sr, r t ~~-' - ;I,. ' ; - --- - - - - /3., 9s/ S ..~~ ....--.*.--.... GI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ni 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .*r-~ . --' . ., . - I - r1 ? ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-S - 5 s ! aS Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Projects Prepared by Wendy Wakeman UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program/PROWWESS on behalf of the Working Group on Gender Issues of the Water and Sanitation Collaborative Council January 1995 1?fANo Copyright 1995 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Printed January 1995 Cover photos from UNDP and the World Bank. This document is published informally by the World Bank. Copies are available free from the World Bank. Contact Ms. Mari Dhokai, Room S4-001, telephone 202-473-3970, fax 202-477-0164. The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, which are those of the author and should not be attributed to the World Bank or its affiliated organizations. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are the results of research supported by the Bank. The designations employed and the presentation of the material are solely for the convenience of the reader and do not imply the expression of any legal opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank or its affiliates concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of its boundaries or national affiliation. FOREWORD The Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Proiects is a product of the Collaborative Council's Working Group on Gender Issues. This is one of the seven working groups established during the Global Forum of the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council held in Oslo, Norway in September of 1991. At that time it was determined that PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program and INSTRAW would be key agencies in the Gender Issues Working Group. It was decided later that much had been written on strategies and methods for involving women in the sector. What was needed was to bring together these 'tools', combine and rework them, and issue them in one sourcebook which could be used by development practitioners. Much has been written about women, water and sanitation, but women still are not systematically included in projects in an appropriate manner. And the transition from women in development (WID) to gender issues is not yet complete. WID focused particularly on women's roles and activities, and so WID tools did the same. Gender issues emphasizes the roles of both women and men, as well as the ways they interact to make decisions and share tasks. An attempt has been made in the Sourcebook to adapt tools so that they reflect a gender analysis approach rather than a WID approach. Further work is needed, at both conceptual and project levels, to complete this shift in approach. To assist in this effort, brief notes on readers' experience utilizing the tools in the Sourcebook and on their exploration of gender issues in the sector are welcome. Through this analysis and through increased understanding of the importance of gender issues in sector activities, it is to be hoped that women, men and children can be involved with more productive and sustainable water and sanitation facilities. There are many who have contributed to the development of the Sourcebook. Various members of the Working Group as well as others sent materials, provided ideas for the structuring of the sourcebook, and noted their thoughts on current questions facing gender issues in the sector. I would like to thank the members of the Working Group: Mayling Simpson-Hebert, Janelle Daane, Dianne D. Arboleda, Christine van Wijk, Borjana Bulajich, Paula Donnelly-Roark, Raquel Alfaro, Eve L. Crowley, Alison King, Virginia Miralao, Ms. E. 0. Okeke, Corinne Wacker, Dr. Siyam Malomo, and Terry Pike. I would also like to thank Mary Elmendorf, Rekha Dayal, A. Rani Parker, Denyse Morin, Ranjith Wirasinha, David Kinley, John Green, Albert M. Wright, Deepa Narayan, Ron Sawyer, Bruce Gross, Monica Fong, Caroline Moser, John Blaxall and Muhammad Yahiya. Sandra Former and Carol Richardson worked hard at the computer to put the document into its current form. Wendy Wakeman i - :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ CONTENTS Foreword . ................................................ i Table of Contents ................................................ iii INTRODUCTION Introduction ................................................ I How to Use ................................................ 3 Overview of Gender Issues in the Water and Sanitation Sector ...................... 4 TOOLS Introduction to the Tools Section ....................................... 12 Matrix for Tool Selection: The Project Cycle ............................... 15 Matrix for Tool Selection: Cross Cutting Categories ........................... 16 Guidelines Gender Issues Profile for the Country Level ................................. 17 Sector Analysis .................................................. 23 Country Strategy for Gender Issues ...................................... 27 The Project Process ................................................ 32 Training ....................................................... 42 Future Research .................................................. 44 Checklists The Project Process ................................................ 45 The Data Collection and Design/Preparation Phases ............................ 54 Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................ 64 Terms of Reference A Gender Issues Specialist for the Preparation/Design Phases ...................................... 71 A Gender Issues Specialist for the Implementation Phase ......... . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . 73 A Gender Issues Specialist for Monitoring and Evaluation ......... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 74 iii Charts Practical Steps to Enhance Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation Projects . . . 76 Interdependency of Project Objectives and the Potential Contributions of and Benefits to Women and the Community ......... . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . 78 Ways in which Water and Sanitation Projects have Worsened the Position of Women ..... . . 79 Gender Aspects in Environmental Sanitation ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Influence on the Project of Women's Participation in Decision-Making ..... . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Participation of Women in Water and Sanitation Projects ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Monitoring and Evaluation of Women's Participation ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 A Model for the Evaluation of Water Supply and Sanitation Projects in Developing Countries: Illustrating the Widespread Role of Women ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Gender Discussion Matrix .......... . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . 86 Participatory Gender Analysis Tools for the Community and Agency Level ..... . . . . . . 87 Gender Analysis - Access to Resources . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Task Analysis and Role Flexibility by Gender ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Women's Lives, Needs Assessment ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Women's Time Management ......... . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. I. . .. . . . . . 97 Gender Analysis of Poverty ......... .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . 99 Evaluation of Gender Differences in Decisionmaking ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Project Life-Line, Constraints and Opportunities ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Mapping Women's and Men's Realities ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Gender Differences in Access to Institutions ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 SARAR Resistance to Change Continuum ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 RESOURCES Bibliographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Agencies. . ..................................... 110 REFERENCES References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.. . . 113 ANNEXES 1. Gender Issues Group Summary Report, Presented at the Rabat Meeting of the Collaborative Council. 2. Report of the Gender Issues Session at the Rabat Meeting of the Collaborative Council. iv INTRODUCTION The Sourcebook is meant to provide a variety of tools to development practitioners who are trying to implement gender sensitive projects in the water and sanitation sector. The tools will help with the process of gender analysis and with incorporating the findings of gender analysis into project design and implementation. It is intended for use by a variety of agencies, and so a variety of types of tools have been provided. Agencies can choose the tools they need and adapt them to the context in which they will be used. The Gender Project Framework underlying the tools facilitates their use by focusing on three key actions or tasks. These summarize the main objectives of the tools. The first is to disaggregate. Staff should disaggregate data by gender (i.e., gather data for women and for men). For example, they should not just ask how many committee members there are, but also how many male members there are and how many female members. When examining the issue of latrine usage, they should note the number of women and the number of men using latrines. Instead of just asking how community members are involved in a project, they should also ask how community women are involved and how community men are involved. If investigating villagers' access to credit, they can examine women's access and men's access. In this way, whenever data analysis is done, it can be done separately for women and for men. Staff can then see if the results are the same or different for men and women. They can see if men's and women's needs and contexts are the same or different, and if community involvement has meant the involvement of both women and men. The second task is to interrelate. That is, in addition to analyzing separately what women and men do, it is important to look at the ways they work together in sector activities such as construction and maintenance and household decision-making. The interrelationships between the men and women in a community and other organizational levels should also be examined. For example, how are gender issues affected by the types of relationships and interactions between community organizations and local and national NGOs or government agencies? Finally, there is a need to activate what has been learned in the first two steps. The results of data collection and analysis must be incorporated into project design and implementation, and development agencies must provide a policy environment that supports and promotes gender sensitive projects. If this last step of "activating" is not taken, then the work of data collection and analysis will not have any impact. This task takes place at three levels: micro, mezo and macro. Project mechanisms need to be in place at the project (micro) level to ensure implementation of gender sensitive projects. This might include, for example, project design features which ensure women's access to training and credit. At the national and international (macro) levels, governments and development agencies need to provide a supportive policy environment. At the state or district (mezo) level, both micro and macro issues come into consideration. District governments, for example, may implement national policies 1 while also monitoring village projects. The tools in the Sourcebook are meant to help development practitioners disaggregate, interrelate and activate so that women and men in poor communities are involved in projects which more accurately reflect their community context, their needs and their priorities. 2 HOW TO USE THE SOURCEBOOK This sourcebook has been created to provide project staff with tools and other resources for gender sensitive programming. It can be used by various types of development agencies, in diverse geographical locations. As a sourcebook, it is meant to provide ideas and methods which can be adapted to local contexts. It is seen as a 'document in process', that is to say, continually evolving. Users can add other tools they have found as well as the adaptations they have made to the tools in the Sourcebook. It is not a manual nor a handbook; it is not meant to provide a general background on gender issues nor to be a substitute for a gender training course. The Sourcebook is meant for those with some background in gender analysis. It is a resource to which they can turn for ideas and further information. The Sourcebook has been organized into four sections: Introduction, Tools, Resources, and References. The Introduction includes a brief introduction, this note on how to use the sourcebook, and an overview of gender issues in the water and sanitation sector. The Overview highlights some conceptual frameworks along with some gender analysis models. It then discusses the importance of gender issues in the sector, lessons learned thus far, and current 'burning issues' as well as areas for further investigation. It gives users a taste of the issues past, present and future, before they delve into more specific project tools. The Tools section starts with two matrices for tool selection, and is then divided into different types of tools. There are guidelines, checklists, terms of reference, charts, and participatory community/agency tools. The tools are arranged in chronological order, according to the stages of the project cycle. The brief Introduction to the Tools Section lists all the tools as well as the sources from which they were adapted, and gives some suggestions for their use. The Tool Selection Matrices at the beginning of this section will help the user to find, at a glance, all the tools pertaining to each stage of the project cycle as well as those relating to categories such as training, personnel, and budgets. The Resources section has two parts. The first is a list of bibliographies which cover women, water and sanitation. The second is a listing of agencies with particular expertise in gender issues in the sector, including agencies from whom names of consultants may be obtained. The References section lists the main sources used in preparing the Sourcebook. The Sourcebook may be used in several ways, depending on the needs of the user. It may be approached in a comprehensive manner or a selective one. If someone is new to the subject of gender issues in water and sanitation and will be designing and implementing a gender sensitive project, it may be advisable to start with the Overview and look through all of the Sourcebook. If one is interested in particular types of tools, such as checklists, then the user can focus on that section alone. If the user is working on a specific phase or category of the project process, a glance at one of the Tool Selection Matrixes will give the tools directly related to that phase. If the user is just beginning a phase of a project, reading through the appropriate guideline(s) is suggested. If planning for a particular phase of a project has just been completed, then looking at the relevant checklist can help ensure that gender issues were appropriately incorporated. 3 OVERVIEW OF GENDER ISSUES IN THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR Introduction Gender issues in the water and sanitation sector are a subset of gender issues in development. The main concepts and tools used in the latter form the overall basis and context for the former. Accordingly this overview will begin with a brief synopsis of some general conceptual frameworks and proceed to highlight several gender analysis models. This will provide a background for a review of gender issues in the water and sanitation sector. The characteristics of a sector determine the specific role gender issues will have. Since the beginning of the International Drinking Water and Supply Decade, this role in the water and sanitation sector has been delineated and its implications for projects elaborated. Gender issues have been placed within the overall context of community participation. Much has been learned about the importance of participation and gender issues. There has been a wealth of experience with applying this to the project process. Yet there remain further issues to be explored. Strategies used to address women in development(WID)/gender issues have evolved over the years to reflect changing development contexts. Gita Sen spoke of the "glow" around socialism in the 1970s, when socialist revolutions around the third world seemed to be succeeding. This resulted in a focus on class/gender research and on basic needs.' Goals for the development field pertained to welfare, equity and anti-poverty goals, and so did those of the WID movement.2 In the 1980s attention turned to efficiency.3 Structural adjustment was emphasized, and the WID field considered related policy issues. This period also marked the beginning of a shift from WID to gender issues. Focusing on gender issues, as opposed to WID, is seen as an important way of avoiding the marginalization of women. This change in approach also recognizes that the roles of both women and men must be considered if equitable and effective development is to take place. Conceptual Frameworks There is a range of conceptual frameworks for addressing gender issues. There are those, for example, which fundamentally question existing development strategies and societal structures. One of these has been elaborated by Peggy Antrobus and others of Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN). They question the structural adjustment model, on the grounds that it assumes that women's time can be exploited.4 They argue that when social services programs are curtailed during 'Gita Sen, remarks given during Panel #18 of 1989 Association of Women in Development (AWID) Conference. 2Caroline O.N. Moser spoke of these and other WID approaches of the 1970s and 1980s during her presentation at Panel #18 of the 1989 AWID Conference. 3Moser, Panel #18, 1989 AWID Conference. 4Antrobus and Sen, 1989 AWID Conference. For an elaboration of the DAWN philosophy, see Gita Sen and Caren Grown, Development, Crises, and Alternative Visions (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987). 4 the structural adjustment process, it is often women who are expected to fill the gap. Women are usually the ones who must cope with fewer child and health care services at a time when dire economic circumstances necessitate an increased focus on their income-earning capabilities. Antrobus stresses that what is needed is not to integrate women into this sort of development, but to arrive at another vision, another paradigm.' One such paradigm or framework was developed by Riane Eisler6. Looking back at the millennia of human history, she classifies societies as either 'dominator' types or 'partnership' types. A fundamental determinant of a society's classification is the relationship between the sexes. When this is a hierarchical one, which usually means patriarchal, then the society is a dominator one. Other hierarchical sorts of relationships are often found in these societies as well, for example slavery, class or caste systems, racial discrimination, etc. By contrast, in partnership societies, women and men act as partners. In these there is no matriarchy and no patriarchy. There is also no other form of rigid hierarchy. Eisler believes the last true partnership society was that of Minoan Crete, which ended about 1500 B.C. However, she also feels that the world is currently at a crossroads, where it has the opportunity to once again choose a partnership mode of existence. Gender Analysis Models: Roles and Relationships From these conceptual frameworks, one can move to models that relate more directly to the project process. Moser has focussed on three categories of roles for women: market or productive roles, reproductive or household maintenance ones, and community management roles.' She also speaks of women's practical gender needs (needs women identify from within their socially accepted roles in society, reflecting the existing divisions of labor and authority) and strategic gender needs (which emphasize requirements for reaching a more equitable society). Project objectives and activities can be examined in the light of these categories. Paula Roark has written of investigating local learning systems (LLS) and of an LLS Operational Framework.8 This framework includes four components: technology analysis, participation, information, and knowledge outcome. She speaks of hardware (technology) aspects of a project as well as software (community participation and health education) aspects. She argues that the integration of hardware and software elements of projects can be designed through the LLS Operational Framework, and at the same time community men and women can have voice and make decisions during the project process. 5Antrobus, 1989 AWID Conference, 6Riane Eisler, The Chalice and the Blade, Our Historv, Our Future (USA: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987). 7Caroline O.N. Moser, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender Needs," World Development Vol. 17, No. 11 (1989): 1799-1825. 8See, for example, Paula Roark, Successful Rural Water Supply Proiects and the Concerns of Women (USA: USAID, September 1980). 5 There are several specific gender analysis models used in program and project design and implementation9. One developed in the early 1980s is called the Harvard Institute for International Development (HIID) approach. It has four parts: an activities profile, a profile of access to and control over resources and benefits, a profile of factors influencing the first two profiles, and project cycle analysis. Each profile gives information for each gender. The last activity, project cycle analysis, inputs the data from the profiles into the project process. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) has utilized a method called social/gender analysis. It uses a participatory process to pinpoint groups affected by a problem, identify who is relatively advantaged and disadvantaged by the problem, determine which factors help maintain the disadvantage and how this is experienced by the various groups, and ascertain what resources, institutional changes and strategies are necessary and available to resolve the problem. The United States Agency for International Development uses a Gender Information Framework (GIF). It has two parts: Gender Analysis Map and a Gender Considerations Guide. The Map is used to pinpoint where gender is a salient variable in social and economic systems which will be affected by development activities. Data are collected concerning four "exploratory factors"- the allocation of labor, sources of income, financial responsibilities, and access to and control of resources. After the Map is completed, the Guide is used to analyze the implications of gender differences for a specific project or program. It includes assessing constraints to men's and women's participation. The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) was developed by A. Rani Parker. The analysis is repeated throughout the project process by community groups, with a development worker acting as a facilitator in the beginning. The GAM consists of four levels of analysis (women, men, household and community) which are assessed in terms of four categories (labor, time, resources, and socio-cultural factors). When the GAM is repeated throughout the project process, communities can compare results against expectations. Instead of focusing on the separate roles and activities of each gender, another set of models considers the public interactions between women and men which have an impact on project design and implementation'". This type of analysis is called Interaction Analysis. The first model is the Interaction Index. This assesses the degree of public interaction between men and women. For example, do women and men meet together in village meetings or do they prefer to meet separately; do women prefer to meet with female or male project staff or either; do women go outside the village for training; and do men or women go to the market. The Variability Index indicates the range of interaction situations existing in the project area and thus the range of project strategies needed. The Access Channels model helps project designers provide women with access to mainstream project acfivities. For example, an access channel might be having female project staff who can meet with rural women about 9The descriptions of the first four tools are summarized from Rekha Dayal and A. Rani Parker, Gender Analysis and Planning in the Bank Proiect Cycle (draft, The World Bank, Asia Technical and Human Resources Division, 1993). This document also gives an excellent summary of additional tools and of multilateral and bilateral agency experience with gender analysis. '"These tools are taken from Wendy Wakeman, A Case Study of Women. Islam and Development: Strategies and Models for Conducting Proiects with Women in the Islamic Context of Um Ruwaba. Sudan, Ph.D. thesis, 1992. 6 an agricultural development project. Such access channels are especially crucial in areas of 'low interaction', i.e., where women will not attend meetings with men and will not meet with male staff. Women's Roles in the Water and Sanitation Sector Women's involvement in sector activities springs logically from their traditional roles." Women are most often the users, providers and managers of water in the household. Women are usually the guardians of household hygiene. Women, and to a lesser degree children, are generally the ones who obtain water for the home, transport it, store it, and then use it for various household purposes. Because of this they may have a great deal of knowledge about water sources, their quality and reliability, restrictions and advantages of their use, acceptable storage methods, etc.'2 Women and children will most likely be the prime users of any new or improved water systems, and women may be the main disseminators of new hygiene messages (or, if not involved in a hygiene project, the ones hindering the spread of safe hygiene practices). As Siri Melchior states, "...women are not a special interest group in water and sanitation, they are a mainstream interest group ....without their involvement, projects risk being inappropriate, and failing.'3 Within a demand orientation to the sector, one may say that if women are not involved, a significant portion of demand is not being measured. This could have a crucial impact on project sustainability. For example, if women's demand and willingness to pay for a particular type of water system is not assessed, a system may be installed that women will not pay for and will not use. This system may then fall into disuse and be unsustainable, and goals relating to increased coverage will not be met. Benefits women may receive with improved or new water and sanitation facilities can be classified into health and socio-economic categories'4. Water sources that are closer to homes and that provide an adequate supply can decrease collection time. This leads to gains in both time and energy. It also can reduce physical strain due to walking and hauling water long distances. Water of a better quality which remains uncontaminated helps to decrease water-related diseases. For women in some "See van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1. '2For a further discussion of women's roles in the sector, see, for example, Mary L. Elmendorf and Raymond B. Isely, The Role of Women as Participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs (USA: USAID, WASH Technical Report No. 11, December 1981); Siri Melchior, Women, Water and Sanitation, or Counting Tomatoes as Well as Pumps (USA: PROWWESS/UNDP Technical Series, May 1989); Mary Elmendorf, The IDWSSD and Women's Involvement (WHO, on behalf of the Steering Committee for Cooperative Action for the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, July 1990); and van Wijk-Sijbesma, Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation. Roles and Realities (The Hague, The Netherlands, International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, Technical Paper 22, 1985). '3Siri Melchior, 3. "4For a further discussion of benefits and constraints to women's involvement, see Hilary Syme, Women, Water and Sanitation: A Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources (Canada: Canadian International Development Agency, April 1992), 11 - 14. 7 contexts, access to adequate sanitation ends their need to suppress urination or defecation until nightfall. Time and energy gains may be applied to a variety of activities, including leisure and income-generation. An increase in the water supply can result in increased agricultural activities (such as home gardens) and in food and drink production for sale. If community women and men are involved in project planning and implementation, they may learn new skills and develop more self-confidence. There can be a variety of constraints to gender sensitive programming. There is often a lack of knowledge about women's and men's roles in the sector. Projects may be designed in an inflexible manner, using a 'blueprint' approach.'5 Gender planning may be marginalized, separated from mainstream planning. Hardware and software aspects of projects may be poorly integrated. There may be an inadequate number of female staff, thus limiting village women's involvement in areas where they will not meet with male staff. The time, duration, and location of training may not take women's needs into account. Sector Experience with Gender Issues There has been a rich collection of experience with women, water and sanitation over the last decade and many lessons have been learned'6. At this point in time we tend to speak more of gender issues in the sector rather than WID issues. It has been recognized that water and sanitation are issues for men, women and children. To have effective sanitation programs, men also must support and adopt improved hygiene practices. Project contributions of time, labor and money should be shared fairly and not expected of women alone. Training should also be equitably divided. In this way both men and women can benefit and human resources will not be wasted. Women's and men's involvement should begin during the first stage of the project process. If not included at this point, it is more likely that they will be excluded at later stages as well. It is also more effective to involve them in decision-making about technology and other choices rather than attempting later to have them utilize systems not suited to their needs. Where inappropriate technologies have been installed, it has also been found that hygiene education makes little or no difference. Where projects did not involve women, the result has sometimes been a lack of access of poor women to improved facilities. Quality as well as quantity is important when planning for and assessing participation. Women's inclusion on management committees may not alone provide for their effective participation: the way committee members are chosen, whether they receive needed training, and what their actual committee roles consist of are also important. It has been found that training does not guarantee employment and fair pay. Strategies for developing approaches for women's participation'include field development and testing of procedures combined with action research and on-going monitoring and evaluation. Culturally appropriate methods are also needed. "5For more information about this approach as well as a more flexible alternative, see Deepa Narayan- Parker, Pegesus (USA: PROWWESS/UNDP, 1989). '6For a more detailed discussion of lessons learned, see Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, Women. Water and Sanitation: Annual Abstract Journal, Issues one and two (The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, 1991 and 1992. Much of the following four paragraphs has been extracted from these documents. 8 Many projects are designed assuming that men are responsible for the 'public sphere' and women for the 'private sphere'. Yet experience shows that often such a strict distinction should not be made between the two. Women may have major say over management of water in the home, but they may also manage communal facilities and press community leaders for improvements. Men's support may be needed for improved household latrine systems. Men's and women's roles in these areas may change as well. Women may become more involved in comrnmunity management of systems, for example. If women's public roles are not recognized by a project, it can result in women being left out of traditional areas of responsibility. Experience with women in maintenance roles indicates that while some costs may be higher (due to their need for more training and their restricted mobility which reduces the number of pumps they maintain), their effectiveness in regular and preventive maintenance is better than men's, and costs of repair campaigns are lower. Negative impacts resulting from women's involvement must also be considered. Women's participation may have benefits but it also may have costs. Women's and men's existing workload and scheduling needs must be taken into account. Improved water systems may reduce women's time in water collection but create new demands for work related to maintenance, management, and financing. A recent study of over 100 rural water supply projects indicated that women's participation, along with other variables, is highly associated with project effectiveness.'7 It also revealed that in spite of the rhetoric about women's involvement prevalent in many project documents, only 17% of the projects surveyed scored high on women's participation. Thus, although much has been written and many models have been formulated, the 'burning issue' now is how to operationalize and institutionalize what has been learned. As Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma says, "There is a need to integrate the involvement of women in a systems approach to water supply and sanitation, including regular monitoring and feedback on both the process and the effect of their involvement in relation to the type of technology and the socio-economic and cultural circumstances."8 Through this appropriate project implementation mechanisms can be developed, tested and refined. In addition, strong support is needed at the policy level to ensure the mainstreaming of gender-sensitive programming. Otherwise, conceptual frameworks, models, tools, etc. will remain marginalized; and no matter how useful they are there will not be significant change in the sector. Gender Project Framework and Future Concerns The tools and resources contained in the Sourcebook were created to assist project staff with gender-sensitive programming. The following Gender Project Framework facilitates the use of the tools by focusing on three key actions or tasks. These summarize the key objectives of the tools. The first is to disaggregate. Staff should gather data for men and women, analyze men's roles and women's roles, and investigate a project's impact on women and on men. Whatever analysis is done, it should be done separately for men and women. Staff can then see whether results are the same or different for women and men. ''Deepa Narayan, Popular Participation in Rural Water Supply Proiects, (USA: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, forthcoming, 1993). '8van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1985, 4. 9 The second task is to interrelate. Analyzing women and men separately is only a first step. It is also important to know the ways in which men and women work together in sector activities such as construction and maintenance, in project and household decision-making, in financial arrangements, etc. The interrelationships between the men and women of a community and other organizational levels should also be explicitly examined (for example, how are gender issues affected by the types of relationships and interactions between community organizations and local and national NGOs or government agencies?). Finally, there is the need to activate what has been learned during the first two steps. This occurs at micro, mezo and macro levels. At the micro, or project level, project mechanisms need to be in place to ensure that what has been learned from gender analysis is operationalized and institutionalized as a fundamental part of project design and implementation. This may involve project design features which ensure women's access to training and credit, or that plan for men and women to share the burden of project construction work. At the macro, or national and international levels, governments and international development agencies need to provide strong, supportive policies that mandate the institutionalization of gender-sensitive programming. To date this has been one of the weakest areas. Yet without this, attempts to promote gender issues will not have more than a minimal impact. The meso level, covering state or district activities and agencies, encompasses both micro and macro issues and is the place where the two interact most closely. District governments, for example, may follow national policies while also monitoring village-level projects. The tools in the Sourcebook are meant to help development practitioners disaggregate, interrelate, and activate so that women and men in poor communities are involved in projects which more accurately reflect their community context, needs and priorities. These projects are more likely to be effective and sustainable. There are also more specific tasks required in the near future. More quantitative data are needed concerning the issue of women's time gains from improved water and sanitation facilities.'9 What are the contexts in which time gains can be expected, and how can project designers use this information when planning projects? More systematic data could be collected on what time gains are used for, (economic, social, family or other purposes) and why.20 It cannot be assumed that time gains will be used for income generation activities. Sometimes women do not have the skills or market access for these activities. More training materials are needed for managerial tasks and for techniques for overcoming constraints to women's participation. Many training materials focus on working in participatory ways with communities in general, omitting the ways in which women might be involved and how constraints to their involvement might be overcome.2' More emphasis can be put on measuring the health and social impacts of inadequate water and sanitation facilities through measuring calorie '9See van Wijk-Sijbesma and Bolt, 1991, 5. 200ne example of this type of data collection is discussed in Geoffrey Read and Ayse Kudat, "Why a Women in Development Component Should be Part of a Rural Water Project and what such a Component Should Comprise: The Case of Sindh, Pakistan," Infrastructure Notes, The World Bank, W & S No. WS-8 (February 1992). 2lbid. 10 wastage and skeletal damage in women who haul water long distances, and counting the number of children who miss school in order to collect water.22 Conclusion Gender issues, as opposed to women in development, is an emerging field. Methods of designing and implementing gender-sensitive projects, as opposed to WID components, still need to be further elaborated, tested, and refined. In most cases the frameworks and models mentioned earlier and the tools presented later in the Sourcebook have not been adequately evaluated and, if necessary, reformulated. Gender analysis models and tools focus, as they should, on gender variables. Other tools are needed to assess other socio-economic variables such as class, caste and religion. It must be remembered that focusing on gender is not meant to be a focus on women, but on both women and men and the ways they interact to make decisions, share tasks and complement each other in a variety of roles. As women have been forgotten so often in the past (and many times continue to be in the present), they frequently need to have their concerns specifically stated and highlighted in order to be recognized. However, this should not translate into new, undue burdens on women, especially ones that men might share with them. And unless men are aware of and support women's involvement in projects, in many cultural contexts women's participation will be curtailed. Water and sanitation is a sector which fundamentally affects the lives of community women, men and children. Therefore, all need to be appropriately involved in determining sector activities. In this process, sector experiences can have much to offer to the field of gender issues. 22Conversation with Mayling Simpson-Hebert, WHO, April 1993. 11 INTRODUCTION TO THE TOOLS SECTION The Tools section contains five types of tools: guidelines, checklists, terms of reference, charts and participatory activities. Below is a listing of all the tools, categorized by type. The sources from which the tools were adapted are also given, along with some suggestions for users. There are also two Tool Selection Matrixes, to help users quickly locate the tools they wish to use. The first is a matrix focusing on the project cycle. It indicates which tools apply to the various stages of the project process. The second matrix focuses on cross cutting categories such as budget, training, and personnel. It indicates which parts of the tools treat these issues. Guidelines The guidelines were adapted from: Elmendorf and Isley (1981); The Inter-Agency Task Force on Women and Water, of the IDWSSD Steering Committee for Cooperative Action (1983); The Asia Development Bank (1986); The Canadian International Development Agency (1989- a, b, c); Moffat, Geadah, and Stuart (1991); and Dayal, Narayan, Goldberg, Parker and Svendsen, (1993). The guidelines may be used to help plan for the activities listed below. The first three may be used when initiating sector or country-level programs. The last three are more relevant to the project process. Information from the first three activities can be utilized when completing the final three. Guidelines are included for the following: - Gender Issues Profile for the Country Level - Sector Analysis - Country Strategy for Gender Issues - The Project Process - Training - Future Research Checklists The checklists were adapted from: Heli Perrett (1985); Cecelski (1991); Asian Development Bank (1986); ICOMP (1989); CIDA (1986); The Netherlands Directorate General for International Cooperation (1989); Goertz (1984); Deepa Narayan-Parker (1989); WHO and PROWESS/UNDP (1984); CIDA (1989, a). The checklists have a variety of sections. An entire checklist can be used if appropriate. Alternatively, the user can focus on the part of the checklist that is most relevant to her/his current activities. The checklist for the project process covers the phases of planning/preparation, design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. 12 The checklists for the data collection and design/preparation phases go into further detail. They cover data gathering for: the country and sector level, the project area, and determination of need for the project. There is also a section on data collection techniques that encompasses general field research relating to gender issues, points to watch when interviewing women, sources of information on women's roles, and reviewing women's organizations. The checklist on design/preparation discusses: identifying channels to inform and involve women, constraints to involving women, basic design tasks, personnel and training issues, community participation issues, and technology issues. The checklist for monitoring and evaluation includes a monitoring section covering involvement of men and women (budget allocations, participation ratios, community development); impact; and benefits. The evaluation section treats the role of community women and men in evaluation, general evaluation issues, and community management issues (ownership, cost, institutions, community committees, and maintenance). Checklists are included for the following: The Project Process The Data Collection and DesignlPreparation Phases Monitoring and Evaluation Terms of Reference The terms of reference were created with inputs from: Rekha Dayal and A. Rani Parker (1993) and CIDA (1989, b). They cover the project process and can be refined as needed for the local context and for the specific project processes utilized by various agencies. Terms of reference are included for: a Gender Issues Specialist for the Planning/Design Phases a Gender Issues Specialist for the Implementation Phase a Gender Issues Specialist for Monitoring and Evaluation Charts Each chart has its source listed at the bottom. The charts are particularly useful for planning, monitoring, evaluation, and training sessions. They may be used to help conceptualize issues relating to various project stages. They can spark discussions concerning the elements which constitute women's participation. They can be included in training sessions to highlight major elements related to gender sensitive participation, monitoring and evaluation. The Gender Discussion Matrix can be used in training or in an evaluation session to examine gender issues in relation to a specific project. 13 List of Charts - Practical Steps to Enhance Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation Projects - Interdependency of Project Objectives and the Potential Contributions of and Benefits to Women and the Community - Ways in which Water and Sanitation Projects have Worsened the Position of Women - Gender Aspects in Environmental Sanitation - Influence on the Project of Women's Participation in Decision-making - Participation of Women in Water and Sanitation Projects - Monitoring and Evaluation of Women's Participation - A Model for the Evaluation of Water Supply and Sanitation Projects in Developing Countries: Illustrating the Widespread Role of Women - Gender Discussion Matrix Participatory Agengv and Community Level Tools This section was written by Deepa Narayan. It includes an introduction to the use of participatory agency and community level tools, as well as a discussion of the following activities: gender analysis, access to resources; task analysis and role flexibility by gender; women's lives, needs assessment; women's time management; gender analysis of poverty; evaluation of gender differences in decision-making; project life-line, constraints and opportunities; mapping women's realities; gender differences in access to institutions; and SARAR resistance to change continuum. 14 Tool Selection Matrix: The Project Cycle Project Phase | Chart Guideline Checklist TOR Participatory Tools * Practical Steps to Enhance 0 Gender Issues Profile 0 The Project Process * For Preparation/Design * gender analysis-access to Participation of Women in for the Country Level (pgs. 45-53) (pgs. 71-72) resources (pg. 91) Water Supply and Sanitation (pgs. 17-22) Projects (pgs. 76-77) 0 The Data Collection and a task analysis and role 0 Sector Analysis Design/Preparation Phases flexibility by gender * Interdependency of Project (pgs. 23-26) (pgs. 54-63) (pg. 93) Preparation/Design Objectives and the Potential Contributions of and Benefits 0 women's lives needs to Women and the Community * Country Strategy for assessment (pg. 95) (pg. 78) Gender Issues (pgs. 27-31) * women's time management * Panicipation of Women in (pg. 97) water and Sanitation Projects * The Project Process (pg. 83) (pgs. 32-41) * gender analysis of poverty (pg. 99) a mapping women's realities _________________________________ _______________________ ~~~~~~~(pg. 104) * Gender Aspects in 0 The Project Process * The Project Process * For Implementation * project life-line constraints Environmental Sanitation (pgs. 32-41) (pgs. 45-53) (pg. 73) and opportunities (pg. 104) tJi (pg. 81) * Training (pgs. 42-43) Implementation 0 Influence on the Project of Women's Participation in Decision-Making (pg. 82) l * Ways in which Water and Sanitation * The Project Process 0 The Project Process 0 For Monitoring 0 evaluation of Projects have worsened the Position (pgs. 32-41) (pgs. 45-53) and Evaluation gender differences Monitofing/Evaluation of Women (pgs. 79-80) (pg. 74) in decision-making * Future Research 0 Monitoring and Evaluation (pg. 101) * Monitoring and Evaluation of (pg. 44) (pgs. 64-70) Women's Participation (pg. 84) * A Model for the Evaluation of Water Supply and sanitation Projects in Developing Countries: Illustrating the Widespread Role of Women (pg. 85) * Gender Discussion Matrix (pg. 86) Tool Selection Matrix: Cross-Cutting Categories Cross-Cutting Category Guideline Checklist TOR Participatory Tools Budget * Country Strategy for 0 The Project Process * For Preparation/Design Gendcr Issues (pg. 29) (pg. 51) (pgs. 71-72) * Monitoring and Evaluation (pg. 64) Hardware/Software Issues * The Project Process * The Project Process 0 All of the Participatory (pgs. 34-36; 39-40) (pgs. 48-49) Tools are related to software issues * Data Collection and (pgs. 87 ) Design/Preparation (pgs. 62-63) * Monitoring and Evaluation (pgs. 64-65; 69-70) Personnel 0 The Project Process 0 For Preparation/Design * Gender Differences (pg. 50) (pgs. 71-72) in Access to Institutiona (pg. 106) * Data Collection and Design/Preparation 0 SARAR Resistance (pgs. 61-62) to Change Continuum (pg. 106) Training 0 The Project Process 0 The Project Process 0 All of the Participatory (pgs. 35-37; 39) (pg. 50) Tools contain an element of training * Training (pgs. 42-43) 0 Data Collection and (pgs. 87 .) Design/Preparation (pgs. 61-62) Research/Data Gathering 0 Gender Issues Profile 0 The Project Process 0 For Preparation/Design 0 Gender Analysis of for the Country Level (pgs. 45-46; 51-52) (pgs. 71-72) Poverty (pg. 99) (pgs. 17-23) * Data Collection and * Mapping Women's & * Sector Analysis (pg. 23) Design/Preparation Men's Realities (pgs. 54-60) (pg. 105) * Country Strategy for Gender Issues (pg. 27) 0 Gender Analysis - Access to Resources * The Project Process (pg. 91) (pgs. 32-33; 41) * Future Research (pg. 44) Operation & .aintenance 0 The Project Process 0 The Project Process * For Monitoring and (pgs. 37-39) (pgs. 49-50) Evaluation (pg. 74) * Monitoring and Evaluation (pg. 70) 16 Guidelines: Country Profile Gender Issues Profile for the Country Level Gender Issues profiles for the country level form part of the background documentation necessary to understand the gender roles and constraints within a certain country. They provide the socio-economic indicators for women and men in areas such as population, health, education, or employment in a specific cultural and political milieu. They may also describe the institutional support available. All gender profiles provide statistical data and act as an information base; they are largely static and do not suggest delivery mechanisms. Instead, a gender profile describes, in broad strokes, resources available for achieving gender-specific objectives. Assembling the profile should be a relatively simple and inexpensive task. As a result of the United Nations Decade for Women, a great deal of basic research has been done. These existing sources should be sufficient to develop the profile. Since the generation of new data is often costly and difficult, it should be generated only as necessary, and should be concise, easy to follow, and relevant to the program. The information outlined below is useful in building a profile of the gender issues situation within a country. Each contains a list of suggestions regarding types of data to collect and areas for analysis. These lists are by no means exhaustive; it is up to the user to determine the types of information most relevant and appropriate to her/his needs, and to discard or add to any of the suggestions or categories offered. This analysis may be supported by statistical data or a plan for its generation and incorporation in the programming cycle. 1. Historical and cultural context Historical and present cultural roles of women and men in the development of their country, (by region, ethnic group, religion, economic class, etc. including cultural constraints preventing women's access to available resources and services); historical and current social attitudes toward the roles and status of women and men within the economy, society and the family; historical and current image of women and men in religion(s) and religious attitudes toward the role and status of women; prevailing customs and mores, regarding the behavior of women; variations on all of the above by ethnicity, geographic region, and urban and rural environment. 17 Guidelines: Countrv Prorile Possible areas for analysis: - factors contributing to differential socio-cultural and/or religious attitudes and status of women and men; - any changes, from past to present, in social and religious status of women; - impact of internal and external agents of development (gg, foreign donors, businesses, cultures, etc.) on the socio-cultural and religious status of women; - constraints/opportunities which the current situation of women presents to development planners; - future research needs in this area (ie, data gaps). 2. Key socio-economic indicators Review of key socio-economic indicators (health, education, employment, etc., including the existence of or potential for widening gaps between men and women); Health and nutrition - live birth rate; - life expectancy at birth, by sex; - female and male child mortality rates, age 0-5; - female and male survival rates, ages 6-14 and 15-45; - mother's age at birth of first child; - maternal mortality rate; - percentage of births with trained attendants by sex and urban/rural population; - percentage of female and male physicians and nurses; - population per physician and per nurse, urban/rural; - access to potable water, rural/urban; - calorie intake per person, per year, by sex; 18 Guidelines: Country Profile adults suffering from malnutrition, by sex; percentages of pregnant and non-pregnant women with nutritional anemia; percentage of women who breast-feed. Possible areas for analysis: - analysis of factors contributing to differential male and female mortality rates, at all ages; - analysis of factors contributing to differential male and female nutritional levels, at all ages; - impact of health policies and practices of government and foreign donors on women and girls; - correlations between presence of maternal and child health programs and representation of women in traditional and modern health research, education and delivery systems, with female mortality and nutrition levels; - constraints/opportunities which the current situation of women presents to development planners; - future research needs in this area (i.e., data gaps). Economy - female and male participation in formal labor force, by age (e.g, 15-24, 25-44, 45-54) and occupation; - percent of total labor force in agriculture and industry, by sex; - percent of total population in professional and administrative occupations, by sex; - percentage of unionized labor, by sex; - official unemployment rates, by sex; - ratio of female to male wages; 19 Guidelines: Country Profile percent (estimated) of total population in informal economy -- for example, local market vendors, traders, etc. -- by sex; inventory of household maintenance, reproductive and childcare activities of women; - population below poverty income level, by sex; Possible areas for analysis: - factors contributing to differential representation of women and men by occupation; - male vs. female head of household: household as a unit of production (access to and control over resources and revenues, roles and responsibilities) urban/rural; - impact of changes in technology and modes of production on women's and men's roles in the economy; - correlations between women's and men's representation in economic decision-making process (government and private sector) and their access to and control over economic resources, jobs and revenues; - correlations between women's and men's types and levels of participation in the economy and their socio-cultural, political and educational status; - constraints/opportunities which the current situation of women present to development planners; - future research needs in this area (Le, data gaps). 3. Legal rights and political participation Political and legal status of women including any legal limitations on women's work; - human rights and/or sex equity legislation; I - criminal code on abortion, incest, rape, sterilization, physical abuse, prostitution and abandonment; - civil rights of women (i.e., marriage, divorce, inheritance, suffrage, etc.) under country's constitution, civil code, traditional (based on local custom) and/or religious legal system; - property rights of women and men; - labor legislation related to women (g., maternity leave, childcare provisions, etc.); 20 Guidelines: Country Profile representation and participation of women in informal decision-making structures such as village council; presence of national, regional or local government women's bureaux concerned with women's affairs: their philosophy, mandate, position within the government power structure, programs, human and financial resources and relative power; - presence of non-governmental women's organizations and lobby groups: philosophy, mandate, programs, human and financial resources and support and acceptance. Possible areas for analysis: - will and/or capacity of government to implement sex equity legislation and laws; - factors contributing to differential legal status of women and men; - correlations between role of women in the decision-making process and degree of access to economic resources and social services; - institutional capacity of governmental and non-governmental women's organizations to have a positive impact on decision-makers and the female population; - impact of women's legal and political status on development planning; - future research needs in this area (i.e., data gaps). 4. Population Basic demographic information on the women. - breakdown of total population by sex; - breakdown of female and male population by age (eg, 0-14, 15-24, 25-39, 40-59, 60); - population growth rate; - acceptance rate of contraceptives by men and women; - percentages of female vis-a-vis male rural and urban populations; - external and internal migration patterns, by sex; - percentage of female and male rural and urban heads of households. 21 Guidelines: Country Profile Possible areas of analysis: determinants of fertility (,g., culture places high economic or social value on large or small families); - interaction of demographic and socio-economic variables; - impact of population policies and practices of government and foreign donors on fertility; - any correlations between male and female acceptance of contraceptives and changes in birth rate; - impact of migratory patterns on roles and status of women in relation to men; - future research needs in this area (ie., data gaps). Briefly analyze the country's development plan and programs stating its strengths and/or shortcomings in the light of: - extent to which gender equity is identified as one of the country's priorities in its development plans; - presence of specific objectives for women as indicators in development plans; - nature and level of governmental assistance to women as opposed to men; - role and structure of governmental women's bureaux, departments or ministries; - effectiveness of local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and women's organizations; - programs of local research and educational institutions for women; - country's use of gender-disaggregated data to formulate development objectives and priorities or any plans to improve data collection along these lines; - identification of appropriate "entry points" or specific "windows of opportunity" for women's programming. Sunmarize the policies, lessons learned, strategies, and experiences of other international donors and foreign NGO's with gender sensitive progranuning. The profile should provide a "snapshot" of what programming exists for gender sensitivity within the sector. It should also identify gaps where initiatives could be mounted and assess constraints and strategies. 22 Guidelines: Sector Analysis Sector Analysis Sector analysis consists of an assessment of water supply and sanitation from a national perspective. This assessment most commonly takes the form of sector reviews and planning missions. The end result is a programming framework for the identification and development of projects based on sector priorities. Gender considerations should form an integral part of this process. Key Gender Elements of Sector Analysis Baseline Data Collection Baseline data is collected in order to assess the roles and contributions of women and men within the sector, and to examine the implications for project focus and delivery systems. Specific areas of concern may include: - women's and men's activities, responsibilities, and tasks within the sector (including breakdowns by key sub-sectors); - women's reproductive and family maintenance activities, and their effect on participation in the sector; - traditions and customs associated with the performance of all of the above activities; - the interrelationships of women and men in sector activities; - women's and men's access to and control of resources required to carry out their activities; - amount of control which women and men have over the benefits derived from these activities; - any socio-cultural constraints to women's participation and/or access to available resources in the sector; - any legal or business practices restricting women's participation and/or access to available resources in the sector. Institutional Context analysis of country's development policies and practices in the sector concerning women and men as agents and beneficiaries; 23 Guidelines: Sector Analysis identification of key institutions and organizations, both governmental and non-governmental, active in the sector and: assessment of the number of female and male staff and their levels within the hierarchies of these agencies ; their policies and programs focusing on increasing women's participation; and lessons learned in relation to gender sensitive programming; percentage of women and men enrolled in post-secondary education and training programs in sector-related areas of study; involvement of women's ministry (or department) with other key ministries active in the sector or an examination of potential linkages between these ministries mandate and activities of women's organizations in the sector; lessons learned. - policies and initiatives to promote the integration of women in development within the sector of other bilateral and multilateral donors; lessons learned. Gender Sectoral Programming Framework Based on the information collected above, a framework and mechanisms to promote gender sensitivity can be developed. In addition to the above elements, the following should be included: - identification of resources needed by women and men to adequately fulfill their roles and responsibilities, or to improve their efficiency in carrying them out; - identification of any constraints that prevent women from making an optimal contribution; - identification of education and training needs of women and men in the sector; - assessment of the critical points of intervention within the sector, particularly with lead government agencies (g., sensitization of decision-makers, research, proactive recruitment of female trainees, etc.); - based on the above, a list of goals and objectives for gender sensitive activities within the sector, the resources needed to achieve them, and an estimated time-frame for their fulfillment; - list of contacts and sources for generation of/access to gender-disaggregated data to be used in the development of specific projects; - Gender criteria for the selection of projects and analysis of project proposals; - framework for monitoring and evaluating sector performance on gender issues; 24 Guidelines: Sector Analysis identification of agencies with present or potential gender analysis capabilities and/or a strategy for developing these capabilities. Project Identification Memorandum (PIM) Once a program has decided to act upon a specific project activity, the project evaluation and development process begins. The Project Identification Memorandum (PIM) is a statement of intent in which an approach is selected and initial planning established. This initial stage of the project cycle is of key importance for determining the appropriate roles and types of involvement of women and men in project delivery. The decisions made at this stage have a direct influence, not only on the nature and scope of women's and men's participation, but also on the project's foreseeable impact on their living conditions. More than an administrative document, the PIM is also a reference tool that specifies the project's parameters and orientations; its data is used by the development officers as a basis for planning the project. The absence of a strategy for gender issues in the project identification phase may result in women being left out or in men and women in inappropriate project roles. This could have negative repercussions on the outcome of the project. The development officer must have available a certain amount of baseline data and information to be able to assess gender issues relating to the various headings proposed for the memorandum. At this stage, certain preliminary questions ought to be asked, including the following: - Does the project application or proposal include gender differentiated data? If so, is this data adequate to define the roles of women and men in the area of concentration? If not, by what means and within what time frame can this data be obtained? - Is there an activities profile of the women in this country to which one can refer for additional information? I - According to the available information, by what structures or groups are women and men represented at the local, regional and national levels for delivery of the project? If such structures are lacking, is there reason to work to create them? If so, how? If not, why not? - Have the above-mentioned structures been associated with the decision-making process for the project? If they have, how? If not, why not? - How will women and men (as agents and beneficiaries) be involved in the later stages of the project? 25 Guidelines: Sector Analysis To what extent will women and men have access to the project's human, physical and financial resources? To what extent will women and men have control over these resources? What are the project's foreseeable positive and negative impacts on the living conditions of women and men? What corrective measures are to be recommended, if necessary, to minimize the negative impacts? In light of the information collected: * What are the primary factors promoting the participation of women and men in this project? - What constraints have been identified that may hinder or limit the effective participation of women and men in this project? How can they be overcome? Have there been any similar projects whose objectives included gender sensitivity? If so, what strategy was selected, what were the results obtained and the lessons to be learned? How can such projects be used as models? 26 Guidelines: Country Strate2v Country Strategy for Gender Issues A Country Strategy for Gender Issues is a strategic planning exercise for gender sensitive programming at the country level. Based upon the gender profile, the strategy identifies new opportunities for gender sensitive programming. A Gender Strategy can be developed through action-oriented research. The approach suggested below should be viewed flexibly; each planner must select a methodology that is best suited to her/his programming situation. Gathering Supplementary Information Information must sometimes be collected on the status and role of women and men within the particular geographic regions and sectors identified as priorities in the overall planning framework for a country strategy. As well, current programs and projects should be reviewed to assess their impact on women and men. The following information should be collected: - A summary of the socio-economic, political and cultural factors facilitating and constraining the participation of women and men in the sector. - An analysis of women's access to support services in each sector including training, credit, extension services, appropriate and new technology as well as women's access to secondary support systems such as day care and transportation. - An assessment of all sector projects outlining the factors which lead to failure and/or success in reaching and integrating women as well as strategic criteria to reproduce positive results. This analysis and information in the Gender Country Profile should allow the user to identify the key factors that could enhance or limit the participation of women. At all points in the data collection process, the potential future usefulness of the information should be borne in mind. It should be viewed as a starting point in a longer-term process of consultation and dialogue. 27 Guidelines: Countrv Strategy Developing a Strategy The next step is to use the information collected to formulate a plan for the integration of gender sensitivity into the development program. This strategy could encompass some or all of the following key elements: Adjustments to on-going projects should be identified in order to redress an imbalance in women as agents and beneficiaries. Based on previous analysis, opportunities and constraints to the fuller participation of women (and men) as agents and beneficiaries of the development program should be identified. Also, assessment should be made of what types of programming could be the most effective in the short and long term. Potential constraints could include such problems as: * a lack of policies or guidelines to guide decisions on the best ways to include women (and men); gender issues have a low priority; Based on information gained above, constraints within the development program itself should be analyzed. Possible program-level constraints may be: an emphasis placed on technical analysis, at the expense of socio-economic analysis, in sector projects; gaps in the data on women, including a lack of disaggregated data; the lack of a direct field mechanism with the mandate to provide up-to-date information on women. The above analysis should provide a base of information with which to define key areas, sectors, or types of projects to ensure appropriate participation of women and men. Also'identified will be types of projects where the agencies may be more receptive to the incorporation of gender issues in project design. Resources and programming mechanisms should be identified which are required to implement the Gender Strategy. These may include: * Gender Advisor/support services at headquarters and/or on-site to help planners: -- a consultative group of local representatives of women's and men's interests in the country (g., government departments, NGO's, the private sector, women's groups, etc.); 28 Guidelines: Country Strategv a roster of Gender specialists; gender analysis training programs for key decision-makers and planners at various levels of government and for local NGO's. Institutional mechanisms (or entry points) such as: national level women's bureau; line ministries; NGOs; women's organizations; etc. In many cases, the channels through which women's interests are represented are weak and underdeveloped; in order to develop the capacity to define and articulate women's needs and wants, it may be necessary to identify resources needed to strengthen these channels before they can be used as effective partners on projects. Financial resources: funds required to support the needs defined above; *- special funds to fill the gaps in the traditional program; -- proportion of overall budget for development program or for individual project budgets which should be specifically allocated to enhance the appropriate participation of women and men. Develop mechanisms to ensure that women are integrated into the processes of program and project planning, management, monitoring, and evaluation. Building accountability into these mechanisms is frequently the best way to assure that women will benefit from development. At the program level, some ideas would be: develop a timeframe (or milestones) for effective planning of the component parts of the Gender Strategy; engage someone to manage and monitor implementation of the strategy; assign responsibility for management, monitoring and implementation of the strategy to specific staff members. With these mechanisms in place, the establishment of a future program-level evaluation framework to assess the success of the strategy as it unfolds should be relatively straightforward. It might include: a statement and discussion of evaluation topics and indicators relating to gender issues; a description of data requirements. 29 Guidelines: Country Stratezv Design a communication package to promote the strategy and a better understanding of women's and men's issues among development partners, the broader development community, and the general public. Some elements might include: * production and distribution of pamphlets, audio-visual aids, and guidelines (programming aids) on gender sensitive projects and programs in the country; determination of "marketing approach" most appropriate for each audience; (tg_ in some countries, terminology like "WID" is sometimes associated with Western feminism rather than an analytical process for considering gender as a critical factor in development); arrangement of conferences, seminars, and speaking engagements on gender issues; exchanges and joint research between academics and development practitioners to explore the implementation of gender sensitive programming; designing innovative events on gender issues; * to complement the above, specification of concrete occasions in which the issue will be raised (program consultation missions, project missions, project design missions, etc). Evaluation Framework The evaluation framework should demonstrate the link between the country program strategy and the intended evaluation. This could be accomplished by setting targets and defining indicators to measure progress. Thus, the benefits derived by and from men and women through their appropriate participation are clearly elaborated. Without careful monitoring of precisely who is intended to participate and benefit, projects will continue to be designed and evaluated on the basis of quantity and quality of outputs, with little or no attention placed on their distribution. A Note of Caution It is critical to develop a realistic approach that recognizes what is possible to achieve in the short and the long term. While usually aware that gender issues is a highly complex and sensitive area of development programming, planners sometimes fail to account for this when developing their operational goals and objectives. Depending on the particular context of the country involved, one may.be defining a 5-year or a 50-year strategy for change. The initial goals set may be very modest in scope. It is much more desirable to have modest, achievable goals than to create an overly-ambitious strategy. Otherwise, the likelihood of project failure is high. Worse, poor results can discourage future efforts to implement gender sensitive projects and counteract achievements made to date. 30 Guidelines: Country Strate_V Criteria for Project Analysis and Selection Below is a list of possible criteria for project selection which can be incorporated into country and/or sector strategies. This list represents a starting point for establishing criteria for project analysis. Each country/agency will find that they will need to refine and adjust the criteria to reflect their programming realities. - Gender elements of the project reflect priorities identified in the Gender Strategy, within the country, and the sector strategy. - Women are clearly and explicitly identified as participants and beneficiaries of the project. Alternately, a rationale for not including them is provided, based on factual data assumptions. - Documentation and women and men in the project area have been consulted. - The project has clear objectives for gender issues and these form a central part of the project (i.e., are not "add on's"). - The baseline situation is linked to achievement of project objectives: Proposed activities should involve women and men in ways that reflect the division of labor in the project area. (For example, if women take care of livestock, then women are provided with veterinary extension services); Women and men are given roles as agents of development (for example, as extension agents); Barriers to men's and women's appropriate participation as agents or beneficiaries of project activities should be identified and strategies should be designed to overcome these barriers (economic incentives, gender issues training for counterparts, affirmative action programs, etc.). - Women are represented in project planning structures (Q.g., in project management, cooperatives, farmers' associations, etc.). - Reporting and evaluation methodologies are gender-disaggregated. Of course, no single mechanical process or criterion can replace informed judgment in the selection process. When deciding if a project has adequately addressed gender issues, the exercise of professional judgment is required. 31 Guidelines: The Proiect Process Guidelines for the Project Process These guidelines cover the various stages of the project cycle. Information is listed under the following subheadings: Preparation- data collection, planning; Design- hardware: technology choice, software: women's involvement/community involvement, software/hardware linkages; Implementation- terms of reference, training, meetings, construction, operation, administration; Monitoring and Evaluation- general issues, technology, maintenance, training, roles concerning water (transport/storage/use), user satisfaction, contributions, committees/women's groups, health/hygiene, and time/budget studies. Preparation Data Collection A socio-cultural study is an important first step in the project planning process. An overview and detailed recommendations for this type of study can be found in "Methods for Gathering Socio-cultural Data for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects (Simpson-Hebert, TAG Technical Note No. 1, The World Bank, Washington, 1983). A sample questionnaire can be found in "Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation, Sociocultural Aspects of Water Supply and Excreta Disposal" (Mary Elmendorf and Patricia Buckles, volume 5 in Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation, The World Bank, Washington, 1980). The key guidelines for such a study are: Both women and men from the community should be interviewed. Women's inclusion is particularly important, as they often are the ones with more personal, day-to-day experience of family water use and hygiene habits. It may be crucial to hold interviews with women separately, as this enables them to discuss their views more freely. Women may be hesitant to discuss defecation and water use practices when men are present, and the men may begin to speak on behalf of the women instead of letting the women speak for themselves. I In many instances it is advisable to have women interviewing women. In some cultural contexts men will not be able to meet with women, and even where they can women may feel more at ease speaking with other women. Individuals conducting surveys should live in the villages for several days and participate in the daily lives of the people. Because many activities concerning water and sanitation occur at dawn and/or dusk, villagers may feel more free to reveal their opinions to those who live with them for awhile. Participatory research methods enable community members to be directly involved in the 32 Guidelines: The Project Process data collection process. Women and men of the village can participate in designing the survey instrument and in gathering and analyzing the data. This is an important first stage in the community participation process. Data should be gathered on a gender-disaggregated basis. For example, data collected on membership of community groups should indicate how many female and how many male members. Data can be collected concerning existing water supply and sanitation practices, including: the roles of women, men, and children in collecting, storing, and using water; transportation methods; time required for collection; seasonal variations in quantity of water available and water source(s) used; the various uses of water; types of latrines in use; current hygiene practices; and functioning and sustainability of existing water and sanitation facilities. Planning In addition to collecting basic data, the planning phase is the time to explore broad project parameters and priorities with the communities and agencies who are expected to be involved in the project. General project objectives can be determined and possible constraints to women's participation can be identified. The input of both women and men is essential at this point. If women or the community as a whole are left out now, chances are slim that they will be appropriately included later in the project. And their ideas and decisions concerning this initial phase will have been omitted. - ~Community discussions can be held concerning issues such as what constitutes acceptable standards vis-a-vis quantity, quality, reliability, and accessibility of water; criteria used to select between multiple water sources based on what the water is to be used for; and perceptions (especially those of women) of appropriate management of excreta disposal, including the management of the feces of infants and small children. Depending on the cultural context, discussions may be held separately for men and women or jointly. - Information from these talks can next be used to discuss with communities and agencies options concerning the citing of water sources, types of technologies, design criteria for type of latrine enclosure or for color of latrine, and whether separate latrines are needed for women, men and small children. Agencies and communities can investigate whether there are legal, economic, social or cultural barriers to women's and communities' participation in the planning or implementation of water and sanitation projects in the area. Men's and women's priorities concerning water and sanitation projects may differ and so should be stated and discussed separately. Based on the discussions mentioned above, project objectives can be determined. These objectives should explicitly relate to women's and men's needs, and the communities 33 Guidelines: The Project Process should be involved in setting the objectives. Experiences with earlier projects in the area can be used to make objectives as precise and realistic as possible. The planning phase provides an opportunity for discussion between government ministries, NGOs, and other agencies who are involved in the sector or, in particular, who will be involved in the project. T he institutional capacity for implementing a gender sensitive project can be assessed, possibilities for inter-agency coordination explored, and experiences with similar projects reviewed. Design During the design phase attention should be given to gender issues relating to both hardware and software aspects. The linkages between these two aspects are also important, especially those relating to the effective timing of hardware and software activities so that they occur sequentially in a manner that is mutually reinforcing. Hardware: Technology Choice The technology chosen for the project should be: needed and wanted by local men and women well made and easy to maintain at a cost people are willing to pay for (or which necessitates only a small subsidy) not too far advanced from technologies currently in use in the area The project should be designed so that the acceptability of the project is monitored at all stages of the project cycle and adjustments made as necessary Women and men should also be involved in the choices for related facilities for bathing, animal drinking, vegetable growing, and other activities. Software: Women's Involvement/Cormmunity Involvement Software aspects of the project should be designed so that: appropriate human, physical and financial resources are provided to achieve software objectives verifiable indicators are included for measuring results of software activities possible externalities are planned for as much as possible (factors beyond the control of the project team) 34 Guidelines: The Proiect Process objectives and outputs include women's involvement and mechanisms are designed to ensure this involvement constraints to men's and women's participation are taken into account, including time available for participation, location of meetings, preferences concerning types of participation (time, money, materials), the need for separate meetings of men and women, or female staff to meet with women suggested institutional changes are considered to enable the appropriate participation of women and men appropriate channels are found or created to disseminate information to women and men Training should be designed so that: women and men are trained in the use of new technology training in operation and maintenance will be targeted at both women and men relevant training, technical and managerial agency personnel are trained in software issues, including gender issues possible constraints to women's participation in training are minimized (for example, any constraints concerning location, time, educational requirements, childcare arrangements and length of training program) a proportion of trainers are female, particularly in settings where male trainers cannot conduct training for women the content is relevant to women's and men's needs communications channels are found or created to inform women and men about training events Software/Hardware Linkages The project should be designed so that software and hardware activities are linked. This includes: joint planning exercises between hardware and software specialists during the design phase so that: 1. Both are knowledgeable about software and hardware activities and 35 Guidelines: The Project Process 2. Timetables for software and hardware activities are merged. This is needed to ensure that hardware and software activities take place in an appropriate time sequence. For example, training of women and men in pump maintenance should take place before pump installation while training for community committees should occur before committees need to begin arranging for community contributions to the project. project management and monitoring systems that plan for regular meetings between software and hardware specialists. In this way, any changes in the project schedule can be discussed, and further adjustments made as needed. For example, if delays occur concerning the arrival of parts for the improved water supply system, the software personnel should be informed. This may give them more time for pre-installation training activities. Conversely, if software activities are delayed, hardware specialists should know in case they have to delay certain hardware activities. Implementation Many issues concerning implementation are covered in sections on planning, design and monitoring. However, a few key issues are highlighted below. Terms of Reference Terms of reference (TORs) must state specific gender issues responsibilities. Project managers and relevant staff should have gender issues as part of their overall TORs. Gender Issues specialists and/or community development specialists should have TORs which include a delineation of gender issues tasks. These would involve the training of staff in gender issues, development and implementation of a gender strategy, regular field visits, monitoring and evaluation of levels of community participation in the project (disaggregated by gender), assessment of the impact of the project on women and men, evaluation of the extent to which gender goals of the project are achieved, and determining how and if a gender sensitive project design aided in the attainment of project goals. Training Gender analysis training can be an effective tool for facilitating gender sensitive projects. Training can be given to project staff and to staff of related agencies. Constraints to women's participation in training should be identified and reduced or removed. 36 Guidelines: The Project Process User education should ensure that women are included. Materials for non-literates can be designed when required. Meetings Regular meetings among project staff and with staff and villagers provide an opportunity to exchange ideas, needs, problems, and information concerning the status of project activities. This can be especially important for gender aspects of projects, ensuring that relevant staff and community members know what objectives are concerning gender issues, what strategies are being undertaken, and what has been achieved thus far. If there are cultural constraints on men and women meeting together in villages, separate meetings can be arranged and both male and female staff can go to the villages. Construction To ensure that women and men are appropriately involved in construction activities, the following questions can be asked: Do local women and men normally do construction work voluntarily or is pay expected? How will voluntary labor requested add to the existing workloads of women and men? How will the project ensure that men and women who provide free or inexpensive labor receive direct benefits from the project? Whether labor is voluntary or paid, is it scheduled at convenient times? Has adequate training been planned for those providing the labor? Has construction been timed to follow preliminary software activities (such as training)? Operation The design of a maintenance program must be specific to the community in which it will be implemented. Villagers must be aware of their responsibilities and have the tools and skills needed to maintain their systems. Village women and men must be informed where to report any damages or repairs needed. 37 Guidelines: The Proiect Process An effective, two-way communication system should be established between village men and women and project staff. Female staff may be needed to ensure that village women have access to this communication system. Administration and Management Women as well as men have a strong role to play as project managers. To facilitate this role, managerial and technical training opportunities should be made available to both women and men. Both women and men should be given management roles in community committees as well as roles such as fee collector and pump caretaker. Separate women's committees may be required in some areas to enable women's participation in committee work. Monitoring and Evaluation General Careful and concise monitoring and evaluation are integral elements of a gender sensitive project. Simple, measurable targets are needed to facilitate this process. These are best developed in the early stages of the project (during the preparation and design phases). The various roles women and men are playing should be identified. The project impact on men and women can be analyzed. If project objectives concerning gender issues are not being met and if unforseen negative impacts or barriers are noticed during monitoring, then adjustments can be made in project design. Participatory monitoring and evaluation exercises, in which community men and women participate, can yield valuable insights and facilitate community involvement in the project as a whole. To fully evaluate the impact of using a gender sensitive approach, studies are needed to compare the functioning and utilization of systems under gender sensitive projects with those where gender issues were not considered. A few general elements for monitoring and evaluation are listed below, along with issues concerning specific categories. - What are the percentages of women's and what is the percentage of men's participation in the project and what roles do they play? - Did women and men participate in the collection and analysis of data for the feasibility study or needs assessment? - Were the men's and women's recommendations used? 38 Guidelines: The Proiect Process What are the sector activities, by gender, in the project area? Have roles/responsibilities changed because of the project? How? Were the number of women and men involved more or less than anticipated? Explain. Were possible negative impacts of the project realistically foreseen and planned for? Were barriers to women's participation foreseen and alternative approaches found? What have been the lessons learned about gender issues during the project? Technology Were women and men involved in the choice of technology, the selection of well sites or pump sites? Were they consulted concerning additional facilities such as washing and bathing facilities or water points for animals? How were men and women involved in construction activities? What was the nature of their involvement? How does women's involvement compare to men's (paid/unpaid labor, skilled/unskilled, trained/untrained)? What was the percentage of women's labor input as compared to men's? Did women or men contribute in other ways (cash, materials, food)? Maintenance What are women's and men's roles in maintenance activities (maintenance workers, caretakers, managers of facilities)? What percentage of women have been trained and what percentage are involved on an on-going basis? Training How did men and women participate in the training aspects of the project? What did they receive training in and did this make the project more effective? What percentage of trainees were men and what percentage were women? Which socio-economic groups were included? Were training materials designed for non-literates when needed? 39 Guidelines: The Proiect Process Roles Concerning Water Transport, Storage and Use - What were women's and men's (and children's) roles concerning water transport, storage and use before the project? What were their roles during the project? If roles have changed, has this had a positive or negative impact on men, women and children? What do they think? User Satisfaction Are village women, men and children satisfied with the new water/and or sanitation systems? Why or why not? Who is using the new systems? Are women and men satisfied with the way the project was implemented? What would they recommend be done differently next time? Contributions What were the contributions (cash, material, labor, time) that men and women made to the project? What were the arrangements for these? Were they different for women and men? Did men and women think they were equitable? Would they recommend different arrangements for another project or similar ones? Committees/Women's Groups - If there are village water and/or sanitation committees, how many members are women and how many are men? What roles do women and men play- the same, different? Are women and men in managerial roles? Did men and women receive training necessary to fulfill their committee roles (as treasurer, for example)? Were separate women's committees formed if in the local cultural context men and women cannot meet together? - Were existing women's groups approached to assist with information, motivation, reinforcement and/or training activities? Health/Hygiene What was women's role in health/hygiene education and related activities? Did men play a role? If there was a training for health workers, what percentage were male and what percentage female? Was their any performance differential between males and females? Were the turn over rates different for the two groups? 40 Guidelines: The Proiect Process Time/Budget Studies It is useful to conduct time/budget studies to assess whether the project resulted in additional free time for women (and/or men). If it did, the studies can determine what the additional free time was used for- leisure, household responsibilities such as cooking or childcare, income generation activities, agricultural activities, training activities, etc. What benefits did women (and/or men) receive from the free time? What do they conceive the benefits to be? Economic benefits? Health ones? Did the project result in increased burdens on women's or men's time through additional responsibilities such as maintenance, time at committee meetings, fee collection? If so, how do the women and men feel about this? Does the additional free time or the decrease in free time affect women differently depending on the season of the year? If so, how? 41 Guidelines: Trainin2 Training To ensure that women and men in the project area will be included appropriately in training activities, the following should be considered: - Provisions should be made so that a certain percentage of women are recruited for training. - Special measures should be taken in regard to training hours, location and duration. Family responsibilities often prevent women attending educational activities for extended periods of time far from their home. - Provisions should be made to ensure information on training opportunities will reach various socio-economic groups of women and men and that all qualified applicants have a reasonable chance to be selected. Training should take into account the current workloads of women and men. As noted above, female and male project participants must be appropriately included in training activities in order to achieve gender sensitive programming. Training may also be needed for project staff to ensure that they understand gender issues and can implement their project responsibilities in a gender- sensitive manner. They need not become specialists in gender issues, but should have a basic knowledge of the topic, in particular in terms of how it relates to their everyday work. Otherwise the specialists in gender issues may have a difficult time carrying out their project duties, as the work environment may not be conducive to a gender-sensitive approach. Gender issues training for staff can be held separately or integrated into other staff trainings. When planning for this, the following should be considered: - putting the training in context- what will be most useful to the staff members attending the training? what will relate most directly to their everyday work? - setting goals- what are the objectives of the training? during the training, the participants can determine what goals they have for gender issues in their work. - knowing the participants- what are their backgrounds? what roles do they play in the project? what do they want to learn about gender issues? What do they want to discuss? - selecting trainers/facilitators- selecting an appropriate trainer/facilitator is crucial. A strong background is required in gender issues, development, and training/facilitation. Experience in the water and sanitation sector is also important. The trainer should have some familiarity with your organization and with the project. 42 Guidelines: Training - resource people- can assist the trainer/facilitator. They could be sector or country experts who can work with a trainer who does not have a strong background in the sector or the country. They could be training "apprentices", who can assist the trainer and acquire more experience in the process. - the length of the workshop- must be based on the needs of the staff being trained: what time do they have available for a workshop and how much training do they need? Often a balance must be struck between these two variables. - location of the workshop- depends on the staff involved. For field staff, a workshop in the field is often more sensible. For staff at headquarters, a workshop held at the office may be more practical, although to fully discuss gender issues in the sector, time in the field can be invaluable. - to have a greater impact, training in gender issues should be experiential and participatory. It should involve interaction and mutual support among participants. There are many resources that can be consulted for more information on training in gender issues. The Resources and References sections of the Sourcebook contain several possibilities. Examples of training activities can be found in the section entitled Participatory Gender Analysis Tools for the Community and Agency Level. 43 Guidelines: Research Future Research Several important questions remain unanswered, some of which appear critical for future research and/or program planning and evaluation. - How can local learning systems in which women play a key role be tapped so as to enhance the adoption of new water and sanitation technologies? - What are the most cost-effective methods for changing women's/girls' and men's/boys' hygiene behaviors and measurably improving local hygiene conditions? How can mass media reinforce and support local efforts to change behavior? Many of the approaches suggested have been tested only with special pilot projects where careful and sometimes charismatic leadership or generous funding have been the rule, both of which are unlikely in ordinary circumstances. Concerted efforts at more general user education involving women and men need to be mounted and systematically evaluated. - Can the participation of women in the repair and maintenance of water and sanitation installations be linked to opportunities for income generation? This research question has important implications for both off-farm employment and water and sanitation programs. - The impact of water projects on the village economy needs to be quantitatively measured. Does an increased availability of water have an impact on food and crop production, beer brewing, production of building materials and other economic activities? If so, how does this economic impact affect women's income generating activities? How does it affect men's income generating activities? What are the differences in the results of evaluation, whether mid-term or at project completion, where gender sensitivity was a part of project design, as opposed to where it was overlooked? The response to this question has important policy implications not only for the design of meaningful evaluations but also for water and sanitation programs that can be influenced by evaluation results. Unless such questions are asked in the evaluation of a project, conclusions about the effect of such design cannot be drawn and policv and program changes will not be successful. Women's central and primary roles in water, sanitation, and hygiene as well as their overall roles in household management demand their recognition in future research design and program implementation. Also important are the roles of men and the ways women and men interact in the household and in the community to make decisions, share tasks and complement each other in a variety of ways. 44 Checklists: The Proiect Process CHECKLIST FOR THE PROJECT PROCESS Plannint/Preparation Phase Policy/Attitudes - What is the policy and attitude of government, local leaders and project management towards gender sensitive programming? - Do these parties explicitly view women's involvement both as a condition for the success of project improvements and as a prerequisite of genuine advancement of women's interests? - Will the project systematically promote the sensibilization of local leaders and of its own staff in this respect? - Will this be reflected in plans for staff training and staff composition? Baseline - Have existing water supply and sanitation practices been thoroughly investigated (including which types of technology and which water sources are used when and by whom)? - Have findings been distinguished for different user categories: men and women, occupational and income groups? - Have women and men been asked what they like about their current water and sanitation facilities and what they do not like? - Have poor women been directly approached as informants on their own particular roles, needs, problems and possibilities? - Has this been done appropriately, i.e, by female interviewers in a sufficiently informal setting, asking how things are actually done rather than who is officially in charge? - Have the following points been investigated to arrive at a detailed picture of what is at stake for women in water and sanitation: women's provision of family health in general; their provision of family hygiene in particular; 45 Checklists: The Proiect Process their educating role in health and hygiene; their tasks in collecting, storing and using water; the extent to which they are aided in collection, (for domestic and for agricultural use) and what are the means of transport; their tasks in sanitary arrangements; their problems in ensuring their own sanitary privacy; their traditional contribution to design, maintenance and management of facilities; their informal management role at community level; their access to provisions, relative to men and richer women; their household use of water; their role in the preservation of community environmental sanitation; their productive / profitable use of water and waste (vegetable gardening, fertilizer, fuel, building material); the competitive demands on women's time and energy in general; the share of time and energy devoted to water and sanitation; the negative impact of this workload on women's other tasks, such as childcare, vegetable gardening, weeding, harvesting, etc; the negative impact of this workload on women's opportunities to engage in new activities, such as income generation, community work and self-development; and has the baseline uncovered whether men play any of the roles noted above and if so, given a detailed picture of this? Planning Are there legal, economic, social, or cultural barriers to women's participation in the planning or implementation of water and sanitation projects? If so, what plans have been made to reduce or eliminate these barriers? What roles do local women play in the community's social and economic infrastructure? Do women and men feel a need for the project? What are their respective priorities and expectations? Is the community (men and women) willing and able to participate fully in the project, including members of the community who are weaker socially or economically, such as women heads of households? Is the design acceptable for all women in terms of: water quality, quantity and reliability; adequate access; appropriate technology and maintenance; cultural acceptability. 46 Checklists: The Project Process What needs and opportunities exist for increasing women's productivity and/or production? What needs and opportunities exist for increasing women's access to and control of resources? How do these needs and opportunities relate to the country's other general and sectoral development needs and opportunities? Have women been directly consulted in identifying such needs and opportunities? Are project objectives explicitly related to women's and men's needs? Have women and men participated in setting those objectives? Have there been any earlier efforts? How has the present proposal built on earlier activity? Might the project reduce women's access to or control of resources and benefits? Might it adversely affect women's situation in some other way? What will be the effects on women and men in the short and long run? Desi2n Phase Project Impact on Women's and Men's Activities - Which types of women's and men's activities (production, reproduction & maintenance, and socio-political) does the project affect? - Is the planned component consistent with current gender roles in the sector? If it plans to change women's and men's performance of that activity, (ie, locus of activity, remunerative mode, technology, mode of activity) is this feasible, and what positive or negative effects would it have? If it does not change it, is this a missed opportunity for changing men's and women's roles in the development process? How can the project design be adjusted to increase the above-mentioned positive effects, and reduce or eliminate the negative ones? 47 Checklists: The Proiect Process Project Impact on Women's and Men's Access and Control How will each of the project components affect women's and men's access to and control of the resources and benefits stemming from the production of goods and services? Will their relative amounts of access and control change? If so, how? How will each of the project components affect women's access to and control of the resources and benefits stemming from the reproduction and maintenance of human resources? Further Preparation - To what extent do the project objectives address the issues discovered during the baseline? - Have women's desires for changes concerning these issues been identified? - Has a system been developed to monitor project-induced changes in these issues? And does this system rest on continuous consultation of women and men? - Are project targets sufficiently flexible to allow the development of systematic procedures for women's involvement? Participation and Workload - Does the project contribute to freeing women's time and energy for other tasks they already have and for new activities they want to undertake? - Is there sufficient insight into the benefits that do or might accrue from this, to women directly and to households and the community as a result? - Does the project sufficiently appeal to the community as a whole, taking care that women are not inordinately burdened? - What measures are taken to overcome cultural/ practical obstacles to women's Participation? Think of: convenient times and places for meetings; * adequate seating arrangements; * female intermediaries/ project staff; * informai settings for women's groups; sensibilization of local leaders. Will women be able to participate on the basis of all of their interests and key roles? 48 Checklists: The Proiect Process Is women's local expertise being utilized to identify suitable locations for and to ensure convenient design of facilities? Is this done with sufficient attention to social factors, such as ease of access for all, and respect for privacy? Are women consulted to find suitable training candidates for local maintenance and management: people with sufficient time, commitment, trustworthiness and skill? Is women's familiarity with traditional learning systems used as a basis for effective health education and project communication as a whole? Are the potential users (women and men) participating in decisions on citing of facilities; additional provisions for washing and bathing; community contributions in cash, labor, time, or materials; operating hours? Have target categories been identified on the basis of felt needs, with special alertness to the needs of poor women? Does the project provide enough information on the technical, managerial, health and workload implications of various options to enable users to make responsible choices? Construction, Maintenance, Management and Use - Can women assist in low-cost construction of facilities without being disproportionately burdened? - What specific skills and insights can they contribute, what voluntary labor can they do, what can they contribute financially themselves and what community funds can they raise? What contributions can men make? - How can women's and men's traditional maintenance tasks be extended to the project situation? - Is their training adequate, is there sufficient compensation for workload increases, is there sufficient back-up service for larger repair and does a substantial share in the overall management ensure that women can actually control maintenance? What should men's role be? - Is the project designed to keep close track of actual and adequate use of new facilities? - Will users have reasonable alternatives for safe water supply and excreta disposal when facilities are out of order? 49 Checklists: The Proiect Process Training - Will women be trained in the actual construction, operation and long-term maintenance of the system? What will men's role in training be? - Will a system for potable water be complemented with training for men and women on health education, so as to maximize the benefits of clean water? - Will women and men be informed of the supplies required and the names of suppliers of parts and equipment? - Will women receive instruction on legal matters such as water use rights or land rights related to water, if applicable? Implementation Phase Personnel - Are project personnel sufficiently aware of and sympathetic toward women's needs? - Are there female staff to deliver the goods or services to women beneficiaries? - Do personnel have the necessary skills to provide any special inputs required by women? - What training techniques will be used to develop delivery systems? - Are there appropriate opportunities for women to participate in project management positions? Organizational Structures - Do organizational structures enhance women's access to resources? - Does the implementing agency have adequate power to obtain resources needed by women from other organizations? - Does the agency have the institutional capability to support and protect women during the change process? Operations and Logistics - Are the agency's delivery channels accessible to women in terms of personnel, location and timing? 50 Checklists: The Proiect Process Do control procedures exist to ensure dependable delivery of the goods and services? Are there mechanisms to ensure that the project resources or benefits are not usurped by males? Finances - Do funding mechanisms exist to ensure program continuity? - Are funding levels adequate for proposed tasks? - Is it preferential access to resources by males avoided? - Is it possible to trace funds for women from allocation to delivery with a fair degree of accuracy? Flexibility Does the project have a management information system which will allow it to detect any differential impacts on women and men? Does the agency have enough flexibility to adapt its structures and operations to meet the changing situation of women? Infornation Network Have women's groups been approached to assist with information, motivation, reinforcement, and/or maintenance activities? Is women's and men's access to project information sufficient? Does the choice of channels through which information is disseminated inadvertently exclude or bypass women? Monitoring and Evaluation Phases Data Requirements Does the project's monitoring and evaluation system explicitly measure the project's separate effects on wornen and men? Is data collected to assess changes in women and men's involvement in the project and their access and control over management and resources? Are women and men involved in designating the data requirements? 51 Checklists: The Project Process Data Collection and Analysis - Are the data collected with sufficient frequency so that necessary project adjustments can be made during the project? - Are the data fed back to project personnel and beneficiaries in an understandable form and on a timely basis to allow project adjustments? - Are women and men involved in the collection and interpretation of data? - Are data analyzed so as to provide guidance to the design of other projects? - Are key areas for gender research identified? Monitoring and Evaluation Are there women on existing village water committees? If so, what is the percentage of women and what role do they play? Are women consulted on the choice of technology, the selection of well sites or pump sites? Are they consulted on additional facilities such as washing, or bathing facilities? Are men consulted? Are women given training in maintenance of water supply schemes? If so, what is the percentage of women trained as preventive maintenance workers/caretakers/managers of the facilities? What is the percentage of men trained in these roles? - Are women trained as health/hygiene educators? If so, what is the percentage of women trained? What is the performance of male versus female educators? What are the turn-over rates for men and women? - Do women derive economic benefits from saved time? Do women use the saved time for income-generating activities such as: sewing, handicrafts, vegetable growing, for greater involvement in the local market system, for education and training, or learning new skills? - Do they use saved time for other activities? If so, what activities and why? - Have women, and in particular, poor women, participated in the design and execution of project activities? - Do they have easy access to relevant health education? - Can women participate in line with their own wishes and potential, without harm to present tasks and new opportunities? 52 Checklists: The Proiect Process Do women and men have individual or organized influence on the operation, maintenance and management of water and sanitation services? What roles do women and men play in these areas? 53 Checklists: Project Preparation CHECKLISTS FOR THE DATA COLLECTION AND DESIGN/PREPARATION PHASES Data Gathering General Country background: - Official government policy on gender issues. - Seasonal or more permanent predominance of males or females in urban or rural settings, due to migrant labor. Sector organization and development: - Government agency or ministry charged with gender issues. Summary information on any major women's organizations which are involved in low- cost water and sanitation activities, or relevant health or community development activities. Present level of services and standards: The use of existing adequate water and sanitation facilities by women (as well as by men and children), and reasons for any preferential use of alternative sources. Public education and staff training: Past experiences which indicate a need for specific criteria in recruitment of new staff (particularly field staff) in order to reach women. Experience and capabilities of voluntary women's organizations regarding community education and training of health workers, community educators, and volunteers. Experiences of programs which have achieved a notably active role for women in promotion, instruction and/or public attention. 54 Checklists: Proiect Preparation Project Area and the Need for the Project Project area population: Existence and reasons for women's interest in water and sanitation improvements and how this is or is not similar to men's interest. Special features such as seasonal, or more permanent migratory patterns of men, women (or both). Major cultural or economic differences among area sub-groups. Economic and social conditions: - Women's status, social or economic participation, particularly where these have implications for project design, implementation or operation. - Where large numbers of female-headed households exist, any significant differences between their incomes and those of the rest of the population. - Unemployment among local women and men, if significant; employment of women and men as scavengers or in related occupations (who might lose their jobs as a result of the project). Sector institutions: - Women's groups active in sector activities, or which may be interested in expanding into the sector. - Voluntary organizations, or other organizations/groups in the area in which women are particularly active. - Representation of women and men, and their respective roles, on any area water and sanitation committees. - Attitude of local agency representatives to the participation of women. - Existing primary health care systems or community development structures in the area, and the roles of women and men in these. 55 Checklists: Proiect Preparation Existing water and sanitation systems and attitudes/practices: Women's (as well as men's) experience with and preferences for alternative technologies or sharing arrangements, and any evidence of rapid change in such preferences (for example, due to women working as domestic servants in higher income areas). Social, cultural or practical considerations which affect women's water and sanitation preferences and practices, or affect sharing of water and sanitation facilities between men and women. Usage of latrines by women and men, noting day/night and seasonal patterns (for example, the fact that women may avoid daylight defecation or not use latrines at night if it is raining). Attitudes of women towards children's feces (especially whether they are believed to be harmful or not). - Home hygiene practices which threaten family health. Women's potential to participate in project decisions: - Role of women in community decision-making. - Areas of influence of women in the home. - Literacy level of women. - Percentage or number of women de jure or de facto heads of households. Women's and men's potential to contribute cash, materials, labor: - Women's and men's unused resources (such as time, skills, cooperative structures, etc.). - Significant differences between income levels of female-headed and male-headed households in the project area. - Extent of wives' decision-making over a family's disposable income. - Availability and source of women's separate disposable income (for example, from home gardens, poultry sales, crafts) and of men's and/or family's disposable income. 56 Checklists: Proiect Preparation Ways in which women and men may or may not be able to contribute labor and materials towards the project (in line with traditional roles). Women's and men's roles in gardening (especially in relation to potential use of humus). Area disease patterns: - Excreta-related diseases, noting those which particularly affect women or, more likely, children. Behavioral dimensions of such diseases. Data Collection Techniques General Who is the chief respondent - the head of household, the female decision-maker? Women are likely to give different answers than men on many subjects. Where men and women both have important roles in water supply or use and in sanitation practices, it may be necessary to ask similar questions to more than one household member for accuracy. Where will the interview take place, and who will be present? What kinds of questions can be answered reliably? * Quantitative questions can be used for facts in the present or recent past (number of times water fetched yesterday, how long it took). Observation and measurement (existence of latrines, water storage) is most accurate. Qualitative questions about preferences, motivations and aspirations (feelings about current water system and interest in being trained in pump maintenance) give women a chance to voice their opinions, although results must be used cautiously. Close-ended qualitative questions, i e., where the range of choices is pre-selected on the basis of earlier research, are more likely to give usable results. Who does hygiene and water-related activities - men, women, or children? This will differ depending on the task. Since 'who' has important implications for targeting training, extension and promotion, it is critical to code these responses by gender. 57 Checklists: Project Preparation Interviewing Women: Points to Watch When interviewing women, it is wise to keep certain procedural guidelines in mind. Women interviewers are likely to obtain better access and more accurate information from women than would male interviewers. This is particularly the case where women have limited social contact with men outside their immediate family. The age, social class and cultural match of the interviewer have to be considered to make sure that the interviewer will be trusted and understood. The interview situation is also important. Women may find it easier to answer questions in their work environment -- the fields, or the kitchen. Normally it is advisable to try to interview women when their husbands are not present, but in come cultures women may be unwilling to agree to this, even with a female interviewer. The possibility of group interviews wherever women gather (for instance, in mothers' clubs, literacy classes or adult education classes for women) should be taken advantage of, particularly where these people already have a fairly close relationship with each other and can enter into a lively discussion on the questions asked. This technique will be particularly useful at the pre-feasibility stage during rapid assessments (where there is not always an opportunity for proper sampling of the population nor for interviewing large numbers of people). However, people who belong to such groups may not be representative of the population as a whole; this needs to be kept in mind. In some cultures it is important to interview young wives away from their mothers-in-law or mothers, as the latter may exert considerable influence over them and inhibit what they say. However, it is equally vital to understand what these older women think since the young wife may have to be guided by it. Sources of Information on Women's Roles - Women's groups and organizations at the grassroots level - Group interviews with village women - Local women leaders - Women enumerators and extension workers - Female staff resident in the project area - Home economics, nutrition, agriculture, community development ministry staff - NGOs working with women 58 Checklists: Project Preparation Studies by NGOs or researchers on women's situation Agencies emphasizing gender issues Project documents and reports Checklist for Review of Women's Organizations23 - What are the major functions of the organization and how closely does it relate to the water and sanitation authorities? - What has been its history and duration? - What is the size, type of membership, leadership? What overlap is there with traditional area leadership? - How widespread is this type of organization in the project area, and what, if any, variations exist in the way it operates or how well it operates? - To what extent does the organization represent or bring together the different subgroups in the area (religious, caste, tribal, economic, etc.)? - To what extent is the organization tied to municipal, district, regional or national authorities? How good are the information flows and what accountabilities exist between the different levels? - What accountability does the organization have to its members? - Do members participate actively in decision making, responsibilities, benefits? All? Some? Certain subgroups? - How motivated and dedicated are the leadership and members? - What has been the proven managerial experience of the organization? - How capable has the organization shown itself in mobilizing internal and external resources? (that is, mobilizing labor, collecting fees, dues, tariffs, etc.)? 23 Based on: Heli Perrett, Social and Behavioral Aspects of Project Work in Water Supply and Waste Disposal, P U.N. 52-T, Washington: The Word Bank/Transportation, Water and Telecommunications Department, February, 1980. Annex 4, pp. 58-59. 59 Checklists: Proiect Preparation To what extent is the organization overburdened with present functions, or able to handle new ones? What incentives, training (technical or managerial), or other forms of support would be required for the organization to play an active role in water and sanitation? (Or to play a larger role than it already does)? What structural changes might be called for in the organization? What are its past experiences in dealing with government in infrastructure activities? What has been the organizational track record in carrying out activities in poor areas? Design/Preparation Identifying Channels to Inform and Involve Women - What NGOs work with women in the project area? - What local-level women's groups exist, whether informal or formal, and what is their membership, activities, capacities? - What national women's organizations have good grassroots linkages and political strength? - What government ministries and extension services work effectively with women? - What water and sanitation activities have women been involved with in the project area? - What rural development programs aimed at women exist? - Are there local women with experience at the management level in home economics, household surveys, anthropological studies, water, sanitation or other relevant areas? - Which organizations have employed female enumerators and extension agents'? Constraints to Involving Women Identify constraints to involving women and suggest possible measures to overcome these constraints, such as: Extension, eg., when lack of female extension agents is an obstacle to communication with 60 Checklists: Proiect PreDaration women, male extension agents can be trained to work with women, or female extension agents can be recruited. Mobility, .g., in order for women to attend, training courses may have to be organized in a village setting. Education, &g., innovative means of communication such as puppet shows and posters have been successfully used to reach illiterate and semi-literate women. Tixne and workload, Lg., creches or labor-saving technologies may permit women to participate in project activities and wage labor. Lack of qualified women managers and technologists can be overcome, eg., by training women managers from other fields. Social taboos, eg., when taboos exist on the type of labor that can be done by women and where they work, ways can be found around them (women can work together with other women or in their compounds; extension agents may need funds for buses rather than bicycles), or taboos can be weakened through educational media. Basic Tasks - Has a budget been prepared taking into account time, money and personnel required for achieving full community participation, including that of women? - Has the intention to involve women (as employees, in training, as decision-makers in communities) been clearly defined in the project document? - Does the executing agency have the social science capability to address issues of community participation, health education and women's involvement? - Is a social science consultant needed to assist with gender sensitive project implementation? - Have the appropriate government ministries been involved in the project design, especially the government ministry or bureau for women's affairs? - Has a national women's NGO been invited to participate in the project? Personnel and Training Issues At the national level: What will be the proportion of women staff? 61 Checklists: Proiect PreDaration When new staff positions are created, will attention be given to the recruitment of women as project managers, water and sanitation engineers, and extension workers? Will training programs include gender issues? Will personnel be trained to be sensitive to women's special needs and problems? At the local level: Will women and men be involved in construction? Will women and men be trained in maintenance? Will women be trained as health\hygiene educators? What about men? Can women be hired as: 0 & M personnel meter readers laborers billing and collection clerks public relations officers Do project training activities give equal opportunity to women? Will training sites be located in project communities in order to facilitate women's attendance? Will training courses be offered at times women can attend? Will training courses be segregated by sex, where culturally necessary, to facilitate women's attendance? Will women be training women? Community Participation Issues Is community participation designed to encourage women's participation? Will the engineering consultancy firms be made aware of the benefits and methods of involving communities, (especially women)? Will female staff be utilized to communicate with women? 62 Checklists: Proiect Preparation Will educational materials and messages about water and sanitation feature women as well as men? Will women's NGO's in the community be involved? Appropriate Technology - Will women and men be involved in the choice and/or design of the technology, including the need for additional facilities such as washing and bathing facilities? - Will the facility be cited according to "women's preferences"? - Will women's work patterns and time-use be taken into account in the timing of water operations? - Will latrines ensure privacy and conform to cultural rules? - Can women and their families afford to maintain the facility? - Will the facility be easy for women to use? 63 Checklists: Monitoring and Evaluation CHECKLIST FOR MONITORING AND EVALUATION Monitoring Involvement Budget percentage of funds earmarked for women and for men - percentage of funds distributed to women and to men Performance - percentage of women and men participating in water and sanitation activities - percentage of female participation to total potential female participation - percentage of women among persons trained in maintenance and repair (male/female ratio) health education, etc. (male/female ratio) percentage of women in charge of operation, maintenance and repair of facilities (male/female ratio) Community development existence of village-level women's group(s), .g., self-help groups, cooperatives, religious groups approximate percentage of women involved (of the total female population of the project area). approximate percentage of men involved (of the total male population of the project area). initiatives undertaken by women and men (separately and jointly). How successful are they? what is the socio-economic group of female participants? 64 Checklists: Monitonn2 and Evaluation training of women and men in: vocational training maintenance, operation, repair of the facilities leadership and management health education Impact of the availability of water and sanitation on: - women's and men's productive activities - women's and men's leisure - child mortality - water-related diseases - women's and men's community participation Improvement - Improvement in women's and men's knowledge about water, sanitation, personal hygiene, health, use of water Improvement of skills: in self-organization within water groups; decision-making; maintaining water facilities; solving problems. Improvement in attitudes and beliefs: more women brave enough to attend meetings, talk and make decisions; seek new information, bring new ideas, feel proud of achievements; suggest own evaluation criteria. Benefits Do women use the increased water supply for any of these activities: - income-generating (e., brewing beer) - clothes washing 65 Checklists: Monitoring and Evaluation - processing food for home or market - irrigating gardens - cultivating fish ponds - rearing of poultry or livestock - vending (g., providing water at bus stops or market) Which activities provide income for women? List them Which activities provided income for men? List them Were the activities listed undertaken on the initiative of: - community women and men individually - committees of women and men (specify) - outside organization (specify) - other (specify) Do women use time saved for any of these activities: - market production - trading - fruit gathering - agricultural labor - sewing - other (specify) Which of these activities produce income for women? 66 Checklists: Monitofni and Evaluation List them Were the activities listed above undertaken by the initiative of: - village women individually - committees of women (specify) - outside organization - other Do women and men collect or produce any inputs for the project such as: - stones, gravel, sand for construction - pump parts - well pipes - latrine slabs - water carrying and storage containers - pottery basins for handwashing - other (specify) Has health-promoting behavior increased? If yes, describe. Evaluation Role of Women and Men in Evaluation Women and men in the community can work with project staff to identify criteria for the evaluation, collect and record data, and review evaluation findings. With a stake in the outcome they will be more motivated to ensure that necessary care is taken in selecting and collecting data. They will at the same time feel responsible for suggesting modifications themselves, based on the interpretation of the data gathered. Women and men can not only collect the survey data, but can also organize a workshop for analyzing the findings. 67 Checklists: Monitoring and Evaluation General Evaluation Issues Does this project correspond to gender priorities as outlined in agency or government policy documents? - Were project objectives and indicators related to gender achieved? If not, why not? If yes, what were the factors most responsible for success? - Were systematic efforts made to ensure that the project was gender sensitive? If so, what steps were taken and how well did they work? If systematize efforts were not undertaken, why not? - Have roles/responsibilities changed as a result of this project? If yes, in what way? How did the project contribute to these changes? - Has women's and men's access to, or control of, the following resources changed as a result of this project? In what way? How did the project contribute to the changes? - informal education/training - income - credit - sanitation facilities - safe water - decision-making authority at national and local levels - health care - equipment/technology - employment - labor * their own * others Describe and analyze women's and men's participation in project design and implementation Was adequate training available to women and men to ensure absorption of new technologies/ideas? Which of the following groups of women were included as agents (A) or beneficiaries (B) of the project? A B female government officials female community leaders female poor 68 Checklists: Monitorin2 and Evaluation female farmers (landed) female farmers (landless) female children female consumers Which groups of men were involved? Were the number of women effected more/less than anticipated? Explain. Were negative effects of the project identified? If so, what steps were taken to alleviate them? Community Management Issues The involvement of women in the rehabilitation of water and sanitation systems is directly linked to community development, therefore the following checklist on village-level management may be suggested: Ownership Who owns the system? (government, village, etc.) What are the legal provisions? Are there any gender differences concerning ownership? Cost How much does it cost the owners? users? the water and sanitation supply agency? Institutions Project Team Is there a local Project Team in the project area? If so, how many of the team are men and how many are women? How and when was it chosen? How often does it meet? 69 Checklists: Monitoiny and Evaluation What does it do? (maintain the systems, educate the public, etc.) Does it keep records? (If so, examine them if possible.) How does it relate to other sources of authority in the village? (chief, development officer, priest, etc.) Community Committees Have community organizations been part of project activities? If not, why not? If so, then: Which community organizations were involved? How many women and how many men were on the committees? Were there any guidelines or rules as to how many women should be on the committees? What was the function of the committees? How well did they fulfill their roles? How strong was women's involvement in the committees' work? How strong was men's involvement? What do committee members (women and men) say they have learned through committee work? What would they do differently in a future project? Maintenance - Who is responsible for day-to-day operations? - Routine maintenance? - Emergency repairs? - Has anyone been trained for this work? If so: How many men and how many women have been trained, and what have they been trained in? What incentive is there to carry out the work? 70 Terms of Reference TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR A GENDER ISSUES SPECIALIST FOR THE PREPARATION/DESIGN PHASES Overall responsibilities: The Specialist will ensure that gender issues are appropriately considered during the project preparation/design phases. Areas of emphasis include data collection, the determination of overall project objectives and activities, and gender sensitive project design. Tasks: Data Collection The Specialist will ensure that data which are collected are gender disaggregated. Sufficient data on gender issues should be amassed so that it can be used for appropriate project design. Data will be collected on such topics as: - government and agency policies on gender issues (in general and concerning water and sanitation in particular) - national level (or state level) statistics on men and women (education levels, life expectancy, infant mortality rates, etc.) - General picture of men's and women's status and roles in the project area, especially in activities relating to water and sanitation - Existing community and NGO groups in the project area, and men's and women's roles in each (including any women's organizations) - Experience in the project area or in similar areas in the country with gender sensitive water and sanitation projects - Community women's and men's feelings about their existing water and sanitation systems Project Planning/Design Based on the information collected, the Specialist will work with community members and other project team members to determine priorities and project activities. A special effort should be made to incorporate the findings of gender analysis into the project design. In particular, the Specialist is responsible for: Ensuring that project goals, objectives, processes, and activities are gender sensitive and meet the needs and priorities of village women and men. 71 Terms of Reference Identifying constraints to women's participation and developing strategies to minimize or eliminate them. Making adequate staff and budget provisions for women's involvement, including plans for hiring female staff (especially if village women do not meet with male staff) Developing a strategy for staff training in gender analysis (if staff have not yet been trained) and identifying community training needs related to women's involvement If the project includes the utilization of village committees, design the project so that these are constituted in a gender sensitive manner, including the creation of separate committees for women if men and women will not meet together. Ensure that both women and men have been involved with the choice of technology, and that it will be convenient and appropriate for their use. 72 Terms of Reference TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR A GENDER ISSUES SPECIALIST FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION PHASE Overall responsibilities: The Specialist on the Project Implementation Team is responsible for ensuring that gender sensitive project design is implemented. If design has not been gender sensitive, the Specialist will try to modify the design during implementation. In particular, the Specialist is responsible for: - Developing a gender strategy for the project (or refining, as needed, the strategy developed during project preparation) - Hiring and supervising staff focusing on gender issues, and conducting training sessions for the sensitization of other staff - Ensuring that project activities which involve women are carried out at times and locations convenient for women - Organizing training as needed for villagers concerning participation and gender issues, and specific training for women in skills needed for the project - Working with other project staff and with villagers to develop and maintain a monitoring and evaluation system which includes gender disaggregated data and data which provide indicators concerning women and men's involvement - Reformulating the project as needed during implementation, based on the results of monitoring - Developing adequate information channels between village women and men and project and government staff 73 Terms of Reference TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR A GENDER ISSUES SPECIALIST FOR MONITORING AND EVALUATION Overall responsibilities: The Specialist will be responsible for developing and implementing gender sensitive monitoring and evaluation systems. Ideally the Specialist will be part of a monitoring and evaluation team, and gender issues will be part of an overall monitoring and evaluation (M & E) framework. In particular, the Specialist is responsible for: an M & E system(s) which provide gender disaggregated data and indicators which can be used to measure the gender appropriateness of project activities. The system(s) should be designed in such a way that they provide project staff and the community with timely information which can be used to reformulate the project during implementation, if need be. measuring the effects of the project on women and on men analyzing men and women's involvement in the project, and their access and control over management and resources. This includes assessing the types of involvement (decision- making, financial, participation on committees, management, maintenance, etc.). If there are committees, how many women and how many men are on the committees and what roles do they play? examining staff attitudes towards gender issues and how this did or did not have an impact on project outcomes. Is the staff supportive of gender issues? Have they received gender issues training? If so, what impact did this have? Should they have received additional training or some type of on-going follow-up? Assessing the training of men and women in maintenance, hygiene education and other skill areas. What percentage of women as opposed to men were trained in each area? What were the benefits of the training; what could have been done differently? Was there any difference in the performance of women and men? I - Examining women and men's roles in determining the type of technology chosen, the citing, and whether or not additional facilities will be built (such as washing and bathing facilities) - Involving village women and men in the design of the system(s) and in data collection and interpretation - Organizing meetings/workshops to inform project staff and communities of findings - Identifying areas for further research 74 Terms of Reference Analyzing any time gains women and men derived from the project. What were time gains used for (economic or social purposes) and why? Did the project anticipate/plan for these uses? Determining whether the project created new burdens for men or women Delineating lessons learned and providing recommendations for future projects 75 Charts Practical Steps to Enhance Participation of Women in Water SuDPly and Sanitation Projects 1. Contact with male leadership for understanding and support; 2. Use of project information channels which reach women; 3. Facilitation for women to participate in project meetings: - time and place of meetings - awareness and invitation to attend - appropriate seating arrangements - facilitation of speaking out (vernacular language, discussion breaks, choice spokeswomen, etc.); - separate meetings with women where necessary; 4. Involvement in local planning and planning decisions: - choice caretakers, mechanics - choice committee members - design and location facilities - local management arrangements - local financing system; 5. Women to choose their own representatives for trust, ease of contacts, leadership capacities and feasibility; 6. Representation of women also in higher level committees; 76 Charts 7. Expansion of traditional tasks and responsibilities of women to roles in new projects: - management of water, waste and soil use maintenance and repair of waterpoints - hygiene education with fellow women - construction of household latrines and monitoring of their maintenance and use - collection of tariffs and management of funds; 8. Linkage of water and sanitation projects with income-generation activities for women; 9. Training of women for technical and managerial tasks; 10. Conscientization and training of project staff and management on reasons and practicalities of women's involvement. Source: Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, Women. Water and Sanitation: Annual Abstract Journal Issue No. 1 (IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP, May 1991), 3. 77 Charts Interdependency of project objectives and the potential contributions of and benefits to women and the community. Project objectives Potential contribution Potential benefits I. Maximum coverage at Voluntary contributions to More households can be served minimum cost construction work Motivation of comnmunity contributions Local knowledge for Avoidance of design mistakes appropriate design Support for self-reliant improvement of traditional water supply and sanitation 2. Continued functioning of Local knowledge for Avoidance of design mistakes facilities appropriate design Participation in maintenance More control over service and management Better functioning of facilities Recognition of traditional roles in modem functions 3. Public health impact General acceptance of facilites Better health for users and their families Exclusive and safe use of Improved public health facilities More time and water for Reduction in health costs hygiene, child care, and food production Elimination of local transmission routes of water and sanitation related disease 4. Socio-economic development Economic use of time and Income generation energy gains Food production Economic use of water, Increased time for women's including grey water organizations, household tasks, child care, education Economic use of waste water Enhancement of the status of (compost, biogas) women 5. Equitable distributions of Local knowledge of needs and Access for all contnbutions and benefits capacities Contributions according to capacity Employment of poor women 78 Charts Ways in Which Water and Sanitation Projects have Worsened the Position of Women Certain categories of women are excluded from access: l - poor women l - minority groups - female heads of household 2. Special needs of women are not met, e.g.: - location, design of facilities - bathing, laundry provisions - service operating hours - alternative opportunities for meeting and social learning 3. Involvement of women has been limited to: physical labour for construction, maintenance passive audiences for health education - separate women's projects 4. Introduction of new technologies and systems has lead to l - reduced control of women over water and sanitation conditions l - bypassing of women's traditional expertise - neglect of existing water systems 5. Workload of women has been increased by: l - loss of assistance in water collection l - voluntary labour for construction, maintenance 6. Poor women, or their households, have lost employment in: water collection waste collection waste recycling; 79 Charts 7. Wealthier households benefit most from better access, flat tariffs and/or productive uses of domestic water, thus widening further the gap between rich and poor; 8. Women use time and energy gains or surplus water from an improved water supply for work in agriculture, horticulture or dairying, but have no access to the resulting income or say over it use. Source: Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, Women. Water and Sanitation: Annual Abstract Journal Issue No. I (IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP), May 1991, 5. 80 Charts GENDER ASPECTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION Men and Women participate actively and equitably in: Identifying local Choosing Design and siting problems, acceptable and of sanitation priorities and affordable facilities technologies facilities Physical and Training and Education of own financial education in children/pupils contributions to construction, on proper use and construction/O&M use and upkeep upkeep Managing sanitary Monitoring conditions in the sanitary community conditions in the community Measurable positive impacts on environmental conditions 4. Reduce health risks/reduced incidence of sanitation- related diseases From: A Gender Approach to Sustainable Sanitation (forthcoming), (IRC) 81 INFLUENCE ON THE PROJECT OF WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING WOMEN PARTICIPANTS IN SANITATION DECISIONS HAVE: NO RIGHT TO RIGHT TO EXPRESS RIGHT TO RIGHT TO MAKE A RIGHT TO VETO A FINAL HAVE A SAY AN OPINION PARTICIPATE IN A DECISION, SUBJECT DECISION, MADE BY UNQUESTIONED GROUP DECISION TO REVIEW OTHERS AUTHORITY OVER DECISIONS INCREASING LEVEL OF INFLUENCE ON THE PROJECT 00 Source: Heli Perrett, Involving Women in Sanitation Projects (UNDP/The World Bank, TAG Discussion Paper Number 3, 1985), 19. Charts Participation sunmmary The following diagram illustrates the levels of participation of women in a project: Participation of women in water and sanitation projects Project phase Activities Pre-feasibility Collection, coding and Feasibility analysis of data Project design & Co-decision makers selctonof technology ~~~11 11I Construction & - Work in self-help projects materials - Paid work ._________ ____________- Trainees - Production and sales of materials Operation - Monitors maintenance - Repairs __________ ____________- Collection of fees - Report damage of misuses - Technical trainees - Trainers Localadministration - Project staff - Supervisors - Managers - Managerial trainees - Trainers Women will only be involved in various project activities (data collection, selection of technology, project site, etc.) when they have the support of men and women in higher levels from field staff to managers and decision-makers at the regional and national level. Source: Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Women in Development: A Sectoral Perspective (1989), 120. 83 Charts MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF WOMEN'S PART1CIPATION T YPE OF ROLES NATURE OF PARTICIPATION TECOFMISLS | |tI~~fECNANISMS INYOLVED OF f AREA t4EN ________ COVERAGE OF WOEN _ REPRESENTATIVE OF DIFFERENT GROUPS WMOITRING THE _________________ ______TRtAINING PROCESS 3 |TRAIHINC OF PREPARATION FOR PARTICIPATION PARTICIPATION _ _INFOR_ATION _____MOTIVES |BASIS OF PARTICIPATION f ROLE OF TRADITION |ROLE OF PROJECT ODEGREE OF CONTROL EXTENT OF PARTICIPATION TIME SPENT |TO PARTICIPANTS COST OF PARTICIPATION _ _ ,TO _THE_PROJECT _______ ______ ______ ______ _____ _____ | TO THE PROJECT |NUMBER OF LATRINES CONSTRUCTED __ _ _ _ CONSTRUCT ION _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ CONSTRUCTION_UNIT COST OF LATRINES EVALUATING THE NUI4BER OF FUNCTIONING PROBLEMS DUE TO MISUSE IMPACT 2 I ON FUNCTIONING PRESERVATION OF CLEANLINESS THE PROJECT _______ |CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE COSTS |REGULAR USE OF LATRINES |___ _ UTILI2ATION__ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ UTILIZATION______________________ ,__ |__ ADOPTION OF GOCO HYGIENE PRACTICES _________ |Tl~GET TIME SAVINGS |_TIME WDGET ____ |ADDITIONAL DEMANDS , EVALUATING THE _ __|_____ j SAVINGS/GAINS IMPACT_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ ON _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ INCOME _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ WOMEN |EXPENDITURE I 3______ |STATUS |_______ SOCIAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL |SELF-ESTEE Source: Heti Perett, InvoLving Women in Sanitation Projects (UNOP/The Wortd Bank, TAG Discussion Paper 3, 1985), 25. 84 A MODEL FOR THE EVALUATION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: ILLUSTRATING THE WIDESPREAD ROLE OF WOMEN PROJECT OPERATION PROJECT PERFORMANCE PROJECT IMPACTS t t t Engineering design: Acceptance by women Effects on heaLth of women appropriateness to women as users and children and children as users Use by women SociaL effects on women Participation of women assuring quality of installation Maintenance, participation Economic effects 00 by women on women Women determining _ appropriateness of site selection _ Repair, participation by women Effects on administrative I q roles of women Appropriateness of Women's involvement in technology for women community participation and children A Education of women as users| Reliability of source according to criteria set by women Support from Infrastructure Source: Mary L. Elmendorf and Raymond B. Isley, The Role of Women as Participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs (USA: WASH Technical Report No. 11, December 1981), 17. GENDER DISCUSSION MATRIX Was gender given Possible cause for Possible costs of Actions that could Institutional Resource due consideration? not including women not including women have been taken capacity Implications 00 Source: Deepa Narayan, Rekha Dayal, Mike Goldberg, A. Rani Parker, Dian Seslar Svendsen, First WID Consultation Workshop: Participatory Desigin of Waler and Sanitation Proiects Focusing on Gender (Draft document, The World Bank, 1993). Partidpatory Tools Participatory Gender Analysis Tools for the Community and Agency Levels Deepa Narayan Social Policy and Resettlement Division World Bank, 1993 INTRODUCTION Gender analysis is a powerful tool for planning, design and evaluation. It is also a tool for raising people's awareness about gender differentials in roles, role flexibility or inflexibility, access and control over resources, and distribution of benefits. Gender analysis concepts have been widely applied for data disaggregation at both the national policy and project levels. It is important that gender analysis concepts be consistently used at different levels and during different stages of program cycles to ensure the evolution of policies and action programs that support equitable human development. While much work on gender analysis has been done at the international, national and program levels, participatory tools which actively engage people in ways that raise their awareness of gender issues have been relatively lacking. This is particularly the case at the community level. This paper provides brief descriptions of some gender analysis tools developed and applied both at the agency and community levels. Community level As part of a long-term community organization process, it is important that gender and equity issues be analyzed by local people themselves through their own data collection processes. Tools that can be put in the hands of local people, as part of a long-term process focusing on enhancing their capacity to initiate and manage change, are critical to supporting the process of bringing about change at the grass-roots level. Because many community members may be illiterate, 'non-material' tools must be developed. These include themes for focus group discussion, use of local stories, open-ended dramas, proverbs, and other visual materials such as puppets, mapping and games. 87 ParticiDatory Tools Agency level Unless agencies themselves become aware of gender issues and meaningfully reflect their commitment in policies, strategies and evaluation criteria, large-scale change will be difficult to induce at the community level. Therefore, in addition to gathering gender disaggregated data, agency staff should undergo gender sensitization training workshops. An institutional analysis of an agency's gender specific resources and constraints can be done by staff. This analysis should be carried out by mixed groups of agency staff to internalize the learning. This is the first step in changing institutional culture to support gender dimensions of development. Participatory tools such as those described below have been used to assist agency, planning, technical and extension staff to undertake gender analysis and apply findings to planning, implementation strategies, and evaluation indicators and processes. PRINCIPLES OF PARTICIPATORY GENDER ANALYSIS Over the last decade, the PROWWESS program has focused on developing a vast array of materials and activities to enhance adult learning, to enable people to undertake self-directed inquiry, to solve problems, to take action and determine their own reality. The materials are based on the SARAR approach developed by Lyra Srinivasan. The basic premise is that people are their own most valuable resource and that development is about human development, fulfillment of human potential and drawing strength from working in groups. In order for learning to take place, it is important to create a positive learning environment, one in which people feel free to express themselves, make mistakes and speak up without fear of being wrong. This is particularly important when working with poor and marginal groups and, in most societies, in working with women. A positive learning environment is equally important at the agency level, especially when staff from different disciplines and different levels have been brought together to discuss sensitive issues. Hence, the setting in which participatory activities are conducted is important. In most societies, especially in the early stages of community development, it is usually important to begin with groups separated into women and men. This approach supports women in not feeling hampered in participating and speaking up. At the agency level, it is important to create small groups which mix individuals across gender, status and discipline. 88 Participatory Toob PARTICIPATORY TOOLS AND EXERCISES Visual materials that reflect local reality help overcome class and literacy barriers at the community level and facilitate the involvement of those usually excluded: women, the poor and the illiterate. At the agency level, the use of visual materials helps staff break away from writing tasks and familiar ways of doing things, and serves as a great stimulus to creativity. It assists in the lowering of interpersonal and status barriers and creates openness to working together across disciplinary specializations. Additionally, it allows agency staff to start believing in the possibility that such materials could be used effectively to involve community people in decision making. The following exercises and tools are some examples of the application of gender analysis at the community level. The tools can be used with groups of women, men and children. Brief notes are also provided for applying the tools at the agency level where appropriate. All of the tools need to be adapted to the local context, both pictorially and substantively. Detailed descriptions and examples of the materials can be found in a series of PROWWESS/ World Bank publications'. Almost all materials can be used in a participatory or non-participatory way. It is easy to use innovative, visual materials to extract information from communities for external planning purposes rather than to empower local people to undertake action to change their own reality. When tools are used in an extractive way, the process is no longer genuinely participatory or supportive of local initiative and capacity. When the intention is to empower participants, facilitators should ask themselves a few simple questions to deterrnine whether what is being proposed will support human capacity development. It is helpful to keep these questions in mind in designing and conducting the activities: * How much structure is imposed by the task? * How much time and instruction is needed in explaining the task? * Who is controlling the process? * Who is playing the dominant role in managing the task? * Who is controlling the outcome? * Does the task search for the one correct answer? Lyra Srinivasan, Tools for Community Participation: A Manual for Training Trainers in Participatory Techniques. PROWWESS/UNDP Technical Series, Involving Women in Water and Sanitation Lessons, Strategies and Tools, 1990. The book is available from PACT, 777 UN Plaza. New York, NY, 10017; Deepa Narayan, Participatory Evaluation: Tools for Manaping Change in Water and Sanitation, Technical Paper, 207, World Bank, 1993; Deepa Narayan and Lyra Srinivasan, Participatory Materials Tool Kit: Materials for Training Trainers and for Community Empowerment. World Bank , 1993 (forthcoming). 89 Partiipatora Tools * Who is talking the most? * Does the task generate discussion, thinking, energy, excitement, fun? * Does the activity lead to changing perspective, group spirit or discussion of 'what next'? In participatory activities, where the facilitator plays a low profile role after introducing the task or activity, tasks should be simple and instructions should be kept to a minimum. Good facilitators spend time preparing the materials and thinking through the process, but they also allow the process to be controlled and taken over by the group to the greatest extent possible. Tasks are open-ended to allow the emergence of local perspectives, beliefs, values and reality. They are not focused on trying to elicit the 'one correct' answer. The ten activities briefly described below provide the reader with some idea of the range of activities available which can be adapted to introduce gender analysis in ongoing activities. Because much has already been written about open-ended stories, street theater and use of puppets, these types of activities will not be described here. 90 Participatory Tool 1. Gender Analysis - Access to Resources The purpose of this activity is threefold: to raise awareness; to collect information; and to understand gender differentials in access to resources. The materials consist of three large pictures, in black and white or in color as appropriate. The large pictures depict a man, a woman and a couple. These are laid out on the ground. Twenty-four smaller cards, each representing a different possession - such as land, chicken, fruit, furniture, kitchen utensils, radios and any other articles relevant to the local situation - are mixed up and put on the ground for people to handle as early in the process as possible. Participants are then asked to sort out the small picture cards by placing them under the three large pictures on the basis of who typically owns the possession: the man, the woman or both. The facilitator should not interfere with the discussion, but rather allow local people to take over the process, discussing and sorting the cards on their own. Generally the discussion is rich and varied, lasting a long time. Women who are usually hesitant because of illiteracy can become very vocal once they realize that their participation draws upon their reality and does not depend on formal education. The activity can be wide-ranging, as participants discuss how differences in education, wealth or region can affect ownership, how women or men would really like ownership patterns to be, and what are the irnplications of the differential access to resources. This activity was developed by Deepa Narayan (1989) and has since been adapted and used in several countries. The accompanying pictures were developed for a PROWWESS workshop facilitated by Ron Sawyer and Rose Mulama in Tanzania. / ( 4 i j/i V t' J 1.\ 91 Pridpatorv Tools at~~~~~~~ 'r '-1''' S _==5,' U.f :j> i 4, *w- * ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ /_ X , > t 7, 0 . ",!'4 1 92~~~~~~~~~~9 Partidpatory Tools 2. Task Analysis and Role Flexibility by Gender Cultures assign men and women different tasks, sometimes with greater role flexibility and sometimes with great strictures. For example, in some cultures that have rigid role definitions of tasks, women do not go to market or become religious leaders. When external facilitators are promoting new role definitions and greater flexibility in task management, it is important that they understand these cultural definitions and listen to local people discuss them. The materials for this activity consist of three large pictures of a man, a woman and a couple, and fifteen smaller cards showing women performing a series of daily tasks. Once again, groups of people or individuals are asked to sort out the tasks as either male, female or common to both. The questions the facilitator uses to structure the activity will vary depending on the context and purpose. This activity can be combined with the previous activity on resource analysis. This reveals in a dramatic way the fact that while many of the tasks are being done by women, it is often men who have control over resources. This activity was developed by Deepa Narayan (1989). The accompanying pictures were developed for a PROWWESS workshop in Kenya, facilitated by Deepa Narayan and Ron Sawyer. 93 PariiDuatorv Tools W,,~~~~~~,,1 ,,!( / ;1- ~~~~~~~~~94 X Particpatory Tools 3. Women's Lives, Needs Assessment Women's priority needs are often different from those of men, reflecting their different tasks, concerns and responsibilities. For example, studies have established that women often perceive a higher need for improved water and sanitation than do men. In any context, women and men have many needs; not every need or problem can be solved easily nor is every problem equally important. The following activity was developed to assist women to dwell on their own reality and to identify their priority needs. A similar activity can be developed to conduct a needs assessment with men. It is also illuminating to conduct this activity with men, to understand men's perceptions of women's needs and priorities. The activity consists of thirteen picture cards depicting women performing different tasks, such as carrying water, working in the fields, carrying firewood, resting and bathing children. The discussion is usually conducted in a group, with the pictures placed on the ground to serve as a starting point. The facilitator gives minimal instructions, basically introducing the task by saying that the pictures show women doing different tasks, and asking how the tasks are done in the local community, which ones are problematic, which ones are easy to do, and so on. Community members can prioritize tasks either by voting with pebbles or sticks, or by selecting the three most difficult, easy or problematic tasks. .... .. , w . .......95 95 ParticiDatorv Tools It is important for the facilitator to play an unobtrusive role and let the process be taken over as much as possible by local women who will introduce their own variations. Many adaptations of this activity are possible. Task analysis by gender can be conducted at the agency level by taking a typical day in a particular division and developing pictures of the key tasks. These can be prioritized according to those which are least liked and those that are most time consuming. This simple activity, which is fun to do, can create much greater understanding and cooperation among staff at different levels and genders. The activity was developed by Deepa Narayan (1989). The accompanying pictures were developed in Pakistan to support a PROWWESS/UNDP World Bank Water and Sanitation Program participatory evaluation activity managed by Roshaneh Zafar, K. Minnatullah and Deepa Narayan in 1992. 96 Partiidatory Tools 4. Women's Time Management There are many techniques to obtain information about women's time management, including observation and interviews conducted by outside researchers. Local women can be encouraged to analyze their own situation through discussion and by doing observations and interviews themselves. Cards depicting women's daily activities can be used by women to analyze their own situation in a way that they recognize which activities are the most time consuming and what alternatives can be found to reduce the time spent in categories of activities. In a sanitation program that was not functioning effectively in Haryana, India, an adult educator developed a series of nine small cards showing women's daily activities. Women began the discussion of their daily tasks by using the cards. They then sequenced the activities that flowed through their day. Using bits of matchsticks as counters, the women estimated how much time they spent on each activity. By seeing how many of their tasks involved water and sanitation, women's interest in taking action to improve their water and environmental sanitation conditions increased dramatically. The same activity can be used to focus on women's perceptions of how men spend their time. It is equally important to conduct this activity with men to generate discussion about the similarities between men's and women's activities and the differences in their perceptions. The activity can be made more complete by introducing seasonal differences and by having women and men map tasks during different seasons of the year. This activity was developed by Jake Pfohl in India (1984). 97 ~ / rvi @~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 \ a~~~~XCe ~ ~ Partidcatory Tools 5. Gender Analysis of Poverty Poverty has economic, cultural, social, seasonal and spatial dimensions. Many programs aim to target the poor and develop a set of criteria to identify those who qualify for assistance. Such programs are naturally interested in later evaluating whether the programs reached the intended clients. Because poverty is multi-dimensional and location specific, many programs are increasingly involving local people in identifying locally relevant indicators of poverty and in deciding collectively who are the poor in their community. The evidence, especially from South Asia and Africa, points to gender differentials in poverty and an increasing number of poor female-headed households. Often these differentials are not recognized even though they play an important role in influencing women's involvement in programs meant to benefit them. There are now many versions of wealth ranking activities. Based on results available from socioeconomic surveys, pictures of possessions that were available in rural Lesotho were drawn on small pieces of paper by a local artist; some pieces of paper were left blank. The words "rich," "average" and "poor" were also written on three large pieces of paper. Groups of people discussed and categorized all the possessions as those characterizing rich, average or poor people. Once there was agreement, the gender dimensions were introduced, with two simple line drawings of a man and a woman head-of-household. The discussion centered on differences and similarities between what the man and woman owned. The third part of the activity consisted of categorizing the families in the community into male and female-headed households and rating them as being either rich, average or poor. Although the activity generated great discussion, a unanimous consensus was reached on the ratings very quickly. When it was suggested that the family ratings be done confidentially, local people felt that was unnecessary. This activity was developed in Lesotho by Deepa Narayan and Keiso Matashane (1988). 99 Patcpatory Tools ~~~~~~~~ /, . *. N ~ ~ - C, st;-. i / i ^A~eW * . #. WW W x S #S^) ,, ,, ,s-N / + 's s 100 Partidpatory Tools 6. Evaluation of Gender Differences in Decisionmaking Participatory evaluation is a logical extension of participation in planning, design and implementation. Self-evaluation, self-criticism and diagnosis are important for learning and making corrections and adjustments to achieve desired goals. Simple tools that encourage reflection and analysis are an important part of supporting local management capacity. Participation of local people, including women, in decisionmaking is important to monitor and evaluate. A variety of tools has been developed to enable local people to evaluate the decisionmaking process and their own participation in it. One variation of the decisionmaking activity involves voting on who made what decision using a pocket chart, a device developed by Lyra Srinivasan (See Box 1, for brief descriptions of a variety of other methods). A pocket chart consists of vertical and horizontal rows of pictures and pockets. People vote by placing pebbles, leaves or pieces of paper in the pocket under the picture of their choice. In one example of a pocket chart, the horizontal row consists of drawings of a man, a woman, an official, a village leader, a water committee and an extension worker. The vertical pictures consist of tasks performed or decisions made. The same pictures can also be used by placing them on the ground and discussing the roles that the different actors play in decisionmaking. For example, was their role according to plan, and was it effective or not? No formal voting is necessary because a consensus usually arises out of the discussion. In another variation, men and women vote at the same time but are given chips of different colors to differentiate between men's and women's perceptions of who made the decisions regarding specific tasks. 101 Partcipatory Tools :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ X% ^.-.^x- s - ,. ,. - §-. e S-£ C - ' 0~~~~~~0 Participatory Tool A more elaborate version includes small cards of key decision points that have to be made in a water project. Cards depict planning, design, technology choice, site selection, fee collection, sanctions and so forth. The cards serve to stimulate discussion and remind people of the kinds of decisions that somebody has made along the way. The decisionmaking activity was first developed in Indonesia by Deepa Narayan (1986) and has since been applied in several countries at the community and agency levels. 103 Parifcipatory Toob BOX 1: Participatory SARAR Tools Flexifans: Figures cut out of light cardboard with moveable joints that can be manipulated on a flannelboard to tell a story, identify a problem, analyze possible solutions, etc. The more figures (people, animals, household or farming instruments, water sources), the better. Maxiflans: Large-size drawings of people with changeable facial expressions to be used on a flannelboard rather than as puppets on a stick. Unserialized Posters: A set of up to 20 posters or photographs to encourage creative thinking. A wide selection to dramatic pictures is desirable and those used should be as open- ended as possible, leaving room for interpretation, and should focus on human interaction rather than on activities that can easily be interpreted as "messages". Story with a Gap: A story illustrated by two contrasting pictures of "before" and "after" situations. Participants brainstorm the steps needed to move from the "before" to the "after" picture. A set of illustrations of possible steps (in mixed-up order) may be given out but participants should preferably be encouraged to invent their own. Photo Parade: A collection of photographs representing different communication styles or forms of participation, to be analyzed and categorized by trainees working in subgroups, then compared and discussed in a plenary session. Three Pile Sorting Exercise: An investigative and awareness exercise in which trainees or community members are asked to sort out sets of picture cards in three piles; e.g., those that show situations that are clearly beneficial to health, those that are clearly harmful, and those that are ambiguous (where there might be both positive and negative aspects); or those representing tasks that the community can do on its own, those that they consider to be primarily a government responsibility, and those that require joint action. Open-Ended Stories: Dramatic episodes in which the main character receives cQnflicting advice and is undecided as to which of several optional courses of action to take. The audience is invited to discuss and suggest the best solution. 104 Participatory Tool 7. Project Life-line, Constraints and Opportunities Most projects do not establish good baseline data. By the time a project has ended, local people are already forgetting details of who did what. Many externally funded projects have a good collection of photographs that have been taken during the life of a project. These photographs can be used in a variety of ways to involve local people in retrospective analysis. This activity was applied to a rural community project in Kenya. From a vast collection of photographs, pictures were selected to represent the project life-line activities from beginning to end. The photographs were handed over to a community group which was asked to first sequence the photographs. This initial activity led to spontaneous discussion and recollection of what happened when, what was difficult and what was easy. It quickly became clear which people had not been involved, because they did not recognize the outsiders or had no recollection of what happened and when. Once the photographs have been arranged, a gender dimension can be added and questions specifically asked about which activities involve women, what decisions they make and what activities they perform. Questions at this point can also center on why women were not involved. In the Kenya example, the discussion raised important differences between the perspective of the agency trainers, who felt it would be inappropriate for them to have trained women as mechanics, and the women themselves who said they wanted to be trained but had been ignored. This activity was developed by Ron Sawyer, in a PROWWESS workshop in Kenya. 8. Mapping Women's and Men's Realities Mapping activities - whether on paper or on the ground - can be used in a variety of ways to get everyone involved and to map the different realities of men and women. Once again, the instructions should be kept simple and be appropriate to the purpose of the exercise. Community maps can reveal differential access to public facilities, schools, toilets, mosques, markets, and wealth differences in different parts of the community. Women's informal networks and their spatial distribution can be determined by marking the houses of women who are close to each other. Women's and men's maps of the same location differ consistently. Women's maps tend to have much more detail and more pictures of people; those drawn by men tend to have more objects in them. 105 Participatorv Tools 9. Gender Differences in Access to Institutions Agencies - both at the community and at higher levels (sub-district, district, state and national) - have their written and unwritten rules and regulations that formally or unknowingly limit women's access to membership, information, resources and services. Force field analysis identifies objectives to be achieved and the forces (either resources or constraints) which support or hinder in achieving it. A visual version of the activity has been called "Story with a Gap." This consists of two pictures which depict a 'before' and 'after' situation. For example, at the community level the 'before' situation can show an absence of women in leadership positions in a water group. The 'after' situation depicts a woman leader conducting a water user's group meeting. After identifying both situations clearly, the discussion focuses on constraints and opportunities, and steps that can be taken to overcome obstacles. The same activity can be applied at the agency level on issues such as institutional constraints to women's access to credit. Another example for analysis at the agency level can be moving from no agency-wide adoption of gender analysis tools to agency-wide acceptance of gender analysis tools and gender equity as one key criteria for project success. The Story With A Gap activity was developed by Lyra Srinivasan. 10. SARAR Resistance to Change Continuum The continuum represents seven stages of resistance to change and can be applied at the community, agency and individual levels. The activity is conducted with the continuum drawn on a piece of paper or blackboard. On another sheet of paper is a message to which there is resistance. For example, at the agency level the message could be "all decisions regarding the water project should be made by community women. " At the community level, a message could be "filter river water before drinking it." The seven stages of the continuum are: 1. There is no problem. 2. There may be a problem, but it's not my responsibility. 3. Yes, there is a problem, but I have my doubts. 4. There is a problem, but I'm afraid of changing for fear of loss. 5. I see the problem, and I'm more interested in learning more about it. 6. I'm ready to try some action. 7. I'm willing to demonstrate the solution to others and advocate change. The activity can be conducted in a number of different ways. A message can be posted and participants asked to brainstorm objections people are likely to have, including opinions of different groups, leaders, and outsiders. Once a wide array of responses has been elicited, 106 Partidciatory Tool participants are asked to start placing the messages on the appropriate stage of the continuum. The discussion can focus on that stage of the continuum where there is sufficient openness to change to initiate a dialogue. Examination of underlying causes of resistance is very revealing and leads to a discussion of strategies for bringing about change. The activity was developed by Lyra Srinivasan. Conclusion Change at the grass-roots level is critical to initiate and sustain large-scale change. Unless gender analysis is put in the hands of local men and women, it will not touch the lives of women and men immediately and in meaningful ways. Large-scale change is difficult to sustain without institutional reform. Thus the use of gender analysis as a tool at the agency level is essential to support achievement of the objectives of equity and empowerment at the community level. 107 Partipatory Tools References Srinivasan, Lyra. 1990. Tools for Community Participation. A Manual for Training Trainers in Participatory Techniques. PROWWESS/UNDP Technical Series, Involving Women in Water and Sanitation, Lessons, Strategies and Tools. Narayan, Deepa. 1993 (forthcoming). Participatory Evaluation: Tools for Managing Change in Water and Sanitation. World Bank, Technical Paper 207. Narayan, Deepa and Lyra Srinivasan. 1993 (forthcoming). Participatory Materials Tool Kit: Activities for Training Trainers and for Cormnunity Empowerment. World Bank. 108 Resources: Biblo2raphies BIBLIOGRAPHIES ON WOMEN. WATER AND SANITATION Over the last decade several bibliographies have been published covering the topic of women, water and sanitation. Some are annotated and some not. These can be useful for those who want to explore in more depth the concepts, project experiences, and data concerning this issue. The bibliographies are listed below in chronological order. - Roark, Paula. Successful Rural Water Supply Projects and the Concerns of Women. Report prepared for the Office of Women in Development, United States Agency for International Development, USA, September 1980. The bibliography is on pages 58 through 66. - Smith, Alice J. Women's Roles in Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries: A Four-Part Bibliography by Author, Subject. Phase of Development, and Country, WASH Technical Report No. 21. Report prepared for the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology, United States Agency for International Development, USA, February 1984. This is an annotated bibliography. - van Wijk-Sijbesma, Christine. Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation. Roles and Realities. Technical Paper 22, International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation (IRC), The Hague, The Netherlands, 1985. The bibliography is on pages 161 through 184 and is an annotated bibliography. - van Wijk-Sijbesma, Christine and Bolt, Eveline. Women, Water, Sanitation: Annual Abstract Journal. Published jointly by the IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Two issues have appeared thus far, in May 1991 and September 1992. A third is expected before the end of 1993. Each includes a " State-of-the-Art Review" of gender issues in the sector as well as the abstracts of recent publications, organized by topic. - Syme, Hilary. "Women and Community Management in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: An Annotated Bibliography Based on a Reference Collection Compiled by the Water and Sanitation Sector, Canadian International Development Agency", Annex 1 in Women. Water and Sanitation. A Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources. Canadian International Development Agency, CIDA, Quebec, Canada, April 1992. This document is in two sections: one French, one English. 109 Resources: Agencies AGENCIES There are numerous agencies with special expertise involving gender issues in the sector. These agencies are listed below in alphabetical order, with brief descriptions of the resources they have available.' CD Resources, Inc. 118 West 74th Street Suite 2A New York, New York 10023 Tel. (212) 580-2263 This agency has a "Libraries-To-Go" which includes a full-text data base on "Women, Water and Sanitation: Impacts on Health, Agriculture and Environment" on CD-ROM. It contains about 60 documents published from 1979 - 1989. The cost is approximately $US 350, and the data base can be revised annually for a nominal charge. Canadian International Development Aeencv CIDA 200, Promenade du Portage Hull, Quebec Canada KlA OG4 Tel. (819) 994-3256 CIDA has several excellent resources: a reference collection on gender issues and community participation in the sector; a consultants roster containing about 40 CVs; and several guidelines for project work (for a list of these, see the Reference section at the end of the Sourcebook). GENESYS - Gender In Economic and Social Systems 1050 17th Street NW, #1000 Washington, D.C. 20036 Tel. (202) 775-9680 GENESYS helps USAID Bureaus and Missions design development interventions that consider gender as a critical variable for achieving equitable and sustainable development. GENESYS is composed of three companies: the Future Group, Management Systems International, and Development Alternatives. GENESYS provides technical assistance and has a consultant network. 'Much of this section is adapted from CIDA (1992). 110 Resources: Agencies The International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation (IRC) P.O. Box 93190 The Hague, The Netherlands 2509 AD Tel. 31 70 33 141 33 The IRC has published several documents on women, water and sanitation (for a list of these, see the Reference section at the end of the Sourcebook). This agency also holds workshops on water supply, sanitation and gender issues. United Nations International Research and Trainin2 Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRA W) P.O. Box 21747 Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Tel. (809) 685-2111 INSTRAW has prepared a multi-media training package on Women, Water and Sanitation in collaboration with the ILO/Turin Centre and UNDTCD. The cost is approximately $700. It contains five modules, with transparencies and slides. The modules cover: the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade and beyond; participation of women in planning, choice of technology and implementation of sustainable water supply and sanitation projects; the role of women in hygiene education and training activities for water supply and sanitation projects; the involvement of women in management of water resources, water supply and waste disposal; and the evaluation and monitoring of water supply and sanitation programmes, projects and the role of women. INSTRAW has also issued a series of reports on training seminars which explored the application of this and an earlier training package. Such seminars were held in Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Thailand, Nigeria and the Gambia. The International Women's Tribune Centre (IWTC) 777 United Nations Plaza New York, New York 10017 USA Tel. (212) 687-8633 IWTC has published Women and Water: a collection of IWTC newsletters on issues, activities and resources in the area of women, water and sanitation needs (July 1990). It contains background information, tools, brief case studies, and references. 111 Resources: Agencies PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program The World Bank S4-133 1818 H Street N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Tel. (202) 473-3994 PROWWESS has published a number of documents on gender issues in the sector and on community participation (for a list of these, see the Reference section at the end of the Sourcebook). Many of the publications are available free of charge. Tools for Community Participation, A Manual for Training Trainers in Participatory Techniques, by Lyra Srinivasan (available in English and French and soon to be published in Spanish) can be ordered from PACT, 777 UN Plaza, New York, New York, 10017, tel. (212) 697-6222. Two other documents have been published Participatory Evaluation. Managing Change for Water and Sanitation and A Participatory Materials Toolkit, both by Deepa Narayan. They can be ordered from the World Bank Bookstore (1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433, tel. (202) 473- 2941. Water and Sanitation for Health Proiect (WASH)-USAID WASH Operations Center 1611 North Kent Street, Room 1001 Arlington, VA 22209-2111 USA tel. (703) 525-9137 WASH has published a series of reports on gender issues in the sector (for a list of these, see the Reference section at the end of the Sourcebook). WorldWIDE Network 1331 H Street, NW Suite 903 Washington, D.C. 20005 USA Tel. (202) 347-1514 The WorldWIDE Network is focused on establishing a network of women concerned about environmental management and protection. It has published a WorldWIDE Directory of Women in Environment which lists the names, addresses, interests and expertise of women who participate in WorldWIDE's international network. They have also produced Success Stories of Women and the Environment. A Preliminary Presentation in Anticipation of the Global Assembly (October 1991). 112 References REFERENCES Asian Development Bank (February 1986). Women in Development: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector. The Philippines, Asian Development Bank. Canadian International Development Agency (1989). Guidelines for the Integration of Women in the Proiect Cycle. Canada, CIDA. Canadian International Development Agency (1989). Women in Development: A sectoral perspective. Canada, CIDA. Canadian International Development Agency (May 1986). Guidelines for Integrating WID into Project Design and Evaluation. Canada, CIDA. Canadian International Development Agency (September 1989). Women in Development and the Project Cycle. Canada, CIDA. Cecelski, Elizabeth W. (1991). Practical Strategies and Approaches to Addressing Gender Issues at Planning Stages in the Energy and Water Sectors: Lessons from International Experience. Paper for presentation at the Seminar/Training Workshop on Women in Water and Energy Development in Nepal, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS), Institutional Support Project (WISP), 17 - 22 November 1991, Kathmandu, Nepal. Dayal, Rekha and Parker, A. Rani (1993). Gender Analysis and Planning in the Bank Project Cycle. Draft, USA, The World Bank, Asia Technical and Human Resources Division. Dayal, Rekha, editor (1987). Resource Book on Women's Development, Cooperation with Government, Donors and Voluntary Organizations. India, Swedish International Development Authority and Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development. Dayal, Rekha; Narayan, Deepa; Goldberg Mike; Parker, A. Rani, and Seslar Svendsen, Dian (draft, 1993). First WID Consultation Workshop- Participatory Design of Water and Sanitation Projects: Focusing on Gender. USA, The World Bank. I Directorate General for International Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (March 1989). Women. Water and Sanitation, Policy on an Operational Footing: main points & checklist. The Netherlands, Directorate General, Sector Papers Women and Development No. 2. Donnelly-Roark, Paula (November 1987). New Participatory Frameworks for the Design and Management of Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Proiects. WASH Technical Report No. 52, PROWWESS Report No. 50, Prepared for Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology, U.S. Agency for International Development and PROWWESS, USA, WASH and PROWWESS/UNDP. 113 References Eisler, Riane (1987). The Chalice and the Blade, Our History. Our Future. USA, HarperCollins Publishers. Elmendorf, Mary (July 1990). The IDWSSD and Women's Involvement. Document prepared for the World Health Organization, with support from the United Nations Development Programme, on behalf of the Steering Committee for Cooperative Action for the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. Elmendorf, Mary (June 1981). Women, Water and the Decade. WASH Technical Report No. 6, Prepared for USAID, DS/HEA, USA, WASH. Elmendorf, Mary and Isely, Raymond B. (October 1982). Water and Sanitation-Related Health Constraints on Women's Contributions to the Economic Development of Communities. WASH Technical Report No. 17, prepared for the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology, U.S. Agency for International Development, USA, Water and Sanitation for Health. Elmendorf, Mary L. and Isely, Raymond B. (December 1981). The Role of Women as Participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs. WASH Technical Report No. I1, Prepared for the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology, U.S. Agency for International Development, USA, Water and Sanitation for Health. Food and Agriculture Organization (1982). GUIDELINES: Women in Land & Water Development. Italy, FAO, Land and Water Development Division. Foundation for International Training (FIT) and International Council on Management of Population Programmes (ICOMP) (December 1989). Training for Women Project Managers: A Trainer's Manual, Module Two: Gender In Development and Project Management. Malaysia, ICOMP. Goertz, Ulrike (1984). The Women - Water Connection. Proposed Guidelines for a Rural Water Development Project Involving Women in Operating, Maintaining and Rehabilitating Water and Sanitaiton Facilities. USA. Inter-Agency Task Force on Women and Water, of the IDWSSD Steering Conmmittee for Cooperative Action (December 1983). Strategies for Enhancing Women's Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation Activities. USA, United Nations. International Women's Tribune Centre (July 1990). Women and Water: a collection of IWTC newsletters on issues, activities and resources in the area of women, water and sanitation needs. USA, IWTC. J.E. Austin Associates and The Collaborative for Development Action, Inc. (1989). Gender Analysis for Project Design, UNFPA Training Manual. UNFPA. Melchior, Siri (March 1989). Women, Water and Sanitation - or Counting Tomatoes Instead of Pumps. USA, PROWWESS/UNDP. 114 References Moffat, Linda; Geadah, Yolande and Stuart, Rieky (August 1991). Two Halves Make a Whole: Balancing Gender Relations in Development. Ottawa, Canada, Canadian Council for International Co-operation, MATCH International Centre, and Association quebecoise des organismes de cooperation intemationale. Moser, Caroline O.N. (1989). "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender Needs" in World Development, vol. 17, No. 11, pages 1799-1825. Narayan, Deepa (forthcoming, 1993). Popular Participation in Rural Water Supply Projects. USA, UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Narayan-Parker, Deepa (April 1989). Goals and Indicators. USA, PROWWESS/UNDP. Narayan-Parker, Deepa (April 1989). PEGESUS. USA, PROWWESS/UNDP. Narayan-Parker, Deepa (August 1989). Indonesia: Evaluating Community Management. USA, PROWWESS/UNDP. Narayan-Parker, Deepa (September 1988). Kenya: People, Pumps and Agencies, A Case Study. USA, PROWWESS/UNDP. Ofosu-Amaah, Waafas and Martin-Brown, Joan (October, 1991). Success Stories of Women and the Environment, A Preliminary Presentation in anticipation of the Global Assembly. USA, United Nations Environment Programme and WorldWIDE Network. Perrett, Heli E. (1985). Involving Women in Sanitation Projects. TAG Discussion Paper Number 3, USA, The World Bank. Read, Geoffrey and Kudat, Ayse (February 1992). "Why a Women in Development Component Should Be Part of a Rural Water Project and what such a Component Should Comprise: the Case of Sindh, Pakistan" Infrastructure Notes, W & S No. WS-8, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, The World Bank. Roark, Paula (September 1990). Successful Rural Water Supply Proiects and the Concerns of Women. USA, USAID. Sen, Gita and Grown, Caren (1987). Development, Crises, and Alternative Visions. USA, Monthly Review Press. Simpson-Hebert, Mayling (1983). Methods for Gathering Socio-cultural Data for Water Supply and Sanitation Proiects. TAG Technical Note No. 1, USA, UNDP/World Bank. Smith, Alice J. (February 1984). Women's Roles in Water Supplv and Sanitation in Developing Countries: A Four-Part Bibliography by Author, Subiect, Phase of Development, and Country. WASH Technical Report No. 21, Prepared for the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology, U.S. Agency for International Development, USA, WASH. 115 References Spence, Nancy (Spring 1989). How to Address WID Issues within the Project Cycle. Paper produced for the Canadian International Development Agency. Syme, Hilary (April 1992). Women, Water and Sanitation, A Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources. Canada, CIDA. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (Winter 1989). INSTRAW News: Water and Sanitation. The vital role of women. Issue No. 13. Dominican Republic, INSTRAW. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) (1991). Women, Water and Sanitation, a multi-media training package, produced in cooperation with the UN Department of Technical Cooperation (DTCD) and the ILO-Turin Centre. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) (1993). Report of the Interregional Workshop on Women. Water Supply and Sanitation, report of a workshop held in Bangkok, Thailand, 21 - 25 September, 1992. Santo Domingo, INSTRAW. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) (1988). Report of the Training Seminar on Women, Water Supply and Sanitation, report of a seminar held in Nairobi, Kenya, 9 - 13, 1987. Santo Domingo, INSTRAW. van Wijk-Sijbesma and Bolt Eveline (May 1991 and September 1992). Women, Water and Sanitation, Annual Abstract Journals Nos. 1 and 2. The Netherlands, joint publication of the International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. van Wijk-Sijbesma, Christine (1985). Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation, roles and realities. Technical Paper 22, The Netherlands, International Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation. Wakeman, Wendy (1992). A Case Study of Women. Islam and Development: Strategies and Models for Conducting Projects with Women in the Islamic Context of Um Ruwaba, Sudan. Ph.D. thesis. WHO AND PROWWESS/UNDP (September 1984). Involvement of Women in Water Supply. Sanitation and Health Education Projects, A Guideline for Case Studies. 116 ANNEX 1 Page 1 of 6 Water Supply and Sanitation Issues 1. Gender Issues in Water Supply and Sanitation 1.1. The broad field of gender issues focuses on the roles and tasks of women and men and examines the ways in which they interact to make decisions and share responsibilities. It seeks to counter past attitudes which, though well-meaning, have tended to treat the role of women as a separate issue. They have thereby undervalued the many positive influences that women can have on water supply and sanitation (WSS) program when they share in decision-making and in the planning, operation, and upkeep of WSS improvements. 1.2 The focus on gender recognizes the fact that full benefits only accrue from WSS improvements when men are encouraged to become more involved with activities such as hygiene education and sanitation, and women have more influential roles in, for example, management committees, financial arrangements, and maintenance of installed facilities. Project contributions of time, labor and money need to be shared fairly and not expected of women alone. 1.3 Gender considerations are crucially important at community level, where the partnership approach depends on all potential beneficiaries having a say in development activities. But gender issues arise at all levels, and if women are to make their full contribution to sector development, they need to be involved also in professional and managerial roles at all levels. Because it is the potential scope of women's involvement and influence that has been neglected in the past, it is necessary for any discussion of gender issues to concentrate primarily on ways of stimulation and facilitating greater participation by women in appropriate sector activities. This should not detract from the key point that the roles and responsibilities of women and men need to be considered together. 1.4 The WSS sector is closely linked to other sectors such as environment and health and to goals for sustainable urban and rural development. Gender issues is a crucial theme in all these areas, forming part of a holistic and integrated approach. This has been recognized at several international conferences, notably those at New Delhi and Dublin, and at the Earth summit in Rio de Janerio. 2. The Working Group on Gender issues 2.1 At its meeting in Oslo in September 1991, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) identified Gender Issues as one of seven priority issues to be addressed by working groups. The working groups were asked to formulate their own terms of reference and to report to the Rabat meeting to the council in September 1993 with recommendations for actions to address the critical areas they identified. 2.2 At a September 1992 meeting of working group coordinators and Council staff, it was decided that the best way to address gender issues in the sector was to include them in the work of each of the other working groups. Accordingly, members of the Gender issues Working Group joined ANNEX 1 Page 2 of 6 the other groups. The group agreed that its own tasks would be to prepare a gender review of their other groups' work and a sourcebook containing guidelines and other tools for gender analysis in the WSS sector. This report summarized the current situation relating to gender issues in the sector, outlines the sourcebook, discusses interaction with other groups, and provides recommendations for the future. 3. The Current Situation 3.1 Women's involvement in WSS sector activities springs from their traditional roles. Women are most often the users, providers, and managers of water in the household and may also be managers at local or community level; they are usually the guardians of household hygiene; they may have a great deal of knowledge about water sources; women and children will probably be the main users of any new or improved water systems; and women may be the main disseminators of new hygiene messages. A considerable amount of literature exists on women's roles in the WSS sector (see the reference list at the end of this report). As Siri Melchior, former manager of the UNDP/PROWWESS program states, "...women are not a special interest group in water and sanitation, they are a mainstream interest group .... without their involvement, projects risk being inappropriate, and failing." 3.2 Benefits women may receive from improved WSS facilities can be classified into health and socioeconomic categories. Water sources which are closer to homes and which provide an adequate supply will decrease collection times, leading to gains in both time and energy. These gains may be applied to a variety of activities, including leisure and income generation. Women may spend more time with their families or may improve the family's economic status through income generation. More convenient water can also reduce physical strain due to walking and hauling water long distances. Better quality water which remains uncontaminated helps to decrease water-related diseases. For some women, access to adequate sanitation ends their need to suppress urination or defecation until nightfall. Adequate sanitation also brings health benefits. 3.3 There can be a variety of constraints to gender-sensitive programming. There is often a lack knowledge about women's and men's roles in the sector. Projects may be designed in an inflexible manner, using a blueprint approach. Gender planning may be marginalized, separated from mainstream planning. Hardware and software aspects of projects may be poorly integrated. There may be an inadequate number of female staff, limiting village women's involvement in areas where they may not meet with male staff. The time, duration, and location of training may not take women's needs into account. All these aspects can be diagnosed, and corrected, using published guidance documents. Sadly, that happens only rarely at the moment. 4. Learning from experience 4.1 There has been a rich collection of experience with women, water and sanitation during the last decade and many lessons have been learned. Now we tend to speak more about gender issues in the sector, rather than Women in Development (WID) issues. It has been recognized that water and sanitation are issues for men, women and children. To achieve effective sanitation programs, ANNEX 1 Page 3 of 6 men too must support and adopt improved hygiene practices. They must also take a fair share of the contributions in time, labor and money which so frequently are expected of women at present. 4.2 Women's and men's involvement should begin during the first stage of the project cycle. If not, it is more likely that the future users will be excluded at later stages as well. It is far more effective to involve community men and women in decision making about technology, levels of service, payment methods, and other choices, rather than attempting later to have them use systems not suited to their needs. Where projects have not involved women, the result has sometimes been lack of access of poor women to improved facilities. If communities will not use the types of technology being installed, hygiene education will have no impact. 4.3 The quality of participation is as important as the amount. Inclusion of women (and men) on management committees may not in itself provide for their effective participation. The way in which committee members are chosen, whether they receive appropriate training, and what their actual committee roles are all affect their degree of involvement and influence. Culturally sensitive approaches are also vital. 4.4 Many projects are designed assuming that men are responsible for the 'public sphere' and women for the 'private sphere.' Experience shows that such a distinction should not be made. Women may have a major say over management of water in the home, but they may also manage communal facilities and press community leaders for improvements. Men's support may be needed for improved household latrine systems. Men's and women's roles in these areas may also change. For example, women may well become more involved in community management of systems. If women's public roles are not recognized at the project planning stage, they may well be left out of traditional areas of responsibility. 4.5 Experience with women in maintenance roles has shown that while some costs may be higher (women may need more training and their restricted mobility reduces the number of pumps they can maintain), their effectiveness in regular and preventive maintenance is better than men's and overall costs of repair campaigns are lower. Possible negative impacts on the women themselves have to be taken into consideration. Though women benefit from more dependable supplies, their participation in maintenance activities may cost them time and labor. Activities need to be planned around women's and men's existing workloads and scheduling needs. 5. Further Work 5.1 A recent study of more than 100 rural water supply projects indicated that women's participation, along with four other factors, is highly associated with project effectiveness. It also revealed that, despite the rhetoric about women's involvement in many project documents, only 17 percent of the projects surveyed scored high on actual participation by women. So, although much has been written and many models have been formulated, the burning issue now is how to institutionalize and replicate successful experiences. Appropriate project implementation mechanisms need to be developed, tested and refined. There is also a need for support from the policy level, so that consideration of gender issues becomes integrated into regular programming processes. ANNEX 1 Page 4 of 6 5.2 There are also more specific tasks required in the near future. More quantitative data are needed concerning women's time gains from improved WSS services. What are the contexts in which time gains can be expected and how can future designers use this information when planning projects? What are time gains used for (economic, social, family or other purposes), and why? It cannot be assumed that time saved will be used for income-generating activities; sometimes women do not have the skills or the market access for these activities. 5.3 More emphasis could usefully be put on measuring the health and social impacts of inadequate WSS facilities, for example by measuring calorie wastage and skeletal damage in women who haul water long distances, and by counting the number of children who miss school in order to collect water. 5.4 More training materials are needed for sensitizing managers and developing techniques to overcome constraints hindering women's participation. Many training materials focus on working in participatory ways with communities in general, omitting the ways in which women might be involved and how constraints to their involvement might be overcome. 6. Gender Issues Sourcebook 6.1 The Gender Issues Sourcebook produced by the working group is a compilation of tools and other resources for gender-sensitive programmning. It can be used by different types of development agencies in diverse geographical locations. As a sourcebook, it provides ideas and methods which can be adapted to local contexts. Users can add other tools they have found or adapt the tools in the book. 6.2 The sourcebook has been organized into four sections: 3 The Introduction includes a note on how to use the sourcebook and an overview of gender issues in the WSS sector. * The Tools section is divided into different types of tools--guidelines, checklists, terms of reference, charts and community level tools. Tools are arranged in order according to the stages of the project cycle. A brief Introduction to the Tools Section li,sts all the tools and the sources from which they have been adapted. It also suggests some possible users. Two Tool Selection Matrices help the user to find all the tools pertaining to a particular stage of the project cycle, or those relating to categories such as training, personnel or budgets. * The Resources section contains a list of bibliographies covering the topic of women, water and sanitation and a list of agencies with particular expertise in gender issues in the sector. * The References section identifies further reading and support for the choice and use of tools. ANNEX 1 Page 5 of 6 7. Review of other Working Groups 7.1 Members of the Gender Issues Working Group participated in each of the other groups to help ensure that gender issues would be adequately addressed. The group also reviewed the final products of the other groups. A separate report discusses their findings. 7.2 The method of joint membership and product review has seemed to work well. Even though members of the gender issues group did not join the other groups until mid-way through the two- year cycle, the subject of gender issues has been raised during the other group meetings and included in many of the final reports. 8. Recommendations 8.1 Gender issues are particularly pertinent to the Rabat theme: Making the most of resources. WSS projects and programmers need to take advantage of all resources available to communities, and that means ensuring that both men and women have the opportunity to contribute fully in all stages of project planning, design and implementation. Artificial divisions of roles, and particularly the exclusion of women from decision-making and management responsibilities, are counterproductive and militate against the aim of producing sustainable projects which are effectively used by all sections of society. This message, along with the tools available to implement gender-sensitive programming, need to be promoted in all appropriate sector literature, workshops, seminars and conferences. That requires continuous inputs from the Collaborative Council, or from designated agencies, to maintain the profile of gender issues after Rabat. 8.2 Gender issues, as opposed to "women in development," is an emerging field. Methods of designing and implementing gender-sensitive projects need to be further elaborated, tested and refined. 8.3 Objectives and goals have been formulated by the Gender Issues Working Group to provide members of the Collaborative Council with suggestions as they attempt gender-sensitive programming. The group recommends that agencies should: * Endeavor to increase the number of women sector professionals, managers and project participants and to ensure that women are involved in full range of sector activities (water supply, water conservation, sanitation). I * Review and refine current policies and organizational procedures to make them supportive of gender-sensitive programming. Evaluate current tools (guidelines, checklists, etc). Refine these and develop new ones where required. This mray involve, for example, developing and testing indicators and data collection methods for measuring women's and men's participation. Monitoring and evaluation tools may also be further tested and applied. * Promote awareness of gender issues at community, national and international levels through documenting experiences with gender-sensitive programming, and develop communication channels for effectively disseminating lessons learned. Individual ANNEX 1 Page 6 of 6 agencies are encouraged to complete case studies which can be compiled and disseminated, thus providing a growing dossier of experiences in different geographical regions and covering different sizes and types of projects. * Mobilize resources (financial and human) needed for the integration of gender issues into the regular programming process. This includes the articulation of effective fund-raising strategies. * Promote training in gender issues at all levels - agency, government, and commnunity. Test and refine existing tools and develop new tools where required. 8.4 If the Gender Issues Working Group continues, its members will serve on the working groups, as they have done recently. If the Gender Issues Working Group is disbanded, the Council should seek to ensure that future working groups include two or three members specifically responsible for highlighting gender issues and ensuring that the topic is fully considered, both in the groups and at future council meetings. 9. Reference List 9.1 The conclusions and guidance contained in this summary report are necessarily brief. Much more detailed advice and lessons from experience are contained in a growing arnount of literature on particular aspects of gender issues in WSS. The sourcebook produced by the Gender Issues Working Group contains comprehensive references to appropriate documents. The following documents amplify the arguments and approaches outlined in this summary report: * Mary L. Elmendorf & Raymond B Isely, The Role of Women as participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs (USA: USAID, WASH Technical Report No. 11, December 1981) * Siri Melchior, Women, Water and Sanitation, or Counting Tomatoes as Well as Pumps (USA: PROWWESS/UNDP Technical Series, May 1989) * Mary L. Elmendorf, The IDWSSD and Women's Involvement (WHO, on behalf of the Steering Committee for Cooperative Action for the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, July 1990) * Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma, Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation, Roles and Realities (The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Technical Paper 22, 1985) * Hilary Syme, Women, Water and Sanitation. Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources (Canada: Canadian International Development Agency, April i992) * Deepa Narayan-Parker, Pegesus (USA: PROWWESS/UNDP 1989) * Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, Women, Water and Sanitation. Annual Abstract Journal, issues one and two (The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program 1991 and 1992) * Deepa Narayan, Popular Participation in Rural Water Supply Projects (USA: UNDP- World Bank Water and Sanitation program, forthcoming, 1993). ANNEX 2 Page 1 of 3 From the 1993 Rabat Meeting of the Collaborative Council: Report of the Session on Gender Issues I Summary of Current Situation 1. Update The working group endorsed and commended the work done by those involved in the development of the Gender Issues Sourcebook, and the Summary Report. The Sourcebook was developed to primarily focus on gender issues at the project level. However, intentions are to develop a much broader framework which will be refined for application at the policy and international levels. It was also observed that the approach taken by the Gender Working Group to attempt to include (and fully integrate) gender issues in all other working groups is a most appropriate and effective strategy. Likewise, the gender approach adopted in the Sourcebook was commended for its relevance and usefulness in the water and sanitation sector in its ability to examine issues of both women and men as a way to reduce existing disparities and biases in the sector. 2. Barriers to Achievement There is an urgent need to de-mystify gender issues at all levels especially at policy and international levels as many people do not fully understand the underlying principles embodied in the gender debate. This might be achieved through the development of specific informationladvocacy and training materials aimed at the various levels. More emphasis and financial resources should be made available for gender sensitization and capacity building among decision makers, implementators and within the communities. Another major constraint is the lack of facilitating mechanisms at institutional level to fully address and integrate gender issues in sector policy formulation, planning and strategy development to ensure that such issues are fully integrated and mainstreamed in all development programs. Many development plans (including integrated ones) lack budget line items which specifically earmark resources for gender development issues. It was strongly emphasized that in developing such budgets planners should be careful not to marginalize the gender issue, but rather, they should try to reinforce its integration into the overall development process. Budgets for gender issues need not necessarily require additional resources. Planners are therefore encouraged to examine the restructuring of existing budgets to facilitate this and where necessary advocate for additional resources. The current lack of disagregated gender data and relevant information in the water and ANNEX 2 Page 2 of 3 sanitation sector hinders effective planning and appropriate policy formulation for enhancing women's role in decision making, implementation and management in the sector. 3. Relevance and Usefulness of the Working Group Report The Sourcebook is considered to be relevant and appropriate for gender issues at the project level within the overall sector. It cannot be expected that one document covers the whole spectrum of gender issues at all levels. In light of this, it was recommended that the basic framework of the sourcebook be used to further develop adapt and modify other materials for addressing gender issues at policy, programme, national and international levels. II Proposed Amendments to the Working Group Report No substantive additions/deletions/changes were recommended for the report. III Agreed Recommendations/Actions In addition to the several recommendations put forward in the Summary Report, the following were recommended for follow-up: 1. That the current Sourcebook be disseminated in its present form for country level application, field-testing and refinement through the Collaborative Council members and that support be given to implement/institutionalize its recommendations. 2. That additional Sourcebooks be developed in an integrated manner to address other levels (other than project level) i.e., policy, planning and international levels. 3. That the Working Group on Gender Issues continue its work to a) ensure that these issues are fully addressed and integrated into the other working groups and their papers, b) that there be representation of the gender group members in all other working groups and that members of other working groups also be invited to actively participate in gender group issues. 1 4. That disagregated gender data be collected for purposes of improving gender planning, policy formulation and strategy development. 5. That gender sensitization be undertaken at all levels. 6. That capacity building for dealing with gender issues be done at all possible levels, including, in schools for longer term benefits and gender behavioral change. 7. That gender specific objectives be clearly defined at all levels especially the planning stage of projects/programs and that clear and measurable indicators be developed for effective monitoring of expected outputs. ANNEX 2 Page 3 of 3 IV Tools Available In addition to the Sourcebook which is an effective tool there are a number of references in the document to other pertinent information on available tools. V Unresolved Issues See III above. VI Topics for Further Study 1. There is an urgent need for further research on gender analysis as a basis for improved planning, promoting greater gender equity in the sector and for advocacy purposes. 2. There is need to further study time and energy spent on water related activities and how these constrain women's development, how any time gains are used, and how to increase financial incentives and access to credit for women. 3. A framework for methodologies including a clear rationale be developed for gender issues pertaining to policy and decision making at all levels is needed. 4. There is need to explore appropriate entry points for gender issues in other development strategies. 5. Additional research needs to be done to analyze the constraints in order to strengthen collaboration between ESAs and governments for enhancing the promotion of gender issues in all development programs. VII Agencies Willing to Participate in Follow-up Activities It is recommended that as a starting point INSTRAW, UNDP/WB Water and Sanitation Program, UNICEF, WHO, and IRC support immediate follow-up. Other agencies, NGOs and national governments who wish to volunteer their support at this meeting are welcome.