of Tonga : a paper prepared for Tonga. ESCAP/UNIDO Division of Industry, Human Settlements and Technology, Economic and Sevele, F. V. and Vete, S. Consultants (1990). Social Commission for Asia and the Suh A regional investment program for 'Eua. PaciFc. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Nuku'alofa. Department. Key: Tonga econ/dev Key: Ton plan/man over land Considers possible regional economic development One of the few detailed examinations of urbanization p e- in Tonga. Overview of the issues relating to urbanization and the present structure of organization Spennemann, D. H. R. (1987). The extension of of service provision. Highlights problems of urban Popua Township (Tongatapu, Kingdom of supply and the need for physical planning legislation. Tonga) and its impact on the archaeological sites in the area. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Rathey. R. (1984). Final report of the Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. agricultural economist. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Key: Tonga land environ social Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Planning Proposes declaration of a Reserve to protect three Unit. interconnected pigeon snaring mounds which were Key: Tonga econ/dev theatened with destruction by the extension of Popua A detailed overview of the agricultural sector, with Township on Tongatapu. information on population migration and the agricultural labor force, land tenure and land use, that Sturton, M. (1991). A macroeconomic is dated only in terms of the cash crops that then framework of the Tongan economy. Honolulu: predominated on Tongatapu. Asian Development Bank and Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. Ritterbush, S. D. (1986). Entrepreneurship and Key: Ton econ/dev Business Venture Development in the Kingdom of Tonga. Honolulu: Indigenous Business Sturton, M. (1992). Tonga: development through agricultural export. Economic Report 184 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources No. 4. Honolulu, Pacific Islands Development Presents data on: population and housing; labor force Program, East-West Center. and manpower; national accounts; public finance; Key: Ton econ/dev money and banking; foreign trade; balance of payments; prices; commodities; industry; energy and Toda, A. (1990). Tourism : key issues and water; transport and communications; tourism; Tiabs A r peducation; health; social conditions; land use; variables for policy and strategy development, agriculture; meteorology; island shipping and air Nagoya: Central Planning Department and transport. United Nations Center for Regional Development. Tonga Statistics Department (1989). Statistical Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev abstracts 1989. Nuku'alofa: Statistics Identifies the policy and strategy issues of central Deparment. concern to policy makers, planners and administrators DeyarTmnt. in the region. Reviews relevant research and the:To o/igeo/evsca Presents data on: population and housing; labor force extent to which it addresses these issues and suggests and manpower; public finance; money and banking; research progress to overcome this perceived gap. fbreign trade; prices; commodities; industry; energy and water; transport and communications; tourism; Tonga Central Planning Department (1982a). education; health; social conditions; land use; 'Eua Development Workshop. Preliminary agriculture; income tax; meteorology; island shipping Report, Nuku'alofa. and air transport. Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1987). Tonga Central Planning Department (1982b). Vlitor Survey: Tonga. Suva: Tourism Council Fourth five year development plan: 1980 - 1985. of the South Pacific. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. Key: Ton econ/dev Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev finance Sets out Tonga's economic and social development Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1993). objectives and strategies 1980 to 1985. Examines the Tonga visitor survey 1992. Suva: Tourism macroeconomic and financial frameworks for Council of the South Pacific. development and details policy/strategy for each Key: Tonga econ/dev sector. Includes extensive statistical tables. Standard survey of visitors to Tonga which reveals that less that 20 per cent came on package torus. Tonga Central Planning Department (1982c). Most tourists stayed in Nuku'alofa and were Report of the Ha'apai development workshop. disappointed with urban management. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. Key: Ton social eco/dev Walsh, A. C. (1964) Nuku'alofa, Tonga. A preliminary study of urbanization and Tonga Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and immigration. M.A. thesis, Victoria University Fisheries (1980). Survey on household of Wellington. (unpublished). consumption and production of crops, livestock Key: Ton pop/mig over and fish. Nuku'alofa: MAFF. Key: Ton social Walsh, A. C. (1969). A Tongan urban peasantry. Conjective or reality? In I. G. Bassett Tonga Statistics Department (1987). Statistical (Eds.), Pacfic Peasantry. Palmerston North: abstracts 1987. Nuku'alofa: Statistics New Zealand Geographical Society. (pp. 87- Department. 107). Key: Ton pop/mig econ/dev social Key: Tonga social 185 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources An early study of the social and economic Overview of the literature on remittances and their characteristics of Nuku'alofa, that examines impact, at household and national level, that employment, migration, social change and the extent incorporates a survey of households in both to which an urban proletariat has emerged. countries. The study emphasizes the continued significance of remittances, their utility in both rural Walsh, A. C. (1972). Nuku'alofa. A Study of and urban areas, and their role in both consumption Urban Life in the Pacific Islands. Wellington. and investment. Key: Ton over Published version of Walsh 1964. Used as school Clark, W. F. (1980). The rural to urban text. nutritional gradient: Application and interpretation in a developing nation and urban Walsh, A. C. (1982). Migration, urbanization situation. Social Science and Medicine, 14(1), and development in the South Pacific Countries. 31-36. Bangkok: ESCAP. Key: Ton pop/mig over Key: Reg Ton pop/mig over Migration to Nuku'alofa was related to increasing rural population pressure and the superior social World Bank (1986). The Kingdom of Tonga. An status of living in urban areas. Nutrition was superior introductory economic report. Washington DC. in rural areas because of greater food availability. Keytrontr econvmincer.WsigoDC Key: Ton econ/dev finance Connell, J. (1983). Migration, employment and World Bank (1993). Pacric Islands Economies: development in the South Pacfic. Country Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growth, Vol report No.18: Tonga. South Pacific 6. Tonga: Country uanomic Memorandrun. Commission; International Labor Organization, Washington DC. Noumea. Key: Ton /dev Key: Ton pop/mig Examines Tonga's economy, employment, population, urbanization, internal and international migration, and the impact and implications of migration. This is a detiled overview of early studies POPULATION AND MIGRATION of migration and the genesis of a remittance- orientated economy. Ahlburg, D. (1991). Remittances and their Connell, J. (1986). Tonga: population, impact: a study of Tonga and Western Samoa. migration and remittances. In D. Abbott (Eds.), Pacific Policy Paper No. 7. Canberra: National Development Planning in Tonga. The Ffth Center for Development Studies. Development Plan and Regional Planning. Key: WS Tonga poplmig Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. (pp. Overview of the macro-economic context of 88-98). remittances in the two countries which emphasizes Key: Tonga pop/mig their substantial role in every facet of the economy. Examination of the significance of population treads in Tonga with particular reference to the impact of Brown, R. P. C., & Connell, J. (1993). international migration, and the significance of these Migration and remittances in Tonga and issues for development planning. Western Samoa. Brisbane: University of Queensland for ILO. Cowling, W. (1990). Motivations for Key: WS Tonga pop/mig contemporary Tonga migration. In P. Herda, J. Terrell, & N. Gunson (Eds.), Tongan Cature 186 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and History. Canberra: Department of Pacific Langi, P. (1987). Population movement and and Southeast Asian History, Australian insecure settlement. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko National University. (pp. 187-205). (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Key: Tonga pop/mig Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. An overview of Tongan perceptions on emigration. (pp. 245-250). based on surveys in Sydney and Tonga, which Key: Tonga pop/mig land focuses on social aspects of migration and the concept Examines the settlement of Ha'ateiko, on the fringe of obligation and the extended family. of Nuku'alofa, mainly populated by migrants from outer islands in the 1960s and 1970s. This focuses on Fleming, S., & Ratcliffe, J. (1982). Urban v. the problems of landlessness, and earning an adequate Rural? The extent and nature of urbanization in income, and recommends changes to the present the Kingdom of Tonga. Suva: Center for structure of land tenure. Applied Studies in Development, University of the South Pacific (mimeo). Lua, K. (1987). Migration into Haveluloto, Key: Ton pop/mig over Nuku'alofa. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Funaki, K. (1993). Tonga: population Studies University of the South Pacific. (pp. projections, 1991-2011. In R. V. Cole (Eds.), 123-128). Pacific 2010 : challenging the future. Pacific Key: Tonga pop/mig land policy paper, no .9. Canberra:: Australian The suburb of Haveluloto mainly consists of migrants National University. National Center for from the northern island groups. Among problems Development Studies. (pp. 126-134). identified are a lack of agricultural land, social issues Key: Ton pop/mig and disputes over land tenure. Provides projections of Tonga's population growth, Muthiah, A. C. (1993). Demographic analysis school age population and labor force. of the 1986 census data: fertility, mortality and Hau'ofa, E. (1977). Overcrowded islands. Suva: population projections. Nuku'alofa: Kingdom of Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Tonga Statistics Department. South Pacific. Key: Tonga pop/mig Key: Tonga pop/mig social Evaluates the reliability of the census data with ulation reference to fertility, mortality and population trends Ovrw o the rhysetiron ben iand notes the central role of international migration in grdotdtical endirone it br onoe c maintaining population at more or less the present and political change and the necessity for new level. development strategies. James, K. E. (1991). Migration and remittances: National Center for Development Studies (1989). South Pacr c Economic and Social a Tongan village perspective. Pacific Viewpoint, ( 32(1), 1-23. Database: Tonga. Canberra: National Center for Key: Ton pop/mig finance govt Pacific Studies Australian National University. Analysis of migration in a single Vava'u village, that Key: Ton over econ/dev finance pop/mig points to the development gains, and the manner in Contins current and historical statistics on: which extended families draw in remittances from population, migration, demography and housing; many different areas. The relationship between education; health; national accounts; international remittances and local production is also discussed, accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; and remittances are widely perceived to have labor, employment and wages; prices and price contributed to development. indices; rural industries; secondary industries and 187 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources distribution; transport and communication; and water; transport and communication; education; tourism. health; social conditions; land use; meteorology; income tax; and key indicators. National Center for Development Studies Tonga Statistics Department (1986). Population (1992). Pacfic 2010 : population projections Census, Kingdom of Tonga, Bulletin No. 1. and employment and training needs : Tonga. Nuku'alofa: Statistics Department. Canberra: National Center for Development Key: Ton pop/mig Studies Australian National University. Summary census tabulations without analysis. Key: Ton pop/mig Provides a demographic profile of Tonga and outlines Tonga Statistics Department (1987). Statistical the methodology, assumptions and estimates of a abstracts 1987. Nuku'alofa: Statistics population projection to 2010. Includes projections Department. for age structure, school age population and labor Key: Ton pop/mig econ/dev social force. Presents data on: population and housing; labor force and manpower; national accourts; public finance; New Zealand Coalition for Trade and money and banking; foreign trade; balance of Development (1982). The ebbing tide: the payments; prices; commodities; industry; energy and impact of migration on Pacific Island societies. water; transport and communications; tourism; In Country Studies - The Effects of Emigration education; health; social conditions; land use; on Island People at Home - Tonga. Wellington: agriculture; meteorology; island shipping and air (pp. part 5). transport. Key: Ton pop/mig Tonga Statistics Department (1989). Statistical of small abstracts 1989. Nuku'alofa: Statistics Pale, A. (1981). Tonga. A commnunity ofpasmallt traders. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Pacific Indians. Department. n Suva: University of the South Pacific, Institute Key: Ton pop/mig econ/dev social u n t h Pacific, Instit7te Presents data on: population and housing; labor force of Pacific Studies. (pp. 73-83). and manpower; public finance; money and banking; Key: Ton econ/dev pop mig foreign trade; prices; commodities; industry; energy Examines Indian 'migrants' in Tonga who are and water; transport and communications; tourism; generally long established and highly asiilted education; health; social conditions; land use; within Tongan society and economy, agriculture; income tax; meteorology; island shipping and air transport. Qalo, R. (1985). Tonga. In P. Larmour & R. Qalo (Eds.), Decentralization in the South Tonga Statistics Department (1991a). Population Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific. census 1986. Nuku'alofa: Statistics (pp. 239-242). Department,. Key: Ton econ/dev pop/mig social Key: Ton pop/mig The full census, with methodology and data analysis Tonga Statistics Department (1983). Statistical which briefly covers demographic structu-e, abstracts 1983. Nuku'alofa: Statistics economic activity and employment. Department. Key: Ton land housing pop/mig water Tonga Statistics Department (1991b). Presents data on: population and housing; labor force Population census 1986. Supplementary copy. and manpower, national accounts; public finance; Nuku'alofa: Statistics Department. money and banking; foreign trade; balance of Key: Ton pop/mig payments; prices; commodities; industry, energy and 188 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources A brief analysis of the migration data in the census. Australian International Development Assistance There is limited detail on migration or urbanization. Bureau. UNESCO (1981). Bibliography on population Key: Ton water plan/man environ education. Bangkok: UNESCO. Regional Office Dillon, R. A. (1983) Halao'mve: a study of for Education in Asia and the Pacific. settlement in a low-lying marsh area of Key: Ton Kir pop/mig Naku'alofa, Tonga. Bachelor Urban and Regional Planning dissertation, Armidale: Walsh, A. C. (1964) Nuk'alofa, Tonga. A University of New England, (unpublished). preliminary study of urbanization and Key: Ton housing plan/man immigration. M.A. thesis, Victoria University of Wellington. (unpublished). Eaton, K., & Reardon, G. F. (1985). Cyclone Key: Ton pop/mig over housing in Tonga. Townsville: James Cook University, Building Research Establishment. Walsh, A. C. (1982). Migration, urbanization Key: Ton housing plan/man and develop.ment in the South Pacific Countries. Bangkok: ESCAP. Fleming, S., Dillon, R., & Havea, E. (1983). Key: Reg Ton pop/mig over Report to ESCAP on the review and appraisal of the achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women, Kingdom of Tonga. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING Key: Ton plan/man Fleming, S., & Tukuafa, M. (1986). Women's Atkins W.S. International (1989). Vama' work and development in Tonga. South Pacific regional development program, phase H: Final Smallholder Project. Occasional paper; No. 10. report, project and program dossiers. Armidale: University of New England. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Key: Tonga plan/man social Key: Tonga plan/man econ/dev finance Examines women's role in smallholder agriculture in Lists a series of projects designed to promote Tonga in relation to the policy, planning and integrated regional development in Vava'u. Includes implementation of rural development. Details proposals to prepare a Neiafa master plan and women's work activities and compares these with upgrade urban services. information available to policy makers. Outlines shortfalls in information gathering systems. Australia Department of Health and Department Discusses women's control over income and other of Housing and Construction (1980). resources, and reviews current rural development Redevelopment of Ngu Hospital : NeiafA, Vava'u efforts in light of women's rural activities. : Kingdom of Tonga : a report on planning, design, construction and commissioning. Gailey, C. W. (1992). State formation, Canberra:: Australian Development Assistance development and social change in Tonga. In A. Bureau and the Kingdom of Tonga. Robillard (Eds.), Social Change in the Pacific Key: Ton housing plan/man Islands. London: Kegan Paul. (pp. 322-345). Key: Ton plan/man govt Binnie & Partners Pty Ltd (1989). Tonga water This study examines the historical evolution of social supply master plan study: p-oposal for and political structures, and also looks at the role of consultancy services (technical). Canberra: 189 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources markets, migration, access to Land and the role of the Kinhill Kacimaiwai in association with Kinhill state. Riedel and Byrne (1992). Neiafu master plan. Neiafu: Vava'u Development Unit. Haberkorm, G. (1981). Migration out of Tonga: Key: Tonga plan/man some short term policy goals. Nuku'alofa: A physical land use plan for Neiafu which is a guide Central Planning Department. plan with no statutory authority. Key: Ton plan/man An early study, with survey data, on the costs and Longworth & MacKenzie Pty Ltd (1988). benefits of labor migration that offers policy ideas on Village water supply project: Kingdom of the more productive use of remittances involving both Tonga: review of report. Canberra: Australian group and individual schemes. International Development Assistance Bureau. Hammond, F. W. (1987). Mission to the Key: Ton water plan/man Kingdom of Tonga 18 May-30 May, 1987, Longworth & MacKenzie Pty Ltd (1989). preliminary report. Nairobi: UNCHS (Habitat). Ha'apar region: water and sanitation project: Key: Tonga house plan/man Kingdom of Tonga: design docunent. Canber: Calls for the preparation of a master plan for Australian International Development Assista: Nuku'alofa and new institutional and financial Auraan arrangements to deliver improved housing services. Bureau. Key: Ton water sew plan/man James, K. E. (1991). Migration and remittances: a Tnga vilag pespetiv. PaJi Viwpont, Makharita, R., & Fa'otusia, S. V. (1988). a Tongan village perspective. Pafic Viewpoint, Institutional dimensions offinance and planning Key: Ton pop/mig finance govt in Tonga : a case study in development Analysis of migration in a single Vava'u village, that management. University of the South Pacific. points to the development gains, and the manner in Institute of Social and Administrative Studies, which extended families draw in remittances from Suva. many different areas. The relationship between Key: Ton plan/man remittances and local production is also discussed, and remittances are widely perceived to have Marcus, G. E. (1993). Tonga's contemporary contributed to development. globalizing strategies: trading on sovereignty amidst international migration. In V. Lockwood, Kami, S., & Dillon, R. (1982). Intra-island T. Harding, & B. Wallace (Eds.), shipping in Ha'apai : issues relating to private Contemporary Pacific Societies. Studies in boat operations. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Development Oange. Englewood Cliffs: Simon Department and Statistics Department. and Schusler. (pp. 21-33). Key: Ton plan/man Key: Ton plan/man govt Presents data collected on existing boat operations Examination of contemporary Tongan economy and Ha'apai. Discusses the ability of tLe services to meet society that focuses on the increasing significance of demand in the movement of passengers and cargo, inrnational migration. management and economic aspects of boat operations, and the effect of passenger and cargo rates on route Milne, S. (1990). The Economic impact of coverage. Provides for goverment tourism in Tonga. Pacfic Viewpoint, 31(1), 24- intervention.43 43. Key: Ton plan/man Presents an overview of the reasons why the Tongan govemment is actively promoting tourism. Briefly 190 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources analyses the tourism industry's current structure and Rew, A. (1979). Housing Options for Tonga, quantifies the role of tourism in the economy using an 1980-85. London: Overseas Development economic multiplier approach. Discusses the Administration. planning implications of the findings. Key: Ton housing plantman Newels, R. (1990). Multilevel Development in Examines development priorities and housing for Pacific Island Countries. In Financing local 1980-85. Most detailed of the few studies on housing level development : a view beyond local in Tonga. Recommends establishment of a housing government finance. Nagoya: Tonga Central fund in Tonga Development Bank and creation of a Planning Department and United Nations Center housing and urban policy committee. for Regional Development. Key: Ton plan/man Robinson, G. L. (1982) Design of domestic Discusses sources for regional/local level dwellings and shelters for cyclone areas with development finance and offers strategies for special reference to Tonga. Master of Arch achieving a more spatially balanced pattern of (building science) dissertation, Sydney: development through strategic sectoral development University of Sydney, (unpublished). resource allocation and increasing the subnational Key: Ton housing plan/man environ planning and management capacity through training. Scott & Furphy Pty Ltd (1989). Aid Tonga: Paeniu, B. (1988). A Pacific regional study Tog wae supy m trpln td: based on Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, T p roosul Ca er an. Solomon Islands and Tonga. In A. Bhatt et al. cey:lTonwaterofnance an/man (Eds.), Building from below : local initiatives for decentralized development in Asia and Sevele, F. (1989). Kingdom of Tonga Pacific. Volume 3. Kuala Lumpur: Asian and forardating national development objectives, Pacif ic Development Center. (pp. 427- 465). prio.es and strategies for Tonga's sth Key: Ton Kir plan/man development plan, 1991-1995. Port Vila: Presents an overview of the process of government .P Pific O 991-t99ns or t decentralization as it relates to rural development eyP paiicman planning in selected nations. Identifies major Key:T plan/man constraints to effective decentralization for rural development and offers possible solutions. Snowy Mountains Engineering Corp (1991). Eingdom of Tonga Ministry of Works Ratcliffe, J., & Dillon, R. (1982). A Review and i,Frastructural development program, Phase 2. study of the human settlements situation in the Canberra: AIDAB. Kingdom of Tonga : a paper prepared for Key: Tonga planiman environ ESCAP/UNiDO Division of Industry, Human Reviews the needs of the Ministry of Works. Settlements and Technology, Economic and Highlights needs for institutional strengthening via Social Commission for Asia and de South HRD and for assessment of environmental impacts to Pacific. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning be required in future. Ke anman over land Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation One of the few detailed examinations of urbanization (19). Nuk'alofa urban roads and drainage in Tonga. Overview of the issues relating to study, Vol. I report, final report. Nukn'alofa: urbanization and the present structure of organization Tonga Ministry of Works. of service provision. Highlights problems of urban Key: Tonga plan/man land environ supply and the need for physical planning legislation. 191 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Contains recommendations for drainage works for the Tonga Central Planning Department (1985). Nuku'alofa CBD, traffic management and road design Mid-term review : fourth development plan, study. 1980-1985. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. South Pacific Bureau of Economic Co-operation Key: Ton plan/man and et al. (1982). Pacific Energy Program mission report : Tonga. Suva. Tonga Central Planning Department (1986). Key: Ton plan/man Development planning in Tonga : the fifth Describes Tonga's: patterns of energy supply and development plan and regional planing : use; indigenous energy resources and their prospects seminar, 118 Jly 1986. Nuku'alofa: Central for development; issues in petroleum and fossil fuels; sein D4-artlyn9. arrangements and issues in the supply of electricity; P ning Department,. government efforts in energy administration, Key: Ton plan/man planning and conservation. Tonga Central Planning Department (1987). Toda, A. (1990). Tourism : key issues and Fifth five year development plan : 1986 - 1990. variables for policy and strategy development. Nukn'alofa: Central Planning Department. Nagoya: Central Planning Department and Key: Ton plan/man United Nations Center for Regional Sets out Tonga's economic and social development Development. objectives and strategies 1986 to 1990. Examines the Key: Ton plan/man econdev macroeconomic and financial frameworks for Identifies the policy and strategy issues of central development and details policy/smrtgy for each concento policy mais pl s an adnnsttors sector. Includes extensive statistical tables. in the region. Reviews relevant research and Tonga Central Planning Depatment (1988). extent to which it addresses these issues and suggests research progress to overcome this perceived gap. Ha'apai 1988/1995 regional plan. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. Tonga Attorney Generals Department (1992). Key: Ton plan/man Land Use, Natural Resource and Environmental Planning Act 1992 (Draft legislation). Tonga Central Planning Department (1991). Nuku'alofa. Sik development plan : 1991-1995. Key: Tonga plan/man environ Nukn'alofa: Central Planning Department. Re-drafting and extension of 1981 draft legislation. Key: Ton plan/man Sets out Tonga's national development objectives and Tonga Central Planning Department (1982a). strategies. Examines the macroeconomic and financial 'Eua Development Workshop. Preliminary frameworks for development and details Report, Nuku'alofa. policy/strategy for each sector. Includes extensive Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev statistical tables. Tonga Central Planning Department (1982b). Tonga Ministry of Education (1985). Tongarapu Fourth five year development pLon: 18 - 1formal sector economy : employment structure Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. 1984 and manpower requirements. Nuku'alofa: Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev finance Ministry of Education. Sets out Tonga's economic and social development K of Educan objectives and strategies 1980 to 1985. Examines the Key: Ton plan/man macroeconomic and financial frameworks for Examines existing employment structure according development and details policy/strategy for each to: occupational skills. employment status, sex, and sector. Includes extensive statistical tables. type of economic activity. Provides the results of the 192 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources employment structure and manpower requirements Reports on the existing water legislation, the lack of (ESMR) survey and discusses manpower available data on water consumption, the lack of requirements and related issues. Gives projected water resource planning, the division of responsibility demands for selected levels of occupational skills. for water supply, water pricing policy, problems faced by the Tonga Water Board, and deficiencies in Tonga Ministry of Lands Survey and Natural existing law regarding water pollution. Makes Resources (1992). Draft Land Use, Natural recommendations for improvement. Resource and Environmental Planning Act 1992. Nuku'alofa. Withy, A. L. (1981). Final report ro the Key: Tonga plan/man Miister of Lands, surveys and natural Revised physical planning legislation which has not resources. Nuku'alofa: (unpublished). been enacted. Key: Tonga plan/man Report on a review of physical planning legislation Tuita, E. U. (1990). The private sector and and makes recommendations for improvements and economic development in Tonga. NagoyaTonga new legislation. Central Planning Department and United Nations Center for Regional Development. Key: Ton land pltman FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT Outlines the methods used by the Tongan government to promote the development of the private sector and related policies on land usage, labor, capital and trade Atkins W.S. International (1989). Vava'u promotion. Discusses the status of infrastructural regional development program, phase U.* Final facilities in each of Tonga's island groups. report, project and program dossiers. Nuku'alofau Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Tukia, T. (1993). A brief note on rural-urban Key: Tonga plan/man econ/dev finance drift and rapid urbanization. South Pacific Lists a series of projects designed to promote Alliance of Family Health Seminar on integrated regional development in Vava'u. Includes Population and Sustainable Development, 13-14 proposals to prepare a Neiafu master plan and May, upgrade urban services. Key: Tonga plan/man land Discusses rural-urban movement in Tonga and the Australia International Development Assistance need for a town plan for Nuku'alofa. Program (1991). The Tongan Economy - Setting the Stage for Accelerated Growth. Country Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and drange in Report No. 22. Canberra: AIDAB. the Pacific: A survey of resource use and policy Key: Ton econ/dev finance in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Presents a brief survey of recent developments in, West Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. and prospects for, the Tongan economy. It provides 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources an analytical overview of important developments and University of the South Pacific. issues, drawing from a range of government. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man international agency and academic sources. ( . FConnell, J. (1986). Urban bias and development Wilkinson, G. K. (1985). Fmnal report and bankig in the Kingdom of Tonga. Pacryic proposal on national water resources legislation Economic Btdletin, 1(2), 22-26. for Tonga. Rome: United Nations. Food and Key: Ton finance Agriculture Organization. Examination of the operation of the Tonga Key: Ton plan/man water Development Bank which argues that loans are 193 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources disproportionately provided to the urban sector and to Scott & Furphy Pty Ltd (1989). Aid Tonga: Tonagtapu. Tonga water supply master plan study: consultants proposal. Canberra: AIDAB. James, K. E. (1991). Migration and remittances: Key: Ton water finance plan/man a Tongan village perspective. Pacfic Viewpoint, Tonga Central Planning Department (1982). 32(1), 1-23. Fourth five year development plan: 1980 - 1985. Key: Ton pop/mig finance govt Nuku'alofa: Central Planning Department. Analysis of migration in a single Vava'u village, that Key: Ton plan/man econ/dev finance points to the development gains, and the manner in Sets out Tonga's economic and social development which extended families draw in remittances from objectives and strategies 1980 to 1985. Examines the many different areas. The relationship between macroeconomic and financial frameworks for remittances and local production is also discussed. development and details policyfstrategy for each and remittances are widely perceived to have sector. Includes extensive statistical tables. contributed to development. National Center for Development Stuies Tonga Development Bank (1986). Tonga (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Development Bank . A profile. Nukualofh: Database: Tonga. Canberra: National Center for Tonga Development Bank. Pacific Studies Australian National University. Key: Ton finance Key: Ton over econ/dev finance pop/mig Tonga Ministry of Finance (1989). he Tongan Contains current and historical statistics on: Tongm instryofNFnance(198).oenman population, migration, demography and housing; Prin n 9am education; health; national accounts; international Printer, accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: Ton finance labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and World Bank (1986). The Kingdom of Tonga. An eistribution; transport and communication; and introductory economic report. Washington DC. tourism. Key: Ton econ/dev finance PPK Consultants in association with Riedel and Byrne (1992). Tonga water supply masterplan project. Nukualofa masterplan. Canberra: URBAN LAND AIDAB. Key: Tonga water finance Fukofuka, V. (1990). New directions in Examines study area; water demands; existing supply development policies in Tonga. system. Identifies master plan for water supply, Key: Ton land project costs and financial analysis, and operational Outlines the historical and recent developments in and control procedures. Tonga's land tenure system. Describes the constraints to development the system imposes and Ritterbush, S. D. (1986). Entrepreneurship and argues a case for land reform. Business Venture Development in the Kingdom of Tonga. Honolulu: Indigenous Business Halapua, S. (1981). The islands of Ha'apai: Development Project, Pacific Islands utilization of land and sea. Suva: University of Development Program, East-West Center. the South Pacific. institute of Pacific Studies in Key: Ton econ/dev finance association with Institute of Marine Resources. Key: Ton land econ/dev 194 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Institute of Pacific Studies; University of the Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. South Pacific (1984). Report on the Wor*shop (pp. 245-250). on Land Tenure and Rural Development for the Key: Tonga pop/mig land countries of the South Pacific, Tonga, 10-14 Examines the settlement of Ha'ateiko, on the fringe April 1984. Suva: Institute of Rural of Nukn'alofa, mainly populated by migrants from Development for the United Nations and United outer islands in the 1960s and 1970s. This focuses on Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the problems of landlessness, and earning an adequate Suva. income, and recommends changes to the present Key: Ton land structure of land tenure. James, K. (1993). Cutting the ground from Lemoto, S. N. (1981). Tonga : assessing compensation. In P. Larmour, R. Crocomibe, & under them? Commercialization, cultivation and A unena (ns. La n, people a consrvaionin ong. 7ze ontmpoary A. Taungenga (Eds.), Land, people and conservation in Tonga. The Conempory government : public lands policy in the South Pacific, 5(2), 215-242. Pac)c. Cambridge, Mass: Lincoln Institute of Key: Tonga land Lani Policy and University of the South Pacific. Discusses agricultural change and commercialization Isiueo aii tde.(p 51) rather that sustainable agro-forestry, resulting in mis- IDstitute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 15-18). use of land, a function of the land tenure system. Key: Ton land Land distribution has become more inequitable Outlines the legal and procedural guidelines for because a land market (for lease and purchase) has government acquisition of private land and the developed despite constitutional opposition. compensation of the owner. Kavapalu, 0. (1981). An International airport. Lua, K. (1987). Mdigration into Haveluloto, In P. Larmour, R. Crocombe, & A. Taungenga Nukm'alofa. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), (Eds.), Land. people and government : publIc In Search of a Home. Sava: Institute of Pacific lands policy in the Sout Pacific. Cambridge, Studies University of the South Pacific. (pp. Mass: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and 123-128). University of the South Pacific. Institute of Key: Tonga pop/mig land Pacific Studies. (pp. 61-67). The suburb of Haveluloto mainly consists of migrants Key: Ton land from the northern island groups. Among problems identified are a lack of agricultural land, social issues Outlines the events and issues in the compensation of addsue vrln eue landholders as a result of the extension of the airport runway at Fua'amotu. Maude, A., & Sevele, F. (1987). Torga Kinhill Riedel and Byrne (1993). Management equality overtaking privilege. In R. Crocombe plans for the Fanga'ura Lagoon System andlor (Eds.), Land tenure in the South Pacific. Suva: the low-lying areas of the Kingdom of Tonga, University of the South Pacific. (pp. 114-142). Implementation Report. Canberra: AIDAB. Key: Ton land Describes traditional land tenure, the development of Key:Tong houingenvion lndthe current system, and the mechanism for acquiring Sets out proposals for a study of the economic, social and holding land. Analyses the ownership and and environmental costs of sub-dividing low-lying distribution of the land, the relationship between areas close to Nuku'alofa for housing purposes. agriutura odutio andl tereand tees agrcutualproduction and land tenure and the isses to be faced in the future. Langi, P. (1987). Population movement and insecure settlement. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko Moengangongo, M. (1986). Tonga : legal (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of constraint and social potentials. In Land rights 195 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources of Pacifc women. Suva: University of the study, Vol. I report, final report. Nuku'alofa: South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. Tonga Ministry of Works. 87-102). Key: Tonga plan/man land environ Key: Ton land Contains recommendations for drainage works for the Examines conditions under which women may hold Nuk'alofa CBD, traffic management and road design customary rights to land. study. Morton, K. L. (1987). The Atomization of Spennemann, D. H. R. (1987). The extension of Tongan society. Pacific Studies, 10(2), 47-72. Popua Township (Tongatapa, Kingdom of Key: Ton land Tonga) and its impact on the archaeological Presents the results of survey data obtained from 40 sites in the area. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of households in Matolu. Examines the impact of the Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. westernization of the economy and society on: land Key: Tonga land environ social tenure; the relationships between production, kinship Proposes declaration of a Reserve to protect three and exchange; and the structure of local social interconnected pigeon snating mounds which were structure- threatened with destruction by the extension of Popua Township on Tongatapu. Ratcliffe, J., & Dillon, R. (1982). A Review and study of the hurnan settlements situation in the Takau, L., & Fungalei, L. (1987). Cyclone Kingdom of Tonga : a paper prepared for devastation and resettlement of Sopu, ESCAP/UNIDO Division of Industry, Hunan Nuku'alofa. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), Settlements and Technology, Economic and In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Social Commission for Asia and the South Studies University of the South Pacific. (pp. Paciftc. Nuku'alofa: Central Planning 118-122). Department. Key: Tonga environ land Key: Ton plan/man over land Examination of the post-cyclone resettlement of Sopa One of the few detailed examinations of urbanization migrants at Popua, and the problems of land tenure in Tonga. Overview of the issues relating to that ensued. urbanization and the present structure of organization of service provision. Highlights problems of urban Tonga Statistics Department (1983). Statistical supply and the need for physical planning legislation. abstracts 1983. Nuku'alofa: Statistics Department. Riedel and Byrne (1990). Development of Popua Key: Ton land housing pop/mig water Peninsula. Canberra: AIDAB. Presents data on: population and housing; labor force Key: Tonga housing land and manpower; national accounts; public finance; money and banking; foreign trade; balance of Schroder, P., et al. (1983). Investigation on payments; prices; commodities; industry, energy and current yield potentials on tax allotments in the water; transport and communication; education; islands of Ha'apai and Vava'u, Kingdom of health; social conditions; land use; meteorology; Tonga South Pacfc. Berlin: Center for income tax; and key indicators. Advanced Training in Agricultural Tonga Statistics Department (1988). Tonga Development, Technical University of Berlin. Tga Sttss Dprmn (1988. ta Key:Ton andagricultural census 1985. Nuku'alofa- Statistics Key: Ton landDeatn. Department. Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation Key: Ton land (1993). Nuku'alofa urban roads and drainage Discusses the scope, coverage and methodology of the census. Interprets the results and presents the data 196 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources collected on: households' agricultural activities and RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT land holdings; livestock holdings; crop cultivation; use of chemicals and farm equipment; and areas Australia Department of Health and Department planted and harvested for individual fruit and of Housing and Constrction (1980). vegetables. Redevelopment of Nga Hospital Neiafa, Vava'u Tuita, E. U. (1990). The private sector and Kingdom of Tonga : a report on planning, economic development in Tonga. Nagoya:Tonga design, construction and commissioning. Central Planning Department and United C Austrlian Development Assistance Nations Center for Regional Developme Bureau and the Kingdom of Tonga. Nay:Tion Cen for inal DKey: Ton housing plan/man Key: Ton land plan/man Outlines the methods used by the Tongan government to promote the development of the private sector and Australia Department of Housing and related policies on land usage, labor, capital and trade Construction and Nicholas Clark and Associates promotion. Discusses the status of infrastructural (1980). Kingdom of Tonga : report on port facilities in each of Tonga's island groups. improvements Nuk'alofa. Canbarra: Department of Housing and Construction. Tukia, T. (1993). A brief note on rural-urban Key: Ton housing drift and rapid urbanization. South Pacific Alliance of Family Health Seminar on Boughton, G. N., & Reardon, G. F. (1984). Population and Sustainable Development, 13-14 Simulated wind load tests on the Tongan May, hurricane house. Technical Report No. 23. Key: Tonga plan/man land Townsville: James Cook University of North Discusses rural-urban movement in Tonga and the Queensland, Cyclone Testing Station. need for a town plan for Nuku'alofa. Key: Ton housing Uwate, K. R., & Kunatuba, P. (1983). Vava'u Dillon, R. A. (1983) Hala'o'vave: a study of village officer survey of tidal area usage. settlement in a low-lying marsh area of Honolulu: East-West Center, Pacific Islands Nuku'alofa, Tonga. Bachelor Urban and Development Program. Regional Planning dissertation, Armidale: Key: Ton land University of New England, (unpublished). Key: Ton housing plan/man van de Grup, P. (1993). After the vanilla harvest: strains in the Tongan land tenure Eaton, K., & Reardon, G. F. (1985). Cyclone system. Journal of the Polynesian Society, housing in Tonga. Townsville: James Cook 102(3), 233-253. University, Building Research Establishment. Key: Tonga land Key: Ton housing plan/man Examines changes in land tenure, especially land transactions, particularly in Vava'u, which Kinhill Riedel and Byrne (1993). Management demonstrates that although land is often still transferred through traditional means it is now bought the anga 'ut Lago m and/or and sold and prices are highest in the two urban a the low-lying areas of the Kingdom of Ton ga, of Tonga. Amplementation Report. Canberra- AIDAB. Key: Tonga housing environ land Sets out proposals for a study of the economic, social and environmental costs of sub-dividing low-lying areas close to Nuku'alofa for housing purposes. 197 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Rew, A. (1979). Housing Options for Tonga, Australian International Development Assistance 1980-85. London: Overseas Development Bureau. Administration. Key: Ton water plan/man environ Key: Ton housing plan/man Examines development priorities and housing for Chesher, R. (1984). Pollution sources survey of 1980-85. Most detailed of the few studies on housing the Ingdom of Tonga. Topic Review No. 19. in Tonga. Recommends establishment of a housing Noumea: SPREP. fund in Tonga Development Bank and creation of a Key: Tonga sew solid/waste housing and urban policy committee. Several acute hazards were posed by sewage discharge from hotels on coastal sites in Nuku'alofa Riedel and Byrne (1990). Development of Popua and Neiafu into the lagoons. Solid waste disposal is Peninsula. Canberra: AIDAB. not a problem, despite a rapid increase in the volume Key: Tonga housing land of waste. Robinson, G. L. (1982) Design of domestic ESCAP (1990). Environmental management dwellings and shelters for cyclone areas with plan for the )ingdom of Tonga. Bangkok: special reference to Tonga. Master of Arch ESCAP. (building science) dissertation, Sydney: Key: Tonga environ University of Sydney, (unpublished). Key: Ton housing plan/man environ Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific (1982). Ha'apai Water Supply Project, Kingdom Tonga Statistics Department (1983). Statistical of Tonga. New York: Foundation for the abstracts 1983. Nuku'alofa: Statistics Peoples of the South Pacific. Department. Key: Ton water Key: Ton land housing pop/mig water Presents data on: population and housing; labor force Fuavao, V. A. (1988). Survey of the trace and manpower; national accounts; public finance; metals concentrations of natural waters in the money and banking; foreign trade; balance of Vava'u and Ha'apai groups of the Tongan payments; prices; commodities; industry. energy and water, transport and communication; education; Key: Ton water health; social conditions; land use; meteorology; income tax; and key indicators. Hardin & Associates Pty Ltd (1989). South Pacific Project Development Facility : Tonga. Sydney: Hardin & Associates Pty Ltd for the URBAN SANITATION AND South Pacific Trade Commission. ENVIRONMENT Key: Ton water Provides an overview of Tonga's recent economic performance since independence. Includes sectoral Belz, L. H. (1985). Nukualofa: sanitation and reviews for agriculture, fishing, forestry, recLamation. Nuku'alofa: WHO and Ministry manufacturing, construction, media and of Health. commumications, energy, tourism, banking, finance, Key: Ton sew water solid/waste trade, tax system, water, transport and special forms Binnie & Partners Pty Ltd (1989). Tonga water of trade assistance. Outlines issues in foreign supply master plan study: proposal for investment. consultancy services (technical). Canberra: 198 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Jayapralcash, P. N. (1987). Planning and Tonga: review of report. Canberra: Australian management of village water supply in the International Development Assistance Bureau. Kingdom of Tonga. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Key: Ton water plan/man Health. Key: Ton water Longworth & MacKenzie Pty Ltd (1989). Kinhill Riedel and Byrne (1993). Management Ha'apaz region: water and sanitation project: plans for the Fanga'ra Lagoon System and/or Kingdom of Tonga: design document. Canberra: the low-lying areas of the Kingdom of Tonga, Australian International Development Assistance Implementation Report. Canberra: AIDAB. Bureau. Key: Tonga housing environ land Key: Ton water sew plan/man Sets out proposals for a study of the economic, social and environmental costs of sub-dividing low-ly'ng Naidu, S., et al. (1991). Water quality studies areas close to Nuku'alofa for housing purposes. on selected South Pacfic lagoons. Reports and Studies No. 49. Noumea: SPREP. Koloi, F. F. (1992). Reverse osmosis Key: Fiji Van Kir Tonga SI water environ technology for water desalination in Tonga. In Cover Laucala Bay, Suva Harbour, Vila Harbour Water Resources Management Technology for and Erakor Lagoon, Fanga'uta lagoon and Marovo Small Islands. New York: United Nations lagoon. Department of Economic and Social Development. (pp. 336-343). Onorio, K., McShane, F., & Odense, R. (1993). Key: Ton water A review of the environmental situation of the Reviews a desalination study conducted between 1983 Vaipua, Pangaimolu and 'Utuigake causeways and 1985 in which a commercial osmosis unit was in Vam' ingdom of Tonga. Apia: SPREP. redesigned to lower the capital cost of water Key: Tonga environ provision. Examines the effects of three causeways, one of which has contributed to a worsening enviromnental Lao, C. (1986). Urban sewerage and drainage. situation in the lagoon off Neiafu town, though this is Suva: World Health Organization Regional not critical. Office for the Western Pacific (unpublished). Key: Tonga water PPK Consultants in association with Riedel and Covers a hydrological study of ground water in the Byrne (1991). Neiafu water supply draft master Ha'apai Island group, Tonga and contains plan. Canberra: Australian International recommendations for reducing salinity of freshwater Development Assistance Bureau. in Pangai. Key: Tonga water Contains a master plan for the staged upgrading and Lee, G. W., & Brodie, J. (1981). Drinking expansion of the existing Neiafu urban area water water quality in a number of South Pacific supply system for the period 1991-2011. island countries. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources. PPK Consultants in association with Riedel and Key: Tonga water Byrne (1992a). Tonga water rupply masterplan Brief notes on water quality in Tuvalu, Niue and project. Executive summary. .au.erra: AIDAB. Tongatapu. Key: Tonga water Summarises whole project including urban and rural Longworth & MacKenzie Pty Ltd (1988). water supplies and resources. Includes Village water supply project: Kingdom of recommendations for all main settlement centers. 199 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources PPK Consultants in association with Riedel and Scott & Furphy Pty Ltd (1989). Aid Tonga: Byrne (1992b). Tonga water supply masterplan Tonga water supply master plan study: project. Institutional and community component. consultants proposal. Canberra: AIDAB. Canberra: AIDAB. Key: Ton water finance plan/man Key: Tonga water Covers current water supply institutions and Snowy Mountains Engineering Corp (1991). arrangements; analyses key issues; makms Kingdom of Tonga Ministry of Works recommendations; indicates possible community infrAsrta deweopment program, Phese 2. component and implementation. Canberra: AIDAB. Key: Tonga plan/man environ PPK Consultants in asocation with Riedel and Reviews the needs of the Ministry of Works. Byrne (1992c). Tonga water supply masterplanHighlghts needs for institutional strengthening via project. Nuku'alofa masterplan. Canberra HRD and for assessment of environmental impacts to AIDAB. be required in future. Key: Tonga water finance Examines study area; water demands; existing supply Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation system. Identifies master plan for water supply, (1993). Nuku'alofa urban roads and drainage project costs and financial analysis, and operational sudy, Vol. I report, final report. Nuku'alofa: and control procedures. Tonga Ministry of Works. Key: Tonga plan/man land environ Pulea, M. (1992). Kingdom of Tonga: Reuiew of Contains ncommendations for drainage works for the environmental law. Apia: SPREP. Nukt'alofa CBD, traffic management and road design Key: Tonga environ study. Overview of enviroumantal issues in Tonga and the existing legislation for environmental Mgement Spenneman, D. H. R. (1987). The extension of with a series of proposals for improvement. Popua Township (ongarapu Eingdom of Tonga) and its impact on the arhdaeological Richards and Dumbleton International (1978). sites in the area. Nuku'alofa: Ministry of Report on surface water drainage and Lands Survey and Natural Resources. wastewater facilities at Nuku'alofa. London: Key: Tonga land environ social Ministry of Overseas Deelopment Proposes declaration of a Reserve to protect three (unpublished). interconnected pigeon snaring mounds which were Key: Tonga water sew threatened with destruction by the extension of Popua Outlines provisions for reducing flooding in Township on Tongarapu. Nuku'alofa by subdividing the town into individual catchments which will discharge into the lagoon via SPREP (1992). Tonga: National report to roads and channels. Recommends installation of UNCED. Api: SPREP. Septic Tanks. Key: Tonga environ Robinson, G. L. (1982) Design of domestic Takau, L., & Fungalei, L. (1987). Cyclone dwellings and shelters for cyclone areas with devastation and resettlement of Sopu, special reference to Tonga. Master of Arch Nuku'alofa. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), (building science) dissertation, Sydney: In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific University of Sydney, (unpublished). Studies University of the South Pacific. (pp. Key: Ton housing plan/man environ 118-122). Key: Tonga environ land 200 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Examination of the post-cyclone resettlement of Sopa 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources migrants at Popua, and the problems of land tenure University of the South Pacific. that ensued. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ planiman Tonga Attorney Generals Department (1992). Wilkinson, G. K. (1985). Final report and Land Use, Natural Resource and Environmental proposal on national water resources legisladon Planning Act 1992 (Draft legisladon). for Tonga. Rome: United Nations. Food and Nuku'alofa. Agriculture Organization. Key: Tonga plan/man environ Key: Ton plan/man water Re-drafting and extension of 1981 draft legislation. Reports on the existing water legislation, the lack of available data on water consumption, the lack of Tonga Statistics Department (1983). Statistical water resource planning, the division of responsibility abstracts 1983. Nuku'alofa: Statistics for water supply, water pricing policy, problems Department. faced by the Tonga Water Board, and deficiencies in Key: Ton land housing pop/mig water existing law regarding water pollution. Makes Presents data on: population and housing; labor force recommendations for improvement. and manpower; national accounts; public finance; money and banking; foreign trade; balance of Wolferding, M. (1983). Ecological description payments; prices; commodities; industry, energy and and analysis of low lying areas in Northern water; transport and communication; education; Tongatapu. Suva: UNDAT. health: social conditions; land use; meteorology: Key: Tonga environ income tax; and key indicators. Examination of environmental implications of proposals for settlement in sub-standard areas along Warbrick, W. B. (1989) Hydrogeology and the north west coast of Tongatapu and on Fangauta groundwater resources of 'Eka Island Tonga. lagoon, where urbanization has not yet become M. Eng. thesis, University of Auckland, significant. (unpublished). Key: Ton water Wyler, D. C. (1985). Ha'apai water supply Detailed technical analysis of the geological structure project, Kingdom of Tonga. New York- of 'Eua, in relation to water resources, that has some Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific. parallels in other parts of Tonga. Key: Ton water Waterhouse, B. C. (1976). Nuku'alofa water Zann, L. P. (1988). A case history from Tonga: supply. New Zealand Geological Survey Report, the degradation of Fanga'uta Lagoon, Otara. Tongatapu. In Baldwin (Eds.), Nutrients in the Key: Tonga water Great Barrier Reef Region. Workshop Series No. 10. Townsville: Great Barrier Reef Marine Waterhouse, B. C. (1984). Water supply review, Park Authority. (pp. 132-41). Kingdom of Tonga. Otara: New Zealand Key: Tonga environ Geological Survey. Key: Ton water Zan, L. P., Kimmerer, W. J., & Brock, R. E. (1984?). The ecology of Fanga'uta Lagoon, Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in Tongatapu, Tonga. Sea Grant Cooperative the Paciic: A survey of resource use and policy Report Honolulu: University of Hawaii. in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Key: Tonga environ West Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. 201 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The lagoon has been subject to considerable overfishing and localized disturbance through removal of mangroves for urban land reclamation. Otherwise there was little evidence of pollution or other human impact. Dredging for fill and aggregate will put heavy pressure on the lagoon. 202 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources WESTERN SAMOA CONTENTS Commentary Settlement History.....................................................................................................205 Economy0.................................................................................................................26 Development Planning................................................................................................207 Popu lation And Internal igrraton ............................................................................... 208 Urbanization............................................................................................................209 Land ......................................................................................................................210 Urban Services ......................................................................................................... 210 Housing .................................................................................................................. 211 Urban Sanitation ...................................................................................................... 212 Selected References Key........................................................................................................................213 Economic And Social Development ................................................................................ 214 Population And Migration1........................................................................................... 218 Governance And Planning .......................................................................................... 2 Finance And Development...........................................................................................226 Urban Land ............................................................................................................. 227 Residential Development ............................................................................................. 230 Urban Sanitation And Enviroment ..............................................................................231 203 VI0 ANO G A'INAU at3 2 lit AAATAUA ''"TA GAGAM0 UA,4 3 1 $AL.EMA l?ALA N. APOUM U4OL1 0FF SAVAl'A AAM. Gæ ""MA^A ^",#Å AFATA .,m ti $p, .Ade=. 't FAI2AUUIAA I Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Western Samoa consists of two large islands of in Savai in 1880. Trade followed the missions recent volcanic origin - Upolu and Savai'i - and there was further European, especially and three very small populated islands. With a German, settlement. A British consul was land area of 2,935 sq kilometers it is the largest established in 1845 and the German trading firm Polynesian state after French Polynesia but is Godeffroy opened a store in Apia in 1856. much less fragmented. Both islands are Within a few years over a hundred Europeans mountainous, especially Savai'i, which supports were resident in the town. During the 1870s a dense rainforests and there are few substantial handful of Chinese traders also established coastal plains other than the main populated area themselves there and Chinese and Melanesian of north-west Upolu which includes the capital, laborers were brought in to work the Apia. Although on a smaller island than Savai'i, plantations. the north coast of Upolu supports about three quarters of the national population of about Great power rivalry in the Samoan archipelago 162,000. Much of Savai'i is barren due to recent intensified in the late nineteenth century and, in lava flows and the porosity of the soil hence, 1899, what is now Western Samoa became a despite heavy rainfall, water supplies are often a German colony. Plantations were extended problem. Samoa is prone to cyclones and has further and labor brought from as far away as experienced two particularly devastating ones in New Guinea. German colonial rule continued recent years with considerable loss of life and until 1914 when it was replaced by New damage to the economy. The Western Samoan Zealand administration in the inter-war years. economy grew in the early 1980s at around 2-3 Strong opposition to the New Zealand per cent per year but slowed down more or less administration centered on the Mau movement. completely after 1987, particularly after Western Samoa became the first South Pacific cyclones 'Ofa and Val in February 1990 and state, in 1962, to achieve independence. December 1991, respectively. Val was the worst cyclone this century, killing twelve Western Samoa has a Polynesian social people, devastating most of both islands structure, based on the 'aiga (extended family), (causing an estimated US$300 million of and chiefs (marai) who are responsible for the damage) and ensuring that the economy control of 'aiga land and property. This social struggled for much of 1992. The value of organization is important in most aspects of exports in 1992 was equivalent to just five per contemporary social and economic life. There is cent of imports, a measure of the extreme a parliamentary system with a Prime Minister vulnerability of the country's economy to who is head of the conservative Human Rights natural hazards. Protection Party (HRPP), one of the country's two political parties. Until recently 47 of the 49 Settlement History members of parliament were elected by the matais, all of whom were men. Since 1990 all Samoa has been settled for at least 3,000 years adults can vote although only matai, most of and Samoan tradition asserts that the islands whom are men, can stand for election. were the historic population center of Polynesia. Christianity is an integral part of contemporary The matai, or chiefly system, was well Samoan culture and life; church attendance is developed long before the arrival of Europeans almost universal and religion plays a strong role in the nineteenth century. The first European in local and national affairs. explorer visited Samoa in 1772 but there were few subsequent visits until John Williams of the London Missionary Society established himself 205 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Economy There are valuable timber resources, especially on Savai'i, raising a conflict between the desire Western Samoa is one of the poorest countries to stimulate exports and to conserve important in the Pacific region and was the only country in areas of tropical rainforest. Timber products the South Pacific classified by the United accounted for less than four per cent of exports Nations as 'least-developed' in 1971 (though in 1988 and the proportion has continued to few others were then independent). Although the decline in subsequent years. Fisheries are as GDP per capita income is only US$670 (1991), unimportant in Western Samoa as they are in malnutrition is generally not a problem and any state in the South Pacific, though production education and health services are more adequate has substantially increased in the 1990s through than those in many very poor countries the greater availability of small fishing boats and (contaminated rural water supplies did lead, fisheries aggregation devices. however, to a typhoid epidemic in 1993). Aid is substantial; in 1992 new government loans, at The basis of the Western Samoan economy and WS$51 million, were WS$6 million higher than employment structure is agricultural production, in the previous year. Western Samoa is also with exports in recent years primarily consisting heavily dependent on remittances. In the wake of coconut oil, coconut cream and taro. Copra of Cyclone Val there was a sharp increase of itself has not been exported since 1990, WS$33 million to WS$107 million for 1992 in following the two cyclones, and cocoa exports private remittances; of this some WS$12 million also effectively ended in the same year. Indeed was recorded as transfers in kind. The USA the total value of exports in 1992 was less than and New Zealand supply almost all remittance half that of 1988, a measure of the economic income. From the mid-1980s the annual rate of problems caused by the cyclones. economic growth has been less than one per cent, a measure of global recession, low world Bananas were once the main export but since the commodity prices and cyclone damage in the mid 1980s are no longer significant, being agricultural sector. severely affected by disease, cyclone damage, Latin American competition and poor shipping In the mid-1970s taro became the most connections to New Zealand. By contrast important export crop, after copra; the value of coconut oil and coconut cream exports have exports went up six times between 1977 and been substantial, being 39 per cent of the value 1982 when exorts were valued at of all exports in 1992 (and more than half of the WSS2,136,000. By 1991 this had grown to value of exports in 1988, before the cyclones). WS$6.878,000 and was valued at There have been numerous attempts to diversify WS$5,807,000 in the first half of 1993 alone, agricultural production away from bananas and though the future of the industry is now in cocouts. A record 5,000 tones of cocoa was considerable doubt. Much of the export crop is exported in 1962 but production has produced on Western Samoan Trust Estates subsequently fallen, declining to only 595 tones Corporation (WSTEC) plantations, or purchased in 1989. Attempts have also been made to by WSTEC from small growers and exported to stimulate timber and cattle industries but without New Zealand and, to a lesser extent, American great success. Samoa. A nation-wide taro blight is likely to substantially reduce, or even end exports in Until recently manufacturing was essentially 1994. small-scale and oriented to import substitution, and primarily involves the processing of agricultural products. In the 1980s the Vailima 206 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources brewery became the country's biggest industry because of the significance of rural economic (and accounted for 12 per cent of the value of activity. The 1991 census recorded 5,158 exports in 1992 but less than half that in all unemployed persons. This is nonetheless a previous years). Cigarettes are also significant increase on earlier years since the manufactured in Apia and accounted for seven 1971 census recorded 232 unemployed and that per cent of exports in 1992. A major new of 1976 recorded just 88, though this was industrial development was the establishment of regarded as very much an underestimate of the the Japanese Yazaki company at Vaitele in 1991 real situation. Of those recorded in 1991, 65 per to manufacture car seat belts and electrical cent lived in Apia and North-west Upolu and 80 wiring systems, in a plant that employs one and per cent were under the age of thirty. Almost all a half thousand people. (85 per cent) of the unemployed in Apia had lived in the urban area for more than five years A small tourist industry developed from the which suggests that some of these may not be mid-1960s but was not actively promoted until willing or able to return, or move to rural areas. the 1970s. Tourist numbers passed 50,000 in Unemployment, primarily an urban youth 1979 but have only rarely exceeded that number problem, is growing in significance. in subsequen! years. Most 'tourists' are Samoans returning on vacation and 'pleasure Development Planning tourists' accounted for only 36 per cent of the market in 1992. The industry has been on the Formal development planning in Western Samoa decline since 1990 reflecting its underdeveloped began in the 1960s and the present three-year nature. Almost all hotel rooms are in Apia with Development Plan (1992-1994) is the seventh in very little accommodation available elsewhere. the series. The major aim of plans in the 1970s Tourism foreign exchange earnings were was to increase the production of export crops, estimated at WS$41 million in 1992, which was diversify the economy, promote tourism and more than double national export income. develop the national infrastructure in a broad- Tourism is unlikely to grow quickly in the ranging attempt to move towards greater future though the country has considerable economic independence and self-reliance. potential, especially for ecotourism. The Subsequently the emphasis has shifted towards recently completed national tourism plan economic growth through diversification out of forecasts a doubling of capacity by 2001 agriculture. The present plan has moved away (Tourism Council of the South Pacific 1992). from comprehensive planning towards strategic approaches focusing on deveiopment strategy The majority of the economically active and related policies. This shift has resulted population of Western Samoa is involved in the from, firstly, the acute shortage of public sector agricultural sector, even within Apia. In 1979 management and technical skills and secondly, some 70 per cent of households were engaged in the shift towards the privatization of government agriculture though 48 per cent of all households enterprises and reduction in government controls received no income. Of those in wage and salary over the economy. The main elements of the employment two thirds are employed in the plan are consolidation of past investments, public sector. Wages and salaries are low; the development opportunities (especially in tourism minimum wage in the private sector being and employment) and the revitalization of the WS$1.125 per hour. primary sector. Development planning is centered in the The statistical extent of unemployment in National Planning Office located in Treasury. Western Samoa is of limited analytical value There is a distinction between economic and 207 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources physical planning and primary responsibility for Samoan (aftkasi) population is prominent in public work (including roads) and housing is business and government activities. located in the Public Works Department and the Housing Corporation, respectively. Physical There is some evidence of a decline in fertility planning was located in the Public Works since the 1970s. The total fertility rate declined Department but is now in transition to the from 7.4 between 1966 and 1971 to 5 by the Department of Lands, Surveys and 1991 census. Family planning programs scarcely Environment, which is headed by one of the few extend effectively beyond Apia where the impact accredited urban planners in Samoa. The of emigration has also depressed fertility. Seventh National Plan records that 'There is an However the high fertility rate is that of a urgent need for a legal framework for the society not practicing birth control and the control of land use, including customary land', population growth rate would be much higher especially in Apia. were it not for emigration among the most fertile age groups. There was no national Population and Internal Migration commitment to developing any kind of population policy until 1990, despite the At the turn of the century the population of existence of family planning services. Western Samoa was around 32,800. Population numbers grew until a 1918 influenza epidemic In the nineteenth century the populations of wiped out about 8,000 people, some 20 per cent Savai'i and Upolu were approximately the same of the total population. From then onwards but from the twentieth century onwards Upolu population grew relatively steadily and gained at the expense of Savai'i. However since accelerated in the two decades after the Second 1945 the two islands have maintained roughly World War to reach 131,000 by 1966. There the same shares of the total population. Hence has been a decline in the population growth rate there has been little migration between them, in every inter-censal period between 1961/66, though north-west Upolu and Apia have grown when the annual growth rate was three per cent, at the expense of all other areas. In 1991 the and 1981/86 when it had fallen to 0.1 per cent. national population density was about 59 per sq. This low growth was primarily a result of high kilometer, but this varied from 25 in Savai'i to international migration rather than population 162 in North West Upolu and 587 in the Apia control. Between 1986 and 1991 the growth rate urban area. increased to 0.5 per cent as a result of declining migration and some return flows from New Between 1986 and 1991 Apia, in particular, but Zealand (which was experiencing economic also north-west Upolu, gained population at the recession). In 1991 the national population was expense of the rest of the country. Apia attracted just over 161,000 and there was also a very 1,218 net migrants over the five-year period and substantial Samoan-born group (perhaps a third north-west Upolu some 772. While both areas of this figure) living overseas in New Zealand, gained at the expense of other regions (Savai'i American Samoa and the USA. With more losing 1,344 net migrants being the main area of stringent immigration conditions introduced in loss), there was very little migration between the these countries the population is likely to two areas since north-west Upolu has become increase more quickly in the future. Population part of the commuter belt of Apia. A number of composition of Samoa is primarily Polynesian, new establishments and industries have located with nineteenth century migrants largely beyond the official urban boundaries, absorbed into the local population. A part- encouraging some increase in settlement in north-west Upolu. 208 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Urbanization (electoral districts) which contain 62 villages, most of which are located on customary land. Apia has always been the only urban center in Many villages occupy customary estates, both Western Samoa, and was one of the earliest for residence and agriculture, while others are port-towns in the South Pacific region. In 1860 'landless' in the sense that residents live on its population was estimated at about 120. It customary land but have no agricultural grew in the early twentieth century and again holdings. Some villages consist primarily of after the Second World War. The urban migrants from rural areas, or from elsewhere population doubled from 15,840 in 1951 to (such as Tokelau), who lease customary land. 30,261 in 1971, with an annual growth rate There has been a history of conflicts over land exceeding three per cent over that period. Since and of disputes over the distribution of payments 1971 growth has slowed significantly as for leases in Apia. Urban villages have councils emigration has become more important and the in which factionalism is common because they urban population actually fell between 1981 and include marais from inose villages and from 1986. At the 1991 census the population was elsewhere in Samoa. Although the Apia urban 34,126 indicating the very slow growth over the area is the capital of Samoa, it is more previous two decades. However the growth of realistically viewed as a collection of locally population in north-west Upolu is also partly a autonomous villages having important rural ties. result of urbanization. The ease of commuting There is no urban land use plan, and no physical has certainly minimized the physical impact of planning, hence the establishment of the urbanization and, in this respect, Western proposed Apia Municipal Authority is likely to Samoa differs from most other countries in the be difficult. South Pacific region. Urban problems had become apparent by the There has been no real attempt to decentralize 1950s, especially in terms of housing urban activities from Apia and a few could conditions. By the early 1970s there were more easily be relocated. Relatively slow urban widespread problems of overcrowding, service growth rates have posed no real necessity hence provision and higher crime rates but these have decentralization has only recently been rarely been substantial because of the slow rate considered in development planning. The of urban growth and effective export of Samoan opening of a second overseas port at Asau, urbanization. There are, however, health Savai'i in the 1960s, alongside some problems resulting from the increasing location government offices, was expected to result in of housing in low-lying swampy areas (which urban growth outside Apia but never did. are more prone to flooding following the Currently there are proposals to develop an construction of a sea-wall and new urban roads), urban center and port at Salelologa in eastern significant urban poverty and growing youth Savai'i but there is little indication of any social unemployment. These problems may increase in or economic rationale for this decision. the 1990s if fewer opportunities for emigratics The Apia urban area is a mixture of different persist. There is therefore some evidence that social units, land use patterns and tenures. the rate of urbanization (including growth in About two thirds of the urban area is classified adjoining parts of north-west Upolu) is likely to as freehold with government holdings and be more rapid in the fiuture because of growing customary land each comprising about 20 per distaste for rural life and the low and uncertain cent of the total; the large amount of freehold rewards of cash cropping. This is emphasized land is a result of nineteenth century alienation. perhaps by cyclones and the taro blight. The formal urban area consists of two faipule Demand for jobs at the Yazaki plant, for 209 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources example, was very great when it began Urban Services operations in 1991. Urban planning and management is likely therefore to become an The supply, maintenance and delivery of urban increasing necessity in the near future. services in Western Samoa suffers from a form of paralysis brought about by the inability of Land existing urban development legislation and institutions to cope with the multi-dimensional In the traditional Samoan land tenure system, needs of a modem town. In part this relates to any particular piece of land is owned by the the traditional structure of Samoan society and extended family ('aiga) whose members first the place of the village within it but also to the cleared and planted it. The extended family way in which land is held and titles are takes its name from the matiz title under whose determined. The result is a system which authority the members work and live. operates effectively in a stable rural environment Administrative control over this land can only but which breaks down in the urban area of be exerted by acquiring the marai title with Apia where collective demands for public land authority over that piece of land. Increasing uses, transport and urban sanitation require population, more extensive cash cropping and wider powers. alienation of some land, has led to most Samoans seeking exclusive control over their The circumstances are well known and have own land rather than sharing those rights with been the subject of various recommendations to other extended family members. Increasingly government for many years but the relatively people who clear and plant new land can claim small scale of urban settlement and slow pace of individual ownership over it. In any particular growth have delayed the need for decision- place land is owned under old, new or altered making about some of the more contentious tenure arrangements though the new tenure issues until recently. Major reports in many system is not the legal norm, causing problems sectors point to the same needs of: in the resolution of village land disputes before the Land and Titles Court. * rationalizing urban land management. * establishing urban planning legislation. The urban area of Apia is made up of alienated * establishing urban institutions to manage the government land (such as the reclaimed area on delivery of services and strengthening those the waterfront where the two largest government in existence. office buildings are located), privately owned * effective monitoring and control of buildings land (including much land owned by churches and other forms of urban development. and some by established qfaasi families, * improving the supply of the basic urban particularly in the upland area of Auele) and infrastructure of water, sewerage and roads. village land belonging to the many urban * effectively minimizing pollution through villages. Land in these village areas is regulated control measures. under the old tenure arrangements in line with * encouraging community participation in court procedures (since little if any new land urban affairs. could be cleared and claimed in Apia), hence * ensuring the supply of adequate skilled land tenure is both complex and subject to personnel to run key urban facilities. different customary and legal regimes. * introducing adequate cost recovery for certain urban services. 210 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources One result of the lack of an 'urban' approach to Cornforth (1992) has considered this with Apia's development problems and the absence of respect to the management of natural resources mechanisms which allow the necessary direction in Western Samoa and examines the relationship of urban affairs is that sectoral reports tend to between the Lands and Environment Act 1989 cover much of the same ground before and the Village Fono Act 1990. considering their detailed subject area. Thus the Western Samoa Tourism Development Plan Urban Management: extends beyond planning (Tourism Council of the South Pacific 1992) and functions and raises the question of the overall the Western Samoa Housing Sector Study of management of the Apia urban area. The main 1992 both explore at length the difficulties of agency covering urban development is currently planning and implementation: '... further the Public Works Department which prioritizes development in Apia cannot be left to chance but infrastructure projects and has limited building must be managed and programmed. The issue control functions. The small scale of urban here is not whether planning should take place, development allows the cross-membership of but where and which agency should be Boards of government corporations which does responsible' (EDU International in association allow some integration of activities. Reports with GHK/MRM International (1992a: 13) indicate that Cabinet has agreed to the establishment of a new municipality for Apia Physical Planning: is not yet established in (EDU International in association with Western Samoa although the need for it has been GHK/MRM International 1992). It is still debated since the 1950s (Western Samoa unclear, however, what form such a body will Department of Public Works 1984). Enabling take and how it will be financed. It is also not legislation was drafted but has not been passed clear how future urban planning functions by parliament over a 20 year period (Western located in the Department of Lands, Surveys Samoa Public Works Department 1973). It is and Environment will be integrated with the now in an advanced stage of re-drafting by the Apia local authority charged with controlling the Attorney General's Department. A useful operation of the urban plan. The Apia planning summary of Western Samoan legislation scheme prepared in 1984 (Western Samoa covering developmental issues is contained in a Department of Public Works 1984) and the 1988 environmental planning for tourism report detailed proposals for the Apia waterfront (KRTA Ltd 1988). Besides the sectoral reports contained in the 1992 national tourism plan referred to, various technical advisers have also (Tourism Council of the South Pacific 1992) recommended the adoption of physical planning provide a basis upon which to build further legislation (Nomachi 1990, 1992). An associated work. issue is where a technical planning unit should be based and here it appears that government Housing has decided that planning functions will move from Public Works to be a function of the A comprehensive review of the housing sector Department of Lands, Surveys and in Western Samoa has been undertaken recently Environment. and provides guidelines for the appropriate provision of affordable housing and housing One of the most intractable problems in several finance. The study emphasizes the possible roles parts of the South Pacific is the necessity to link of government in assisting low-income families customary and parliamentary law if there is to (EDU International in association with be any hope of effective coordination and GHK/MRM International 1992a, 1992b, 1992c). implementation of planning legislation. Following this study Cabinet issued a national 211 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatme and Data Sources housing policy statement in 1993 summarizing supply enterprise (GKW Consult in association the present housing situation, the objectives of with G.M. Meredith 1989: 1/3). policy, a housing delivery system, housing program, and the administrative and legal Sewerage: There is no sewage treatment at framework. Other than this comprehensive study present in Western Samoa but this may change if there appears to have been very little published the recommendations of the recently completed research on Samoan housing. proposals of the Apia Sewerage Project (GKW Consult in association with G.M. Meredith Urban Sanitation 1993) are implemented. Proposed is a reticulated system for the central area of Apia, a sewage Major studies of water supply (GKW Consult screening plant and ocean outfall, estimated to 1989) and sewerage (GKW Consult in cost WS$42 million (1992 prices). association with G.M. Meredith 1993a, 1993b, Responsibility for the control of on-site 1993c) were completed recently and cover most sanitation is managed by the Department of aspects of these urban services. Health. Considerable problems are anticipated in the new arrangements and these are reviewed in Water: The Water Division of the Public Works Robert's (1993) report. Department has until 1993 been the only government body with responsibility for Waste Disposak little or no attention appears to domestic, commercial and industrial water have been given in the water and sewerage supply. Its performance was questioned and its reports to fiture capacity to cope with problems poor cost recovery recnrd of less than 10 per of waste disposal in the Apia area. The cent of operating costs have led to new experience of other Pacific capitals suggests that government measures (Robert 1993). The Water this issue will require new policy decisions Amendment Act, 1992/1993 establishes a regarding the collection and disposal of solid metering policy for potable water and sets new waste in particular. Apia's waste disposal tariff limits. The decision has also been made to system is currently privanized but no reports establish a Water Authority as an autonomous about its operations have been discovered. corporation responsible for water and sewerage. The Authority will be governed by a 7-member Board of Directors chaired by the Minister of Works, together with the Director of Works, the Financial Secretary (Treasury), the Director of Lands, Surveys and Environment. the Director of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Director of Health and three consumer representatives. The aim is to move towards full cost recovery. For project appraisal and tariff considerations in the water supply sector, marginal costs analysis is emphasized as a means of either justifying water supply projects or establishing a benchmark for revenue generation which may secure the financial equilibrium of the water 212 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land 1!i Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date 213 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL Evaluation of migration and the growth of Apia as DEVELOPMENT portrayed in both social science and in the literature of the Samoan novelist, Albert Wendt. It focuses on social change and the emergence of urban inequalities ADB (1991). Western Samoa conr and social and economic dependence. operational paper 1991-1994. Port Vila: ADB South Pacific Regional Office. Croulet, C. R. (1988). Indigenous Key: WS econ/dev entrepreneurship in Western Samoa. In T. I. J. Fairbaim (Eds.), Island Entrepreneurs: Ah Wa, R. (1989) The impact of urbanization Problems and Performances in the Pacific. on household energy economy of Samoa. M.A. Honolulu: East-West Center. thesis, University of Auckland (unpublished). Key: WS pop/mig social econ/dev Key: WS econ/dev pop/mig Edge Environmental Design Pty Ltd (1993). AIDAB (1993). Western Samoan urban rOad Western Samoa visitor services plan. Report for rehabiliaion project analysis (for inclusion of the Wester Samoa Visitors Bureau and the urban road rehabilitation with AIDAB road Department of Lands, Survey and Environment, resealing project). Canberra: AIDAB Division of Environment and Conservation. (unpublished). Key: WS econ/dev environ Key: WS over Examines the potential for development of eco- tourism in Western Samoa and makes Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the reommendations for particular trials and projects. environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: There is some analysis of the impact of tourism on University of New England. Department of Apia and the impact of Apia (and its environment) on Geography and Planning. tourism. Key: WS Kir poverty land plan/man social Examines the linkages between changing Fairbairn, T. I. J. (1991). The Western Samoan environments and increasing poverty in the urban Economy - Prospects for Recovery and Long centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Term Growth. International Development Issue urbanization, poverty and environmental management No. 17. Canberra: AIDAB. and legislation in the region, examining cultural Key: WS econ/dev finance factors and governmenticommunity responses. This report presents a brief survey of recent Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues developments in, and prospects for, the Western and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati Samoan economy. It provides an analytical overview and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific of important developments and issues, drawing from Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at a wide range of government, international agency and scenarios dealing with an urban future in which academic sources. poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation Fensterseifer, C. (1993). Western Samoa's and research needs. economic development: contemporary constraints, historical conflicts and new Connell, J. (1993). The return home? Albert c hit ealndl Jouna of Wenr. igrdonandidetit inPolnesa- opportunities. New Zealand Journal of Wend't, migration and identity in Polyneria. Geography, 95(April), 14-18. Working Paper No. 93/23 Leeds: School of Key: Wr e4o18. Geogaph Uniersty o Leds.Key: WS econ/dev Geography University of Leeds. Examines some characteristics of the Samoan Key: WS pop/mig social economy in the context of colonial history. Evaluates contemporary environmental and economic 214 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources constraints, especially to agricultural development Recommends creation of a national conservation and reviews the significance of new developments in strategy and a National Parks and Reserves Agency, manufacturing and tourism that are perceived to and an Environmental Management and Planning emphasize the structure of dependent development. Agency. Discusses existing environmental legislation. Hennings, W. (1990). Strukturelle Macpherson, C. (1992). Economic and political Veranderungen in der Okonomie von Haushalten restructuring and the sustainability of migrant and Dorfgemeinschaften in Samoa. Die Erde(3- remittances: the case of Western Samoa. The 4), 177-189. Contemporary Pacfic, 4(1), 109-136. Key: WS econ/dev Key: WS econ/dev Examines income in three villages, with reference to Examines recent trends in migration, and the flow of domestic and international sources. Calculating the remittances, with particular reference to New monetization factor and comparing data with a study Zealand, that traces the significance of remittance conducted in 1965 has shown an increasing flows, assesses the future viability of international interaction of the Samoan household and village migration and thus the sustainability of an economy economies with the market-sector. This increase tends heavily dependent on remittances. to be greater, the nearer the village is located to the periphery and the less the economy was integrated Macpherson, C., & Macpherson, L. (1987). into the market 25 years ago. In the course of Towards an explanation of recent treads in development, significant structural changes in suicide in Western Samoa. Man, 22(2), 305- market-activities from agriculture towards wage-labor 329. and craft-industry have taken place. The analysis of Key: WS social labor-time spent in the different economic sectors Ky Ssca labo-mwspen m he illeentecoomicsecors Examines the rise in suicide rate in the 1970s demonstrates the fundamental importance of especiall thenriseuins ic in te to subsistence-production for individual and social especially among youths, which is related to rising reproduction. The analysis of cash-outlay shows that pectations amongst adolescents and the limited and economic activities in the market-sector have to be declining opportunities for fulfilmnt as a result of looked on aa suppiement to asc hed. Western Samoa's peripheral position in the world lookd a asa supleent to asi neds.system. The hierauchical social structure and fewer ELO (1992). Employment and income generating emigration opportunities may have contributed to this ILO 199). Eplomentandincoe gneraing trend. needs in Western Samoa. National Seminar, Suva. ILO. Meleisea, M. (1992). Change and adaptation in Key: WS econ/dev Western Samoa. Christchurch: Macmillan Report and summary of conference covering Brown Center for Pacific Studies University of employment, human resource development and invJestment. Key: WS social land An examination of the recent history of Samoa, that Jessop-Tuimaleali'ifano, L. (1990). Country examines the politics and tradition. It considers reCen Profile of Western Samoa. ESCAP Consultative development trends including the creation and Meeting of National Experts in Human splitting of maAi tides, emigration and the impact of Settlements of Small Pacific Islands, Port Vila remittances, all with particular reference to change (unpublished). and continuity infa'a samoa. Key: WS over econ/dev Muller, D., Worrall, R., & Burgess, R. (1980). KRTA Ltd (1988). Enironmental planning for Energy policy and planning in Western Samoa. tourism in Western Samoa. Apia: Government Apia: Government of Western Samoa. of Western Samoa and SPREP. Key: WS planlman econ/dev Key: WS econ/dev planlman environ 215 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Examines energy demands and consumption in both (Eds.), Contemporary Pacific Studies. urban and rural areas, with recommendations for Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. (pp. 135-155). future change and consideration of alternative energy Key: WS social Sources. Overview of socio-economic change that reviews the marai system, the changing land tenure situation, the National Center for Development Studies role of money in influencing economic development (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social and political change and the changing ceremonial Database: Western Samoa. Canberra: National system. Center for Pacific Studies Australian National University. Pacific Islands Development Program (1989). Key: WS over econ/dev finance pop/mig Tourism development in Western Samoa. Contains current and historical statistics on: Honolulu: East-West Center. population, migration, demography and housing; Key: WS econ/dev education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Pereira, J. A. (1993). A check list of selected labor, employment and wages; prices and price materials on Samoa. Apia: University of the indices; rural industries; secondary industries and South Pacific Extension Center. distribution; transport and communication; and Key: WS over tourism. Comprehensive 430 page bibliography of all subjects Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission copuin Samoa including economic development, report - Western Samoa. Suva: South Pacific p and migration. Bureau for Economic Co-operation. Ret, M. (1990). New challenges to Westen Key: WS econ/dev Samoa's Environment. Appendix C-3 in A detailed report on energy supply and use, Thistlethwaite, R. and Votaw (1992). In examining issues and options for greater efficiency. Environment and Development- A Pacfic Island Nomachi, R. (1992). Western Samoa advser's Perspective. Manila: Asian Development Bank. report on mission. Port Vila: ESCAP Pacific Key: WS environ econldev Operations Sector (unpublished). Ronnas, P. (1993). The Samoan farmer: a Key: WS over Identifies problems and issues related to physical reluctant object of change. Development and development and land use planning in Apia. Draws Orange, 24, 339-362. heavily on the 1992 tourism development plan. Key: WS pop/mig social Examines relationship between limited agricultural O'Meara, T. (1990). Samoan planters. Tradition development, fa'a Samoa, migration, remittance and and economic development in Polynesia. Fort bureaucratic development. Access to market and the WRinehart and Winston. small size of the domestic economy are constraints to Worth Holtagricultural development. Key: WS econ/dev social land Detailed analysis of rural change that focuses on S'aga, F. S. (1989). Foreign investment for agricultural development with reference to fa'a Samoa and the significance of migration, remittances tousm in Western Samoa. An examinaion and and access to urban centers. It also considers changes evaluation of policy options. SPFP Research in land tenure. Paper, Townsville: James Cook University (unpublished). O'Meara, T. (1993). The cult of custom meets Key: WS ecouldev the search for money in Western Samoa. In V. Lockwood, T. G. Harding, & B. J. Wallace 216 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Salale, S. (1978) Human resources in a South Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1987b). Pacfic community: the Western Samoa labor Vsitor Survey: Western Samoa. Suva: Tourism Council of the South Pacific. force. M.A. thesis, Australian National Key: WS econ/dev University (unpublished). Key: WS econ/dev Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1990a). Guidelines for the integration of tourism Schoeffel, P. (1983). Women's associations in development and environmental protection in the the rural economy of the South Pacife: Case South Pacific. Suva. studies from Western Samoa and East New Key: WS econ/dev Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1990b). Key: WS PNG econ/dev Tourism sector in Western Samoa: evaluation Examines the role of women's associations in social and development needs. and economic development and their role in national Key: WS econ/dev development planning. UNDP and WTO (1986). Economic impact of Shanknan, P. (1976). Migration and international tourism on Western Samoa. Underdevelopment: The Case of Western Samoa. Madrid: WTO. Boulder: Westview Press. Key: WS econ/dev plan/man Key: WS pop/mig econ/dev UNDP and WTO (1988). Review and update of Simi, T. (1982). Country Statement - Western tourism development master plan 1984-1993 and Samoa. SPC/ILO Conference on Migration, tourism marketing and promotional program Employment and Development in the South 1989-1991, Western Samoa. Apia: UNDP. Pacific, Noumea. (unpublished). Key: WS econ/dev plan/man Key: WS over Reviews tourism forecasts and industry capacity. Contains market analysis and marketing and Tiffany, S. (1979). Port town village promotional program. Superseded by 1992 tourism organization in Western Samoa. Journal of the plan. Polynesian Society, 88, 127-175. Key: WS social UNDP Pacific Regional Equitable and The most detailed available discussion of the social Sustainable Human Development Program organization and economic life of the population of (1993). Report of joint UNDP/SPC project Apia. The study examines the particular significance formulation mission to Western Samoa. Suva: of villages within Apia, especially the politics of UNDP. village government, and briefly reviews urban land Key: WS social environ issues. Overview of the human development situation in Samoa with reference to environment, economy, Tourism Council of the South Pacific (1987a). health, nutrition, education, and culture, with the Conceptual design and development of a locally elements of a national human development strategy. owned village hotel/guest house complex, Western Samoa. Suva: Tourism Council of the Western Samoa and Tourism Council of the South Pacific. South Pacific (1992). Western Samoa tourism Key: WS econ/dev social development plan 1992-2001. Suva: Tourism Council of the South Pacific. Key: WS econ/dev plan/man over 217 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Comprehensive examination of tourism needs, 8. Western Samoa: Country Economic prospects, conditions and strategies. Contains Memorandum. Washington DC. recommendations regarding environmental Key: WS econ/dev management and urban planning. Western Samo'a Department of Economic Yusuf, S., & Peters, R. K. (1985). Western Developmen(19.Western Samoa's f oich Samoa. The experience of slow growth and Development ( 5-14). Western Samoa's ph resource imbalance. Working Paper No. 754. development plan 1985-1987. Apia: Dept of Washington DC: World Bank Staff. Economic Development. Key: WS econ/dev Key: WS econ/ldev Evaluates recent economic experience with particular reference to social organizations, land tenure and Western Samoa Department of Public Works migration. The paper stresses the need for (1993). Country paper for Western Samoa. diversification of agriculture and increased World Bank Pacific Island Transport and Urban industrialization to move away from a dependence on Environment Seminar, 24-27 August, East- remittances. West Center, Hawaii. (unpublished). Key: WS plan/man over water sew Zimmet, P., et al. (1981). The prevalence of Contains summary of key municipal and Diabetes in the rural and urban Polynesian environmental management issues. population of Western Samoa. Journal of the American Diabetes Association, 30(1), 45-51. Western Samoa Department of Statistics Annual Key: WS social statistical abstracts and quarterly statistical The prevalence of diabetes in Apia was almost three bulletins (various issues). Apia. times that of rural populations and the urban Key: WS econ/dev population was significantly more obese that its rural counterparts. Diet, physical activity and stress may Western Samoa Ministry of Youth sports and explain the variation in diabetes prevalence. Cultural Affairs (1983). Report of National Youth Seminar. Suva: ]LO. Key: WS social POPULATION AND MIGRATION Conference report covering promotion of family welfare, youth training courses in agriculture and welfare and home economics. Ah Wa, R. (1989) The impact of urbanization on household energy economy of Samoa. M.A. Western Samoa National Planning Office thesis. University of Auckland (unpublished). (1992a). Public Sector investment program Key: WS econ/dev pop/mig 1992/93-1994/95. Apia: Prime Minister's Department. Ablburg, D. (1991). Remittances and their Key: WS econ/dev finance impact: a study of Tonga and Western Samoa. Pacific Policy Paper No. 7. Canberra: National Western Samoa National Planning Office Center for Development Studies. (1992b). Western Samoa seventh development Key: WS Tonga pop/mig plan 1992-1994. Apia: Prime Minister's Overview of the macro-economic context of Department. remittances in the two countries which emphasizes Key: WS econ/dev planinan their substantial role in every facet of the economy. World Bank (1993). Pacfic Islands Economies: Baker, P. T., Hanna, J. M., & Baker, T. S. Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growh, Vol (Ed.). (1986). The changing Samoans: behavior 218 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and health in transition. Research monographs Croulet, C. R. (1988). Indigenous on human population biology. New York: entrepreneurship in Western Samoa. In T. I. J. Oxford University Press. Fairbairn (Eds.), Island Entrepreneurs: Key: WS pop/mig Problems and Performances in the Paciic. A detailed study of changes in health and nutritional Honolulu: East-West Center. status between rural American Samoa, urban (Pago Key: WS pop/mig social econ/dev Pago) American Samoa and the USA, that indicates that the most important changes follow urbanization Fairbaim, T. 1. (1985). Island economies within Samoa. There are parallel trends in Western studies from the South Pacific. Suva: Institute of Samoa. Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Key: WS plan/man pop/inig Brown, R. P. C., & Connell, J. (1993). Provides infornation on govenments, business, Migration and remittances in Tonga and population, and the economic structures and Western Samoa. Brisbane: University of development of various Pacific nations, principally Queensland for ILO. South Pacific forum members. A regional perspective Key: WS Tonga pop/mig is employed, but the following case studies are also Overview of the literature on remittances and their included: Western Samoa (development planning, impact, at household and national level, that economic development), Cook Islands (development incorporates a survey of households in both planning, domestic stabilization of international trade countries. The study emphasizes the continued instability in small nations), Northern Mariana significance of remittances, their utility in both rural Islands (agricultural planning), Fiji (tax incentives), and urban areas, and their role in both consumption Tuvalu (development problems and planning in a and investment. small nation) but most have some reference to Western Samoa. Connell, J. (1983). Migration, employment and development in the South Pacific. Country Macpherson, C. (1981). Guest-worker Report No. 22: Western Samoa. Noumea movements and their consequences for donor South Pacific Commission : International Labor and recipient countries : a case study. In G. W. Organization. Jones & H. V. Richter (Eds.), Population Key: WS pop/mig mobility and development : Southeast Asia and Examines Western Samoa's economy, employment, the Pacrfic. Australian National University. population, urbanization, intemal and external Development Studies Center. Monograph, migration, and the impact and implications of No.27. Canberra: Australian National migration. Includes statistical data. University. (pp. 257-277). Key: WS pop/mig Connell, J. (1993). The return home? Albert Examines the costs and benefits to Western Samoa Wendt, migration and identity in Polynesia. and New Zealand as a result of guest worker- Working Paper No. 93/23 Leeds: School of movement, in terms of remittances, social change and Geography University of Leeds. the overall structure of development. Key: WS pop/mig social Evaluation of migration and the growth of Apia as Macpherson, C. (1984). To go or not to go: portrayed in both social science and in the literature migrant relocation decisions and labor shortage of the Samoan novelist, Albert Wendt. It focuses on in Western Samoa. In R. Bedford (Eds.), Essays social change and the emergence of urban inequalities on Urbanization in Southeast Asia and the and social and economic dependence. Pacic. Christchurch: Department of Geography University of Canterbury. (pp. 143- 173). 219 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: WS poplmig Examines the entrepreneurial climate with reference Examination of the influence of employment to industry policy, the financial sector, the credit opportunities and emigration from Samoa, the impact climate, incentive schemes, investment promotion, this has had on labor shortages and the role of and private foreign investment. Appendices include remittances in development and the probability of statistical tables. return migration. Muagututia, R. (1993). Western Samoa Macpherson, C. (1985). Public and private population projections, 1991-2011. In R. V. views of home: will Western Samoa migrants Cole (Eds.), Paciftc 2010 : challenging the return. Pacific Viewpoint, 26(1), 242-262. future. Pacific policy paper, no. 9. Canberra: Key: WS poplmig Australian National University. Research School Examines the continued commitment of Samoans in of Pacific Studies. National Center for New Zealand to their kin and villages in Samoa, and Development Studies. (pp. 117-125). emphasizes the contrast between public support for Key: WS pop/mig fa'a Samoa and a commitment to return and private pvides projections of Samoa's population growth, dissatisfaction, based on financial and cultural considerations, which discourages return migration school age population and labor force. Macpherson, C. (1990). Stolen dreams. Some Nardi, B. (nd). Goals in reproductive decision- consequences of dependency for Western making. American Ethnologist. Samoan youth. In J. Connell (Eds.), Migration Key: WS pop/mig and Development in the South Pacific. Pacific Attitudes to population change and family planning. Research Monograph No. 24. Canberra: National Center for Development Studies. (pp. National Center for Development Studies 107-119). (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Key: WS pop/mig Database: Western Samoa. Canberra: National Overview of the role of migration in Western Samoa, Center for Pacific Studies Australian National that points to the widespread significance of University. international migration in all facets of social and Key: WS over econ/dev finance pop/mig economic change, the costs to migration in the failure Contains current and historical statistics on: of government to restructure the economy of the population, migration, demography and housing; country. education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Miles, R., et al. (1992). Employment in Western labor, employment and wages; prices and price Samoa present and potential. Suva: indices; rural industries; secondary industries and iternational Labor Office EMPLA. distribution; transport and communication; and Key: WS plan/man pop/mig tourism. Outlines Samoa's economic performance and structure and trends in population, labor force and Pauli, M. (1987). Land rights of urban migrants migration. Examines labor demand and employment in Taufuri, Apia. In L Mason trends for the public and private sectors with a P. Hereniko. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies sectoral analysis. Discusses minimum wage history University of the South Pacific. (pp. 236-240). and urban informal sector employment. Examines Key: WS pop/mig the education and training sectors with reference to A brief account of the reasons for migration to Apia enrollments, student performance, tertiary education, of residents in Ta'ufuri village within Apia. scholarships, skills training, entrepreneurship training Employment patterns are diverse. There are and the institutions involved. Discusses the levels, numerous problems attached to urban residence, causes and characteristics of unemployment. 220 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources including insecurity of land tenure, overcrowding, (Eds.), Contemporary Pacifc Studies. poor sanitation and lack of land for agriculture. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. (pp. 156-170). Key: WS pop/mig Ronnas, P. (1993). The Samoan farmer: a Evaluates migration and remittances in Samoa, with reluctant object of change. Development and particular reference to the manner in which social Change, 24, 339-362. change is closely related to migration, and what this Key: WS pop/mig social means for return migration and a possible decline in Examines relationship between limited agricultural overseas migration opportunities. development, fa'a Samoa, migration, remittance and bureaucratic development. Access to market and the Thomas, P. (1986). Western Samoa : a small size of the domestic economy are constAints to population profile for the eighties. agricultural development. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. 86(14. Australian National University. Research School Round Table Meeting for Western Samoa of Pacific Studies. National Center for (1988). Report of the round table meeting for Development Studies, Canberra. Western Samoa, Geneva, 26 October 1988. Key: WS pop/inig United Nations Development Program, Geneva. Outlines demographic trends and issues since 1840. Key: WS pop/mig Examines current statistics and their implications. Report prepared for the Meeting. Contains statistics on population, labor force, national accounts and Va'a, L. F. (1993). Effects of migration on balance of payments, government revenue and Western Samoa : an island viewpoint. In G. expenditure, and development expenditure. McCall & J. Connell (Eds.), A world Samasoni, S. (1987). Land rights of the Niuan perspective on Pacific islander migration : Samasoni, S. (1987. InL.anrsof t.Hrenio Australia, New Zealand and the USA. Pacific community in Apia. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko studies monograph, No. 6. Sydney: University (Eds., In Search ofa Home. Sava: Institute of of New South Wales. Center for South Pacific Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Studies. (pp. 343-357). (ey: W 9g). Key: WS pop/mig Key: WS pop mig land Uses statistical data to measure the significance of Examines the relationship of long-established Ninean external igration on Western Samoan society, migrants with the owners of customary land n Apia. particularly the economy, and argues that Some migrants have purchased land but because of international migration has been of considerable the greater pressure on land this is no longer a real benefit to Westemn Samoa and to Samoan households. option, hence there is considerable lack of security. Shanbman, P. (1976). Migration and Western Samoa Department of Statistics (1983). Underdevelopment: The Case of Western Samoa. Census of population and housing 1981: general Boulder: Westview Press. report of the population census. Department of Key: WS pop/mig ecou/dev Statistics, Apia, Western Samoa. NCDS. An early detailed account of the impact of remittances Key: WS pop/mig in Western Samoa, at national level and in a single Provides a brief background to Western Samoa and village, which points to the impact of remittances on the taking of the census. Summarizes the main results social and economic dependency and provides detailed statistical tables. Shankman, P. (1993). The Samoan exodus. In Western Samoa Department of Statistics (1989). V. Lockwood, T. G. Harding, & B. J. Wallace Census of population and housing, 1986: 221 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources general report of the population census. GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING Department of Statistics, Apia, Westem Samoa. Key: WS poplmig Ah Ching, F. L. (1991). Approaches to human resources development policy-making, planning Western Samoa Department of Statistics (1991). and programming in Western Samoa. In Annual statistical abstracts 1991. Apia. National approaches to human resources Key: WS pop/mig development in the Pacific. New York: United Nations. (pp. 115-124). Western Samoa Department of Statistics Key: WS plan/man (1992a). Census of popukation and housing Outlines some of the Samoan government's human 1991, village directory. Apia: Department of resource development activities and discusses the Statistics. need for greater coordination between government Key: WS pop/mig housing agencies. Western Samoa Department of Statistics Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the (1992b). Preliminary results of the 1991 census environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: of population and housing. Apia: Department of University of New England. Department of Statistics. Geography and Planning. Key: WS pop/mig housing Key: WS Kir poverty land plan/man Examines the linkages between changing Western Samoa. Department of Statistics environments and increasing poverty in the urban (1983a). Census of population and housing 1981 centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes urwanization, poverty and environmental management :general report of the population census. and legislation in the region, examining cultural Wester Samoa. Department of Statistics, Apia. factors and government/community responses. Key: WS pop/mig Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues Provides a brief background to Western Samoa and and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati the taking of the census. Summarizes the main and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific results and provides detailed statistical tables. Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at scenarios dealing with an urban future in which Western Samoa. Department of Statistics poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, (1983b). Vital statistics sample survey : 1983. urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation Western Samoa. Department of Statistics, Apia, and research needs. WS. Key: WS pop/mig C L C Consulting Group and Compton Lapish Presents the results of a sample survey conducted to Cooper (1992). Home building manual, Pacific estimate the birth rate, death rate, migration and the National Building Code for the preparation of resulting population change in Western Samoa since Western Samoa Building Code. Apia: AIDAB. the 1981 census. Key: WS plan/man Western Samoa. Department of Statistics Cornforth, R. (1992). Bridging the gap: (1989). Census of population and housing, 1986 bringing together customary and parliamentary : general report of the population census. law making in the management of natural Western Samoa. Department of Statistics, Apia. resources in Western Samoa. SPREP/UNEP Key: WS pop/mig Workshop, Strengthening Environmental Legislation in the Pacific Region, 23-27 November, Apia (unpublished). 222 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: WS land plan/man environ Environment Program. Kingston Reynolds examines possible linkages between customary and Thorn & Allardice, Auckland, NZ. parliamentary law in the area of natural resource Key: WS plan/man management. The relationship between the Lands and Environment Act 1989 and Village Fono Act of 1990 KRTA Ltd (1988). Environmental planning for in Western Samoa is explored. tourism in Western Samoa. Apia: Government of Western Samoa and S PREP. Cox, N. L. (1984) Western Samoa and LOS Ky Wsend laand S Enr eductioal ogras :culura proectonsfor Key: WS econ/dev plan/man environ educational programs cultural projections for Recommends creation of a national conservation plamning through 1992. Ed.D. thesis, Brigham strategy and a National Parks and Reserves Agency, Young University, University Microfilms and an Environmental Management and Planning International, Ann Arbor. Agency. Discusses existing environmental Key: WS plan/man legislation. Fairbaim, T. 1. (1985). Island economies Makharita, R., & Sanday, R. (1988). studies from the South Pacifc. Suva: Institute of Institutional dimensions offinance and planning Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. in Western Samoa : a case study in development Key: WS plan/man pop/mig management. Suva: University of the South Provides information on governments, business, Pacific. Institute of Social and Administrative population, and the economic structures and Studies. development of various Pacific nations, principally Key: WS planiman South Pacific forum members. A regional perspective is employed, but the following case studies are also included: Western Samoa (development planning, Miles, R., et al. (1992). Employment in Western economic development), Cook Islands (development Samoa : present and potential. Suva: planning, domestic stabilization of international trade International Labor Office EMPLA. instability in small nations), Northern Mariana Key: WS plan/man pop/mig Islands (agricultural planning), Fiji (tax incentives), Outlines Samoa's economic performance and Tuvalu (development problems and planning in a structure and trends in population, labor force and small nation) but most have some reference to migration. Examines labor demand and employment Western Samoa. trends for the public and private sectors with a sectoral analysis. Discusses minimum wage history G K W Consult in association with G M and urban informal sector employment. Examines the education and training sectors with reference to Meredith & Associated (1993). Apia sewerage std teiayduaon projct fasiilit stdy rvie. Vo 3, enrollments, student performance, tertiary education, Project feasibility study review, Vol 3, scholarships, skills training, entrepreneurship training organizational, legal and institional. Apia: and the institutions involved. Discusses the levels, Western Samoa Public Works Department. causes and characteristics of unemployment. Key: WS water sew plan/man Examines the entrepreneurial climate with reference Covers establishment of the Water Authority of to industry policy, the financial sector, the credit Western Samoa, legal provisions for piped sewerage climate, incentive schemes, investment promotion, systems and corporatization of the Public Works and private foreign investment. Appendices include Water Division. statistical tables. Kingston Reynolds Thom & Allardice (1988). Muller, D., Worrall, R., & Burgess, R. (1980). Environmental planning for tourism in Western Energy policy and planning in Western Samoa. Samoa : a report to the government of Western Apia: Government of Western Samoa. Samoa and the South Pacic Regional Key: WS plan/man econ/dev 223 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Examines energy demands and consumption in both Russell, P. (Ed.). (1990). Land resource urban and rural areas, with recommendations for planning study, Western Samoa : final report. future change and consideration of alternative energy Asian Development Bank Lower Hutt: soue. ANZDEC Limited Consultants in association with New Zealand. Department of Scientific and Nomachi, R. (1990). Western Samoa: Adviser's Industrial Research. Division of Land and Soil report on mission. Port Vila: UNESCAP Pacific Sciences. Operations Center. Key: WS land plan/man Key: WS planiman Idendfies and reviews issues and reairements on Thomas, P. (1987). Urban fringe development urban and physical plaming for Apia. Recomimeds in Apia In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.). In planning controls for Apia and technical assistance. Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 241-244). Pringle, G. (1989) Heritage assessment, Apia. Key: WS sqtter plan/man Master of Urban and Regional Planning thesis, University of Sydney (unpublished). UNDP and WTO (1986). Economic impact of Key: WS plan/man international tourism on Western Samoa. Madrid: WTO. Regional Seminar on Manpower Development Key: WS econ.dev plan/man and Training in the Pacific (1983 : Apia) (1983). Report of the seminar proceedings: UNDP and WTO (1988). Review and update of Regional Seminar on Manpower Development tourism development master plan 1984-1993 and and Training in dhe Pacific, Apia, Western tourism marketing and promotional program Samoa, 12-16 July 1983. Commonwealth 1989-1991, Western Samoa. Apia: UNDP. Secretariat, London. Key: WS econ/dev plan/man Key: WS plan/man Reviews tourism forecasts and industry capacity. Conains market analysis and marketing and Ronnas, P. (1992). Employment and income promotional program. Superseded by 1992 tourism generation in rural Western Samoa. pln International Labor Office, Suva. Key: WS plan/man Vanderburg, P. (1992). Apia: Town without Draft report of a mission (EMPLA, Employment plan. 0 le Siosiomaga Society Newsletter, Promotion, Manpower Planning and Labor Apdl., 7-8 Administration in the Pacific (ILO/UNDP/ AIDAB)). K ' Outlines Samoa's agricultural sector with reference to Key: WS plan/man environ cocoa, banana, cocont, taro, fruit and vegetables. Reports on the need for urban planning in Apia as animal husbandry and fisheries. Discusses rural discussed at a public meeting. employment and incomes. Examines the causes of stagnation in Samoa's agricultural and its Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in disappointing record in agricultural development. the Paciic: A survey of resource use and policy Makes recommendations for a rural development in Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuarw and strategy aimed at comrcializng istence West Sana. Environmental Studies Report No. production, improving %gicultural extension and 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources research, improving the rural credit situation and University of the South P fic. human resources development and training. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plantran Appendices include statistical tables. 224 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Western Samoa (1932). Buiding Alignment 1972 and Zoning plan 1977. None of these plans Ordinance 1932. could be enforced by urban planning legislation. Key: WS plan/man land Various Acts and Ordinances which are relevant to Legislation used to establish road reserves and control physical planning control are listed. Report contains development on the seaward side of Beach road, much of the socio-economic and physical data in a Apia. town plan plus specific physical planning proposals. Western Samoa (1959). Public Works Ordinance Western Samoa Department of Public Works 1959. Apia. (1993). Country paper for Western Samoa. Key: WS plan/man World Bank Pacific Island Transport and Urban Establishes and sets out the functions of the Emironment Seminar, 24-27 August, East- Department of Public Works. Regulations deal only West Center, Hawaii. (unpublished). with buildings. Key: WS plan/man over water sew Contains summary of key municipal and Western Samoa (1986). National disaster plan environmental management issues. 1986. Apia. Key: WS plan/man Western Samoa Division of Environment and Conservation (1991). Western Samoa: National Western Samoa (1987). Western Samoa's siah report for United Nations Coference on development plan 1988-1990. Apia? Environment and Development. Apia: Westem Key: WS planiman Samoa. Department of Lands and Environment. Division of Environment and Conservation. Western Samoa (1990). Western Samoa Housing Key: WS plan/man Corporation Act. Apia. Overview of environmental issues and development Key: WS housing plan/man trDds, tm focuses on the institutional context of environmental management and planning, and Western Samoa and Tourism Council of the discusses appropriate strategies to achieve sustainable development. Describes Western Samoa's natural South Pacific (1992). Western Samoa tou resource endowment, patterns of economic growth, development plan 1992-2001. Suva: Tourism demographic trends and environmental issues. Council of the South Pacific. Describes the Samoan government's responses to Key: WS econ/dev plan/man over developmental and environmental issues including Comprehensive examination of tourism needs, policy, legislation, interdepartmental coordination, prospects, conditions and strategies. Contains programs and projects, and training, education and recommendations regarding environmental public awareness. Raises issues in planning for management and urban planning. sustainable development and identifies opportunities and constraints. Western Samoa Department of Public Works (1984). Apia town plan 1984. Apia: Department Western Samoa National Planning Office of Public Works. (1992). Western Samoa seventh development Key: WS land plantman plan 1992-1994. Apia: Prime Minister's This extensive town planning report by M.W. Sturms Department. (town planning adviser at the Dept of Public Works) Key: WS econ/dev plan/man had no statutory approval but is the only comprehensive document of its kind produced. Western Samoa Public Works Department Contains a detailed history of previous planning (1973). Regional and Town Planning efforts including: Master plan for development 1964; Legislation. Apia: Department of Works. Interim master development plan 1968; Town plan 225 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: WS plan/man Key: WS finance Sets out a draft physical planning act which was Examines the problems of national debt, the never approved by parliament. Contains an historical stabilization program of the IMF and the impact of overview of attempts to enact such legislation since austerity on rising unemployment and high costs of 1954. living. Merz and McLellan (1990). Government of Western Samoa final report an asset revaluation FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT and tanif study for the Electric Power Corporation. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Merz and Fairbairn, T. 1. J. (1991). The Western Samoan McLellan. Economy - Prospects for Recovery and Long Key: WS finance Term Growth. International Development Issue Contains Vol 1 main report on asset revaluation and No. 17. Canberra: AIDAB. tariffs and Vol 2 appendices with financial Key: WS econ/dev finance projections and proposed tariffs. This report presents a brief survey of recent developments in, and prospects for the Western National Center for Development Studies Samoan economy. It provides an analytical overview (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social of important developments and issues, drawing from Database: Western Samoa. Canberra: National a wide range of government, international agency and Center for Pacific Studies Australian National academic sources. University. Key: WS over econ/dev finance pop/mig G K W Consult (1989). Tariff study for the Contains current and historical statistics on: water supply sector in Western Samoa, final population, migration, demography and housing; report, executive summary. Apia: Government education; health; national accounts; international of Western Samoa Public Works Department. accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: WS water finance labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and G K W Consult in association wh G M distribution; transport and communication; and tourism. Meredith & Associates (1993). Apia sewerage project, feasibility study review, Vol 4, finance Touche Ross & Co. (1989). Development Bank and economics. Apia: Western Samoa Public of Samoa, Special Economic Development Fund, Works Department. o ao,SeilEoor eeomn ud Key: WS water sew fina Special Housing Fund, Development Housing Contains cost analysis, tariff r n Fund, New Guarantee Program Fund. Touche projections, cost recovery experience an a revenue Ross & Co, Seattle WA. Australian National potential. University. Key: WS housing finance Maiava, I. (nd). Financial dependence and its Contains the auditor's report on the financial statements of the Development Bank of Western impctions forl). WSamoa and die four funds it administers. Perspective, 14(1). Key: WS finance Western Samoa (1972). National Provident Maiava, I. (1987). Paying the price: foreign Fund Act 1972. Apia. debt and sovereignty in Western Samoa. Key: WS finance Horizon, 2, 39-46. 226 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Western Samoa National Planning Office Carter, R. (1990). Preliminary comments on the (1992). Public Sector investment program proposed Central Bank Building site in Apia. 1992/93-1994/95. Apia: Prime Minister's Preliminary Report No. 19. Suva: SOPAC. Department. Key: WS environ land Key: WS econ/dev finance Cornforth, R. (1992). Bridging the gap: bringing together customary and parliamentary law making in the management of natural URBAN LAND resources in Western Samoa. SPREP/UNEP Workshop, Strengthening Environmental Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the Legislation in the Pacific Region, 23-27 environment in the South Pacfic. Armidale: November, Apia. University of New England. Department of Key: WS land plan/man environ Geography and Planning. examines possible linkages between customary and Key: WS Kir poverty land plan/man parliamentary law in the area of natural resource Examines the linkages between changing management. The relationship between the Lands and environments and increasing poverty in the urban Environment Act 1989 and the Village Fono Act of centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes 1990 in Western Samoa is explored. urbanization, poverty and environmental management and legislation in the region, examining cultural Epati, A. S. (1981). The Western Samoa Land factors and govemment/community responses. and Titles Court. Pacific Perspective, 10(1), 65- Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues 71. and refers to the situation in Western Samoa, Kiribati Key: WS land and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at Fana'afi, A. (1986). Western Samoa: the sacred scenarios dealing with an urban future in which poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, covenant. In Land rights otf Pacific women. urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation Suva: University of the South Pacific. Institute and & . of Pacific Studies. (ipp. 103-110). Key: WS land Burrows, J., et al. (1991). Western Samoa Outlines of women's ownership customary and agricultural sector review. No. 9343-WSO. freehold land. World Bank, Washington, DC. Galumalemana Schidt, N. (1990). he Land Key: WS land alumala Schidt N. (9) ten Reviews the role of agriculture in the Samoan ad tites court and cusomary tenare in Western economy and the economic performance of its major Saroa. export commodities. Examines the factors affecting Key: WS land agricultural development including the resource base, Describes the historical social conventions of land supporting services and inputs, and financial returns tenure, the dispute resolution role of the Land Titles to farmers. Proposes a development strategy Court, examples of the types of disputes that occur, encompassing the utilization of WSTEC (Western the activities of the court staff, and the decisions Samoa Trust Estates Corporation) land, policy handed down. reform, cyclone recovery, livestock development, environmental protection, abolishing commodity Matheson, T. (1987). Niuean land-holdings in boards and guidelines for external assistance. We Samoa. In L. Mason & P. Heremiko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of 227 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Industrial Research. Division of Land and Soil (pp. 65-83). Sciences. Key: WS land Key: WS land plan/man Examination of Niuean land tenure in Apia, which indicates the insecurity of migrants on customary Samasoni, S. (1987). Land rights of the Niuean land, despite a century of occupation. community in Apia. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Meleisea, M. (1992). Change a d ac tt:il in Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. Western Samoa. Christchurch: Macmillan (pp. 4-90). Brown Center for Pacific Studies University of Key: WS pop/mig land Canterbury. Examines the relationship of long-established Niuean Key: WS social land migrants with the owners of customary land in Apia. An examination of the rent history of Samoa, that Some migrants have purchased land but because of examines the politics and aadition. It considers recent the greater pressure on land this is no longer a real development trends including the creation and option, hence there is considerable lack of security. splitting of matai titles, emigration and the impact of remittances, all with particular reference to change Thomas, P. (198 la). A water tank and an and continuity in fa'a samoa. agriculture station. In P. Larmour, R- Crocombe, & A. Taungenga (Eds.), Lan4 O'Meara, T. (1987). Samoa : customary People and Government: Public Lands Policy in individualism. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land the South Pacific. Suva, Cambridge: University tenure in the South Pacfic. Suva: University of of the South Pacific, Lincoln Institute of Land the South Pacific. (pp. 74-113). Policy. (pp. 69-71). Key: WS land Key: WS land solid/waste water Discusses the imrortance of customary Land tenure as Uses two examples of government acquisition of land an issue in Samoan agricultural development. for public use to highlight the internal and external Outlines the main features of the traditional and new problems the Samoan government faces in this systems. Discusses the reasons for, and extent of, activity. change and provides evidence from research at the Land and Tides Court and three Western Samoan , . (1981b). Western Samoa: social villages. consequences of government acquisition. In P. .Larmour, R. Crocombe, & A. Taungenga O'Meara, T. (1990). Samoan planters. Tradition Lr u R. peoe g m Taugnc andecoomi deelomen inPolnesa. ort (Eds.), Lan4 people and government : public and economic development in Polynesia. Fort lands policy in the South Pacific. Suva; Wort: HecRndeh a landins Cambridge Mass.: Lincoln Institute of Land Key: WS econ/dev social landPoiyadUiestofheSuh aci. Detailed analysis of rural change that focuses on Policy and University of the South Pacific. agricultural development with reference to fa'a Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 45-54). Samoa and the significance of migration, remittances Key: WS land and access to urban centers. It also considers changes Outlines issues in the conflict between traditional in land tenure. land tenure and colonial legislation and the legal guidelines for compensation for government Russell, P. (Ed.). (1990). Land resource acquisition of private land. planning study, Western Samoa : final report. Asian Development Bank Lower Hutt: Thomas, P. (1984). Western Samoa. Custom, ANZDEC Limited Consultants in association change and constraints to land rights, with New Zealand. Department of Scientific n registration and productivity. In B. Acquage & R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land Tenure and Rural 228 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Productivity in the Pacfic Islands. Suva: Key: WS land Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Relates to requirements for a scheme plan for South Pacific. (pp. 135-154). subdivisions into allotments of less than 5 acres. Key: WS land A detailed account of change in land tenure, focusing Western Samoa (1972). Alienation of Freehold mainly on rural areas, which also covers women's Land Act, 1972. Apia. rights, migration and remittances, limited skilled Key: WS land human resources and environmental changes. Western Samoa (1981). Land and Tles Act, Thomas, P. (1987). Urban fringe development 1981. Apia. in Apia, Western Samoa. In L. Mason & P. Key: WS land Hereniko (Eds.), In Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Western Samoa (1989). Land and Environment South Pacific. (pp. 241-244). Act 1989. Apia. Key: WS land Key: WS land environ A brief account of the increase subdivision of land, which points to the need for planning. The article Western Samoa Department of Public Works examines the complicated problems that are posed by a complex land tenure system. (1984). Apia town plan 1984. Apia: Department of Public Works. Tiffany, S. (1980). Politics of land disputes in Key: WS land plan/man Western Samoa. Oceania, 50(3), 176-208. This extensive town planning report by M.W. Sturms Key: WS land (town planning adviser at the Dept of Public Works) had no statutory approval but is the only comprehensive document of its kind produced. Vanderburg, P. (1993). Samoa land claims Contains a detailed history of previous planning changing. 0 Le Siosiomaga Society Newsletter, efforts including: Master plan for development 1964; March/April, 6-7. Interim master development plan 1968; Town plan Key: WS environ land 1972 and Zoning plan 1977. None of these plans Reports on talk by Tim O'Meara on land tennre and could be enforced by urban planning legislation. the Matai system within a capitalist economy. Various Acts and Ordinances which are relevant to physical planning control are listed. Report contains Western Samoa (1932). Building Aignment much of the socio-economic and physical data in a Ordinance 1932. town plan plus specific physical planning proposals. Key: WS plan/man land Legislation used to establish road reserves and control Western Samoa Department of Statistics. development on the seaward side of Beach road, Western Samoa Department of Agriculture Apia. (1990). Report on the 1989 census of agricrdure Western Samoa. Western Samoa. Department of Western Samoa (1959). Land Ordinance 1959. Statistics and Western Samoa. Department of Apia. Agriculture, Apia. Key: WS land Key: WS land Establishes the Lands and Survey Department and the Describes the agriculture and land tenure system in Land Board. Covers land dealings by the Samoa and the background, scope and methodology government, of the census. Provides a summary and commentary on the results of the census. Presents data on: Western Samoa (19t'). Survey Ordinance 1961. agricultural activity and holdings; coconut Apia. consumption; copra and coconut production; cocoa 229 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources consumption and production; livestock; agricultural E D U International in association with operators and equipment; labor and income; land use; GHK/MRM International (1992b). Western chemical and fertilizer use; and crop cultivation. Samoa housing sector study final report, Volume Three, policies, plans and programs. Apia: Western Samoan Government (1964). Taking of Government of Western Samoa and ADB. Land Act. Apia: Government Printer. Key: WS housing Key: WS land Formulates the proposed national housing policy; presents a national housing program; outlines a sector Western Samoan Government (1965). Alienation action plan; details a business plan for the Housing of Customary Land Act. Apia: Government Corporatization; outlines a project for possible Printer, financing by multi-lateral lending agencies. Key: WS land E D U International in association with GHK/MRM International (1992c). Western Samoa housing sector study final report. Volume RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT Two, sector review and recommendations. Apia: Government of Western Samoa and ADB. Key: WS housing Bryant, J. J. (1993). Urban poverty and the Details the review of the housing sector, identifies the environment in the South Pacific. Armidale: key issues and proposes recommendations to improve University of New England. Department of the provision of housing in Western Samoa. Geography and Planning. Key: WS Kir poverty land plan/nan Housing Corporation of Western Samoa (1993). Examines the linkages between changing Statement of general business policies. Apia: environments and increasing poverty in the urban (unpublished). centers of the South Pacific. Discusses and describes Key: WS housing urbanization, poverty and environmental management Outlines scope of activities, operating principles, and legislation in the region, examining cultural financial guidelines and guidelines for processing factors and government/community responses. loan applications. Provides a case study of Fiji looking at these issues and refers to the situation in Westem Samoa, Kiribati Lapish, E. B., & Lynch, (nd). A. J. and Vanuatu and the work of the South Pacific Strengthening village fales for strong winds. Regional Environment Program (SPREP). Looks at Apia: Government of Western Samoa Public scenarios dealing with an urban future in which povety s o th inreas adresing~ ~ Works Department and New Zealand Ministry poverty is on the increase addressing issues in land, urban infrastructural management poverty alleviation of External Relations and Trade. and research needs. Key: WS housing Contains practical illustrated advice about methods of E D U International in association with improving indigenous house construction. GHK/MRM International (1992a). Western Samoa housing sector study final report, Volume Thomas, P. (1987). Urban fringe development One, summary. Apia: Government of Western in Apia. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In Samoa and ADB. Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific Key: WS housing Studies. (pp. 241-244). Contains executive summary of the findings together Key: WS squatter plan/man with terms of reference. 230 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Touche Ross & Co. (1989). Development Bank URBAN SANITATION AND of Samoa, Special Economic Development Fund, ENVIRONMENT Special Housing Fund, Development Housing Fund, New Guarantee Program Fund. Touche Carter, R. (1990). Preliminary comments on the Ross & Co, Seattle WA. Australian National proposed Central Bank Building site in Apia. University. Preliminary Report No. 19. Suva: SOPAC. Key: WS housing finance Key: WS environ land Contains the auditor's report on the financial statements of the Development Bank of Western Commission of the European Community Samoa and the four funds it administers. (1993). Rural water supply. Program definidin study. Final report. Apia: GKW Consult for Western Samoa (1990). Western Samoa Housing Commission of the European Community. Corporation Act. Apia. Key: WS water Key: WS housing plan/man Examination of ecAonomic and financial sustainability of present water supply system in N.W. Upolu, with Western Samoa (1993). National housing policy a program for future supply, recommendations for statement of the Government of Western Samoa. institutional sustainability, financial sustainability and Apia: (unpublished). monitoring. Though the report focuses on the rural Key: WS housing context it examines the governmental and institutional Cabinet approved policy statement arising from the capacity to develop and maintain an improved 1992 ADB Housing Sector Study. national program. Western Samoa Department of Sistics Cornforth, R. (1992). Bridging the gap: (1992a). Census of population and housing bringing together customary and parliamentary 1991, village directory. Apia: Department of law making in the management of natural Statistics. resources in Western Samoa. SPREP/UNEP WS pop/mig housing Workshop, Strengthening Environmental Legislation in the Pacific Region, 23-27 Western Samoa Department of Statistics November, Apia. (1992b). Preliminary results of the 1991 census Key: WS land plan/man environ . examines possible linkages between customary and of population and housing. Apia: Department of parliamentary law in the area of natural resource Statistics. maagement. The relationship between the Lands and Key: WS pop/mig housing Environment Act 1989 and the Village Fono Act of 1990 in western Samoa is explored. Western Samoa Public Works Department (1990). Commentary on the National Building Edge Environmental Design Pty Ltd (1993). Code for Western Samoa. Apia. Western Samoa visitor services plan. Report for Key: WS housing the Western Samoa Visitors Bureau and the Contains summary of building standards Department of Lands, Survey and Environment, requirements. Division of Environment and Conservation. Key: WS econ/dev environ Wolak, Z. M., & Jorgensen, V. Western Examines the potential for development of eco- Samoan housing projects. Apia: Western Samoa tourism in Western Samoa and makes Public Works Department and UNDP. recommendations for particular trials and projects. Key: WS housing There is some analysis of the impact of tourism on 231 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Apia and the impact of Apia (and its environment) on Describes the completion of the Apia urban water tourism. supply project comprising river intakes, water treatment plants and new service reservoirs. Forum Secretariat (1990). Pre-fearibility study for the Pacyc Regional environment program, G K W Consult in association with G M final report. Suva. Meredith & Associates (1993). Apia sewerage Key: WS environ project feasibility study review, Vol 4, finance and economics. Apia: Western Samoa Public G K W Consult (1989). Tariff study for the Works Department. water supply sector in Western Samoa, final Key: WS water sew finance report, executive summary. Apia: Government Contains cost analysis, tariff requirements, financial of Western Samoa Public Works Department. projections, cost recovery experience and revenue Key: WS water finance potential. G K W Consult and G M Meredith Assoc Hardin & Associates Pty Ltd (1989). South (1993a). Apia sewerage project, feasibility study Pacyfc Project Development Facility : Western review final report, July 1993. Apia: Samoa. Sydney: Hardin & Associates Pty Ltd Government of Western Samoa Public Works for the South Pacific Trade Commission. Departnent. Key: WS water Key: WS sew Provides an overview of Westem Samoa's economic performance. Includes sectoral reviews for G K W Consult and G M Meredith Assoc agriculture, forestry and fishing, mining and energy, g . manufacturing, construction, tourism, currency and (1993b). Apia sewerage project, water quality banking, employment, prices, water, foreign trade, and biological studies. Apia: Government of Wester Samoa Public Works Department. trdnspon and communications. Key: WS sew wate Kay, R., Cole, R., Elisara-Laulu, F., & Tamada, K. Y. (1993). Assessment of coastal Geredith K W CnuA ssociat99 i w e Mvulnerability and resilience to sea-level rise and Meredith & Associated (1993). Apia sewerage coastal change. Apia: SPREP. project feasibility study review, Vol 3' Kcy:WS envir organizational, legal and insttudonlal. Apia Examines the problems of coastal zone management Western Samoa Public Works Department. in Western Samoa in terms of coastal vulnerability Key: WS water sew plan/man and resilience. Considerable attention is given to the Covers establishment of the Water Authority of urban economy and cultural context of Apia, and Western Samoa, legal provisions for piped sewerage especially the problem of waste disposal. systems and corporatization of the Public Works Water Division. Klinckhamers, P. (1992). Western Samoa: land based pollution sources and their effects on the KiW Consult in association w aer marine environment. Apia: SPREP. Meredith & Associates (1989). Apia water Key: WS environ supply and sanitation project, phase IV, Review of the sources of pollution in Western Samoa progress report 1989, final report. Apia: - most of which comes from industrial sites in and Western Samoa Public Works Department. around Apia - and their impact on the marine Key: WS water sew enviroment. 232 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources KRTA Ltd (1988). Environmental planning for Richmond, B. (1991). Coastal morphology, tourism in Western Samoa. Apia: Government shoreline stability and nearshore marine of Western Samoa and SPREP. resources of Upotu, Western Samoa. Technical Key: WS econ/dev plan/man environ Report No. 90. Suva: CCOP/SOPAC. Recommends creation of a national conservation Key: WS environ strategy and a National Parks and Reserves Agency, and an Environmental Management and Planning Robert, D. (1993). Watcr Authority organization Agency. Discusses existing environmental and tariff study, draft report. Suva: Government legislation. of Western Samoa and Commission of the European Communities. Maiava, S. (1993). 0 Le Siosiomaga Society: Key: WS water the establishment of an indigenous Covers institutional arrangements in the water sector, environmental NGO in Western Samoa. In A. Water Authority organization; tariff analysis; and a C. Walsh (Eds.), Development that Works! short term action plan. Lessons from Asia Pacific. Development Studies Monograph No. 3. Palmerston North: SPREP and East West Center Environment and Massey University. (pp. D9.1-D9.3). Policy Institute (1991). Terrestrial ecosystem Key: WS environ mapping for Western Samoa. Apia: SPREP. A bnef note on the role of the Society in Key: WS environ environmental issues Analysis of the land ecosystems of Western Samoa, that seeks to evaluate which are most important for Punivalu, I., & Cox, G. (1992). Water supply in conservation. The study develops a national plan for Samoa. In United Nations Department of conservation of the best sites in the most important Economic and Social Development (Eds.), ecosystems. There is a useful account of the land Water Resources Management Techniques for tenure and the relationship between people and land. Small Islands. New York United Nations Department of Economic and Social Thomas, P. (1981). A water tank and an Development. (pp. 165-171). agriculture station. In P. Larmour, R. Key: WS water Crocombe, & A. Taungenga (Eds.), Land, Account of changes in Samoa's water supply, with People and Govenment: Public Lands Policy in particular reference to Apia, and new proposals for the South Pacific. Suva, Cambridge: University water reticulation. of the South Pacific, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. (pp. 69-71). Rearic, D. M. (1990). Survey of cyclone fa', Key: WS land solid/waste water damage to the northern coast of Upolt, Western Uses two examples of government acquisition of land Samoa. Technical Report No. 104. Suva: for public use to highlight the internal and external SOPAC. problems the Samoan government faces in this Key: WS environ activity. Reti, M. (1990). New challenges to Western UNDP Pacific Regional Equitable and Samoa's Enviromnent. Appendix C-3 in Sustainable Human Development Program Thistlethwaite and Votaw(1992). In Environment (1993). Report of joint UNDP/SPC project and Development: A Pacic Island Perspective. formudation mission to Western Samoa. Suva: Manila: Asian Development Bank. UNDP. Key: WS environ econ/dev Key: WS social environ 233 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Overview of the human development situation in Western Samoa Public Works Department Samoa with reference to environment, economy, (1986). 1986 aid proposal for Western Samoa in health, nutrition, education, and culture, with the the water and public works sector. Apia: elements of a national human development strategy. (unpublished). Key: WS water sew Vanderburg, P. (1992). Apia: Town without Zavala, B. (1985). Handbook for water quality plan. 0 le Siosiomaga Society Newsletter, April, monitoring and analysis for Western Samoa. 7.8 Apia Observatory Hydrological Services, Apia. Key: WS plantman environ Key: WS water Reports on the need for urban planning in Apia as discussed at a public meeting. Vanderburg, P. (1993). Samoa land claims changing. 0 Le Siosiomaga Society Newsletter, March/April, 6-7. Key: WS environ land Reports on talk by Tim O'Meara on land tenure and the Malai system within a capitalist economy. Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in the Pacific: A survey of resource use and policy in Fiji, Solomon Islands. Tonga, Vanuams and West Samoa. Environmental Studies Report No. 43. Suva: Institute of Natural Resources University of the South Pacific. Key: SI Fiji Ton WS environ plan/man Western Samoa (1989). Land and Environment Act 1989. Apia. Key: WS land environ Western Samoa Department of Lands Surveys and Environment (1993). Protecting our water supplies. Samoa Observer, 7 July, 5. Key: WS environ Western Samoa Department of Public Works (1993). Country paper for Western Samoa. World Bank Pacific Island Transport and Urban Environment Seminar, 24-27 August, East- West Center, Hawaii. (unpublished). Key: WS plan/man over water sew Contains summary of key municipal and environmental management issues. 234 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA CONTENTS Commentary Settlem entHistory .................................................H.y.......................................................7........237 Econom y ....................................................................................................................m.............238 Em ploym en 2 ............................................................................................................................240 Developm entPlanning .........................................................................................................241 Land ............................................................................. .............................. ................... . .... 242 Population And M igration...................................................................................................242 Urbanizatisn .......................................................................................................................244 Urban Services ....................................................................................................................2A4 Selected References Key ................................................................................ .............................................. ........... 4 Economic And SocialDevelopment ......................................................................................2e4t9 Population And M igratio .......................................................................................................253 Governance And Plannninng .....................................................................................................2 Finance And De velopm en ..................................................................................................260 Urban Land ..............................................................................................................................261 Residential DeveIopm ent ........................................................................................................ 2 Urban Sanitation And Environm ent .......................................................................................263 235 召 響 236 • � а� о Ст'�7�`С~7�Ср° �� � � � �' о с � � � �•'�• р� g°,�Q`'��'Э �'и �5 � � с�. �°•'� `� C° •v й �v •v " 5' . � �: � �. � 3 � �'� � ос ".' � � � ,� � о �' �, л• л л w �� я � 5'� FR� 5'�о �хг� �: а� � �.`� `° �, � 5:� ��'^ �•Е'��5�'� с� � �° р�'� о �'�,,о' р � р � � �Х.�'� р��.� � •° � о Ел;�рн �.q�o о � и�.�о„ • � � �`� F� с�о �• 8. �. ki е: �'*. � s" � рΡ� о '�'' с� р �. q�o, о ,.,,. � � .�'� � � D и � � � о � «... rC ��• ��• � и ��,• м О С7 5 й р� � с�9 и• �, � м� и"..1' . oG � b t9 ё С о ly Sp ��� а'• ��. � � ... ~• �3• р�т . � й о � � л. � . i..� р 'О � (�q � ,,� �j i�y ►+� Oq 'ët• р и R. р' � �� �.�1 �'О а;� 'С�� °� ::.� � �''.� �'. � �� w5. р �о СТ� й.�о`<�Сд�dq `° � �'i •� � .. �i �. .-. � 'L7 и м г. о'cgo ао �„� •�'r�� о.рΡе• а; �g� �'.F� °��-го" 5'��Oр� � у'� и �,о � � "',�� �'� � �.ё р о� � р� � С7 Го.► р о д. � р �° �� р�' ��• t"р ,..�, � п`".�.: �j, 5 С�. r' ц О м с�• о о �'i'� Ас0 � р � �'Е• ��� g �. .ь� рΡ 5•�"�� � ��j о� �р ��' й.о ""И 'J�0 � ГJ �' f/f Й а' fD Fг �у �• О R о р �r и и �f �' � �С `•h � д�, �� �.о ��.� н"�� �� •�.� о о � ��гуΡf о �� д�, �� �.д� � �� о �A"" р � �' . �. �. � �• ��уΡ �. ~" � � л р ip м � �' � и �9 � й `� � й L"Т' � � i� `✓ Q '. � l9 � � �' р О fy .р уΡ � �. � � �•• с 'С.� "� ,�уΡ рΡ� � а � �- � го �рΡ �: r, р � ?о � f9 z р С �"• О� � �г �'�! f0 �рΡ � �. `R �9 � � �n й n '-' .о�, н. 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О 5• р � ,� й со �j. � �° 'b �' �. �i �, Со �ё � сР О � � � � го й � � � р � � z :%• о $ й ]"'�.. ^ ��,�' ,�q �'р � �' ��� �.'$ �^�9'�,��уΡ �� р•'" � �`���уΡ� ��'' � �•^ л � � с��о �•о-г,�.й � 0 � ,� �+ � и Р. о1 f3. �i fC � , `С �j �р и �'�' � О� . �рΡ� и • �. рΡ"q. �• � р~i р � О � �. � �• л ' �р � � � fp � � РΡ� А. р „"'�. + нС f9 .Т 0� 'д О �9� ���� ~ й � р � �аС ' � �•D•о ...0 � и �^ �� о� й feD � � °; l� о q' р. � � �. ►С � �. ~ я � о 5 � ... �,� �� о о � со ��х5�'r ��' � а+ 5го е t� о'�аго р� с,,.� с� �� Е'r � со �е с� ...� ►� р 5 ". С. с� � со со со "т7 со м Ф й' С► �� со с� �s. сР �'i Э й и0 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources district offices in Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei. In which is an example of the difficulties in World War Two Chuuk was the main base for achieving coordinated development. the Japanese Pacific fleet accommodating 30,000 military and naval personnel. From 1947 the Carolines were incorporated into the Economy United States Trust Territory of the Pacific (TTPI). The CFA financial package of US$60 million for the first five years is substantial and gives In 1977 Kosrae became a separate state in an the USA considerable latitude in bilateral attempt to win extra revenue from the TTPI relations. In the second five years it urops to government and, in 1978, there was a US$51 million annitally and then to US$40 referendum on a proposed constitution to million a year in the next five year period. Over establish the FSM. Chuuk, Yap, Pohnpei and the 15 years at least 40 per cent must be spent Kosrae voted in favor of a FSM whilst the on capital improvement and expenditure is Marshall Islands and Palau decided to remain audited in the US. Additional gmnts are made outside. Thus the heartland of Micronesia for several areas such as health and medical became a self-governing state known as the programs (US$2 million) and educational FSM in May 1979. The greatest development scholmhips (US$3 million). It is considered problems were now concentrated in the FSM unlikely, because of the structure of the following its creation aq a largely artificial econDmy, that the FSM will be able to generate entity, and consisting of the most impoverished sufficient economic growth to compensate for states within the TTPl. Secessionist sentiments the declining funding arrangements of the CFA. exist within the country and parts of it, such as It is most doubtful that there will be any Yap, are tenuously linked to the other islands. significant economic growth and not of the During the 1980s discussions with the USA necessary 10 per cent required. The resulting over a Compact of Free Association (CFA) led fiscal crisis is likely to lead to increased US to an agreement giving extensive American aid assistance, more diversified aid, extensive and enabling the country to gain much greater outinigmtion or all of these. control over domestic and foreign affairs. The CFA was implemented in 1986 and provides Agriadtare: The traditional economic system substantial gmnts and trade benefits. Ile was based on a combination of agriculture and Trusteeship agreement ended in 1990 which is fishing with agriculture being most marked in now regarded as the date of independence. the high islands. Staple crops vary with breadfruit being preferred in Chutik, breadfruit The four states of the FSM are separate and and yams in Pohnpei, taro and breadfittit in distinct entities and each has its own legislature Kosrae and taro in Yap. Coconuts are and elected governor. The fourteen-member everywhere a major component of diets and national Congress is based at the administrative agriculture is supplemented by fishing. In social capital of Palikir near Kolonia in Pobnpei. terms traditional food crop production is an There are no political parties and legislators integral component of competitive feasting to have parochial interests. Municipal local achieve status and men are the principal government exists throughout the country. Each agriculturalists in much of the country state is pfimarily responsible for its own (Polinpei, Kosrae and Chuuk). development and development plan. Each has also conducted its own census at different times 238 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The agricultural economies of the outlying Constraints to increased agricultural production islands are typical of the Pacific region and are those typically found in Micronesia: land provided self-sufficiency. The principal food shortages and tenure difficulties (mainly in crop was usually taro grown in swamps Chuuk), difficult topography (on Kosrae and alongside breadfruit and coconuts. Most Pohnpei), high labor costs, an education system gardening is undertaken by women and fishing, oriented to 'white collar' occupations, consumer which is considered to be of more importance in tastes oriented to imports, minimal taxation of the atolls, is a male activity. Throughout FSM imports, limited marketing within the states, the historic agricultural systems have been and inadequate and expensive transport. modified by modem trends towards cash crop production (copra) and wage employment. This Fisheries: Commercial fisheries development is especially true of the high islands but the has been limited but the subsistence sector is modernizing influences are felt less in FSM very important to all island economies. Small- than in other parts of Micronesia. Food imports scale commercial fishing is constrained by are substantial comprising around 40 per cent of factors such as traditional fishing rights, a lack the value of all imports since the 1970s. of infrastructure like refrigeration and a decline in availability of some species. The Numerous attempts have been made to develop establishment of fisheries complexes at Tonoas commercial agriculture since German and in Chunk and Pohnpei may assist production. Japanese times. Subsequent attempts including Agreements have been reached with several rice cultivation have been largely unsuccessful, countries regarding the leasing of FSM as has commercial poultry production (Connell territorial waters and this has become an 1991b). However the main commercial crop important source of national revenue. Since remains copra with black pepper in Pohnpei, 1979 US$60 million has been received from bananas in each state and limes and tangerines license fees amounting to about 6-10 per cent of in Kosrae. There are few enterprises because of the value of fish caught. The industry is the high costs of agricultural inputs such as dominated by the Japanese, with Taiwan and fertilizer and pesticides and the effects of the USA also being important participants. erosion and weed invasions. Very little There is little local interest in exploiting tuna domestic production is marketed locally; only in stocks and towards the end of the 1980s Chuuk and Pohnpei (and intermittently in Yap) production was less than 500 tons (less than 0.5 are there urban markets. Subsistence food per cent of tuna caught in FSM waters). There production amounted to US$42 million of the are 20 active vessels operating out of Yap, US$145 million GDP in 1988. By comparison Chunk and Pohnpei. Reef and lagoon fish are some two million dollars of agricultural over exploited but artisanal fishing for commodities and fish were exported. The commercial purposes is increasing in composition of this was copra (US$587,000), importance on the high islands. bananas (US$60,000) and pepper (US$32,000). Copra production which remains paramount has Manufacaring: There is virtually no decreased from some 8,600 tons in 1979 to manufacturing in FSM with the exception of 2,000 tones in 1988. Various manufactured minor food processing. Obvious constraints are products including soaps and oils are made the small size of the domestic market, high from coconuts. Pepper from Pohnpei is scarcely wage levels, high energy costs, few natural marketed beyond the tourist trade and even here resources and proximity to Asian industries. A is more expensive than the imported brands. garment factory has opened on Yap, but the 239 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources workers are Sri Lankan women, and the gains per cent in Kosrae, 7.5 per cent in Pohnpei and to the FSM are limited. 22.8 per cent in Chuuk. The extent to which such data are accurate is challenged by some Teurism: There is potential for further evidence from Yap. Firstly, in the settlement of development in the high islands because of Madrich there are many unemployed youth favorable transport links. Diving potential of leading to repeated calls from the Council of the Chuuk Lagoon, the Nan Madol site on Tamol (Chiefs) that migration from the outer Pohnpei and the stone money of Yap are islands cease. Secondly, when a new particular attractions. Visitor numbers have government factory opened in 1989 some 400 grown from 5,770 in 1980 to 23,170 in 1990 Yapese applied for jobs indicating a and tourists comprise more than half of these. considerable interest in formal sector In 1990 more than 600 were employed in the employment. Relatively few are full-time tourist industry. The majority of tourists come workers in the subsistence sector by choice, from Japan. hence disguised unemployment is considerable. In overall terms the value of exports (US$7.1 Two thirds of all wage and salary employment million) was barely 10 per cent of imports by is in the public sector in all states and wages in value (US$60 million). Real GDP growth is this sector are more than twice those in private estimated to have averaged 2.8 per cent a year enterprises. When national government in the 1980s with GDP per capita around employment is included about three quarters of US$1,250 at the end of that decade. The wage and salary earners are in the public sector. principal development potential rests in Conditions in the government sector are more agriculture and fisheries. An important task in favorable than the private sector with employees national development planning is to reverse the being able to earn outside income and make use general urban and high island bias in the of workplace privileges such as transport and distribution of activities of all kinds. Such minimal supervision. There is over-employment redistribution is difficult given the pattern of in some junior levels in government causing land resources and problems in creating duplication of tasks. Public sector wages have employment in the atolls. However without increased annually raising expectations to some decentralization the population pressure unrealistic levels. The income gap between the and attendant social problems which accompany public sector and subsistence occupations is urbanization are likely to worsen. increasing. This has produced a 'dual economy' with great demand for education and training. The result is the worst of both worlds - a Employment private sector deprived of potentially high quality workers and a public sector Subsistence agriculture forms the largest part of characterized by high costs and low the workforce. The government sector productivity. employed almost a quarter with half of it in Kosrae and it is dominated by males. The two sectors are closely linked through Unemployment has proved difficult to measure services (restaurants, taxis and stores) with but a 1990 national manpower survey recorded most wage activities being ultimately dependent a rate of 13.5 per cent (8.3 for males and 21.8 on public sector incomes. More than half of all percent for females) varying from 0 per cent in males between 35 and 49 have completed Yap (where there were sampling problems), 2.8 secondary education compared with only 26 per 240 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources cent of those aged 20-24 years (FSM Second colonial system. This has resulted in a value National Development Plan 1991: 31). In both orientation towards urban employment, the Pohnpei and Chuuk secondary school public sector bureaucracy and directly enrollment is falling despite rapid population productive activities in agriculture and fisheries. increase. This may reflect the disenchantment of The social environment places high priority on young adults with formal sector job individual liberties restricting the development opportunities. National employment needs may of policies or regulations over issues such as be summarized as: population movement, access to employment * creation of jobs in the productive sector for and education. All this has contributed to an unskilled workers; exceptionally poor growth record. * training of citizens for technical and National development is unusually complex management positions; since each state has its own development plan * a lessening of the disparity between public and planning office, and all have produced at and private sector wage levels and least two plans. The earliest tended to be employment conditions; project lists rather than strategic documents and * the generation of productive employment were somewhat divorced from political and opportunities in the rural areas and outer bureaucratic processes. There are also two islands. national development plans produced by the Office of Planning and Statistics in consultation The basis of the FSM economy is outside- with state governments which provides a macro- financed public sector employment. In 1980 economic overview alongside both state and only nine per cent of funds for the whole of sectoral strategies. However 'most policy TTPI was derived from tax revenues and the decisions appear to be guided by considerations annual US grant totaled 87 per cent of the other than their macro economic impact' (World budget. Micronesia therefore has a 40-year Bank 1993: vi). The First National history of living off US subsidies and is Development Plan (1985-1989) emphasized self- 'heavily dependent on government salaries reliance and the principal goal of national bankrolled by US annual subsidies, and the development, yet this plan and the state plans single greatest source of income remains the that were developed at the same time 'school industry' in the form of teachers' concentrated on the high islands and placed salaries ' (Hezel and Levin 1990). little attention on the rural parts and outer islands. Development Planning The Second National Development Plan (1992- 1996) which took several years to be finalized High and rising aspirations and a rapidly has emphasized the importance of marine growing population together with limited resources in economic development, since tuna resources and excessive dependence on external is the primary resource of the nation. The aid in a remote region have resulted in a central themes of the plan are economic development planning challenge greater than development, human resource development, anywhere else in the Pacific. These inherent national unity, efficiency in govermnent, problems are further complicated by cultural development, equity, quality of life and characteristics of Micronesian society which youth participation. Regional equity and emphasize rank and competition between groups decentralization are hampered by factors such as and islands and the overlay of an American irregular shipping schedules, high fuel costs, 241 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatue and Data Sources poor employment opportunities, problems of accommodation with poor access to services agricultural and fisheries development and (Alkire 1993). This has had the effect of dependency on commodity imports. slowing migration from the outer islands to the Decentralization is necessary to some degree centers. but attempts to achieve it have proved largely unsuccessful. In Chunk and Yap very little land is publicly owned and that used for government facilities is leased or purchased when required. On Pohnpei Land considerable areas of interior land which are owned by the state are legally set aside as There are considerable variations in the watershed conservation areas. Most of Kolonia structure of land tenure throughout the four town is also government owned with long-term states. In Yap most tenure is patrilineal but leases offered to citizens for residential or elsewhere it is primarily matrilineal. There are commercial purposes. The national government also considerable constraints on the ability of owns the national capital site at Palikir. On migrants to gain access to land on the high Kosrae interior lands are also government islands for any purpose. There is no apparent owned but some is owned privately. Land use land market in any of the states. In Yap there is jurisdiction remains a state responsibility. relatively little conflict over tenure as every plot is named and ranked; rank, caste and status are Throughout the country physical development crucial in all aspects of social life. On Pohnpei policy and planning has only occurred on an the ranking and chiefly system is different isolated and exceptional basis. Strong land resulting in greater flexibility in social ownership rights have traditionally been a organization and tenure. The system is higher priority than greater efficiencies in land matrilineal but during the German and Japanese use planning. Development codes are only in colonial periods pressure was put on the people process of formulation serving as guidelines and to accept a patrilineal inheritance system. This part of the educational process at best. In some caused some shifts in the structure of title- areas - Weno, Kolonia, Sokehs (Pohnpei) and holdings and new complexities overall. Lelu (Kosrae) - higher population densities and increased government responsibilities for In Chuuk and Kosrae there is little utilities have emphasized the need for a better contemporary evidence of an hierarchical public land use policy. It is intended that each chiefly system and land is primarily inherited state will initiate a comprehensive long-term through matrilineages. The basic structure of physical plan within the present plan period tenure in the outer islands is similar to the high (and this is progressing in Pohnpei). This will islands though social arrangements are less assist in developing a comprehensive plan for characterized by hierarchical chiefly systems. physical infrastructure. (On the Polynesian outer islands of Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro land tenure is more likely to be individualistic). The low Population and Migration social status of outer islanders has given them minimal access to high island land. In every case the majority of outer islanders are Analysis of population change and migration in concentrated in very small areas of the towns, FSM is constrained by the absence of adequate usually in overcrowded and inadequate data. In post-contact times each state 242 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources txperienced a phase of historic depopulation, four times that of Pohnpei, the next most none more so than Yap, but throughout the densely settled state, whereas Kosrae and Yap country decline has been as marked as are relatively thinly populated. In overall totals anywhere else in the Pacific. In Pohnpei for Kosrae had 6,600 people in 1986 and Yap had example a major smallpox epidemic in the 10,140 in 1987. The mortality rates are high in 1850s significantly reduced the population. The Yap, infertility is not unusual and there are most detailed evidence comes from Kosrae long post-partum taboos on intercourse. Within where not only was there a well-recorded post- states there can be great differences in density, contact decline from 1,106 in 1855 to 397 in as in the outer islands of Yap (Eauripik, 1874, there was also a significant pre-contact Satawal and Ifaluk) and the Polynesian outliers depopulation because of typhoons and warfare. of Pohnpei which have particularly high Atolls especially have been characterized by concentrations. variable populations; on some of the smaller ones population numbers have never Data on birth and death rates are inadequate subsequently reached pre-contact totals. because of under-reporting. Fertility remains The first useful census of the Trust Territory high with the total fertility rate averaging 5.6, was in 1973 but the 1980 census was limited by suggesting some decline in the past decade. significant under enumeration. More recently Mortality rates have also declined though the the censuses are among the most reliable yet to official figure of 8.0 seems extremely low as be undertaken in Micronesia. Crude data on does the infant mortality rate of 52.2. High population growth indicate very slow or non- fertility and low mortality have given the FSM existent growth in the first half of the century its high rate of natural increase and a youthful followed by accelerating rates from the 1960s. age structure. Based on 1990 estimates some 46 There is little reliable information on per cent of the national population are aged less contemporary birth and death rates and no than 15 years. In Chuuk this proportion is 48.5 effective population policies anywhere or use of per cent. The rapid increase in population is family planning services (the acceptance rate is also a result of the low average age of marriage less than 10 per cent). The data on natural and little family planning. The youthful increase indicate that extremely high rates have population places great pressure on the occurred in the recent past, suggesting that the education system and has seen an increase in annual rate may have reached close to four per malnutrition and other health problems. The cent in the late 1970s. Since the signing of the suicide rate for young males is among the CFA the annual growth rate has fallen and may highest in the world. now be as low as one per cent because of high emigration. Household sizes are large, Mgradon* There is a long history of migration averaging 8.5 for the FSM as a whole and in FSM where a traditional voyaging response ranging from 9.7 in Kosrae to 5.3 in Yap. to over-population was common in the atolls. Since the Second World War the overwhelming The mid-1990 population of FSM was about trend has been towards a concentration of 100,520 as estimated on the basis of projections population on the central high islands, from the 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1989 state especially Weno (Moen) and Pohnpei. In 1989 censuses. Almost half reside in Chuuk state but Weno had a population of 14,595 which was 30 this state has experienced the highest rates of per cent of the state total but its population has emigration in the country and may now be increased by 50 per cent since 1980. Pohnpei declining. The population density on Chuuk is had 91 per cent of the state population but 243 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Colonia town had only 24 per cent of the total. and this number is expected to increase. There Weno is especially overcrowded and is no evidence as yet tlat remittances to FSM experiences an exodus to home islands at are substantial but this may change as the weekends. In Pohnpei the return is to home country follows practices in other parts of the villages. In Kosrae there is no urban center and South Pacific. Kolonia is tiny. Urban life in FSM is superficial in many respects and the towns have many rural characteristics such as agriculture, chicken and Urbanization pig-rearing. The growth of towns has been belated. There Populations are increasingly concentrated in the were some urban centers in the pre-war era of center as the smallest and most isolated atolls Japanese colonialism but these were alien have lost inhabitants. The larger and less creations and had largely disappeared by the densely populated atolls have actually gained, post-war period. In the 1960s when the USA as in the case of Ulithi which possesses the sought to incorporate Micronesia into a Outer Islands High School and is the principal permanent integration with the 'mainland', the center for the outer islands of Yap state. centralization of people in district settlements Detailed information on population migration was encouraged. This was thought to be better has not been collected since the 1973 census suited to government social benefits and making it only possible to discuss population employment schemes. Whilst never official this movements in general terms. One of the most policy underlined the reality of development striking characteristics of movement in FSM is based on expansion of government handouts. the high level of mobility resulting in Towns that were fundamentally administrative substantial fluctuations in island totals. centers thus began to grow except in Kosrae (which only became a separate state in 1977). Migration is the 'safety valve' for atoll They were small; by 1967 Kolonia had a overpopulation and this is particularly the case population of only 2,991, the total for Weno in the smallest ones. Provision of acceptable was 5,687 (little of this being urban) and standards of community living in these remote Colonia was too small to be separately islands is very difficult and is exacerbated by identified. Despite US encouragement of district boredom and monotony. The search for concentrations the urban centers were employment and cash incomes influence most unimpressive and infrastructure and services migration moves directly or indirectly. poorly developed. Possibilities of employment are more apparent than real but education is an important catalyst. Throughout Micronesia there are difficulties in Until the signing of the CFA almost all defining urban areas and most attempts follow migration was confined to particular states but arbitrary municipal boundaries. In neither this has been followed by international Chuuk, Yap or Pohnpei is there a satisfactory movement to the USA for tertiary education in definition. Consequently data on urban particular. In the two years following the populations are of limited value as in the case agreement some 2,000 Chuukese migrated to of Pohnpei where the boundaries exclude Guam and Saipan and this was the start of a Sokeks people who might be considered urban. more comprehensive movement. The Second The reverse is true in Chuuk where Weno National Development Plan estimated there incorporates some relatively 'rural' people. were some 5,000 FSM citizens in Guam alone Such definitional problems parallel those of 244 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources employment and unemployment. The 1973 and on nearby Sokehs island but have little access to 1980 censuses suggest that the population of land there. Within the town there are well- Kolonia fell whilst that of Weno grew and defined groups from Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro Colonia remained the same (at only 1,474). In and Kosrae; migrants from Kapingamarangi 1973 approximately 28 per cent of the national tend to remain in the Porakiet settlement population could be considered as town- whereas those from Nukuoro and Kosrae are dwellers and by 1980 this was 26 per cent. A more dispersed. In Weno (Chuuk) there is a fall is unlikely and this figure probably similar social clustering with most outer represents under enumeration. By the end of the islanders living at Irar village, close to the 1980s the population of Weno was 14,595 of airport. In Colonia the social divisions are whoi a significant proportion were urban. In considerable, though Palaians are more 1987 the population of Kolonia was enumerated scattered in the urban area (having either leased at 6,169 and is estimated to have reached about land from Yapese or gained government 7,250. Colonia was not separately distinguished houses). Most outer islanders live at Madrich, a in the 1987 census (an indication of its small 0.3 hectare site of church land where more than size and limited significance attached to 250 persons are housed in overcrowded urbanization in the FSM) but probably totaled conditions. These urban social divisions are a about 2,000 at the end of the decade. Thus in result of a significant social hierarchy in which 1990 the urban population of FSM was throughout FSM outer islanders are at the probably less than 25,000 and no more than 25 lowest levels and experience discrimination in per cent of the national population. various forms. Even so the towns are in some respects distinct from the Micronesian social The relatively slow growth of urban centers system and thus represent places where most of indicates two important conclusions. Firstly, the those of low caste might achieve respite from towns are not growing as fast as might have traditional order. This has introduced a been expected from the evidence of migration, significant social component to rural-urban indicating there is significant return migration. migration. Secondly, the urban population is much smaller than that of any other single entity within the Information on social and economic status of economy and suggests that development urban populations is conspicuous by its strategies oriented towards agriculture and absence. Many migrants have moved from fisheries may have better chances of success. densely populated islands where worsening There has been little recent consideration of conditions may make a return impossible. These urbanization issues other than a brief discussion persons may thus be dispossessed. It is hard to of urban services in the Second National judge the accuracy of this without data on their Development Plan. Urbanization is not personal circumstances. Basic socio-economic perceived as a problem in the states. studies of the urban population in particular could reveal important planning implications. Of the three towns the capital Kolonia is the only distinctively urban center though its population is less than 10,000. Its urban Urban Services boundary has been drawn close to the center and excludes communities from the Mortlock Urban service provision is primarily a function atolls, Ngatik (Sapwahfik), Mokil (Mwoakilloa) of the Public Works Departments (the names and Pingelap, which have long been established differ) in particular states but services are 245 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources highly restricted - in extent, coverage and proposals are intended to be implemented revenue collection - and are often confined to within the present plan period. public institutions. In the absence of more broadly based urban planning it will be difficult Water- In each state the production and to transfer public utilities to private enterprises distribution of water is the responsibility of (involving non-resident companies) without Public Works. With the exception of Palikir and neglecting the public interest. Compact funds Colonia the provision of day-long potable water have subsidized state services hitherto. has not been achieved and in Colonia services Improved urban service systems are urgently are often disrupted. There is excessive waste required throughout FSM but despite the and leakage (of the order of 270-360 gallons per existence of national environmental management capita daily) in all systems. The distribution strategies (FSM 1992), environmental networks are contaminated and waterborne legislation is weak or non-existent (Harding diseases are common. There is a lack of 1992). Incorporating environmental issues into institutional structures for metering and bill urban planning will also prove difficult. collection hence little revenue is recovered or water conserved. Despite restricted water Housing: There is no public housing other than hours, the per capita consumption in Chuuk, a small amount of government dwellings. Kosrae and Yap in mid-1992 was 300 gallons, Existing schemes are entirely concerned with and in Pohnpei about 130 gallons. These figures the provision of finance to intended home are substantially more than in most parts of the owners and largely support those already on or Pacific region. Poor management and above average incomes. They do not serve the maintenance has led to deterioration in poorest groups in urban areas. Housing loan distribution systems and frequent shutdowns programs are operated by NGOs including state which is, among other things, a constraint to housing authorities and community action development of the tourism industry. agencies such as YAP-CAP (Yap Community Action Program). These programs enable low to In Pohnpei the Kolonia system covers Sokebs moderate income families to secure a low- and parts of rural Nett; at the start of the 1990s interest, long-term housing loan sufficient to about 55 per cent of connected households had either rehabilitate or construct a permanent a day-long service. Metering and collection of home. Somewhat unusually, they also enable water bills was initiated at the start of the 1990s the state to upgrade housing stock. Demand for (in 1990 only 38 per cent of bills were paid and housing loans has grown in recent years and the charges were set below cost). Fully 20 per cent list of creditworthy applicants seeking loans has of output was wasted in leaks, illegal grown despite the availability of Federal and connections and other losses. All parts of CFA finance. In general there are no programs Kosrae are served with piped water and metered to assist low-income households to acquire 'but customers are riot usually charged' (Second dwellings that meet the minimum standards of National Development Plan 1992). In Chuuk, it quality and accommodation which falls within is only Weno and parts of Tonoas where there their means. are centralized public systems. Colonia in Yap State has a centralized supply system but Housing loan programs need to be consolidated demand exceeds plant capacity and individual at the state level, interest on loans needs to be catchments serve most of the population. increased and arrears require reduction; these Droughts pose a particular problem because of limited storage capacity. 246 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Sold waste: disposal is regarded as a severe Present policy is aimed at increasing capacity problem not only because of health dangers but and improving dependability of water systems owing to increasing costs. Litter is also a in the urban areas. In the present plan period it problem in all urban areas. Except in Yap thero, is intended that metering and bill collection will is no organized garbage collection system, be introduced though there is a lack of skilled though elsewhere the public works departments human resources for management, operation undertake some collection from government and maintenance of additional infrastructure and facilities. Refuse is therefore not transported on accounting systems. A UNDP-supported water a regular basis, no state has a refuse truck and resources program is currently in place. no state ordinances exist to regulate methods of handling garbage from collection to disposal. Sewerage: There are few sewerage systems in Consequently roads are littered from private the urban areas though a series of US EPA- refuse trucks. State governments do not funded projects were in place at the end of the maintain properly managed sanitary landfill 1980s. One central sewer exists in Pohnpei and sites. Dependable solid waste disposal systems covers most of Kolonia; at the start of the 1990s are urgently needed alongside effective charges the sewage treatment plant was inoperational for for disposal services. more than a year and untreated sewage was dumped in a confined recreational bay. About 50 per cent of urban houses are connected to the system. Its renovation and extension to other households and facilities is crucial. The only sewerage system in Kosrae is in Tofol and serves various public buildings there. Chuuk has a central system but it does not operate effectively. The level of treatment is questionable and there is no effective monitoring (In 1982 disposal in CMuk lagoon contaminated seafood and resulted in a cholera outbreak with high mortality. This happened at a time when only six per cent of households had flush toilets and a central piped water connection. Changed sanitation have reduced but not ended the possibility of recurrence). In Yap there is a centralized system with a lagoon outfall and maintenance is good. The Pohnpei and Chuuk systems were poorly constructed and leaks have led to contamination. There is a lack of skilled human resources , spare parts and equipment to operate and manage the systems properly. It is intended to increase capacity to enable effective disposal and treatment in each of the urban centers. 247 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date. 248 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL Pohnpei State - Federated States of Micronesia. DEVELOPMENT Honolulu: Asian Development Bank and Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Alkire, W. H. (1981). Traditional exchange Center. systems and modem political developments in Key: FSM econ/dev the Yap district of Micronesia. In R. W. Force & B. Bishop (Eds.), Persistence and Exchange. Chuuk State Government (1992). Chauk five Honolulu: Pacific Science Association. (pp. 15- year development plan 1991-1995. Chuuk. 24). Key: FSM econ/dev Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev govt Discussion of the establishment of a modem political Connell, J. (1991). Subsistence agriculture and system in Yap State with particular reference to the fisheries in the Federated States of Micronesia. links between Yap proper and the Outer Islands. Suva: Forum Secretariat. Key: FSM econ1dev Barnabas, S., & Hezel, F. X. (1993). The Overview of the present situation and potential changing Pohnpeian family. The Micronesian change in subsistence agriculture and fisheries in Counselor, Occasional Paper No. 12, Weno: each of the four states, that also examines urban Chauk. nutrition, income and expenditure and the structure Key: FSM social of marketing in the urban centers. Examines social changes on Pohnpei, with particular reference to ten families from difrent parts of the Connell, J. (1992). The back door of island, with reference to resource distribution, bureaucracy: employment and development in income generation, food distribution, family labor, Yap State and Woleai Atoll, Federated States of child rearing, conflict resolution and ceremonials. Micronesia. In R. Baker (Eds.), Public Administration in Small Island States. West Cameron, J. (1991). Economic development Hertford: Kumarian Press. (pp. 174-192). options for the Federated States of Micronesia Key: FSM econ/dev at Independence. Pacific Studies, 14, 35-70. Examines the structure of employment and Key: FSM econ/dev development in Yap state, and especially the significance of the high proportion of bureaucratic Cameron, J. (1992). The Federated States of employment. Though the bureaucracy is dominant in Micronesia: Is there a Pacific way to avoid a the urban center, it is even more substantial in MIRAB society? In H. Hintjens & M. Newitt outlying atolls such as Wolcai. The level of (Eds.), The Political Economy of Small Tropical bureaucratic employment is likely to fall in the future ds: The mpoltia c owith attempts at privatization and a decline in aid. Islands: The Importance of Being Small. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. (pp. 150- Connell, J. (1994). Beyond the reef. Migration 179). and agriculture in Micronesia. Isla, 2(1), 83- Key: FSM econ/dev 101 Overview of the development problems of FSM, 101. including the possibilities of increased small-scale Key: FSM MI pop/mig econ/dev prdutin,and import substitution, as an alternative An overview of previous studies of migration in production, n aid, emigration and remite Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia to dependence on (and also Palan), with some reference to the outer islands of Yap state, that points to the decline of Carrol o ,et a (990). pritsecor agricultural systems but notes that this is only development and investment prospects in partially related to migration. 249 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Cowan, P. A. (1980). Future water quality finance; transport; tourism; education; health; monitoring priorities for the Trust Territories of housing; electricity; and law and order. the Pacific Islands. Water Resources Research Center, University of Guam. Technical Report Federated States of Micronesia (1991). National No. 16. Office of Water Research and report to the United Nations Conference on Technology, Department of Interior, United Environment and Development. Prepared under States. the direction of the Presidential Task Force on Key: FSM MI over plan/man water Environmental Management and Sustainable Development by Nancy S. Convard with the Dahl, C. (1993). Tourism development of the financial and technical assistance of the South Island of Pohnpei, Federated States of Pacific Regional Environment Program, the Micronesia: sacredness, control and autonomy. Asian Development Bank and United nations Ocean and Coastal Management, 20, 241-265. Development Program. SPREP, Apia, Western Key: FSM econldev Samoa. Examines the growth of tourism in Pohnpei, with Key: FSM econ/dev environ reference to other areas of economic development, and considers the possibilities for both ecotourism Federated States of Micronesia (1992). Second and mass tourism. National Development Plan, 1992-1996. Palikir, Pohnpei: Office of Planning and Dhanani, S. (1990). The 1990 manpower Statistics. survey. Palikir: ILO (draft). Key: FSM econ/dev plan/man Key: FSM econ/dev Detailed overview of the economic structure of Detailed analysis of the structure of employment, FSM, as a nation and for each state, with a based on census data, a questionnaire survey in all discussion of the macro-economic context of four states and other supplementary studies. planning, human resource development, population change and a brief discussion of urban service Elymore, J., Elymore, A., Badcock, J., Bach, provision. F., & Terrell-Perica, S. (1989). The 1987-88 national nutritional survey of the Federated Federated States of Micronesia. Office of States of Micronesia. Noumea: South Pacific Planning and Statistics (1982). Employment Commission. development and training plan: Federated Key: FSM econ/dev States of Micronesia. Kolonia: Federated States Detailed study of nutrition, especially of women and of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics. children in each of the four states, that notes Key: FSM plan/man over malnutrition amongst children and obesity amongst women, and traces these primarily to changes in diet, Flinn, J. (1988). Tradition in the face of especially in the urban centers. change: food choices among Pulapese in Truk State. Food and Foodways, 3, 19-39. Federated States of Micronesia (1986). Key: FSM econ/dev Economic & social statistics of Pohnpei. Examines the pattern of food consumption of Pohnpei: Department of Conservation and residents of Pulap (Pollap) on their home atoll and, Resource Surveillance. as migrants, on Weno. The study has a brief analysis Key: FSM pop/mig econ1dev finance of the social and economic organization of the Presents data on: population and employment; migrant community. national accounts; agriculture; business and industry; marine resources; external trade; prices and wages; 250 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Flinn, J. (1990). We still have our customs: Carroll (Eds.), Eiles and Migration in being Pulapese in Truk. In J. Linnekin & L. Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Poyer (Eds.), Cultural Identity and Ethnicity in Press. (pp. 34-67). the Pacific. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Key: FSM pop/mig social Press. (pp. 103-126). A discussion of the migration of Kapingamarangi Key: FSM pop/mig social atoll dwellers to Porakiet, a suburb of Kolonia Description of migration from the outer islands of (Pohopei), the social evolution of this Polynesian Chuuk to Weno, the status of migrants in the urban community and links with other urban residents. area, social change and the issues of identity. Lucas, R. L. (1991). Performance and growth Hezel, F. X. (1989). Suicide and the prospects: Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Micronesian family. The Contemporary Pacfic, Federated States of Micronesia, and the 1(1-2), 43-74. Republic of Palau. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Key: MI FSM sociLl Development Program, East-West Center. Detailed examination of the social context of very Key: MI FSM econ/dev high suicide rates in the three Micronesian states (including Palau) that focuses on magnetization and Marshall, M. (1979a). Education and the decline of extended family structures. depopulation on a Micronesian Atoll. Micronesica, 15(1-2), 1-11. Hezel, F. X. (1991). The dilemmas of Key: FSM social pop/mig development: effects of modernization on three A now dared but unique study of migration from the areas of island life. The Micronesian Counselor, atoll of Namoluk (Chunk), which points to the Occasional Paper No. 4, Weno: Chuuk. diversity of reasons for migration and its Key: FSM social considerable extent ana significance, for population Overview of social change in Federated States of decline, loss of self-sufficiency and eventual Micronesia, with particular reference to the role of emigration. government employment for changes in family organization, the distribution and redistribution of Marshall, M. (1979b). Weekend Warriors: goods and relations between the sexes. Alcohol in a Micronesian Culture. Palo Alto. Key: FSM social Hughes, D. T. (1982). Continuity in indigenous An examination of the social context of urban life in Ponapean social structure and stratification. Weno, Chunk, that focuses on social disorganization, Oceania, 53(1), 5-18. violence and alcohol consumption. Key: FSM social Meecharn, R. (1990). Environment resource Kent, G. (1982). Development planning for management: the key to sustainable economic Micronesia. Political Science, 34(1), 1-25. development in the Commonwealth of the Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev Northern Marianas. UNDP Regional Workshop on Environmental Management and Kosrae State Government (1984). Overall Sustainable Development in the South Pacific economic development plan 1985-1989. Kosrae: Region, Suva. Office of Planning and Budget. Key: FSM environ plan/man econ/dev Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission Lieber, M. D. (1977). The processes of change report - Ponape. Suva: South Pacific Bureau for in two Kap;ngamarangi communities. In V. Economic Co-operation. 251 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: FSM econ/dev The contemporary political economy of Pohnpei is Oneisom, 1. (1991). Chuuk's violence: then and analyzed in terms of a peasant economy, and the now. Journal of the Pacific Society, 14(2), 113- influence of colonialism on production and 118. consumption, and changing demand for goods and Key: FSM social new forms of employment. PATA (1990). Pohnpei and tourism: Managing Petersen, G. (1986). Redistribution in a the balance between development and Micronesian commercial economy. Oceania, conservation. San Francisco: PATA. Ke:83-98. Key: FSM econ/dev Key: FSM econ/dev This study provides an overview of the contemporary P e Pohnpei political economy, with a detailed Peoples, J. G. (1978). Dependence in a examination of the recent commercial history of one Micronesian economy. American Ethnologist, Pohapei community, and the operations of the larger 5(3), 535-552. commercial stores in Kolonia. The study considers Key: FSM econ/dev various explanations for commercial failures. The structure of development in Kosrae, which points to the establishment of an economy based on Petersen, G. (1993). Some Pohnpei strategies government employment. for economic survival. In V. Lockwood, T. Harding, & B. Wallace (Eds.), Contemporary Peoples, J. G. (1985). Island in Trust. Cultural Paciftc Societies. Studies in Development and Change and Dependence in a Micronesian COange. Englewood Cliffs: Simon and Economy. Boulder: Westview Press. Schuster. (pp. 21-33). Key: FSM econ/dev social Key: FSM econ/dev Overview of the emergence of 'dependent Considers the linkages between Pohapei culture and development' in Micronesia under the TTPI, with a economic and political change, and the manner in detailed discussion of economic and social change in which culture tends to conflict with commercial Kosrae, with particular reference to agriculture, development. employment and ceremonial obligations. Pohnpei State Government (1987). First state Peoples, J. G. (1986). Employment andIC development plan 1987-1991. Pohnpei: Office household economy in a Micronesian village. of Budget Planning and Statistics. Pacific Studies, 9(2), 103-120. Key: FSM econ/dev Key: FSM econ/dev social A study of the structure of employment in a single Poyer, L. (1993). Being Sapwuahfile: cultural Kosrae village, which points to the dominance of and ethnic identity in a Micronesian society. In government employment, and the significance of government wages for other households through the J. Linnekin & L. Poyer (Eds.), Cultural growth of the service sector. The study also Identity and Edicity in the Pacific. Honolulu: examines the allocations of time, the organization of University of Hawaii Press. (pp. 127-147). subsistence production and the structure of food Key: FSM social pop/mig consumption. Discussion of modernization on Sapwuahfile (Ngatile) atoll, with some discussion of political Petersen, G. (1979). External politics, internal change and the influence of migration to Pohnpei. economics and Ponapean social formation. American Ethnologist, 6(1), 25-40. Rizer, J. P. (1985). Pohnpei: Household Key: FSM social plan/man econ/dev Income, Expenditure, and the Role of Electricity. Honolulu: Pacific Islands 252 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Development Program and Resource Systems POPULATION AND MIGRATION Institute, East West Center. Key: FSM social econ/dev finance Alkire, W. H. (1993). Madrich: outer islanders on Yap. Pacific Studies, 16(2), 31-66. Schoeffel, P. (1992). Food, health and Key: FSM pop/mig development in the Pacific Islands: policy A detailed examination of the migration of outer implications for Micronesia. Isla, 1(2). islanders to Colonia, Yap, which focuses on the Key: FSM MI econ/dev social and cultural constraints to migration and extended urban residence, and analyses the social and Schwalbenberg, H. (1984). Traditional economic organizations of the migrant community of economic systems ad e to Madrich, which is extremely overcrowded because of the limited access of outer islanders to land on Yap westernization. In The Micronesia Seminar (Eds.), Past Achievements and Futre Possibilities. (pp. 2-10). Carroll, V. (1977). Communities and non- Key: FSM econ/dev social communities: the Nuknoro on Ponape. In M. D. Lieber (Eds.), Eriles and Migrants in Oceania. Tavemer, R. (1990). Results of the household Honolulu: University of Hawaii press. (pp. 67- income and expenditure survey in the Federated 79) States of Micronesia. Suva: UNDP, mineo. Key: FSM pop/mig Key: FSM econ/dev social An early an;ysis of migration from the Polynesian The first detailed examination of income expenditure outlier of Nuknoro to the Kolonia urban area, that throughout the country, which distinguishes regional focuses primarily on social issues. differences, though the survey experienced methodological problems. Chieng, C., Chiengyen, L., & Hartmann, M. (1987). Report on the 1987 Yap state census of World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: polai.Vlue1Cona,Y :Fdrtd Towad Eficint nd ustanabe GrwV%Vol population. Votrane 1. Colonia, Yap: Federated To. r Fefdete andstai M oneia ol States of Micronesia. Yap. Office of Planning 9. Federated States of Micronesia: Corestry andBugt Economic Memorandn. Washington DC: Ky FuM an. World Bank. Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Key: FSM econ/dev phn/imn Connell, J. (1983). Migration, employment and development in the South Pacific. Country Yap State Government (1981). First .e1pmn .nteSuhPa# Cun report No.3: Federated States of Micronesa Development Plan, 1981-86: A background Noumea: South Pacific Commission. paper. Yap. K e: S P/i Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev Key: FSM pop/mig Examines the Federated States of Micronesia's economy, employment, population, urbanization, Yap State Government (1992). State of Yap intemal and external migration, and the impact and second five year development plan 1991-1994. implications of migration. Has a detailed analysis of Yap. the 1973 census data, which was the last year in Key: FSM econ/dev which migration was analyzed in census in FSM, and considers the implications of change in population and migration for development planning. 253 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Connell, J. (1986). Population, migration and Falanruw, M. V. C. (1982). People pressure, problems of atoll development in the South management of limited resources on Yap. Pacific. Pacific Studies, 9, 41-58. World Parks Congress (Bali, Indonesia), Key: MI Kir FSM pop/mig mimeo. Examination of migration and urbanization in the Key: FSM land pop/mig atoll states of the Pacific (Kiribati, Tuvalu, Marshall Federated States of Micronesia (1986). Islands and Tokelau) with some reference to these Economic & social statistics of Pohnpei. issues in other states where atolls are significant. The Pohnpei: Department of Conservation and study provides an overview of the scale and impact Resource Surveillance. of migration in atoll states, and considers the Key: FSM pop/mig econ/dev finance possibilities of greater self-reliance in the atoll states. Presents data on: population and employment; national accounts; agriculture; business and industry; Connell, J. (1987). The new Micronesia: marine resources; external trade; prices and wages; current social and economic trends. In finance; transport; tourism; education; health; Micronesia and Australian Foreign Policy. housing; electricity; and law and order. Canberra: Australian Development Studies Network. (pp. 7-28). Federated States of Micronesia. Department of Key: MI FSM poplmig Human Resources (1991). A situational analysis Outlines the economy, employment, population, of children in the Federated States of migration, and industry of Micronesia and the socio- Micronesia. Palikir, Pohnpei: Federated States economic impacts of military colonialism and the of Micronesia. Department of Human move from 'subsistence to subsidy. Resources. Connell, J. (1991). The New Micronesia: Key: FSM poplmig Discusses FSM children's legal, health, education, pitfalls and problems of dependent nutrition, economic, environment, vocational development. Padfic Studies, 14(2), 87- 120. training, and social, cultural and religious status. Key: MI FSM pop/mig Describes the impact of population growth and Provides an overview of the economics of the three economic development on the situation of children. nations of Marshall Islands, Federated States of Makes policy recommendations. Appendices Micronesia and Palau, discussing employment, include: maternal and child health indicators, population, migration, social conditions, and the education indicators, and economic indicators. brain drain. Describes the push for self-reliance, the dependency on cash-flow from the US, and the dim Federated States of Micronesia. Office of outlook for future economic development. Planning and Statistics (1989). Kosrae State : 1986 census report. Pohnpei: Federated States Connell, J. (1994). Beyond the reef. Migration of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics. and agriculture in Micronesia. Isla, 2(1), 83- Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Key: FSM MI pop/mig econ/dev Federated States of Micronesia. Office of An overview of previous studies of migration in dated Stat s iron of Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia Planning and Statistics. Division of Statistics (and also Palau), with some reference to (1992). Chuk State: 1989 census of population islands of Yap state, that points to the decline of and housing. Kolonia, Pohnpei: Federated agricultural systems but notes that this is only States of Micronesia. Office of Planning and partially related to migration. Statistics. Division of Statistics. Key: FSM housing plan/man poplnig 254 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Flinn, J. (1985). Adoption and migration from Examines the demographic evolution of Yap. Pulap, Caroline Islands. Ethnology, 24(April), Sumimarizes data on population change, focusing on 95-104. census data from 1920 to 1987. Examines Key: FSM pop/mig complementary information on fertility, mortality, A brief analysis of the social context of migration and migration and explores possible causes of from a western atoll to Weno, Chuuk. demographic evolution throughout the region. Presents a spatial analysis which demonstrates how little regional organization has changed over the past Flinn, J. (1990). We still have our customs: 70 ye. being Pulapese in Truk. In J. Linnekin & L. Poyer (Eds.), Cultural Identity and Ethnicity in Gorenflo, L., & Levin, M. (1992). Regional the Pafic. Honolulu: University of Hawaii demographic change in Pohnpei State, Press. (pp. 103-126). Federated States of Micronesia. Padc Srudies, Key: FSM pop/mig social 15(1), 1-49. Description of migration from the outer islands of Ke()FSM 4/9 Chunk to Weno, the status of migrants in the urban Key: pop/mig area, social change and the issues of identity. Hartman, M. (1987). Report on the 1987 Yap Gorenflo, L. (1993). Changing regional state census of population. Volune 2. Kolonia, demography in the Federated States of Yap: Federated States of Micronesia. Yap. Micronesia: contrasting planning challenges in Office of Planning and Budget. an emerging Pacific nation. Environment and Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Planning. C, 11, 123-141. Hezel, F., & Levin, M. (1990). Micronesian Key: FSM pop/mig ezil,iF. &evn, M. (190) MinsIn Examines the problems of planning and provides a m ion Beyond the brain drain. In J. statistical analysis of the population distribution in Connell (Eds.), Migration and Development in the four states, which focuses on the problems of the South Padfic. Pacific Research Monograph integrating the outer islands into an economically and No. 24. Canberra: National Center for culturally sustainable nation. Development Studies. (pp. 42-60). Key: FSM pop/mig Gorenflo, L. (1993). Demographic change in Kosrae State, Federated States of Micronesia. Hezel, F. X., & McGrath, T. G. (1989). The Padfic Studies, 15(2), 67-118. great flight northward: FSM migration to Key: FSM pop/mig Guam. Pacfic Studies, 13(1), 47-64. Examination of the historical evolution of the Kosrae Key: FSM pop/mig population, with particular reference to the 1986 The first study of the rapid increase in emigration situation, focusing on fertility, mortality and from FSM, especially Chunk, to Guam where the migration. The study concludes with a discussion of growth of tourism has produced a construction boom the sociocultural and ecological impacts of and a demand for labor. demographic change in Kosrae and their implications for future of the state. Lieber, M. D. (1977). The processes of change in two Kapingamarangi communities. In V. Gorenflo, L., & Levin,. M. (1991). Regional Carroll (Eds.), Exiles and Migration in demographic change in Yap State, Federated Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawaii States of Micronesia. Panfic Studies, 14(3), 97- i. H ol Uirtof a 145. Key: FSM poplmig social Key: FSM pop/mig 255 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literatue and Data Sources A discussion of the migration of Kapingamarangi report. Kolonia, Pohnpei: Office of Planning atoll dwellers to Porakiet, a suburb of Kolonia and Statistics. Division of Statistics. (Pohnpei), the social evolution of this Polynesian Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig community and links with other urban residents. Poyer, L. (1993). Being Sapwuahfile: cultural Marshall. M. (1979). Education and and ethnic identity in a Micronesian society. In depopulation on a Micronesian Atoll. J. Linnekin & L. Poyer (Eds.), Cultural Micronesica, 15(1-2), 1-11. Identity and Ethnicity in the Pacfic. Honolulu: Key: FSM social pop/mig University of Hawaii Press. (pp. 127-147). A now dated but unique study of migration from the Key: FSM social pop/mig atoll of Namoluk (Chunk), which points to the Disssion of modernization on Sapwuahfile diversity of reasons for migration and its (Ngatile) atoll, with some discussion of political considerable extent and significance, for population change and the influence of migration to Pohnpei. decline, loss of self-sufficiency and eventual emigration. Reafsnyder, C. (1984) Emergent ethnic identity in an urban nugrant community in Truk State, Pacif ic Islands Development Program (190) Federated States of Micronesia. Ph.D. Thesis, Assessment of performance and growth Indiana University prospects : Republic of the Marshall Islands, Key: FS ivppsig Federated States of Micronesia, and Key: FSM pop/mig Republic of Palau. Honolulu: East-West Rubinstein, D., & Levin, M. J. (1992). Center. Pacific Islands Development Program. Micronesian migration to Guam: social and Key: MI FSM pop/mig economic characteristics. Asian and Pacific Discusses the macroeconomic performance of each Migration Journal, 1,350-385. nation and providing information on population. Migrationpoua ,3 8 labor force, gross domestic product, employment Key: FSM poplmig income, exports and imports, public sector, the national development plan, government revenue and Rubinstein, D. H. (1993). Movements in expenditure, and the major industry sectors. Micronesia. Post-compact (1987) Micronesian Evaluates each nation's prospects for growth and migrants to Guam and Saipan. In G. McCall & forecasts real GDP growth rate for 1990-2000. J. Connell (Eds.), A World Perspective on Paafic Islander Migration. Pacific Studies Pohnpei Government. Office of Budget Monograph No. 6. Sydney: University of Planning and Statistics (1991). Pohnpei State NSW. (pp. 259-263). Statistics Yearbook 1991. Kolonia: Pohapei Key: FSM pop/mig State Government. A brief examination of the rise of migration from Key: FSM housing pop/mig FSM (and especially Chuuk state) to Guam and Presents data on: population and employment; Saipan in the late 1980s and early 1990s, that points national accounts; agriculture; business and industry; to migration being of greater future extent and marine resources; external trade; prices and wages; significance. finance; transport; tourism; education; health; housing; electricity; and law and order. All the data Siren, N. (1991). Approaches to human refer to Pohnpei only. resources development policy-making, planning and programming in the context of overall Pohnpei Government. Office of Planning an national development plan in the Federated Statistics (1988). Pohape state, 1985 ce s States of Micronesia. In National approaches to 256 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources human resources development in the Pacffic. GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING United Nations, New York. (pp. 82-98). Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Alkire, W. H. (1981). Traditional exchange Outlines trends in population, employment and labor systems and modem political developments in in the Federated States. Discusses the current human the Yap district of Micronesia. In R. W. Force resources development situation and the role and & B. Bishop (Eds.), Persistence and Exchange. objectives of the Department of Human Resources. Honolulu: Pacific Science Association. (pp. 15- 24). UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of K Mae Children and Women in the Federated States ofKe:FMpa/nec/dvgt Cicreiand Womein t DeraeSta of Discussion of the establishment of a modem political Micronesia. Pohnpei: Department of Human system in Yap State with particular reference to the Resources. links between Yap proper and the Outer Islands. Key: FSM poverty pop/mig plan/man Chieng, C., Chiengyen, L., & Hartmann, M. United States Department of Commerce (1984). (1987). Report on the 1987 Yap state census of 1980 Census of housing. Volume 1: population. Volume 1. Colonia, Yap: Federated characteristics of housing units. Trust Territory States of Micronesia. Yap. Office of Planning of the Pacific Islands excluding the Northern and Budget. Mariana Islands. Washington DC: United Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Clayshulte, R. N., & Zolan, W. J. (1980). Well Key: FSM MI housing finance pop/mig water qualty on Moen Island, Truk. Technical Presents housing data on: stmctural charateristics; Report No. 13. Water Resources Research equipment, occupancy, and plumbing facilities; Center, University of Guam. financial characteristics; and computer allocation Key: FSM water plan/man environ rates for nonresponse or inconsistency. United States. Department of Commerce Cowan, P. A. (1980). Future water quality (219nVolme 1: monitoring priorities for the Trust Territories of (1982).e1980ics o f pthe Pac#lc Islands. Water Resources Research of the population. Part 57B: Center, University of Guam. Technical Report Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands ercluding No. 16. Office of Water Research and the Northern Mariana Islands. Washington DC: Teoogy, Department of Interior, United United States. Department of Commerce, teo Bureau of Census. Kue: Mf Cend popKey: FSM MI over plan/man water Key: MI FSM land pop/mig Presents data on: population; land area rank and population of incorporated places of 5000 or more; Cowan, P. A., & Clayshulte, R. N. (1980). population by urban and rural residence; population Marine baseline water quality of the Trust inside and outside standard residential statistical Territory of the Pacific Islands. Water areas and other standard demographic data. There is Resources Research Center, University of also data on education and labor force characteristics. Guam, Technical Report No. 14. The value of the data is limited by the census using Key: FSM MI water plan/man definitions more appropriate to the USA than the Marshall Islands. Drier, H. N., & Grossman, G. M. (1990). Achieving educational excellence : the challenge 257 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources of the 90's in the Federated States of 1987 Yap state census of population. Colonia, Micronesia : overview of national findings and Yap: Fed**rated States of Micronesia. Office of recommendations. Palikir, ohnpei: Federated Planning and Budget. States of Micronesia. Department of Human Key: FSM plan/man Resources. Office of Education. Key: FSM plan/man Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Budget (1990). Yap state Environmental Protection Agency (1990). Site statistical bulletin 1988. Colonia, Yap: Enforcement Tracking System (SETS): PRP Federated States of Micronesia. Office of listing by site for Trust Territories. Planning and Budget. Washington DC: Environmental Protection Key: FSM plan/man Agency, Office of Waste Programs Enforcement. Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Key: FSM MI solid/waste plan/man Planning and Statistics (1982). Employment development and training plan: Federated Fede-ated States of Micronesia (1992a). States of Micronesia. Kolonia: Federated States Nationwide Environmental Management of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics. Strategies. Apia: SPREP. Key: FSM plan/man over Key: FSM environ plan/man An evaluation of the environmental issues that face Federated States of Micronesia. Office of the FSM, with priorities for strategies and programs. Planning and Statistics (1986). First National The study focuses on 'green' issues, such as Development Plan 1985 - 1989. Kolonia: biodiversity and deforestation, and has little Federated States of Micronesia. Office of discussion of 'brown' issues. Planning and Statistics. Key: FSM plan/man Federated States of Micronesia (1992'). Second Describes the policy framework, the National Development Plan, 1992-1996. macroframework, the sectoral development plans and Palikir, Pohnpei: Office of Planning and allocations, and plan implementation, with reference Statistics. to the nation as a whole and to each component state. Key: FSM econ/dev plan/man Detailed overview of the economic structure of Federated States of Micronesia. Office of FSM, as a nation and for each state, with a Planning and Statistics (1988). Trade Bulletin: discussion of the macro-economic context of May 1988. Kolonia: Federated States of planning, human resource development, population Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics. change and a brief discussion of urban service Key: FSM plan/man provision. Presents comprehensive data on: private sector Federated States of Micronesia. Kosrae. Bureau imports by major SITC section and place of purchase by state and FSM; public sector imports by major of Planning and Statistics (1987-1988). SITC section, place of purchase and agency; selected Statistical yearbook. Federated States of commodities imported by the private sector, by state, Micronesia. Kosrae: Bureau of Planning and FSM and month. Statistics, Tofol. Key: FSM plan/man Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics (1989). Kosrae State : Federated States of Micronesia. Office of 1986 census report. Pohnpei: Federated States Planning and Budget (1987). Report on the of Micronesia. Office of Planning and Statistics. 258 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Mangefel, J. A. (1989). Planning in the Federated States of Micronesia. In Summary Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Record. Suva: South Pacific Forum Secreuriat. Planning and Statistics. Division of Statistics (pp. 41-57). (1992). Chauk State : 1989 census of Key: FSM plan/man population and housing. Kolonia, Pohnpei: Reviews the Federated States' First National Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Development Plan in terms of its preparation, Planning and Statistics. Division of Statistics. format, and implementation. Describes the current Key: FSM housing plan/man pop/mig status of planning resources, that is, personnel, data collection and data analysis. Outlines issues for the Hartmann, M. (1987). Report on the 1987 Yap Second National Development Plan. state census of populat: *. Volume 2. Kolonia, Meecham, R. (1990). Environment resource Yap: Federated States of Micronesia. Yap. management: the key to sustainable economic Office of Planning and Budget. development in the Commonwealth of the Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Northern Marianas. UNDP Regional Workshop on Environmental Management and Hunter-Anderson, R. L. (1986). Indigenous Sustainable Development in the South Pacific fresh water management technology of the Yap Region, Suva. islands, Micronesia. Technical Report No. 63. Water and Energy Research Institute of the Western Pacific, University of Guam. P A Consulting Group (New Zealand) (1989). Key: FSM water plan/man environ Preparation of second national development plan : assessment of resource needs. Suva: Kauahikaua, J. P. (1987). An evaluation of SuhPcfcFrmSceait electric geophysical teclaiques for groundwater Key: FSM plan/man exploration in Truk, Federated S of Outlines the type and amount of technical assistance Micronesia. Geological Survey open-file report required by the Micronesian government to prepare No. 87-146. Department of the Interior, United the nation's second development plan. States. Key: FSM water plan/man Petersen, G. (1979). External politics, internal economics and Ponapean social formation. Kent, G. (1982). Development planning for American Ethnologist, 6(1), 25-40. Micronesia. Political Science, 34(1), 1-25. Key: FSM social plan/man econ/dev Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev The contemporary political economy of Polmpei is analyzed in terms of a peasant economy, and the Khosrowpanah, S. (1990). Fiscal year 1989 influence of colonialism on production and program report: Water Resources Research consumption, and changing demand for goods and Institute, University of Guam. Water Resources new forms of employment. Research Institute, University of Guam. Kee:ch F s ate soiasty p amn Pohnpei Government. Office of Planning and Key: FSM water sofld/waste plStatistics (1988). Pohnpei state, 1985 census Kosrae State Government (1984). Overall report. Kolonia, Pohnpei: Office of Planning economic development plan 1985-1989. Kosrae: and Statistics. Division of Statistics. Office of Planning and Budget. Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig Key: FSM plan/man econ/dev 259 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Rapaport, D. (1993). Micronesia demonstration No. 83-4161. Department of the Interior, biological toilet project. Final report. San Honolulu, United States. Francisco: Greenpeace Pacific Campaign. Key: FSM water plan/man Key: FSM MI sew plan/man van der Brug, 0. (1984b). Water resources of Siren, N. (1991). Approaches to human Ponape, Caroline Islands. US Geological resources developmcnt policy-making, planning Survey water resources investigations report and programming in the context of overall No. 83-4139. Department of the Interior, national development plan in the Federated Honolulu, United States. States of Micronesia. In National approaches to Key: FSM water plan/man human resources development in the Pacfic. New York: United Nations. (pp. 82-98). van der Brug, 0. (1984c). Water resources of Key: FSM plan/man pop/mig the Palau Islands. US Geological Survey water Outlines trends in population, employment and labor resources investigations report No. 83-4140. in the Federated States. Discusses the current human Department of the Interior, Honolulu, United resources development situation and the role and States. objectives of the Department of Human Resources. Key: FSM water plan/man UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of World Bank (1993). Pacific Islands Economies: Children and Women in the Federated States of Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growth, Vol Micronesia. Pohnpei: Department of Human 9. Federated States of Micronesia: Country Resources. Economic Memorandum. Washington DC: Key: FSM poverty pop/mig plan/man World Bank. United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Key: FSM econ/dev plan/man Honolulu District (1988). A Planning report for Yap Government (1981). First Development hydropower addition to the Nanpil River project Plan, 1981-86: A background paper. Yap. : Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Key: FSM plantman econ/dev United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Honolulu District. Yap. Office of Planning and Budget (1989). Key: FSM plan/man water Overall economic development program for Yap Reviews the potential feasibility of diverting water State, Federated States of Micronesia. Colonia from adjacent drainage basins to the intake pool of Yap: Office of Planning and Budget. the existing Nanpil River Hydropower Plant. y: fic of Plan Key: FSM plan/man van der Brug, 0. (1983). Water resources of the Yap Islands. US Geological Survey water resources investigations report No. 82-357. Department of the Interior, Honolulu, United States. Key: FSM water plan/man Federated States of Micronesia (1986). Economic & social statistics of Pohnpei. van der Brug, 0. (1984a). Water resources o Pohnpei: Department of Conservation and Kosrae, Caroline Islands. US Geological Resource Surveillance. Survey water resources investigations report Key: FSM popmig econdev finance 260 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Presents data on: population and employment; Foster, K. B., & Poggie, J. J. (1993). national accounts; agriculture; business and industry; Customary marine tenure and mariculture marine resources; external trade; prices and wages; management in outlying communities of finance; transport; tourism; education; health; Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia. housing; electricity; and law and order. Ocean and Coastal Management, 20, 1-22. Key: FSM land environ Rizer, J. P. (1985). Pohnpei: Household Ke:FMlnevio Ice Epn(1985). he Hoseo This study includes a brief overview of land and Income, Expenditure, and the Role of marine tenure in the Federated States of Micronesia Electricity. Honolulu: Pacific Islands and especially Pohnpei. Development Program and Resource Systems Institute, East West Center. Lal, P. (1991a). Macro-environmental Key: FSM social econ/dev finance standards approach to resource allocation and management : the case of Kosrae's coastal wetlands. Islands/Australia Working Paper, United States Department of Commerce (1984). No. 91/1. Canberra: Australian National 1980 Census of housing. Volume 1: University. National Center for Development characteristics of housing units. Trust Territory Studies. of the Pacific Islands excluding the Northern Key: FSM land environ Mariana Islands. Washington DC: United Examines the limitations of cost-benefit analysis for States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the projects involving natural ecosystems and provides a Census. case study of the alternative macro-environmental Key: FSM MI housing finance pop/mig standards approach which seeks to take account of Presents housing data on: structural characteristics; the interactions between ecological, social and equipment, occupancy, and plumbing facilities; economic factors. financial characteristics; and computer allocation rates for nonresponse or inconsistency. Lal, P. (1991b). Mangrove management issues: strategies adopted in the Pacific islands. Island/Australia Working Paper, No. 91/3. Canberra: Australian National University. URBAN LAND Research School of Pacific Studies. National Center for Development Studies. Key: FSM land environ Castro, F. L. G. (1984). Ponape land tenure Outlines the utilization of mangrove resources in the and registration. In B. Acquaye & R. Crocombe Pacific and the impact of human activities on them. (Eds.), Land Tenure and Rural Productivity in Describes the mangrove management strategies used the Pacific Islands. Suva: Institute of Pacific in Fiji. Vanuatu, and Kosrae in the Federated States Studies, University of the South Pacific. (pp. of Micronesia. Argues for a coordinated policy 184-193). between the government departments with Key: FSM land jurisdiction over forestry. land and fishery resources. McGrath, W. A., & Wilson, W. S. (1977). The Falanruw, M. V. C. (1982). People pressure, Masl,Croiend arr1ilns to manaof lmite nsurce on ap. Marshall, Caroline and Mariana islands : too manlgePars o redss (Bali, Inonesia. many foreign precedents. In R. Crocombe Wirod P(Eds.), Land tenure in the South Pacic. Suva: mimeo. Key: FSM land pop/hug University of the South Pacific. (pp. 190-210). Key: MI FSM land 261 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Describes the traditional land tenure systems in the areas and other standard demographic data. There is region and the effects four foreign administrations also data on education and labor force characteristics. (Spanish. German, Japanese and American) have had The value of the data is limited by the census using on land tenure. definitions more appropriate to the USA than the Marshall Islands. Parker, P. L. (1990) Land tenure in Trukese society : 1850-1980. Ph.D. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI. RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT Key: FSM land Reports on a study of traditional land law on Moen Island to characterize major elements of the Federated States of Micronesia. Office of traditional legal system and account for them, and Planning and Statistics. Division of Statistics how the succession of institutions established by (1992). aniuk State : 1989 census of external administrations has affected the traditional population and housing. Kolonia, Pohnpei: system. Seeks to enhance understanding of Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Micronesian traditional land law and its social Planning and Stistics. Division of Statistics. context, and to provide insights into the institutions Pann and Stsics Divison ofSis with which Micronesians must grapple today and Key: FSM housing plan/man popmig the future as they establish their own, modem legal systems. Pohnpoi Government. Office of Budget Planning and Statistics (1991). Pohnpei State Stephenson, R. A. (1987). Water, land and Statistics Yearbook 1991. Kolonia: Pohnpei people : selected studies in fresh water State Government. resources. University of Guam. Water and Key: FSM housing pop/mig Energy Research Institute and Micronesian Presents data on: population and employment; Area Research Center. national accounts; agriculture; business and industry; Key: FSM land water marine resources; external trade; prices and wages; A series of studies of social, economic and cultural finance; tasport tourism; education; health; uses of t is housing; electricity; and law and order. All the data uses of water on various rural atolls, including Nama rfrt one ny (Chunk) and Ulithi (Yap), though there is a discussion of the development of a village water supply system on the urbanized island of Weno UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of (Chuuk). Children and Women in the Federated States of Micronesia. Pohnpei: Department of Human United States. Department of Commerce Resources. (1982). 1980 Census of population. Volume 1 : Key: FSM poverty pop/mig plan/man characteristics of the population. Part 57B : Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands excluding United States Department of Commerce (1984). the Northern Mariana Islands. Washington DC: 1980 Census of housing. Volume 1: United States. Department of Commerce, characteristics of housing units. Trust Territory Bureau of Census. of the Pacific Islands excluding the Northern Key: MI FSM land pop/mig Mariana Islands. Washington DC: United Presents data on: population; land area; rank and States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the population of incorporated places of 5000 or more; Census. population by urban and rural residence; population Key: FSM MI housing finance pop/mig inside and outside standard residential statistical 262 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Presents housing data on: structural characteristics; Report No. 13. Water Resources Research equipment, occupancy, and plumbing facilities; Center, University of Guam. financial characteristics; and computer allocation Key: FSM water plan/man environ rates for nonresponse or inconsistency. Clayshulte, R. N., & Zolan, W. J. (1982). Water quality monitoring program : airport construction site Moen Island, Truk : trust R NMANTIN territory of the Pacific islands : Part B construction. Technical Report No. 35. University of Guam. Water and Energy Clayshulte, R. N. (1983). Water quality Research Institute of the Western Pacific, monitoring program : airport construction site Guam. Moen Islnd, Truk : trust territory... Technical Key: FSM water Report No. 43. University of Guam. Water and Energy Research Institute of the Western Clayshulte, R. N., & Zolan, W. J. (1985). Pacific, Guam. Environmental mercury in marine water and Key: FSM water fish from Kosrae state, FSM. Technical Report No. 58. University of Guam. Water and Energy Clayshulte, R. N. (1985). Historical war Research Institute of the Western Pacific, quality of PUAG production water wells. Ga. Technical Report No. 57. University of Guam. Key: FSM water Water and Energy Research Institute of the Western Pacific, United States. Cowan, P. A. (1980). Future water quality Key: FSM water monitoring priorities for the Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands. Water Resources Research Clayshulte, R. N. (1986a). Marine water Center, University of Guam. Technical Report quality in lnat, Kosrae for jrport an d No. 16. Office of Water Research and facility construction project : Part B. : Technology, Department of Interior, United construction. Technical Report No. 68. States. University of Guam. Water and Energy Key: FSM MI over plan/man water research Institute of the Western Pacific, United States. Cowan, P. A. (1982). The influence of modern Key: FSM water water supply and wastewater treatment systems on water quality in Micronesia. Technical Clayshulte, R. N. (1986b). Marine water Report No. 36. Water and Energy Research quality in 1st, Kosrae for airport and do Institute of the Western Pacific, University of facility construction project: Part C. Post Guam. construction. Technical Report No. 68. Key: FSM MI water sew solid/waste University of Guam. Water and Energy research Institute of the Western Pacific, United Cowan, P. A., & Clayshulte, R. N. (1980). States. Marine baseline water quality of the Trust Key: FSM water Territory of the Paafic Islands. Water Resources Research Center, University of Clayshulte, R. N., & Zolan, W. J. (1980). Wel Guam, Technical Report No. 14. water quality on Moen Island, Truk. Technical Key: FSM MI water plan/man 263 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Detay, M., Allessandrello, E., Come, P., & This study includes a brief overview of land and Groom, I. (1989). Groundwater contamination marine tenure in the Federated States of Micronesia and pollution in Micronesia. Journal of and especially Pohnpei. Hydrology, 112, 149-179. Key: MI FSM water sew Gaud, M. J. (1992). The Federated States of Overview of groundwater contamination and Micronesia: State of the environment report. pollution in the main islands of Marshall Islands, Apia: SPREP. FSM and Palau, with a comprehensive strategy for Key: FSM environ the protection of groundwater resources. Overview of environmental issues that focus va the means through which sustainable development can be Environmental Protection Agency (1990). Site achieved, including by revising institutional Enforcement Tracking System (SETS): PRP priorities and developing planning capacity. listing by site for Trust Territories. Washington DC: Environmental Protection Gawel, M. (1992). The Federated States of Agency, Office of Waste Programs Micronesia. State of the environment report. Enforcement. Apia: SPREP. Key: FSM MI solid/waste plan/man Key: FSM environ A major background study for the subsequent Federated States of Micronesia (1991). National NEMS, which summarizes the current state of report to the United Nations Conference onto Environment and Development. Prepared under development trends and institutional responses. the direction of the Presidential Task For;e on Harding, E. (1992). Federated States of Environmental Management and Sustainable Micronesia: Review of environmental law. Development by Nancy S. Convard with the Apia: SPREP. financial and technical assistance of the South Key: FSM environ Pacific Regional Environment the Asian Development Bank and United nations Heitz, L. F. (1986). Development of a Development Program. Apia: SPREP. computerized distribution system model of the Key: FSM econ/dev environ Moen Island water distribution system. Agana: University of Guam. Water and Energy Federated States of Micronesia (1992). Research Institute of the Western Pacific. Nationwide Environmental Management Key: FSM water Strategies. Apia: SPREP. Key: FSM environ plan/man Holthus, P. F. (1987). Pohnpei coastal An evaluation of the environmental issues that resources: proposed management pla the FSM, with priorities for strategies and programs. Th tuyfcue o gee'isus sc. Noumea: South Pacific Regional Environment The sudy focuses on 'green' issues, such as biodiversity and deforestation, and has little Prognm discussion of 'brown' issues. Key: FSM environ Foster, K. B., & Poggie, J. J. (1993). Hunter-Anderson, R. L. (1986). Indigenous Customary marine tenure and mariculture fresh water management technology of the Yap management in outlying communities of islands, Micronesia. Technical Report No. 63. Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia. Water and Energy Research Institute of the Ocean and Coastal Management, 20, 1-22. Western Pacific, University of Guam. Key: FSM land environ Key: FSM water plan/man environ 264 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Kauahikaua, J. P. (1987). An evaluation of Describes the mangrove management strategies used electric geophysical techniques for groundwater in Fiji, Vanuatu, and Kosrae in the Federated States exploration in Truk, Federated States of of Micronesia. Argues for a coordinated policy Micronesia. Geological Survey open-file report between the government departments with No. 87-146. Department of the Interior, United jurisdiction over forestry, land and fishery resources. States. Maragos, J. E. (1993). Impact of coastal Key: FSM water plan/am construction on coral reefs in the US affiliated Khosrowpanah, S. (1987). Improving the water Pacific Islands. Coastal Management, 21, 235- distribution system at Kolonia, Pohnpei State 2 through use of a digital water distribution Key: FSM MI environ l MAn examination of the impact of construction in model. Mangilao: Unversity of Guam. Water coastal areas, and of the discharge of pollution, in and Energy Research Institute of the Western Micronesia (and American Samoa), which points to Pacific. the need to secure improved design standards Key: FSM water through the early integration of environmental objectives. Khosrowpanah, S. (1990). Fiscal year 1989 program report: Water Resources Research Meecham, R. (1990). Environment resource Institute, Uiversity of Guam. Water Resources management: the key to sustainable economic Research Institute, University of Guam. development in the Commonwealth of the Key: FSM water solid/waste plan/man Northern Marianas. UNDP Regional Workshop on Environmental Management and Sustainable Lal, P. (1991a). Macro-environmental Development in the South Pacific Region, standards approach to resource allocation and Suva. management : the case of Kosrae's coastal Key: FSM environ plan/man econ/dev wetlands. Islands/Australia Working Paper, No. 91/1. Canberra: Australian National Orcutt, A., Cordy, R., Rappa, P., & Smith, B. University. National Center for Development (1989). Yap Islands coastal resource inventory. Studies. Manoa: University of Havaii Sea Grant Key: FSM land environ Extension Service. Examines the limitations of cost-benefit analysis for Key: FSM environ projects involving natural ecosystems and provides a case study of the alternative macro-environmental Rapaport, D. (1993). Micronesia demonstration standards approach which seeks to take account of biological toilet project. Final report. San the interactions between ecological, social and Francisco: Greenpeace Pacific Campaign. economic factors. Key: FSM MI sew plan/man Lal, P. (1991b). Mangrove management issues. Shade, P. J., Anthony, S. S., & Takasaki, K. J. strategies adopted in the Pacific islands. Island/Australia Working Paper, No. 91/3. (1992). Ground-water resources reconnaissance Canberra: Australian National University. of the Yap main islands, Federated States of Research School of Pacific Studies. National Micronesia. US Geological Survey water Center for Development Studies. resource investigations report No. 90-4704. Key: FSM land environ Honolulu: United States. Department of the Outlines the utilization of mangrove resources in the Interior. Geological Survey. Pacific and the impact of human activities on them. Key: FSM water 265 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literaturt and Data Sources Stephenson, R. A. (1987). Water, land, and Key: FSM environ people : selected studies in fresh water van der Brug, 0. (1983). Water resources of resources. University of Guam. Water and the Yap Islands. US Geological Survey water Energy Research Institute and Micronesian resources investigations report No. 82-357. Area Research Center. Honolulu: Department of the Interior, United Key: FSM land water States. A series of studies of social, economic and cultural Key: FSM water plan/man uses of water on various rural atolls, including Nama (Chunk) and Ulithi (Yap), though there is a van der Brug, 0. (1984a). Water resources of discussion of the development of a village water Kosrae, Caroline Islands. US Geological supply system on the urbanized island of Weno Survey water resources investigations report (Chunk). No. 83-4161. Honolulu: Department of the United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Interior, United States. Honolulu District (1988). A Planning report for Key: FSM water plan/man hydropower addition to the Nanpil River project van der Brug, 0. (1984b). Water resources of UPohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Ponape. Caroline Islands. US Geological United States. Army. Corps of Engineers. Survey water resources investigations report HonoluluNo. 83-4139. Honolul: Department of the Key: FSM plan/man water no 834139 H ou e t t h Reviews the potential feasibility of diverting water n from adjacent drainage basins to the intake pool of Key: FSM water plan/man the existing Nanpil River Hydropower Plant. van der Brug, 0. (1984c). Water resources of USACE (1986). Pohnpei Coastal Resource the Palau Islands. US Geological Survey water Inventory. Fort Shafter, Hawaii: US Army resources investigations report No. 83-4140. Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division. Honolulu: Department of the Interior, United Key: FSM environ States. Key: FSM water plan/man USACE (1987). Kosrae Coastal Resource Atlas. Honolulu: Manoa Mapworks. Zolan, W. J., Clayshulte, R. N., & Winter, S. Key: FSM environ J. (1982). Air particulate and noise level monitoring program : airport construction site USACE (1988). Yap Coastal Resource Atlas. Moen Island, Truk : trust territory of the Pacific Honolulu: Manoa Mapworks. islands : Part B construction. Water and Key: FSM environ Energy Research Institute of the Western Pacific. Technical report No. 22. University of USACE (1989). Kosrae Coastal Resource Guam. Inventory. Fort Shafter, Hawaii: US Anny Key: FSM water Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division. Key: FSM environ USACE (US Army Corps of Engineers, P. 0. D. (1985). Pohnpei Coastal Resource Atlas. Honolulu: Manoa Mapworks. 266 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources KIRIBATI CONTENTS Commentary SettlementHistor y ..................................................................................................... 269 Economy.................................................................................................................270 Employment ............................................................................................................272 Development Planning................................................................................................273 Land......................................................................................................................274 Population And Migration...........................................................................................275 Urbanization............................................................................................................278 Hous ing ..................................................................................................................280 Urban Services .........................................................................................................280 Selected References Key........................................................................................................................283 Economic And Social Development................................................................................284 Population And Migratio ...........................................................................................288 Governance And Planning ........................................................................................... 291 Finance And Development ........................................................................................... 294 Urban Land.............................................................................................................294 Residential Development.............................................................................................296 Urban Sanitation And Environen .............................................................................. 298 267 肱 之68 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The Republic of Kiribati comprises three main discovered. Trading vessels began visiting the island groups, the Gilbert Islands (Tungari), the Gilbert Islands in the mid-Nineteenth Century northern and southern Line Islands and the and some Gilbertese were taken on as crew; the Phoenix Islands, and one isolated island, Banaba Phoenix and Line Islands were utilized for (Ocean island). Until the mid-1970s these phosphate mining or coconut plantations with islands were linked with Tuvalu (die Ellice the result that there was considerable labor Islands) to form the Gilbert and Ellice Islands migration to them in the Nineteenth Century. Colony. All the islands are atolls with the Many Gilbertese traveled far afield in the late exception of the raised coral island of Banaba. Nineteen Century to work on phosphate mines Kiritimati (Christmas Island) in the northern and plantations in South America, Samoa, Tahiti Line Islands is regarded as the largest atoll in and Hawaii. the world. The land area of the Republic is extremely small (around 800 sq. kins.) but the The first European mission in the Gilbert Islands sea area is the largest of any state (3.6 million was established in 1857 on Abaiang and, after sq. kms.) and Kiribati is unusual in spanning 1870, Samoan missionaries from the London both the Equator and the International Date Missionary Society began working in the Line. The most distinctive characteristic is the southern atolls. In 1892 the Gilbert Islands were wide scatter of tiny islands, nineteen of which proclaimed a European protectorate and in 1916 are populated. Kirid=i is 3,500 kins. from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was Tarawa, the capital, and the most distant Line established. In that same year Fanning and Islands are 4,000 kms away. Washington Islands (in the Line Islands) were incorporated in the Colony and, in 1937, the The Gilbert Islands are the easternmost and uninhabited Phoenix Islands were also included; southernmost part of Micronesia; the Phoenix other Line Islands were not effectively and Line Islands were intermittently occupied by incorporated until after the Second World War Polynesians in pre-European contact years but and some of them are still not part of Kiribati. were not occupied at the time of European contact. Subsequently they have been colonized The Gilbert Islands and especially Tarawa was a by Micronesians from the Gilbert Islands so that site of bitter fighting in the Second World War. Kiribati has become a primarily Micronesian Progress towards self-government followed in country. In 1978, 98 per cent of the population 1963 when an Executive Council and an were Micronesian. Banaba is somewhat distinct Advisory Council were created. In 1971 the first from the rest of the country although the elected House of Assembly and a Chief Minister Banaban language is related to Gilbertese. were in place. In the same year the Ellice Islanders (Tuvaluans) voted overwhelmingly to secede from the Colony and separation took Sedement History place in October 1975. There was further localization in the government and Independence Micronesian settlement occurred several was achieved in July 1979; the name Kiribati thousand years ago. The first recorded European (the local pronunciation of Gilberts) was then sighting of the Gilbert Islands was in 1606 by adopted and the country becarne a Republic. For the Spanish explorer Quiros but modem much of the em of independence the Kiribati discovery and exploration did not start until President was Ierermah Tabai, who was 1765. Progressively the Gilbert Islands (1788- committed to a policy of achieving greater self- 1826), the Phoenix Group (1820s) and the Line reliance. He was succeeded in 1991 by Teateo Islands (late Eighteenth Century) were Tearmald. There are 39 members of Parliament, 269 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources only three of whom come from South Tarawa, persons per sq. kam., a density exceeded only by despite its large population. Political parties play Nauru and Tuvalu in the South Pacific. little role in Kiribati but there are divisions Consequently there have been attempts to between the Catholic northern islands and the decentralize population and agricultural Protestant south, and between urban Tarawa and development eastwards (see below) and to the outer islands. reclaim land (especially on Tarawa). In 1970 the Temaiku reclamation project reclaimed almost Economy three sq. kms. of lagoon close to the airport which is now used for baitfish farming. Other All the islands of Kiribati except Banaba are smaller projects have reclaimed additional land coral atolls or comprised of reefs. Generally in urban Tarawa and the process is continuing. these atolls are larger and possess larger lagoons Apart from Funafuti (Tuvalu) this is the only than in other parts of the South Pacific. urban center in the Pacific where pressure on Kiritimati atoll, for example, at 363.4 sq. kms., existing land resources has led to significant accounts for more than half the land area of the land reclamation. country. Economic development has been limited and the potential for future economic The basic agricultural system is similar to that growth is small since Kiribati experiences all the of atoll economies in the region, being based on constraints that are familiar in island a small range of planted crops (especially taro), microstates: remoteness and isolation (hence coconuts and pandanus. On the southern atolls high transport costs), diseconomies of scale, pandanus and coconuts are virtually the only limited natural resources, substantial trade crops able to survive low rainfall and periodic deficits (but considerable dependence on trade droughts. On the northern atolls taro and with metropolitan states), few local skills, breadfruit are the main subsistence crops. vulnerability to hazards, a disproportionately Swamp taro (babai) is grown in deep pits high expenditure on administration and a demanding a considerable expenditure of time dependence on external institutions for some key and energy. Some of the varieties can take years services. In Kiribati these are emphasized by the to reach maturity. In most parts of the Gilberts massive distances within the country and some pits have fallen into disrepair and babai especially between the Gilbert and Line Islands. has become less important as a subsistence food. Vegetables are increasingly important in gardens Agricuture: There is little scope for agricultural in Tarawa but production is insufficient to offer development because of the shallow topsoils, the effective import substitution of costly food low water-holding capacity and usually limited products. Although there is limited potential for rainfall. Major constraints on agricultural local food marketing, especially on the islands development in Kiribati therefore include the closest to Tarawa, this has not been realized. As limited potential of the atolls, the land available one review of agricultural prospects in Kiribati and the irregular and infrequent rainfall, concluded, 'prospects for agricultural and rural particularly outside the Gilbert Islands. There development are closely constrained by the are recurrent droughts, especially in the Phoenix nature of the country's natural environment, and Line Islands, which took a heavy toll on life which is one of the most restrictive in the in earlier times. Although Kiribati is outside the tropical world' (Ward and Proctor 1980: 357). cyclone belt severe storms occur occasionally. Virtually the whole of Kiribati is an ecologically Land resources in the Gilbert Islands are in marginal region. extremely short supply, as is apparent in the population densities which average around 200 270 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources The only agricultural export is copra, most Tourism: is limited and facilities are confined to coming from small farmers in the Gilbert South Tarawa and Kiritimati. Isolation, high air Islands. In the 1970s copra contributed around fares, little accommodation and regional 80 per cent of the value of all exports; in the competition have restricted visitor numbers; 1980s the volume and value of copra exports only 11 per cent of all tourists in 1992 were fluctuated considerably and fell to around 65 per visiting Kiribati for recreational tourism (the cent as world prices, droughts and heavy rainfall others being business travelers or those visiting affected production. friends and relatives). The total number of visitors in 1992 was 3,750, a figure that is about Fisheries: Kiribati has a vast exclusive economic as high as it has ever been. Kiritimati has some zone (EEZ) which is rich in tuna. In the 1980s potential in the American market if air links are fisheries contributed an average of seven per improved but numbers are unlikely ever to be cent to GDP and 40 per cent to exports but, like large. Tourism contributed just seven per cent of copra, fish exports have fluctuated considerably. GDP in 1992. In 1981 the national fishing company, Te Mautari, was established but has experienced Trnsport. presents a major development some problems due to inadequate finance, poor problem and this is compounded by remoteness management, technical problems, declining fish from metropolitan states, to the extent that stocks in nearby waters and low catches in Kiribati has great difficulties in attracting difficult weather conditions. Royalties from international shipping services. Internal shipping overseas fishing vessels are an important source is principally operated by the Kiribati Shipping of income, and were relatively high at the start Corporation (KSC) which serves all the atolls in of the 1990s. A small amount of domestic fish the Gilbert Islands group. By 1981 every atoll in production is marketed in South Tarawa. Since the Gilbert Islands had an airstrip served by the the mid-1980s seaweed has become a significant domestic airline Air Tungaru. In 1980 Air export and is expected to grow further. In 1990 Tungaru purchased a Boeing 727 and when sales of both copra and fish were low it inaugurated an international route to Kiritimati, was valued at more than 20 per cent of all Papeete and Honolulu. The Papeete link was exports quickly dropped and the route has been economically disastrous. Communications with Manufacring: There is very little industrial the Line Islands are necessarily limited and development in Kiribati and this is largely extremely expensive and pose the principal confined to a small number of import constraint to development there. However, even substitution industries such as bread and within the Gilbert Islands distances are biscuits. At the start of the 1980s manufacturing considerable; freight rates are high and services contributed about 3.5 per cent of GDP and a are infrequent, hence there are long delays in the decade later was responsible for about two per arrival of materials and equipment, limited and cent of GDP, employing around 600 people. expensive access to emergency services and poor Beyond the obvious constraints to industrial prospects of marketing local goods. development, including the lack of raw materials, there is poor access to industrial land Social services: The provision of services in and weakness in the administrative structure for Kiribati is more limited than most other servicing industrial investment. The government countries in the region. Primary schools exist has sought to build up a viable private sector throughout the country but there is a shortage of and offered assistance to new industrial qualified teachers. There are three tertiary enterprises. educational establishments, the Tarawa 271 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Technical Institute on Betio, the Tarawa the world. Since Independence there has been a Teachers College which is responsible for decline in real per capita GDP. primary school teacher training, and the Marine Training School (MTS) also on Betio. The MTS The economy is boosted by the Revenue was set up in 1967 to conduct one-year courses Equalization Reserve Fund set up in 1956 as a in basic seamanship so that I-Kiribati graduates buffer against the effects of phosphate mining from the school could obtain employment closure. The fund has grown from A$4.7 principally on overseas ships. Barely one per million in 1979 to A$11.7 million in 1988, then cent of the population have achieved tertiary corresponding to around 27 per cent of GDP. education, a very low rate and a measure of the Remittances from overseas contract labor limited availability of skilled personnel. Health migrants have also been substantial; in 1988 services are also limited and concentrated in private cash remittances averaged about A$50 South Tarawa. Diseases associated with poor per person or A$350 per household. Aid has tropical countries such as diarrhea and also remained at a high level and has diversified gastroenteritis remain fairly common since water away from reliance on the United Kingdom. supplies and sanitation are often inadequate. In Loans and grants are as high on a per capita 1977 there was a major outbreak of cholera in basis as any in the South Pacific region and have South Tarawa, following the consumption of been equal to around 40 per cent of GDP in shellfish contaminated by sewage. Since then recent years. sanitation facilities have improved. Only South Tarawa has a centrally generated electricity Employment system whilst many households on outer islands do not even have kerosene lamps. A relatively small proportion of the labor force is employed in the formal sector and this fell Trade: Kiribati has a considerable trade after the closure of the Banaba phosphate imbalance which increased dramatically after workings. Of the total 1978 population, some Independence and which coincided with the end 7,053 or 21 per cent of those aged 15 and over of phosphate mining on Banaba. The weakness were economically active in the cash economy. relates to the dependency of the economy on This compares with the 1973 situation when 19 copra and a small amount of marine products. In per cent were formally employed, indicating an 1990 exports were valued at under A$4 million increase in such employment. By 1985, although and imports at A$35 million, though a poor the number of employees in the formal sector export performance (down from A$6 million in had increased slightly, the proportion had the previous year) meant that the trade gap was actually fallen to 19 per cent. By 1990, particularly wide. Imports of food, fuel and however, the numbers had almost doubled and manufactured goods increased through the 1980s the proportion had grown to 28.5 per cent. This and the cost, especially of fuel, has been represents a considerable growth in the ability of considerable. Kiribati is therefore heavily the economy to absorb workers in that period dependent on aid, valued at more than A$25 but it will be difficult to continue this growth million in 1990, with the United Kingdom and through the 1990s. A substantial proportion of Japan being the major donors. Since 1983 the workforce must continue to be absorbed in Kiribati has had a surplus on its current account the subsistence and semi-subsistence sectors. and the overall balance of payments. In 1990 There are significant constraints preventing a GDP per capita was estimated at US$480, change in this situation including a relatively giving the country one of the lowest incomes in high rate of population growth, the unpredictable natne of overseas employment 272 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and the shortage of trained and skilled human both the production of some new vegetables and resources. crops ard locally made cigarettes. Employment is dominated by the subsistence In 1990 a total of 900 I-Kiribati (2.8 per cent of and public sectors, a situation that reflects the the labor force) were recorded as unemployed lack of natural resources and the inability of the but the real extent of unemployment is probably productive sectors, other than agriculture, to much higher. Even in the urban area of South generate employment. In 1990 about 63 per cent Tarawa the number seeking employment and not of the workforce was engaged in the subsistence engaged in the subsistence sector is very small, sector, a proportion which had fallen from 75 since the two activities cannot be readily per cent in 1985. But this high proportion of the distinguished. There has never been a labor workforce only accounted for some 15 per cent force survey in Kiribati, hence census data of GDP in 1988. Over 60 per cent of the wage provide the only measure of unemployment. and salary earners were either in agriculture or Earlier attempts to calculate unemployment rates in the public sector in 1990, forty-five per cent for the urban area of South Tarawa, assuming of these employees being located on South that all males of working age not employed in Tarawa, 46 per cent elsewhere in the Gilberts the formal sector would prefer to be so Islands and the remainder in the Line Islands. employed, have produced levels of male However, outside South Tarawa many are unemployment of more than 50 per cent since employed part-time. This island is the center of the late 1970s. Although this level is the wage and salary economy and a focus for exaggerated, the extent of urban unemployment those seeking entry into that economy. is high and is growing. The public sector accounts for around two-thirds of all wage and salary employment in the Development Planning absence of a significant private sector. The public sector has maintained that share of the Development planning in the 1970s concentrated workforce since the 1970s. Many senior posts on diversifying the economic base of Kiribati to are filled by expatriates though the most compensate for the end of phosphate mining. educated I-Kiribati are primarily concentrated in The first post-independence National the public sector (where wages are on average Development Plan, for 1979-1982, was 50 per cent higher than in the private sector), a formulated on the basis of a continued supply of situation that may weaken the ability of the overseas aid without which any significant private sector to grow in the future. development in the country would be almost impossible. Alongside the diversification of new In South Tarawa the urban informal sector has economic activities, and especially marine grown in recent years, though it is not promoted resources, particular attention was given to the by the government. It comprises activities such improvement of subsistence systems in rural as sales of fruit, fish, coconuts and meals to areas and decentralization from the urban area of office workers; these activities are principally South Tarawa. Underlying these issues was undertaken by women or male school dropouts, concern over the increased concentration of and provide some income for about 200 people. wealth both between individuals and within the The growth of the urban informal sector reflects urban area. The development of the tuna the dearth of cash employment opportunities, the industry and decentralization were expected to decline in jobs on overseas shipping lines and reduce these differentials. the growing involvement of urban households in 273 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Development plans have consistently identified economy will, therefore, depend to some extent Kiritimati (and later the other Line Islands) as an on private participation in the development area of special development opportunity since, process. Private sector investment in small scale firstly, it comprises half the land area in the business, manufacturing and processing, country but is thinly populated; secondly, the fisheries and tourism has been promoted. land is owned by the government; and thirdly, Development efforts in Kiribati are considerably the island has some potential for tourism. The constrained by the small size of the market, other Line Islands have more restricted potential scattered population, large distances between for development. The government set up a islands and geographical isolation. The atoll Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands and soils limit the scope for agricultural production. has undertaken a major program of Lack of entrpreneurship, accumulated capital decentralization. It is a measure of the problems and a shortage of skills are other major factors of development in Kiribati that serious attention limiting growth. In view of these constraints the has bec- given to the development of quite small desire to achieve sustained growth is a islands that are 3,500 kms. away from the challenging task, particularly if such growth is majority of the population when notions of to be sustainable. There is potential for decentralization are contrary to most economic development via tourism and the contemporary economic trends and resources ara exploitation of marine resources but long term scarce. prospects are more limited than in almost any other country in the South Pacific region. Since independence the major national objectives of economic development policy have been to: Land * improve the living conditions and welfare of All land in the Gilbert Islands is privately the people; owned other than a small amount of reclaimed * ensure availability of basic necessities of life goverment land. All land in the Line and and fair distribution of services and Phoenix Islands is government owned and land amenities in urban and rural areas; in Teraina and Tabuaeran is sold to settlers (at * gradually move towards collective self- A$ 1,000 an acre). The traditional land tenure reliance and economic independence; enables individuals to hold rights to land * increase diversification of the economy through their membership of particular social through greater allocation of resources to the groups; in Kiribati not only has this been productive sectors; unusually complex and differed from north to * promote appropriate development in all parts south but the system has changed in the of the country, particularly outer islands and twentieth century when some elements of British the Line and Phoenix groups. law were introduced. Customary iand tenure has been formalized by the registration work of the To a greater extent than in most other states Lands Commission. Much land ownership is development planning in Kiribati has fragmented and boundary disputes are common. consistently emphasized issues of Most individuals hold full title to land and taro decentralization and equity. A major thrust of plots on at least one island but there has been a government policy for growth and welfare is proliferation of disputes over tenure. Land has focused on promotion of productive sectors like become a commodity to a greater extent than in fisheries, agriculture, small scale industry and most parts of the Pacific, especially in South tourism through greater utilization of available Tarawa. domestic resources. Further development of the 274 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources In some areas absentee land ownership is a Population and Migration problem and there have been intermittent attempts at land tenure reform. In some places There are estimates of the population of Kiribati the considerable fragmentation of land tenure, dating from the mid-nineteenth century. At that following subdivision of holdings, hampers time the most important influence on population further development. Yet fragmentation provides change was international labor migration which a choice of residential sites and possibly both resulted in a loss of population for the country 'high' and 'low' value land areas whose as a whole and especially for some southern productivity will vary. For almost thirty years islands. The population continued to fall until the administration has attempted to encourage around the early 1920s when 'he census land consolidation but without much success. recorded the lowest total for Kiribati of not much more than 22,000 but from then on it Urban Land: The land situation in the urban grew steadily. By the 1930s the reality of steady areas of South Tarawa is essentially the same as growth had become apparent, so much so that that in the rural areas (other than the small the administration became concerned that the patches of government land) making drier islands of southern Kiribati would become development and planning difficult. There are 'overpopulated' and began to search for suitable two Land Planning Boards and the Central Land islands elsewhere where a resettlement program Planning Board (CLPB) covers Bairiki and might be established. After the Second World Bikenibeu and oversees disputes on Betio. The War population growth increased and many CLPB is responsible for preparation of land use islanders experienced raised aspirations plans and for planning matters on South Tarawa. following the wartime American military Lack of skilled human resources have limited presence. the work of the CLPB. There are no detailed land use plans for the urban area and there is a Population grew steadily in the post-war years general lack of responsibility for the planning of until the 1970s when fertility rates began to fall; land use, a function of both the limited it grew from 31,500 in 1947 to 72,300 at the knowledge of planning issues and general lack time of the 1990 census and is now more than of land in Kiribati (though this is now changing 75,000. It is characterized by a high proportion with the formation of a land planning unit in the of children (40 per cent under 15 in 1990) and Ministry of Home Affairs and Environment). high fertility. Since 1985 the rate of population The appearance of squatting demonstrates that growth has changed slightly from 2.1 per cent land use plans are urgently needed to enable between 1978 and 1985 to 2.2 per cent in the proper housing layouts and the legalization of following five-year period. Indeed, somewhat occupancy in squatter settlement areas. unusually for the South Pacific, the annual growth rate has increased gradually for more Recent reports indicate that the government has than a quarter of a century. Growth rates were had problems in securing land to upgrade the 1.7 between 1963-68, 1.6 between 1968-73, 2.0 Bonriki International Airport because of low between 1973-78) and 2.1 per cent between levels of compensation paid to landowners for 1985-1990. The present population is over previous land acquisitions. Villagers will not 75,000 and the rate of growth does not appear to agree to give more land unless the government be slowing. This is the result of a combination leases water res-rves covering some 75 per cent of steady to rising fertility in northern Catholic of Bonriki Village. Land issues are therefore atolls compared with the Protestant south and central to development planning on South the urban area, moderate to low mortality and Tarawa. minimal emigration. A family planning program O'TC Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources began in 1968 but for various reasons including national programs aimed at decentralization and, male resistance, religious opposition, shortage in recent years, there has been a slowing of the of supplies and misinterpretation, was largely urban growth rate. unsuccessful. There is currently no definitive population policy. At the present rate of Over the past two decades most islands in population growth it will be difficult both to Kiribati have been places of overall prevent a continued decline in real per capita outmigration; the well-established exceptions income levels and to generate adequate being South Tarawa and the Line Islands. The employment opportunities for the future labor only other island where lifetime immigration force. exceeded the outflow in 1978 was the northern island of Maiana. The more impoverished Between 1921 and 1947 the crude death rate in southern Gilbert Islands have tended to provide the Gilbert and Ellice Island Colony was greater proportions of migrants to the Line approximately 27-32 per thousand and then Islands, whilst the northern islands have tended decreased to around 23 per thousand during the to provide a larger proportion of those in South period 1947-63. There was a further decrease in Tarawa. subsequent years; by 1978 the crude death rate had fallen to about 14 and has since remained at The urban center of South Tarawa has been by that level. The infant mortality rate also declined far the most important migrant destination, rapidly between 1947 and 1968; at the time of although the use of 'home island' rather than the 1978 census it was no lower than 87 per 'place of birth' '-t the census does exaggerate the thousand and had only fallen to 82 in 1985, a significance ot this movement. The net rate that is very high compared with other states migration rate for Tarawa is considerably in in the region. The child mortality rate is on excess of that in many other South Pacific average higher in the urban area of South capitals. Migration to Tarawa has long been Tarawa than in the outer islands, a situation established in the sense that by 1978 nearly a which is most likely to be a result of poorer quarter of all migrants had been continuously urban nutrition because of dependence on resident for more than ten years whilst only 13 imported foods, overcrowding and inadequate per cent of males and ten per cent of females sanitation. Child mortality rates are also higher over the age of 15 had been urban residents for in the northern atolls than in the south and less than three years. Migration to Tarawa has higher in the north than in South Tarawa; this is been more recent from the south, as the most likely to be a result of a greater incidence migration field has shifted from the more of parasitic disease in the north and generally 'developed' islands closest to Tarawa to the higher populat;on densities. more remote and 'traditional' places. The very high incidence of migration is counterbalanced Migradon: Over time the population has become by considerable return migration. Virtually all increasingly concentrated in the urban center of adults migrate at some point in their lives but South Tarawa which has a population density of almost all of them subsequently return to their more than 1,500 persons per sq. km. By home islands. Return migration from South contrast the Line Islands had just six per cent of Tarawa is less important. This tradition of the population in 1990 but 60 per cent of the circular migration is central to all considerations land area of the country, resulting in an overall of migration and urbanization in Kiribati. population density for Kiribati of 90 per sq. km. The growing population pressure and social The considerable difference between the level of problems on South Tarawa have led to several provision of social amenities in South Tarawa 276 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources and elsewhere in Kiribati has been an influence families made up of more than six people were on internal migration. The attraction of urban relocated to Tabuaeran or Teraina, newly 'bright lights' such as clubs and a sports stadium purchased from the Burns Philp company. The play a larger part in rural-urban movement in intention of the plan was to resettle more than Kiribati than in many countries. Although the 6,500 people on the two islands. Places were search for employment and income-earning allocated to each of the Gilbert Islands, with opportunities is the most important influence, all higher quotas for those with low rainfalls and principal social amenities including tertiary high population densities. The costs of achieving education and hospitals are located in South this redistribution of population are considerable Tarawa. It remains true that the differences in as are the tasks of generating economic provision of amenities between urban and rural development in the Line Islands. The program areas, differences in employment opportunities was halted in 1992 to await the construction of and income levels, dissatisfaction with appropriate health centers, schools and roads. subsistence life and copra returns continue to In contrast to these two areas of expansion, encourage urban migration. Unless there are there has been an absolute population decline on substantial changes in the distribution of some outer islands. Arorae, the southernmost incomes and resources that could come with and most remote of the Gilbert Islands, development of the Line Islands, or there is a experienced a population decline from 1947 to worsening in urban living conditions, the 1978. In all other islands post-war growth has rationale for migration will remain unchanged. not yet been offset by this sort of decline but in The alternative to further urbanization lies in the decade between 1968 and 1978 half of the more direct control over migration. Gilberts lost population and, in the south, only Abemama and Onotoa- did not suffer an overall This migration structure has steadily changed loss. In a situation of general growth such the pattern of population distribution in Kiribati; widespread population decline in the outer in 1947 South Tarawa was no more than a islands was unusual. Between 1985 and 1990 cluster of villages functioning as a minor there was a migration balance of more than administrative center and having six per cent of 1,200 in favor of the Long Islands, compared the Kiribati population whereas, by 1978, it was with 677 for South Tarawa, hence over this a town with 32 per cent of the national period the Line Islands gained about twice as population. Since then the rate of urbanization many migrants as South Tarawa. Apart from has slowed and the proportion of the national Abaiang and North Tarawa the other Gilbert population living in South Tarawa had risen to Islands, collectively, were substantial losers of 34.8 pei cent by 1990. population in the same period (more than 2,300). In the past decade there has therefore The Line Islands is the only other area that has been an important change in the structure of witnessed a similar kind of growth but this has migration. occurred more recently and on a much smaller scale. Various early attempts at population Internadonal ndgradon* Kiribati is also resettlement were unsuccessful; these schemes characterized by international migration which and the difficulties attached to them and to other has been continuing for more than a century forms of decentralization have been discussed in since labor was recruited to work in areas as detail elsewhere (Connell 1983). In the 1980s distant as Australia, Peru, Hawaii and other the government established a new plan to parts of the South Pacific. By the end of the improve conditions in the outer islands and nineteenth century many workers were relocate people to the Line Islands. Many employed in the copra plantations of the Line 277 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Islands and early in the twentieth century when migration to South Tarawa was most migrants were employed on Banaba and Nauru. important whereas natural increase became an There has therefore been a large and important increasingly important element in the 1970s. A history of contract labor migration. Unlike many key reason why the population of South Tarawa other Pacific island states -- but like its colonial increased in the 1960s was the lifting of the partner Tuvalu - Kiribati has not been 'closed district' status which was in force in characterized by more permanent outmigration South Tarawa in the 1950s. At that time only to the metropolitan countries on the fringes of those with jobs or land on South Tarawa were the Pacific region. The net annual outflow of allowed entry (Jones 1993). The migratory migrants in the 1980s was less than 0.25 per movements of the 1960s provoked considerable cent of the population and appears to have official concern and Kiribati became one of the declined during that period. This contrasts with first countries in the region to translate this into Western Samoa and Tonga which had practical policies. During the post-war years the outmigration rates of between one and two per population of South Tarawa also became more cent over the same period. The lack of 'urban' in the sense that visibly urban activities emigration outlets has posed problems reflected were taking over from subsistence ones. In Betio in high rates of population and labor force and Bairiki in particular the importance of local growth. wage employment grew and subsistence agriculture and fishing declined. The long tradition of short term contract labor migration has been extremely important for By the early 1960s there was already Kiribati both in reducing pressure on domestic considerable pressure on foster-relatives living resources and resulting in a substantial flow of in Tarawa to house and board both job-hunting remittances into the economy. The exhaustion immigrants and children sent to take advantage and closure of the Nauru phosphate workings at of the better schools. A comprehensive study of some point in the next decade will place great urban Tarawa in 1968 recorded an increase in pressure on the national economy, both through crime rates, water supply problems (especially return migration and declining remittances. fears of drought impact), the erosion of the 'Green Belt' in Betio and consequent effects on local food production and water pollution. Urbanization Problems of child malnutrition were being combated by free milk supplies and medical care In 1947 when the decision was made to locate (Bedford 1968). By the beginning of the 1970s it the capital of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands was apparent that conditions in South Tarawa Colony on South Tarawa it had a population of contrasted dramatically with other parts of the 1,643, representing just six per cent of the total country and most of the population depended for Kiribati. By 1963 it had grown to 6,101 and directly or indirectly on cash incomes. Three- represented 15 per cent of the total. The next quarters of all such incomes were earned there, five years between 1966 and 1968 saw the 93 per cent of senior staff were located there population grow to 10,616 in a period of rapid and both social and economic problems were increase and account for almost a quarter of the mounting. national total. From 1968 to 1978 growth was slower, reaching 14,868 in 1973 and 17,921 in By the end of the 1970s the problems had 1978, amounting to 32 per cent of the total. This worsened with unemployment remaining at a is a proportion which has barely increased in consistently high level. In South Tarawa the subsequent years. Thus the 1960s was a period average household size in 1978 was 7.4 persons 278 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources compared with 5.6 in the outer islands, resulting still one of the South Pacific region's poorest in considerably more overcrowding. At the start countries. The basic needs of education, good of the 1980s illegal settlement on water reserve health, sanitation and clean water are generally areas in Betio was becoming a problem for the less well provided for here than in other Pacific Public Utilities Board (PUB) and shantytown island states. development was apparent in the three urban areas of Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu. This was Key Problems of Urbanizatin: A special demonstrated primarily in poor housing, workshop was held in September 1993 for sanitation problems and the absence of amenity, participants from Te Inainano Urban Council leading to unacceptable levels of health and (TUC), Betio Town Council (BTC), Betio Local nutrition. The 1-Kiribati custom of bubui Land Planning Board (BLLPB), the Central whereby it is almost impossible for an individual Land Planning Board (CLPB) and various to refuse a request enables some access to land government departments to discuss development virtually throughout the urban area. Sanitation is standards for land, housing, water, sewerage a substantial problem, although only 22 per cent and waste in South Tarawa. The two key of households had none in 1978 compared with problems facing South Tarawa were identified as 67 per cent outside the urban area where most rapid population growth and high population sewage is traditionally disposed of by tidal densities plus rapid urbanization. The 1990 action from the beaches. The outbreak of population of South Tarawa of 25,380 is cholera in 1977 underlined the connection projected to grow to 41,000 by the year 2010. between inadequate sanitation and health. A Assuming this forecast is valid and household third of households used only well water and sizes remain the same there will be a demand for almost half were dependent on wood fires for a minimum of 2,000 new plots to accommodate cooking. Official recognition of such problems the increased population. A list of symptoms of helped to promote decentralization and a these problems was also discussed: slowing of rural-urban migration from the less disadvantaged outer islands. * land scarcity; * land tenure problems - boundaries, leases, Problems of urban life, whilst substantial, have ownership, squatters; not worsened seriously in the 1980s and 1990s; * increased demand/inquiries for housing; nor have they improved significantly despite * emergence of 'urban poor'; enormous investment in water supplies and new * ground water depletion and pollution sanitation facilities. There is considerable through leching of sewage; overcrowding in already inadequate housing, * contamination of shellfish from human unsanitary living conditions and a lack of many excrement; basic services. Many families have built homes * overfishing of the reef and the Tarawa on private land which they have bought or Lagoon; secured rights to. Unemployment is still high, * increased garbage/waste disposal issues; wages are low, many necessities are costly * increased pressure on 'basic' physical imports and the productivity of the land and infrastructure system (e.g. reticulated water marine environment of South Tarawa is limited. six hours a day); In these difficult conditions some social * air pollution through vehicle exhaust; problems, including malnutrition, have proved * breakdown of traditional social/cultural intractable. According to conventional measures systems; of economic and social development Kiribati is * increase in land reclamation projects; extremely impoverished and is, by most criteria, 279 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources * increasing pressure on 'poor' institutional extended families using traditional methods. In arrangements for planning; the 1978 census 77 per cent of all houses were * increased conflict between central and local described as traditional and 48 per cent of those government over roles and responsibilities. on South Tarawa were in the same category. The local construction industry is small and Efforts to solve these problems were seen to be employs not much more than 300 people. Most necessary at two levels: the strategic and the construction activity is undertaken by the Public local. At the strategic scale key issues to be Works Department and the private sector is tackled include: undeveloped. The Kiribati Eousing Corporation (KHC) was established in 1979 and is * balanced population growth and distribution; responsible for the maintenance of government * balanced island development; housing and granting of loans for private * government employment and locational construction. Rented housing - mainly located policy; in South Tarawa and occupied by expatriates * land use; and internal migrants - is typically government- * environmental decline. owned and maintained by the KHC and Its small workforce. The operations of the KHC are For local government the issues were: constrained by uncertainties over its role and a lack of finance. The present value of rents and * refine institutional arrangements for subsidies are insufficient to cover the planning; Corporation's costs, hence maintenance * agree goals and objectives; programs have suffered. The loan scheme has * train and educate local government; also been affected by repayment arrears and the * revise development standards. tenure system does not allow land transfer as collateral for loans because of uncertainty over A draft discussion paper produced by the ownership of family land. Kiribati Land Planning Unit of the Lands and Survey Division in the Ministry of Home The system of allocating rental housing means Affairs and Environment identifies a series of that it is not utilized adequately. The accounting development standards for housing, water, system is poorly managed, making the financial sewage and domestic waste in South Tarawa operations of the system hard to clarify and the (Kiribati Land Planning Unit 1993). The draft Corporation operates at a loss. Rental and standards are designed to reflect fundamental I- subsidy policies require reviewing to ensure that Kiribati expectations and desires about their adequate income is recovered to cope with standard of living, health, amenity and quality maintenance costs. A review of housing types is of life also required to assess their suitability for the local and expatriate markets and the possible role of the private sector. Housing Urban Services Little data are available on housing conditions in Kiribati and only in South Tarawa (and to a In South Tarawa the PUB is responsible for lesser extent in the Line Islands) is there a electricity, water supplies and sewerage. No significant amount of formal sector other islands have centralized systems for these accommodation. Throughout most of the country utilities. Not all houses are linked to the housing is constructed by individuals and centralized system in Tarawa. PUB is a 280 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources government-owned corporation under the of supply, high losses from the system, Ministry of Works and Energy (MWE) and its problems of payment and inadequate water problems characterize those of such bodies in quality. Demand exceeds the capacity of readily small island states. There is a lack of highly available sources. A National Water Plan (1992- trained staff resulting in weak accounting and 2001) has been developed which identifies new billing systems, inaccurate tariff calculation and sources in North Tarawa. a consequent revenue problem. Tariffs have tended to be too low to cover operating costs let Sewerage: Traditionally the beaches and bush alone capital depreciation and PUB is dependent have provided the means of disposal, a system on government subsidies to cover the shortfalls. that is still in use in South Tarawa and on the This dependence has meanu that many facilities outer islands. The number of persons in 1990 are not properly maintained and there are who used the ocean or lagoon beach as a toilet ular disruptions to supply. Development was 10,152 in South Tarawa or 41 per cent of .nning is limited resulting in long lead times the population. This practice was lowest in the before services are established. reticulated sewage areas (21 per cent of the population of Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu and Water Water supplies have traditionally come 60 per cent of those living outside these areas) from wells but South Tarawa has a mixed (Jones 1993). After the cholera outbreak in system. High density housing and the villages South Tarawa a new sewerage system was are provided with water through public stand rapidly implemented in 1978, providing a sea- pipes. Many houses also have their own wells water-borne sewer system to the three urban and rain water storage for drinking is quite centers of Betio, Bairiki and Bekenibmu. common. Low density government houses have Individual house connections were made to low rain water catchments for drinking and utilize density public dwellings and some private ones well water for all other uses. The latter is and toilet blocks served high density government delivered by truck to overhead tanks in each housing. The system was fully funded by house. Australian bilateral aid at a cost of A$6.4 million and taken over by PUB in 1982. Some The rising population of South Tarawa is beneficial outcomes were the substantial placing water resources there under increased reduction of recurrent costs and alleviation of pressure. A study of the water resources of demands on the water lens. Most toilet facilities South Tarawa began in 1978 and investigatory in the three centers on South Tarawa are now work concluded that the lenses wre capable of connected but there are exceptions due to an yielding larger volumes of water to a supply expansion in their size through unauthorized system that could be inexpensive and simple to building. All the other villages on South Tarawa operate. The South Tarawa Water Supply are still not connected and the costs of doing this Project (TWSP) started in 1983, soon after the would be substantial. Sewer blockages completion and commissioning of the Tarawa sometimes occur due to improper use but this Sewerage System, and was developed with the has been overcome in the main drains by the assistance of the Australian Department of introduction of chopping devices. The Housing and Construction. The original cost of maintenance and upkeep of toilets within a block the project was A$3.2 million but this increased is a problem even though they have been to over A$6 million. Despite considerable allocated to individual users. Lack of care leads expense, this project has had a number of to damage and this can involve broken piping problems because of inexperienced management causing sea water to flow onto the ground or by PUB. There have been intermittent shortages through the system. When this happens families 281 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources revert to using the beach. The development of a more adequate urban sewerage system is a high priority but the high costs involved have delayed current proposals. Solid Waste: On South Tarawa garbage disposal is the responsibility of the two urban councils. Their present equipment is often in disrepair resulting in inadequate collection. A Refuse Disposal project funded by Australia to purchase tractors and trailors and provide communal garbage collection points and rubbish bins was implemented in 1986. Garbage is dumped at a number of points and used as land fill, though there are few suitable landfill sites. Tip sites are poorly maintained and lack adequate containing walls. During rough weather garbage gets washed away and ends up polluting adjacent beaches, creating a health hazard and eyesore. Better means of stabilization are required, especially with increasing dependence on imported non-biodegradable products and packaging. It is necessary for removal services to reach a much higher proportion of urban households. Water pollution from domestic and animal waste and the leaching of agricultural chemicals has also increased, with two of the major water reserves on South Tarawa being closed through contamination. Oil pollution is increasingly common in harbors and coliform bacteria concentrations in the Tarawa Lagoon are dangerously high in some areas. Without more adequate sewage disposal the potential for another serious disease epidemic remains high. 282 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources SELECTED REFERENCES Indicators Key Economic Development econ/dev Land land Population and Migration pop/mig Poverty poverty Housing housing Squatter Settlements squatter Water water Solid Waste solid/waste Sewerage sew Planning and Management plan/man Government govt Cultural and Social social Environmental environ Finance finance General Urban Topics over Sections Keywords Economic and Social Development econ/dev, social, over Population and Migration pop/mig Governance and Planning plan/man, govt Finance and Development finance Urban Land land Residential Development housing, squatter, poverty Urban Sanitation and Environment water, sew, solid/waste, environ Please Note: Each section forms a separate bibliography arranged alphabetically by date. 283 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL remittances, aid and bureaucracy are major DEVELOPMENT characteristics of the process of development. AIDAB (1992). The Kiribati economy: Connell, J. (1973). Pacific Urbanization: the development options and prospects for growth. exceptional case of Tarawa atoll. Geographical AIDAB International Development Issues No. Review, 65(3), 402-404. 26. Canberra: Australian Government Key: Kir over Publishing Service. Early study of the social and economic problems that Key: Kir econldev finance accompanied very rapid urbanization. Based on Overview of the national economy that focuses on scnry data macro-economic policies and practice and reviews Connell, J. (1983). Contract labor, equity and change in the various sectors of growth. It provides m an analytical overview of important developments migration in Kirbat. Noumea: South Pacific and issues, drawing from a wide range of Commission, Report to the Government of government, international agency and academic Kiribati. sources. Key: Kir econ/dev pop/mig Overview of the government employment system in Australia Department of Public Health (1993). Tarawa that focuses on the public sector's Health Status and Health Services in Kiribati. contribution to rapid urban growth and evaluates the Future trends to 2010. Canberra: Pacific 2010 governments policy on rotating public service project Australia, Department of Public Health. employment between the center and outer islands and selecting applications for government employment Key: Kir over only from outer islands, to reduce the rate of urbanization. Baaro, B. (1993). Economic overview. In H. van Trease (Eds.), Atoll Politics: the Republic Conell, J. (1985). Islands on the poverty line. of Kiribati. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies Pacific Viewpoint, 26, 463-73. University of the South Pacific. (pp. 161-167). Key: Kir poverty econ/dev Key: Kir econ/dev Overview of development problems and practice in Overview of resources and financial limitations, with Kiribati and Tuvalu, with particular reference to particular reference to agriculture. basic needs, migration and urbanization, and aspirations towards change and stability. Bedford, R. D. (1968). Urban Tarawa: some problems and prospects. Auckland: Department Coulson, P. (1993). Social welfare issues. In H. of Geography. van Trease (Eds.), Atoll Politics: the Republic Key: Kir over of Kiribati. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies Detailed early study of the growth of Tarawa and the University of the South Pacific. (pp. 258-265). emergence of social and economic problems there. Key: Kir social The study focuses on planning and housing issues. Examines crime and violence, much of which is concentrated in urban South Tarawa, where change Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1989). The has been most rapid. Integrated management of concept of the MIRAB economy in small South social problems is essential. Pacific countries. Pacific Viewpoint, 26(2). Key: Kir econ/dev pop/mig Fisk, E. K. (1985). The Economic Independence of Kiribati. ADAB Report No. Examines recent economic development in small 10. Canberra. island states including Kiribati where migration, Key: Kir plan/man econ/dev 284 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Reports on Kiribati's efforts and likelihood of Restricted assess. Assesses existing infrastructure and achieving a degree of economic independence. economic resources on Christmas Island and Reviews: transactions on foreign account; the export potential for further development. fishing industry; government finance; cash and subsistence economies; and planning and the use of Jones, P. (1993). Development Standards - aid. what do they mean and why do we need them in South Tarawa? Attachments for 'Challenging Franks, A. J. (1983). Patterns of illness and t the Future' workshop, Otintai Hotel, Tarawa, use of health services on a coral atoll - 21 September 1993. Land Planning Unit, observations in Kiribati (Central Pacific). Trans Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 77, 68-72. Development (unpublished). Key: Kir econ/dev poverty Key: Kir pop/mig over Summarizes urbanization in Kiribati. Lists problems, Geddes, W. H., Chambers, A., Sewell, B., issues and includes population forecasts. Lawrence, R., & Watters, R. (1979). Rural Socio-economic change in the Gilbert and Ellice Kiribati Land Planning Unit (1993). Islands. Wellington: Victoria University of Challenging the future. Towards development Wellington. standards for lands, housing, water, sewage, Key: Kir social econ/dev and waste, South Tarawa. Tarawa: Ministry of Overview, based in the study of four islands in Home Affairs and Rural Development (draft Kiribati and one in Tuvalu, of rural development discussion paper). problems, that covers land, population and migration Key: Kir land housing sew water plan/man issues, and offers various suggestions for over development policy. Proposes development standards for housing, water, sewerage and domestic waste in South Tarawa Gopalakrishnan, S. (1981). Klibati: transient applicable to the urban centers of Betio. Bairiki and professionals. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Pacic Bikeniben in particular. Key reference on land use Indians. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. planning in Kiribati. 90-97). Key: Kir pop/mig social Kiribati Ministry of Commerce Industry and Brief account of the Indian population of Kiribati, Employment and ILO EMPLA (1993). most of whom are involved in business in South Employment and income generation needs in Tarawa. Kiribati. Suva: ELO EMPLA. Key: Kir econ/dev Haddock, R. L. (1987). Cholera in a Pacific Report of a seminar including eleven papers on Island. Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease various aspects of employment in Kiribati, many of Research, 5(3), 181-183. which focused on the situation in South Tarawa, and Key: Kir social thus on the role of the public sector. Impact of lagoon pollution in urban Tarawa in terms of a serious cholera epidemic, primarily through the Kiribatd Ministry of Home Affairs and consumption of contaminated starfish. Decentralization (1991a). Aranuka Island Development Plan. Kiribati, Ministry of Home Hunting Technical Services (1985)%. Chrisns Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning Island resources survey (Kiribad). Canberra: Unit and Community Development Division. AADA. Key: Kir Econ/dev Key: Kir econ/dev water sew housing Summarizes the needs and development problems; policy development and sectoral goals and strategies. 285 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and Exchange. Honolulu: Pacific Science Decentralization (199 1b). Aranuka Island Socio- Association (pp. 91-99). economic Profile. Kiribati, Ministry of Home Key: Kir social land Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning An examination of the limited significance of social Unit and Community Development Division. and economic change in Kiribati with particular Key: Kir econ/dev reference to urban life in South Tarawa and land tenure issues. Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralization (1991c). Kuria Island Kofe, S. A. (1990). Role and Prospects of the Development Plan. Kiribati, Ministry of Home private sector in the economic development of AffirsandDeentaliatin,Rural Planning Krhibati. Asian Development Bank and Pacific Affairs and Decentralization, Diiin Islands Development Program, East-West Unit and Community Development Division.Center. Key: Kir econ/dev Key: Kir econ/dev Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralization (1991d). Kuria Island Socio- Larmour, P. (1982). Report on urban economic Profile. Kiribati, Ministry of Homne management in South Tarawa, Kiribati. Sava: Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning United Nations Development Advisory Team. Unit and Community Development Division. Key: Kir over K :ir ndoeruwatr seegomt f vsin Overview of planning issues, including a Key: Kir over water sew govt finance consideration of local government. administrative Discusses infrastructure; island administration and division, the privatiztion of government services, local organizations; and finance. land tenure and taxes. Kiribati Ministry of Trade Industry and Labor Lawrence, R. (1992a). Kiribati: change and (1980). Urbanization and Em~ployment M* context in an atoll world. In A. Robillard Kiribati. Tarawa: Kiribati Ministry of Trade, (Eds.), Social Ohange in the Pacftc Islands. Industry and Labor. London: Kegan Paul. (pp. 264-299). Key: Kir over Key: Kir econ/dev pop/mig Overview of the evolution of the modem national Kiribati Ministry of Trade Industry and Labor economy, which considers the role of migration in (1981). Urban Drift and Unemployment: the post-independence era and government policies, problems and solutions. Seventh South Pacific including policies on urban development, and the Labor Minister's Conference, Tarawa. implications of these policies for outer islands. (unpublished). Key: Kir poplmig social Lawrence, R. (1992b). Tamana fifteen years on: a survey of changes in the household economy Kiribati Statistics Office (1989). Kiribati since 1974. Wellington: Victoria University of Statistical Yearbook 1988. Tarawa: Kiribati Wellington Department of Geography. Statistics Office Ministry of Finance, Kiribati Key: Kir social finance eco/dev Government Printers. Discusses development change on Tamana between Key: Kir over 1971 and 1989 which reviews population change, the resource base, the subsistence sector and the Knudson, K. E. (1981). Adaptational allocation of time by households, the role of cash persistence in the Gilbert Islands. In R. W. sector and nutrition. It discusses development perssce B.ishep Gilb.),eriseceand ninitiatives at local and national level and reviews Force & B. Bishop (Eds.), Peristence and mgain*ewe uiadubnaes migrationoetween rural and urban areas. 286 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Love, R. S. (1981). Basic needs in Kiribati. Examines the prospects for development of Pacific Perspective, 10(2), 66-74. indigenous energy sources. Describes options for Key: Kir social housing sew water plan/man energy conservation and management and the current poverty econ/dev arrangements for energy planning. Makes Examines living standards on Kiribati b; comparing recommendations throughout. data with international and regional sources. presents data and discussion on: housing; sanitation and water Pargeter, K., Taylor, R., King, H., & Zimmer, supply; cooking and lighting; and transport. P. (1984). Jiribati: a dietary study. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. Maung, T. M. (1979). Cholera in the Gilberts. Key: Kir social World Health, January, 6-9. Overview of the national nutritional situation with Key: Kir social particular reference to Ta-awa. Overview of the 1977 cholera epidemic in South Tarawa. Pitchford, J. (1981). Decentralization in Kiribati. Tarawa: Office of Te Beretitenti (3 Miles, R., Alarn, M., & Larhed, T. (1992). Vols). Empc; ment in Kiribati. Present and potential. Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man over Suva: ILO EMPLA. Describes the Kiribati administration's approach to Key: Kir econ/dev decentralization in: family planning; resettlement; A detailed review of trends in the Kiribati labor land tenure; rural development for subsistence; rural market to identify constraints and policies towards development for export; rural development for income and employment generation in both the convenience and leisure; staff and resources; formal and informal sectors, including the educ2tion and manpower; and incentives and subsistence sector. Assesses all available data labor disincentives. demands and supply, population change, unemployment and the urban informal sector. Pollard, S. (1987). The viability and vulnerability of a small island state - the case of National Center for Development Studies Kiribati. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social 87/14. Canberra: National Center for Database: Kiribati. Canberra: National Center Development Studies, Australian National for Pacific Studies Australian National University. University. Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man environ Key: Kir over econ/dev financ. pop/mig Examines the economic situation and potential of housing Kiribati, which reviews problem areas and policy Contains current and historical statistics on: needs, in line with the national policy of self- population, migration, demography and housing; reliance. education; health; national accounts; international accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Republic of Kiribati (1992). Kiribati - 7th labor, employment and wages; prices and price National Development Plan 1992-1995. indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Tarawa: Republic of Kiribati. distribution; transport and communication; and tour. Key: Kir over Discusses the development plan for topics including Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission macro economic framework; population, manpower report - Kiribati. Suva: South Pacific Bureau and employment; environment; tourism; water and for Economic Co-operation. sanitation; housing and social issues. Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man Examines Kiribati's patterns of energy supply and Rouatu, I. (1993). Our standard of living. In H. use for petroleum, electricity and biomass fuels. van Trease (Eds.), Atoll Politics: the Republic 287 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources of Kiribati. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies Key: Kir pop/mig University of the South Pacific. (pp. 190-196). Key: Kir social Bertram, I. G., & Watters, R. F. (1989). The An examination of economic status, wages and prices concept of the MIRAB economy in small South and the government policies affecting those issues. Pacific countries. Pacific Viewpoint, 26(2). Key: Kir econ/dev pop/mig Tong, P., & Tanentoa, B. (1980). Examines recent economic development in small Urbanization, tourism and national environment island states including Kiribati where migration, (Kiribati). In F. Rajotte & R. Crocombe (Eds.), remittances, aid and bureaucracy are major Padfic Tourism as Islanders See It. Suva: characteristics of the process of development. Institute of Pacific Studies University of the Booth, H. (1987). Population growth in South Pacific. (pp. 127-32). Kiribati: the 1980s and beyond. Tarawa: Key: Kir environ over econ/dev Kiribati National Population Seminar. A brief overview of the problems of urbanization in Key: Kir pop/mig South Tarawa and the extent to which these might be influenced by tourism. Booth, H. (1988). 1985 Popukation Census of Kiribati. Demographic Analysis. Noumea: UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of South Pacific Commission. Children and Women in Kiribati. Suva: Key: Kir pop/mig UNICEF for Kiribati Government. Key: Kir poverty pop/mig plan/man econ/dev Connell, J. (1983). Contract labor, equity and migration in Kiribati. Noumea: South Pacific World Bank (1988). Kiribati: economic Commission, Report to the Government of developments, issues and prospects. Kiribati. Washington DC: World Bank. Key: Kir econ/dev pop/mig Key: Kir econ/dev Overview of the government employment system in Tarawa that focuses on the public sector's World Bank (1993). Paafic Islands Economies: contribution to rapid urban growth and evaluates the Toward Efficient and Sustainable Growth, Vol governments policy on rotating public service 3. Kiribati: Country Economic Memorandum. employment between the center and outer islands and Washington DC. selecting applications for government employment only from outer islands, to reduce the rate of Key: Kir econ/dev uraizton. Zimmet, P., et al. (1981). The impact of Connell, J. (1983). Migration, employment and modernization on the health of a Pacific Nation. development in the South Paciic. Country Melbourne: The Kiribati Diabetes and report No.7- Kiribati. Noumea: South Pacific Cardiovascular Disease Survey. Commission and International Labor Key: Kir social over Organization. Key: Kir pop/mig Examines Kiribati's economy, employment, population, urbanization, internal and external POPULATION AND MIGRATION migration, and the impact and implications of migration and decentralization policies. Bailey, E. (1984). Population distribution and migration. In Report of the 1978 Census of Kiribad, Vol 3. Tarawa: Census Office. 288 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Liternmure and Data Sources Connell, J. (1986). Population, migration and Key: Kir housing pop/mig problems of atoll development in the South Presents data collected in the 1985 census on: Pacific. Pacific Studies, 9, 41-58. population by ethnic origin and island with land area Key: MI Kir FSM pop/mig and density; indigenous population by sex, age, Examination of migration and urbanization in the education, home island, religion, island and atoll states of the Pacific (Kiribati, Tuvalu, Marshall economic activity; households by size, island, source Islands and Tokelan) with reference to these issues in of cash income, and type of income. other states where atolls are significant. Kiribati Ministry of Finance. Statistics Office Geddes, W. H. (1989). Population disribution, (1986-). International trade : imports and internal and external migration in the Republic exports. Tarawa: Ministry of Finance. Statistics ofKiribati. Deakin University, Geelong, Vic. Office. Key: Kir pop/mig Key: Kir pop/mig Gopalakrishnan, S. (1981). Kiribati: transient Presents data on: population; immigration; gross professionals. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Pacfic domestic product; retail price indices; copra Indians. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. production; fish catches and values; employment; public sector wages; government expenditure and 90y: K p revenue; trade, aid, and the financial sector. Key: Kir pop/mig social Brief account of the Indian population of Kiribati, iribati Ministry of Home Affairs (1983). most of whom are involved in business in South Report t Tarawa. f the 1978 Cesus of Population and Housing, Vols 1, 2 and 3. Analytical Report: Jones, P. (1993). Development Standards - Historical Introduction, Demographic Analysis, what do they mean and why do we need them in Economic Characteristics. Tarawa: Kiribati South Tarawa? Attachments for 'Challenging Ministry of Home Affairs. the Future' workshop, Ofintai Hotel, Tarawa, Key: Kir pop/mig 21 September 1993. Land Planning Unit, Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Kiribati Ministry of Trade Industry and Labor Development (unpublished). (1981). Urban Drift and Unemployment: Key: Kir pop/mig over problems and solutions. Seventh South Pacific Summarizes urbanization in Kiribati. Lists problems, Labor Minister's Conference, Tarawa. issues and includes population forecasts. (unpublished). Key: Kir pop/mig social Kiribati Government (1990). Kiribati 1990 Population Census Tables. Census Workshop, Lawrence, R. (1992). Kiribati: change and Otintai Hotel, Tarawa. context in an atoll world. In A. Robillard Key: Kir poplmig (Eds.), Social Change in the Pacic Islands. London Kegan Paul. (pp. 264-299). Kiribati Ministry of Finance Statistics Office Key: Kir econ/dev poplmig (1991). lIribad population census 1990 : Overview of the evolution of the modem national summary results. Tarawa: Ministry of Finance. economy, which considers the role of migration in Statistics Office the post-independence era and government policies, including policies on urban development, and the Key: Kir poplmig implications of these policies for outer islands. Kiribati Ministry of Finance. Statistics Office National Center for Development Studies (1986). 1985 population census. Tarawa: (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social Ministry of Finance. Statistics Office. 289 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Database: Kiribati. Canberra: National Center UNSW Center for South Pacific Studies. (pp. for Pacific Studies Australian National 297-304). University. Key: Kir pop/mig Key: Kir over econ/dev finance pop/mig Overview of the scheme to decentralize population housing from the Gilbert Islands to the Line Islands. Contains current and historical statistics on: population, migration, demography and housing; UNESCO (1981). Bibliography on population education; health; national accounts; international education. Bangkok: UNESCO. Regional accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific. labor, employment and wages; prices and price Key: Ton Kir pop/mig indices; rural industries; secondary industries and distribution; transport and communication; and tour. UNICEF (1991). Sitiational Analysis of Children and Women in Kiribati. Suva: Takaio, A. (1993). Kain Tarawa. In H. van Trease (Eds.), Atoll Politics: the Republic of UNICEF for Kiribati Government. Kiribati. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies Key: Kir poverty pop/mig plan/man econldev University of the South Pacific. (pp. 278-284). United Nations (nd). Urban Plan for South Key: Kir pop/mig Tarawa. Port Vila: United Nations Economic An examination of the established population (kain Tarawa) of South Tarawa, who have become increasingly landless with in-migration from other Pacific. areas. Much land has been sold and there has been Key: Kir plan/man pop/mig housing consideration of a freeze on land sales in the area. Discusses urban planning issues and the strategic plan outline. Contains information on population Tesfaghiorghis, H. (1993). Kiribati : population changes 1968-1985 together with housing projections, 1990-2010. In R. V. Cole (Eds.), infoation. Pacific 2010 : challenging the fiure. Pacific United Nations Development Program (1991). . EKiribai Popularion in the 1990s. Some policy policy paper, No.9. Canberra: Australian .issue ation in s in d oicg National University. Research School of Pacific Studies. National Center for Development planning Working Paper senes - UNDP Studies. (pp. 105-116). Kir/90/003. Strengthening development Key: Kir pop/mig planning and project execution United Nations Provides projections of Kiribati's population growth, Development Program. school age population, labor force and urbanization. Key: Kir pop/mig Tira, T. (1982). Country statement: Kiribati. Wilson, J. P., & Bedford, R. D. (1981). The Noumea: Seminar on population problems of measurement of internal migration: issues small island countries of the ESCAPISPC arising from a recent census in the Central region. Pacific. New Zealand Population Review, 7(2), Key: Kir pop/mig 27-38. Key: Kir pop/nig Tonganibea, B. E. (1993). Kiribati. A consideration of the problems of analysis of the Development and Internal Migration. In G. internal migration data in the 1973 census. McCall & J. Connell (Eds.), A World Perspective on Pacific Islander Migration. Pacific Studies Monograph No. 6. Sydney: 290 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources GOVERNANCE AND PLANNING Collins, D., Donaldson, D., & BuIltitude, B. (1987). Review of Kiribati Housing Anschau, J. C. (1985). Kiribati Housing Corporation, 1987. Canberra: AADA. Corporation, Kiribati Public Utilides Board. Key: Kir housing govt plan/man Canberra: Australian Development Assistance Summarizes housing policy, examines housing stock, Bureau. and evaluates rehabilitation and replacement options. Key: Kir housing finance govt Report based on a survey of the Kiribati Housing Fisk, E. K. (1985). The Economic Corporation (KHC) and the Public Utilities Board Independence of Kiribati. ADAB Report No. (PUB). Examines the KHC's furniture policy; and 10. Canberra. collection procedure; rental income; repairs and Key: Kir plan/man econ/dev maintenance expenditure; government subsidy; and Reports on Kiribati's efforts and likelihood of financial reporting. Briefly reviews survey of PUB. achieving a degree of economic independence. Reviews: transactions on foreign account; the export Australia Department of Housing and fishing industry; government finance; cash and Construction (1981). Kiribati - Tarawa water subsistence economies; and planning and the use of resources: pre-design study. Canberra: aid. Australia. Department of Housing and Construction. Flutter, J. (1984). Yarit report: Kiribati, Key: Kir water plan/man housing 7.10.84-14.10.84: Tarawa sewerage project: Pre-design study of an Australian project to upgrade Tarawa water supply project: Fiji, 14.10.84- and extend the existing water supply on Tatawa Atoll 18.10.84- 1noya outfiall study: Kinoya by tapping new water lens away from densely sewerage treatment .... Canberra: Department populated areas, by reticulation, and by development of Transport and Construction for the of rainwater systems. Australian Development Assistance Bureau. Key: Kir Fiji sew plan/man water Australia Department of Housing and Construction (1984). Kiribati Tarawa water Itaia, M. (1987). Squatters on South Tarawa, supply: comparison of alternative pumping Kiribati. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), In arrangements. Canberra: Australia. Department Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific of Housing and Construction. Studies. (pp. 206-229). Key: Kir water plan/man housing Key: Kir squatter land housing plan/man govt Australia Department of Housing and Kiribati Land Planning Unit (1993). Construction (1986). Review of Tarawa water Challenging the future. Towards development supply project. Report No. 236. Canberra: standards for lands, housing, water, sewage, Coastal Development Branch, Department of and waste, South Tarawa. Tarawa: Ministry of Housing and Construction. Home Affairs and Rural Development (draft Key: Kir water plan/man environ discussion paper). Key: Kir land housing sew water plan/man Bencke, W. E. (1982). Kiribati, Tarawa water over supply supplementation, Tarawa water supply Proposes development standards for housing, water, project, Tarawa sewerage project: report on sewerage and domestic waste in South Tarawa short term assignment. Canberra: Australia. applicable to the urban centers of Betio, Bairiki and Department of Transport and Construction. Bikenibeu in particular. Key reference on land use Key: Kir water sew solid/waste plan/man planning in Kiribati. 291 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Kiribati Ministry of Finance. National Planning Examines living standards on Kiribati by comparing Office (1986). Kiribati sixth national data with international and regional sources. presents development plan 1987 to 1991 : te kaniki n data and discussion on: housing; sanitation and water toronibwai. Tarawa: Ministry of Finance. supply; cooking and lighting; and transport. National Planning Office. Mie, S. (1991). The Economic impact of Key: Kir plan/man Describes: the policy framework; the macro tourism in Kiribati. Pacific Studies, 14(2), 53- framework; and the development plans for the 70. production sector, social services, infrastructure, and Key: Kir plan/man administration. Examines the role of tourism in the economy of Kiribati. Focuses on the effects of visitor Kiribati Ministry of Finance. National Planning expenditure on income, employment and government Office (1992). Kiribai draft seventh national revenue generation. Examines the degree to which development plan. Tarawa: Ministry of different sectors and types of firms are able to denaopeNna Plan n T Orawf:f ii sy ocontribute to local income and employment Finance. National Planning Office. generation. Provides a brief overview of the Key: Kir p n planning and development implications of the findings. Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralization (1991). Kuria Island Socio- Murphy, P. (1981). Tarawa water supply: economic Profile. Kiribati, Ministry of Home investigation. Major report No. 232. Canberra: Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning Australian Department of Housing and Unit and Community Development Division. Construction. Key: Kir over water sew govt finance Key: Kir water plan/man Discusses infrastructure; island administration and local organizations; and finance. Murphy, P. (1982). Kiritimati water resources investigation: drilling and insitu testing Kiribati Ministry of Works and November 1982. ADAC Central Investigation Communications (1984). Tarawa Sewerage and Research Laboratory, Melbourne, Vic. Project Evaluarion: Tarawa Water Supply Key: Kir water plan/man Project Appraisal: Public Utilities Board Management Review. Tarawa: Ministry of Newcombe, K., et al. (1982). Energy mission Works and Communications. report - Kiribati. Suva: South Pacific Bureau Key: Kir sew plan/man water for Economic Co-operation. Kiribati Public Service Division Human Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man Examines Kiribati's patrarns of energy supply and Resources Planning Unit (1990). Kiribad joint use for petroleum, electricity and biomass fuels. human resources and training review : Olintaai Examines the prospects for development of Hotel, 23 April-3 May 1990. Tarawa: Public indigenous energy sources. Describes options for Service Division. Human Resources Planning energy conservation and management and the current Unit. arrangements for energy planning. Makes Key: Kir plan/man recommendations throughout. Love, R. S. (1981). Basic needs in Kiribati. Paeniu, B. (1988). A Pacific regional study Pacific Perspective, 10(2), 66-74. based on Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Key: Kir social housing sew water plan/man Solomon Islands and Tonga. In A. Bhatt et al. poverty econ/dev (Eds.), Building from below : local initiatives for decentralized development in Asia and 292 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Pacific. Volume 3. Kuala Lumpur: Asian and Key: Kir environ land plan/man water sew Pacific Development Center. (pp. 427- 465). Discusses International environment conventions, Key: Ton Kir plan/man land tenure, physical planning and assessment, water Presents an overview of the process of government quality and quality, pollution and waste decentralization as it relates to rural development management. planning in selected nations. Identifies major constraints to effective decentralization for rural Stewart, J. R. (1982). Mribari - Planning of development and offers possible solutions. Tarawa. Suva: United Nations Development Advisory Team. Patching, A., & Homer, D. (1982). Report on a Key: Kir plan/man land housing squatter govt planning visit to Tarawa. unknown. Discusses planning and land tenure in Tarawa, the Key: Kir plan/man role of the government in planning. Housing and the problem of squatter settlements are also discussed. Pitchford, J. (1981). Decentralization in Kiribati. Tarawa: Office of Te Beretitenti (3 Tarawa Public Utilities Board (1984a). Tarawa Vols). sewerage project evaluation: Tarawa water Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man over supply project appraisal: Public Uftlities Board Describes the Kiribati administration's approach to management review: final report. Volume 1: decentralization in: family planning; resettlement; executive summary. Tarawa: Public Utilities land tenure; rural development for subsistence; mrual Board. AADA. development for export; rural development for Key: Kir sew water plan/man convenience and leisure; staff and resources; education and manpower; and incentives and Tarawa Public Utilities Board (1984b). Tarawa disincentives. sewerage project evaluation: Tarawa water supply project appraisal: Public Utilities Board Pollrd, S. 198). Te vabiity and management review: final report. Volume 4: vulnerability of a small island state - the case of management review Tarwa ublic lribati. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. Utities Board. AADA. 87/14. Canberra: National Center for Development Studies, Australian National Key: Kir water pln/man University. UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of Key: Kir econ/dev plan/man environ Children and Women in Mribati. Suva: Examines the economic situation and potential of UNICEF for Kiribati Government. Kiribati, which reviews problem areas and policy needs, in line with the national policy of self- Key: Kir poverty poplmig plan/man econ/dev reliance. United Nations (nd). Urban Plan for South Sheerin, R. (1990). Estimations of cash job Tarawa. Port Vila: United Nations Economic opportunities for school leavers. Tarawa: PSD and Social Commission for Asia and the Human Resources Planning Unit. Pacific. Key: Kir plan/man Key: Kir plan/man pop/mig housing Discusses urban planning issues and the strategic South Pacific Regional Environment Program plan outline. Contains information on population (1992). Preliminary Report on Environmental changes 1968-1985 together with housing Law in Kiribati. Apia: National Environment information. Management Strategy Project, South Pacific van Trease, H. (1993). South Tarawa case Regional Environment Program. study. In H. van Trease (Eds.), Atoll Politics: 293 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources the Republic of Eiribati. Suva: Institute of Lawrence, R. (1992). Tamana fifteen years on: Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific. a survey of changes in the household economy (pp. 125-157). since 1974. Wellington: Victoria University of Key: Kir govt Wellington Department of Geography. An analysis of the 1991 elections in South Tarawa, Key: Kir social finance eco/dev prefaced by a detailed account of urbanization and Discusses development change on Tamana between the changing population of the area. 1971 and 1989 which reviews population change, the resource base, the subsistence sector and the allocation of time by households, the role of cash sector and nutrition. It discusses development FINANCE AND DEVELOPMENT inatives at local and national level and reviews migration between rural and urban areas. AIDAB (1992). The Kribati economy National Center for Development Studies development options and prospects for growth. Nationa Cetrfor Eveon t Suies AIDAB International Development Issues No. (1989). South Pacific Economic and Social 26. Canberra: Australian Government Database: Kiribati. Canberra: National Center Pubishnbervice Austrfor Pacific Studies Australian National Publishing Service.Unvriy Key: Kir econ/dev finance University. Overview of the national economy that focuses on Key: Kir over econ/dev finance pop/mig macro-economic policies and practice and reviews housing change in the various sectors of growth. It provides Contains current and historical statistics on: an analytical overview of important developments population, migration, demography and housing; and issues, drawing from a wide range of education; health; national accounts; international government, international agency and academic accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; sources. labor, employment and wages; prices and price indices; rural industries; secondary industries and Anschau, J. C. () 985). iribati Housing distribution; transport and communication; and tour. Corporation, Kiribai Public Utilities Board. Canberra: Australian Development Assistance Stone, J. (1990). Banking in Kiribati and Bureau. Tuvalu. Paafic Economic Bulletin, 5(2), 29-32. Key: Kir housing finance govt Key: Kir finance Report based on a survey of the Kiribati Housing Banking in Kiribati presents several challenges for Corporation (KHC) and the Public Utilities Board Westpac, based on joint ventures with the (PUB). Examines the KHC's furniture policy; and government in the absence of a central bank. collection procedure; rental income; repairs and Localization and the training of skilled personnel are maintenance expenditure; government subsidy; and inpor . financial reporting. Briefly reviews survey of PUB. Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralization (1991). Kuria Island Socio- URBAN LAND economic Profile. Kiribati, Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning Baitika, T. (1987). Leases. In R. Crocombe Unit and Community Development Division. (Eds.), Land tenure in the Atolls. Suva: Key: Kir over water sew govt finance University of the South Pacific. Institute of Discusses infrastructure; island administration and Pacific Studies. (pp. 50-55). local organizations; and finance. Key: Kir land Describes the nature of land leases in Kiribati, the negotiations on the terms of the leases, problems 294 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources associated with leases, and the special conditions Home Affairs and Rural Development (draft applied to secure land leases. discussion paper). Key: Kir land housing sew water plan/man Betero, T. (1987). Boundaries. In R. Crocombe over (Eds.), Land tenure in the atolls : Cook Islands, Proposes development standards for housing, water, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Tokelau, Tuvalu. sewerage and domestic waste in South Tarawa Suva: University of the South Pacific. Institute applicable to the urban centers of Betio, Bairiki and of Pacific Studies. (pp. 40-49). Bikenibeu in particular. Key reference on land use Key: Kir Land planning in Kiribati. Outlines the problems involved in establishing property boundaries in Kiribati, particularly in the Knudson, K. E. (1981). Adaptational case of absentee owners. Describes the powers of persistence in the Gilbert Islands. In R. W. the Land Magistrates Court. Force & B. Bishop (Eds.), Persistence and Exchange. Honolulu: Pacific Science Brechtefeld, N. (1987). Lands courts. In R. Association (pp. 91-99). Crocombe (Eds.), Land tenure in the Atolls. Key: Kir social land Suva: University of the South Pacific. Institute An examination of the limited significance of social of Pacific Studies. (pp. 56-62). and economic change in Kiribati with particular Key: Kir land reference to urban life in South Tarawa and land Examines the operations of the Lands Courts in tenure issues. Kiribati pre- and post-independence. Lambert, B. (1987). Kiribati : micro- Davey, T. L. (1985). Republic of Kiribati: individualism. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land land rental review. Port Vila: United Nations. tenure in the South Pacific. University of the ESCAP Pacific Operations Center. South Pacific, Suva. (pp. 164-190). Key: Kir land Key: Kir land Describes traditional land tenure, its evolution and letaake, T. (1987). Land taxation. In R. its cultural ramifications, with particular reference to Crocombe (Eds.), Land tenure in the Atolls. the northern atolls (not including South Tarawa). University of the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva. (pp. 63-72). Leupena, T., & Lutelu, K. (1987). Providing Key:cir ld, Sfor the multitude. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land Key: Kir land truei h tls ua nvriyo h Examines the relationship of land taxation to the tenure in the Atolls. Suva: University of the development of land and the overall development of South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. Kiribati. Considers the system of land tax 143-165). administration and its impact on the people. Key: MI Kir land water Outlines the customary structure of land tenure in Itaia, M. (1987). Squatters on South Tarawa, Tuvalu including land rights, water rights and the Kiribati. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.). In role of the chiefs. Outlines the lands court system, Search of a Hone. Suva: Institute of Pacific the political and social significance of land, and other Studies. (pp. 206-229). issues associated with land tenure. Key: Kir squatter land housing plan/man govt Lodge, M. (1987). Land law and procedure. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land tenure in the Atolls. Krain and Pleannn Uoward t (1993).r Suva: University of the South Pacific. Institute Challenging the future. Towards development of Paii Studies. (pp. 73-107). standards for lands, housing, water, sewage, Ky i Ki land and waste, South Tarawa. Tarawa: Ministry of Key: MI Kir land 295 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Outlines the procedures for lodging a claim in the Key: Kir housing Lands Court. Describes laws relevant to the Reports on improvements to public service housing. ownership, acquisition or lease of land in Kiribati. Namai, B. (1987). The Evolution of Kiribati Anschau, J. C. (1985). Kiribati Housing tenures. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land tenure in Corporation, Kiribad Publc Utilities Board. the Atolls. Suva: University of the South Canberra: Australian Development Assistance Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 30-39). Bureau. Key: MI Kir land Key: Kir housing finance govt Outlines the land tenure and land registration systems Report based on a survey of the Kiribati Housing in Kiribati. Stresses the need for reform to overcome Corporation (KHC) and the Public Utilities Board legislative difficulties in land registration. (PUB). Examines the KHC's furniture policy; and collection procedure; rental income; repairs and South Pacific Regional Environment Program maintenance expenditure; government subsidy; and (1992). Preliminary Report on Environmental financial reporting. Briefly reviews survey of PUB. Law in Kiribati. Apia: National Environment Management Strategy Project, South Pacific Australia Department of Housing and Regional Environment Program. Construction (1981). Kiribti - Tarawa water Key: Kir environ land plan/man water sew resources: pre-design study. Canberra- Discusses International environment conventions, Australia. Department of Housing and land tenure, physical planning and assessment, water Construction. quality and quality, pollution and waste Key: Kir water plan/man housing management. Pre-design study of an Australian project to upgrade and extend the existing water supply on Tatawa Atoll Stewart, J. R. (1982). KAribari - Planning of by tapping new water lens away from densely Tarawa. Suva: United Nations Development populated areas, by reticulation, and by development Advisory Team. of rainwater systems. Key: Kir plan/man land housing squatter govt Discusses planning and land tenure in Tarawa, the Australia Department of Housing and role of the government in planning. Housing and the Construction (1983). Christmas Island water problem of squatter settlements are also discussed. resources study (Kiribati). Canberra: AADA (4 Vols) Stewart, J. R. (1986). Land reclamation South Key: Kir water housing Tarawa. unknown. Restricted access. A study of the water resources of Key: Kir land Christmas Island and the establishment of boreholes Reports on the requirements for land reclamation in for monitoring purposes. South Tarawa Atoll, suggesting that land reclamation is so costly a process as to be viable capital intensive Australia Department of Housing and development projects and g Kiribati Construction (1984). Kiribati Tarawa water government consideration. supply: comparison of alternative pumping arrangements. Canberra: Australia. Department of Housing and Construction. Key: Kir water plan/man housing RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT Collins, D., Donaldson, D., & Bulltitude, B. Anschan, J. C. (1985). Mribad Housing (1987). Review of Kiribati Housing Corporation Kiribad Pubic Utilities Board. Corporation, 1987. Canberra: AADA. Sydney: ADAB Pacific Regional Team. Key: Kir housing govt plan/man 296 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Summarizes housing policy, examines housing stock, Proposes development standards for housing, water, and evaluates rehabilitation and replacement options. sewerage and domestic waste in South Tarawa applicable to the urban centers of Betio, Bairiki and Connell, J. (1985). Islands on the poverty line. Bikenibeu in particular. Key reference on land use Pacific Viewpoint, 26, 463-73. planning in Kiribati. Key: Kir poverty econ/dev Overview of development problems and practice in Kiribati Ministry of Finance. Statistics Office Kiribati and Tuvalu, with particular reference to (1986). 1985 population census. Tarawa: basic needs, migration and urbanization, and Ministry of Finance. Statistics Office. aspirations towards change and stability. Key: Kir housing poplmig Presents data collected in the 1985 census on: Franks, A. J. (1983). Patterns of illness and the population by ethnic origin and island with land area use of health services on a coral atoll - and density; indigenous population by sex, age, observations in Kiribati (Central Pacific). Trans education, home island, religion, island and R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 77, 68-72. economic activity; households by size, island, source Key: Kir econ/dev poverty of cash income, and type of income. Hockings, J. (1989). Tradiional Architecture in Love, R. S. (1981). Basic needs in Kiribati. the Gilbert Islands. A Cultural Perspective. Pacific Perspective, 10(2), 66-74. Brisbane: University of Q P . Key: Kir social housing sew water plan/man Key: Kir housing poverty econ/dev Key:unt Kirthevarious housing typesinKiribaExamines living standards on Kiribati by comparing Account of the various housing types in Kiribati, daawt nentoa n regional sources. prsents with particular reference to Onotoa, and their data wit iscussion ond on son andswat relationship to land tenure and social organization. dpt c on an hosing; and taso. supply; cooking and lighting; and transport. Hunting Technical Services (1985). Orrisnas Macrae, S. (1983). Republ. o IslandMacrau,cS. (1983). Repubhe oabrr-fUEribad : report Island resources survey (KiribaI) Canberra- on the 1978 census of population and housing. AADA. Key: Kir econ/dev water sew housing Volum . historical introduction Restricted assess. Assesses existing infastruct deographic analysis econmic economic resources on Christmas sland d icharacteristics. Kiribati. Ministry of Home potential for further development. Affairs and Decentralization, Bairiki, Tarawa. Key: Kir housing Itaia, M. (1987). Squatters on South Tarawa, Kiribati. In L. Mason & P. Hereniko (Eds.), i Murphy, P. (1986). Tarawa water supply Search of a Home. Suva: Institute of Pacific project drilling and monitor installations 1985- Studies. (pp. 206-229). 1986. Australia, Department of Housing and Key: Kir squatter land housing plan/nan govt Construction. Scientific Services Branch. Report No. 86/G15. Australia. Department of Kiribati Land Planning Unit (1993). Housing and Construction. Scientific Services Challenging the faure. Towards development Branch, Melbourne, Vic. standards for lands, housing, water, sewage, Key: Kir housing water and waste, South Tarawa. Tarawa: Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development (draft National Center for Development Studies discussion paper). (1989). South PaifC Economic and Social Key: Kir land housing sew water plan/man Database: Eiribari. Canberra: National Center over 297 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources for Pacific Studies Australian National Key: Kir water University. Discusses the alternative water sources and Key: Kir over econ/dev finance pop/mig development and management of those resources. housing Contains current and historical statistics on: AIDAB (1993). Kiribati-South Tarawa population, migration, demography and housing; Sanitation Project Request. Canberra: AIDAB. education; health; national accounts; international Field Appraisal. accounts; foreign aid; public finance; foreign trade; Key: Kir sew solid/waste water labor, employment and wages; prices and price Discusses the factors contributing to incidence of indices; rural industries; secondary industries and diarrhoeal disease including the water supply system, distribution; transport and communication; and tour. sewerage system, waste disposal in non-sewered areas, solid waste disposal and population aspects. Stewart, J. R. (1982). liribad - Planning of Tarawa. Suva: United Nations Development AIDAB Pacific Regional Team (1988). Report Advisory Team. in the quality of Tarawa's water supply. Key: Kir planhman land housing squatter govt Sydney: AIDAB Center for Pacific Discusses planning and land tenure in Tarawa. the Development and Training. role of the government in planning. Housing and the Key: Kir water problem of squatter settlements are also discussed. Comprehensive water quality study of Tarawa's reticulated water supply by NSW State Pollution UNICEF (1991). Situational Analysis of Control Commission. Orildren and Women in Mribati. Suva. UNICEF for Kiribati Government. AIDAB Pacific Regional Team (1993). Kiribati- Key: Kir poverty pop/mig plan/man econ/dev South Tarawa sanitation project request, field appraisal. Sydney: Center for Pacific United Nations (nd). Urban Plan for South Development and Training. Tarawa. Port Vila: United Nations Economic Key: Kir water sew solid/waste and Social Commission for Asia and the Examines upgrading of sanitation and water supply Pacific. arising from worsening community health. Key: Kir plan/man pop/mig housing Recommends deferment of assistance until full health Discusses urban planning issues and the strategic study is completed. plan outline. Contains information on population changes 1968-1985 together with housing Australia Department of Housing and information. Construction (1973). Report on an investigation into the provision of a reticulated water supply for the Island of Betio, Tarawa. Canberra: URBAN SANITATION AND Australian Department of Housing and ENVIRONMENT Construction. Key: Kir water Adlam, J., & Murfet, L. (1988). Tebwebwe's Australia Departinent of Housing and visit to Tarawa : the new water supply. Construction (1975). Report upon completion of unknown. the Betio Water Supply Project August. Key: Kir water Canberra: Australian Department of Housing and Construction. AIDAB (1992). Review of Tarawa Freshwater Key: Kir water Lenses. Canberra: Republic of Kiribati and AIDAB. 298 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Australia Department of Housing and Key: Kir water housing Construction (1976). Report on alternative Restricted access. A study of the water resources of sewerage systems for Bedio, Bairiki and Christmas Island and the establishment of boreholes Bikenibeu at Tarawa. Canberra: Australian for monitoring purposes. Department of Housing and Construction. Key: KCir se Australia Department of Housing and Construction (1984). iribad Tarawa water Australia Department of Housing and supply: conparison of alternative pumping Construction (1977). Tarawa sewerage scheme: arrangements. Canberra: Australia. Department proposal for implementation. Canberra: of Housing and Construction. Australian Department of Housing and Key: Kir water plan/man housing Construction. Key: Kir sew Australia Department of Housing and Construction (1986). Review of Tarawa water Australia Department of Housing and supply project. Report No. 236. Canberra: Construction (1980a). Broad Proposals for the Coastal Development Branch, Department of establishment of an organization for the Housing and Construction. operation and maintenance of the Sewerage Key: Kir water plan/man environ System at Bedo, Bairild and Bikenibeu, Tarawa. Canberra: Australian Department of Housing Australia International Development Assistance and Construction. Burean. Coastal and Environmental Engineering Key: Kir sew Branch (1986). Review of Tarawa water supply project. Canberra: AIDAB. Australia Department of Housing and Key: Kir water Construction (1980c). Tarawa Water Resources: Pre-design Study: proposal for Implementation. Bellair, J., Chidgey, S., Matthews, R., & Canberra: Australian Department of Housing Wallis, I. G. (1985). Tarawa project outfall and Construction. reconnaissance study. Canberra. Consulting Key: Kir water Environmental Engineers Ltd for the Department of Housing and Construction. Australia Department of Housing and Key: Kir sew Construction (1981). Kiribad - Tarawa water resources: pre-design study. Canberra: Bencke, W. E. (1982). Kiribati, Tarawa water Australia. Department of Housing and supply supplementation, Tarawa water supply Construction. project, Tarawa sewerage project: report on Key: Kir water plan/man housing short term assignment. Canberra: Australia. Pre-design study of an Australian project to upgrade Department of Transport and Construction. and extend the existing water supply on Tatawa Atoll Key: Kir water sew solid/waste plan/man by tapping new water leas away from densely populated areas, by reticulation, and by development Butler, K., & Cheng, P. S. (1977). Gilbert of rainwater systems. Islands Cholera Epidemic September-October 1977: A brief review of the sanitation and water Australia Department of Housing and supply in South Tarawa. Canberra: Australian Construction (1983). Christmas Island water Department of Housing and Construction. resources study (Uribati). Canberra: AADA (4 Key: Kir sew water Vols) 299 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Cheng, A. (1977). Report on chlorination of Harper, J. (1988). Follow-up survey of the South Tarawa water. Canberra: Australian Bedo-Bairiki causeway, Tarawa, Republic of Department of Housing and Construction. Kiribati. Technical Report No. 86. Suva: Key: Kir water CCOPISOPAC. Key: Kir environ Flutter, J. (1984). Visit report: Kiribati, 7.10.84-14.10.84: Tarawa sewerage project: Harrison, G. E. (1980). Socio-economic aspects Tarawa water supply project: Fji, 14.10.84- of the proposed water supply project for South 18.10.84: inoya outfall study: Kinoya Tarawa Miribati. Canberra: Department of sewerage treatment. Canberra: Department of Housing and Construction. Transport and Construction for the Australian Key: Kir water Development Assistance Bureau. Key: Kir Fiji sew plan/man water Hunting Technical Services (1985). Christmas Island resources survey (Kiribati). Canberra: Forsyth, J. (1980). Report on a visit to Tarawa AADA. on behalf of Tarawa Sewerage Project. Key: Kir econ/dev water sew housing Canberra: ADAB 1980. Restricted assess. Assesses existing infrastructure and Key: Kir sew economic resources on Christmas Island and potential for firther development. Forsyth, J. R. L. (1978). Gilbert Islands: South Tarawa Sewerage Project. Canberra: Australian Jacobso, G., & Taylor, F. J. (1981). Department of Housing and Construction. Ilydrogeoliog of Tarawa Atoll. Canberra: Key: Kir sew Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources. Forsyth, J. R. L. (1980). Report on visit to Key: Kir water Tarawa Feb/March 1980. Canberra: Australian Department of Housing and Construction. Johannes, R., et al. (1979). The impact of Key: Kir water sew human activides on Tarawa Lagoon. Noumea: South Pacific Commission. Gillie, R. (1992). Air photo survey of South Key: Kir environ Tarawa, Kiribati, May 1992. Miscellaneous Report No. 136. Suva: SOPAC. Jones, P. (1993). Attachments for workshop, Key: Kir environ Tuesday 21 September 1993, Otintai Hotel. Tarawa, Bairiki: Urban Land Planning Unit Gillie, R. (1993). Coastal erosion problems in Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural the Gilbert Islands Group, Republic of Kribad. Development (unpublished). Technical Report No. 167. Suva: SOPAC. Key: Kir water sew Key: Kir environ Provides a population fact sheet for South Tarawa. Kiribati Government (1994). Riribati - State of Hanley, M. H. (1992). Water, water the Environment. Apia: SPREP for the everywhere. Island Business Pacific, 18(4), 61- Government of Kiribati (in press). 62. Key: Kir environ Key: Kir water Overview of an innovative water supply program, Kiribati Government Ministry of Works and developed by UNDP, using new pumps for Energy (1984). Tarawa Sewerage project groundwater, in association with the Outer Islands Evaluation, Tarawa Water Supply Project Water Unit, on Tamana atoll. Appraisal Public Utilities Board Management 300 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Review. Final Report; Volume 5. Canberra: Leupena, T., & Lutelu, K. (1987). Providing Government of Kiribati, Ministry of Works and for the multitude. In R. Crocombe (Eds.), Land Energy, Australian Development Assistance tenure in the Atolls. Suva: University of the Bureau. South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. Key: Kir water sew 143-165). Restricted access. Includes results of household Key: Kir land water survey of issues related to water and sewerage Outlines the customary structure of land tenure in facilities. Tuvalu including land rights, water rights and the role of the chiefs. Outlines the lands court system, Kiribati Land Planning Unit (1993). the political and social significance of land, and other Challenging the fture. Towards dL -'opment issues associated with land tenure. standards for lands, housing, water, sewage, and waste, South Tarawa. Tarawa: Ministry of Love, R. S. (1981). Basic needs in Kiribati. Home Affairs and Rural Development (draft Pacific Perspective, 10(2), 66-74. discussion paper). Key: Kir social housing sew water plan/man Key: Kir land housing sew water plan/man poverty econ/dev over Examines living standards on Kiribati by comparing Proposes development standards for housing, water, data with international and regional sources. presents sewerage and domestic waste in South Tarawa data and discussion on: housing; sanitation and water applicable to the urban centers of Betio, Bairiki and supply; cooking and lighting; and transport. Bikenibea in particular. Key reference on land use planning in Kiribati. Metutera, T. (1992). Water resources Kiribati Ministry of Home Affairs and assessment, planning, development and Decentralization (1991). Kuria Island Socio- management in Kiribati. In United Nations economic Profile. Kiribati, Ministry of Home Department of Economic and Social Affairs and Decentralization, Rural Planning Development (Eds.), Water Resources Unit and Community Development Division. Management Techniques for Small Islands. Key: Kir over water sew govt finance New York: United Nations Department of Discusses infrastructure; island administration and Economic and Social Development. (pp. 320- local organizations; and finance. 325). Key: Kir water Kiribati Ministry of Works and Overview of all aspects of the planning of water Communications (1984). Tarawa Sewerage resources. Project Evaluation: Tarawa Water Supply Project Appraisal: Public Utilities Board Murphy, P. (1981). Tarawa water supply: Management Review. Tarawa: Ministry of investigation. Major report No. 232. Canberra: Works and Communications. Australian Department of Housing and Key: Kir sew plan/man water Construction. Kiribati Ministry of Works and Energy (1984). Key: Kir water plan/man Tarawa sewerage project evaluation. Tarawa water supply project appraisal. Public Utilities Murphy, P. (1982). Kiritimati water resources Board Management Review. Final Report, 5 investigation: drilling and insitu testing Vols Canberra: AIDAB. November 1982. Melbourne: ADAC Central Key: Kir water sew Investigation and Research Laboratory. Reviews the Tarawa sewerage project which was Key: Kir water plan/man constructed between 1977 and 1983. Findings examines financial viability and management. 301 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources Murphy, P. (1986). Tarawa water supply Key: Kir MI environ project drilling and monitor installations 1985- Examination of the probability of sea-level rise for 1986. Australia, Melbourne: Department of atolls in the Pacific, and the implications of this for Housing and Construction. Scientific Services environmental change and socio-economic Branch. Report No. 861G15. development. The study focuses on the four atoll Key: Kir housing water states of the region, including Kiribati and the Marshall Islands. Naidu, S., et al. (1991). Water quality studies Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation on selected South Pacfic lagoons. Reports and (1989). Tarawa reticulation improvement Studies No. 49. Noumeca: SPREP. Suis... .Noma SRP project : final report. Cooma: SMEC Key: Fiji Van Kir Tonga SI water environ Key: Kir water Covers Laucala Bay, Suva Harbor, Vila Harbor and Ky i ae Erakr LagoonaBy, Fangua aoonVi and Pre-design study of an Australian project to upgrade Erakor Lagoon, Fanga'uta lagoon and Marovo and extend the existing water supply on Tarawa Atoll lagoon. by tapping new water lens away from densely populated areas, by reticulation, and by development Pollard, S. (1987). The viability and of rainwater systems. vulnerability of a small island state - the case of Kiribati. Islands/Australia Working Paper No. South Pacific Regional Environment Program 87/14. Canberra: National Center for (1992). Preliminary Report on Environmental Development Studies, Australian National Law in Kiribad. Apia: National Environment University. Management Strategy Project, South Pacific Key: Kir econ/dev pIan/man environ Regional Environment Program. Examines the economic situation and potential of Key: Kir environ land plan/man water sew Kiribati, which reviews problem areas and policy Discusses International environment conventions, needs, in line with the r=ional policy of self- land tenure, physical planning and assessment, water reliance. quality and quality, pollution and waste Republic of Kiribati (1992). Draft 10 Year manag National Water Master Plan. Tarawa: Water Stewart, J. R. (1984). Urban Refuse Collection Unit, Public Works Division, Ministry of and Disposal in Tarawa. Suva: United Nations Works and Energy and United Nations Development Advisory Team. Department of Technical Cooperation for Key: Kir solid/waste Development. Discusses the present system of waste disposal, the Key: Kir water sew problems and solutions. Discusses the water resources of Kiribati, water demand, institutional framework for :he water sector, Stuart, P. (1983). Tarawa Sewerage Project - existing water production and supply systems, admnistrave study: drft report on existing sewcrage and sanitation facilities, existing preliminary assessment. Canberra: Australian and proposed development plans. Department of Housing and Construction. Roy, P., & Connell, J. (1990). The greenhouse Key: Kir sew effect: the impact of sea-level rise on low coral Sullivan, G., & Sullivan, K. (1982). Social islands in the South Pacific. In J. Pernetta & P. factors of shore colonization and lagoon usage, .e (South Tarawa, Eiribati. Suva: Institute of Hughes (Eds.), Implications of Expected vaieRsuc. Climatic Changes in the South Pacific Region: Marine Resources. An Overview. Regional Seas Report No. 128. Key: Kir environ A social and ecological evaluation of lagoon use, and Noumea: UNEP. (p. 88-115). pollution tha focuses on the impact of change in 302 Annotated Bibliography of Regional Literature and Data Sources sanitation, causeway construction and changes in Teiwaki, R. (1988). Kiribati : nation of water. fishing practices. Includes survey of peoples attitudes In R. Crocombe & L. Mason (Eds.), to, and use of, the lagoon environment. Micronesian politics. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies. (pp. 1-37). Sullivan, M., & Gibson, L. (1991). Key: Kir water Environmental planning, climate change and Outlines the political history of Kiribati since the potential sea-level rise: report on a mission to British declared its protectorate state in 1892. Kiribati. Noumea: SPREP Reports and Studies Describes recent political events focusing on the No. 50. involvement of organized religion. Key: Kir environ A detailed account of the possibility of sea level rise Tong, P., & Tanentoa, B. (1980). in Kiribati and the implications of this for all facets Urbanization, tourism and national environment of environmental planning and management. The (Kiribati). In F. Rajotte & R. Crocombe (Eds.), study emphasizes cultural issues, including land Pacfic Tourism as Islanders See It. Suva: tenure and the overall planning context, with Institute of Pacific Studies University of the reference to coastal management. South Pacific. (pp. 127-32). Key: Kir environ over econ/dev Tarawa Public Utilities Board (1984a). Tarawa Ky i nio vreo/e Tawrage pblict tilstBordn: Tarawa atA brief overview of the problems of urbanization in sewerage project evaluation: Tarawa water South Tarawa and the extent to which these might be supply project appraisal: Public Utilities Board influenced by tourism. management review: final report. Volume I: executive summary. Tarawa: Public Utilities Turner, R. B. (1974). Appraisal of Sewerage Board. AADA. Proposals for Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibes at Key: Kir sew water planiman Tarawa. Canberra: Australian Department of Housing and Construction. Tarawa Public Utilities Board (1984b). Tarawa Key: Kir sew sewerage project evaluation: Tarawa water supply project appraisal: Public Utilities Board Wagner, W. K. (1977). Fresh water resources management review: final report. Volume 2: on Christmas and Butaritari Islands and TSP evaluation. Tarawa: Public Utilities Board Southern Tarawa, Gilbert Islands, South and AADA. Pacfic. Bangkok: UN ESCAP, Regional Key: Kir sew water Mineral Resources Development Center. Key: Kir water Tarawa Public Utilities Board (1984c). Tarawa Gives a preliminary appraisal of the possibilities of sewerage project evaluation: Tarawa water development of fresh water resources for the supply supply project appraisal: Public Utilities Board of small industrial enterprises. Discusses measures to management review: final report. Volume 4: secure the water supply system for Southern Tarawa. PUB management review. Tarawa: Public Utilities Board. AADA. Key: Kir water plan/man Taylor, J. (1972). Water supply, sewerage and sewage disposal for urban Tarawa. Sydney: Wilton and Ball. Key: Kir water sew solid/waste 303 Annotated Bibliography of Regional literature and Data Sources MARSHALL ISLANDS CONTENTS Commentary Settlement i story.....................................................................................................306 Economy3.................................................................................................................30 Employment............................................................................................................309 Development Planning................................................................................................310 Land......................................................................................................................311 Population And Migration...........................................................................................312 Urbanization............................................................................................................314 Urban Services.........................................................................................................315 Selected References Key........................................................................................................................319 Economic And Social Development................................................................................320 Population And Migration........................................................................................... 322 Govermance And Pla nning ........................................................................................... 324 Finance And Development...........................................................................................326 Urban Land.............................................................................................................327 Residential Development.............................................................................................327 Urban Sanitation And Envire nent ..............................................................................328 304 Ebedon atRoi Namur Wake (Enenkeo) ad ''N-••r REPUBLIC OF ''A•AL... 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