Africa Region Working Paper Series Number 23 * 23269 * Child Soldiers Freverititig, Demobilizing tatid Reiritegratirig . 0 0 I3eth Verhey 0 V 4 November 2001 0 4 ''Sw 0 0 0 * Child Soldiers: Preventing, Demobilizing and Reintegrating November 2001 Africa Region Working Paper Series No. 23 Abstract Among the most egregious child rights violations, an estimated 300,000 child soldiers are involved in armed conflicts. Although a number of countries have undertaken demobilization and reintegration programs for child soldiers, there remains a dearth of documentation and (lissemination of program experience and best practice to guide the countries. This working paper draws from in-depth case studies on Angola and El Salvador, as well as other country program experiences. The study follows the themes of prevention, demobilization, and reintegration, detailing concrete examples and offering checklists on each of the main themes for use in future programs. Although demobilization and reintegration of child soldiers is often seen as hopeless, this study shows that children and youths involved in armed conTlict can re-engage positive social relations and productive civilian lives. It is not easy, however, and depends crucially on the political will and resources to include child soldiers in peace agreements and demobilization programs and to support their reintegration into family and community. Authors' Affiliation and Sponsorship Beth Verhey Child Protection Consultant Email: bethverhey@hotmail.com THE WORKING PAPER SERIES The Africa Region Working P'aper Series expedites dissemination of applied research and polic-y studies with potential for improving economic performance and social conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. T]ie Series publishes papers at preliminary stages to stimulate timely discussion within the Region and among cl,ent countries, donors, and the policy research community. The editorial board for the Series consists of representatives from professional Families appointed by the Region's Sector Directors. Editor in charge of the series: Antoine Waldburger, AFTM3, Email: awaldburger@worldbank.org. who may be contacted for hard copies. For additional information visit the WVeb site http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/index.htm, where colnies are available in pdf format. IThe findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s). They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries that they represent and should not be attributed to them. Africa Region Working Paper Series Child Soldiers Preventing, Demobilizing and Reintegrating Beth Verhey ( September 2001 Africa Region The World Bank The views expressed within are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the World Bank or any of its affiliated organizations. Preface T his working paper shares lessons learned about El Salvador's case is one of the United Nations' most T demobilization and reintegration programs for successful peacemaking missions. This experience of- child soldiers. The paper originated with field fers a long-term perspective on the transition to civil- studies, begun in 1998 in collaboration with UNICEF, ian life for child soldiers, which began after the 1992 documenting the experience of two countries-Angola peace accord. El Salvador is also significant because and El Salvador-where child soldiers were used ex- many of the child soldiers were girls. Important, if dis- tensively during conflict. turbing, lessons were learned from the fact that child Angola's demobilization exercise, which lasted from soldiers were excluded from the peace accord and the 1995 to 1997, was one of the most extensive in the his- demobilization and reintegration programs. tory of the United Nations. It was perhaps the first The full case studies on Angola and El Salvador, time that children were specifically included in a peace published separately,' provide a number of practical process. While not explicit in the 1994 Lusaka Proto- references as well as a candid discussion of lessons and col, their demobilization and reintegration was de- challenges faced by the programs. This working pa- dared a priority in the first resolution adopted by the per highlights lessons learned from Angola and El commission set up to implement the peace agreement. Salvador-and integrates lessons from other coun- Partnerships among local civil society networks made tries-in order to broaden best practices in future pro- it possible for many children to return to their homes. grams for child soldiers. IThe full case studies are published separately as: Verhey, Beth, "Prevention, Demobilization and Reintegration of Child Sol- diers: Lessons Learned from Angola" and 'Prevention, Demo- bilization and Reintegration of Child Soldiers: Lessons Learned from El Salvadoit' 2001. These are accessible on the World Bank Post-Conflict website. To access, go to http:// worldbank.org, click on Topics then Social Development and, finally, Post-Conflict This working paper was initiated and brought to fruition by the World Bank Post-Conflict Unit. Betty Bigombe and Markus Kostner served as focal points, providing important analysis and guid- ance. Nat Coletta and Colin Scott provided valuable comments and support. The field work and preparation of the case studies were done in collaboration with UNICEF, under the direction and guidance of Jean Claude Legrand of the Child Protection Section. Beth Verhey prepared the field work, case studies, and this working paper. The author wishes to thank the many former child soldiers, their families, and program practitioners who contributed their experience, reflections, and views to this study. Lawrence Mastri edited and formatted the final document. Contents Introduction I Background and methodology 1 Organization of the working paper 2 1. Prevention 3 Advocacy and supporting civil society 3 Preventing re-recruitment 4 2. Demobilization 6 Including all child soldiers in peace accords and demobilization processes 6 Advocacy-the need for specific and persistent actions on child soldiers 7 Reaching and recognizing all child soldiers 7 Appropriate demobilization benefits packages for child soldiers 8 Planning, resources, and coordination 8 Mobilizing resources and partnerships-appropriate staffing and procedures 9 Coordination and institutional issues 9 Policy coherence and program strategies 10 Protection during demobilization-the question of 'centers' 10 The question of centers as part of reintegration 12 3. Reintegration 15 Family reunification and community-based networks 15 Psychosocial approach and traditional healing 17 Education and economic opportunity 18 Formal and altemative education 18 Vocational training and income generating opportunities 19 The link to economic policy 20 Neglected needs of girls and the disabled 21 Conclusion 22 Lessons learned 22 Other issues 23 Annex I Selected Readings 24 Annex II Legal Framework 25 Annex IlIl Definition of Terms 27 Annex IV Summary Table of Lessons Learned 29 Introduction A child soldier is any person under eighteen years of age who is part of any regular or irregular armedforce or group. This includes those who are forcibly recruited as well as those who join voluntarily. All child or adolescent partici- pants regardless of function-cooks, porters, messengers, girls used as "wives, "and other supportfunctions-are in- cluded as well as those considered combatants. A mong the most egregious child rights viola- foundly affects their future identity. Because child sol- tions, an estimated 300,000 child soldiers are diers are deprived of the normal cultural, moral, and involved in armed conflicts. Because of the values socialization gained from families and commu- length of many conflicts, the blurring of civil- nities, they experience a process of asocialization. ian and military targets, and the proliferation of small A number of countries have undertaken demobili- arms, the involvement of children in conflict has in- zation and reintegration programs for child soldiers. creased in recent decades. But, because of a dearth of documentation and dis- When the Ugandan National Resistance Army ar- semination of program experience and best practice, rived in Kampala in 1986 with children as young as these countries have had little guidance or access to four among their ranks, they caught the attention of the experience of others. the media and child advocates. Coverage of conflicts The 1996 United Nations Study on the Impact of in Cambodia, Liberia, Mozambique, and other coun- Armed Conflict on Children,' backed by extensive re- tries has also highlighted the use of child soldiers. search from non-governmental organizations, played Child soldiers have often been called 'future bar- a crucial role in demonstrating the global problem of barians" and "killing machines.' Many child soldiers child soldiers. Most welcome is the May 2000 Optional virtually grow up within an armed movement. They Protocol to the UN Convention on the Rights of the may have joined for protection, or face an environ- Child (CRC), which raises the minimum age for par- ment where joining an armed group seemed the only ticipation in armed conflict from fifteen to eighteen choice in life. years.2 Demobilization and reintegration of child soldiers Determining best practice with child soldiers is an is often portrayed as hopeless especially where child ongoing effort. And for program practitioners, it is of- soldiers have been forcibly recruited and made to par- ten difficult to translate a list of best practice principles ticipate in atrocities. Yet, this study demonstrates that into local application.Concerted efforts and funding children and youths involved in armed conflict can are needed to evaluate, document, and disseminate re-engage positive social relations and productive ci- lessons. In addition to disseminating program experi- vilian lives. It is not easy, however, and depends cru- ence, that of national program practitioners should also cially on the political will and resources to indude child be supported in staff and program exchanges. soldiers in peace agreements and demobilization pro- grams and to support their reintegration into family Background and methodology and community. Drawing from in-depth case studies on Angola and El The years of development a child loses to soldier- Salvador, as well as other country program experi- ing, no matter how they join or are recruited, pro- ences, this working paper provides concrete examples 2 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES for use in future programs. The paper stems from a Organization of the working paper collaboration with UNICEF on lessons learned in the This working paper should be seen in two parts. The prevention, demobilization, and reintegration of chil- full case studies on Angola and El Salvador are pub- dren involved in armed conflict. The World Bank Post lished separately as: Verhey, Beth, 'Prevention, Demo- Conflict Unit funded the research and preparation of bilization and Reintegration of Child Soldiers: Lessons this paper as a key area of post-conflict reconstruction Learned from Angola' and "Prevention, Demobiliza- and sustainable development goals. tion and Reintegration of Child Soldiers: Lessons The lessons learned are consolidated from different Learned from El Salvador, 2001. This paper highlights social, cultural, and historical situations where a con- and discusses the lessons learned from Angola and El flict induded the use of child soldiers. While the les- Salvador and integrates other country program expe- sons and programs discussed may be transferable to riences towards best practice for future programs. different countries and experiences, each will require The paper follows the themes of prevention, demo- local analysis and planning. bilization, and reintegration. Chapter 1 highlights the The field research for the Angola and El Salvador role of civil society actors to prevent the re-recruitment case studies began in July 1998. The author undertook of child soldiers in the course of demobilization pro- field missions from July to September 1998. Method- grams. Chapter 2 details the crucial importance of in- ologies induded semi-structured interviews and fo- duding child soldiers in peace processes and demobi- cus groups with program practitioners, policy actors, lization programs. Chapter 2 also presents a discus- former child soldiers, and their families, as well as a sion on the use of special centers in demobilization review of reports and documentation. Some of the and reintegration. Chapter 3 underscores the impor- program partners in Angola provided follow up data tance of psychosocial approaches and provides lessons on child soldiers. For El Salvador, the author organized on improving education and vocational opportunities a follow-up survey of former child soldiers in partner- for child soldiers. Each chapter ends with a checklist ship with UNICEF-El Salvador and the social research of lessons learned for future program consideration. team of UCA, the Jose Sime6n Cafias Universidad The annexes indude: Centroamericana. The follow-up survey was con- . Recommended readings ducted over December 1998 and January 1999. Because - A reference on the international legal framework for each case study was addressing the situation of child child soldiers soldiers some years after the origin of programs, semi- structured interviews were also conducted with * A sussono terology fomr prgais~ A summary table of the main lessons learned from former program staff. the Angola and El Salvador case studies. The research did not evaluate the programs but rather sought to identify lessons learned and docu- ment program experience. As such, interviews empha- sized reflection, and recommendations to future pro- grams. Desk research and literature reviews comple- 1 The report, by Graca Machel, was adopted unanimously by the General Assembly (see Annex 1). mented the research and underscored the relevance 2 The Optional Protocol addresses the age difference of fifteen of the lessons learned from Angola and El Salvador. years and eighteen years between Artide 38 and Artide 1 of the CRC. See the legal framework in Annex II for further discussion and information. 1 Prevention While this working paper focuses on program actions for children already involved in armed conflict, prevention re- mains an urgent concern. A lthough advocacy efforts aiming to enforce in- Child, and developing legislation with different na- ternational law, in particular the new Optional tional and local policy-makers rotocol to the CRC on the Involvement of * Partnering with and building capacity of local asso- Children in Armed Conflict, will contribute to ciations addressing related concerns, such as unac- preventing future involvement of children in armed companied children and street or working children. conflict, prevention must be considered more broadly. Practical measures to prevent the involvement of chil- At the grassroots level, prevention may indude ap- dren in armed conflict require much greater attention prising children and their families of their rights to and development. For example, education and other resist recruitment, or encourage the intervention of youth activities, food security and the security of refu- community and religious leaders to stop child recruit- gee camps have a direct relationship in preventing ment or gain the release of children. For example, in child recruitment Supporting civil society in protest- El Salvador, national human rights and civil society ing recruitment locally and preventing re-recruitment organizations protested, often at great risk, many cases are important protection actions aimed at prevention. of forcibly recruited youth. The organizations most involved were the non-governmental Human Rights Advocacy and supporting civilsF SYComComnission of El Salvador, the Catholic Church, and Advocacy is essential to prevention. Advocacy requires women's associations representing the missing. The persistence and a full range of actions induding, action these groups most often took was to approach * Raising awareness of child rights through a variety the military officials of a barracks and demand, often of media-including education and training for mili- successfully, the release of children. In addition, the tary and other armed forces as well as efforts to reach women's associations organized demonstrations in the children and their families capital and made an appeal to parliament. Bishops and * Monitoring and documenting child rights abuses other Church officials spoke publicly to promote hu- * Using local and international human rights report- man rights principles and condemn the involvement ing mechanisms-local reporting mechanisms of children in the conflict. should engage political and military officials and Redressing child recruitment abuses must be a pri- community leaders in redressing cases of child re- ority prevention action. Measuring whether advocacy cruitment efforts prevent recruitment is difficult, especially in the * Situation analysis of which children and youths are short term; but child protection work must be a fun- most vulnerable to recruitment damental and pro-active part of humanitarian pro- * Promoting compliance with international law, with grams. Children growing up within the context of con- emphasis on the Convention on the Rights of the flict-and their families-feel they have no choice 4 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES about participating. Preventing recruitment requires Preventing re-recruitment that awareness of child rights be expanded and that The 19951998 Angola demobilization and reintegra- the social and cultural values of child protection be fdon program induded measures to prevent the re-re- mobilized. cruitment of children. The Angola legal framework on Notably, the local groups in El Salvador received child soldiers induded a provision that child soldiers outside support only when the UN human rights team would not be subject to Angola's compulsory military was deployed during the last year of the conflict. In- service regime. In addition, the legal framewcrk in- ternational agencies offering humanitarian assistance duded a provision that child soldiers could receive feared that protesting the recruitment of children demobilization documentation and benefits outside of would be seen as political involvement in the conflict. the formal demobilization assembly areas.2 Best practice now recognizes the importance of in- The Angola experience shows that some prevention corporating child rights into humanitarian advocacy, of re-recruitment was effected through the accompa- For example, the humanitarian principles project of niment and faririly reunification strategy. The Angola Operation Lifeline Sudan Southern Sector (OLS)' suc- program featured an extensive community-based net- ceeded in gaining the parties' commitment to the prin- work whose members accompanied child soldiers ciples of the Geneva Conventions and the UN Con- from demobilization through family reunification.3 vention of the Rights of the Child (CRC). Significantly, Some officials of the National Union for the Total In- while advocacy in El Salvador was primarily directed dependence of Angola (UNITA) rebel force acknowl- at the government, OLS Southern Sector works spe- edged that family reunification obstructed their re- cifically with non-state parties-the Southern Sudan cruitment strategies. But despite these positive lessons, rebel movements. child soldiers were unprotected in the quartering and The OLS project featured awareness raising and demobilization process. (Chapter 2 outlines how training workshops to promote humanitarian prin- UNITA used the demobilization process for new re- ciples and children's rights. Leaflets were disseminated cruitment and re-recruitment of child soldiers.'* through churches, schools, health centers, and mili- The resumption of the Angolan conflict presents the tary barracks. Workshops, attended by over 7,000 challenge of preventing re-recruitment in stark real- people, are credited with making families aware of the ity. In the case of government recruitment, the legal prohibition against recruiting children under fifteen framework provisions regarding compulsory military years of age, and with decreasing abductions from service should be upheld. Because of awareness raised schools. Partnering with civil society requires a situation analysis of each country. While the church in El Salva- dor and women's associations were the primary civil Angola Legal Framework on Underage society actors engaged in protection actions for chil- Soldiers dren, the "relief wings" of the rebel movements- teachers, families and church leaders-all play signifi- Recognized the principles of the Convention on cant roles in Southern Sudan. In another context, muy the Rights of the Child and Angolan Law (Law safid, traditional elders, in Afghanistan have, in some 3um age fp r miigtaryo shteen years as the mini cases, reached agreements with local commanders to * 1996 was determined the 'calendar year" of de- regulate the conscription of youth. mobilization. All soldiers born after 1 January In some cases, armed groups take their protective- 1978 were to be considered underage. r As a measure to prevent re-recruitment, all un- role with children seriously. The Frente Farabundo derage soldiers were granted 'disponibilidade Marti para la Liberaci6n Nacional (FMLN) rebel coali- status, guaranteeing full exemption from future tion in El Salvador responded to public criticism and military service. resentment about recruiting children. During the con- p Gave open status" to all underage soldiergs'files, flict, the FMLN leadership adopted a policy to stop anteeing the right to demobilization, and ben- ' forcibly recruiting children and to give all children al- efits if not present on day of demobilization. ready recruited the option of leaving the rebel force. _ g ~ CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 5 Prevention lessons checklist v What is the national law on the age of recruitment? * Is there advocation for ratification and implementation of the Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict? * Is there a mechanism to redress cases of underage recruitment? * Is child recruitment being documented and reported through national and international human rights groups? * Is a variety of media being engaged to advocate against the use of child soldiers? *Who are the community leaders, religious leaders, women's associations or other national networks that can advocate against child recruitment? Are there traditional practices and values upon which to base child protection measures? * Which networks and contacts can reach nor-state parties to promote their commitment to the prin- ciples of the CRC and prevent recruitment (e.g., religious leaders, diaspora, or other social struc- tures)? * Is there a situation analysis being done to ascertain which children are the most vulnerable to recruit- ment (e.g., members of particutar ethnic groups, those internally displaced or in refugee camps, chil- dren in institutions, working children, or unacconpanied children)? * WVhich programs and activities can reach these groups and contribute to prevention (e.g., formal and non-formal education, food security measures, cultural and psychosocial support activities)? during the demobilization program, there have been a number of cases where children, their families, and 1 For the humanitarian principles generally, not specifically con- community leaders have protested and reported re- cerming child soldiers, see, lain Levine, 'Promoting Hu- crruitment abuses to program officers. Still, both par- manitarian Principles: The Southern Sudan Experience," 1997, London. A Network Paper from the Overseas Devel- ties continue to violate national and international law opment Institute (ODI). (www.odi.org.uk) in recruiting child soldiers. 2 Demobilization exercises often have a "one man, one gun While advocacy, family reunification, and policies pohcy such that combatants are expected to turn in a weapon for adm-ission to an assembly area for demobiliza- that prevent re-recruitment help curb the use of chil- tion. Demobilization of child soldiers should not be tied to dren as soldiers, greater attention and expanded strat- such weapons collection criteria, but should be a priority in its own right egies are critical in future programs. 3 See Angola case study. 2 Demobilization The term demobilization may refer broadly to the process of leaving an armed group and integrating into civiil soci- ety.' In this paper, demobilization refers to the release or discharge of child soldiers, their reception, and the initial assistance provided them to return to their home commu- nity or other place of settlement. Reintegration, in thefol- lowing chapter, refers to the transition process to civilian roles through training and assistance programs. D emobilization may refer to a formal exercise sue of child soldiers and their exdusion from peace or a variety of informal occasions. Formal de- processes. In addition, political and military authori- mobilization, induding for child soldiers, usu- ties often limit programs to "official, adult combatants." ally follows a peace agreement but may also occur as In El Salvador the government insisted that support part of a military restructuring. Informal occasions in- to ex-combatants was intended for "citizens," mean- dude instances where child soldiers escape from or ing those eighteen years or older. A late negotiation are released by their armed group, whether sponta- resulted in some of those sixteen years and older be- neously or because of advocacy or other circumstances. ing induded in a land credit program, and proposals For example, child soldiers found as prisoners of war were advanced for education or training for some of have been demobilized. Informal occasions also in- those fifteen or sixteen years old. No provisions were dude gaining the agreement of a particular armed made for those under fifteen. Likewise, the UN peace- group to release child soldiers during an ongoing con- keeping mission in Angola, following the example of flict. Such opportunities can be developed but require Mozambique, tried to limit its mandate and budget to advance program planning. the demobilization of soldiers fifteen years and older.3 Demobilization may be involuntary for child sol- This criterion ultimately was not enforced, but other diers, and they may fear the transition from military debates followed. to civilian life and an unknown future. During this Determining a child soldier as under eighteen years kind of transition, it is important to gain the support was finally accepted as national law; but there was and encouragement of military and civilian officials, intense debate concerning from which date to count as well as families and communities. Former child sol- someone as being under eighteen years. Most demo- diers themselves can play a valuable role in counsel- bilization programs take the date of a peace accord as ing their peers. a practical point from which to determine an under- In this chapter, lessons learned on demobilization age soldier. But arguments by military officials in are organized under: a) advocacy and the importance Angola resulted in a compromise: "the calendar year of induding children in peace agreements and demobi- of demobilization," more than a year after the peace lization plans,2 b) planning, resources and coordination, agreement, was adopted as the baseline for determin- and c) policy development and program strategies. ing who was underage. This resulted in thousands of child soldiers "ageing out" of support programs. Including all child soldiers in peace accords and Child soldiers have also been excluded from peace demobilization processes accords and demobilization programs because their Early advocacy is essential to generate political atten- status often hides them. If the term soldier is only un- tion and commitment to child soldiers. Silence on the derstood to mean combatant, or if a peace agreement issue and a lack of political will may obliterate the is- only refers to the demobilization of combatants, many CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 7 children and youths, especially girls, serving in so- commission's first resolution gave child soldiers pri- called support functions will be excluded. ority and adopted procedures for their demobilization While international law now establishes eighteen and reintegration. This advocacy achievement subse- years as the minimum age for involvement in conflict,4 quently faced eighteen months of delay but remained age criteria are artificial to the actual experience of an important reference point in the push to make child children as soldiers. For socio-cultural reasons, many demobilization a reality. child soldiers may not know their age, and physical In the effort to bring attention to the rights and needs judgments are often inaccurate. Child soldier pro- of child soldiers, program partners in Angola engaged grams must be sensitive to local social and cultural a range of influential policy actors. A UN consultant conceptions of children and youths, their role in soci- team's recommendations were prepared in time for ety, and stages of development and responsibility. For the first funding appeals. The Special Representative example, program practitioners in Angola and El Sal- of the Secretary General to Angola promoted the is- vador usefully adopted the terms "underage soldier" sue of demobilizing child soldiers. Reports on obstruc- and "youth combatant" to avoid emotional debates tions and delays to child demobilization were included over the term "child" and to clarify understandings in the Secretary General's reports to the Security Coun- about child soldiers. cil. The embassies of influential donor governments In view of the duration of many conflicts, those who drew attention to child soldiers through their roles in may be a few years more than eighteen at the time of the peace process. The lesson learned was that child a peace accord or demobilization exercise will have protection concerns require the active participation of spent their developing years as a soldier. Like their all political and humanitarian offices. Concern for child younger peers, they will have been deprived of the soldiers required high-level political attention; other- normal skill development and moral socialization wise, the matter risked being lost in the peace process. gained from families and communities Such high level political attention can be difficult to On the other hand, many child soldiers see their maintain. Again, in Angola, UNITA manipulated the participation as equal to that of the adults and want quartering process for child recruitment for months similar recognition in a demobilization exercise. While despite monitoring and appeals by child advocates (see attention to the special needs of child soldiers in de- below). Both parties in Angola were violating elements mobilization programs is vital, questions of age un- of the peace accord, but the UN and international com- derline the need to see reintegration holistically for a munity were committed to make the peace process, range of war-affected youth. and especially demobilization, a success. Rather than advocating child protection concerns, the strategy was Advocacy-the needfor specific and persistent actions on to use positive encouragement in meetings with the child soldiers parties. After almost ayear when UNITA's abuses were The exclusion of some child soldiers from demobiliza- painfully evident, the UN finally suspended the child tion programs because of age, gender, or function can soldier demobilization and insisted on a series of policy in part be addressed by assuring inclusive, commu- and procedural changes. nity-based reintegration strategies. But the risk of child soldiers being exduded by demobilization plans raises Reaching and recognizing all child soldiers again the importance of advocacy. In El Salvador, re- While some child soldiers will participate in formal ports and recommendations by consultant teams in demobilization exercises with adults, many will be the demobilization planning phase were ignored5- excluded because of age, gender, or function. Contin- even though one report, prepared a year in advance gency planning is especially important to reach girls of the peace accord, recommended that strategies fo- and disabled child soldiers. cus on child soldiers. In Angola, the separation of the "military war dis- Angola offers a positive example of how advocacy abled" program meant that the child soldiers program can bring the issue of child soldiers into demobiliza- accessed only "able-bodied" child soldiers. It is be- tion plans. Even though child soldiers in Angola were lieved that most disabled child soldiers independently omitted from the peace agreement, the demobilization returned to their communities. 8 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES While ensuring benefits equity between child and 0 : : The; numbers game f 5 0 adult demobilizing soldiers, there should be a recog- - nition too of the special needs of child soldiers and The logistics of preparing for demobilization and supports appropriate to their community situation. In media pressure often fuel considerable discussion some cases, benefits packages for child soldiers have about the number of child soldiers. While data on been seen as way of honoring their participation, while child soldiers may help explain the extent of the prob- lem,:their actual numbers may never be know. Many: ignoring justice for the victims. In another turn, ben- will be exduded from 'counts,' and in lengthy con- efits (such as food supplements and indemnity pay- flicts a large proportion of children may be involved ments) may not play the reintegration role that hu- in some way. manitarian programs hoped for: In a number of cases, Whlet a wedgiong: that esntimatesae it odrantX families and foster caregivers rejected child soldiers zation is the early mobirization of a community based once their benefits package ran out. support network to ensure family reunification and Although most child soldiers want to be treated in psychosocial support. The establshment of such a the same way as adult soldiers, they often lack cvilian network could diminish debates about the number i e of child soldiers, since it can accommodate any in- ife experience in gaiing the sodal, cultural, and live- crease or decrease in their actual number through- lihood skills necessary to their future. In most demo- out the demobilization and reintegration process. bilization exercises, child soldiers should receive a ben- efits package equitable to that of demobilizing adults7-but program planning must harmonize ben- Child soldiers want to be recognized and induded efits packages with reintegration strategies. in formal demobilization programs. When child sol- diers are exduded, resentment and a sense of aban- Planning, resources, and coordination donment lead some to return to violence as a way of Advance planning is vital to demobilization and rein- improving their lives. Former child soldiers in El Sal- tegration. In many instances, peace negotiations and vador, for example, feel betrayed by the demobiliza- demobilization planning proceed outside the humani- tion program and by their former commanders. As one tarian programming framework vital to child soldiers. former child soldier in El Salvador said, 'We young In Liberia, humanitarian programs had to rush to meet people were not recognized in any way... This was demobilization plans and agreements. In both Angola the worst that could have happened to me and my and El Salvador, a consultant team engaged in advance comrades..." of the peace accord brought early attention to child For others, recognition plays an important protec- soldiers. Although their recommendations were ig- tion role. In Uganda, the security clearance and docu- nored in El Salvador, Angola took up a special pro- ment that former child soldiers receive gives them the gram framework for child soldiers and made it a pri- confidence to return to their communities without ority in the demobilization. Planning must be in view suspicion. In an informal demobilization in Eastern of the full process of demobilization and reintegration. Democratic Republic of Congo, former child soldiers Planning for demobilization must not only take into asked for demobilization documentation in order to account supplies for reception centers, but also mobi- protect themselves from re-recruitment or from being lize policy coherence, staffing, partnerships. and re- charged as deserters. sources. The demobilization of child soldiers must corre- Appropriate demobilization benefits packagesfor spond with adult demobilization processes and em- child soldiers phasize community rebuilding. Program planning Looking to the Mozambique experience, where child should reflect analysis of the local circumstances of soldiers expressed resentment about being excluded child recruitment and the experiences and roles of from demobilization exercises, program partners in child soldiers in a country experience. For example, as Angola insisted that all child soldiers access demobili- part of growing up, have children participated within zation benefits. Planning thus induded that benefits an armed movement? were they forcibly recruited? could be claimed and processed at the local level as are they known to have committed atrocities? well as through the formal demobilization process.6 CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 9 Mobilizing resources and partnerships-appropriate MOBILIZING AN APPROPRIATE NETWORK OF PROGRAMS. staffing and procedures A significant degree of reintegration program planning Advance preparations for staffing, training, and other must be part of demobilization planning. Planning resources are essential in demobilization planning. In should be based on an analysis of how child soldiers a number of instances in Liberia, agencies scrambled can be integrated into a comprehensive framework of to deploy staff and programs to demobilization sites family tracing, psychosocial support, and community- at only several days notice. based skill-building opportunities. In Angola, delays in staff training and deployment In Angola, program partners anticipated that child caused a delay of almost two years-one year after the soldiers could be incorporated into the existing family peace accord-before quartering commenced, and a tracing and psychosocial programs without additional further ten months while child soldiers languished in staff or resources. But this was inadequate, and, belat- the quartering areas. Despite having commissioned an edly, a community-based network of social promoters advance consultant team to plan the demobilization, was mobilized, which proved invaluable to family an ill-prepared three-person team had to circulate tracing and psychosocial support needs. among fifteen quartering areas to register thousands Demobilization planning must include the develop- of child soldiers. Because the team had inadequate lan- ment of extensive program partnerships. Such part- guage skills, military commanders served as interpret- nerships will ensure that the demobilization and re- ers, manipulating the children's registration data to integration of child soldiers reaches the community serve re-recruitment purposes. level. In Angola, a network of social promoters, which consisted of partnerships formed with the Church and INTERVIEWING CHILD SOLDIERS. The question of lan- other local associations, was a singular success. The guage skills and military control in the Angola quar- partnerships were developed following an analysis of tering areas raises issues of confidentiality, freedom which social structures were neutral and had the ca- of expression, and the veracity of interviews with child pacity to provide support to child soldiers at the com- soldiers. Raising sensitive issues during initial inter- munity level. (See Chapter 3 for more on the Angola views may expose child soldiers to threats or retalia- network.) tion. A child's war experiences should neither be ex- ploited during this time by media or public interviews. Coordination and institutional issues Following a series of aborted demobilizations in Unfortunately, leadership and coordination roles in Liberia, program practitioners concluded that asking child demobilization often suffer because of confusion child soldiers about their traumatic experiences dur- and disagreement among agencies. Given the com- ing the demobilization phase was inappropriate and plexity of military, humanitarian, and child-specific fruitless because of the child's high level of fear and aspects to demobilization, it is usual that a variety of mistrust. In a positive point from Angola, interviews agencies with some degree of overlapping mandates during the demobilization phase focused on family be present. Despite this, the locus of coordination and reunification data and immediate needs. Psychosocial policy leadership has been well served by UN agen- symptoms and questions about the child's experience cies, especially in regard to the persistent advocacy were left to the reintegration phase when family and necessary at multiple political levels. Thus, effective social workers provided consistent follow-up support coordination between UN offices with overall politi- to the child. cal, military, and humanitarian roles and those with Other resource mobilization difficulties in Angola child-specific roles and expertise is essential. concerned data management. The system for gather- In Angola, program partners created a technical co- ing family tracing data through the registration pro- ordination committee to focus on issues for the child cess and managing the analysis necessary for trans- soldiers program distinct from, but related to, the more portation and other logistics was cumbersome and politicized full demobilization exercise and peace pro- inefficient. The resources of the UN database team cess. An important characteristic of the coordination were simply over-stretched.8 committee was its inclusiveness. Under joint coordi- nation by UNICEF and the overall UN coordination office, membership included the government social 10 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES affairs ministry, representatives of both parties to the to receive child soldiers and ensure their interim care conflict, international non-governmental organiza- pending family tracing. Especially within the context tions, and local associations. of ongoing tensions, child soldiers need to be protected Coordination is also essential for the extensive lo- from re-recruitment, retribution, abuse, and stigmati- gistical aspects of family tracing, reunification, and zation. In the reintegration phase, center-based care follow-up support to child soldiers. Representatives may be proposed -in the event that family reunifica- of each partner in the Angola technical coordination tion proves unsuccessful-for trauma counseling or committee met weekly as a provincial-level commit- as an efficient locale for training. tee. These weekly meetings helped coordinate family reunification details, developing solutions for child Protection during demobilization-the question of soldiers whose families could not be traced, and creat- "centers' ing individually appropriate education or income-gen- Establishing special reception centers for child soldiers erating opportunities for the child soldiers. during demobilization is an important protection mea- sure. In most cases, special reception centers will be a Policy coherence and program strategies way of separating child soldiers from military author- Agencies and partners spend a good deal of time de- ity and protecting them from re-recruitment or fur- bating policy development and program strategy. De- ther abuse. bates include the basis of determining age, how to In Angola, mixing UN1TA child soldiers with adults separate child soldiers from military authority, the in the quartering areas for demobilization was an process needed for family reunification and commu- alarming experience. UNITA commanders manipu- nity acceptance, the role of trauma interventions, and lated the demobilization process in order to move child whether special centers are needed for child soldiers. soldiers back into UNITA training camps, and new Policy debates on the age for determining a child child soldiers were recruited to meet quartering tar- soldier have already been mentioned. For example, in gets. Of 8,613 child soldiers registered in the UNITA Angola, the legal framework emphasized the national quartering areas, only 57 percent could be tracked for legal recruiting age of eighteen years as the age for demobilization and family reunification. determining child soldiers but compromised in tak- This is a dear example of inadequate child protec- ing the "calendar year of demobilization' rather than tion in the demobilization process and of where sepa- the year of the peace agreement as the basis from rate reception centers should have been established. which to determine who is considered under eighteen. In Liberia, 89 percent of child soldiers in the 1996-1997 Policy debates clearly overlap with program strat- demobilization "wandered away" from demobilization egy debates. In Angola, there was considerable debate sites. Many returned to their commanders, some "vol- about whether child soldiers should be included with untarily' and some by force. In another example from adults in the demobilization quartering areas and bar- Liberia, some former child soldiers were prematurely racks, or if special reception centers should be created. returned to home areas controlled by opposing fac- Advocates for trauma programs questioned the pro- tions, resulting in a number of children being arrested posed strategy of rapid family reunification and com- and flogged. munity-based supports for reintegration. A foreign While there may be situations where child soldiers government proposed creating special military acad- can be protected within adult demobilization pro- emies for child soldiers, instead of family reunification. cesses, careful monitoring is required to ensure effec- The issue of special centers is a challenge to program tive transition from military to civilian control. In practitioners. The debates center on how to separate Angola, a small group of child soldiers associated with child soldiers from military authority, assure their ef- government forces were grouped in special barracks fective protection, and allow for a process of family for demobilization. Program partners had free access reunification and community acceptance, and the role to the children for counseling, family tracing, health of trauma or special training programs. care, and other immediate steps towards reintegration. The question of establishing special centers arises While this demobilization experience was relatively in both the demobilization and reintegration phase. positive, hundreds of child soldiers were held back During demobilization, there is the question of how from the demobilization in other barracks. In El Sal- CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 11 vador, child soldiers associated with the government9 rounding community. Earlier transit centers provided were held in barracks pending demobilization, but full-service care, and created resentment of the spe- were exduded from support programs while the mili- cial treatment given to child soldiers. In a 1993 demo- tary denied their existence. bilization in Sierra Leone, homes for demobilized chil- Some child soldiers join armed groups for protec- dren modeled family care, including chores and con- tion and form strong emotional attachments to their tact with the surrounding community. military commanders.10 In El Salvador, many youths In other cases, child soldiers have been demobilized joined the FMLN following attacks on their commu- into foster settings rather than transit centers or group nities by government-affiliated forces. Many children care. The Angola network members provided interim virtually "grow up" within an armed movement. In care in their homes pending family tracing or arrange- such contexts, it is especially important to engage the ments for fostering or independent living. support of military authorities in counseling child sol- There should be measures to ensure that temporary diers on demobilization and establishing a civilian life. center arrangements do not become long-term solu- While these child soldiers may be less vulnerable to tions. For example, in a local demobilization in east- re-recruitment or other abuse by their military com- em Democratic Republic of Congo in 1997, officials manders, separate demobilization procedures should requested a full-board vocational school. Program of- still be established to facilitate their rupture with mili- ficers argued for an emphasis on family reunification tary identity. and community-based support. The result was a re- Centers may also be necessary because the military ception center, supported with a time limit of two provides little information, and children may not months. By the end of the two months, only thirteen know their family's location, or if they are alive. Chil- child soldiers, whose families could not be traced, re- dren may be apprehensive about leaving the military mained in the center and foster arrangements were and about how they will be received by their family made for their ongoing care. and community. As in good practice for family tracing Work in Uganda"' has identified the following key generally, it is vital to prepare the family and child for elements for center-based interim care of former child reunification. soldiers: In Uganda, former child soldiers abducted by the * All staff mustbe provided trainingn2on child develop- rebel force pass through a military barracks and then ment, child rights, and the effects of war on children. NGO reception center before returning to relatives and . All staff, from managers to guards to cooks, must be the community. They receive a 'security clearance" aware of the role-model they represent for the chil- letter from the military and the center attesting to their dren-especially in demonstrating accountability, passage and civilian status. As expressed by one former trustworthiness, and honesty. child soldier: "the letter given to us by the military * The center must assure adequate protection, includ- makes us feel secure [.. ] means we are now a normal ing security arrangements against re-recruitment, member of the community." retribution, or abduction as well as measures to pre- The temporary need for special reception centers vent further distress. such as stigmatization, isola- must be reconciled with the inherent risk of centers to tion, or further abuse. stigmatize or marginalize child soldiers. Reflecting * Priority should be given to building relationships their strong desire for normalcy, former child soldiers between the child and his family with the goal of as in Liberia resented being labeled "war affected." And short a stay as possible in the center. centers are contrary to the need to emphasize family . Integration into the community should be proactive and community links in the process of transition to through family tracing or placement, community civilian life. sensitization and developing the child's social skills. Lessons learned in other countries demonstrate that . The center should contribute to an appropriate fol- reception centers can be organized in ways that model low-up system, following family reunification or family and community life. Transit centers for the other living arrangements. 1996-1997 demobilization in Liberia provided only the * The center should be culturally appropriate, includ- basic necessities in line with the means of the sur- ing traditional healing and spiritual measures. 12 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES Demobilization lessons checklist * Are child soldiers specefically included in the peace agreement? * Are there specific provisions for child soldiers in demobiliation plans? * Are politicai leaders, UN officials, peacekeeping forces, and national NGOs included in advocacy on behalf of child'soldiers? * Has a legal framework been developed that includes the child's right to be demobilized, not considered a deserter, and exempt from future serviced?,_ * Do terminology and program approaches incorporate local social and cultural values on children and youth? * Are the particular needs ofngilsand thedisabledtaken into account? * Which benefiT packages are appropriate fbr child soldiers? Are they equitable to benefits for adults demobilized?Are supports oriented to re-gaining civilian lifertherhan. rewards? : If child soldiers participate in the assembly process with regular troops for demobilization, how can their departure be asrapid.as possibleso astoseparate themi$frommilitay .authority? * How wll dem obilid child soldiers be received? Sce temporar enters are often necessary, how can they model on family-based care and how can family traciig be maximized? Altenatively, are foster systems available instead? * Are effective measures adopted to ensure the protectiono f child soldiers during demobilitation (e.g., protection from rereent, revenge or retributive attacks, or discrimination or harassment)? * Do interviews and registration d6uing demobilization fous onlfamily tracngandiother immediateneeds? Are the child's experiences during the, conflict and psychosocial impacts being addressed in a support- ive reintegration context? i Are tracing'and psychosocal programs6adequaty mobilized and funde?X * Are program partnerships established:for psychosocial support, education, and livelihbod,opportuni- ties? e Are appropiate staff (considering language skills, community rapport, and experience working with youtth) recruitedand: trainred? 3 IS there a community-based strategy to support hild soldieis that may escape or be released outside of formal demobilzain? * Are links made between supports for chid soldiers and programs for those disabled by war? - Child soldiers should be part of the care system, tary to obtain drugs or seek sexual partners. As shown forming relationships and engaging in roles and in Uganda, program staff are often unprepared to ad- tasks appropriate to daily family life, dress issues such as drug abuse or sexually transmit- * Psychosocial support activities should provide ted diseases in child soldiers and, therefore, need con- health care as well as basic needs. sistent support. * The center should help develop a new identity for Adequate investments must be made in staff train- the children through cultural activities, spiritual ini- ing and establishing partnerships with relevant health, tiatives, sports, individual guidance, and peer-group psychosocial, and educational programs. These part- activities. nerships should form the network of supports and * The center should have an open style and seek a opportunities to regain education and livelihood skills wide range of community links and resources. for the former child soldier's ongoing reintegration * Staff should be supported with ongoing capacity upon leaving the center. building and stress management support. The question of centers as part of reintegration Working with child soldiers can be extremely diffi- There has been considerable debate about the role of cult. They often have highly inflated expectations, ex- special centers as part of reintegration strategies for aggerated pride in their military identity, and have child soldiers. Angola addressed a proposal to create learned to rely on aggression to meet needs and solve a special military school instead of demobilizing child problems. In some cases, child soldiers have stolen soldiers to their families and home communities. Such material goods from centers or returned to the mili- proposals are not uncommon-both Uganda and CHEILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 13 Rwanda have experience with such approaches. The Other arguments presented in favor of center-based Uganda experience in the 1980s was not evaluated, but reintegration strategies indude: daims that the chil- reports indicate that the majority of the "demobilized' dren are orphans, that they will not be accepted in their child soldiers ran away, resorted to delinquent behav- communities because of atrocities committed, or that ior, or returned to military life. The Rwanda experi- their surviving family members are too poor to take ence underscores the risk of short-term centers becom- them back. Others argue that special health or train- ing long-term solutions. ing programs are best provided in centers. In Angola, program partners argued against creat- In Angola, the Ministry of Social Affairs had already ing special centers for child soldiers for both demobi- adopted a non-institutional policy for unaccompanied lization and reintegration, emphasizing the following children and had foster and independent living arguments: projects. International child welfare practice consis- * Family reunification or a family-based setting is an tently concludes that institutional settings are inap- essential first step in the social reintegration process propriate to the emotional, social, and cultural devel- for child soldiers. opment needs of children. The CRC provides an im- * The socio-economic life of a community serves as portant reference on the many development needs of an anchor in the transition from military identity and children not met by even the best-funded facilities: violence to civilian life. emotional development, stable adult relationships, * Special centers create artificial ghettos disconnected integration with community, cultural traditions and from the dynamics of civilian life. values, and preparation for roles and responsibilities * Child soldiers in such centers would be stigmatized upon leaving for independent adult lives. as "trauma cases." While centers are often necessary in the demobili- zation phase, lessons learned in reintegration re-em- Some argue that child soldiers need special trauma phasize the need to ensure as short a stay as possible. programs before making the transition to family and Child soldiers themselves express a preoccupation community life. Experience advises to the contrary- with being accepted by their family and community. that is, psychosocial support through the family and For example, in Uganda, former child soldiers reported community environment is the most effective. (Les- that one of their greatest fears was that their families sons learned on the need for a psychosocial approach would not visit them. One reporting, "this gives us are developed further in the next chapter.) In lessons much pain; we fear they hate us." learned from Liberia, it was thought that less than 5 Because of the role children have played in many percent of the former child soldiers needed special conflicts, a careful process of community acceptance psychological support. and family reintegration is vital. This underscores the importance of harmonizing child soldier programs with community rebuilding. Experience shows that effective reintegration depends most on family reuni- fication, an emphasis on psychosocial supports and community rebuilding, and access to skill-building activities. 14 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES 1 Annex III provides a discussion of the terms demobilization 9 A question largely uninvestigated in El Salvador concerns 'or- and reintegration. phaned" children taken into military barracks for "care" fol- 2 As has been called for by the Secretary General of the United lowing bombing raids and other operations. A number of Nations in his Report to the Security Council, S/2000/101, 11 cases have been traced to profit-making, "black market' for- February 2000. eign adoptions involving military officials. (CfL Tma 3 This followed Artide 38 of the CRC previous to the adoption Rosenberg, "What did you do in the war, mama?", The New of the May 2000 Optional ProtocoL See Annex n for further York Tunes Magazine, 7 February 1999.) discussion. 10 While some point to cases where sexual relationships with 4 See Annex 11 for further discussion of the legal framework for commanders become long-term relationships, most rela- child soldiers. tions are a further abuse and exploitation of the child sol- 5 See El Salvador case study. diet The emotional attachment referenced here should not 6 Demobiflization benefits in Angola were otherwise distributed be confused with such relations; it encompasses the emo- o s i m i n ai e q etional attachment some child soldiers develop with theix on a specific "demobilization day" at thie specific quarterinmomnesi h bec o aetladohrnra site. Because many child soldiers would be afraid to present commandel s in the absence of parental and other normal themselves on this day or would not have been sent for de- socialization roles by other relatives and comunity members. mobilization by their commanders, program officers ar- 11 Elizabeth Jareg and Lenhart Falkt "Steps in the development ranged to receive child soldiers and give them their benefits of a monitoring and evaluation system for center and com- packages at provincial locales. munity-based psychosocial work with war-affected children 7 In Angola, child soldiers received the same cash and materials in Uganda." Report of a consultation between Save the benefits package as adults plus an additional $50 stipend. Children Norway and Denmark with the Gulu Support the 8 The International Rescue Committee (IRC) has initiated a new 12 Then castudy prov1des exapletsinn docutlne. database for work with unaccompanied children that pre- sents a potential resource to future work with child soldiers. Experimentation with software and new technologies have created the ability to incorporate digital photos within data records, keep designated fields secure for protection and confidentiality concerns, and allow multiple partners to har- monize data. IRC and Save the Children (UK) are currently piloting the database. 3 Reintegration While demobilization represents the point at which a child leaves military life, reintegration represents the process of establishing a civilian life. Reintegration programs need to support the child in constructing a new, positive course of development. he child soldier's development will have been Considering that 41.6 percent of the child soldiers had affected in many ways by his or her experience lost one or both parents during the conflict, this find- in armed conflict. The context of their family ing was contrary to expectations. This is especially sig- and community life will likely have changed because nificant in view of the absence of a family tracing pro- of increased poverty, the death of family members and gram for child soldiers. friends, displacement, and perhaps resettlement. This Other child soldiers, 9.6 percent, in the El Salvador raises the question of what is meant by the terms rein- follow-up survey, said that friends were the most im- tegration, reinsertion, recovery, and rehabilitation. portant factor in their transition. Former child soldiers Reintegration to what? The reality is a matter of ad- in Uganda also stressed the importance of friends. justing to new circumstances. The process is complex Many reported in focus groups that they would seek and should indude a multitude of inter-related issues: advice from friends first but also reported their moth- health and basic needs, psychosocial support, a fam- ers as their choice for discussing "deep problems." ily context, establishing positive relationships, and Skepticism about the prospects for family reunifica- opportunities for education and income generation. tion is often high in the aftermath of conflict. But, as The combination of these elements-balancing social noted in El Salvador, experience demonstrates that and economic factors-is essential. Experience shows family tracing can have surprising success. In Angola, three things fundamental to successful reintegration: despite the resumption of conflict, only 6 percent of 1) Family reunification and an inclusive community the thousands of former child soldiers whose cases environment could be followed up were living alone or with non- 2)Psychosocial support related foster families. 3) Opportunities for education and livelihood. The prospect of former child soldiers living indepen- dently or having children, with or without a partner, Family reunification and community-based networks must be addressed proactively in reintegration pro- The demobilization chapter has shown that family re- grams. Of the Angolan former child soldiers living unification or alternative family-based living arrange- 'alone,' many have new families because they mar- ments, rather than centers, are the most effective re- ried and/or had children during the conflict. Among integration strategy. Experience consistently demon- child soldiers in the El Salvador follow-up survey, 56 strates that family and community relationships are percent reported that their family situation changed the most important factors in the reintegration of child after the war because of new ties. Almost half of the soldiers. former child soldiers, 47.9 percent, were married or In a follow-up survey of former child soldiers in El with a partner, and 58.7 percent had children. Salvador, 84 percent reported that their family played One of the most important support projects in the most important role in their transition to civil life. Angola was a "self-building project," in which former 16 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES The Kadogo School in Rwanda In October 1994, following UNICEF advocacy, the Rwandan Ministry of Defense announced a plan to create a special military school for the demobilization of child soldiers. Child soldiers were referred to as 'kadogos," meaning 'little ones" in Swahili. It was argued that these children could not return home because many had lost their families and that their attitudes wotud cause problems for reintegration. With supportfrom UNICEF and other NGOs, the Kadogo School, a full-board facility, opened in June 1995. The intake quickly rose to 2,922-more than twice the number expected. Only 41 teachers and 15 social workers had been engaged to work at the school. The program became overwbeimed with providing school- ing and basic needs. By November 1996, only 400 had been reunited with their families. Following an evaluation in-1997, agencies and the govemmenthave workedtoemphasizefamily reunifica- tion, community-based follow-up, anid changing the schoollcenter over to alternative uses. Tfh ischool was closed,in 198, with many of thechildrentransferred to secondary schools. No follow-up surveys were undertaken to trace the kadogos' transition to civi6an life. child soldiers and their new families were supported who recruited them. Among former child soldiers fol- in home construction. An essential project component lowed up in El Salvador, 98.5 percent reported that of community integration was that either famlily or their family relations were good or very good, and only community leaders gave the land for the new homes. 6.6 percent reported that they had difficulties being This is not to say that family reunifications always accepted by the community upon demobilization. go smoothly. Staff working with child soldiers need to Indeed, the reintegration of child soldiers faces a develop family mediation and community mobiliza- challenging process of reconciliation and mediation. tion skills. A demobilized child soldier is no longer the Family and community reintegration takes time and child he or she was before recruitment, and both the must allow for an appropriate process of acceptance child and family have to adjust to new roles, expecta- and new roles. The role of traditional ceremonies and tions, and hardships. In Angola, 16 percent of the cases special attention for girls is discussed further below. followed up had left their care situation after reunifi- Community mobilization is as important as the more cation. Some moved to an urban area as a means of technical tracing and logistics of family reunification. self-protection from re-recruitment or to access voca- Lessons learned emphasize that post-conflict recov- tional training, but others moved due to family rela- ery must emphasize psychosocial support activities as tionship problems. well as physical needs. In Liberia, program practitio- There may also be concerns about whether a family ners had to invest in community coping mechanisms or community will accept a former child soldier, espe- and welfare structures rather than the traditional em- cially if child soldiers have been involved in killings phasis on physically rehabilitating schools and cinics. or rape. In Northern Uganda, families feared that re- Angola provides a successful example of a commu- united child soldiers would attract the attention of nity-based network to support the reintegration of rebels in future attacks. Children themselves in child soldiers: a partnership with some 200 church Uganda note the importance of cleansing ceremonies social promoters called "catechists." The catechist net- so that their communities do not view them as cen or work achieved family reunification, follow-up support, "contaminated." Supporting these socio-cultural pro- and monitoring despite immense challenges caused cesses is especially important for girls who have been by the country's size, difficult terrain, and problems forced to serve as "wives" to rebels. These girls and with landmines and security. In sum, the catechists: their children may face the long-term concern of be- * were perceived to be neutral by all parties ing considered a poor marriage prospect. * provided a sense of authority and a structure inde- On the other hand, the concern that former child pendent from political-military leaders soldiers will be refused by their families or communi- * adhered to humanitarian and child rights principles ties can be overstated. In Angola, practitioners quickly within social welfare services learned that families recognized that acts committed * had the capacity for outreach and communication by child soldiers were the responsibility of the adults to difficult areas CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILING AND REINTEGRATING 17 * were respected by the community, in part because catechists were often the only literate person in the What is psychosocial? village * were a permanent support for demobilizing child The diverse and often violent experiences of armed soldiers and their familiesbecausetconflict have profound effects on child development and well-being. The word 'psychosocial" simply un- were from local villages, spoke local languages, and derlines the dynamic relationship between psycho- knew the local culture. logical and social effects, each continually influenc- ing the other. 'Psychological effects' are those which affect emotion, behavior, thoughts, memory, leaming Such a network does not necessarily require exten- ability, perceptions, and understanding. 'Social ef- sive outside funding. The Angola program gave the fects" refer to altered relationships caused by death, catechists training, nominal monthly payments, and separation, estrangement and other losses, family and logistical and technical support. The churches and community breakdown, damage to social values and customary practices, and the destruction of social other network partners received no compensation and facilities and services. Social effects also extend to contributed their own resources in the form of train- the economic dimension as many individuals and ing venues and short-term accommodation during families become destitute through the material and family reunification processes Those who provided economic devastation of armed conflict, thus losing reuifcaio pocsss.Thsewh povde satu and place in their social network. interim foster care for child soldiers were not compen- sated. Working with churches may not always be the best choice for programs seeking to identify appropriate social structures and partnerships. However, the fea- tant lessons from the Angola catechist networus they tures of the Angola catechist network-neutrality, out- provided an immediate, respected, and trusted con- reach capacity, commitment, local knowledge, and tact point for child soldiers from reception through sustainability-give practitioners a transferable model. eintegration.) And, although programs often neglect the child's right Experience shows that psychosocial approaches are to participation, the Angola network allowed the child more beneficial than Western-derived trauma assis- soldiers and their families to participate in determin- tance. The very definition of psychosocial2 emphasizes ing reintegration needs and supports. that psychological process takes place in a social con- text, with family and community. In many cultures, Psychosocial approach and traditional healing child development is more socio-centric than egocen- tric. In El Salvador, for example, mental health is con- Child soldiers experience a process of asocialization siedthhamnzioofpycl,mtoa,ad in armed conflict. As a national NGO in El Salvador community wl-ing.aon ommunity eveloped an explains, child soldiers have been 'socialized into a annual ceremnyt One deceas ed and polarized existence of hostility."1 They are deprived annual ceremony to honor the deceased and renew of the normal cultural, moral, and values socialzation awareness of the impact of the conflict in community usually gained from family and community. These el- terms. Community solidarity provides recognition, acceptance, and historical place for individual experi- ements have to be restored during the reintegration ecso re n rua process. ences of grief and trauma. The reintegration of child soldiers raises difficult Community-based measures have been successful in addressing cases of psychosocial distress in other psychosocial questions. Adolescence is a time of es- tablishing identity, and the child soldier may resist country experiences. Reflecting on lessons learned, thabgingsthig identity, andftheo soldier mocihay rest counselors in Liberia estimated that less than 5 per- changing this identity from soldier to civilian. Demo- bilized child soldiers model their behavior on the vio- cent required special psychological care. NGOs in El Salvador put such estimates at less than 2 percent. Overcmand assertivenesstthe learned in amedcnfficut. Group counseling, incorporating collective conflict Overomin th mitrs the ler*a edfiu resolution approaches, was the most effective. Small This is why reintegration programs must emphasize roution apphas thesst and refl the opportunity to form positive, trusting, consistent group sessions emphasizing expression and reflection relationships with adults, with an emphasis on a fam were also found to be effective in El Salvador. Discus- relationships with adults, with an emphasis on a faim- sion themes included: militarism, self-identity, family, ily-based environment. (This again points to impor-' 18 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES community, religion, and the future. Techniques used gangs and organized crime in El Salvador, showing in the sessions included drawing, making collages and the link between unsuccessful reintegration and so- masks, photos, story-telling, and dramatization cial violence. Such examples pose significant concern Program practitioners in Liberia found the most for post-conflict societies. important reintegration factors to be: a "normalr en- vironment, a sense of forgiveness through religious Education and economic opportunity and cultural ceremonies, and family reunification. The The third essential component to reintegration is ac- program in Angola placed culture at the center of ad- cess to education and economic opportunity. This is dressing the psychosocial impacts of conflict, includ- linked to the psychosocial component because estab- ing traditional healing rituals for child soldiers. The lishing a new identity for the child soldier will depend rituals provide acceptance of the child, assuage the ill on productive activities and new learning. Identity and spirits associated with the child soldier's actions dur- positive meaning in their civilian life is gained through ing conflict, and reconcile the child with ancestral spir- appropriate, contributive roles in their families and its. Similarly in Northern Uganda, former child sol- communities. diers report that traditional cleansing ceremonies are Education and economic activity should be linked important so that the whole community understands to broader rehabilitation efforts, and program frame- they are "decontaminated." works must include family livelihood needs. Project While guarding against any harmful effects of the examples in Angola induded supporting bakeries for rituals, reintegration programs should support appro- former child soldiers and their families, and support- priate measures identified by the community. Some ing apprenticeships through material assistance to ar- question the degree to which a ceremony "cleanses a tisans or businesses. former child soldier, but the value of these processes Experience teaches that a balance must be achieved to family and community is important to healing and between the child soldier's need to earn income and post-conflict recovery.3 the need to resume education. Access to education is In Angola, a pre-established psychosocial program one of the most often requested supports by child sol- promoted community sensitization and provided diers but often forgone for economic reasons. The key training and support to the catechist network.4 The aspects to education and economic opportunity in re- specific roles of the catechists were: integration programs are: • Facilitate, through program finances if needed, cer- . Accelerated formal education as well as alternative emonies with traditional healers education modalities * Provide follow up visits and family mediation to the - Supporting livelihood needs with income generat- youths and their families ing opportunities and market-appropriate voca- * Facilitate contacts with sobas (traditional community tional training leaders) and other community members to hold * Induding child soldier reintegration in post-conflict welcome ceremonies and raise awareness of the economic policy. needs and rights of child soldiers * Help children access education, work, or training Formal and alternative education opportunities through locally available or interna- Access to formal education' presents special challenges tionally funded projects. for the reintegration of child soldiers; yet former child soldiers and their families overwhelming see this as A psychosocial approach underscores the synergy the best path to a new future. In Liberia, 77 percent of gained by supporting physical health and activity, cog- former child soldiers said they wanted to return to nitive, emotional, and moral development. Indeed, academic schooling. Program practitioners found that while family support was vital to the reintegration of formal schooling was preferred even in areas where child soldiers in El Salvador, the absence of comple- free vocational and literacy training were offered. mentary psychosocial supports, education or economic Economic considerations pose the most significant opportunities hindered reintegration. Many former obstacle to education. In El Salvador, livelihood needs combatants contribute to the marked growth of urban in relation to formal education were neglected. Fol- CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 19 lowing a difficult negotiation to provide child soldiers Former child soldiers need education opportunities fifteen years and older with some supports, more than with flexible hours and an emphasis on literacy and a year after demobilization, 152 were selected for numeracy skills. Training in life skills-induding nu- school enrollment. However, in a survey preceding this trition, sexual and reproductive health, and manag- selection, only five had sought formal education op- ing finances-should also be incorporated. These edu- portunities. In follow-up research for this working cation modalities are gravely lacking in reintegration paper, many former child soldiers explained that they programs. would like to study but lacked financial resources and needed to prioritize income generation. As two former Vocational training and income generating opportunities child soldiers in El Salvador commented: Soldier reintegration programs to date have offered "I think that housing and education are what I need, few meaningful training and livelihood opportunities. but.... for education, I would like to have a night job In El Salvador, only 23 out of 293 former child soldiers so that I could study in the day...." in a follow-up survey reported that they had access to "Now they do give classes, but I won't go with those a vocational training project. A few more, forty-four, little boys..." accessed a land credit project. In Liberia, child soldiers were given "coupons" for future training projects, Former child soldiers cite many obstades to reinser- which rarely materialized. tion in formal schooling, induding: Reintegration programs have to address the imme- * They cannot attend school during formal school diate need of most child soldiers for income. Vocational hours because they must earn their own income or training and small business schemes must also be cre- contribute to the family livelihood. ated for quality and market absorption factors. In El • They or their families cannot afford the school fees Salvador, evaluations of the program for demobilized or expenses of uniforms and supplies. adults found only 25 percent working in the area for or expenses of uniforms and supplies. which they were trained. Problems identified with the • Education facilities were destroyed during the con- training courses in El Salvador induded: ffict, or there is a lack of teachers in their commu- v There were no job opportunities upon course nity. weretn * They have difficulty getting documentation for en- completion rollment, or school authorities would not allow older e Courses were assigned by political and military lead- former child soldiers to join the same level as ers rather than selected by the participants them- younger children, selves, leading to low motivation levels and incon- * They feel shame or resentment about going to school sistent attendance with much younger children. * The academic level was too high because many par- ticipants were illiterate A There was little orientation or referral at community A few pilot projects in Angola offer models for fu- lvlt osbeopruiis ture child soldier reintegration programs. Christian r rri- Children's Fund, the international NGO partnering with the catechist network, organized an "ID Regis- Former child soldiers followed-up in El Salvador tration Project" to arrange the civilian documentation were pessimistic about their future because of chronic essential for school enrollment. The Ministry of Edu- poverty and the lack of socio-economic change in their cation initiated a network of "animnator teachers." The country. Only 49.5 percent earn their own income; of animator teachers work at the community level to this, 85 percent earn less than the minimum wage. identify disabled children out of school, plan their in- Some seven years after the peace accord, a few even take with parents, teachers and headmasters, and pro- reported dissatisfaction about being demobilized. This vide training and support to teachers who assist dis- negative experience of economic reintegration is in abled children with learning difficulties. The catechist stark contrast to their motivation for participating in network in Angola played a role similar to the anima- the conflict: to improve the future of their country. tor teachers with child soldiers, and investments in The resumption of conflict in Angola effectively training and awareness raising hold great potential if ended reintegration projects; but their experience pro- peace can be regained. 20 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES Reintgraion lessons checklist Is a faimily tracing system adequately mobilized staffed, and funded? * Is adequate time planned for the preparation of child soldiers and their family for reunification? * Are fostering arrangements availablelfor cases where traing isnot successful? A Are arrangements for independent living possible, and is funding available? : How can a community-basedipsychsocia program be established? * Are traditional healing practices being identified and supported? * What soal structures can contribute to sustainable monitoring and follow-up? * Are teachers, health workeirs,churches, liocal NGOs, and others being reached by an awareness rais- ing initiative on the rights and nees of ch*id soldiers? * Are recreational, cultura, religio us, and life-skill building activities available and accessible? * Ho w:ill ccesoformaleducation be facilitated?Are there programswith fleible- hours? Whatpolicy vwil be undertak school fees and aea ls?.: * ilow can fa and comuity smal bsiessesb supported? Are there artisans -and trade pres sionals that could be supported to provide apprntceships'? is the country's economic pocSy conducive to meetingqthe livelihood needs of youth and war-affected communities? vides insights to effective reintegration strategies. With In addition, the QIPs in Angola had some impact in the support of 'Quick Impact Project' funds, known bringing economic activity to more rural and isolated as 'QIPs,'6 a number of families with demobilized child locations. Locating vocational training projects in ur- soldiers were able to rehabilitate bakeries and other ban areas raises the issue of the distribution of eco- small businesses. These projects provide an important nomic activity in post-conflict societies, where many example of combining the families' income needs with communities have significant numbers of demobilized the needs of the child. Lessons learned in Liberia also soldiers, repatriating refugees, and other especially note that family poverty alleviation programs are as war-affected groups. important as family reunification follow-up visits. The Angola demobilization and reintegration pro- The link to economic policy gram also initiated a referral service in each province. Economic recovery is likely to be precarious in a These offices arranged a number of apprenticeships country's transition from war to peace. This is accen- for demobilized child soldiers. For example, tailors tuated by the large number of young adults, includ- were given favorable rental terms on sewing machines ing former child soldiers, in need of a means of liveli- in exchange for taking apprentices, and training wages hood. The experience of El Salvador shows how eco- were supported in community restaurants. nomic policies can run against the needs of ex-com- The Angola apprenticeships and QIP-supported batants and the most war-affected communities. micro-enterprises were more effective than vocational In El Salvador, industrial policy emphasized export- training schemes because they provided a quicker way processing zones-but they were not established in of acquiring skills and income. Similarly, programs in the predominantly rural or semi-urban areas where Liberia had to progress from a core of vocational and many combatants re-settled. The strategy for the agri- literacy training to an emphasis on programs that cultural sector was to promote the export of special- could run in combination with regular schools. ized crops. Former combatants in the agricultural re- The experience of the Angola QIP projects and pro- integration program were assigned marginally pro- vincial referral structure underscores the need for flex- ductive land and did not have the skills, capacitv, time, ible program funding mechanisms. The ability to de- or resources to engage in advanced marketing and velop projects and organize funding at the provincial credit schemes. Evaluations of the program found that level was crucial to reaching individual child soldiers the debt level of former combatants reached 400 per- and their families. cent of an annual rural salary. Clearly, having spent some ten years as a soldier, left the child soldiers espe- cially disadvantaged. CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 21 While some economic policy measures may not Like girls, the needs of former child soldiers with reach former child soldiers because of their age and disabilities are also often ignored. In El Salvador, a level of skill and education, economic policies dearly group of disabled former soldiers occupied the legis- affect their reintegration prospects. These problems are lative assembly in order to make the government ful- compounded because former child soldiers often be- fill pensions promised under the reinsertion program. long to families that meet multiple vulnerability crite- In Angola, those working with child soldiers worked ria, such as a war-disabled father, widowed mother, or in isolation from the military war disabled program. displacement. In Liberia, disabled former child soldiers were espe- cially vulnerable to neglect and isolation. Neglected needs of girls and the disabled The omission of girls and the disabled by many child As outlined in Chapter 2, child soldier programs must soldiers programs underscores the need for commu- employ community-based strategies that reach girls, nity-based approaches supporting the recovery and the disabled, and other groups that demobilization integration needs of all war-affected children. programs routinely omit In El Salvador, 33 percent of former child soldiers were girls. While they have not reported stigmatization by family or community in cases where they had sexual relations and children outside of marriage, support programs did not accom- 1 Fundacion 16 de Enero, 'Los Ninos y J6venes Ex- modate the needs of female-headed households. The Combatientes en su Proceso de Reinserci6n a la Vida Civil, same was true for girls in Liberia. 1995. See full case study on El Salvador. 2 The definition provided in the text box was agreed upon at a May 1997 UNICEF workshop including UN and NGO part- ners. A report of the workshop is available from UNICEF Office of Emergency Programs. A recommended resource on psychosocial programs is Save the Children Alliance, 'Promoting Psychosocial Well-Being Among Children Af- fected by Armed Conflict,' London, 1996. 3 For further discussion, see Alicinda Honwana, (1997) 'Healing for peace: Traditional healers and post-war reconstruction in Southern Mozambique.' Peace and conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, Vol. 3,293-305. 4 See the full case study on Angola for training outlines. 5 Reflecting on such questions in Angola, a demobilization offi- cial noted that reintegration programs should help former combatants with school fees for their children. The World Bank noted the same of a demobilization exercise in Uganda. (See Coletta et al. in recommended readings.) 6 QIPS were first developed in Nicaragua by UNHCR for com- munities with large populations of returning refugees. Conclusion his paper has tried to provide lesson-s and guid- manipulate the demobilization process for recruit- T ance for future programs of prevention, demo- ment. This lesson underscores the wisdom of estab- bilization, and reintegration of child soldiers. lishing special reception centers for child soldiers While prevention is the best solution, the efforts of during demobilization. those working to demobilize and reintegrate child sol- * Child soldiers should remain in reception centers diers require our full support. Program practitioners, for as little time as possible. While special centers child soldiers, and their families face difficult processes are necessary in demobilization, experience shows of post-conflict transition. And this transition should that family reunification and community-based not be undermined by a lack of political will or unful- strategies are the most effective in reintegration. filled programs of family reunification, or by a lack of . Community-based networks are essential for sus- psychosocial support and economic and educational tainable support to demobilized child soldiers and opportunity. Former child soldiers striving to achieve for reaching those exduded, most often girls and the a better future-despite ongoing conflict, social vio- disabled, from formal demobilization. lence, and few reintegration supports-demonstrate . Planning for demobilization should encompass the the possibilities of regaining a productive civilian life. full demobilization and reintegration process, in- Lessons leaned dcluding preparing staff, establishing partnerships, generating resources, and clarifying policy. In Civil society actors, who have a vital role in prevent- Angola, belated staff recruitment and training, in- ing child recruitment, require external support. The appropriate language skills and interpretation ar- demobilization and reintegration of child soldiers re- rangements, and policy debates delayed chdld sol- quires persistent advocacy from both civil society and dier demobilization. international actors. In addition, child soldiers must * Coordination structures must include all actors- be specifically included in peace agreements and pro- UN, government, representatives of armed groups, cesses. The exdusion of child soldiers in the Salvadoran NGOs, local social organizations, and child soldiers peace process hindered their reintegration, engen- and their families. dered resentment, and left them socially and economi- cally marginalized. In Angola, a formal resolution pri- Reintegration of child soldiers should emphasize oritizing child soldiers proved essential to achieving three components: family reunification, psychosocial their demobilization. Other lessons include: support and education, and economic opportunity. * Child soldiers must be separated from military au- Family reunification-or, where that is not possible, thority and protected during demobilization. In a foster placement or support for independent living- number of country experiences, a lack of protection is crucial to successful reintegration. Psychosocial sup- for child soldiers allowed military authorities to port, induding traditional rituals and family and com- CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 23 munity mediation, is central to addressing the asocial having sexual relations and children outside of mar- and aggressive behavior learned by child soldiers and riage, support programs must address the needs of to helping them recover from distressful experiences. female-headed households. Finally, education and economic opportunities must Improved links are needed between child soldier, be individually determined and must include family disability, and mine awareness programs. While pro- livelihood needs. In a number of experiences, appren- gramns for the disabled and war-injured were devel- ticeships and micro-enterprise support have been oped in Angola and El Salvador, neither incorporated more effective than vocational training. Resources and child soldiers nor adequate child-conscious measures. programs must be able to meet the educational and The impact of drug use by child soldiers has not been livelihood needs of child soldiers. adequately addressed. And, staff working with child Reintegration requires a reasonable period, at least soldiers are often ill-prepared for working with child three to five years, of committed resources. soldiers influenced by drugs and affected by sexually transmitted diseases. Other issues Finally, reintegration efforts face challenges where Prevention will require greater investment in practi- child soldiers have committed atrocities or war crimes. cal measures, such as education and non-formal youth The child's reintegration faces a complex process in activities, and community level advocacy. This paper balance with the need of many communities for jus- has identified obstades to regaining education and tice. A number of expeziences demonstrate the impor- provides early indications on the effectiveness of ap- tant role of traditional healing rituals in addressing prenticeship and micro-enterprise strategies in com- family and community concerns about a child soldier's parison to vocational training centers. However, there actions. Rwanda' provides perspective on working must be improvement in programs that combine edu- with chdildren accused of atrocities. Further program cation and income-generating needs. documentation and exchange, especially regarding The needs of girls used in conflict require much legal and amnesty provisions, is required in this area. greater program attention. For example, although 33 percent of the child soldiers followed up in El Salva- dor were female, special program strategies for girls did not exist. While girls in El Salvador have not re- I See "Children, Genocide and Justice: Rwandan Perspectives on ported being stigmatized by family or community for Culpability and Punishment for Children Convicted of Crimes Associated with Genocide.' Save the Children USA, 1996. Annex I Selected Readings Brett, Rachel and Margaret McCallin, Children: The United Nations, Impact of Armed Conflict on Children, Invisible Soldiers, 2nd edition, Radda Barnen, 1998. Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, Graca Machel, UN Document A/51/306 and Add.1, The book expands research commissionedfor the 1996 UN New York, 1996. Study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children. Save the Children Sweden (Ridda Barnen) has a useful UNICEF, "Cape Town Principles and Best Practices web site, www.rb.se, featuringa newsletter and on the prevention of recruitment of children into database on child soldiers. the armed forces and on demobilization and social reintegration of child soldiers in Africa," UNICEF, Cohn, Ilene and Guy Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers: New York, 1999. the Role of Children in Armed Conflicts, prepared on behalf of the Henry Dunant Institute in Geneva, This booklet is the report of the 1997 workshop held with Oxford University Press, 1994. the NGO Working Group on the Convention on the Colletta, Nat J., Markus Kostner and Ingo Rights of the Child. UNICEF web address: Wiederhofer, The Transition from War to Peace in wwwuniceforg. Sub-Saharan Africa, Directions in Development, UNICEF Liberia, The Disarmament, Demobilization and World Bank, Washington DC, 1996. Reintegration of Child Soldiers in Liberia: 1994 to 1997: The Process and Lessons Learned, UNICEF and Colletta, Nat J., Markus Kostner and Ingo the US Committee for UNICEF, New York, 1998. Wiederhofer, Case Studies in War to Peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combat- United Nations Department of Peacekeeping ants in Ethiopia, Namibia and Uganda, World Bank Operations, "Disarmament, Demobilisation and Discussion Paper No. 331, World Bank, Washing- Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in a Peacekeeping ton DC, 1996. Environment,"United Nations, New York, 2000. International Labor Organization, "The Reintegra- This lessons learned paper contributed to the Report of the tion of Young Ex-Combatants into Civilian Life", Secretary General to the Security Council on the Role of prepared for the Expert Meeting on the Design of United Nations Peacekeeping in Disarmament, Demo- Guidelines for Training and Employment of Ex- bilization and Reintegration, S/2000/101, 11 February Combatants, Harare, 11-14 July 1995. 2000. Annex 11 Legal Framework Awareness of the law, induding empowering chil- The Optional Protocol provides the strongest instru- dren and their families to protest underage recruit- ment to date prohibiting the use of those less than eigh- ment, has proved vital to prevention and advocacy- teen years as soldiers. The Optional Protocol replaces and legal provisions for child soldiers are an essential Article 38 of the CRC, increasing the minimum age for basis for demobilization and reintegration programs. direct participation in hostilities to eighteen years from The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Additional fifteen years. The Optional Protocol includes non-state Protocols thereto of 1977 and the UN Convention on parties in its prohibitions. the Rights of the Child of 1989 are the pillars of the legal framework on the involvement of children in Key provisions of the armed conflict. Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict 1949 Geneva Conventions Artice 1 Additional Protocol I, Article 77 State Parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure ...'Children shall be the object of special respect and that members of their armed forces who have not at- shall be protected against any form of indecent as- tained the age of 18 years do not take a direct part in sault..." hostilities. Article 2 of its near universal ratification, the UN State Parties shall ensure that persons who have not Because attained the age of 18 years are not compulsorily re- Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) provides cruited into their armed forces. the strongest basis of law and guiding principles on Article 3 child protection and well-being. The demobilization States Parties shall raise the minimum age in years for and reintegration of child soldiers draws specifically the voluntary recruitment of persons into their national armed forces from that set out in Artide 38(3) of the on Article 39 of the CRC, Convention on the Rights of the Child, taking account of the principles contained in that article and recog- "States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to nizing that under the Convention persons under 18 are promote the physical and psychological recovery and entitled to special protection. social integration of a child victim of I ....] armed l.. conflicts. Such recovery and reintegration shall take States Parties that permit voluntary recruitment into place in an environment which fosters the health, their national armed forces under the age of 18 shall self-respect and dignity of the child." maintain safeguards to ensure, as a minimum, that: a) Such recruitment is genuinely voluntary; b) Such recruitment is done with the informed con- Most significantly, in May 2000, the UN General sent of the person's parents or legal guardians; Assembly adopted the Optional Protocol on the In- c) Such persons are fully informed of the duties involved in such military service, and volvement of Children in Armed Conflict to the CRC. d) Such persons provide reliable proof of age prior to acceptance into national military service. 26 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES Article 4 armed conflicts. Such rules shall also apply to children 1. Armed groups that are distinct from the armed in situation of internal armed conflicts, tension and forces of a State should not, under any circumstances, strife. recruit or use in hostilities persons under the age of 18 years. The CRC and AfianCare are o-nlybidngo 2. State Parties shall take all feasible measures to pre- are o binding on vent such recruitment and use, including the adoption governments, not on "non-state parties," such as rebel of legal measures necessary to prohibit and criminalize or armed opposition groups. However, non-state par- such practices. ties may be willing to commit to these instruments. [* ]The experience of the humanitarian principles project of Operation Lifeline Sudan (Southern Sectorf is rec- An additional international instrument is Interna- ommended for program strategies in reaching non- tional Labour Convention No. 182 concerning the Pro- state parties e hibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of In practice, forced recruitment can be blurred with the Worst Forms of Child Labour, adopted unani- conscription. While conscription polcies are legal, mously in June 1999. Convention 182 prohibits, iterali armed forces often resort to forcible means of enforc- forced or compulsory recruitment of children (persons . , , . , . . In~~~~~g conscription, such as rounding up young men in under the age of eighteen) for use in armed conflict markets and at sports events. Such means are illegal, and many who are underage fall victim to these mea- Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999g Article 3 sures. Child rights monitoring should indude mecha- 'For the purposes of this Convention, the term 'the nisms by which cases of underage recruitment can be worst forms of child labour" comprises: redressed. a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, States are responsible for the recruitment practices such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bond- of other armed groups they establish, support, or con- age and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, in- duding forced or compulsory recruitment of children done-such as Civil defense forces, police, special po- for use in armed conflict l- lice forces, or local militias. Governments who support non-state parties or allow them to recruit or operate In addition, the Statute of the International Crimi- from their territory must ensure that they respect in- nal Court makes it a war crime to conscript or enlist ternational humanitarian law. children under the age of fifteen or use them in hos- As a policy basis for programs, it is recommended tilities in both international and non-international that a legal framework on child soldiers be adopted at armed conflicts. each country leveL Angola darifies age, the basis of Regional instruments are also important For countries determining age, and offers a measure to prevent re- within the Organization of African Unity, the African recruitment by considering that child soldiers have Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which already met their military service. provides eighteen as the minimum age for recruitment, is the strongest protection against child recruitment. Angola Legal Framework on Underage Soldiers: African Charter on the Rights and Welfare * Recognized the principles of the Convention on the of the Child Rights of the Child and Angolan Law (Law 1/93) pro- Article [1: For the purposes of this Charter, a child viding for 18 years as minimum age for military ser- means every human being below the age of 18 years. vice; Article ans : Armed Conflicts * 1996 was determined the "calendar year' of demo- Article XXII: Armed Conflicts ~~bilization, all soldiers born after 1 January 1978 were to [...]States Parties to the present Charter shall take all bezconsidre underage; necessary measures to ensure that no child shall take a be considered underage; direct part in hostilities and refrain in particular, from A recruiting any child. age soldiers were granted "disponibilidade" status, States Parties to the present Charter shall, in accordance guaranteeing full exemption from future military ser- with their obligations under internaional humanitar- vice; ian law, protect the civilan population in armed con- * Gave "open status" to all underage soldiers' files, flicts and shall take all feasible measure to ensure the preventing consideration as deserters and guarantee- protection and care of children who are affected by ing right to demobilization and benefits if not present on day of demobilization. 1 See section I of text. Annex III Definition of Terms Program practitioners working with child soldiers groups. Reasons for "joining voluntarily" can include often encounter a number of debates related to termi- the participation of relatives, threats, bribes, and false nology and applicable law. In Angola, for example, promises of compensation. Research has consistently debates over terminology and definition of age ob- shown that child soldiers join for protection, or for structed and delayed the demobilization of child sol- food, dothing, or shelter These reasons prevent the diers for more than a year. free choice of the child. Demobilization and reintegration often take place Children are more likely to become child soldiers if in a political context. The multiple government bod- they are poor, separated from their families, displaced ies, agencies and organizations involved, frequently from their homes, living in a combat zone, or have lim- with overlapping mandates, may have different un- ited or no access to education. Orphans and refugees derstandings of terms, policies, procedures, and pro- are particularly vulnerable to recruitment. gram strategies. Clarifying and agreeing upon terms The involvement of children in armed conflict is one is essential in each program context. of the most egregious violations of child rights. Child development is a dynamic process affected by social- Child soldier ization, cultural values and traditions, gender and ethnicity, emotions, and participation in community 'A child soldier has been defined as any person under 18 life. Children actively construct their own identity and years of age who forms part of an armed force in any capac- the course of their development, especially during ity, and those accompanying such groups, other than purely adolescence. The involvement of children in armed as family members, as well as girls recruitedfor sexual pur- conflict has a significant effect on their development, poses and forced marriage.' Secretary General of the United Nations, Report to particularly their identity construction, and can lead the Security Council, S/2000/101, 11 February 2000 to social isolation, violence, and reduced education and economic potential. Child soldier refers to any person under eighteen years Because the term "child" often carries the emotional of age who is part of any, regular or irregular, armed connotation of being a very young and vulnerable force or group. This indudes all child or adolescent person, youth and adolescents may not be seen as child participants regardless of function. Cooks, porters, soldiers. The CRC sets eighteen years as the division messengers, girls recruited for sexual purposes, and between child and adult, but many societies use other other support functions are included as well as those definitions. Terms such as "youth,' as in El Salvador, considered combatants. This includes those forcibly may be helpful to common understanding in pro- recruited as well as those who join voluntarily. grams. In Angola, the phrase "underage soldier" was Despite assertions that child soldiers have volun- adopted to clarify that this included all those under teered, they are often coerced into joining armed the legal recruitment age of eighteen years. 28 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES While most governments have established recruit- the phrase disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration ment laws with an eighteen-year age minimum, there (DDR). remains an international legal basis for allowing re- Disarmament is the collection, control, and disposal cruitment at younger ages. Historically, Additional of weapons and development of arms management Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, Article programs. Demining is usually included as part of dis- 77(2), and Additional Protocol II, Article 4(3)(c), pro- armament. Given the interdependent nature of the vided for a fifteen-year age minimum. This legal norm DDR process, disarmament programs will overlap was subsequently incorporated into Article 38 of the with concerns for child soldiers. Child-specific con- 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. cerns with disarmament will indude child-oriented In May 2000, following six years of advocacy and mine awareness and weapons safety education. While negotiation, the UN General Assembly adopted by disarmament is an important child protection concern, consensus an Optional Protocol on the Involvement this paper focuses on the demobilization and reinte- of Children in Armed Conflict. The Optional Protocol gration components as they concern child soldiers. prohibits the direct participation of all those under Demobilization is the process by which armed forces eighteen years in armed conflict (see Annex H). How- either downsize or disband. Demobilization may take ever, the Optional Protocol leaves room for govern- place as a military restructuring in a post war context ments to set voluntary recruitment ages as young as as well as following a peace accord. Demobilization sixteen years. The varying age minimums continue to involves the assembly, disarmament, and discharge of leave many children vulnerable to recruitment and combatants and their compensation or assistance. have fueled debate about induding child soldiers in Quartering and cantonment are other terms used for the some demobilization exercises. assembly portion of the process. The experience of debates over terminology and The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations applicable law illustrates the urgency of (DPKO) defines reintegration as an essential concomi- * Advocacy to indude all child soldiers under eigh- tant of successful demobilization. Reintegration refers teen years in demobilization and reintegration pro- to programs of cash or in-kind compensation, train- grams ing, and income generation meant to increase the po- * Community-based approaches to reach child sol- tential for economic and social reintegration of ex-com- diers, especially girls, excluded from formal demo- batants and their families. The compensation packages bilization exercises or assistance programs that accompany discharge are • Incorporating local social and cultural values regard- sometimes referred to as reinsertion-such that rein- ing children and youth. sertion would refer to a phase in between demobiliza- tion and reintegration. The World Bank for example Demobilization and reintegration programs are of- discusses three phases in the war-to-peace transition: ten highly politicized and require persistent, coordi- demobilization, reinsertion, and reintegration.' Rein- nated advocacy to ensure the inclusion of the needs sertion represents the former combatant's immediate and rights of child soldiers. period of returning to their home community or re- settlement location, while reintegration refers to long-term social and economic support programs. In f ...1 The role of children in armed conflict should be ac- knowledged from the onset of peace negotiations and some country experiences, such as El Salvador, rein- children's rights should be identified as an explicit priority sertion has been used instead of reintegration. This in peacemaking, peace-building and conflict resolution pro- can be a matter of semantics, since in some languages cesses, both in the peace agreement and disarmament, demo- reintegration and reinsertion have the same meaning. bilizati:on and reintegration plans." Secretary General of the United Nations, Report to In this working paper, demobilization refers to the the Security Council, S/2000/101, 11 February 2000 reception and discharge of child soldiers and reinte- gration encompasses measures supporting their pro- Demobilization and reintegration cess of establishing a new civilian course of develop- Demobilization and reintegration programs are com- ment. An emphasis on community-based supports is plex operations that indude a number of interdepen- essential as reintegration involves multiple physical, dent issues. The United Nations, and other bodies, use social, and economic needs beyond any timeframe of cash or other supports. 1 See recommended reading list, Annex l, for World Bank best practice publications. Annex IV Angola and El Salvador Summary of Lessons Learned Phase Highlights of program actions Lessons learned Angola El Salvador Prevention Advocacy * NGOs and Catholic Church * Support civil service in helped protest recruitment preventing recruitment and during conflict promoting child rights Indude child soldiers in peace processes Legal framework * Towards preventing re-recruitment * Promote legislation and in the demobilization process, mechanisms to redress developed legal framework with underage recruitment agreed upon definition of an * Establish legal frame- underage soldier' work that includes child's right to be demobilized Monitoring and Stiudy of vulnerable groups' *Early reporting by joumalists * Support early documen- documentation conducted in demobilization and advocacy groups on child tation and reporting on planning soldiers and recruitment abuses child soldiers Gained parties' agreement to * Include non-state parties be monitored on their com- in seeking commitments mitment to human rights and monitoring on human rights Demobilization Advocacy * Persistent lobbying of UN, parties * Early demobilization planning * Indude soldiers in peace to conflict resulted in child soldiers consultants highlighted the needs agreements and formal being made a priority in the de- of child soldiers, but their recon- demobilization plans mobilization and reintegration plans mendations were ignored * Without political will or early on * Chifd soldiers were excluded specific provision for child * Prioritized 'vulnerable groups,' in- from reintegrafion programs; a soldiers, they will be ex- cluding child soldiers, in demobili- few were incorporated in a one- cluded from demobilization zation policy and plans year later renegotiation * When child soldiers are * Information campaign regarding not included, they are demobilization with specific elements likely to feel marginalized on the rights and needs of child soldiers and resentful * Developed 'open file' mechanism to * Conduct information cam- indude child soldiers excluded from paign to promote awareness formal demobilization of child rights 30 AFRICA REGION WORKING PAPER SERIES Phase Highlights of program actions Lessons learned Angola l Salvaor Planning, resources, _ i te i o .iN, * Coordination mechan- and coordination oe n p ies to the c NGQs, isms should be inclusive and local associa tios - 0; 0\ t0 <0 ;UN, NGOs, donors, gov- = Coordination committee extended to emnment agencies, rep- provincial lvs of all armed groups, and - Delayed f racing work, data and ocal organizations .coordi tta-ion. i staff -elymn *050 . dd ^ 0; -ji0$; t; f\d;L ;fu0 . :; Adequately mobilize staff * c of pn f rt and program partnerships and interviw Otchikl diers dn for family tracing and quarterig resulted in manipulatin 4netpsychosocial support of data for recruitment ~~~~~~~~~network Community Faoimmunt network assured * Family reuni.ai aND *nCommunity-based net- involvement a suppoship at th vii- comuity acceptance works are essential to :agef level for chid soldiers fro. partially compensated for reach many former corm- de mobilization hrough reintegration chiclurd solders'exclusion frm batants, including those formal demobilizationexcluded from formal demobilization Reintegration Family reunification * t n o * F r cited s most * Community-based net- and community- as ei fam i cua to s reintegration works are effecive because based rnerks uc pyfoi support fbyf nne uild oldier tey are widely respected 0 .ands0-f-0 a n individua insertion;0 :fi $00 --: ;. 3 ;0 0X and consistenty present . ,7io e tion or liveihood acti ities for foflw-up * Follow-up to fanly reunification, * Foll-p, incung family Inciuding surveys ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~and commuinity mediation and incorportion into ed- ucation or livelihood projecs, is essential Altematives to * Catequistas providtporary *Develop foster family family reunification care and faciitated supptfor opportunities and indepen- indedtlivinginhoecommu nitiesi living arrangemerts in * Policy decisionttoistitionalize anticipation that some c ;thild 0soldiers cmplemented by f::.t : :: ::0:: ; d 0; child soldiers will not be project suppor ousingconstruction able to be reunified with for independentliving their families Need to support child soldiers who have formned new families Psychosocial I*Integrated Western and local * Some community-based * Emphasize children's approach and understanding of healing; activities ousie the formal psychosocial needs and traditional healing supported traditional healing practices reintegration program helped new Civilian development * Focus on children's psychosocial child soldiers, including a few path needs and development NGO psychosocial projects * Support traditional healing * Catequistas trained and supported by that supported community processes; integrate Vestem psychosocial project and local concepts of healing * Sensitize communities to the needs of child soldiers * Recreational and cultural activities are important CHILD SOLDIERS-PREVENTING, DEMOBILIZING AND REINTEGRATING 31 Phase Highlights of program actions Lessons learned Angola El Salvador Education and * Quick impact projects to support * The few educational * Need flexible approaches economic apprenticeships and creation of scholarships offered to to support child soldiers' opportunities rnew businesses were admrniristered were not used because education and income- through flexiblefunding modalities child sdiers needed to generating needs at the provincial level prioritize income generation * Apprenticeships and Micro-enterprise projects in- micro-enterpise approaches corporated family livelihood needs - were more effective than as weD as the role of the former vocational training child soldiers * Need to make altema- tive education and life- skills training available to former child soldiers * Integrate child soldier re- integration with community revitalization * Need to include child soldiers in broader econo- mic policies Neglected needs * Catequista network and an NGO * 33 percent of ex-soldiers * Include specific attention of girls and the psychosocial project provided some were female, but their to girls and the disabled in disabled outreach to giris and the disabled specic needs, including, demobilization the needs of female-headed * Ensure child-specific households, were not ad- measures and linkages dressed in reintegration program between demobilization, disability, and mine injury programs 3 Draw on community networks and inclusive program partnerships to reach girls and the disabled Africa Region Working Paper Series ARWPS I Progress in Public Expenditure Management in Africa: Evidence from World Bank Surveys, January 1999, by Christos Kostopoulos ARWPS 2 Toward Inclusive and Sustainable Development in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, March 1999, by Markus Kostner (out of stock) ARWPS 3 Business Taxation in a Low-Revenue Economy: A Study on Uganda in Comparison with Neighboring Countries, June 1999, by Ritva Reinikka and Duanjie Chen ARWPS 4 Pensions and Social Security in Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Options, October 1999, by Luca Barbone and Luis-Alvaro Sanchez B. (out of stock) ARWPS 5 Forest Taxes, Government Revenues and the Sustainable Exploitation of Tropical Forests, January 2000, by Luca Barbone and Juan Zalduendo ARWPS 6 The Cost of Doing Business: Firms' Experience with Corruption in Uganda, June 2000, by Jacob Svensson (out of stock) ARWPS 7 On the Recent Trade Performance of Sub-Saharan African Countries: Cause for Hope or More of the Same, August 2000, by Francis Ng and Alexander J. Yeats ARWPS 8 Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Old Tales and New Evidence, November 2000, by Miria Pigato ARWPS 9 The Macro Implications of HIV/AIDS in South Africa: A Preliminary Assessment, November 2000, by Channing Arndt and Jeffrey D. Lewis ARWPS 10 Revisiting Growth and Convergence: is Africa Catching Up?, December 2000, by Charalambos G. Tsangarides All Papers can be accessed via the internet at http:/lwww.worldbanlkorglafr/wps/index.htm ARWPS 11 Spending on Safety Nets for the Poor: How Much, for How Many? The Case of Malawi, January 2001, by William James Smith ARWPS 12 Tourism in Africa, February 2001, by lain T. Christie, Doreen E. Crompton ARWPS 13 Conflict Diamonds, February 2001, by Louis Goreux ARWPS 14 Reform and Opportunity: The Changing Role and Patterns of Trade in South Africa and SADC, March 2001, by Jeffrey D. Lewis ARWPS 15 The Foreign Direct Investment Environment in Africa, March 2001, by Miria Pigato ARWPS 16 Choice of Exchange Rate Regimes for Developing Countries, April 2001, by Fahrettin Yagci ARWPS 17 Export Processing Zones: Has Africa Missed the Boat? Not yet!, May 2001, by Peter L. Watson ARWPS 18 Rural Infrastructure in Africa: Policy Directions, June 2001, by Robert Fishbein. ARWPS 19 Changes in Poverty in Madagascar: 1993-1999, July 2001, by Stefano Patemostro, Jean Razafindravonona, and David Stifel. ARWPS 20 Information and Communication Technology, Poverty, and Development in sub- Saharan Africa and South Asia, August 2001, by Miria Pigato. ARWPS 21 Handling Hierarchy in Decentralized Settings: Governance Underpinnings of School Performance in Tikur Inchini, West Shewa Zone, Oromia Region, September 2001, by Navin Girishankar, Abebaw Alemayehu and Yusuf Ahmad. ARWPS 22 Child Malnutrition in Ethiopia: Can Maternal Knowledge Augment The Role of Income?, October 2001, by Luc Christiaensen and Harold Alderman. All Papers can be accessed via the internet at http://www.worldbanlorg/afr/wps/index.htm 4 Headquarters 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, [).C. 20433, USA 4 Telephone: '202) 477-1234 Facsimile: '202) 477-6391 RCA 248423 WORLDBK OF Cable Addr.: INTBAFRAD WAHINGTONDC Working Paper Series web address: http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/index.htm European Office 66, avenue d" :ena 75116 Paris. France Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00 Facsimile: (1) 40.69.30.66 Telex: 540651 Tokyo Office Fukoku Seimei Building, 10th Floor 2-2-2 Uchisa;iwai-Cho Chiyoda-Ku, l'okyo 100-0011 Japan OF Telephone: (SI-3) 3597-6650 Facsimile: (81-3) 3597-6695 Telex: 26838 4 ; 4 The World Bank 4