74909 v2 Country Gender Assessment for LAO PDR Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity © 2012_ Asian Development Bank and The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank All rights reserved. Published 2012. Printed in the United States. ISBN 978-92-9092-921-5 (Print) ISBN 978-92-9092-922-2 (PDF) Cataloging-In-Publication Data Asian Development Bank and The World Bank (Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity) Mandaluyong City, Philippines and Washington, D.C., USA: Asian Development Bank and The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, 2012. 1. Gender assessment 2. Lao People’s Democratic Republic I. Asian Development Bank II. 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For orders, please contact: Fax +63 2 636 2648 adbpub@adb.org ADB The World Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1818 H Street NW 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Washington DC 20433 Tel +63 2 632 4444 Tel + 202 473 1000 Fax +63 2 636 2444 www.worldbank.org www.adb.org Email: feedback@worldbank.org Table of Contents Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................................... iii Foreword .................................................................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................................. vi Abbreviations and Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................... vii Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction: A Country in Rapid Development ......................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital ........................................... 12 Health and nutrition ................................................................................................................................................................ 13 Education ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 Water and sanitation ............................................................................................................................................................... 29 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks ....................................... 32 Gender, Poverty and Vulnerability ...................................................................................................................................... 33 Agriculture and rural development ................................................................................................................................... 36 Labor force participation ....................................................................................................................................................... 38 Access to markets and credits .............................................................................................................................................. 42 Infrastructure: Electricity, Transport, Mining and Hydropower ............................................................................... 44 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice ................. 50 National Laws and Legal Framework ................................................................................................................................ 51 Governance structures ............................................................................................................................................................ 53 Civil society: New legal frameworks .................................................................................................................................. 56 Media reinforces traditional stereotypes ......................................................................................................................... 56 Combating Violence against Women ................................................................................................................................ 57 Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks ....................................................................................................................... 60 Regional Integration and Trade ........................................................................................................................................... 61 Migration and trafficking ....................................................................................................................................................... 62 Climate Change ......................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Conclusions: National Challenges and Opportunities ............................................................................................ 65 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................ 66 Works Cited ............................................................................................................................................................................. 75 References ............................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Box 1: Government of Lao PDR Policies on Gender Equality Box 2: Increasing Skilled Birth Attendants for Safer Delivery Box 3: Results from Household Survey on Maternal and Child Health in Six SouthernProvinces Box 4: Mitigating Post-construction HIV and STI Risks of Communities along the Northern Economic Corridor Box 5: Maternal and Child Health Prioritized Box 6: Rethinking Disabled Persons’ Rights Box 7: Programs Aims to Strengthen Education Effectiveness Box 8: Gender Considerations in National Water and Sanitation Programs Box 9: Poverty for Female Headed Households Box 10: Research Aims to Better Understand Gender Dimensions of Ethnicity Box 11: ‘Time Poverty’ Constrains Women in Rural Areas Box 12: National Gender Strategy Focuses on Agriculture and Forestry Box 13: National Government Plans for SME Development Box 14: Monitoring for Outcomes on Young Women’s Entrepreneurship and Employment Strategies Box 15: Power to the Poor: Connecting Female-headed Households to the Grid Box 16: Addressing Gender Concerns in Nam Theun 2 Hydropower Project Box 17: Women Dominate Mining Produce Initiative Box 18: The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Sustainable Tourism Development Project Box 19: National Strategy for Women Sets Targets Box 20: Access to Justice – A Challenge for Both Men and Women Box 21: Vientiane Garment Factories in Focus Box 22: Working Together Towards Climate Change Adaptation Table 1: Summary of Recommendations Table 2: Gender Inequality Index 2011 Table 3: Improvements in Selected Health Indicators Table 4: Average Number of Births by Age of Mother Table 5: WDI Maternal Mortality Ratio in the East Asia Pacific, 2008 Table 6: Assistance at Delivery Table 7: Location of Delivery Table 8: Cause of Disability, by Sex Table 9: Number of Girls per 100 Boys Enrolled, by Education Level Table 10: Gender Gaps in Education Table 11: Changes in Literacy and Enrollment Table 12: Numbers of Students in Vocational and Higher Education by Sex, 2006 and 2009 Table 13: Years of Schooling Completed, by Sex Table 14: Percentage of Boys and Girls Passing Primary School Exams Table 15: Percentage of Boys and Girls Passing Upper Secondary School Exams Table 16: Labor Force Participation of Males and Females Aged 15-64 Table 17: Children and Youth Employed, by Age, Gender and Location Table 18: Time Used on Main Activities by Sex, Hours per Day Table 19: Women in Political Leadership Positions Figure 1: World Development Report: Dimensions of Gender Equality Figure 2: Contraceptive Prevalence Rates of Currently Married Women, by Characteristics Figure 3: Total Fertility Rate, by Women’s Educational Level and Geographical Area, 2005 Figure 4: Median Age at First Marriage among Women Aged 25-45 Years, by Background and characteristics Figure 5: Adults with HIV, by Sex and Age Group (1990-2009) Figure 6: Prevalence of Underweight among Children under Two Years Old Figure 7: Adult Literacy, by Sex and Region, 1998 and 2008 Figure 8 and 9: Employment of Economically Active Population Aged 10+, by Sex iv Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Foreword Lao PDR’s development progress is impressive. In just over 10 years, poverty has been reduced from 46 percent in 1993 to 25 percent in 2010. The lives of thousands of women and men across the country have changed for the better as the country’s economic growth and development have continued on a steady pace. In tandem with eco- nomic growth, the country has also made impressive gains in promoting gender equality. Human development indicators for women and men alike in both education and health are improving. More women than ever before are participating actively in the labor market, and women’s voices are increasingly heard in national decision mak- ing. But at the same time, Lao PDR continues to face challenges in economic and social integration, with rural resi- dents - and ethnic groups and women within these regions - facing greater constraints to inclusion and access to services than those in urban areas. While Lao PDR has greatly improved its performance on household access to water and sanitation and electricity, it is not meeting Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in reproductive health services, maternal mortality, or education. In light of this, the Seventh National Socio-economic Develop- ment Plan (NSEDP) has recognized that the effective participation of women, especially poor and ethnic women, is essential for Lao PDR to achieve its goals of poverty reduction and improved living standards. This 2012 Lao PDR Country Gender Assessment has been prepared by the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, in consultation with the Government of Lao PDR, as inputs to their respective country partnership strategies. The assessment presents gender issues into three main dimensions of gender equality – endowments, economic opportunities and agency – and also analyzes gender issues related to emerging areas of development and grow- ing risks. The main messages of this report Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR – Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity, are that as the country moves towards realizing its national goals, there remains a crucial role for poli- cies aimed at reducing the most costly gender disparities that are non-responsive to growth and those that have a significant impact on vulnerable groups. On the one hand there is a need to focus on reducing gender dispari- ties and vulnerability in remote rural areas that are home to smaller ethnic groups. These groups are at particular risk of being left behind during this period of rapid economic development. On the other hand, the report also highlights a need to focus on increasing women’s ability to take full advantage, on equal terms, of the expansion of new economic opportunities in the market, particularly among women in urban, lowland areas. Lao PDR is at a critical juncture to harness the power of its economic growth in a way that improves its human development outcomes and ensures that all segments of society can benefit. To achieve these goals, it will be necessary to place gender equality and women’s empowerment at the center of national development plans. Promoting gender equality in human development, in economic opportunity and in voice, can improve the well- being and economic prospects of the next generation, and lead to more effective development policy making. The report shows that in Lao PDR, as in other countries, gender equality is both a core development objective in its own right but also the right development policy. The World Bank and Asian Development Bank are committed to working closely together with the Government of Lao PDR to promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. With continued attention to reducing vulner- abilities and improving opportunities, strong progress in gender-equitable growth and poverty reduction can be achieved for all men and women across Lao PDR. Keiko Miwa Chong Chi Nai Country Manager, Lao PDR Country Director, Lao PDR World Bank Asian Development Bank   Acknowledgments The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank (WB) jointly developed the Lao Country Gender Assess- ment to serve as input to the ADB’s and World Bank’s respective Country Partnership Strategies. Special thanks are due to the Lao Women’s Union (LWU) and the National Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW) for policy dialogue throughout the process, including consultation workshops, and the coordination of report drafts review by line ministries. Helene Carlsson Rex, Senior Social Development Specialist, World Bank and Sonomi Tanaka, Lead Social Develop- ment Specialist (Gender and Development), Asian Development Bank led the report team. The team included Anne Kuriakose, Stephanie Kuttner, Keophet Phoumphon, Theonakhet Saphakdy, Phothong Siliphone, Ami Thak- kar, Philaiphone Vongpraseuth, Meriem Gray, and Souridahak Sakonhninhom. Ximena Del Carpio (WB) and Uzma Hoque (ADB) offered their expertise as peer reviewers. Throughout the process, Keiko Miwa, Country Manager Lao PDR, WB and Chong Chi Nai, Country Director, ADB offered their guidance and input. The team gratefully acknowledges cooperation with the government of Lao PDR and development partners, in particular the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), United Nations Population Fund (UN- FPA), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Em- powerment for Women (UNWomen), Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), and the Netherlands Development Agency (SNV), who provided useful guidance and commentary throughout the process. The findings and interpretations expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank, their Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. vi Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank APB Agriculture Promotion Bank ANC Antenatal Care ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AusAID Australian Agency for International Development CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CDD Community-driven Development CNHDR Center for Natural Hazard and Disaster Research COPE Cooperative Orthotic and Prosthetic Enterprise COMMIT Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking CSO Civil Society Organization EDC Education Development Center EFA Education for All EFA-FTI Education for All–Fast Track Initiative EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ESDF Education Sector Development Framework FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FHH Female-headed Household FOF Female-owned Firms GDG Gender Development Group GDP Gross Domestic Product GII Gender Inequality Index GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GMS Greater Mekong Sub-region GOL Government of Lao PDR GRID Gender Resource Information and Development Center HDI Human Development Index HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDRC International Development Research Center IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development ILO International Labor Organization IMR Infant Mortality Rate LAK Lao Kip LCCI Lao Chamber of Commerce and Industry LDPW Law on Development and Protection of Women LECS Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey LNTA Lao National Tourism Administration LRHS Lao Reproductive Health Survey LTP Land Titling Project LWU Lao Women’s Union LXML Lang Xang Minerals Ltd MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry MRC Mekong River Commission MDGs Millennium Development Goals MHH Male-headed Household MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey MMR Maternal Mortality Rate MOE Ministry of Education MOH Ministry of Health MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment MOLSW Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare MPWT Ministry of Public Works and Transport NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action NCAW National Commission for the Advancement of Women NCCA National Committee for Control of AIDS NERI National Economic Research Institute NGPES National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy NGO Non-governmental Organization NPA Non-profit Association NSAW National Strategy for the Advancement of Women NSCCC National Steering Committee on Climate Change NSC National Statistics Center NSEDP National Socio-Economic Development Plan NTFPs Non-Timber Forest Products OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PRF Poverty Reduction Fund PPA Participatory Poverty Assessment PWD Persons with Disabilities P2P Power to Poor Program REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SPS Sanitary/Phytosanitary Standards MSM Men who have Sex with Men MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises SIGI Social Institutions Gender Index STD Transmitted Disease STI Sexually Transmitted Infection Sub-CAW Sub-Committees for the Advancement of Women TFR Total Fertility Rate TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNDP United Nations Development Program UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIFEM United Nations Fund for Women UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIAP United Nations Inter-agency Project on Human Trafficking UXO Unexploded Ordinance VMC Village Maintenance Committee VMU Village Mediation Unit WB World Bank WDI World Development Indicators WFP World Food Program WHO World Health Organization WSS Water Supply and Sanitation WTO World Trade Organization viii Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Executive Summary Since the introduction of economic reforms in the mid- Many of the gender issues reviewed in this report cut 1980s, strong growth and development have lifted across multiple aspects of social and economic life. This thousands of poor women and men out of poverty, assessment presents gender issues into three main di- changing traditional ways of life in Lao PDR.1 In this mensions of gender equality – endowments, econom- environment of change, gender relations — within the ic opportunities and agency – using the framework family, village and society at large — are changing too. developed by the World Bank’s World Development Report on Gender.2 In addition to these three areas, the Gender equality is a core development objective. It is report also analyzes gender issues related to emerging also smart economics. Greater gender equality can en- areas of development and growing risks. hance productivity, improve development outcomes for the next generation, and make institutions more representative. As Lao PDR continues its development, ENDOWMENTS the empowerment of women and girls will be key to translating the country’s economic growth and the en- Development challenges are inconsistent throughout ergies of its young people into improved living stan- the country due to myriad factors that include geo- dards that benefit women and men alike. graphic to socio-cultural and linguistic barriers. Al- though strong government commitment to achieving How will gender equity be achieved as Lao PDR’s de- gender equity has progressed, persistent imbalances velopment continues? In this report, two main mes- remain in human development endowments such as sages are stressed. On the one hand, there is a need to in health and education. Chapter 1 discusses these im- focus on reducing gender inequality and vulnerability balances. in remote rural areas that are home to smaller ethnic groups. These groups are at particular risk of being left HEALTH: Chapter 1 begins with the health sector and behind during this period of rapid economic develop- demonstrates that, while improvements in antenatal ment. On the other hand, there is also a need to focus and maternal health care have improved, lingering on increasing women’s ability to take full advantage, challenges keep women at risk. Health sector improve- on equal terms, of the expansion of new economic op- ments include increased coverage of antenatal care, portunities in the market, particularly among women and an increase in the number of births attended by in urban, lowland areas. skilled medical staff. However, women’s biological role in reproduction continues to place women at particu- A key challenge for the government is to successfully lar risk. This is illustrated by the country’s high Mater- manage development and poverty reduction efforts nal Mortality Rate (MMR), which estimates 405 deaths in a manner that is inclusive, pro-poor and gender-re- per 100,000 live births. In addition to this, malnutrition sponsive. With economic change comes social change, rates also remain high and an estimated 37 percent of in both the family and the community. New risks and women of reproductive age suffer from moderate ane- emerging issues affect women and men differently, mia. Moreover, early marriage and pregnancy continue and will need to be addressed with appropriate servic- to place young women at risk of health complications. es and skills that meet the needs of each gender. EDUCATION: Over the past decade, progress has been This assessment synthesizes information and findings made to close gender gaps in education. For example, from recent literature and research on gender issues girls’ primary enrollment rates have improved, as have in Lao PDR for the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and adult literacy rates for women. Despite these improve- the World Bank’s (WB) country partnership strategies. ments, fewer girls are enrolled than boys at all levels in The assessment is planned to contribute not only to school. Primary girls’ enrollment improved from 77 per- the work of the ADB and the WB, but also towards the cent in 1991 to 88 percent (per 100 boys) in 2009. Similar- work of the government and development partners by ly, adult literacy has improved from 48 percent for women bringing the latest information on gender issues to the in 1995 to 70 percent presently, but remains lower than forefront. that of men, of whom 85 percent are literate. Nationally, Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 1 gender gaps in school enrollment rates have narrowed. persist. Although their work is largely informal, 73 per- With this said, there are still fewer girls than boys enrolled cent of women (compared to 78 percent for men) con- at all levels, and the gap increases at higher education tribute to the country’s labor force, which is among the levels. Girls also remain the majority of those who have highest in the region. Women and girls constitute over never attended school. Opportunities for technical and 70 percent of unpaid family workers, but only 32 per- vocational education and training (TVET) are limited in cent are identified as ‘own account workers’. This sug- general. Although girls constitute 40 percent of TVET stu- gests that women are less likely engaged in productive dents, they are rarely represented in the technical fields work with income that they control. Gender wage gaps such as electronics and mechanics. are also present. Women in Lao PDR work longer hours than men as they spend 7 hours per day on produc- WATER AND SANITATION: Both women and men are tive and reproductive tasks, compared to the 5.7 hours benefiting from improved access to water and sanita- spent by men. Women increasingly run their own busi- tion, but this access varies greatly depending on loca- nesses, but these tend to be smaller than those owned tion, with people in more remote and poorer areas hav- by men. Women also report greater difficulty finding ing the least access. However, in places where access is access to finance and technical skills. limited, the burden of water collection falls heavily on women and girls. Women are also generally responsible AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT: Women’s for family health, hygiene and food security, which suffer role in agriculture is significant, but often undervalued. from limited access to water and sanitation services. Rural areas in Lao PDR are undergoing a period of rapid transformation. Increased agricultural productivity Finally, this Chapter also explores how disabilities relate and opportunities for off-farm jobs are helping to pull to gender inequality and the action the government some households, and select areas, out of poverty. For is taking to promote disabled women’s equality. The women in asset-poor households and areas, including prevalence of disability is just over two percent for both those who have lost access to arable land and lack non- women and men, though there are different causes and farm skills, the commercialization of agriculture can types of disability among both groups. For example, also increase vulnerability. Shifting from subsistence- men are significantly more vulnerable to unexploded based to market-oriented household economies can ordinance (UXO) injuries, while women’s disabilities are be particularly difficult for women in non-Lao-Tai eth- more commonly congenital, or result from disease. nic groups whose cultural roles, limited Lao language and technical skills, often leave them unprepared to ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES engage with the market. On average, female-headed households have less household labor and productive assets than male- headed households. How will a growing economy ensure equity and inclu- sion? Chapter 2 questions the benefits and risks of eco- INFRASTRUCTURE: Both women and men benefit from nomic opportunities that range from an expanding pri- improved infrastructure as it enables development and vate sector to the commercialization of agriculture, all mobility. But rural electrification and rural road access realized through year-round access to roads and elec- particularly help, contributing to close gender gaps by tricity. Without a doubt, the private sector is creating reducing time women spend on domestic chores. Grid opportunities for entrepreneurs in Lao PDR, and 30-40 connection increased from 18 percent of households in percent of these new entrepreneurs are women. With 1995 to nearly 72 percent in 2010, though women still this said, emerging opportunities and new risks affect disproportionately head the remaining poor, uncon- women and men differently, and need to be addressed nected households. Road network improvement is pro- in gender-informed and sensitive ways. viding better access to services and job opportunities for women and men. But increased road expansion into GENDER AND ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION: Women remote areas also carries new risks for women such as are active participants in Lao PDR’s labor force; howev- exposure to communicable diseases and human traf- er, wage gaps and occupational streaming by gender 2 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity ficking. Mining and hydropower combined contributed VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN: Systematic reporting of 2.5 percent of the annual 7 percent growth from 2007- domestic violence is limited, but reported figures are 10. However, while large gains can be realized at na- average within the region. Lao PDR has limited support tional and local levels, the potential for socio-economic services for gender-based violence. However, there ap- risks such as landlessness, resource loss, food insecurity pears to be increasing recognition of women’s rights in and a decrease in social capital are persistent threats, national legal frameworks. with important gender dimensions. EMERGING AREAS AND AGENCY GROWING RISKS Agency, or women’s voice and participation, has steadi- Lao PDR’s current growth environment hosts a number ly advanced in Lao PDR. To begin, women’s rights are of emerging opportunities and threats. Chief among recognized in the legal system, and women’s political these are the potential challenges associated with re- representation in the National Assembly has grown gional integration and trade; the question of migration nearly 20 percent since 1990. It is now among the high- (and its mirror image of trafficking); and growing risks est in the region. However, as Chapter 3 demonstrates, due to climate change. women’s increasing representation within central gov- ernment structures has not filtered down to the pro- REGIONAL INTEGRATION: Greater economic links with vincial and local levels, where significant gender gaps neighboring countries present a number of opportu- in representation persist, despite that the Lao Women’s nities and risks. Trade liberalization and regional inte- Union (LWU) is reaching out to women from the na- gration create opportunities for female-dominated tional to village levels. industries, but the broader gender impacts are still inad- equately understood. Opportunities exist to strengthen LEGAL FRAMEWORKS: The equal rights and participa- regional cooperation on cross-border issues, including tion of women and men in economic, social and po- migration, public health and climate change. litical life is supported by the Constitution, various national laws and policies, and international treaties MIGRATION AND TRAFFICKING: Both cross-border such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms and domestic migration are a longstanding, highly of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). However, gendered phenomena. The overwhelming majority there is a need to further level the playing field to pro- of those who go to work in Thailand, for example, are mote women’s participation and voice in the country’s young people from border areas aged 15-25 years old. governance structures, by increasing legal awareness Women from Mon-Khmer and Tibeto-Burman ethnic and supporting women’s increased participation in groups are disproportionately represented among this decision-making at all levels. statistic. Precise figures are unavailable because the majority of persons migrate through irregular chan- GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK: The Lao Women’s Union nels. Reports indicate that young women and girls who (LWU) is mandated to represent women of all ethnic are trafficked often end up in forced prostitution and groups and to “protect women’s rights and interests�, domestic labor. while the National Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW) was established in 2003 as the nation- CLIMATE CHANGE: Women’s roles in climate mitigation al focal agency for gender mainstreaming in develop- and adaptation have been insufficiently supported to ment policies and programs. Between 1990 and 2010, date. With unpredictable floods and drought and the the proportion of female members in the Lao National Mekong River bordering the country’s western cor- Assembly increased from 6 percent to 25 percent, and ridor, Lao PDR is very vulnerable to the growing risks in 2002 a caucus was formed to further advance wom- of climate change.3 The NSEDP has estimated a 1.1 en. However, women still continue to struggle to par- percent negative impact on GDP from climate change ticipate on equal terms and in equal numbers. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 3 due to associated risks.4 Women’s traditional responsi- bilities in the household and community as stewards of natural resources position them well to contribute to strategies for adapting to changing environmental realities; however, opportunities to do so have not yet been fully tapped. Women can be supported to switch to clean fuels for household consumption and also maintain their traditional roles in biodiversity protec- tion, particularly in fragile upland areas and in national protected areas. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Lao PDR is at a critical juncture to harness the power of its economic growth to improve its human develop- ment and to ensure that society can holistically benefit from its natural resources. To achieve these goals, it will be necessary to place gender equality and women’s empowerment at the center of national development plans. The report argues that there remains an impor- tant role for public policies aimed at reducing the most costly gender disparities that are non-responsive to growth and those that have a significant impact on vul- nerable groups. The following table summarizes the recommendations related to the above focus areas of endowments, eco- nomic opportunity, agency, emerging areas and over- all gender mainstreaming. Photo by The World Bank 4 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Table 1: Summary of Recommendations Endowments Recommendation 1.1: Increase coverage and quality of health services, with a focus on remote areas, par- ticularly in areas of maternal health, sexual and reproductive health, and nutrition, and with attention to demand-side issues and the role of men in maternal health-seeking behavior. Recommendation 1.2: Improve access to education, through investments in rural schools and educational services, to reduce gender gaps, regional disparities, and gender stereotypes in secondary and tertiary education, vocational training, and adult female literacy. Recommendation 1.3: Increase access to clean water and sanitation, especially in rural areas, while ensuring women’s voice is reflected in design and maintenance. Economic Opportunities Recommendation 2.1: Pursue a labor-intensive growth strategy that expands wage labor opportunities for both women and men, especially in such emerging industries as tourism, garments, and food processing. Recommendation 2.2: Expand women’s access to and control over inputs for farm and non-farm enterprises, including finance, land, agricultural extension, and business training. Recommendation 2.3: Improve gender mainstreaming in infrastructure investments, by expanding electricity access for female-headed households, and improving benefit-sharing and female participation in trans- port, hydropower, and mining operations. Agency Recommendation 3.1: Improve capacity and institutional support for gender mainstreaming machinery. Recommendation 3.2: Support progress in women’s representation in national and local government. Recommendation 3.3: Reduce incidence of violence against women through legal reform efforts, and efforts to increase public awareness, and capacity of health, law enforcement and protective services. Emerging Areas Recommendation 4.1: Through regional fora such as the GMS Working Group on Human Resources Develop- ment and the Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking, support regional policy dia- logue on enhancing women’s human capital base to gain opportunities and minimize risks from regional integration. Recommendation 4.2: Improve outcomes for vulnerable migrant populations through legal reform, improved services, and strengthened anti-trafficking mechanisms. Recommendation 4.3: Mainstream gender considerations into climate mitigation, adaptation actions and disaster planning, and ensure that women participate in related consultation and decision-making pro- cesses at local, regional and national levels. Gender Mainstreaming Recommendation 5.1: Use sex-disaggregated indicators and targets in planning, implementation, and moni- toring, and strengthen capacity among GOL agencies in this area. Recommendation 5.2: Analyze gender trends with a view to interaction with existing rural/urban, regional and ethnic disparities in the country. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 5 Introduction: A Country in Rapid Development Lao PDR has made impressive progress in economic and social development since the introduction of economic re- Box 1: Government of Lao PDR Policies on Gender Equality forms in the mid-1980s. With a popu- lation of about 6 million, the country National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES) – is sparsely populated and landlocked Gender Policy: To improve poor women’s economic activi- (but increasingly land-linked), rich in ties, access to services, and participation in local governance natural resources, and hosts an ethni- and national planning. cally diverse population.i Poverty in Lao PDR has declined over the last 15 7th Five-year National Socio-Economic Development Plan years, from 46 percent in 1993 to 25 (NSEDP) – Gender Policy: Emphasizes population policy, hu- percent in 2010.ii Over the same peri- man capital development and elimination of all forms of vio- od, about one-third of the population lence against women and children. gained access to improved water and sanitation services, and the proportion NSEDP Gender Targets: of the population with access to elec- Governance: Aims at 20 percent of government core staff to tricity rose from 16 percent in 1995 to be female; At least 15 percent of posts above level of district 71 percent in 2010. mayor held by women; An increase in percentage of female National Assembly members to more than 30 percent; The government is committed to eco- Sector Development: Emphasizes the inclusion of women in nomic growth and poverty reduction. sector and area development and planning; The Government of Lao PDR’s (GOL) Labor and Social Protection: Works towards increasing approach is laid out in its key planning women’s participation in paid labor force to 40 percent; Rais- documents: the National Growth and es awareness on social hazards to 85 percent of women over Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES), age 15 on issues such as human trafficking; and and the 7th Five-year National Socio- Human Resource Development: upgrading academic and economic Development Plan (NSEDP). technical knowledge of women. iii The 7th NSEDP seeks annual growth of at least 8 percent, and aims to diver- National Strategy for the Advancement of Women (NSAW) sify economic activity, scale-up human Targets include: more than 35 percent increase in number capital, improve labor productivity, of women in vocational and technical training in each sec- and promote inclusion of women, eth- tor; and 30 percent increase in women in political and gov- nic groups, and those living in remote ernance studies; promotion of women’s SMEs and economic areas.5 The Plan aims to achieve this leadership; increases in women’s participation in planning through interventions on national eco- and access to services. nomic development, rural develop- i The Lao-Tai group represents 67 percent of Lao PDR’s population, along with three major non-Lao-Tai ethno-linguistic groups, namely the Mon-Khmer (21 percent), the Hmong-Lu Mien (8 percent) and the Chine-Tibetan (3 percent). These groups further splinter into 49 distinct eth- nicities and 200 ethnic subgroups (King and van de Walle 2010). Of the 49 ethnic groups, the Hmong are one of the largest minorities and are most prominent. They include some high-ranking officials, though separatist factions in Hmong areas have also caused the national govern- ment to direct more resources to those poor areas in recent years to ameliorate income disparities (US Department of State 2011). ii The incidence of poverty is the proportion of population falling below the national poverty line (LECS1 1992/3 and LECS4 2007/8). iii The National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES) identifies four priority sectors for public investment, namely infrastructure, agro-forestry, education and health. The 7th Five-year National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP) centers on the economic and in- frastructure sectors (such as industry, mining, energy, and transport), along with social and cultural sectors (including education, health, social welfare and rural development). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 7 ment, livelihood promotion, public administration, and The Commission has been improving the collection of a boost in competitiveness. A longer-term target for statistics disaggregated by sex, and has developed a Lao PDR is to graduate from Least Developed Country national gender strategy. The Lao Women’s Union, too, (LDC) status by 2020.iv Gender equality is recognized plays an important role in promoting women’s rights, as an important element of achieving national growth in its capacity as an official mass-based organization and poverty reduction targets. with a strong network at the local level. A key challenge for the government is to successfully Despite progress, there remain large differences in manage development and poverty reduction efforts development levels and poverty—as well as gender in a manner that is inclusive, pro-poor, and gender-re- imbalances—across Lao PDR’s different geographic ar- sponsive. With economic change comes social change, eas and various ethnic groups.6 This is a particular chal- in both the family and the community. New risks and lenge given that 42 percent of the country’s population emerging issues affect women and men differently, and lives in mid- and upland areas that are difficult to ac- will need to be addressed with appropriate services cess for service delivery and are remote from markets.7 and skills that meet the needs of each gender. GOL has Economic growth and poverty reduction is concen- developed a National Strategy for the Advancement of trated in urban areas and in districts along the border Women (2011-2015) that aims to achieve gender equal- with Thailand, while the Northern part of the country ity by improving women’s human capital, participation remains poorer, with limited access to transport, mar- in government, and access to assets and services (See kets and social services. Box 1). This Strategy, coupled with planning on gender equality and women’s advancement in the 7th NSEDP, The average poverty rate in rural areas is 38 percent constitute the GOL’s strategic approach to advancing while the urban poverty rate is 20 percent.8 Survey data gender equality. from 2008/9 show that overall poverty has declined from 25 percent to 18 percent, while for the non-Lao- Tai population, it has declined from 50 to 42 percent.9 Status of Gender Issues In general, upland areas are significantly poorer than lowland districts, and have worse social indicators. Na- In general, government policies combined with rapid tionally, one-fifth of non-Lao-Tai individuals live in vil- economic modernization have supported the steady lages with electricity, compared to 60 percent of Lao-Tai advancement of women’s status in Lao PDR, particular- persons.10 Qualitative research in some of the poorest ly in urban areas. Progress has been made towards gen- villages in 2006 suggested that deprivation might have der parity in schooling. Almost 25 percent of National even increased since an earlier assessment in 2000.11 Assembly representatives are women — a proportion that compares favorably with those in the People’s Ethnicity, correlated strongly with location factors, is Republic of China and Viet Nam, and surpasses that in a major poverty determinant in Lao PDR. Only one in many industrialized countries. Within the National As- four members of the Lao-Tai majority lives in poverty, sembly, a Women’s Caucus was formed in late 2002. compared to nearly one in two non-Lao-Tai (that is, Mon-Khmer, Hmong-Lu Mien, and Chine-Tibet group Equal participation of women and men in economic, members).12 In both urban and rural areas, female- social, and political life is supported by the 1991 Con- headed households (FHH) are generally poorer than stitution, various national laws and policies, and inter- male-headed households (MHH) even after controlling national treaties such as the Convention on the Elimi- education, household composition, and other factors.13 nation of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Additionally, social and poverty differences based on (CEDAW), which Lao PDR has ratified. To promote gen- gender are substantially higher among ethnic com- der equality, the government has established a National munities. For example, boys or girls from other ethnic Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW). groups do not share the same progress in school enroll- iv NSEDP priority areas for rural areas (where 80 percent of the poor reside) include: small-scale infrastructure and service delivery and liveli- hood development; decreasing the service and income gap between rural and urban areas; ensuring more integrated economic and social development, which includes natural resource management and environmental conservation concerns; encouraging local community partici- pation in development; and improving international and regional cooperation (World Bank 2011g). 8 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity ment rates as Lao-Tai girls, hence, the lowest progress In 2009 (the latest year available), Lao PDR ranked 38th in education of any group is found among non-Lao-Tai out of 102 countries for which the Organisation for Eco- girls. Taken together, education indicators for non-Lao- nomic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Social Tai rural women remain among the lowest in East Asia.14 Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) was calculated. Its value falls in the mid-range for the sub-region. The SIGI Lao PDR has started to narrow its gender disparities, for Lao PDR is 0.036, compared with Thailand 0.011; but lags behind many other countries in this respect. Cambodia 0.022; Viet Nam 0.030; Myanmar 0.046 and Lao PDR ranked 138 out of 187 countries in the UN- People’s Republic of China 0.218.v DP’s Human Development Index in 2011.15 Figures for the 2011 Gender Inequality Index (GII) show Lao PDR ranked 107th among 146 countries. Table 2: Gender Inequality Index 2011vi HDI rank Gender Maternal Adolescent Seats in Population Labor force Contra- At least Births Inequality mortality fertility rate parliament with at least participation ceptive one attended Index ratio (% female) secondary rate (%) prevalence rate, antenatal by skilled education any method visit (%) health (percentages (% of married personnel 25 and older) women (%) ages 15–49) Rank Value Female Male Female Male 2011 2011 2008 Annual 2011 2010 2010 2009 2009 2005-2009 2005-2009 2005-2009 average 2010-2015 East Asia — ---- 79 19.8 20.2 48.1 61.3 64.2 80.3 76.9 90.7 91.9 and the Pacific Medium — 0.475 532 50.1 17.3 41.2 57.7 51.1 80.0 67.7 85.1 78.1 human develop- ment 138 Lao PDR 107 0.513 580 39.0 25.0 22.9 36.8 77.7 78.9 38.0 35.0 20.0 Least — 0.594 537 106.1 20.3 16.8 27.4 64.4 84.0 28.7 63.7 38.2 developed countries Source: UNDP 2011. v The SIGI (OECD 2009) draws on twelve indicators, which are grouped into five dimensions: family code (early marriage, polygamy, parental authority, inheritance, etc.); physical integrity; son preference; civil liberties (freedom of movement, freedom of dress); and ownership rights (women’s access to credit, land, and other property). The index ranges from 0 (no, or very low inequality) to 1 (high inequality) (See http://www. oecd.org/dataoecd/49/39/42296064.pdf and http://genderindex.org/). vi The GII is a composite measure reflecting inequality in achievements between women and men in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. It varies between zero (when women and men fare equally) and one (when men or women fare poorly compared to the other in all dimensions). The health dimension is measured by two indicators: maternal mortality ratio and the adolescent fertility rate. The empowerment dimension is also measured by two indicators: the share of parliamentary seats held by each sex and by secondary and higher education attainment levels. The labor dimension is measured by women’s participation in the work force. The GII is designed to reveal the extent to which national human development achievements are eroded by gender inequality, and to provide empirical foundations for policy analysis and advocacy efforts. In this table, the maternal mortality ratio is defined as deaths per 100,000 live births; the adolescent fertility rate is defined as the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 – 19; data refers to the most recent year available during the period specified; births refer specifically to ‘institutional births’; and ‘attended births’ includes deliveries by cadres of health workers other than doctors, nurses and midwives (UNDP 2011). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 9 Objectives This report synthesizes information and findings from fore deals with ways of removing gender inequalities recent literature and research on gender issues in Lao and enhancing women’s social, economic, and political PDR, to inform the respective country partnership participation. It is clear, however, that addressing gen- strategies of the Asian Development Bank and World der issues will require participation and partnership Bank. It also aims to contribute to the work of the gov- between women and men to ensure that all people in ernment and other development partners by bringing Lao PDR are able to contribute to the prosperity of their the latest information on gender issues to the forefront. families, communities and nation. The report reviews and updates the main gender issues that were outlined in the ADB’s 2004 Country Gender Although many of the gender issues reviewed in this Assessment and in the 2005 Country Gender Profile report cut across multiple aspects of social and eco- prepared by the Lao Women’s Union and the Lao Gen- nomic life, for the purpose of this report gender issues der Resource Information and Development (GRID) are grouped into four main dimensions: endowments Center, supported by the World Bank. This report is not (focused on human development and equality in ac- the product of new primary data collection, but rather cumulation of basic human capital); economic oppor- draws together existing sources of data and analysis to tunity (centered around equality of economic oppor- provide a broad multi-sectoral review. tunities for women and men in the country); agency (examining equality in voice and decision making); and The lack of consistent and credible sources of data re- emerging areas (examining regional integration and mains a significant challenge across all sectors in Lao trade, migration and climate change). PDR; this shortage is intensified for sex-disaggregated data and analysis. With this said, a number of important The report is integrating the approach of the World new issue-centered and sectoral analyses have recently Bank World Development Report 2012 on Gender and appeared and have been integrated into this report.vii Development.16 In Lao PDR, as in most countries, there are consistent The endowments section on human development re- (though not exclusive) patterns of gender inequalities, views gender dimensions of health, education, water vulnerabilities, and disparities that tend to disadvan- and sanitation and disability, including trends over tage women more than men. These inequalities in turn time, which aim to close gender gaps in these areas. lead to opportunities missed not only for individual Thanks to strong commitment from the GOL, the trends women and girls, but also for the country in unleashing are mostly positive, particularly in urban lowland areas, its full potential for economic development and pover- and are expected to continue to improve. In human de- ty reduction. Much of the analysis in this report there- velopment the main message is that, while a great deal vii Such as the UNFPA-supported Lao Reproductive Health Survey (2005), the third UNICEF-supported Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS III 2006), the 2nd ADB-supported Participatory Poverty Assessment (Chamberlain 2007 and UNDP, IUCN and MRC 2006), the World Food Pro- gramme’s (WFP) Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (2007), the UN-supported MDG Report (2008), GIZ Small and Medium Enterprise Surveys (2005, 2007 and 2009), and the World Bank Enterprise Survey (2009) among others. In particular, the report draws on the Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2007/08 (LECS4)—a nationally representative household survey allowing comparison (based on a partial panel data set) with previous years. The report also draws heavily on the Government of Lao PDR’s combined 6th and 7th Periodic Report to the UN’s Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (UN Doc. CEDAW/C/Lao/7, 30 May 2008) and the CEDAW Conclud- ing Observations (UN Doc. CEDAW/C/Lao/CO/7, 14 Aug 2009). 10 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Figure 1: World Development Report: Dimensions of Gender Equality 1. Endowments II. Access to III. Agency Health & economic Legal system i) Endowments: Equality of women and Nutrition opportunities Governance men to accumulate basic human and Education Labor Force Civil Society productive capital; Water & Participation Media ii) Economic opportunities: Equality of Sanitation Agriculture, Violence opportunity to realize returns on those Special Markets & Credit Against Women capacities and assets; and Vulnerability Infrastructure iii) Agency: Equality in voice, the ability to Regional take action and influence outcomes. integration & trade Source: World Bank 2011c. has been achieved and many gender gaps narrowed, The section on agency looks particularly at women’s some indicators show slow, or no progress, and certain voice and participation, including representation with- groups in the population are being left behind. Look- in government, access to justice and agency within the ing ahead, a key challenge is to continue to narrow household in terms of freedom from violence. Its key gender gaps, particularly in remote areas and across all message is that the constitution and the legal frame- ethnic groups. work largely guarantee women and men’s equal rights, but that there are still challenges in implementing rel- The economic opportunities section of the report evant laws and women’s participation in decision mak- looks at gender issues in economic development, re- ing forums is still lagging. viewing gender dimensions of poverty, economic participation, agriculture and rural development, in- Finally, the section of emerging areas discusses gen- frastructure, and environment and natural resource der dimensions of potential gains from regional inte- management. Lao PDR is experiencing strong econom- gration and trade; the question of migration (and its ic growth and opportunities. With this in mind, special mirror image of trafficking); and growing risks from efforts are needed to ensure that women and men are climate change. given equal opportunity to harness these opportuni- ties. Fully utilizing the capacities of women and men, The last section of the report concludes and consoli- and girls and boys, will be key to translating the coun- dates the recommendations from the main body of try’s economic growth and the potential demographic the report into a summary table. dividend of its young population into development achievements. At the same time, vulnerable popula- tions, such as migrants, need to be protected from the risks of increased cross-border mobility. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 11 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Progress has been made towards gender equality in human development, but persistent gaps remain. Gender issues in endowments, or human development, vary significantly across different parts of the country and among different ethnic groups. While Lao PDR continues to make progress on a number of important human development indicators nationally, there remain significant rural-urban and regional inequalities, as well as disparities among ethnic groups. This section reviews the gender dimensions of regional, rural-urban and ethnic divides within Lao PDR with a particular focus on health, education and water and sanitation, as well as special vulnerability linked to disability. 12 Reducing Vulnerability, Increasing Opportunity Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Health and Nutrition Outcomes have improved but lingering challenges 1990-2015). This suggests that there has been progress keep women at risk. Lao PDR’s health outcomes have on child health, but not as much on maternal health in improved in a number of areas, including the coverage the country. of antenatal care and births attended by skilled medi- cal staff. However, lingering challenges in the sector High fertility rates and maternal mortality rates are continue to place women of reproductive age at par- combined with poor nutrition and lack of access to ticular risk. Death related to pregnancy and childbirth basic health services, particularly in remote areas. Lao remains the number one cause of death for women of PDR’s high maternal mortality rates make it one of the reproductive age in Lao PDR.17 worst performers in the world on this indicator.18 Lack of access to family planning and maternal health ser- Lao PDR is “on-track� for meeting the under-five mor- vices, combined with persistence of certain traditional tality MDG (which calls for two-thirds reduction in practices, not only endangers the lives and health of under-five mortality from 1990-2015), but “off-track� women and girls but also has serious negative inter- for meeting the maternal health MDG (which calls for generational impacts on family health, education and a three-fourths reduction in maternal mortality over livelihoods. 19 Table 3: Improvements in Selected Health Indicators MOH MOH UN/ WB 1990 FY09-10 Est. 2011 Total fertility rate (TFR) per woman (15-49) 7 4 n.a. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) 1200 405 580 Coverage of antenatal care (percentage of total) 21 28.5 30.3 Births attended by skilled birth attendant (percentage of total) 14 37 18.5 Sources: World Bank 2011e and World Bank 2011h. Access to Health Services Health service quality and access vary widely, particu- Both women and men demonstrate low rates of health- larly between rural and urban areas. Both Lao-Tai and seeking behavior. In 2007/08, 11 percent of women ethnic groups have traditional practitioners who pro- and 10 percent of men reported having experienced vide spiritual and herbal treatments (often with accom- temporary health problems within the previous four panying gender stereotypes about health and illness) weeks. Of these, only 10 percent had sought care. in most rural and urban communities. Overall, health- Women were reported to be slightly more likely to seek care in Lao PDR is a mixed market of public, private, and treatment than men. Rural members of Lao-Tai ethnic informal health providers. Access to and quality of ser- groups are 10 percent more likely to seek care than vices varies greatly depending on location. populations from non-Lao-Tai ethnicities.20 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 13 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital In some cases, women For non-Lao-speaking ethnic groups, language can be face particular gender- a significant barrier to accessing health services and re- based constraints in ceiving good care. Cultural divides have proven to be accessing care, due to especially challenging when the health worker and the mobility limitations patient population are from different ethnic groups, based on social norms with different languages, cultures and beliefs. As one and heavy domestic nurse in a Xieng Khouang health center said, “The doc- duties. In traditional set- tors built me a birthing room here in 2003, but the women tings, women often rely still do not come. We do not speak the same language; it’s on their husbands and a barrier. They do not trust me. I am Lao Loum and they families in their health- are Lao Sung�. viii seeking behavior, with male members decid- ing whether and where Box 2: Increasing Skilled Birth Attendants for women will seek health- Safer Delivery care.21 Encouragingly, there appear to be no Sixty-four year-old Phiel from a village in Luang disparities (on average) Prabang Province remembers the day she gave in rates of immunization birth, more than 30 years ago. Only her husband Photo by insmai.com between girls and boys. attended her birth. They used a bamboo stick to cut the umbilical cord. “I delivered my babies on a A household survey in mat on the floor of my house,� she says. “We used 2010 on MCH in 6 Southern provinces demonstrates the grass under the mat on the floor to stop the um- that financial factors were the most-reported constraint bilical cord from bleeding.� Such practices, though to health service utilization by women. Forty-five per- to a lesser extent, still continue in many remote cent of all women reported that “getting money for villages. treatment� was a barrier to obtaining medical advice or treatment. Not wanting to go alone and physical The government is aware of the need to expand access were additional problems reported. Language the coverage by skilled birth attendants in rural and communication concerns were reported by 13 and underserved areas. Studies have shown that percent of women.22 Lao women prefer female health care providers, who are in short supply. Government projects Families who lack the savings to cover medical costs like an ADB-supported Health System Develop- use a range of strategies to raise resources for this ment Project is helping address these concerns purpose. These strategies include borrowing through by training women health practitioners and informal networks; reducing consumption; taking chil- building clinics in remote areas, predominantly dren out of school or sending them to work outside resided by non-Lao-Tai ethnic groups. Female the community; and selling assets. Some ration their village health volunteers, paramedics and other healthcare, opting for no or only partial treatment of local health workers who speak ethnic language the sick family member, sometimes with dire conse- are also being trained to function as skilled birth quences. It is unclear whether these coping strategies attendants. affect girls and boys differently within the family in Lao PDR, though studies from other contexts suggest Source: ADB 2012. that household coping strategies often display gender bias. viii Lao Loum means lowlander and is commonly used to refer to Lao-speaking groups predominant in the lowlands. Lao Sung means high- lander and is commonly used to refer to non-Lao speaking ethnic groups living in upland areas (MOH and UNFPA 2008). 14 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Access to family planning and contraception are im- around 4 children per woman.ix In Lao PDR, as in other proving, but a significant unmet need remains, espe- countries, fertility is correlated to educational status cially in rural areas with poor road conditions. Twenty- and location.x Fertility is highest among rural women seven percent of women’s needs for contraception living in areas without roads and formal education, and are unmet.23 While contraception prevalence rates are is lowest among urban educated women. improving, only about 38 percent of Lao PDR’s married women report using modern contraceptive methods. Figure 3: Total Fertility Rate, by Women’s Educational Usage rates differ significantly between urban (45 per- Level and Geographical Area, 2005 cent), rural on-road (36 percent), and rural off-road (26 Total fertility rate percent) areas and between educated and uneducated 5.43 women.24 Women with no education or only primary 6 4.70 5 education are slightly more likely than women with 4 3.80 3.70 2.60 upper secondary education to report their husband’s 3 2.00 2.00 2 disapproval as a main reason for not using contracep- 1 tion. 25 0 n n y ry ry d d tio ar ba oa a da da Figure 2: Contraceptive Prevalence Rates of ro im Ur ca tr on n ith Pr co u ou ec Ed w se ith rs Currently Married Women, by Characteristics No l er ra w pe w Ru l Up ra Lo Ru Contraceptive prevalence rates Source: LRHS 2005. 44.4 44.7 50 40.9 39.1 36 35 40 25.6 In 2010, survey work from 30 21.2 Southern Lao PDR found 20 that the average age of 10 mothers of children less 0 than two was 26.3 years and the average number of n n Up eco y ry y l d ith oad ta tio ba ar ar oa da To m nd Ur ca tr r on births was 3.3. As expected, i ith Pr u ou ec Ed lw rs s the reported birth rate was No er ra lw pe w Ru ra Lo an increasing function of Ru maternal age: mothers who Source: LRHS 2005. were 15-19 years of age at the time of survey reported an average of 1.3 births at Maternal Health the time of survey, whereas those who were 45 or older Women with no education have two and a half times reported an average of 7.1 as many live births as women with upper secondary births. Mothers report an education in Lao PDR. With this said, fertility rates in approximately equal num- Lao PDR remain among the highest in the region. The ber of sons (1.39 on aver- national fertility rate has declined steadily over the past age) and daughters (1.38 on Photo by insmai.com two decades (down from about 7 children per woman average) currently living at in the 1990s). Presently women conceive on average home. More than a quarter (28%) of responding moth- ers reported giving birth to a child who later died. ix This is a nationally representative sample survey. 21,600 households were chosen as respondents, from which eligible women aged 15 to 49 years and men aged 15-59 years, regardless of their marital status, were selected for detailed interviews (LRHS 2005). x Increasing migration trends may also change gender norms regarding fertility in the future in Lao PDR. Chen et al (2010) describe a process of social change in People’s Republic of China wherein a critical mass of rural returnees led to increased knowledge diffusion and support at com- munity level for greater female autonomy in family planning (even though these changed norms were absorbed more quickly at the individual level by those women with higher education and income). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 15 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Table 4: Average Number of Births by Age of Mother Encouragingly, the MMR in Lao PDR is declining; how- ever, it is not yet on track to achieve its 2015 MDG target Maternal age Average # of Births of a MMR of 300. Measuring MMR in Lao PDR is difficult, partly because many maternal deaths occur outside of 15-19 years 1.3 health facilities and are not registered. There is strong 20-24 years 2.1 agreement that the MMR is unacceptably high, espe- 25-29 years 3.3 cially in rural areas, particularly as the majority of ma- ternal deaths are preventable. The high MMR suggests 30-34 years 4.8 that access to and quality and uptake of emergency 35-39 years 6.3 obstetric and neonatal care is still a challenge for the 40-44 years 6.3 country.28 45+ years 7.1 Antenatal care (ANC) coverage for pregnant women Mean=26.3 years Mean=3.3 remains low in Lao PDR. By 2005, nearly one in three pregnant women received at least one visit from a Source: World Bank 2010j. health provider or visited a health center. Antenatal care is more readily available in urban versus rural ar- The World Health Organization (WHO) global estimates eas. In urban areas, 84 percent of women obtain ANC, reveal that Lao PDR’s maternal mortality rate (MMR) is compared to only 29 percent of women in rural areas still among the highest in the world. The National Pop- with roads, and just 9 percent of rural women in areas ulation Census for 2005 reports that the MMR is 405 per without roads. Use of ANC also increases sharply with 100,000 live births.26 The World Development Indicators women’s education and wealth.29 estimated the MMR to be 580 per 100,000 live births in 2008; this is high even when controlling for Lao PDR’s High maternal and infant mortality rates reflect slow relatively low income level. Cambodia, by contrast, had progress in ensuring the presence of skilled attendants an MMR of 290 and Viet Nam had only 56 maternal at every birth, and in providing access to basic emer- deaths per 100,000 live births in the same year.27 gency obstetric and neonatal care. The highest risk of death for mother and child is during birth and the 24 Table 5: WDI Maternal Mortality Ratio in the East Asia hours after birth. A large majority of mothers still de- Pacific, 2008 liver at home, without a skilled birth attendant. A 2005 survey on Reproductive Health found that 76 percent Country Maternal Mortality of women aged 15-49 who had delivered at home be- Ratio (per 100,000 lieved that delivering in a health facility was not nec- live births) essary.30 A further 34 percent said the distance to the Lao PDR 580 facility was too great; only 6 percent cited cost as a fac- tor.31 Timor-Leste 370 Cambodia 290 From 1995-2005, the proportion of births attended by Papua New Guinea 250 skilled birth attendants rose from 14 percent to 18.5 percent.32 Significant disparities in attendance rates Indonesia 240 remain between rural and urban areas; and according Philippines 94 to education levels, wealth and ethnicity.33 About 52 Viet Nam 56 percent of mothers in urban areas deliver at a health fa- cility, compared to fewer than 12 percent of women in Thailand 48 rural areas. As mentioned, education, wealth and eth- People’s Republic of China 38 nicity are important predictors of skilled attendance at delivery. Skilled personnel assist only 3 percent of the Source: World Bank 2009d. 16 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital mothers with no education, compared to 63 percent of percent of those in the richest. Twenty-seven percent mothers with secondary or higher education. Similarly, of women from households with a Lao-speaking head skilled attendants assist only 3 percent of mothers in of household give birth in a health facility, compared to the poorest quintile of households, contrasted with 82 6 percent of Hmong-speaking households.34 Box 3: Results from Household Survey on Maternal and Child Health in Six Southern Provinces Results from a household survey on Maternal and Child Health and Nutrition in six Central and Southern provinces of Lao PDR shed new light on the health risks and challenges faced by rural women in these ar- eas. The sample contains data collected in March-April 2010 from 2,741 households across the provinces of Borikhamxay, Khammuane, Savannakhet, Saravane, Champassaak, and Attapeu. The sample spans the catchment area of 38 health centers and includes households from a total of 193 villages in 21 high-priority poor districts. Half of the women surveyed delivered their child without any assistance. Twenty-five percent of women used a traditional birth attendant (TBA) for delivery assistance. Local resources such as these are more frequently utilized than the formal health sector. Reportedly, only 20 percent of women use formal facilities to deliver. Table 6: Assistance at Delivery Assistance at Delivery (%) None 51% Health Staff 20% Traditional Birth Attendant 25% Traditional Healer 0.4% Total 100% More than 70 percent of women reportedly delivered at home. While national trends suggest that facility- based delivery is increasing in prevalence, it remains relatively rare. More women reported delivering in the forest (198) than in the health center (165), and all facility-based deliveries (including health centers, district and provincial hospitals) accounted for only 13 percent of deliveries (Table 7). Forty-five percent said that their reason for delivering outside of health facilities was for convenience, 20 percent stated tradition as their reason, and 11 percent reported that they lacked required finances. An additional 18 percent of women reported that they did not have time to get to a health facility.i Table 7: Location of Delivery Place of Delivery (%) Home 70% Birth Structure 5.6% Forest 7.3% Health Center 6.1% District Hospital 6.4% Provincial Hospital 2.8% Total 100% Source: World Bank 2010j. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 17 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Rates of teenage pregnancy are high in Lao PDR, but (HIV) was 8,000 in 2009. Sixty-two percent of the iden- drop sharply with educational attainment. Early preg- tified AIDS cases are aged 25-39, during individuals’ nancy is an important indicator of women’s health and peak productive years. HIV transmission occurs mainly status within society, as it is closely correlated with through heterosexual sex.40 Vulnerable groups in Lao educational attainment, lifetime earnings and mater- PDR for HIV transmission include sex workers and their nal and child mortality. Early pregnancies often result clients, migrants and other mobile groups.41 Data is lim- in increased complications for teenage mothers whose ited on the men who have sex with men (MSM) group, bodies are not sufficiently mature to withstand preg- but some reports suggest higher HIV prevalence nancy and childbirth. The adolescent fertility rate in Lao among this group. In Vientiane Capital, reportedly 5.6 PDR is high (47 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19),35 percent of MSM were HIV positive, contrasted with a with nearly 17 percent of adolescent girls childbear- study in Luang Prabang that found no disease trans- ing between ages 15-19.36 Marriage marks the onset mission among this group.42 of childbearing and happens at a young age for many women and girls. With this said, rural women marry HIV/AIDS awareness is not widespread in Lao PDR. about two years earlier than urban women. Whereas Nationally, only 70 percent of women have heard of the legal age for marriage is 18, Lao law permits under- the disease, with this number dropping to 46 percent age marriage in “special and necessary cases� (usually in isolated rural areas.43 Knowledge of the mother-to- teenage pregnancy).37 child transmission route is very low at just 19 percent nationally. Figure 4: Median Age at First Marriage among Women Aged 25-45 Years, by Background Characteristics 30 22 24 25 20 18 18 18 18 20 20 15 10 5 0 n n n y ry ry d d ba tio io ar oa a da da ro at im Ur ca tr on n uc ith Pr co u ou ec Ed ed w se ith rs No er l er ra w pe gh w Ru l Up ra Lo Hi Ru Source: LRHS 2005. Adolescents from rural areas have higher fertility rates than other groups. Adolescent fertility drops sharply with progressive levels of educational attainment. One- third of women with no education begin childbearing between the ages of 15-19. This rate drastically drops to 2.4 percent for women with upper secondary edu- cation.38 HIV/AIDS and STD Transmission Lao PDR is the only country in the Greater Mekong Re- gion with a persistently low HIV prevalence among the general population and only 0.5 percent prevalence among vulnerable groups.39 The estimated number of people living with human immunodeficiency virus Photo by insmai.com 18 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital In Lao PDR, as in neighboring countries, the face of HIV/ AIDS is increasingly young and female. Overall, reported Box 4: Mitigating Post-construction HIV and STI cases are distributed somewhat evenly between males Risks of Communities along the Northern and females (56 and 44 percent respectively). However, Economic Corridor among young persons with HIV/AIDS, 61 percent are female, compared to the two older age cohorts where With the assistance of ADB and AusAID, Ministry males predominate.44 of Health’s Center for HIV/AIDS/STI in collabora- tion with the Ministry of Public Works and Trans- Figure 5: Adults with HIV, by Sex and Age Group port conducted a range of targeted post-con- (1990-2009) struction HIV and STI awareness and prevention programs in 2009-2011 along the National Route 70% 68% Male Female 3 in Bokeo and Luang Namtha provinces. A total 60% 61% 59% 56% of 98 peer educators were trained (47 percent fe- 50% 44% male) who made 1,189 contacts (428 female: 761 39% 41% 40% 32% male) in the workplace (e.g., minivans, truck driv- 30% ers, coal mines, casinos, road construction, mili- 20% tary camps) and 3,851 contacts (1,579 female: 10% 2,272 male) in village settings either through 0% 15-29Yrs 30-44Yrs >=45Yrs All ages one-on-one or group activities. These peer -10% educators together with the project staff dis- Source: Center for HIV/AIDS/STDs 2009. seminated multiple information, education and communication materials on HIV and STI risks and treatment, and distributed male and female Though young adults are changing their attitudes to- condoms. The end-line survey showed that com- ward premarital sex, young women still have low nego- prehensive knowledge increased by 44 percent tiating power in this area. A small survey of young ur- for female youth and 19 percent for male youth ban women in Vientiane Capital indicated that among and “mobile men with money�. those who engaged in premarital sex, more than 25 percent had been coerced by their partner, and 23 per- Source: ADB 2011a. cent had undergone an abortion.45 Increased mobility and changes in lifestyles such as in- Though sex workers and their clients report high rates ternal and cross-border labor migration, and changes in of condom use, many in these groups know too little lifestyles and sexual behavior, heighten the risk of HIV about the prevention and treatment of STDs and HIV. transmission. Concurrent relationships, combined with Sex workers report being frequently stigmatized by reportedly low rates of condom usage, put wives and health service providers and society in general, leading girlfriends at increased risk of STD, including HIV. Pay- them to avoid care, to seek care from less skilled pro- ing for sex is more prevalent among certain groups of viders, or to practice self-treatment. men, particularly “mobile men with money�46, workers such as construction workers and truck drivers, migrant Malnutrition workers, commercial retailers, entertainment industries and the military.xi Sex work in Lao PDR is more informal Lao PDR has experienced very high and largely un- than in neighboring countries such as Thailand or Cam- changed malnutrition in women and children over the bodia, but there are reports of increasing numbers of past 15 years. Some 12 percent of women of reproduc- sex workers who meet clients on the street or can be tive age are underweight due to nutritional status.47 contacted by telephone. Additionally, a wide prevalence of chronic anemia con- tributes to the country’s high rates of maternal morbid- ity and mortality. xi The Female Sex Workers and Male Electricity Workers Second Generation Surveillance (3rd Round), suggests that up to 50 percent of men in Lao PDR pay for sex on a regular basis (UNGASS, UNAIDS and CHAS 2010). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 19 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Nationally, almost two in every five children under five Food and feeding practices, particularly during preg- years of age are moderately underweight, and 6 percent nancy and post-partum, are strongly related to culture, are wasted.xii In the country’s rural areas, half the chil- traditional beliefs and education in Lao PDR. During dren are severely malnourished.48 Significantly higher pregnancy, women do not necessarily increase or diver- incidences of child malnutrition are found in upland sify what they eat. They often work continuously until areas, especially among non-Lao Tai ethnic groups. delivery. After delivery, many mothers follow stark food restrictions, for up to one month, and in many cases A household survey in 2010 in Southern Lao PDR found start heavy work tasks after a few days. Nationally, only that 31 percent of children under two are moderately 55 percent of new mothers start breastfeeding within underweight while more than one-tenth (11 percent) one day of their infant’s birth.49 Breastfeeding practices are severely underweight. The prevalence of stunting have strong cultural determinants in Lao PDR and vary is even more extreme: 36 percent of the same popula- significantly across ethnic groups and regions. The ma- tion is stunted and 13 percent severely stunted. Wast- jority Lao-Tai population has significantly lower rates of ing is also prevalent as 14.0 percent of the populated is exclusive breastfeeding (for infants aged 0-5 months) wasted and 2.9 percent severely wasted. These param- than do other ethno-linguistic groups. Rates of exclu- eters of malnutrition generally worsen with increasing sive breastfeeding also decrease with increased wealth age. For example, the prevalence of stunting increases (except at the highest income quintile), and are lower in from 22 percent among children aged 0 – 5 months to urban areas.50 50 percent among children those aged 11–23 months, highlighting the importance of interventions aimed at Many women and children are not consuming essen- increasing appropriate complementary feeding pat- tial micronutrients. Only 69 percent of respondents in a terns. 2010 household survey reported a diet rich in Vitamin A, and only 55 percent reported consuming foods rich The study found that there are significant gender dif- in iron. Furthermore, the study found that 37 percent of ferences in malnutrition, with males worse affected women of reproductive age and approximately 40 per- than females. For example, the prevalence of under- cent of children under five years old suffer from both weight is 35 percent among males and 27 percent for moderate anemia and Vitamin A deficiency. Dietary females. Likewise, the prevalence of stunting is 40 per- habits were not clearly associated with the ethnicity of cent among males and 27 percent among females. the family, although there was a notable trend toward higher dietary diversity with increasing education of Figure 6: Prevalence of Underweight among Children the head of the household.51 Under Two Years Old Prevalence of Underweight among Children Alcohol and Drug Use under Two Years While insufficiently documented, increasing evidence 50 45 suggests that alcohol and drug addiction, especially the 40 use of amphetamines among urban youth, is a grow- Prevalence (%) 35 ing problem in Lao PDR.52 Opium addiction continues 30 25 to be a problem, particularly in remote mountainous 20 areas where poverty combined with limited access to 15 medical care and pain medication make it the only ef- 10 fective palliative option for some. While men are more 5 0 prone to alcohol and drug dependence than women, 0-5m 6-11m 12-23m many women, who are often victims of alcohol-related Age, at time of survey (months) Underweight (Male) Underweight (Female) Severe Underweight (Male) Severe Underweight (Female) xii Again, there are discrepancies between official government and donor figures. WFP 2007, cited in Buttenheim et al 2011, reports that half of all children are stunted and one-third are underweight. 20 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital male violence, cite men’s alcohol dependence as a ma- among young people including female students and jor “family� problem. The number of rehabilitation or girls. Some of these youngsters are observed to be un- treatment centers for alcoholism and drug dependen- der 18 years of age, and are commonly found at beer cy in Lao PDR is currently limited. There is also grow- gardens, pubs and parties especially in the main cities, ing concern over increasing consumption of alcohol provincial and district towns. Box 5: Maternal and Child Health Prioritized The Government’s health strategy and strategies relating to maternal and child health are detailed in the 7th National Socioeconomic Development Plan (NSEDP) 2011-15. The 2020 Health Strategy has four basic concepts: (1) full healthcare services coverage and equity; (2) development of early integrated healthcare services; (3) demand-based health services; and (4) self-reliant or financially autonomous health services. It targets the improvement of health management and health financing structures as well as the affordability of services for the poor. The Government’s other undertakings in health include several additional policies. For example, the Primary Healthcare Policy of the Ministry of Health, 2007, directly addresses the MDGs and is supported by repro- ductive health and nutrition policies. The National Reproductive Health Policy, 2005, provides guidance in achieving the policy goals set out in the National Population and Development Policy and other policy instruments in line with the National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy, such as the National Policy on Birth Spacing, 1995; policies on maternal and child health, particularly the Safe Motherhood Policy, 1997; the National Policy and Strategy for Prevention and Care of STDs, 1998; and the National AIDS Policy, 2001. The National HIV/AIDS Strategy and Action Plan 2011-2015 (in line with the 7th NSEDP) specified a scaling-up of treatment and expanded targeted prevention efforts and support services for vulnerable groups. To increase service coverage, the Ministry of Health has developed an Essential Maternal, Neonatal and Child Health package and has drafted a Strategy and Planning Framework for the Integrated Package of Maternal, Neonatal and Child Health Services 2009-15. With its safe motherhood, child care and birth spac- ing program, the government seeks to reduce maternal mortality, infant and child mortality by 25 percent, and also raise awareness among men regarding family planning measures. Lao PDR is committed to the Program of Action from the International Convention on Population Development and is a signatory to a number of conventions and other international instruments affecting health policies. Special Vulnerabilities While the overall incidence of disability is similar be- tween women and men, particular forms and origins Persons with disabilities (PWD) in Lao PDR face multiple of disability vary significantly by gender, as do the barriers to participate in social and economic life. They psycho-social and economic impacts of disability. Few face widespread discrimination, ignorance and nega- data are available on the social and economic situation tive cultural stereotypes. Children with disabilities are of Lao women with disabilities, and their status within much less likely to go to school than their able-bodied the family, community, and society. Evidence from oth- cohorts, and where they do enroll, they are more likely er countries suggests that disabled women are often to drop out earlier. Disabled girls are particularly dis- stigmatized and encounter increased levels of physical advantaged. Resources to ensure the access of PWD to and sexual abuse, and that their sexual and reproduc- public services are extremely limited. tive health rights are not well recognized. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 21 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Table 8: Cause of Disability, by Sex Cause of disability Female % Male % Total % Since Birth 9,637 43.7 11,591 33.4 21,228 37.4 War Accident 692 3.1 5,079 14.6 5,771 10.2 Accident 2,334 10.6 6,318 18.2 8,652 15.3 Drug Accident 192 0.9 427 1.2 619 1.1 Disease 7,203 32.7 8,412 24.3 15,615 27.5 Other 1,172 5.3 1,586 4.6 2,758 4.9 No answer 821 3.7 1,263 3.6 2,084 3.7 Total 22,051 100 34,676 100 56,727 100 Source: GOL 2005. more likely to be left behind, especially in rural areas. Box 6: Rethinking Disabled Persons’ Rights Nationally, fewer girls than boys are enrolled, espe- cially above primary levels. The gap is widest in tertiary In January 2008, the government became a sig- education, though dramatic progress has been made natory to the International Convention on the in recent years. The improvements in the national en- Rights of Persons with Disabilities. This conven- rollment ratios of girls largely reflect progress made in tion declares that all people with all types of dis- urban areas, where economic growth has been con- abilities must enjoy all human rights and funda- centrated. Gender gaps in education, starting with mental freedoms and clarifies the ways in which enrollment, are largest in poor, remote and largely eth- human rights apply to people with disabilities. nic group districts. In these regions, education quality The GOL has drafted a “Decree on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities�, and a Labor and Social Welfare Master Plan for 2007-2020, covering: i. establishment of a legal framework for the rights and benefit of disabled people; ii. ratification of the UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and iii. review of existing laws and regulations from the viewpoint of disabled people. Education Gender gaps are narrowing in primary and second- ary enrollment, but challenges persist in education completion. While the gaps are narrowing, girls are still Photo by The World Bank 22 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital is poor and dropout rates, especially among girls, are consistent.53 These rural urban divides have ranked Lao PDR as one of the lower performers in the East Asia and Pacific region in girls’ education. With regards to the MDGs, Lao PDR is “off track� with MDG targets for Goal 2 on universal primary education, and also for Goal 3 on eliminating gender disparity in all levels of education. Enrollment Lao PDR has made progress in education to diminish gender gaps in enrollment rates at the primary level. National primary school enrollment rates have risen Photo by insmai.com steadily in recent years, narrowing gender gaps.xiii Since 2007/08 the gender gap in enrollment rates at the pri- in lower secondary school, the average gross enroll- mary and lower secondary level decreased approxi- ment rate masked large socio-gender disparities, from mately 2 percent. With this said, a dropout trend is on 54 percent of Lao-Tai urban boys enrolled to 7 percent the rise with girls in secondary school. of rural girls enrolled from non-Lao-Tai groups.55 In primary school enrollments, geographic dispari- In 2009-10, enrollment in primary education for boys ties persist. The rates are lower in the North and South and girls was 94 percent; in secondary education 56 and in rural areas, and consistently lower for girls in all percent; and in upper secondary education, 30 per- groups, except for urban 6-10 year olds. Rural areas cent. In lower secondary school, net enrollment for without roads have the lowest access rate: about half girls increased from 46 percent to 56 percent; and in of the children there are enrolled in school. Overall, upper secondary school for girls from 30.0 percent to however, girls still make up a larger proportion of the 30.4 percent. The lower secondary school enrollment school-aged population (6-20 years) that has never rate still lags behinds the boys’ rate by 10 percent. But been to school: 17 percent of girls versus 11 percent enrollment for boys in upper secondary school has de- of boys.54 creased from 40 percent to 37 percent (see Table 12). In summary, the enrollment of girls was lower than boys While progress has been made in reducing the gender at all levels of education. Student transfer rates are also gap in secondary school enrollments, improvements significant. Additionally, girls’ dropout rates continue to vary significantly across regions and between rural and be higher than boys. urban areas. In urban areas, more girls than boys are attending secondary school, but in rural areas without The index of gender equity for higher education has im- road access, there are only half as many girls as boys. proved over time, with 43 percent female enrollment in Gender parity is significantly lower in the North than in 2009/10, in contrast to 23 percent female enrollment in the Central and Southern regions. A 2005 World Bank 1996/97, when the National University of Lao PDR was report on schooling and poverty in Lao PDR found that established.56 xiii The gross enrollment rate refers to enrollment at a given level of education regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population of the official age group for the given level; the net enrollment rate refers to enrollment of the official age group for a given level of education, expressed as a percentage of the population in that age group. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 23 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Table 9: Number of Girls per 100 Boys Enrolled, by Education Level 1991 2002 2006 2009 Primary 77 84 86 88 Lower secondary 66 74 78 80 Upper secondary 56 68 74 78 Tertiary 49 57 62 76 Source: MOE 2009.57 Table 10: Gender Gaps in Education 2005-2006 2009-2010 Boys Girls Boys Girls Net enrollment in primary school (%) 87 81 94 92 Net enrollment in lower secondary school (%) 57 46 65 56 Net enrollment in upper secondary school (%) 40 30 37 30 Source: MOE 2006 and 2010. Table 11: Changes in Literacy and Enrollment 1990 Most recent Adult literacy rates for women (age 15 years and above) 47.9 (in 1995) 70 Girls primary enrollment (per 100 boys) 77 88 Girls upper secondary enrollment (per 100 boys) 56 78 Source: MOE 2006 and 2010. Technical and Vocational Education training schools for lower secondary school graduates. English, business, marketing, finance and accounting, In tertiary education, both vocational/technical and banking, tourism and hospitality, automotive, electron- higher academic, boys outnumber girls in enrollment ics, engineering and agriculture are amongst the most rates, and the gap increases at higher levels and in more popular subjects. Opportunities for non-formal train- technical fields. Opportunities for technical and voca- ing or upgrading of qualifications remain very limited. tional education and training (TVET) are limited in Lao PDR, with significant regional disparities. In 2005/06 Girls constitute 40 percent of TVET students. Though there were 33 technical education institutions and there are more girls than boys in vocational training, 14 private sector institutions, and only 12 vocational girls and young women constitute about 40 percent 24 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital of TVET students overall.58 While the gender gap de- Disproportionately few creased between 2005/06 and 2008/09 in vocational women undertake a high- schools (primary level), and in higher diploma/bach- er academic education. elors’ degree courses, it increased at the middle techni- Progress has been made cal school level. in expanding overall en- rollment rates in higher Gender distribution varies significantly by qualification academic education. type and subject area. At the diploma level (following However, gender gaps completion of secondary education), 84 percent of the widen dramatically as the female students are enrolled in agriculture, business, level of education rises. hospitality and tailoring. Electrical and electronics train- The gender distribution ing, the second most popular subject area, accounts for of students also varies sig- 28 percent of all trainees, but only 4 percent of courses nificantly across subject taken by female students. At the certificate level, almost areas. Females outnumber half the students are in hospitality programs (in which males in health, social sci- 96 percent of the students are female).59 Little is known ence, banking, accounting about the success of girls relative to boys in entering and secretarial work while the labor market after graduating from TVET.xiv the reverse is true in engi- neering, architecture, for- Women are underrepresented among TVET teachers. In estry, natural resources, law 2008/09, fewer than 30 percent of TVET teachers were fe- and governance studies. male and there were only 5 women among 43 directors Photo by insmai.com in TVET institutes.60 The gender ratio of TVET teachers varies across subject areas, mirroring gender segrega- tion in the labor market and in the student population.xv Table 12: Numbers of Students in Vocational and Higher Education by Sex, 2006 and 2009 2005-2006 2008-2009 Educational level Total Women Men Total Women Men Vocational schools (primary) 3,356 1,041 2,315 187 92 95 Middle technical schools 20,915 9,220 11,695 12,761 4,850 7,911 Higher diploma and Bachelor’s degree 48,847 18,776 30,071 111,945 48,168 63,777 Master’s degree - - - 387 128 259 PhD degree - - - 92 2 90 Total 73,118 29,037 44,081 125,372 53,240 72,132 Source: MOE 2006 and 2009. xiv The 2006 National Baseline Tracer Study of TVET graduates analyzed labor market outcomes of TVET, including the proportion of graduates gainfully employed, the proportion of graduates using the skills for which they were trained, the job-search time, and the earnings (MOE and GIZ 2006). Though it collected sex-disaggregated data, it did not undertake sex-disaggregated analysis of male and female graduates (MOE 2007). xv Women make up 93 percent of all tailoring teachers; 89 percent of hospitality teachers; 46 percent of business teachers; 38 percent of com- puter and IT teachers; 25 percent of civil engineering teachers; 2 percent of construction teachers; and none of the mechanics, plumbing, or carpentry teachers (HiFAB 2010). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 25 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Retention, Progression and Progression from primary to secondary school level is Completion still a challenge for girls, especially in rural areas.xvi On average, about 80 percent of all students who com- Overall, boys spend more years in school than girls. The plete primary school continue into lower secondary. higher the level of education, the larger the gaps be- About 78 percent of these students are girls, and 82 tween boys and girls in enrollment, repetition, dropout percent are boys. Rural students often need to travel and completion rates. Across the education system, significant distances in order to continue their educa- gender gaps are larger in poorer districts and rural ar- tion, raising particular safety concerns and other con- eas, and among non-Lao-Tai ethnic groups. straints for girls. Table 13: Years of Schooling Completed, by Sex Male age 6+ Female age 6+ Male age 15-19 Female age 15-19 Laos 5.3 4.1 6.7 6.1 Lao-Tai 6.2 5.1 7.5 7.3 Mon-Khmer 3.4 2.0 4.8 3.8 Chine-Tibet 2.0 1.4 3.1 2.5 Hmong-Iu-Mien 3.6 1.9 5.7 3.6 Other 4.0 2.8 5.0 3.3 Source: LECS 2009. Table 14: Percentage of Boys and Girls Passing Primary School Exams Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Completed Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls 2005-2006 73 73 81 82 86 88 87 93 92 95 82 84 2009-2010 63 60 80 83 85 88 89 90 92 94 77 80 Source: MOE 2006 and 2010. Table 15: Percentage of Boys and Girls Passing Upper Secondary School Exams Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Completed Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls 2005 -2006 82 88 89 91 92 96 87 91 2009-2010 85 88 89 91 95 97 89 92 Source: MOE 2006 and 2010. xvi Primary school includes grades 1-5. In 2010/11 MOE added a year to lower secondary school (increasing it from three to four years) and three years total for upper secondary. 26 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Literacy Literacy rates for women are also improving. Literacy rates reflect a legacy of gender bias in access to edu- cation. The literacy rate for women in Lao PDR signifi- cantly improved from 48 percent in 1995 to 70 percent in 2007/08, but remains lower than the rate for men (85 percent).xvii Figure 7: Adult Literacy, by Sex and Region, 1998 and 2008 Adult literacy, by sex and region (1998 and 2008) 96 100 85 90 82 79 81 80 70 70 55 54 60 49 Lao PDR 50 40 Urban 30 20 10 0 Women Men Women Men 1998 2008 Sources: LECS2 1999 and LECS4 2007/08. Photo by The World Bank Literacy gains among women during the last decade Infrastructure and Safety have been more significant in urban than rural areas. Between 1998 and 2008 gender gaps in literacy rates Infrequent school attendance of poor girls from rural in urban areas fell substantially, from 14 percent to areas, especially at higher-grade levels, has persisted 5 percent, while in rural areas, it decreased only slightly since 2000.63 Reasons for low school attendance include - from 30 percent to 27 percent.xviii girls’ household responsibilities, including caring for younger siblings, and farm work. Financial constraints Youth literacy is also improving, but young women still also impede girls’ schooling, such as the cost of cloth- report lower literacy rates than young men. Among ing and school supplies, as well as the opportunity cost young people aged 15-24, self-reported literacy rates of girls’ lost labor. Physical factors are important, includ- are on the rise, but remain significantly lower for young ing the distance to the nearest school; road access to women (79 percent) than for young men (89 percent).61 the school; and the presence of separate latrines for These figures should be interpreted with caution since girls and boys. tested rates for functional literacy are only just over half the self-reported rates. Literacy among young people Within the educational experience itself, the language is significantly higher in urban than in rural areas, and of instruction matters. Lao language is a barrier to ed- significantly higher for those in the Tai-Kadai linguistic ucation for many non-Lao Tai girls; poor relevance of groups than for others.62 school curriculum to students’ lives; rigid school sched- xvii Literacy numbers and rates in Lao PDR should be treated with caution as they constitute subjective assessments of LECS household survey responses regarding the Lao language reading and writing skills of household members. The numbers here combine categories of persons aged 15+ who can read and write “without difficulty� or “with some difficulty.� Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 27 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital ules; poor quality of instruction; the limited number ry schools in the poorest districts are incomplete, only of teachers from non-Lao-Tai groups; and inadequate offering classes up to second or third grade.66 More school facilities. than 4,500 primary schools—about half of the coun- try’s total—consist of only one or two classrooms. Finally, socio-cultural factors also affect girls’ participa- tion in education. Such factors include: level of paren- Safety concerns hinders girls’ enrollment. Many school tal support; lack of awareness of opportunities arising environments are not yet inclusive, or safe enough from education (especially among ethnic groups); par- to sustain girls’ participation. For example, many lack ents’ education levels; and cultural traditions (including separate sanitation facilities for boys and girls. In ad- early marriage for girls, especially among non-Lao-Tai dition to this, some studies report incidents of verbal, groups). There also remains a lack of female role mod- psychological and sexual harassment.67 A study of in- els in education, both as peers, mentors and examples formal barriers found that the conditions in school of what girls can do with an education. dormitories vary dramatically according to location, sometimes without separate accommodation for girls. Lack of facilities, access and malnutrition negatively Kitchen facilities are generally separate temporary affect educational outcomes. Lack of locally available structures built by the parents of the boarders where school facilities presents a barrier for girls to complete children cook in small groups, often with only one pot. the full five grades of primary school. Girls are less likely Inadequate access to water and sanitation, electricity than boys to walk long distances to study at a complete for studying, and warm clothes and blankets was often school, or to attend as boarders due to safety factors.64 reported. Lack of formal supervision creates particular About 15 percent of Lao villages still have no primary vulnerabilities for both girls and boys to sexual harass- school within commuting distance. These gaps hit ment and assault. Finally, gender gaps among teachers non-Lao-Tai villages particularly hard. It was reported are narrowing at the primary and secondary levels, but in 2002-03 that 34 percent of rural non-Lao-Tai girls had men still predominate as teachers at higher education- never attended school (compared to just 6 percent of al levels. This may negatively affect girls’ motivation to Lao-Tai girls).65 Approximately 70 percent of the prima- learn. Box 7: Programs Aims to Strengthen Education Effectiveness The GOL’s 2009 Education Sector Development Framework (ESDF) covers all education levels. Through this framework, the introduction of a multi-grade teaching approach has strengthened the effectiveness of edu- cation service delivery. Improved services include recruiting and deploying ethnic teachers in remote and isolated areas; improving the quality of teaching and teaching materials; and ensuring safe school environ- ments that are sensitive to gender and ethnic-group differences, and to the needs of children with dis- abilities. The 2010 Education for All–Fast Track Initiative (EFA-FTI) supports increased coverage by providing classrooms for pre-primary and primary schooling in villages in the country’s 56 most educationally disad- vantaged districts, as identified by lower-than-national-average enrollment and completion rates for girls. To strengthen their focus on reaching disadvantaged groups, especially ethnic girls and women in rural areas, MOE has drafted an Inclusive Education Policy, based on ESDF targets, to ensure that the rights of all to a quality education can be fulfilled, regardless of gender, ethnicity, disability, economic, or other status. Inclusive education is central to the “Schools of Quality� approach that MOE is implementing with the United Nations Children’s Fund’s (UNICEF) support. This approach has achieved impressive results with school en- rollment rates for girls.68 It focuses on inclusivity, gender responsiveness, and community mobilization; and xviii The gender gap in literacy rate is calculated as the difference between the percentage of women who are literate and the percentage of men who are literate (LECS4 2007/08). 28 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital integrates inputs from the health, nutrition, water supply, sanitation and hygiene, and child protection sec- tors in order to provide a healthy, safe and protective environment that attracts more girls to school. In technical and vocational education and training, a recently approved Strengthening Technical and Voca- tional Education and Training Project69 includes a 20% quota for female trainees in nontraditional priority skill areas (construction, furniture making and automotive and mechanical repair); construction of dormito- ries; training vouchers for students from poor households; six-month wage subsidy to employers to hire girls as trainees; and social marketing campaigns to change the gender stereotypes in the labor market. Sources: ADB 2011a and 2011i; and World Bank 2010. Water and Sanitation Clean water and sanitation are basic public services and are also fundamental for improving health and educational outcomes, especially for women and girls. Though Lao PDR has made significant progress in this sector, challenges remain in meeting the MDG target on water and sanitation, which is to “halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation�. From 1995- 2008, the proportion of the Lao PDR population using improved drinking water sources increased from 44 percent to 67 percent, while the proportion using an improved sanitation facility increased from 18 percent to 63 percent.70 This contrasts with MDG targets for im- proved sanitation access in Lao PDR, which stand at 70 percent of the population. Significant Rural-urban Inequalities People in more remote and poorer areas have the least access to safe water and sanitation. For example, only 23 percent of the households in rural areas without roads have access to safe water (piped or from a protected well-water source), compared to 88 percent of urban households.71 And rates of access for poor households are about 10-15 percent below those for non-poor households.72 In the area of sanitation, 38 percent of the population has access to improved sanitation facili- ties, while 87 percent has access in urban areas.73 The burden of limited access to water and sanitation often falls heavily on women and girls. Where access is limited, the burden of water collection from secondary sources falls on women and girls. This is a heavy physi- cal burden on the young, elderly, and sick, and reduces Photo by Junshien Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 29 Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Box 8: Gender Considerations in National Water and Sanitation Programs In the 6th National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP) 2006-2010 the WSS targets aim to: raise access to safe water to 75 percent of the pop- ulation; raise access to safe water in rural areas to 70 percent of the people; raise the coverage of toi- let facilities meeting sanitary standards to 60 per- cent of the population; and raise the proportion of schools with sex-segregated sanitary facilities to 35 percent. The 7th NSEDP continues with these priori- ties in WSS but also places them within a context of improved small town development, and support to urbanization. To meet the government’s WSS targets, the Na- Photo by Junshien tional Center for Environmental Health and Water Supply (Nam Saat) under the Ministry of Health concentrates on increasing coverage, and is now time available for girls’ studies. Moreover, women are giving priority to the country’s poorest, least acces- also responsible for family health and hygiene, which sible, and most vulnerable zones. This involves de- suffers when safe drinking water and sanitation facili- livering sustainable services through community ties are either not available or difficult to access. participation, cost sharing, and decentralization of planning and implementation processes. Deficiencies in water supply and sanitation (WSS) still cause many common illnesses and infections in Lao The National Rural WSS Sector Strategy integrates PDR, including diarrhea, which is a leading cause of gender considerations into its action plan. The child mortality in rural areas, negatively affecting both Strategy emphasizes the need to reduce the dis- maternal and child health. Household surveys show tances and time used for fetching water and to in- that FHH consistently have less access to safe drink- volve women at all levels of the decision-making ing water and basic sanitation (toilets or latrines) than process. MHH, across all ethnic groups. In small town water supply and sanitation projects, While rural areas need major improvements, access Lao PDR is piloting a scholarship program to fe- to water and sanitation in urban centers and towns male high school graduates to pursue water and emerges as a challenge. Although urban areas account sanitation or environmental engineering in college for around 27 percent of the population, household in order to expand the pool of qualified future hu- consumption and expenditure amount to 50 percent man resources. Each provincial Nam Papa is also of the national total. The agriculture-centered econom- preparing a human resource development plan ic structure is also rapidly changing. In 1998 agriculture to improve their staff capacity, and developing a accounted for over 53 percent of national gross domes- gender-equality recruitment and training strategy tic product. By 2008, it had declined to 35 percent, be- for female staff. hind the services sector at 37 percent, and the industry sector increased from 22 percent to 28 percent.74 The The GOL targets in the WSS sector under the 7th government considers inadequate water and sanita- NSEDP include: i.) awarding 30 percent of schol- tion infrastructure and services in small towns as an arships and training in the sector to qualified emerging challenge and has included this as an area women; and ii.) including gender activities into a that requires attention in its national development pri- minimum of 10 water utility corporate plans. ADB orities (see Box 8). operational indicators for the sector still require gender-specifications. Source: ADB 2011a. 30 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 1 - Endowments: Promoting gender equality in human capital Photo by The World Bank Limitations in Sanitation Programs Women are primarily responsible for managing house- hold water and maintaining sanitation facilities. Yet, Current sanitation activities are small-scale and often they have little or no influence on crucial decisions integrated in livelihoods projects.75 Program activities about the cost and technology of water or sanitation focus on hygiene to various simple technology sanita- systems. There is significant potential for empowering tion approaches aiming to eradicate open defecation, women and girls through participation in water policy according to the target location. However, sanitation development, water engineering, maintenance and technology choices offered to households are limited. repairs, education and awareness raising on water and With limited choices available, public hygiene cam- sanitation, and financial management of water and paigns have been launched nation-wide, to comple- sanitation systems. Current training and job opportu- ment community-led sanitation projects. nities are mostly provided to men, and women will sig- nificantly benefit from such opportunities.76 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 31 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Over the past two decades, Lao PDR’s economy has sustained strong growth. Driven by expanding natural resource exports, steady agricultural growth and a rebound in tourism and processing industries, average annual GDP growth maintained at around 7.9 percent between 2006-10, while the global economic crises in 2008-09 only slightly weakened the economy.77 In the medium-term, the economic outlook remains favorable.78 Lao PDR is also fortunate to have a young and growing population able to help boost the labor market. This chapter begins by reviewing the intersections between gender, poverty and vulnerability. As economic opportunities also bring risks, the chapter also shows the gen- der dimensions of market and credit access, as well as infrastructure. 32 Reducing Vulnerability, Increasing Opportunity Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Gender, Poverty and Vulnerability Despite economic growth, food poverty and insecurity are still critical issues in rural areas of Lao PDR. Nearly one in four rural households in Lao PDR were below the food poverty line in 2007/08. And two-thirds of ru- ral households have livelihoods that put them at risk of food insecurity in the event of one or more shocks, such as floods, drought and development projects, in a given year. Poverty is an overwhelmingly rural phenomenon in Lao PDR, with high concentrations in the remote and mountainous northeastern and eastern borders with Viet Nam, where smaller ethnic groups predominate.79 While poverty rates have nearly halved to 25 percent in 2010, from 46 percent in 1993, there are large numbers of households still living close to the poverty line.80 Households continue to be highly vulnerable to regular seasonal shortages, as well as to agricultural shocks.81 These vulnerabilities and shocks have gender dimen- sions. In rural households, women most commonly take responsibility for raising livestock. In times of epi- demic, effected livestock can substantially affect wom- en’s livelihoods, as they are responsible for providing nourishment for their family. Additionally, unpredict- able floods often devastate crops, leaving little behind for women to plant or harvest. Floods, drought, and epidemics stretch women’s resources, further exposing them to vulnerabilities.82 Coping strategies depend on the household, and range from workers migrating to find seasonal employment, to agro-pastoralists selling livestock and petty traders using their savings. Food poverty also has important gender dimensions related to maternal nutrition and reproductive health. However, these gender dimensions are presently under- researched. Poor maternal nutrition and health affects Photo by The World Bank children’s welfare and their prospects for overcoming poverty in the next generation. At the household level, analysis of consumption, savings and assets is required poverty measures mask the gender dimensions of con- in order to be able to identify gender differences in the sumption, income and resource distribution, as well as severity of poverty experienced by individual family possible inequities in decision-making. Intra-household members. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 33 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Female-headed households (FHH) account for approxi- rates and Lao language proficiency than the men in mately 10 percent of households and are generally their villages, according to the 2006 Participatory Pov- poorer than male-headed households (MHH). There is erty Assessment (PPA). The PPA also found extremely also some evidence that relative poverty rates between high maternal and infant mortality rates in the sur- MHH and FHH vary across ethnic groups.xix For example veyed villages, even by national standards. a social study undertaken to inform the World Bank’s Rural Electrification Project in four southern provinces found that female-headed households are poorer on average. In the Southern province of Attapeu, only 8 percent of households were female headed but all of them were considered poor. In Sekong and Savannkhet approximately 80 percent of female-headed house- holds were among the poor households.83 Box 9: Poverty for Female Headed Households Nationwide, 10 percent of households are fe- male-headed: 14 percent in urban areas and 8.7 percent in rural areas. Among agricultural house- holds, fewer than 5 percent are female-headed and this prevalence varies from 3 percent in the North to 6 percent in the Central and Southern re- gions. Widowhood is the main reason for female headship, though 20 percent of female house- hold heads are married women whose spouses have migrated. Female household heads tend to be older than their male counterparts (by seven years, at the median) and to be significantly less literate than their male counterparts (31 percent fewer FHH can read and write without difficulty, compared to MHH).xx Source: GOL 2005. Photo by The World Bank A high proportion of food-insecure households have low education and literacy rates. Women and men lack- ing primary education head approximately 71 percent of households with poor food consumption, and 66 percent of those with borderline food consumption.84 Women in poor households have much lower literacy xix Calculations based on LECS4 data suggest variations in the poverty gap between Lao-Tai FHH, with a poverty rate of 22 percent (compared to their male counterparts at 18 percent), and Hmong-Iu Mien FHH, with a poverty rate of 63 percent (compared to their male counterparts at 48 percent). The small sample size of FHH from the smaller ethnic groups suggests the figures should be interpreted with caution. xx For more information on FHHs see GOL 2005; FAO and MAF 2010. Profiles are based on data drawn primarily from LECS4 2007/8, and LECS3 (Boupha 2004); and the Lao Agriculture Census 1998/1999 (MPI and MAF 2009). Findings are from a survey of 1,479 households in 11 villages in Savannakhet and Champassaak Province and field-testings in ten villages of Attapue and Sekong Provinces (Sitthivong and Sisouvong 2007). 34 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Box 10: Research Aims to Better Understand Gender Dimensions of Ethnicity Limited research exists about the gender dimensions among the 49 ethnic groups in Lao PDR, making it difficult to understand and appreciate the social, cultural and religious practices that influence gender roles within these distinct groups. Poverty in Lao PDR is heavily concentrated in upland areas inhabited largely by non-Lao or remote ethnic communities. Recent qualitative research provides insight on the role of women in the country’s poorest villages (representing 56 percent Mon Khmer and 17 percent Hmong-Mien). • For the majority of villages, men perform tasks that are heavy, dangerous, solitary, done at night, and that require short bursts of energy. Women carry out most chores that are lighter, that can be done si- multaneously with childcare, that require longer periods of time, and that are usually done in groups of two or more. • The transformation from a subsistence-based to a market-oriented household economy has often been to the disadvantage of non-Lao-Tai women, whose cultural roles, and lack of skills, constrain them from entering into market production. In particular, Mon Khmer women’s traditional status and power, which was closely linked to the production cycles of subsistence agriculture, has been reduced leaving them only with hard labor but no accompanying spiritual reward. • One study cited in the PPA found that women in some ethnic groups were providing a major contribu- tion to the survival of households coping with relocations, such as women from the Akha group in Long district who regularly now hire out women as female laborers, Lahu Shi girls who engage in prostitution, or Khmou girls who travel to Thailand in search of jobs. Other studies show that in education, literacy and health, girls and women in minority ethnic groups are lagging behind their counterparts in Lao-Tai groups, suggesting that the issue of gender inequality goes beyond poverty factors. For example, the progress in enrollment rates of Lao Tai girls have not been shared by either boys or girls from other ethnic groups, and the least progress of any group is among the non-Lao -Tai girls. Additionally, the gender gap in education has closed significantly in urban areas except among the Mon Khmer groups among whom, while the overall enrollment of both boys and girls has increased, the gender gap is greater than in rural areas. There is also evidence that traditional and largely patriarchal societies view of women have limited non- Lao-Tai women’s ability to fully participate in society. For example, some non-Lao-Tai groups such as the Yao, Hmong and Akha have patrilinear systems (compared to Lao-Tai which practice matrilinear). It is said that women in these groups are silenced, their formal role is weaker, they are denied a role in community decision-making and generally speaking considered more powerless than their Lao-Tai counterparts. Furthermore, a study of the Khmou Lue community, an ethnic-group of the Mon-Khmer, explained that an indigenous woman is viewed as being there to bear children, serve her father, her brother and later her husband and her family. In most cases, they do not have property rights and are excluded from roles of political leadership. However, both men and women lack power and choice, but women also lack material resources. Women in particular voiced concerns and experiences on issues such as rice insufficiency, time/ labor constraints, vulnerability and low self-esteem/inferiority, asset inequality, isolation, children’s needs, intra-household inequality and resource allocation issues, traditional belief and customs. Women also felt very vulnerable without literacy and numbers skills and therefore reluctant and ill-equipped to engage in the market. The UNFPA reported that some ethnic practices and traditions such as birthing alone in the forest or mak- ing an animal sacrifice before attending hospital could increase risk of adverse health outcomes affecting predominantly non-Lao-Tai women. Additionally, the gap is significant between women of different ethnic groups with a third of all Lao Tai women giving birth in the presence of medical staff while only 11 percent of Khamu, 7.4 percent of Hmong, and 5.5 percent of women from other ethnic groups do. Sources: Chamberlain 2006, King and van de Walle 2005, Khouangvichit 2010, World Bank 2003 and UNFPA 2008. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 35 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Agriculture and Rural Development The labor market in Lao PDR is highly informal and ag- riculture-based. This means that more than 71 percent of households — including 40 percent of urban house- holds — report agriculture, forestry, or fishing as their main activity, and most of this work is on family-run smallholdings.85 Agriculture remains vitally important for economic growth and poverty reduction generally, as well as for women’s economic empowerment. While agriculture in Lao PDR is becoming commercialized, Photo by ADB most farming households are still engaged in subsis- tence or semi-subsistence production, with a gender ally, women work in the fields (planting, weeding and division of labor that varies by ethnic group and harvesting crops), and tend to livestock. Men under- regional poverty levels. take select agricultural tasks of plowing, constructing bunds, and preparing seedbeds. Many households de- Increased agricultural productivity and opportunities pend on livestock as an important source of consump- for off-farm jobs are pulling some households, and tion as well as cash income, with women predominat- certain regions, out of poverty, and providing new eco- ing in production of pigs, poultry and goats, while men nomic opportunities for women. For women in house- are mainly responsible for larger livestock, such as cat- holds and areas that have limited assets and access to tle and buffalo.87 Lowland or upland, decision-making credit, or those who lose access to productive land and with regard to irrigation and water resources manage- lack the skills needed to earn income in other ways, ment is often considered men’s work, even though commercialization of agriculture may increase women are most likely to be the primary household vulnerability. water managers. Even in one of the most successful ir- rigation projects in terms of community mobilization, To cope with such change, formal social safety nets women’s representation in the newly formulated ir- need to be developed. Rapid transitions such as these rigation water user groups remained at 35 percent as can cause social dislocation and strain social capital against the original target of 50 percent.88 This is largely and other traditional coping mechanisms. Shifting due to women’s lack of landownership and their “time from subsistence-based to market-oriented house- poverty� due to their multiple roles. hold economies is particularly difficult for women in non-Lao-Tai ethnic groups whose cultural roles, limited There is also a traditional gender division of labor in Lao language and technical skills and lack of business fisheries. Fishpond culture and rice-cum-fish cultiva- experience leave them unprepared to engage with the tion have become more important in recent decades. wider market.86 Women are especially engaged in managing fish ponds and fish culture in the rice fields, while men are more Traditional Gender Divisions of Labor often catching wild fish from the Mekong River and its and Assets tributaries. Women also play a key role in fish process- ing and marketing. Most farming households maintain a traditional gen- der division of labor for crops and livestock, although this is changing in some areas with livelihood diversifi- cation and increased out-migration of men. Tradition- 36 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks areas that are most severely deprived. NTFPs are partic- Box 11: ‘Time Poverty’ Constrains Women in Ru- ularly important for rural non-Lao-Tai households who ral Areas cultivate less productive land in harsher upland areas and rely heavily on forest resources for income, as com- The presence of rigid gender roles in rural soci- pared to Lao-Tai households.91 eties constrains women’s time allocation among paid and unpaid productive and household ac- Box 12: National Gender Strategy Focuses on tivities, leading to “time poverty�. Domestic activ- Agriculture and Forestry ities that are time-intensive and physically ardu- ous, such as fetching water and fuel, are generally Lao PDR’s 2009 Gender Mainstreaming Strategy the domain of female household members, and for agriculture and forestry has 6 main priorities: are more demanding in areas lacking basic infra- structure such as water and electricity. i.) strengthening institutions for the advance- ment of women into the Ministry of Agricul- The effects of this domestic burden on women’s ture and Forestry (MAF) and its related insti- economic opportunities are often neglected in tutions and programs at all levels; policies aimed at increasing female participation ii.) increasing the gender awareness and re- in productive paid employment. First, the time sponsiveness of MAF staff at all levels; burden of rural women’s domestic unpaid work iii.) integrating gender analysis and sex-disag- and the lack of substitutability of female labor gregated data/information/statistics into in such tasks as birth and care of young infants the MAF planning cycle; limit women’s choices in accessing paid employ- iv.) enhancing the qualifications, competencies ment. Second, female time poverty contributes and core skills of women within the MAF- to unequal education outcomes which hinders workforce so they can advance at all levels; women competing for more skilled, better paid v.) increasing rural women’s access to and con- jobs. When men do not substitute for women in trol over resources and benefits; and domestic labor, female children are often called vi.) enhancing ties with the external constitu- on to share this burden (boys are generally sent encies that support the advancement of to the fields, but they work fewer hours). This con- women in agriculture and forestry. tributes to lower school enrollments and attain- ments for girls and reinforces girls’ weaker posi- These priorities are being included in the 2011-15 tion in the labor market. National Agriculture Strategy. The 7th NSEDP for 2010-15 also includes gender targets such as the Sources: FAO, IFAD and ILO 2010. increased percentage of women receiving train- ing in technology, agricultural production, pro- Both women and men collect and manage various for- cessing, handicraft and services to 20 percent and est resources. Forests contribute to household food those related to increased percentage of women’s security, particularly in between agricultural seasons, participation in policy and project planning. and are an important economic resource. Tradition- ally, women tend to collect NTFPs such as bamboo MAF at the central and provincial levels needs shoots, roots, wild vegetables, mushrooms, fruits, nuts, substantial support to build its staff capacity in honey and insects, while men hunt animals. Women integrating gender analysis in the planning cycle dominate the NTFP sector and the forest products they and collecting and monitoring sex-disaggregat- collect are an important part of their diets.89 Because ed data. Ongoing ADB technical assistance (TA) to of deforestation and poor forestland management, MAF supports this. The tools and methodologies under-privileged women now report that it takes them introduced in the TA are to be applied to ongoing longer to find the NTFPs they need for subsistence.90 donor-financed agriculture and forestry projects This is significant, as marketed NTFPs have traditionally implemented by MAF. contributed 46-60 percent of household income in ru- ral upland areas, and this figure rises to 80 percent in Sources: MAF 2009 and ADB 2011f. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 37 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks are not worse off due to the project�.95 Women have benefited from increasing rates of female and joint land titling. However, to date only about one- third of the country’s estimated 1.6 million registrable land parcels have been titled mainly in urban and peri- urban settings, and a significant proportion of state land remains unmapped and unregistered. Occupants of land who lack formally assigned titles remain vulner- able to eviction or expropriation without compensa- tion. Photo by The World Bank There are also risks for both women and men associ- ated with the government’s broader national policies and practices regarding village consolidation and re- Access to Land and Property: settlement. As the country accelerates the use of its Customary Barriers Persist natural resources, the number of development or in- vestment projects (particularly hydropower, mining Women’s access and control over land and housing is and agribusiness) that require significant resettlement key for promoting gender equity and empowerment.92 is increasing. The government has policy in place for Asset access and control significantly contributes to dealing with this (Decree 192). However, the enforce- women’s livelihood options, economic and social se- ment of this policy is uneven. In addition, the govern- curity, and poverty alleviation. More broadly, it also in- ment’s own village consolidation policy is resulting creases the likelihood of children surviving, attending in both a physical relocation process and an adminis- school and receiving healthcare and reduces the risk of trative process. Women are particularly vulnerable in families falling into poverty and destitution following such settings to: losing land and use-rights; being un- widowhood, spousal desertion, or protracted illness. derserved by agricultural extension agents; dropping It is also an important driver for improved agricultural out of school at higher levels; and having higher labor production and transition into market-based systems as burdens through increase in agricultural wage labor, or secure access to and control over land resources trans- through participation in prostitution or cross-border lates into enhanced investment in land-based produc- migration.96 UNIAP (2008) has found that the propor- tion (such as cash cropping), and also serves as a form tion of trafficked women from resettled villages is dis- of collateral for investment in non-farm activity.93 proportionately high. In Lao PDR, women and men have equal status under the law with regard to land tenure, property ownership and inheritance rights. Land and property laws state, Labor Force Participation “property that is acquired before marriage received The most recent Population Census suggests that only through inheritance, or granted specifically to a partic- around 6 percent of the population, or around 13 per- ular spouse, is not considered as conjugal property�.94 cent of the active labor force, works in a formal sector.xxi Land acquired by a couple is to be issued a joint land Though public sector jobs outnumber private sector use certificate or title with co-signatures of wife and jobs at present, private sector development will be the husband. The 2005 Prime Minister’s Decree 192, on main engine for growth and poverty reduction, accord- compensation and resettlement for people affected by ing to the 7th NESDP. With this said, average male and development projects, states that “All affected persons, female labor force participation are almost equal (for regardless of land use right, will be entitled to compen- ages 15-64 at 79.5 percent for women and 81 percent sation for lost assets at replacement cost, and provided for men), and are higher in rural than in urban areas.97 with other assistance during the transition period, and economic rehabilitation assistance to ensure that they xxi “Informal sector� is defined here as individuals who report being “own account workers� or “unpaid family workers.� Depending on the defini- tion, some of the workers employed in private sector units should also be defined as informal sector workers (GOL, 2005). 38 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Table 16: Labor Force Participation of Males and Females Aged 15-64 1995 Census 2005 Census Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Rural with road Rural without road Female 83.1 61.1 88.1 79.5 64.2 86.4 85.5 88.5 Male 83.5 69.8 86.5 81.0 71.0 85.9 85.1 87.9 Total 83.3 65.4 87.4 80.3 67.5 86.1 85.3 88.2 Sources: GOL 1995 and 2005. Across all age and location categories, the proportion the same age.98 This is likely due to boys’ higher par- of economically active girls is substantially higher than ticipation rates in secondary and tertiary education, as the proportion of economically active boys. In urban well as the lower age of marriage for girls, especially in areas, for example, nearly 40 percent of girls aged 15- rural areas. 19 work; compared to only about 28 percent of boys Table 17: Children and Youth Employed, by Age, Sex and Location Urban Rural On-Road Rural Off-Road Age Males Females Males Females Males Females 10-14 3.8 6.3 14.0 22.1 23.0 36.0 15-19 27.5 38.6 52.2 70.7 61.7 81.7 Source: Population Census 2005. Unpaid family work is much more common among and boys are identified as “own account workers,� run- women than men. The vast majority of the workforce, ning their own enterprises, compared to 26 percent of both female and male, is self-employed but there are women and girls. significant gender differences in how this work is com- pensated. The 2005 Population Census identifies more On average, women and girls work more hours per day than 64 percent of economically active women and than men and boys. Income-generating activities com- girls as “unpaid family workers,� compared to only 27 bined with household work occupy female household percent of economically active men and boys in this members for 6.4 hours per day, compared to 5.2 hours category. Conversely, more than 56 percent of men for male household members. Figure 8 and 9: Employment of economically active population aged 10+, by sex 70% 60% Unemployed 50% Private sector Female 40% Public sector Male 30% Female Own-account worker 20% Male 10% Unpaid family worker 0% 0% 50% 100% Unpaid Own-account Public Private Unemployed family worker sector sector worker Source: GOL 2005. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 39 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Second to the agriculture sector, 15 percent of women enced job growth in the last planning period. The 6th are reportedly in services and 6 percent in garment NSEDP target for new job creation was exceeded by 18 manufacturing and export production. Less than one percent, with the greatest gains in services, followed by percent works in the fields of mining and electricity, industry and construction.99 water or construction. Overall, the country has experi- Table 18: Time Used on Main Activities by Sex, Hours per Day Activity Female Male All Income-generating activities 4.0 4.7 4.3 Work as employed 0.3 0.8 0.5 Own business work 0.7 0.4 0.6 Agricultural work 2.1 2.3 2.2 Collecting firewood/fetching water 0.4 0.2 0.3 Hunting/fishing 0.1 0.7 0.4 Construction 0.0 0.1 0.1 Handicraft 0.3 0.1 0.2 Household work 2.4 0.5 1.5 School 0.9 1.2 1.0 Sleeping, eating, leisure time 15.2 15.9 15.5 Travel, others 1.5 1.7 1.6 Sources: LECS4 2007/08. Wage Employment on a Steady Rise Gender Wage Gaps Remain Unsolved Over a decade, from 1995-05, the proportion of women The most prevalent form of gender discrimination in in wage employment nationwide increased from 38 to labor markets is wage gaps between male and female 44 percent. Factories producing mainly export goods workers. Differences also exist in job security, types of have been established in urban areas and smaller work and working conditions.100 Female workers on family-based companies provide a growing number average earn lower salaries, wages and other kinds of of wage employment opportunities. In rural areas, the remuneration than male workers. This is partly because transition from subsistence farming to cash crops such average wages in the textile and garment industries, as coffee, tea and rubber is also creating more wage where women predominate, are lower than those in jobs. New wage jobs can provide women with new in- other industries such as mining and quarrying, where come sources and opportunities for financial indepen- men predominate. According to research conducted dence, but without a reallocation of their gender-based by the Gender Resource Information and Development domestic duties to other household members, wage Center (GRID) in 2006, the average monthly wage of fe- employment can also worsen women’s “time poverty� male workers was about two-thirds that of their male as they are forced to simultaneously balance their jobs counterparts.101 The Lao Chamber of Commerce and with household chores. Industry (LCCI) reports that, in private business, a grow- ing number of women hold management positions, but female managers are paid only half as much as men in comparable positions.102 There is also some evidence that women are more likely than men to be seasonal and temporary workers.103 40 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Gender disparities are much higher in management xxv A recent study found that only 5 percent of women- and administrative positions than in technical staff po- owned enterprises in Lao PDR used electric or motor- sitions.xxii Among technical staff, the largest proportions ized equipment, compared with 48 percent of men’s of women are in creative arts and entertainment ac- enterprises.106 tivities; health and social work; education; information and communications; accommodation and food ser- Both women and men report marketing and lack of vices; manufacturing; and “other� services. The smallest start-up finance and working capital as the key factors proportions are in industries with heavy physical work, hampering business entry. Only female entrepreneurs such as mining and construction. report that their household responsibilities and lack of mobility due to personal duties makes it more difficult Women Increasingly Own Firms for them than men to start a business.107 They also have found the business licensing costs too high. The 2011 Many women run or help run small, often informal, rollout of the new enterprise registration system aims family businesses. Nationally, household businesses to reduce licensing cost by 35 percent, compared with headed by women slightly outnumber those headed that under the previous system. As a result, among by men (women head 52 percent), but in rural areas the the additional about 65,000 registrations under the opposite is true (women head 47 percent).104 Whereas new system, 44 percent were women, a slightly higher female owned business is less popular in rural areas, proportion than the previous 40 percent in 2008.108 A in urban centers, women increasingly own their own 2004 survey identified the different needs for women businesses. In 2009, a national enterprise survey by the and men to start a business. For example, women need World Bank found that 31 percent of businesses were training in fields such as marketing, business manage- partly or fully female-owned.xxiii And a GIZ survey in 5 ment and trading, whereas men identified needs for provinces found that the share of businesses owned or training in mechanical and technical skills, marketing managed by women rose from 36 percent in 2005 to 41 and livestock husbandry.109 percent in 2009.xxiv The legal framework for doing business in Lao PDR does Newly registered firms by women in the formal sector not have gender discriminatory elements. In practice are increasing. In 2010, women owned 54.8 percent however, significant differences are observed between of newly registered firms, compared to only 43.9 per- female owned firms (FOFs) and male-owned firms, cent in 2009.105 Women in Lao PDR are generally young according to data from the 2009 Enterprise Survey.110 when they start a business. In a 2004 survey of micro First, FOFs are smaller than male-owned firms: they and small enterprises in 5 provinces, nearly half of all have fewer employees and 2.5 times less turnover. The female respondents claim to have started their enter- average size of businesses owned by women on start- prise when they were less than 30 years old (9 percent up is 29.5 employees, compared with 94.9 for start-ups were younger than 20 years and 40 percent were aged owned by men. Second, FOFs are growing much faster 20-29 years). Women’s enterprises were more likely to than firms owned by men. The average women-owned be home-based or located in the marketplace, whereas business had more than doubled its number of em- men’s businesses were much more likely to be mobile. ployees from 2006-09. xxii Data collected in 2009 from 728 firms, including micro-enterprises, in five provinces: Vientiane Capital, Luang Prabang, Champassaak, Sa- vannakhet and Luang Namtha (GIZ 2009). xxiii The survey covered registered businesses with more than 5 employees. While a 31 percent female ownership rate compares favorably with averages in many other countries and regions, it remains below the average for East Asia (Davies and Record 2010). xxiv This SME survey covered 728 formal and informal sector businesses, including micro-enterprises, in five provinces: Vientiane Capital, Luang Prabang, Champassaak, Savannakhet and Luang Namtha, using the Ministry of Industry and Commerce handicraft classification system for SMEs: micro (1-4 employees with total assets less than 70M kip); small (5-19 employees with total assets less than 250M kip); medium (20-99 employees with total assets less than 1,200M kip) (GIZ 2009). xxv Based on a field survey of 250 entrepreneurs (150 women and 100 men) in Lao PDR, covering five major provinces: Vientiane Capital, Vien- tiane Province, Savannakhet, Champassaak and Luang Prabang (LWU/GRID and ILO 2004). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 41 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Box 13: National Government Plans for SME Development The Government through the Small and Medium- Sized Enterprise Promotion and Development Of- fice (SMEPDO) has drafted the National SME De- velopment Plan, 2011–2015. The plan includes an intervention on effective gender mainstreaming through empowerment of female entrepreneurs. Key female entrepreneur empowerment activities such as improved business development service support, improved access to financial capitals, gen- der equal participation in regulatory impact assess- ments and sex-disaggregated enterprise database are identified under the plan for implementation. The SME Law has been endorsed and declared effective by the National Assembly on Decem- ber 21, 2011. Source: ADB 2011d. Access to Markets and Credits Photo by The World Bank Access to markets and market information is difficult FOFs are more likely to operate in the retail sector. for many entrepreneurs in Lao PDR, including women. Nearly half of all businesses owned by women are in In more remote areas where many non-Lao ethnic retail. FOFs are less likely to be part of a larger group of groups are concentrated, access to markets and finan- companies, and less likely to be foreign-owned. Fourth, cial services is very limited, and middlemen mostly FOFs employ more female workers and use less tech- control market prices, leaving little bargaining power nology, and their senior managers tend to be less edu- for individual farmers or producers. Traditional norms cated than those in male-owned firms. Only 20 percent limiting women’s mobility can further restrict their ac- of FOFs, compared with 43 percent of male-owned cess to markets. Poor public infrastructure also adds to firms, employ a top manager with a graduate degree the costs of small enterprises such as handicraft pro- from a foreign university. duction, in which women predominate. Additionally, no systematic marketing information service is avail- FOFs are less likely to have a bank account overdraft or able for producers, and little or no market information credit line. Those that do have a credit line are typically is provided in newspapers or on radio or television. required to have greater collateral than male-owned Women’s lower levels of literacy and Lao language firms. The top three constraints cited by both types proficiency particularly disadvantage them in access- of firms are: tax rates, access to finance and an inad- ing market information. An expanding private sector is equately educated workforce, but FOFs are more likely creating opportunities for entrepreneurs, but women than male firms to cite financial obstacles as the largest often experience more difficulty than men accessing constraint. these prospects. 42 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Box 14: Monitoring for Outcomes on Young Women’s Entrepreneurship and Employment Strategies Lao PDR’s STEPS program (Supporting Talent Entrepreneurial Potential and Success) is part of the World Bank’s Adolescent Girls Initiative. Launched in December 2010, with support from AusAID, the program set out to provide young people, in particular young women, with entrepreneurship and employment op- portunities. The Bank explored two models: i.) a market-place competition to identify, train and support young women who were interested in starting-up or expanding a small business; and ii.) the establishment of career-counseling offices at two educational institutions, in order to provide students with employment services to improve their future job prospects. The latter in particular was the first of its kind in the country. Based on the follow-up data collected on program beneficiaries at mid-point in the program, there is evi- dence that both models are achieving the program’s stated goals toward the dual promotion of entrepre- neurship and employability of young people, especially young women. The key outcomes include: 37 percent of Marketplace Competition participants (almost half female) reported having started a new business or expanded a pre-existing business 7-8 months after completing the STEPS train- ing; and 49 percent of the graduates registered with the Career Counseling Office at the National University of Laos (more than half female) and 41 percent at Pakpasak Technical College (more than a third female) reported they were employed within 2-3 months of graduation. Results showed that the number of jobs created was encouraging. Additionally, external capital, and profit- ability of businesses and income of graduates was raised. Based on the initial results, an additional year of funding was received from AusAID in order to build on the knowledge-base and experience of what works in women’s entrepreneurship and employment initiatives and to allow for integration with the Bank’s larger strategic initiatives in Lao PDR. Sources: AGI-STEPS Monitoring Report 2012 and World Bank 2012. Formal Microfinance Sector Development Most households rely on informal networks of family reach the largest number of clients are those support- and friends for credit. Borrowing from moneylenders ed by development projects and special funds. Since is less common. In 2006, only about 6.5 percent of the 2007, however, 11 new commercial banking licenses country’s population aged 15-64 belonged to orga- have been issued in the country, including banks that nizations providing microfinance.111 Providers that have experience with reaching poorer borrowers. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 43 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks As in many other countries, microfinance in Lao PDR has many microfinance providers in this region offer ser- a strong female client base. According to the 2006 Lao vices to households rather than specifically targeting Rural and Microfinance Statistics, microfinance schemes women. Additionally, projects and funds initiated by only covered slightly more than one-third of the villages women’s groups are less widely organized in the North surveyed, such as those run by development projects, than in other parts of the country.113 government agencies, banks and NGOs.xxvi These micro- finance schemes are mostly semi-formal and as data on For many women, the cultural stigma associated with informal saving groups demonstrated, more women debt and low levels of financial literacy are barriers to than men participate. Women make up 61 percent of credit access. Evidence gathered in Vientiane Capital microfinance savers nationally. The average size of in- in 2003 from a number of large markets demonstrates dividual women’s microfinance savings (204,000 LAK) that women avoid financial formalities to get loans and is almost twice that of men’s (106,000 LAK).112 The dif- lack confidence to enter formal banking institutions.114 ference may be due partly to the LWU’s well-developed They prefer to get quick loans from moneylenders of- service network.xxvii fering simple loan procedures, or join informal savings schemes and credit groups. Due to these preferences The Northern region lags behind other parts of the and lack of familiarity with formal banking, women of- country in microfinance activity. In the Central region, ten depend heavily on their husbands to access capi- female clients’ savings are seven times that of male cli- tal. Few women are aware that they can use their land ents. In the South, even though the numbers of female as collateral for loans from banks. Many women take a and male clients are not very large, female savers are loan in their husband’s name, as husbands often have twice as numerous as male savers and save five times greater financial literacy and are more comfortable with more. In the North, the amounts of saving by women formal banking procedures, including loan repayment. and men are similar. This is likely due to the fact that Infrastructure: Electricity, Transport, Mining and Hydropower Electricity Electricity grid connections in Lao PDR jumped dra- matically during 1995-2010. Coverage went from just 16 percent in 1995 to almost 67 percent of households (700,000) in 2010.115 Rural-urban disparities remain in electricity coverage: although 99 percent of urban com- munities have electricity, this is contrasted with a mere 48 percent coverage among rural communities.116 To tackle this challenge, the government plans to extend the grid to road-accessible rural areas, and to promote “off-grid� energy development in more remote areas. The coverage target is for 90 percent of households to have access to electricity by 2020. Photo by ADB xxvi 3,420 of the 9,111 villages surveyed had microfinance coverage. The survey covered about 90 percent of all villages in Lao PDR (NERI 2006). xxvii LWU reports that in 2008 it supported 1,142 savings groups, which averaged 100 members and savings of nearly 115 million LAK per group. 44 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Access to electricity helps close gender gaps through a Transport number of pathways. Increased electrification reduces the time spent on labor-intensive domestic chores per- Better roads provide improved access to services, in- formed mainly by women and girls, allowing greater frastructure and market opportunities, creating ben- flexibility in organizing household activities (includ- efits for local residents, including women. Benefits ing productive tasks). Surveys of newly electrified ru- include improved access to schools, health facilities, ral households also show that access to grid electricity agricultural extension and other basic services, new has increased women’s income-generating activities. income-generating activities such as ecotourism and For example, by enabling electric water pumping for cultural tourism, and enhanced opportunities for work vegetable gardens and household industries, or the in nearby towns.xxviii Rural access roads are particularly use of refrigerators for micro and small businesses that important for improving the lives of rural women and serve tourists, women have greater access to income- girls by easing the drudgery of their productive and generating activities. Evidence suggests that electric- reproductive work. ity not only helps extend hours for both productive and leisure activities in the country, but also translates While almost all villages in Lao PDR are accessible dur- into better educational outcomes, improved social and ing the dry season, 16 percent of villages have no road community services, and better security, particularly access during the rainy season.117 Improvement of the for women and girls. road network is a key poverty reduc- tion strategy and a core element of Box 15: Power to the Poor: Connecting female-headed house- the government’s NGPES as road ac- holds to the grid cess is a general determinant of the availability of water and electricity in Poor households that remain unconnected to the grid tend to be a village. disproportionately female-headed. Affordability of connection fees (equivalent to US$100) is reportedly the major constraint for However, increased road expansion these households. Recognizing that the extent to which poor ru- into remote areas also carries risks, es- ral households will benefit from grid extension depends on the pecially for women. Road access can pricing of services—particularly connection fees-the national also unfortunately facilitate illegal log- Power Company, Électricité De Lao, has implemented a Power to ging, hunting of wildlife and overhar- the Poor (P2P) pilot program to provide interest-free loan financ- vesting of NTFPs, therein damaging ing of house-wiring costs for the poorest households. Household the fragile ecosystem on which many required payments are scheduled monthly over a period of three rural households, and poor women’s years, ensuring the house-wiring outlay is budget-neutral for the livelihoods in particular, depend. It household. As a result, the connection rate increased from 78 opens up remote areas to road con- percent to 95 percent in pilot villages and power supply has im- struction workers, truckers, traders proved. Among female-headed households (which comprise 8 and tourists, potentially increasing the percent of all households, but 43 percent of all poor households), spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs.118 household connectivity increased from 63 percent to 90 percent. To combat the latter, the MPWT has Cleaner energy was available to households at a cheaper cost than been collaborating with the National traditional polluting sources of diesel lamps and car batteries. The Committee for Control of AIDS (NCCA) P2P program is now being scaled-up nationally. In March 2012, to mainstream HIV/AIDS awareness close to 28,000 households – including 1,300 female headed and prevention within infrastructure households – had gained access to electricity through P2P. Sources: Mette, Boatman and Chanthalinh 2009; Larsen 2009; and World Bank, 2010e. xxviii Thammanosouth, S. et al . (2012) argue that such positive gender impacts of road development are not always the case, drawing on the surveys conducted in four villages along or near the National Route 3. The research indicated that the road development did not automatically improve people’s mobility, and when it does, men get more mobility than women. Research also found that where income increase was found among women, this did not result in the change in the gender division of labor at home. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 45 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks projects in Lao PDR, focusing particularly on vulner- that these specific measures have not been fully imple- able groups such as young women and men living mented, and are insufficient to prevent all negative im- in remote areas. MPWT prepared a HIV Strategic Plan pacts.125 2010-2015 highlighting: situational analysis; work with decision-makers; training for MPWT staff; prevention, Mining and Hydropower treatment, and care; stigma reduction; and reduction Development of substance abuse.119 Mining and hydropower combined contributed 2.5 The “investment climate� conditions of border pro- percent of the annual 7 percent growth from 2007-10.126 cedures also appear to unduly harm women traders. While large gains can be realized at national and local A recent World Bank study (2011) has called for more levels, the potential for socioeconomic risks such as custom automation to avoid this.120 Finally, in areas landlessness, resource loss, food insecurity and a de- with public transport, including urban areas, women crease in social capital are persistent threats, with im- predominate among producers and traders using such portant gender dimensions.127 services and thus feel the impacts of poor service qual- ity more acutely.121 Limited mobility of women where In cases when hydropower and mining projects dis- it exists impacts their bargaining power in markets, re- rupt local livelihoods, women’s activities often bear the sulting in lower prices for their goods.122 brunt of the negative impacts as they rely on common resources for their livelihoods (land and water) and Women often perceive road impacts differently from generally own less alienable land than men for which men.123 Recognizing this, the NGPES calls for the in- they might otherwise receive compensation. The influx tegration of gender considerations into road projects of large construction crews into a remote area also in- through the following steps: i.) gender and social as- creases the risks of STDs for local communities, espe- sessments of new road projects; ii.) monitoring of proj- cially for young women and girls engaged in sex work. ect impacts for inclusion of women in community con- sultations on new road construction; and iii.) expanded International experience indicates that women hold involvement of women in community road mainte- only a small percentage (5-6 percent) of jobs in these nance committees. More recently, approved projects, industries.128 The tendency for large-scale mining to be including the ADB Northern Rural Infrastructure Proj- male-dominated is heightened by traditional gender ect, support these gender considerations. The project roles and education gaps between women and men, is designed to provide for at least 15 percent of jobs particularly in rural areas and among non-Lao-speak- in construction and maintenance, 30 percent of partici- ing ethnic groups. The two large international mining pation in road maintenance committees, HIV and hu- companies operating in Lao PDR – Lang Xang Minerals man trafficking awareness of construction workers and Ltd (LXML) at Sepon in Savannakhet Province and Phu communities, gender awareness of the ministry staff at Bia Mining Ltd in Phu Bia – have progressive human re- the central, provincial, and district levels and the issu- source policies that seek to expand women’s employ- ance of land certificates under both spouses’ names in ment in mining. Women are concentrated in admin- the case of resettlement or land acquisition.124 istrative or support roles such as cooks and cleaners, rather than in operational roles in mining. Women ac- At the community level, the Ministry of Public Works count for 77 percent of the administration department and Transport’s (MPWT) Community Road Model Im- workforce at Sepon mine, though much smaller per- plementation Guidelines (2005) provide for separate centages for workers in operational departments.129 consultations with men and with women, and require villages to include one or more women on their village Gender sensitive planning and benefit-sharing ap- maintenance committees (VMCs) to ensure women proaches can help mitigate negative impacts on local have a continuing voice in decisions and participate communities from large mining and hydro projects and in road maintenance. However, there are indications also increase local benefits and project sustainability. 46 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Such approaches can include gender sensitive consulta- Artisanal Mining tions, careful analysis of gender issues, arrangements for revenue sharing; establishment of community develop- While artisanal mining has the smallest economic ment funds with strong representation of women; and impact on the economy, it has disproportionately development of employment opportunities and ancillary large social and gender impacts.131 Unregistered ar- services with a focus on opportunities to women.130 tisanal mining activities have been reported for at least 9 provinces. United Nations Industrial Develop- ment Organization (UNIDO) estimates that nationally Box 16: Addressing Gender Concerns in Nam The- at least 8,000 people are engaged in artisanal min- un 2 Hydropower Project ing activities, much of it seasonal work supplement- ing subsistence agricultural livelihoods in rural ar- The US$1.45 billion Nam Theun 2 project supported eas. Others suggest that the real figure for artisanal by the World Bank and ADB has made concerted mining sector participation is significantly higher.132 efforts to take gender issues into consideration, Gender impacts are significant in such sub-sectors as both during project design and implementation. artisanal gold, gemstone and tin mining in the coun- For example a comprehensive gender assessment try where more than 75 percent of these miners are was conducted during project design. This assess- women.133 In tin mining in particular, artisanal miners ment found that women and girls, especially from work as family units with women and men, boys and marginalized ethnic groups and those from poor girls and sometimes, elderly women and men work- households, had limited access to education, off- ing together. Construction, sand and gravel mining farm employment, production markets, cash assets is less seasonal, and includes a 40 percent female and sociopolitical empowerment. Intensified sup- workforce. port for women in project areas would be required, so a Gender Strategy and Action Plan was devel- Artisanal miners have limited knowledge of health, oped that included participatory monitoring mech- safety, and environmental risks. Initial reports sug- anisms, income generation and skills development gest that the use of mercury in artisanal mining in for women, training, and community education on Lao PDR is restricted and significantly lower than in alcoholism, domestic violence and STDs including other parts of the world. However, where mercury HIV/ AIDS. is used to recover gold particles, women undertake the amalgamation and mercury evaporation process During project implementation, land titles for re- without protective equipment in their kitchens at settled villagers were issued jointly to husband and home, usually with children present. International wife and all compensation payments have to be experience suggests that targeted gender-sensitive handed over jointly to husband and wife. Special health and safety campaigns combined with the in- efforts were also taken to ensure that the down- troduction of cheap and accessible technology and stream livelihood programs responded to gender simple protective equipment (such as latex gloves) issues. When it became clear that some vulnerable could reduce mercury exposure to women and chil- households (often elderly widows) were unable dren by more than 90 percent. to take advantage of the more labor-intensive op- portunities, new livelihoods were added, such as raising chickens and pigs. Women are active in the management of Village Income Restoration Fund for the downstream program, and other types of in- come generating groups such as handicraft. Source: Porter and Shivakumar 2011. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 47 Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Box 17: Women Dominate Mining Produce Initiative One alternative livelihood scheme that successfully targeted poor producers, especially women, was Phu Bia Mining’s ‘Locally Grown Produce Initiative’, which has operated since 2008 in villages affected by the Phu Kham Copper-Gold and Gold Heap Leach operations. Operated primarily through trust fund-type schemes, and jointly managed by the Company and the Government, the market garden scheme features 95 percent female membership. Female farmers are able to earn income by selling vegetables directly to the mine. The initiative involves working closely with the Ministry of Health and supports various mass organizations, such as the Lao Women’s Union (LWU) and Lao Youth Union (LYU). Additionally, for education and aware- ness campaigns it is supported by several international organizations such as the Red Cross and Population Services International (PSI). Sources: World Bank 2011 and Earth Systems Lao et. al. 2009a. Tourism: Important Opportunities, Eco and village tourism may add to women’s workload Potential Risks but can also bring income to the family. Ecotourism and village tourism brings new benefits and resources to Tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors in Lao rural areas, but the gender division of labor, resources, PDR. Tourist arrivals have almost tripled since 2003-08. and decision making in local communities means that Tourism now contributes to 7–9 percent of the GDP and women and men do not share the benefits or burdens generates employment for women in the formal hospi- equally. Because of their childcare responsibilities, and tality industry and other informal services. Currently, traditional restrictions on interactions with outsiders, most tourism employment opportunities are in urban women are less able to take advantage of new opportu- and peri-urban areas. As there is strong public and pri- nities for jobs or training, or can only do so if unmarried. vate sector interest in developing the tourist industry, Local men are more likely to secure new income-gener- human resources development has been identified as ating and leadership roles, while local women tend to a major requirement to assist this process. It has been work in lower-paid and lower-status activities, such as estimated that by 2015, tourism could directly employ providing accommodation and meals and participating more than 100,000 people and involve the same number in cultural entertainment.136 While potentially increas- in indirectly linked activities.134 ing cash incomes, some initiatives such as home-stays by tourists may also increase women’s workload with Male and female workers engage in different activi- little recognition of, or compensation for, their efforts. ties within the tourism sector. Women are employed This is because the additional labor of caring for tourist mainly by hotels and guesthouses; food service provid- guests is often considered a natural extension of their ers; bars; travel agencies; and tour companies. They are unremunerated domestic responsibilities.137 generally underrepresented at management levels but predominate in customer service and cleaning. Trans- Expansion of tourism carries social risks, particularly port and repair services, in contrast, are almost exclu- for young women and girls. Gender impacts of com- sively male-operated. There are also indirect opportu- munity-based tourism also vary by age. An increase in nities for income generation in tourism, for example community-based tourism may lead to a reduction in through petty trade or direct sales to tourists. It is com- girls’ school attendance if families assign girls to assist mon for women to make and sell handicrafts to tourists their mothers with tourism-related work.138 The influx and also to operate food and drink stands.135 of tourists to remote areas, and the migration of young 48 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 2 - Economic Empowerment: Balancing opportunities and risks Photo by ADB people from rural areas to cities and towns to work in (and men) doing work in hotels, guesthouses, restau- tourism, increases the risk of STD and HIV/AIDS trans- rants, and nightclubs who may be drawn into part-time mission. This risk is especially high for young women or full-time sex work. Box 18: The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Sustainable Tourism Development Project Started in 2009, the project, executed by the Lao National Tourism Administration, promotes protection and conservation of cultural and environmental heritage, supports community-based tourism and its value chains (such as trade and food and handicraft production), and develops the GMS tourism corridors. For women to engage in higher-paid and more sustainable tourism-related employment, the project provides a number of income generation and business skills training, particularly aiming at ethnic minority wom- en. By 2011, more than 40 percent of such training has been given to women, and 15-50 percent of tour guide trainees are women. Women from smaller ethnic groups, who previously earned no cash income, now make income from selling tickets for nature sites, food, textiles, bamboo paper, palm sugar, and other handicrafts. The project also links up with the ongoing human trafficking and HIV awareness programs of the government. Source: ADB 2011g. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 49 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Women’s rights are recognized in the legal system, and women’s political representation in the National Assembly is now among the highest in the region at the community and household level, however, women continue to struggle to participate on equal terms and in equal numbers. This chapter reviews how the Lao Women’s Union is reaching out to women from the national to village levels, and how the National Commission for the Advancement of Women, estab- lished in 2003, takes action as the government’s focal point on gender mainstreaming and equity. Specifically, chapter 3 looks at gender aspects of governance structures in Lao PDR, including the legal framework, government systems, civil society and the media. It concludes that there is a need to further level the playing field to promote women’s participa- tion and voice in the country’s governance structures. 50 Reducing Vulnerability, Increasing Opportunity Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice National Laws and Legal Framework The legal framework for promoting gender equality in Lao PDR is strong.139 As clearly stipulated in the re- vised Constitution of 2003 and other laws, women and men have equal rights in all spheres: political, social- cultural, and family. The 1991 Constitution of Lao PDR guarantees equal rights for women and men (Article 22 and 24). It states, “Lao citizens of both sexes shall en- joy equal rights in political, economic, cultural, social, and family affairs�. Article 22 embodies the principle of equality between women and men in all the legal doc- uments and regulations. The Constitution gives the man- date of women’s advancement to the Lao Women’s Union (Article 7). Women’s equal rights are also stipulated in the Family, Land, and Property Laws; the Labor Law; the Electoral Law; and the Penal Law. National Strategy for Advancement of Women The National Strategy for the Advancement of Wom- en (NSAW) (2011-2015) seeks to advance Lao PDR as a country “where all women enjoy equality with men, and can achieve their full potential in politics, the economy, culture, social and family life while enjoying a safe condition for living�.140 Its overall goals are to: in- crease understanding of gender equality; enable more women to join decision-making positions; provide op- portunities for women and girls to access health care, education, training, employment, income generation, infrastructure, and social protection; promote wider participation of women from all ethnic groups in eco- Photo by The World Bank nomic activities and social services; and strengthen plans into their targets, and allocating from their own gender machinery in-country, especially the NCAW. budgets accordingly.141 The Ministry of Finance simi- larly is instructed to issue guidance on budget lines, The NSAW includes provisions for funding of the na- allocation and expenditure for NSAW implementation. tional strategy for the advancement of women by re- While this appears as advice to “mainstream gender�, in quiring that GOL issue guidance for sectors and local practice it can also result in an unfunded mandate. Box authorities at all levels on integrating NSAW action 20 includes more details on the NSAW. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 51 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Box 19: National Strategy for Women Sets Targets The NSAW aims to achieve the following goals by 2015: GOAL 1: Awareness raising and legislation • 60 percent of line ministries, organizations and provinces mainstream gender in their strategies • Sex-disaggregated data is collected for database GOAL 2: Strengthening national gender machineries • Improved capacity of national machineries in gender GOAL 3: Increasing women’s participation in the NSEDP • 98 percent net enrollment at primary level and 75 percent at secondary level • 20 percent each of illiterate adults and primary school dropouts in vocational training (half of trainees to be women) • 50 percent of tertiary enrollment should be female • Under-five mortality reduced to 70 per 1,000 live births • Under-one mortality rate reduced to 45 per 1,000 live births • 90 percent of under-one children vaccinated for measles • Maternal mortality rate decreased to 260 per 100,000 live births • 50 percent of births attended by skilled health personnel • 50 percent coverage rate for contraception • 60 percent of pregnant mothers receive antenatal care • HIV infection among general population reduced to less than 1 percent • HIV infection among 15-24 year olds reduced to less than 5 percent • Malaria deaths reduced to 0.2 per 100,000 population • Tuberculosis deaths reduced to 204 per 100,000 population • 70 percent of tuberculosis cases diagnosed and receive directly observed treatments (DOT) GOAL 4: Increasing number of women in decision making at all levels • 20 percent increase in number of women in decision-making from district level upwards and also in leading positions in state agencies and mass organizations • 30 percent increase in number of women parliamentarians in the 7th Legislature • Social sectors and enterprises where women predominate shall have female leaders • Training for 25 percent of all female staff in political and governance theory GOAL 5: Supporting international cooperation in gender • Supporting training and cooperation on CEDAW. Sources: NSAW and GOL 2011. 52 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Governance Structures: Status of Women’s Representation at the National Level The Lao People’s Revolutionary Party dominates the political process at all levels of government. Accord- ing to the 1991 Constitution, Lao PDR is a multi-ethnic single-party state governed under the leadership of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party. State actions are taken in line with resolutions of the Party Congress held every five years. Party Leadership is Male-dominated There is only one woman in the eleven-member Po- litburo, and only four in the central committee of 55 members (one of whom is also a member of the elev- en-member Politburo, and president of the National Assembly).142 The Politburo approves all choices for se- nior government positions (President, Prime Minister, ministers, directors, and provincial and district gover- nors). The Party also clears all candidates put forward for National Assembly elections. It can be difficult for women to rise through the Party system. Government or Party promotion generally follows after special administrative, leadership com- petency and political training at the Party’s Tha Ngon Administration School, or in neighboring Viet Nam, or Photo by insmai.com the People’s Republic of China. Advancing through this targets�, which include “being a good citizen, being system is a challenge for women, given challenges of good in development, and having a good cultural fam- balancing family responsibilities with long periods of ily�. The LWU has representation in every village, with residential political training, and also because of more one member of the LWU representing women in each subtle barriers to participation present in traditionally village council.143 By reaching out to women from the male-dominated political networks. national to the provincial, district, and village levels, the LWU serves as a bridge between the People’s Revolu- The Lao Women’s Union: Women’s tionary Party, the government, and Lao women from Official Voice urban and rural areas. Through its extensive networks, the LWU has been able to bring women’s voices into The Lao Women’s Union (LWU)xxix is mandated to repre- public administration — often providing the only fe- sent women of all ethnic groups and to “protect wom- male voice at the table. In addition to its grassroots en’s rights and interests�. It is guided by “three quality activities, the LWU promotes and monitors the imple- xxix The LWU took root in the Lao Patriotic Women’s Association, founded in 1955, which historically mobilized women to participate in the struggle for national independence. It is one of the country’s four official mass organizations. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 53 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice mentation of women’s development programs in com- Lao PDR. While NCAW’s direct line to the Prime Minis- pliance with the Party’s and government’s policies, the ter’s office suggests potential as an important gender Constitution, and laws related to ensuring equal rights advocate in government, NCAW’s capacity and institu- between women and men. However, the LWU is often tional support remains limited, not least due to NCAW limited in its ability to represent the interests of women and sub-CAW members’ poor understanding of sector- from more remote areas - particularly among non-Lao- specific gender issues –which hampers effective main- Tai ethnic communities. streaming in practice. The LWU’s key programs include projects for women Sub-Committees for the Advancement of Women (Sub- focused on income generation, credit/savings, educa- CAW) units have been established throughout the tion, nutrition, and reproductive health, most of which country, and across ministries and state organizations are supported by donor agencies. The LWU conducts and at provincial and capital administrative levels, cre- activities with governmental partners and also cooper- ating a broad network of gender focal points. However, ates with many international NGOs. In 2011, the Lao seniority of experience within the government was also Congress approved the next 5-year roadmap (2011- a determining factor in the selection of the Sub-CAWs. 2015) of the LWU, aimed at promoting and protecting While most male members have good decision-making the rights of Lao women and children.144 authority, many lack basic gender concepts and main- streaming skills. Their efforts are further hampered by In 1997, the LWU established Gender Resource Infor- limited resources and competing priorities within each mation and Development Center (GRID). As a technical sector. During recent years, the NCAW Secretariat and body, GRID has trained a pool of gender trainers and a small number of sub-CAWS have received donor sup- researchers at the central and provincial levels. It has port. However, this gender machinery still lacks critical also developed training materials and conducted re- capacity, resources and institutional support to deliver search and gender analysis on various topics—which it its mandate. disseminates widely, including through its five libraries and resource centers. The Women’s Caucus of the National Assembly The National Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW) Between 1990 and 2010, the proportion of female members in the Lao National Assembly increased from The National Commission for the Advancement of 6 percent to 25 percent (i.e., 29 women members from Women (NCAW) is responsible for formulating and a 115-seat National Assembly), which is impressive.145 implementing national policy for the advancement of Female Assembly members formed a caucus in late women, as well as for mainstreaming gender in all sec- 2002 and developed a gender mainstreaming strategy tors. Formally established through the Prime Minister’s and action plan, as a way to further strengthen the Na- Decree No. 37 in 2003, it is chaired by the Deputy Prime tional Assembly’s capacity on gender issues. Specific Minister, supported by four deputies: the President of activities have included: development of a resolution the Lao Women’s Union, the Minister of the Prime Min- on gender issues in parliaments for the Asia-Pacific Par- ister’s Office, the Minister of Public Health and the Vice liamentary Forum in 2009 (hosted by the Lao National Minister of Education. NCAW’s 16 members include all Assembly); organization of female leadership training; vice ministers of line ministries and mass organizations; gender training workshops for parliamentarians; gen- the Vice President of the Supreme Court and the Office der screening of budgets and laws, as well as oversight of the Prosecutor; and the Vice Governor of the Bank of of their implementation; and advocacy work for the 54 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice advancement of women. The capacity and resources At the sub-national level, significant gender gaps in needed for the Women’s Caucus to perform this essen- representation remain. At the provincial level, there tial gender-mainstreaming role in the National Assem- are no female governors and only one female vice-gov- bly, however, still remain limited. ernor. At the district and village levels, women’s repre- sentation is also low. According to data from the Prime Decentralization and Representation Minister’s Office, in 2010 there were 220 female village chiefs from a total of 8,388 (3 percent of total), and 942 The GOL’s Decentralization Policy is still being refined, female deputy village chiefs out of 15,848 (6 percent but is expected to expand people’s participation and of total). Three members of the 13-member Supreme improve decentralized service delivery.146 Local staff Court are women.148 will be trained to improve planning capacity at this lev- el. With three female ministers and a fourth woman in By 2008, nearly 40 percent of the country’s civil servants an equivalent positionxxx from a total of 12 ministers, as were women. Disproportionately few women advance well as three woman vice ministers, the central govern- to high-level positions, despite largely similar educa- ment has made progress on women’s participation and tional qualifications between most male and female government representation (see Table 19).147 However, civil servants. There are reported gender inequities in women are still the minority. the civil service benefits system as well. For example, only male employees are eligible for a spouse allow- ance.149 Table 19: Women in Political Leadership Positions Position Total Women Men 2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2010 Ministers and equivalent 31 36 3 4 28 32 10% 11% 90% 89% Vice Ministers 33 40 3 3 30 37 9% 8% 91% 93% Provincial Governor 17 17 0 0 17 17 3% 0% 100% 100% Vice Provincial Governor 34 40 1 3 33 37 3% 8% 97% 93% District Governor 143 143 2 10 141 133 1% 7% 99% 93% Vice District Governor 192 230 4 9 188 221 2% 4% 98% 96% Village Head 8,726 8,608 148 220 8,574 8,388 2% 3% 98% 97% Vice Village Head 17,128 16,790 863 942 16,265 15,848 5% 6% 95% 94% Source: PACSA 2010 xxx The President of the Lao Women’s Union has a ministerial-level position. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 55 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Civil Society: New Legal Media Reinforces Traditional Frameworks Stereotypes Civil society is at an early stage of development in Lao Only official state media are authorized to operate in PDR. Though a number of international NGOs have been Lao PDR and public social and political debates must operating in the country for several years150 and some be presented in terms acceptable to the state media urban-based groups are emerging, locally-grounded authority. The media often reinforces the traditional organizations are few, and typically restricted to com- and stereotypical roles of women. Reporting and news munity service delivery. To date, there has been limited formats are traditionally very structured, although political space for independent organization. NGOs some media outlets are testing “talkback�, magazine, and civil society groups in Lao PDR have strong poten- and other formats. tial to contribute to women’s empowerment and gen- der equality. Independent CSOs, given a sufficiently The government is supporting a number of initiatives enabling environment, could serve the country by of- to mainstream gender concerns into the media. First, fering social accountability measures and conducting Lao National Radio Station broadcasts ethnic language citizen audits in key topics, including, on gender-re- programs that could be used to promote gender em- sponsiveness of services, from local to national levels. powerment messages. Government policy to encour- age community radio also opens up possibilities for The government recently passed a Decree on Non- women to participate in community-level media. The Profit Associations (NPAs), in 2009. The decree provides Ministry of Education and Sports and Ministry of Pub- the first legal recognition for domestic civil society or- lic Health also have their own radio programs. LWU has ganizations. The new legal framework for NPAs recog- a specific TV broadcast on women’s issues and GRID nizes the contribution of civil society organizations in has organized a series of gender workshops for vari- development activities, particularly those targeting the ous government staff in the media sector. Several TV most vulnerable people. It is uncertain to what degree programs have also campaigned and disseminated the new Decree on NPAs will be implemented, includ- information on HIV/AIDS and sexual exploitation and ing what kinds of groups will be allowed to register. human trafficking. Currently most civil society organizations work closely with the government (usually in association with one There are, however, several obstacles to gender-respon- of the mass organizations or ministries), playing a com- sive media. For example, limited discussion or informa- plementary, but distinctive, role.151 tion is made available to viewers challenging gender roles or supporting women’s empowerment—for ex- A prominent group working on gender in Lao PDR is ample, by informing women about their legal rights, the Gender and Development Group (GDG). The GDG or suggesting their potential for economic empower- is an umbrella organization originally established in ment. Another obstacle to gender-responsive media 1991 by the Lao Women’s Union, UNICEF, and interna- is the small number of female media professionals. Tra- tional NGOs. It has around 20 members who represent ditionally in Lao PDR, journalism has been considered international NGOs working in Lao PDR and organizes a male profession, unsuitable for women as it requires forum meetings for coordination and exchange of les- more independence and mobility than has been cultur- sons and experiences on gender and development ac- ally acceptable. Women represent 30 percent of media tivities in the country. The Group also provides gender staff in Lao PDR, though more than 50 percent of these training and consultancy services. are concentrated in administration, and 10 percent are in technical fields.152 56 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Increasingly, people in Lao PDR are exposed to media from other countries, through television, radio, and the Internet. The government is concerned about the import of foreign cultural values that conflict with tra- ditional values such as materialism, pornography, pro- miscuity and gambling. However, the growing access to Thai and other international media may help young women and men challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Combating Violence Against Women Lao PDR has no systematic reporting system for moni- toring domestic violence, but a number of studies suggest prevalence rates in keeping with regional av- erages. A 2009 survey by GRID, though not nationally representative, shows that physical (including sexual) violence by a male intimate partner occurs in all prov- inces.153 About one in five of the women surveyed re- ported having experienced physical violence by a do- mestic partner at some time in their lives, and about half of this group reported that they were currently ex- periencing physical domestic violence. Almost one in three reported having experienced emotional violence by a domestic partner at some time.xxxi A 2003 survey found that the most commonly attribut- ed causes of physical violence against women were that their spouse was drunk, or had money or work-related problems.154 Among women who had experienced physical violence, more than half reported having had to leave their homes, though almost all later returned. In most cases, women looked for help from their family or village authority, who often advised them to return home to determine which spouse was at fault, and to try to improve family relations. Photo by The World Bank xxxi Emotionally abusive acts by a partner consisted of being insulted or being humiliated in front of others, or made to feel bad about oneself, or being intimidated or scared on purpose, or being threatened directly. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 57 Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Photo by The World Bank The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2006 found approach to women’s rights, though penalties for do- that nationally, 81 percent of women (aged 15-49) be- mestic violence resulting in serious injury or physical lieve that a husband is justified in beating his wife/part- damage include both fines and imprisonment.157 Both ner for any of the following reasons: when she goes out LWU centers and the MOLSW, together with NGOs, as- without telling him; when she neglects the children; sist victims of domestic violence. when she argues with him; when she refuses sexual re- lations with him; and when she burns the food.155 Many factors affect how violence against women is de- fined and whether it is even considered a crime. In a Female sex workers are particularly at risk of sexual and 2009 survey by CARE International, pursued in coopera- other forms of violence. A study by CARE found that tion with the LWU, most respondents confirmed that the women involved in sex work in the Vientiane area en- initial decision on whether a case is considered criminal is countered a high level of violence and abuse by clients, made at the village level.158 Most domestic violence dis- “managers,’’ and authorities and—due to their illegal putes are handled either by local authorities (mainly “vil- status—received limited or no legal protection or sup- lage mediation units� xxxii) or informally within the com- port.156 munity, where the focus is more often on maintaining family unity than on protecting women. The 2009 LWU/ Lao law increasingly recognizes women’s rights, partic- GRID survey found that laws and procedures related to ularly with the 2004 adoption of the Law on Develop- domestic violence were poorly enforced, partly from ment and Protection of Women (LDPW). However, it is a lack of training and understanding of domestic vio- less obvious whether the LDPW is applied in practice lence by prosecutors, police, judges, healthcare givers, or integrated into the rest of the national legal frame- and service providers.159 The Lao Women’s Union found work. For example, gaps and inconsistencies are evi- that systems for monitoring and assessing the work of dent in the treatment of sexual and domestic violence VMUs are weak or absent.160 under the Penal Law, which takes a somewhat narrow xxxii Each village mediation unit (VMU) consists of about six members, including the head of the village and representatives from mass organizations such as Lao Women’s Union, Lao Youth Union, and Lao Front for National Construction as well as from the Public Security Office. The primary purpose of the VMU is to resolve disputes and the unit has no authority to enforce laws. If the VMU deems a case of domestic violence not to be serious enough or not to be a crime, the focus would consequently be on settling the case through mediation and the two parties coming to an agreement, rather than on seeking justice or redress for the victim of domestic abuse (even in cases resulting in hospitalization). 58 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 3 - Agency: Leveling the playing field for women’s participation and voice Spousal violence has become a major cause of divorce in Lao PDR. Domestic violence was the second most Box 20: Access to Justice – A Challenge for Both common cause of divorce cases brought before the Men and Women courts in 2001-02. The Family Law does not provide a no-fault divorce option, thus requiring the petitioning Access to the formal legal system is limited in prac- party seeking a divorce to prove legitimate grounds. tice for both women and men in Lao PDR. Because the formal Lao legal system has such a short reach, Meanwhile the Law on Civil Procedure seeks to recon- quasi-judicial and customary law institutions are cile the parties rather than ensuring the protection of the means by which most people access justice, women and children in situations of domestic abuse. with important gender implications. Across the country, central government laws and regulations Rape is criminalized by law, with punishment set at are not consistently applied or enforced. The state 3-5 years imprisonment, with longer sentences and/or prefers resolving issues at the village level—a capital punishment for victims under age 18, or in case practice with significant gender implications. The of serious injury or death.161 Rape is reportedly rare, practice of rewarding “case-free villages� and “cul- though may be under-reported. Domestic violence is tural villages� that have not made referrals to dis- illegal, though there is no law against marital rape. trict courts encourages the smoothing over of dis- putes at the village level. The majority of women’s Lao law does not contain specific penalties for child disputes are resolved at this level. prostitution, but the penalty for sex with a child under Rural women are much more likely to rely on vil- age 15 (the age of consent) is 1-5 years imprisonment lage-based justice and on customary law. This is and fines from US$60-360.162 The government has because they tend to be illiterate and have limited sought to prevent the child sex tourism industry, which Lao language skills; are less educated on rights prevails in other countries in the region, from taking and legal issues; and those in rural ethnic regions root in Lao PDR. The government and NGOs train tour- are less able to travel from their villages. Knowl- ism-sector workers (including taxi drivers and tourism edge about customary law is also quite limited, police) to be on the lookout for child prostitution, and but the link between custom and Lao people’s introduced a hotline for reporting abuse, in addition to many ethnicities indicates that the range of cus- displaying posters on the issue in major international tomary practices is likely to be diverse, orally re- hotels in Vientiane and Luang Prabang.163 produced, and linked to traditional relationships to land, as well as to traditional gender roles. There is a question of whether village-based justice can avoid strong patriarchal gender bias and provide adequate protection for women. Source: UNDP 2006. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 59 Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks Lao PDR’s current growth environment hosts a number of emerging opportunities and threats. As discussed in this chapter, chief opportunities and risks include potential gains from regional integration and trade; the question of mi- gration (and its mirror image of trafficking); and growing risks from climate change. Chapter 4 begins by introducing Lao PDR’s progress with regional integration. In just over 2 decades, the country has gone from being landlocked to landlinked, contributing to regional cooperatives and dialogues. Without a doubt, regional integration has assisted Lao PDR with developing its industries and trade. However, as industries developed, so have the risks that accompany them. This chapter discusses these emerging areas, while also considering risks associated with migration and trafficking and vulnerabilities related to environmental change. 60 Reducing Vulnerability, Increasing Opportunity Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks Regional Integration and Trade Since introducing the New Economic Mechanism in 1986, Lao PDR has been expanding its trade, transport, and other links with neighboring countries. In 1997, it became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The government’s engagement in regional cooperation can be seen through its in- volvement in the GMS, the Mekong River Commission (MRC), and numerous sub-regional initiatives on HIV/ AIDS, migration, human trafficking, and other emerg- ing issues, many with important gender dimensions. Lao PDR’s cross-border trade has increased substan- tially over the past decade.164 The gendered impacts of agricultural commercialization and the expansion of trade vary, depending on household livelihood strate- gies, and intra-household division of labor and resource control. New cross-border markets are emerging for hand-woven textiles and other handicrafts produced mainly by women. The 7th NSEDP targets to expand handicraft markets by 15 percent from 2011-15, with 18 percent export growth.165 Photo by insmai.com The economic benefit that women derive from handi- only account producers or wage-workers (or worse, un- craft production depends on their knowledge of the paid “family help�), but instead also processors at the market, access to inputs, relationship with traders, and intermediate level, or traders at higher levels.169 control over intra-household decisions on labor and capital. Women from several ethnic groups in Lao PDR Emerging Industry Risks are increasingly involved in commercial weaving and embroidery, and have established relationships with The garment industry is a fast-growing sector in Lao buyers in Thailand and overseas. Foreign companies PDR, with 15 percent growth expected in 2011.170 Gar- have also successfully exported high-value handicrafts, ment industry workers in Lao PDR comprise mainly combining traditional weaving techniques with west- women (80 percent) from rural areas (80 percent), es- ern designs.166 pecially from the Northern provinces.xxxiii These women migrate for garment work as an alternative to difficult More generally, however, the sector suffers from ca- agricultural labor on family farms and because few oth- pacity constraints, lacking key human resource, capital er job opportunities exist in rural areas. Most are single, and domestically produced raw materials.167 To help and are 18-25 years old. Their educational attainment combat this, the Department of Trade Promotion and levels are higher than rural averages: most have some Product Development, together with the World Bank, is secondary schooling. While their pay in garment facto- now supporting a value chain development project in ries is modest, it is steady income. Often it also provides the silk textiles industry that links rural silk farmers with a new, enriching experience for young rural women. lead weaving firms, providing training and technical as- Cash income earned by young women appears to im- sistance.168 Helping to ensure women’s economic gain prove not only their economic independence, but also from such activities requires supporting their improved their status and bargaining power in the family, and position in specific value chains, so that they are not acts as an incentive to delay marriage and childbirth. xxxiii Fifty-nine percent are from the North, 26 percent from the South, and 16 percent from the Central region (UNDP and NSC 2006). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 61 Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks Working in the garment sector also presents particu- lar risks for young women who are vulnerable to labor exploitation, sexual harassment, and other health and safety risks. Factory managers are mainly male, and op- portunities for women’s advancement have been limit- ed to date. According to a gender assessment conduct- ed by the World Bank on labor practices in the garment sector, rural women were attracted to employment in Photo by The World Bank the sector and found it empowering, however overall, labor standards were poorly enforced with limited op- portunity for third party arbitration or dispute resolu- Box 21: Vientiane Garment Factories in Focus tion (and lack of experience among recent female mi- grants with such formal measures).171 Box 21 highlights A field survey of 21 garment companies in Vien- the importance of labor standards, health and safety tiane Capital found that 85 percent of the 9,436 issues in the sector. workers are female. Women in these firms work mainly in the sewing section, while men domi- Migration and Trafficking nate the cutting, washing and packing sections. Most workers live in factory dormitories, some in cramped conditions and without much privacy. While migration statistics are not systematically col- Very few workers receive much formal training in lected, several studies suggest that the cross-border the factory; most learn on-the-job, doing the sim- movement of people from Lao PDR to other coun- plest work first, for example, first cutting thread, tries, especially Thailand, is accelerating.172 In 2005, the then simple sewing, and later more skilled tasks Population Census estimated a cumulative net outmi- for which they receive higher wages. gration of around 150,000 people, mostly aged 20-30. Rates of internal migration are even more difficult to Safety and crowding in these workplaces range calculate.xxxv Persistent patterns include the movement from good in large plants financed with foreign of young people for education and jobs in urban areas; direct investment to cramped and potentially significant migration from the North to the Central re- dangerous in other domestic firms.xxxiv Workers gion, particularly to the Vientiane Capital area; and in- are mainly paid on a piece-rate basis. Most work- ternational migration from the South of the country, ers interviewed said that they received extra pay predominantly to Thailand. There is also a continuum for overtime work (some firms paid a premium of migration and more forced labor conditions, particu- rate per piece completed during overtime, though larly in the national Lao PDR context. Economic pres- most paid the same rate). sures, for example, pull many rural girls into non-farm sector work, such as with beverage shops, where du- Source: CNHDR 2006. ties then expand into paid sex work. This example can be seen in border towns such as Boten, bordering the People’s Republic of China.173 xxxiv A more recent World Bank study (2012) reported the opposite in worker perceptions of labor conditions: saying that larger export-oriented factories were strictly run and included harassment, while smaller Lao-owned firms, while paying less and featuring worse physical conditions, were preferred due to the “softer� family-style management (World Bank 2011 Lao PDR Mapping the Gender Dimensions of Trade). This suggests a range of “modes of control� of labor and different, subjective, definitions of job quality. See also work by Guy Standing at ILO (2000). In terms of formal labor monitoring, the World Bank study found that foreign firms/suppliers used voluntary certification on labor standards and periodic auditing, but that these were insufficient to counter poor labor conditions. xxxv Census data suggests that inter-provincial and inter-district migration diminished between 1995 and 2005, but this may be explained by the increased rate of short-distance internal relocation of ethnic groups and remote villages into focal zones (Phouxay, Malmberg and Tollefsen). 62 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks Lao PDR has a long history of migration to Thailand an urgent attention.177 It is also of growing concern that due to that country’s proximity, cultural and linguistic due to the impacts of People’s Republic of China’s one- similarities and higher economic standing. In 2000, child policy on the availability of women of reproduc- Thai authorities estimated almost 100,000 Lao migrant tive age in rural People’s Republic of China, as well as workers in Thailand. With this said, the International the significant increase of Chinese migrant workers in Labor Organization (ILO) and Thai research institutes Northern Lao PDR, women (particularly from the Akha estimated there are at least 300,000 Lao Workers in ethnic group) are being sold as brides to the People’s Thailand - a figure three-times higher than official es- Republic of China.178 timates. Only a fraction are formally registered migrant workers. While accurate data are difficult to obtain since All forms of trafficking are prohibited under Penal Code most migrants move through informal channels, the Article 134, which also prescribes harsh penalties for overwhelming majority of migrants to Thailand seem persons convicted of human trafficking. As well, the Law to be young people aged 15 to 25 from border areas. on the Development and Protection of Women, Article Available reports indicate that male migrants end up 24, proscribes the trafficking of women and children. in agriculture work, factory work, and fishing boats in Lao PDR remains engaged through the Coordinated Thailand, while female migrants in domestic work, ser- Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking (COM- vices, and entertainment industry. MIT) in combating trafficking regionally. However, the GOL has not yet ratified the Convention on the Rights Female migrants are generally less educated and of Migrant Workers. younger than male migrants. The average age for male migrants is just below 21, while it is 16.5 for women. There is ongoing debate over the prevalence of traffick- Fourteen percent of males are reportedly under 16 ing in Lao PDR. The MOLSW reported that of 1,447 traf- years old, while females equate to approximately 63 ficked victims formally repatriated from Thailand from percent of the migrating population under the same 2001-2009, 96 percent were girls, and 85 percent were age. This puts female migrants at greater risk of labor 18 years old or less. There is also a regional dimension to and sexual exploitation.174 Most women stop migrating the problem: 76 percent of victims were from the three at marriage or around age 26, while men continue to Southern provinces of Savannakhet, Champassaak, migrate until around age 30, and sometimes migrate and Saravan. However, given the clandestine nature of even after marriage. trafficking, caution should be made on making and us- ing estimates of the number of people trafficked and Female migrants are vulnerable to such abuses as re- their socioeconomic profiles. More recent work, such strictions on freedom of movement and communica- as UNIAP’s human trafficking sentinel surveillance in tion. These restrictions include being locked in facto- border areas, is providing valuable data, which should ries or houses and not allowed to use the telephone; be used as a basis for anti-trafficking programming and being forced to work for long hours without rest pe- project designs. riods; physical abuse; dangerous working conditions; and deductions and withholding of salary. Female mi- The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare (MOLSW) is grants working in household as domestic or personal participating in a project on Trafficking in Women and help have experienced some of the most extreme cases Children in the Mekong Sub-region. The aim of this of abuse and mistreatment. Due to their irregular sta- project is to collect information on causes of girls and tus, they are unable to negotiate or report abuses to women being trafficked regionally and to propose sub- the authorities for fear of arrest and deportation.175 regional measures to combat this trafficking. A data- base containing information on cross-border traffick- Human trafficking has been defined as the non-con- ing has been established in Lao PDR. In the later stages sensual movement of people for the purpose of ex- of the project, an inter-ministerial working group will ploiting their labor.176 While there is general agreement provide concrete recommendations on how to combat that trafficking differs from migration in that it includes trafficking in women and children. Awareness-raising the element of coercion, in practice it is not always easy activities on the issue at the community level will also to distinguish the point at which a migrant becomes a be conducted as part of the project. victim of trafficking. Given this, a general approach tak- en by the governments, donor agencies, and NGOs has been to target migrants and migrants-to-be for human trafficking prevention and safe migration awareness programs while making the migration channels more secure and regular. With the accelerating regional inte- gration, non-Lao-Tai ethnic groups in remote rural areas are increasingly becoming vulnerable, which requires Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 63 Chapter 4: Emerging Areas and Risks tional Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) does not explicitly address gender challenges or gender oppor- tunities in relation to climate change, nor does the GOL 2010 Climate Change Strategy. The NAPA includes a list of 45 adaptation priority projects in water resources, forestry, agriculture, and public health, but lacks spe- cific analysis, strategy, or proposed interventions for addressing gender issues. Lao women’s traditional responsibilities in the house- hold and community as stewards of natural resources position them well to contribute to strategies for adapt- Photo by insmai.com ing to changing environmental realities. For example, women can be supported to switch to clean fuels for household consumption (benefiting both family health Climate Change and the environment) and also maintain their tradition- al roles in the protection of biodiversity, particularly in As a low-income country with an agriculture-based fragile upland areas and in national protected areas. economy, Lao PDR is highly vulnerable to climate change.179 Women can play key roles in climate change and natural disaster mitigation and adaptation. The 7th NSEDP has estimated a 1.1 percent negative impact Box 22: Working Together Towards Climate on GDP from climate change.180 This would stem from Change Adaptation increasing drought and flood risk; and changes in eco- systems and decreased crop production, from a tem- The country’s Ministry of Natural Resources and perature rise of 1-2 degrees Celsius.181 Environment (MoNRE) works closely with the National Disaster Management Committee and Flooding in August 2008 affected nearly 204,000 peo- the line ministries, which are part of the National ple, damaged an estimated 50,000 hectares of arable Steering Committee on Climate Change (NSCCC), land, and caused overall losses of more than US$9 mil- established in 2008 to mainstream climate change lion. Over the period 2000-2007, the country saw more adaptation and disaster risk reduction and man- than 1 million people affected by floods, and 97,000 by agement into strategy and policy. There are pro- drought, with damages adding up to US$8 million and US$84,251.182 Adaptation to climate variability and cli- posals to extend the Committee’s membership to mate change depends on such factors as wealth, levels mass organizations, including the Lao Women’s of infrastructure resources and technology, and social Union, and enhance communication with CSOs capital and access to information, all of which are medi- and the general public. As is the case elsewhere, ated by gender dynamics in the household, economy special efforts will need to be made to ensure and society.183 women’s voices and preferences are heard during adaptation planning processes. In the area of cli- Women’s roles in climate change mitigation and ad- mate change mitigation, participation including aptation have been insufficiently recognized and sup- processes such as Reducing Emissions from Defor- ported. In Lao PDR, as in most developing countries, estation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), women’s women have the major responsibility for household interests must be represented directly. MoNRE just water supply and energy for cooking and heating, and for producing the family’s food,184 yet their voices are started a new project Harnessing Climate Change often excluded from local and national decision-mak- Mitigation Initiatives to Benefit Women to scale up ing processes about how to manage risks from natural women’s participation in SNV-assisted Improved disaster and climate change, with their gender-specific Cook Stove National Program and its value chain. needs often overlooked.185 Sources: ADB 2008b, World Bank 2011h and World Bank Women’s particular needs and challenges have not been 2010b. a significant consideration in past disaster responses in Lao PDR, including the recent Post-Disaster Needs As- sessment for Cyclone Ketsana (2009). The 2009 Lao Na- 64 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Conclusions: National Challenges and Opportunities This assessment has shown that in tandem with eco- Moving into the 7th National Socio-economic Develop- nomic growth and development, gains have been ment Plan (NSEDP) period (2011-2015), Lao PDR has made in promoting gender equality, in endowments, prioritized agricultural development and moderniza- economic opportunity and agency. The country’s in- tion, continued advances in electrification, education creased integration with its neighbors has resulted in and health services coverage, sub-national develop- more opportunities for women and men alike. But at ment and integration across regions of the country, the same time, economic integration is also increasing and across rural-urban divides, national forest manage- risks, in particular for vulnerable groups, who are accus- ment, as well as support to emerging sectors such as tomed to a traditional way of life. The assessment has tourism and garment sector development. All of these illustrated that special measures are needed to help offer opportunities for women, provided that gender women take advantage of the opportunities economic and ethnic specificities of opportunities, constraints growth brings. Special efforts are also needed to bring and vulnerabilities are routinely assessed as part of na- development to women from ethnic groups and to lis- tional and local planning, and service support, across ten to and act on their specific needs. sectors. With such measures in place, Lao PDR can ex- pect to reap the growth and poverty reduction benefits Lao PDR is at a critical juncture to harness the power of full integration of its girls and boys and women and of its economic growth to improve its human develop- men in the economy, society and natural environment. ment outcomes and ensure that all segments of society can benefit from its natural resource endowment. To achieve these goals, it will be necessary to place gen- der equality and women’s empowerment at the center of national development plans. Photo by The World Bank Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 65 Photo by Junshien Recommendations post-partum follow-up, and emergency obstetric and neonatal care, and for them to understand the benefits Public policy and action are required on a number of of using these services. This is required to meet the 7th fronts to consolidate gender gains and close gender NSEDP targets as MMR of 250 per 100,000 live births, gaps in Lao PDR. and IMR under age 1 of 45 per 1,000 live births. Such efforts will also contribute to the 7th NSEDP’s target of Endowments reaching 50 percent of households with primary health- care coverage, as an interim goal to the main goal of Promoting gender equality in human development en- universal primary healthcare coverage. Outreach and dowments remains a priority in Lao PDR, particularly for attention to health communication, combined with those areas where gender gaps in education remain large, a strong focus on the demand side of health care, is and health outcomes are poor. Closing gaps in human needed in order to encourage women and their male development, where they persist, is likely to yield high re- partners to seek care. turns for the country. Encouraging girls to upper secondary and higher ed- ucation also plays an important role in discouraging early marriage and managing the total fertility rates. Recommendation 1.1: Increase coverage and Outreach activities in rural remote areas and non-Lao- quality of health services, with a focus on remote Tai ethnic groups, training local women as birth at- areas and among ethnic groups, particularly in tendants and health volunteers is proving effective in areas of maternal health, sexual and reproductive reducing cultural and language barriers and can be health and nutrition, and with attention to de- replicated further. mand-side issues, and the role of men in maternal health-seeking behavior. Sexual and reproductive health services and informa- tion coverage also needs to be expanded in Lao PDR. Maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate This includes provision of information on contraception (IMR), while decreasing, are still very high. There is a and family planning, and prevention and treatment of need to accelerate expanding and improving quality sexually-transmitted diseases (including HIV). Design of maternal health services and building demand for of such services needs to take into account the evolv- modern health care, particularly in remote rural areas. ing sexual behaviors of young men and young women This would allow all women of reproductive age to in both rural and urban areas. This requires use of a va- have access to antenatal care, skilled birth attendants, riety of information dissemination venues, such as high 66 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity school curriculum, rural and urban health outposts and encourage female attendance and reduce the dropout private clinics, and a range of providers from public rates of girls (particularly those from disadvantaged to private and NGO sectors, including those working geographic areas and ethnic groups) and encourage with target populations such as sex workers, in order girls’ successful transition into, and completion of, to meet 7th NSEDP targets of 80 percent of sex workers secondary education. This will require attention to re- having access to HIV prevention services. To outreach medial classes in reading, writing and math to enable young women and men of non-Lao-Tai ethnic groups improved learning outcomes for ethnic students, par- in remote areas, innovative use of media (e.g., radio, TV ticularly ethnic girls. This should be undertaken in the or DVD soap opera) and content development based context of an overall drive to improve the coverage and on ethnographic and cultural research, such as those quality of educational provision, with due regard for done by ADB and UNESCO for the Khmu186 can be con- the sanitation, health, and safety requirements of both sidered. girls and boys. Finally, tackling malnutrition rates in Lao PDR still re- It will be important to provide incentives to encourage quires significant efforts in the form of dissemination female attendance and reduce the dropout rates of girls of improved nutritional knowledge and practices, par- from rural regions and disadvantaged ethnic groups at ticularly among women. Given women’s central role in all levels while meeting national targets of 95 percent household food security as well as the impact of their enrollment of children aged 6-10. Similarly, donor-sup- individual nutritional status on overall family wellbe- ported education projects need to ensure gender and ing, women should be the target of these efforts. This ethnic disadvantages are considered in project design. should include taking steps in health extension ser- Finally, as in health, demand-side issues in education vices to counter pregnancy-related food taboos and require attention through use of outreach to ethnic improve women’s overall nutritional knowledge and communities and parents (including via parent-teacher practices, and to work closely with women in remote groups) to more widely promote ethnic girls’ sustained communities to provide them with the tools to practice enrollment and promotion to higher grades. In addi- good nutrition. This will improve women’s health and tion, increased attention to growing the number of fe- that of children, and future workers, in order to meet 7th male teachers in Lao PDR (especially those from ethnic NSEDP targets on nutrition. minorities), and their role in education management and governance, can help improve gender outcomes for students in the country, by providing female role Recommendation 1.2: Improve access to edu- models for girl students, and likely by also improving cation, through investments in rural schools and the educational experience for girls in schools, through educational services, to reduce gender gaps, re- reduced bias against female students in the classroom. gional disparities, and gender stereotypes in sec- Their improved teaching quality is also essential and ondary and tertiary education, vocational train- needs to be supported by increased access to teacher ing, and adult female literacy. training and better teaching curriculum and teacher dormitory facilities. While Lao PDR has made great strides in reducing gen- Female adult illiteracy is still present in the country, der gaps in primary education, disparities still remain hence renewed efforts are needed to combat this il- at higher levels, and especially in more remote rural literacy, possibly in the context of other local develop- areas and among non-Lao-Tai groups. This requires ment efforts (e.g. in health or agriculture). Provision and investments in a greater number of new schools, and implementation of such courses need to be sensitive to expansions of existing grades in existing schools, par- the multiple demands on women’s time, and to provide ticularly in under-served rural areas and among non- child care where feasible to encourage attendance of Lao-Tai dominated regions. Second, there is a need to mothers with young children. These efforts would con- provide incentives (including scholarships) and facili- tribute to the 7th NSEDP target of 99 percent literacy ties (including safe female student accommodation) to among youth aged 15-24. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 67 In addition to formal education, opportunities for Inadequate sanitation facilities in schools (especially training and vocational education (TVET) in both tra- lack of separate facilities for boys and girls) have the ditional and non-traditional sectors can be provided to effect of inhibiting girls’ participation in formal educa- women, in order to build a skilled labor force. Courses tion, especially at secondary level. Investment in school can combine classroom and on-the-job training, with sanitation facilities should thus be a priority area of job placement. Both vocational training and formal focus. Public sanitation facilities in venues typically education should be aimed at helping female workers frequented by women (such as public markets and gain technical and managerial skills demanded by the health centers) can also help improve women’s qual- labor market to counter their segregation into lower ity of life. Individual household sanitation facilities are paying jobs and less remunerative sectors. Innovative costly, when compared to, for example, condominial public-private partnerships are important between services offered at community level. Regardless of the the government regulatory bodies, public and private level of service provided, projects should aim to ensure training institutes and the private sector employers. that female-headed households and poor households New schemes such as wage subsidies to the employers in general are not disadvantaged by project require- providing job placement for women in non-traditional ments for households and communities to contribute jobs need close monitoring. cash or labor towards improved sanitation facilities and local water supply infrastructure. Innovative outreach These efforts are to ensure women’s equal participation mechanisms can also be scaled-up, such as the Com- in the 7th NSEDP goal of increasing industrial/construc- munity-led Total Sanitation Initiative, in order to reach tion/mining share of workforce to 7 percent and ser- the 7th NSEDP sanitation target of 60 percent of total vices share to 23 percent; as well as the goal of women population covered by improved sanitation. participating in the paid workforce at the rate of 40 per- cent of total workers. It is also necessary to monitor the All investments in water and sanitation should include share of the 18 percent educational budget increase gender-related targets and indicators for monitoring going to TVET; and to monitor progress against the improvements in the sector. Implementation of the 7th NSEDP target of 20 percent female participation in gender strategy or gender action plan both at the Min- training courses in technology, agricultural production, istry and the provincial water utilities (Nam Papa) levels processing, handicrafts and services. requires close monitoring. Ongoing innovations such as scholarships to female high school students on wa- ter engineering should continue and their replication Recommendation 1.3: Increase access to, and explored. women’s participation in, clean water and sani- tation, especially in rural areas, while ensuring Economic Opportunities women’s voice is reflected in design and mainte- nance. Women’s effective participation in the economic sphere still lags behind men in Lao PDR. Hence it is necessary, on both equity and efficiency grounds, to take active mea- Investments in water and sanitation are required in or- sures to close gaps in economic opportunity. der to meet the 7th NSEDP targets for 80 percent house- hold coverage in access to clean water and 60 percent access to sanitation, especially in the under-served ru- Recommendation 2.1: Pursue a labor-intensive ral areas. These should include participation by women growth strategy that expands wage labor oppor- in project management and user management com- tunities for both women and men, especially in mittees. such emerging industries as tourism, garments’ textiles, and food processing and beverages. 68 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity As Lao PDR’s economy begins to diversify away from vided to aid in the transition of rural livelihoods, with the primary sector (agricultural production) to more particular attention to the needs of different ethnic value-added sectors, it will be important to monitor the groups and with due regard for their cultural practic- effective participation of women, especially younger es and historical links to the land. Where populations women, in new and expanding service and manufac- have been resettled as part of kumban area develop- turing industries, including tourism, garments/ textiles, ment strategies, special efforts will be required to en- and food processing and beverages, at all levels of em- sure appropriate agricultural skills and market linkages ployment, and as a key driver for women’s economic that are place-specific are transferred to women as well empowerment and reduction of gender inequalities in as men. Agricultural commercialization offers another access to resources. Employers need to be educated on opportunity for women’s advancement, provided they how to make their workplace more gender responsive. are supported with access to information and inputs, to take advantage of opportunities across the agricultural Third party monitoring can be supported to ensure value chain. that women are not being segregated at low levels within specific industries without opportunity for ad- Finally, while ensuring women’s access to new em- vancement. Working women can also be supported ployment opportunities driven by globalization is im- through provision of appropriate childcare, e.g., in the portant, it is also important to increase the number of form of community or workplace crèches. Regular sex- young women who pursue skilled or technical areas, disaggregated monitoring and analysis of impacts of such as machine operators in construction, furniture trade, particularly in the agriculture, handicraft, and making and automotive and mechanical repair. These garment sectors, should also be undertaken including types of jobs have constant local market demand and through joint research partnerships with regional or in- are far less vulnerable to the changes in global and re- ternational academia. gional economy. Technical and vocational training, as well as social marketing campaigns to change the gen- Tourism is an important emerging sector in Lao PDR, der stereotypes of jobs (both by employers and women generating US$400 million in export earnings, providing themselves), are necessary. Activities focusing on job 20,000 direct jobs, and helping to distribute economic placement and career counseling, such as the WB-Au- gains in formerly lagging regions. However, women sAID STEPs supported program, could be scaled-up. have not yet fully reaped the gains from this sector. The 7th NSEDP has a goal of 2.8 million tourists by 2015. In order to ensure gender-equitable outcomes from tour- Recommendation 2.2: Expand women’s access ism, a number of measures are required. First, gender to and control over inputs for farm and non-farm and ethnic balance should be promoted in seats made enterprises, including finance, land, agricultural available in vocational and technical tourism training extension, and business training. programs. Second, common standards and guidelines for responsible, gender- and ethnically-sensitive ecot- ourism and village tourism should be established, and Great strides have been made in securing land title periodic awareness programs on STD/HIV/AIDS and for women in Lao PDR. It is important to maintain trafficking risks provided to tourism operators, work- this momentum by increasing women’s awareness of ers and officials. The GOL may also wish to consider use and access to land rights and other national resources of labor standards trademarks in the tourism industry (compensation for resettlement, securing access to which affirm that operators are not using child or traf- communal lands, forests, and use of REDD+ mecha- ficked labor – as has been done in neighboring Cambo- nisms under climate mitigation programs) in order to dia under the Childsafe trademark. help strengthen women’s asset base. Such efforts will contribute to the 7th NSEDP target of 1 million land GOL is focusing in rural areas on area development titles, and also to support the strong progress made in strategies. Throughout the processes, efforts will be re- women’s titling under World Bank-supported projects quired to ensure that gender-sensitive support is pro- Land Titling Projects 1 and 2 (LTP1 and LTP2). Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 69 Targeted support to women-owners of medium and National targets for expanded electricity coverage small enterprises is also needed, in the form of training need to facilitate access of the poorest households, in marketing and finance, business development and especially female-headed households, to electricity, improved access to financial services, and reduced bar- by ensuring that cost recovery measures do not un- riers for women to register. Such services are often best duly exclude such households. This target should also delivered in bundled form to female entrepreneurs in monitor overall geographic coverage to close gaps in sectors where women predominate. These initiatives electrification across regions. In the transport sector, are already included in the National SME Development rural access, particularly farm-to-market access should Plan: 2011-2015. Rigorous implementation of this will remain a priority, as they directly contribute to reduc- help contribute to the 7th NSEDP goal of expanding ing the transport drudgery of people in remote areas, activity of rural enterprises. Also, improved women’s particularly women. For all roads and transport invest- group organizing around product marketing through ments, the following needs to be ensured: i.) gender agricultural cooperatives to meet 7th NSEDP agricul- analysis is undertaken and incorporated in the design tural targets can be considered. In particular, women’s and evaluation of all major transport infrastructure skills in meeting sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards projects; ii.) women are represented in village road of food processing can be improved so that they can maintenance committees and, where possible, have compete in the agriculture and food processing sec- access to paid jobs in construction and maintenance; tors. and iii.) necessary steps are taken to mitigate negative social impacts on women, particularly those related to National targets for expanded electricity coverage HIV/AIDs and trafficking. The P2P-project has piloted need to facilitate access of the poorest households, innovative ways to improve women’s access to electric- especially female-headed households, to electricity, by ity, which should be scaled-up. ensuring that cost recovery measures do not unduly exclude such households, and by monitoring overall Similarly in hydropower and mining, gender impacts geographic coverage to close gaps in electrification should be identified in economic and social impact as- across regions. Recent innovations in the use of gen- sessments for hydro and mining investments. Gender der analysis in transport operations can be applied considerations should also feature in benefit-sharing in Lao PDR. These include the need to ensure that: i.) arrangements. Further, the sector should promote gender analysis is undertaken and incorporated in the equal employment opportunities for women and men design and evaluation of all major transport infrastruc- at all levels of industry, as well as women’s participation ture projects; ii.) women are represented in village road in mechanisms established for benefit sharing, com- maintenance committees; and iii.) necessary steps are munity investments, and mitigation of negative social taken to mitigate negative social impacts on women, impacts from infrastructure investments. particularly those related to HIV/AIDs and trafficking. In general, the use of community driven development Agency approaches to improve access to services and that put women at the center of the community decision mak- Third, taking measures to strengthen women’s voice and ing process – such as the approach used by the Poverty influence, and to protect them from violence, is also need- Reduction Fund – could be scaled-up. ed. Such measures will contribute to the quality of deci- sion-making, and to development more broadly. Recommendation 2.3: Improve gender main- streaming in infrastructure investments, by ex- Recommendation 3.1: Improve capacity and panding electricity access for poor and female- institutional support for the gender mainstream- headed households, expanding rural roads ing machinery in Lao PDR, by retaining use of access, and improving benefit-sharing and wom- designated gender focal points at every level of en’s participation in design and implementation government in each sector and including wom- of hydropower, and mining operations. en’s continued representation. 70 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Lao PDR has strong and effective gender machinery, including the Lao Women’s Union and NCAW and Sub- Recommendation 3.3: Reduce incidence of vi- CAWs, from local to national levels to address gender olence against women through legal reform ef- issues and represent women’s needs and interests. forts, as well as efforts to increase public aware- This should be retained, their capacity strengthened ness, and capacity of health, law enforcement and budgets allocated so that their mandate of gen- and protection services staff. der equality in Lao PDR can be fulfilled. Specifically, improved capacity for gender analysis and gender equality results monitoring and reporting in sectoral Violence against women remains a persistent chal- ministries is needed in order to ensure improved gen- lenge in Lao PDR, and one which cuts across all classes der monitoring and NSEDP program plan design. Sub- and ethnicities. Measures are required to address this CAW members in sectoral ministries often lack tech- challenge in the form of broad policy, advocacy efforts, nical gender expertise and require further assistance. and programs to challenge perceptions and attitudes Gender budgeting approaches should be supported in to domestic violence and to increase awareness of order to ensure gender mainstreaming in the planning women’s legal rights to protection and redress. Specific stage and track public spending aimed at closing gen- capacity-building is needed of service providers in the der gaps in the country. health, law enforcement and judiciary and village me- diation units, in order to address the multiple dimen- sions of violence against women, through training and Recommendation 3.2: Support progress in an enhanced coordination system. Increased support women’s representation in national and local to protection services by qualified personnel is also government, by monitoring 7th NSEDP goals of needed in order to better respond to the victims of 15 percent of leading posts (above district mayor gender-based violence and their families. level) to be held by women; and 30 percent of National Assembly members to be female. A gender review of village mediation units may also be in order so that an assessment of any gender dif- ferences in access to justice in this, and related, areas In terms of political representation, significant efforts is undertaken. Finally, inconsistencies in the law with will be needed to ensure that progress made in wom- regard to violence against women must be addressed, en’s representation within the National Assembly filters particularly those between the Penal Law and the Law across and down to all levels and branches of gov- on Development and Protection of Women, and their ernment. In addition to government representation, application. Per CEDAW Committee recommendations, women’s participation in local decision-making bodies legal statutes should abolish the explicit exclusion of such as water user committees, farmer associations, marital rape and adopt a wider definition of rape in the road maintenance committees, and resettlement com- Penal Law to include any non-consensual sexual rela- mittees should be encouraged and systematically track tions, to reflect the realities of violence and abuse in the percentage of female representation. Particularly, the country. the appointment of more women in the lower levels of government, including as village chiefs, district- and vice-district governors, and provincial governors needs to be supported. The LWU memberships and its strata should continue to be utilized to ensure women’s rep- resentation in the government and party structure, as well as to motivate women to be in higher government positions. Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity 71 Emerging Areas and Risks Fourth, there is a critical role for public policy in fostering Migrant workers are particularly vulnerable to abuse, new opportunities and managing emerging risks associ- and trafficked persons even more so. To reduce the in- ated with increasing economic integration, migration, cidence of abuse and undertake redress for victims, the urbanization, and climate change. following can be considered: i.) accede to the Conven- tion on the Rights of Migrant Workers; ii.) increase access to information, services, and protection against exploi- tation of both regular and irregular migrants such as Recommendation 4.1: Through regional fora, hotline, improved source-destination, NGO collabora- such as the GMS Working Group on Human tion, and improved coordination with Thai authorities; Resources Development, and the Coordinated iii.) consider opening a transit center in Savannakhet Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Traffick- for victims repatriated from Thailand; iv.) regulate labor ing (COMMIT), support regional policy dialogue recruitment agencies tasked with processing work per- on enhancing women’s human capital base to mits and contracts; and iv.) further strengthen national capture the opportunities of, and minimize risks and regional anti-trafficking mechanisms, while avoid- from, regional integration. ing stigmatization of victims in supporting reintegra- tion of returnees.187 Key areas of intervention under the GMS Working Group on Human Resources Development include attention to skill development (especially in tourism), cross- Recommendation 4.3: Mainstream gender border migration, and minimizing negative impacts of considerations into climate change and disaster human mobility such as HIV/AIDS and human traffick- planning, and ensure that women participate in ing particularly borne by ethnic groups and women. consultation and decision-making at local, re- The Forum represents a great opportunity for regional gional and national levels. learning and joint governance. There is an increasing opportunity for the GMS Working Group on Human Re- Climate change represents an emerging threat to pov- sources Development to work with other GMS sector erty reduction goals and national stability. Vulnerable working groups such as transport, environment, and groups are made even worse off by climate variability, tourism. Signed by all 6 GMS countries in 2004, COM- and women are no exception, especially in areas where MIT has grown into an effective regional cooperation resource-based livelihoods predominate. There is a mechanism in enhancing formulation and implemen- need to ensure that: i.) gender is mainstreamed into na- tation of anti-trafficking policies and programs at the tional strategies and programs for climate change and regional and national levels. It now implements the 3rd natural disaster management; ii.) women participate in Sub-Regional Plan of Action 2011-13. The government consultation and decision-making mechanisms for ad- should continue to play an important role in these re- aptation planning and emergency management at na- gional fora. tional, regional and local levels; iii.) adaptation planning includes a strong focus on social protection measures for those affected and/or displaced by climate-related Recommendation 4.2: Improve outcomes for events; and iv.) use of productive safety nets (such as vulnerable migrant populations through legal watershed management and public works develop- reform, improved services, and strengthened ment) is considered as a means of building area and anti-trafficking mechanisms. household resilience to climate change ex ante. 72 Country Gender Assessment for Lao PDR-Reducing Vulnerability and Increasing Opportunity Gender sensitive social protections should be consid- ered for rural households in the form of, for example, Recommendation 5.2: Analyze gender trends index-based livestock or weather insurance for crops. with consideration to existing rural/urban, re- The poverty and social impact effects of such interven- gional and ethnic disparities in the country. tions should also be conducted. Intra-household data collection and analysis to understand gender-specific impacts of vulnerability and shocks could be conduct- Even where sex-disaggregated data is collected, there ed. Social protection outlays will likely need to increase is limited capacity in both NSAW agencies and the sec- due to climate stresses. In this scenario, countries can toral ministries in analyzing the meaning of such data. consider use of contingency financing arrangements Poverty trends and access to health and education ser- to guard against fiscal shocks to national budget from vices are strongly determined by geographic location program outlays (including expanded social protec- in Lao PDR, with remote rural areas dominated by non- tion) responding to climate-inducted weather events. Lao-Tai groups at a particular disadvantage. For this reason, it is important to ensure that trends in gender Gender Mainstreaming equality are monitored with particular attention to any existing regional disparities, so that targeted measures, Finally, efforts to secure gender equality in Lao PDR will including in social protection, can be taken as neces- require continued and strengthened attention to not sary to improve gender outcomes in all regions of the only sector-specific outcomes, but also to overall sys- country. tem approaches including: i.) use of sex-disaggregated indicators and targets; ii.) capacity-building among government agencies and ministries; iii.) gender analy- sis that takes into account regional and ethnic divides; and iv.) enhanced attention to emerging male gender issues. Recommendation 5.1: Use sex-disaggregated indicators and targets in planning, implementa- tion and monitoring, and strengthen capacity among GOL sectoral ministries in this area. While performance is improving in this area, enhanced attention to use of sex-disaggregated data and analy- sis, and the capacity of GOL ministries and NSAW agencies to undertake this work, would aid in ensuring that Lao PDR reaches the 7th NSEDP target of 19 percent poverty reduction, and equitable development among women and ethnic groups. Collection and use of sex-disaggre- gated data through national sample surveys should be increased, especially to understand the gender-specific impacts of vulnerability and shocks. Effective monitor- ing and evaluation of gender impacts of national pro- grams and priorities is required. Gender budgeting is another approach, which has worked well in other countries, and could be considered in the Lao context. 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