Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture through the Africa Climate Business Plan © 2018 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank Group. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of World Bank Group or the governments they represent. The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. 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The report was completed under the overall guidance of Makhtar Diop, Juergen Voegele, Simeon Ehui, Martien Van Nieuwkoop, Thomas O’Brien, Benoit Bosquet, Mark Cackler, Dina Umali-Deininger and Marianne Grosclaude. Special gratitude to the task team leaders and members of the agriculture projects that were analyzed in the report. We also acknowledge the valuable comments from Erick Fernandes, Parmesh Shah, Kanta Kumari, Ana Bucher, Flore Martinant de Preneuf, Manuela Ravina da Silva, and Christian Berger. We thank Pawan Sachdeva, Marie Lolo Sow, Volana Andriamasinoro and Srilatha Shankar for assistance rendered at various stages of the work. Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. 2018. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture through the Africa Climate Business Plan. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank All images are the property of the World Bank Group. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture through the Africa Climate Business Plan Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture through the Africa Climate Business Plan Preface S caling up climate-smart agriculture in Africa is vital to ending hunger and boosting shared prosperity on the continent. The Africa Climate Business Plan (ACBP) launched at the twenty-first Conference of Parties (COP21) in Paris is an important step toward addressing the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change. The ACBP calls for focused public and private sector investments to help African people and countries adapt to climate change and build up the continent’s resilience to climate shocks. The Plan includes a focus on climate-smart agriculture and supports the vision for accelerated agricultural transformation in support of the Malabo Declaration. This report documents World Bank support to African governments in making climate-smart agriculture a priority. From January 2016 to April 2018, the World Bank’s Board of Directors approved 83 projects supporting climate-smart agriculture in Africa with cumulative investments of US$3.8 billion. Spreading across 30 countries, the projects aim to improve the livelihoods of about 5 million farmers and increase the climate resilience and productivity of about 3 million hectares of land. Based on a review of this portfolio, the report finds that African countries are adopting a range of context-specific climate- smart technologies and practices to meet their food security and climate change goals. Improved livestock production is the most prevalent practice in the climate-smart agriculture portfolio, followed by improved water management, conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and, notably, digital agriculture. Why digital? The application of digital technology in the design and delivery of integrated weather and market advisories using big data analytics is increasingly helping countries to identify conditions that may endanger food security and inform farmers’ decisions to adequately respond to, and when possible, capitalize on the changing conditions. This report also highlights the need to urgently step up knowledge sharing, learning, and capacity enhancement for climate- smart agriculture policies, technologies, and practices in Africa. It recommends developing country-specific climate-smart agriculture projects and crowding in investment by increasing the space for private sector activity in agricultural value chains. It is hoped that these measures will help increase the resilience of Africa’s agricultural system to climatic shocks, in addition to ushering in a sustainable agricultural transformation that benefits all. Simeon Ehui Director Food and Agriculture Global Practice The World Bank Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa V Contents Executive Summary IX Policy frameworks for CSA implementation IX Adoption of CSA technologies and practices XI Barriers to adoption of CSA technologies and practices XIII Developing resilience capacity through CSA XIV I. Introduction 1 II. Policy Frameworks for CSA Implementation in Africa 5 III. Resource Mobilization for CSA 9 3.1 Data on CSA investment and climate co-­benefits 9 3.2 Contributions to NDC implementation 11 3.3 Establishment of climate-smart livestock development program 13 3.4 Analytical work on improving food systems’ resilience to weather shocks 13 IV. CSA Technologies and Practices in the ACBP Portfolio 15 4.1 Improved livestock production 15 4.2 Improved water management 22 4.3 Conservation agriculture (CA) 25 4.4 Agroforestry to diversify farms, improve food security, and capture carbon 26 4.5 Digital agriculture for increasing productivity and resilience 27 4.6 Stress-­tolerant varieties for climate adaptation 31 4.7 Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) 31 4.8 Biogas development: from methane emissions to energy production 34 4.9 Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) in rice systems 35 4.10  Weather index-­based agricultural insurance 36 4.11  Capitalizing on synergies and managing trade-­offs 38 4.12  Success stories: demonstrating impact of CSA technologies 42 V. Mainstreaming Resilience in CSA Projects 47 5.1 Building resilience capacity through CSA 47 5.2 Pathways for building resilience to climate change 50 VI Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa VI. Opportunities for Future Engagements 57 References 64 List of Boxes 4.1 Livestock Sector Development Support Project in Burkina Faso 22 4.2 Water Harvesting in Malawi 24 4.3 Digital Agriculture under the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project 29 4.4 Weather Index Insurance in Mozambique 37 4.5 Sustainable Landscape Approach and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 40 4.6 The Alternative to Slash-­and-Burn Landscape Approach 41 5.1 Market System Interventions Can Help Build Resilience to Climate Change 51 5.2 Congo Commercial Agriculture Project on Commercialization, Policy Development, Private Sector Engagement, and Market Access 52 6.1 Innovative Finance for CSA Implementation 59 List of Figures ES.1 Distribution of CSA Project Activities across Types of Capital and Capacities Strengthened (%) XIII ES.2 Trade-­offs between CSA Pillars XIV 1.1 Prevalence and Absolute Number of Undernourishment across World Regions 1 2.1 CSA Policy Index for 32 Sub-Saharan African Countries 6 3.1 World Bank Total Commitments for Agriculture January 2016–April 2018 10 3.2 Countries Implementing ACBP Projects with and without Contribution to NDC 12 3.3 Contribution of ACBP Projects to NDC at the Sub-­sector Level 12 4.1 Integrated Manure Management Chain 21 4.2 Countries with Improved Livestock Production Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 23 4.3 Countries with Improved Water Management Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 24 4.4 Countries with CA Intervention in the CSA Portfolio 25 4.5 Countries with Agroforestry Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 28 4.6 Potential Application of Digital Agriculture to Sustainable Development Goals 29 4.7 Typical Advisory Services for Smallholder Farmers 30 4.8 Countries with Digital Agriculture Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 30 4.9 Potential of Drought-­tolerant Maize Varieties 31 4.10 Countries with Stress-Tolerant Crop Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 32 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa VII 4.11 ISFM Interventions and Benefits 32 4.12 Countries with ISFM Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 33 4.13 Anaerobic Digestion Process 34 4.14 Countries with Biogas Development Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 35 4.15 Benefits of AWD Rice Cultivation 36 4.16 Countries with AWD Interventions in the CSA Portfolio 37 4.17 Mozambique Is the Only Country with Weather Index Insurance in the Project Portfolio 38 4.18 Trade-­offs between CSA Pillars 39 5.1 Frequencies of Resilience Concepts Applied in the CSA Project Portfolio (%) 49 5.2 Distribution of Project Activities across Types of Capital and Capacities Strengthened 50 B5.1.1 Relationship between Market System Interventions and Resilience Outcomes 51 5.3 Developing Absorptive Capacity through Robustness of Physical Capital 52 5.4 Developing Absorptive Capacity through Protection of Livelihood Resources 53 5.5 Developing Adaptive Capacity by Enhancing the Efficiency of Human Capital and Coordination of Local Institutions 53 5.6 Developing Transformative Capacity through Livelihood Diversification and Contract Farming 53 5.7 Developing Absorptive and Adaptive Capacities Through Productive Diversification and Institutional Strengthening 53 5.8 Developing Adaptive and Transformative Capacities Through Crop-Livestock Integration and Commercialization 54 5.9 Developing Absorptive, Adaptive, and Transformative Capacities Through Early Warning Systems, Stress Tolerant Varieties, Commercialization, and Alternative Livelihoods 54 6.1 Maximizing Finance for Development in Agriculture 60 6.2 Agriculture Investments Needs across Sub-Saharan Africa 63 List of Tables 2.1 Comparison of Policy Indicator Scores for Sub-Saharan Africa with the Global Averages 5 3.1 Status of Agriculture Component of the ACBP Portfolio 9 4.1 Prevalence of CSA Technologies in the ACBP Portfolio 16 5.1 Resilience Capacities, Concepts, and Examples of Project Activities 48 5.2 Resilience Capacities Developed in CSA Projects 49 6.1 A Menu of Some Shifts Required for Transforming Africa’s Food System 61 VIII Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa Executive Summary 1. Climate change and food insecurity are the twin development challenges that may define Africa’s future. More than 240 million, or one in five, people are undernourished in the continent, and the number could increase to 350 million by 2050 if appropriate adaptation measures are not taken to cope with the intensity of future climate change. 2. The Africa Climate Business Plan (ACBP) was launched by the World Bank at the 21st Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris in 2015 to address Africa’s intricately linked climate and development agendas. The Climate change and ACBP calls for US$19 billion in funding to help Africa adapt to climate change and build up the continent’s resilience to climate shocks. The ACBP includes food insecurity are a focus on climate-­­smart agriculture (CSA), an integrated approach that aims the twin development to address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change by sustainably increasing agricultural productivity to support equitable increases challenges that may in farm incomes, food security, and development; adapting and building define Africa’s future. resilience of agricultural and food systems to climate change at multiple levels; and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. Policy frameworks for CSA implementation 3. The assessment of the progress in implementing CSA under the ACBP was carried out against the background of the extent to which African countries have adopted CSA policies and created the enabling environment for implementation. The set of CSA policy indicators developed by the World Bank assesses the enabling environment, that is policy and institutional frameworks, readiness mechanism, services and infrastructure, and coordination mechanism within a country supporting the implementation of CSA. 4. African countries scored low on the CSA Policy Indicators, especially Readiness Mechanism, Services and Infrastructure, and the Aggregated Policy Index. This indicates that they face critical challenges related to leveraging investments for climate action, promoting adoption of new technologies, providing African countries face enabling services, and creating the necessary institutions for critical challenges related to CSA implementation. A key contribution to the low Readiness Mechanism scores is the lack of monitoring and implementation leveraging investments for systems to support adaptation and mitigation policies in climate action, promoting many African countries. The low average score of the Services adoption of new technologies, and Infrastructure results from the inadequacy of critical CSA enablers—­­such as well-­­functioning agricultural extension and creating the necessary system, poor access to input and output markets, inefficient institutions for CSA agricultural risk management system, and scarce social safety nets—­­that are critical for promoting the adoption of CSA. implementation. 5. South Africa with its strong agricultural export markets is a top performer (Aggregated Policy Index of 77 percent) because its agricultural sector is supported by market information systems, agriculture crop insurance, warehouse receipts systems, and early warning systems (EWSs) for weather and pest management functioning markets. The country also is able to leverage investments for the adoption of that are critical for well-­­ new technologies through significant public investments in research and development (R&D). Tanzania’s relatively Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa IX high score (Aggregated Policy Index of 76 percent) is driven, among others, by strong coordination mechanisms. Tanzania’s commitment to addressing climate adaptation and mitigation in the agriculture sector is reflected in the country’s National Climate Change Strategy. A multi-­­ sectorial approach facilitated by the National Climate Change Technical Committee (NCCTC) and National Climate Change Steering Committee (NCCSC) is used to support CSA. Rwanda is another top performer (Aggregated Policy Index of 73 percent) with a dedicated Strategic Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR). The country also has established public-­­ private partnerships to develop services and infrastructure, such as crop insurance for CSA. Compared to others, Rwanda scores high in agricultural adaptation policy, agricultural mitigation policy, agricultural R&D, social safety nets, national GHG inventory system, and disaster risk management coordination. 6. The bottom performers on the CSA Policy Index in Africa include Sudan (with Aggregated Policy Index of 31  percent), Central African Republic (36 percent), and Equatorial Guinea (37 percent). The countries are among the top five oil-­­producing countries in the region with economies heavily dependent on oil revenues and the agricultural sector critically underdeveloped. Most of the low performers have poorly developed or no National Adaptation Plan of Actions (NAPAs), for example, to support CSA implementation. The lack of diversification in the economy and underdevelopment of the agriculture sector has accounted for weak institutional mechanism and enabling environment for CSA. Sudan, however, is taking steps to create a stronger enabling environment. For example, through the Agricultural Revival Program (ARP) launched in 2008, the country aims to address structural weaknesses in the sector, and many of the priority areas of intervention coincide with the NAPA objectives. Also, there are some services in place with the potential to create a strong enabling environment for CSA, such as the Sudanese Food and Agriculture Market Information System, which collects and disseminates crop, livestock, and horticultural and animal products prices to market participants. Sustained commitment to improved agricultural policies, consistent approach, and better coordination is essential to develop a transformational agenda for agriculture in Sudan. X Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa Adoption of CSA technologies and practices 7. From January 2016 to April 2018, the World Bank’s Board of Directors approved 83 projects supporting climate- smart agriculture in Africa with cumulative investments of US$3.8 billion. Spreading across 30 countries, the projects aim to improve the livelihoods of about 5 million farmers and increase the climate resilience and productivity of about 3 million hectares of land. 8. Countries adopt a range of context-­­ smart specific climate-­­ technologies and practices to meet their climate change and food security goals. Improved livestock production is Countries adopt a range of the most prevalent in 63 percent of the CSA projects portfolio, followed by improved water management (57 percent), context-specific climate-smart conservation agriculture (CA;  53  percent), agroforestry (47 technologies and practices to percent), and digital agriculture (39 percent). Livestock production systems are vital for reducing rural poverty in Africa. meet their climate change and It is a major economic sector contributing an average of 40 food security goals. percent of the continent’s agriculture gross domestic product (GDP). The sector also is critical for food and nutrition security; based foods. Improved animal source foods are protein dense and contain key micronutrients not found in plant-­­ livestock management focuses on four key elements: improved feed and nutrition; animal breeding and health care; sustainable land management, such as silvopastoral practices, a land use system that integrates trees and shrubs into pastures, and rotational grazing of livestock; and integrated manure management. 9. Complementary to the expanding investments in improved livestock production is the implementation of the Program for Climate-Smart Livestock (PCSL) in Africa through a joint World Bank-German initiative. The Program aims at fostering climate-­­ smart livestock management practices, developing monitoring systems and policies, and providing guidance for up-­­ smart livestock practices across the continent. The initiative scaling climate-­­ will assist governments in fulfilling their commitments to achieve climate change adaptation and mitigation goals, and ultimately to attract further national and international investment for CSA, in general. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa XI use system combining trees and shrubs with crops and livestock is one of the 10. Agroforestry, an integrated land-­­ most conspicuous land use systems across landscapes and agroecological zones in Africa. Some 1.5   billion hectares are suitable for some type of agroforestry in the continent. Agroforestry has shown enormous promise for co-­­delivery of climate adaptation and mitigation benefits, in addition to improving food security in Africa. Investing in agroforestry on 25 percent of cropland (75 million ha) of land in Africa to increase crop yields by an average of 50 percent, would produce 22 million more tons of food per year. Such a scale-­­up could potentially provide 285 million people with an additional 615 kilocalories (kcal) per person per day. Savings of more than 6 million tons of inorganic fertilizer would be generated, in addition to sequestering 1 gigaton (Gt) of carbon dioxide equivalent per year. 11. New digital technologies make it possible to collect and leverage huge amounts of critical data at minimal costs—­­ thus making a farm’s field operations more insight-­­ driven and potentially more productive and efficient. A major application of digital agriculture is in the design and Application of digital delivery of integrated weather and market advisories using big data analytics. technologies leads This helps inform farmers’ decisions about what to grow, when to plant and to more efficient harvest, how to allocate their labor, and where to sell their produce. The resulting combined data is analyzed and interpreted so that the farmer can input use and make more informed and personally relevant decisions, leading to increased reduced agricultural yields and resilience. Application of digital agriculture leads to more efficient input use matched to climatic trends and reduced GHG emissions. emissions. related risks, most smallholder farmers in Africa rarely have 12. Despite increasing frequency of weather-­­ access to crop insurance due to large informational asymmetries and the high transaction costs of dealing with smallholder farmers. Farmers often rely on informal approaches to risk management, such as accumulating value crops that are less sensitive to weather fluctuations, and diversifying precautionary savings, planting lower-­­ their sources of income away from the most profitable options. Innovations in insurance markets, such as the based insurance that links indemnity payments to easily observed outcomes—­­ index-­­ instead of such as rainfall—­­ to individual farmer yields, have the potential to address these problems by helping farmers’ smooth incomes in bad years and helping governments and relief agencies respond quickly and fully to weather-­­ related disasters when they occur. FIGURE ES.1: DISTRIBUTION OF CSA PROJECT ACTIVITIES ACROSS TYPES OF CAPITAL AND CAPACITIES STRENGTHENED (%) 45 40 2 35 30 9 25 30 20 15 0 21 5 10 5 12 5 2 7 2 5 0 Physical Institutional Human and Natural capital capital social capital capital Absorptive capacity Adaptive capacity Transformative capacity XII Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa Barriers to adoption of CSA technologies and practices 13. The adoption of CSA practices can face a variety of socioeconomic and institutional barriers. These include the need for significant upfront expenditures on the part of poorer farmers, the non-­­ availability of some inputs in the local markets, lack of information about the potential of improved techniques, and often limited capacity to implement the techniques. Certain techniques associated with sustainable land management can be incompatible with traditional practices. In some instances, the diffusion of new technologies relies on a level of social capital and experience with collective action that farmers simply do not yet have. The World Bank CSA investment projects assist in overcoming the adoption constraints by providing support for specific material inputs, linking farmers to markets, technical assistance (TA) for design and delivery of critical interventions, such as biogas energy development, and training and skills development for knowledge-­­ intensive technologies, and strengthening local institutions to catalyze adoption. offs are inherent in the attempt to achieve the triple win 14. Trade-­­ of food security, resilience and mitigation. There is the need for policy makers and resource managers to manage trade-­­ offs across space, time, and sectors. The multiple services provided by land The landscape approach interact in complex ways, leading to positive and negative impacts as is useful for managing the production of one ecosystem service increases. Synergy results trade‑offs and capturing when the production of more of an ecosystem service leads to more of another, whereas trade-­­off—­­the more frequent outcome—­­occurs synergies between when the production of one ecosystem service decreases the supply of CSA pillars. another. Working at the landscape level is useful for addressing food security and rural livelihood issues and in responding to the impacts of climate change and contributing to its mitigation. The landscape approach provides a framework for the better management of ecosystem services, such as agricultural productivity, carbon storage, fresh water cycling, biodiversity protection, and pollination. It allows trade-­offs to be explicitly quantified and addressed through negotiated solutions among various stakeholders. OFFS BETWEEN CSA PILLARS FIGURE ES.2: TRADE-­ Food security + Adaptation potential: high Food security + Adaptation potential: high Mitigation potential: low Mitigation potential: high Food security + Adaptation potential Inefficient use of nitrogen fertilizer expanding: Restore degraded land (i) cropping on marginal lands Conservation agriculture with agroforestry (ii) energy–intensive irrigation Low emissions diversification (iii) energy–intensive mechanized systems Increase fertilizer efficiency Integrated Soil Fertility Management Food security + Adaptation potential: low Food security + Adaptation potential: low Mitigation potential: low Mitigation potential: high Bare fallow Reforestation/afforestation Continuous cropping without fertilization Restore/maintain organic soils Over-grazing Agroforestry options that yield limited food or income benefits Carbon Sequestration/Mitigation potential Source: Modified from World Bank (2016a) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa XIII Developing resilience capacity through CSA 15. A major goal of the ACBP is to deliver on CSA at scale to increase the efficiency and resilience of food systems in Africa. This report also examines how African countries are building resilience to climate change through CSA. Developing adaptive capacity, defined as the ability of a system to adjust, modify, or change characteristics and actions to moderate potential future impacts from hazards through incremental changes is the primary focus of resilience building (58 percent of project activities). Boosting absorptive capacity, the ability of a system to prepare for, mitigate, or prevent negative impacts of hazards, is addressed by 26 percent of project activities, whereas increasing transformative capacity, the ability to create a fundamentally new system to avoid negative impacts from hazards, is focused on by 16 percent. 16. In terms of livelihood capital, the project activities focus mainly on building natural capital (39 percent), followed by human and social capital (35 percent), institutional There is a need to invest capital (17 percent) and physical capital (9 percent). Soils and vegetation (natural capital) are the basic resource and the more in institutional capital central elements of most CSA approaches. Interventions such as through policy development Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM), agroforestry, and CA and enhanced private sector have the major goal of building natural capital by increasing soil health and reducing land degradation. Efforts to build human participation. XIV Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa capital through training and skills development will help address capacity gap, a critical barrier to the adoption of CSA technologies. There is a need to invest more in institutional capital through policy development and enhanced private sector participation. 17. More effort is needed to promote market system interventions to build resilience to climate change. Projects using a market systems approach focus on strengthening value chains and More effort is needed to identifying market opportunities for the smallholder farmers. One of the reasons that such approaches are popular is that they promote market system aim to mobilize private sector resources for development, rather interventions to build than relying solely on limited public sources of finance, and thus are viewed as more sustainable than other approaches. Such resilience to climate change. approaches aim to mobilize private sector resources for development, rather than relying solely on limited public sources of finance. The greatest potential for expansion lies with private finance, and the engagement of private business in the development process tends to be more sustainable than other approaches. 18. A mix of absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities is often needed to deliver resilient development outcomes, but the proportions in the mix depend on the system’s needs Given the intensity, frequency, and the climate change impacts that require increased resilience. Interventions to increase absorptive and adaptive and pace of climate change capacities are often the first and quickest way to increase the and the extreme vulnerability climate resilience of smallholder farmers and rural communities. However, given the intensity, frequency, and pace of climate of African agriculture, change and the extreme vulnerability of African agriculture, resilience building needs resilience building needs to also include more transformational to also include more responses to support deep, systemic, and sustainable change with the potential for large-­­scale impact across Africa. transformational responses. Recommendations 19. Two sets of recommendations are important to further enhance the efforts to scale up CSA for transformational change in Africa. smart investment. Large-­­ 1) Provide TA and capacity development for climate-­­ scale systematic investment is needed for CSA to be scaled out, but there is still the need for substantial TA in some countries to develop programs that attract direct co-­­financing from governments, development agencies, and the private sector. The following five key TA activities have been identified for the transformative scaling up of CSA in Africa: (i) Develop CSA country profiles to identify entry points for investing in CSA at scale. (ii) Develop CSA investment plans for prioritizing CSA strategies, policies, and investments. (iii) Strengthen Measuring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) systems for Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). (iv) Build capacity to access climate finance. (v) Promote knowledge sharing, learning, and capacity enhancement for CSA policies, technologies, and practices. 2) Accelerate the scaling up of CSA technologies and practices. There is a need for scaling up and replicating effective approaches and innovations to deliver productivity and climate benefits at a much bigger scale and Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa XV intensity. Agriculture needs to be transformed by shifting the food system onto a climate-­­ smart pathway. This shift will transform the entire food system, with major impacts throughout the entire value chain. Three essential activities to support the scaling up are indicated below: (i) Leverage the big data and geospatial capabilities tools, such as the World Bank’s Agricultural Intelligence Observatory (Ag Observatory), in targeting climate-­­smart interventions in existing and pipeline projects. specific CSA projects using criteria, such as climate vulnerability, the number of rural poor, (ii) Develop country-­­ poverty rates, and prevalence of undernourishment. This will help identify countries in which the potential for accelerating agricultural transformation is huge. (iii) Crowd in investment by increasing the space for private sector activity in agricultural markets, improving policy and regulatory environment and support services needed for successful agricultural value chains, leveraging public finance to improve private incentives, and managing private investment risks. XVI Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa I. Introduction 20. Climate change and food insecurity are the twin Niña–related phenomena. A projected rise in extreme development challenges that may define Africa’s weather events and average temperatures of about future. More than 240 million, or one in five, people 2°C by the middle of the century could substantially are undernourished in the continent due to lack of reduce the land suitable for growing the main staple sufficient or nutritious food (figure 1.1). This number crops and reduce crop yields by up to 20 percent. could increase to 350 million by 2050 if appropriate adaptation measures are not taken to cope with 21. African agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate the intensity of future climate change (World Bank risks, but it also is a source of greenhouse gas 2013a). Climate change has been reducing yields and (GHG) emissions. Increased agricultural production causing more frequent extreme weather events. In in Africa has occurred mainly through the expansion of 2016, the food security situation deteriorated sharply agricultural lands rather than through intensification, in Africa, especially in East and Southern Africa, due and agriculture and the associated land-­ use change to droughts and floods linked in part to El Niño/La account for 65 percent of Africa’s total GHG emissions. FIGURE 1.1: PREVALENCE AND ABSOLUTE NUMBER OF UNDERNOURISHMENT ACROSS WORLD REGIONS 25 20 243.2 Prevalence of undernourishmnet (percentage) 191.1 218.7 200.4 15 552.4 526.1 519.6 508.3 10 39.1 40.1 42.5 40.8 5 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.7 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Africa Asia LAC Oceania NA and Europe Note: LAC = Latin American countries; NA = North America. The prevalence of undernourishment is higher in Africa. The absolute number of undernourished people is highest in Asia. The size of circles represents the number of undernourished people in millions as labeled. Source: The Food and Agriculture Organization (of the UN) (FAO) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 1 Emissions from agriculture are likely to grow due to Malabo Declaration.3 CSA is an integrated approach increase in demand for food associated with growing that aims to address the interlinked challenges of population and urbanization. food security and climate change by sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, to support 22. Food production in Sub-Saharan Africa needs equitable increases in farm incomes, food security, to increase by 60 percent over the next 15 years and development; adapting and building resilience to meet demand. Feeding Africa nutritiously of agricultural and food systems to climate change and sustainably will require a more sustainable at multiple levels; and reducing GHG emissions from and climate-­smart food system. Without major agriculture. In collaboration with partners, the World investments in agriculture, the average African would Bank is working toward achieving the following have access to 21 percent fewer calories and climate targets in Africa by 2026: adoption of CSA by change would increase the number of malnourished 25 million farmers, establishment of CSA on 3 million children by 10 million. If unaddressed, climate ha of farmland, creation of improved pastoral systems change will erode Africa’s hard-­ won development in at least 15 countries, and improved capacity to achievements and jeopardize the prospects for implement CSA policies in at least 20 countries. further growth and poverty reduction. 25. This report assesses policy framework for CSA 23. Fortunately, African agriculture is well positioned implementation and progress in CSA technology for transformational change. Throughout Africa, adoption for Africa. It also highlights opportunities there are more than 200 million ha of uncultivated for scaling up of CSA in the region. Chapter 2 reviews land that can be brought to productive use. Africa the extent to which countries have adopted policies uses only 2 percent of its renewable water sources. and created the enabling environment for CSA Africa’s food and beverage markets are expected to implementation in Africa. Chapter 3 assesses resource top US$1 trillion in value by 2030 (World Bank 2013b). mobilization for World Bank CSA investments More than a dozen agribusiness investment funds and finance flows for agricultural adaptation and have set their sights on Africa. African agriculture mitigation under the investments. It also assesses also is energized by entrepreneurial youth and an the extent to which the World Bank CSA portfolio engaged private sector that is taking note of its aligns with Nationally Determined Contribution potential. Young Africans are making agriculture a (NDC) commitments.4 Chapter 4 assesses the extent viable business, creating opportunities for farmers, of adoption of CSA technologies by World Bank as well as themselves. client countries in Africa. Information is provided on the adaptation and mitigation benefits of the CSA 24. The Africa Climate Business Plan (ACBP) was technologies, as well as implantation challenges. launched by the World Bank at the 21st Session Chapter 5 discusses how the technologies contribute of the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris to efficiency and resilience of food systems in Africa, to address Africa’s intricately linked climate while Chapter  6 concludes with opportunities for and development agendas.1 The ACBP calls for future engagement with countries in Africa. The US$19 billion in funding to help African people and report will benefit World Bank teams, development countries adapt to climate change and build up partners, and country clients working to promote the continent’s resilience to climate shocks (World CSA policies and practices that enable farmers to Bank 2015).2 The ACBP includes a focus on climate-­ increase productivity and production sustainably, smart agriculture (CSA) and supports the vision while increasing the farmers’ capacity to contribute for accelerated agricultural transformation of the to climate change adaptation and mitigation. 1 The ACBP is consistent with the World Bank’s Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) (https://www.openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/24451) that focuses, among other goals, on working with countries to deliver CSA that achieves the triple win of increased productivity, enhanced resilience, and reduced emissions. The CCAP emphasizes impact at scale and improving the resilience of the global food system. 2 Resource mobilization target for CSA is US$3 billion by June 2020, end of International Development Association (IDA) 18. 3 Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods. https://au.int/sites/default/ files/documents/31006-­doc-­malabo_declaration_2014_11_26-.pdf. 4 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) is a statement of a country’s current emissions, reduction targets, and adaptation priorities that is used to prioritize climate actions and transition to low emission development pathways. 2 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa II. Policy Frameworks for CSA Implementation in Africa 26. The World Bank’s CSA Policy Index framework was especially Readiness Mechanism, Services and used to assess a country’s enabling environment Infrastructure, and the Aggregated Policy Index. for implementing CSA (World Bank 2017a). The A key contribution to the low Readiness Mechanism framework comprises indicators that capture the scores is the lack of monitoring and implementation readiness of national governments, the effectiveness systems to support adaptation and mitigation of institutions, and the availability of the enabling policies in many African countries. The low average mechanisms to implement CSA. The Policy Index score of the Services and Infrastructure is because reflects three themes: of the inadequacy of critical CSA enablers, such as well-­ functioning agricultural extension system, 1) Readiness mechanism. This refers to the poor access to input and output markets, inefficient capacity of countries to plan and deliver agricultural risk management system, and scarce adaptation and mitigation programs in ways social safety nets that are critical for promoting that are catalytic and fully integrated with the adoption of CSA. The Coordination Mechanism national agricultural development priorities. It average score is just about the average global score also measures the country’s capacity to leverage and still indicates a need to build robust institutions investments for climate action and incentivize for CSA implementation. adoption of new technologies. 2) Services and infrastructure. This measures the 28. Figure  2.1 indicates that only 13 out of 32 Sub- country’s institutional capacity to mainstream Saharan African countries (41 percent) scored above CSA based on the availability and functioning of the global average Aggregated Policy Index. South services and enablers of CSA implementation. Africa—­with its strong agricultural export markets—­is a top performer (Aggregated Policy Index of 77 3) Coordination mechanism. This assesses the percent) because its agricultural sector is supported country’s ability to mobilize and coordinate by market information systems, agriculture crop across various ministries, institutions, and insurance, warehouse receipts systems, and early stakeholders to support CSA. warning systems (EWSs) for weather and pest 27. Table  2.1 shows that Sub-Saharan African management that are critical for well-­ functioning countries scored low on the CSA Policy Indicators, markets. The country also is able to leverage COMPARISON OF POLICY INDICATOR SCORES FOR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA WITH THE GLOBAL TABLE 2.1:  AVERAGES Sub-Saharan Africa Global average (%) Proportion of Sub-Saharan average score (%) African countries scoring below global average (%) Readiness Mechanism 49.6 53.8 59 Services and Infrastructure 55.8 62.4 63 Coordination Mechanism 67.8 67.3 34 Aggregated Policy Index 55.3 60.1 59 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 5 FIGURE 2.1: CSA POLICY INDEX FOR 32 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN COUNTRIES 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 South Africa Tanzania Rwanda Zambia Nigeria Madagascar Ghana Mali Benin Mozambique Niger Malawi Senegal Kenya Ethiopia Cameroon Burkina Faso Zimbabwe Botswana Togo Comorus Burundi Uganda Guinea Chad Cote d'Ivoire Gabon Congo, Dem. Rep. Congo, Rep Equatorial Guinea Central African Republic Sudan Aggregated Policy Index (%) Global average 60.1% Source: World Bank (2017a) investments for the adoption of new technologies Development. The strategy includes a monitoring through significant public investments in research framework for its mitigation and adaptation and development (R&D). programs and involves various ministries including the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources 29. Tanzania’s relatively high score (Aggregated (MINAGRI), Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA), Policy Index of 76 percent) is driven primarily and Municipal Authorities in its implementation. The by its relatively high scores in services and country’s Strategic Program for Climate Resilience infrastructure and coordination mechanisms. (SPCR) developed through a multi-­ stakeholder Tanzania’s commitment to addressing climate process focuses on agricultural resilience, sustainable adaptation and mitigation in the agriculture sector landscapes, and strengthening institutional capacity is reflected in the country’s NAPA and National among others. The country also has established Climate Change Strategy. Beyond these two plans, several public-­ private partnerships to develop the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of services and infrastructure, such as crop insurance, Poverty (NSGRP II) also incorporates climate change that have the potential to create a strong enabling as a crosscutting issue. A multi-­sectorial approach environment for CSA. Compared to others, Rwanda facilitated by the National Climate Change Technical scored high in agricultural adaptation policy, Committee (NCCTC) and National Climate Change agricultural mitigation policy, agricultural R&D, Steering Committee (NCCSC) is used to support CSA. social safety nets, national GHG inventory system, and disaster risk management coordination. 30. Rwanda with an Aggregated Policy Index of 73 percent is another top performer. Rwanda’s 31. The bottom performers on the CSA Policy Index commitment to CSA is reflected in the National include Sudan (with Aggregated Policy Index of Strategy for Climate Change and Low Carbon 31 percent), Central African Republic (36 percent), 6 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa and Equatorial Guinea (37 percent). The countries scored exceptionally low in agricultural mitigation are among the top five oil producing countries in policy, rural access index, and social safety nets. A the region with economies heavily dependent on recent study underscores the need for sustained oil revenues, and the agricultural sector critically commitment to improved agricultural policies and underdeveloped. Most of the low performers have better coordination to develop a transformational poorly developed or no NAPAs, for example, to support agenda for agriculture in Sudan (World Bank, 2016c). CSA implementation. The lack of diversification in the economy and underdevelopment of the agriculture 33. Commitment from the government—­ sector has accounted for weak institutional demonstrated through national climate change mechanism and enabling environment for CSA. policies and strategies—­ also is important for creating an enabling environment for CSA. 32. Sudan has expressed commitment to addressing For example, Madagascar with an Aggregated adaptation to climate change through its NAPA; Policy Index score of 68 percent has built strong however, there are no well-­ defined strategies to institutional frameworks through regional address this goal. The country also lacks sufficient arrangements supported by the Indian Ocean services and infrastructure to support adaptation Islands to integrate adaptation strategies and strategies in the agriculture sector. The county is, disaster risk response to climate change in national however, taking steps to create a stronger enabling policies and strategies. Some 59 percent of the Sub- environment. For example, through the Agricultural Saharan African countries in the sample scored Revival Program (ARP) launched in 2008, the country below the global average Aggregated Policy Index. aims to address structural weaknesses in the sector This reveals critical challenges related to leveraging and many of the priority areas of intervention investments for climate action, promoting adoption coincide with the NAPA objectives. There also are of new technologies, providing enabling services, some services in place with the potential to create and creating the necessary institutions for CSA a strong enabling environment for CSA, such as the implementation. Addressing these gaps is one of the Sudanese Food and Agriculture Market Information central focuses of the ACBP. The ACBP supports the System, which collects and disseminates crop, adoption of evidence-­ based policies and institutional livestock, and horticultural and animal products strengthening for CSA. Progresses in these areas are prices to market participants on a weekly basis. Sudan discussed in this report. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 7 III. Resource Mobilization for CSA 34. This chapter provides information on resource the climate financing gap in the region. Table 3.1 mobilization for the CSA investments and finance provides data on the implementation of the CSA flow for agricultural adaptation and mitigation. component of the ACBP. From January 2016 to April It also assesses the alignment of the World Bank’s 2018, the World Bank’s Board approved 83 projects CSA portfolio to Agricultural Nationally Determined supporting CSA with cumulative commitments of Contributions (Ag-NDCs) priorities and actions. US$3.8 billion. The projects are spread across 30 The chapter provides an indication of areas where countries in Africa (figure 3.1). These projects aim to countries may require further assistance in meeting improve the livelihoods of about 5 million farmers their NDC goals. and increase the climate resilience and productivity of about 3 million ha of land. 36. An agricultural activity provides climate co-­ 3.1 Data on CSA investment benefits if it promotes mitigation or adaptation. benefits and climate co-­ It promotes agricultural mitigation through efforts to reduce or avoid GHG emissions and/or 35. The ACBP aims to build a pipeline of innovative enhance carbon sequestration. The activity fosters and transformational projects to tackle climate adaptation if it reduces the vulnerability of people change and establish a platform to mobilize or the agricultural system to the impacts of climate investments, thereby contributing to filling change and risks related to climate variability, by TABLE 3.1: STATUS OF AGRICULTURE COMPONENT OF THE ACBP PORTFOLIO5 Period All IBRD/IDA projects with benefits Of which, projects with climate co-­­ agriculture sector components No. Commitment USD $M No. Total co-­ (i) (ii) Farmers Land area benefits adaptation mitigation reached (ha) are USD $M USD $M USD $M with CSA6 under CSA7 Jan 16 – Sep 16 17 821 11 435 238 197 1,211,400 558,382 Oct 16 – Sep 17 48 1,925 31 756 538 218 3,104,787 2,353,328 Oct 17 – Apr 18 18 1,054 7 354 246 108 651,800 18,661 Total 83 3,800 49 1,546 1,022 524 4,967,987 2,930,371 Note: ha = hectares; IBRD/IDA = International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/International Development Association. 5 Co-­benefits assessment for projects from October 2017 is provisional and is subject to change until Board approval. 6 Calculated as farmers reached with agriculture assets or farmers adopting improved agriculture practices. 7 Calculated as area reforested or with increased tree cover plus land area under sustainable landscape management practices multiplied by a “CSA ratio” plus area provided with new/improved irrigation or drainage services multiplied by a “CSA ratio”. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 9 maintaining or increasing adaptive capacity and Higher finance flows to adaptation compared to benefits from January resilience.8 Total climate co-­ mitigation reflect the priorities of African countries 2016 to April 2018 were about US$1.5 billion, with to address the sector’s climate vulnerability and 66 percent of the finance flowing into adaptation. increase resilience. However, given the vast potential FIGURE 3.1: WORLD BANK TOTAL COMMITMENTS FOR AGRICULTURE JANUARY 2016–APRIL 20189 Source: Authors 8 The World Bank tracks the climate mitigation and adaptation co-­ benefits of all the projects it finances using the Multilateral Development Banks’ Joint Methodology for Tracking Climate Finance. (http://www.adb.org/documents/joint-­ mdbs-­ report-­ finance-2015). The World Bank is committed to climate-­ increasing the share of International Development Association (IDA) and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) financing with climate benefits to 28 percent by 2020. co-­ 9 Fourteen regional projects spanning several countries are not reflected in the figure. 10 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa for African agriculture to reduce emissions through client countries may require toward implementing climate-­smart practices, the mitigation flows should the plans and transitioning to low emission expand considerably in the future. development pathways. 37. Capturing adaptation finance co-­benefits requires 41. To assess the extent to which the ACBP contributes the project documents to to and supports the implementation of Sub- Saharan Africa’s NDCs, projects were assessed • Establish vulnerability of the agricultural system to determine the alignment of development to climate variability in the context of the climate objectives and project components with NDCs risk screening completed at the Project Concept goals and targets. ACBP projects with target sectors Note stage; sectors) articulated as priority areas in the (or sub-­ • Provide an intent that the project will address country NDCs are considered as contributing to these vulnerabilities; and the implementation of the NDCs. The analysis was carried out at both the country and the regional • Allocate bank financing to the activities under the levels and focused on countries where the ACBP various project components. projects are present. 38. For proper assessment of mitigation finance co-­ 42. Figure  3.2 shows that the ACBP portfolio benefits, the project team needs to make an effort contributes to a significant percentage of Sub- to assign financing to those specific activities that Saharan African countries’ NDC implementation have been included in the ex-­ante GHG evaluation cutting efforts in agriculture (84 percent); cross-­ of the project. areas10 (57 percent); and land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF; 45 percent). benefits are an essential component 39. Climate co-­ of the finance used by countries to support their sector level, the ACBP portfolio 43. At the sub-­ mitigation and adaptation actions. They should, makes important contribution (figure 3.3) therefore, be tracked and reported through their NDC to NDC implementation and targets related Measuring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) system. to CSA (85  percent), capacity building and It would be useful to promote client ownership of the knowledge transfer (73  percent), sustainable co-­benefits assessment during project preparation land management practices (69 percent), and so that countries could better understand how the food security (53 percent). There appears to be World Bank engagement has helped them in meeting much attention to agricultural practices that can their climate change goals. smart (for example, crop and livestock be climate-­ management), but less to the enabling services 3.2 Contributions to NDC (for example, climate services) that can facilitate adoption and full realization of the benefits of implementation these practices. 40. Under the Paris Agreement, countries submit an 44. While this analysis generally shows evidence NDC document that outlines their commitment to of significant alignment of the ACBP portfolio reduce GHG emissions and strengthen resilience to implementing Ag-NDC commitments in to climate change. The NDC, a statement of a Africa, detailed analysis of the prevalence and country’s current emissions, reduction targets, and types of CSA technologies in the portfolio could adaptation priorities, provides an important baseline help identify potential gaps and opportunities for prioritizing climate actions. It offers opportunities for additional support to countries. Chapter  4 to better understand client countries’ plans and focuses on how CSA technologies have been priorities for addressing climate change. At the same scaled up in the portfolio. time, it helps identify the kind of support that the 10 cutting areas include capacity building and knowledge transfer, disaster risk management, and climate services. Cross-­ Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 11 FIGURE 3.2: COUNTRIES IMPLEMENTING ACBP PROJECTS WITH AND WITHOUT CONTRIBUTION TO NDC 40 90% 84% 35 6 80% 30 70% 16 60% 25 57% 18 50% 20 45% 40% 15 32 30% 10 21 20% 15 5 10% 0 0% Agriculture Cross-cutting LULUCF Countries implementing ACBP projects with NDC contribution Countries with NDC not covered by ACBP projects Percentage Source: World Bank (2017c) SECTOR LEVEL FIGURE 3.3: CONTRIBUTION OF ACBP PROJECTS TO NDC AT THE SUB-­ 30 90% 85% 80% 25 4 73% 69% 70% 20 60% 6 53% 20 50% 16 15 9 38% 5 40% 36% 13 22 33% 10 30% 8 28% 26% 13 16 14 7 20% 5 10 11 13% 8 7 10% 5 4 5 7% 2 1 0 0% Climate Food Irrigation Fisheries Crops Livestock Capacity Disaster risk Climate Sustain- Sustain- smart security building manage- services able land able forest agriculture and ment manage- manage- knowledge ment ment transfer Agriculture Cross-cutting LULUCF Countries in which ACBP projects are making contributions to NDC Countries with NDC not covered by ACBP projects Percentage Source: World Bank (2017c) 12 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 3.3 Establishment of 3.4 Analytical work on climate-smart livestock improving food systems’ development program resilience to weather 45. As part of resources mobilization, a Program shocks for Climate-Smart Livestock (PCSL) has recently 46. During 2015–2016, record-high temperatures, been established through a joint initiative droughts, and floods resulting from one of involving the German Development Agency (GIZ), the strongest El Niño events in recent decades the World Bank, and the International Livestock adversely impacted agricultural production Research Institute (ILRI). The program aims at across East and Southern Africa. The El Niño fostering climate-­ smart livestock management event was the worst in 15 years; it was associated practices, monitoring systems and policies across with massive crop failures in Southern Africa, African countries, and providing guidance for floods in parts of East Africa, little or no harvests in scaling up lessons learned across the continent. many areas, and an extensive food security crisis. The Program will intervene at several spatial scales Increasing levels of concern over the mounting and engage with various stakeholder groups in five crisis prompted the World Bank to leverage funds fields of activity: (1) expanding action strategies for from the Global Food Price Crisis Response Trust climate-­smart livestock systems; (2) incorporating Fund to support countries' responses to the crisis climate change mitigation and adaptation in and document lessons from the experience. The livestock-­related policies; (3) improving reporting on World Bank completed 11 analytical studies across nationally determined contributions; (4) up-­ scaling East and Southern Africa countries on food security interventions from climate change mitigation and early-warning systems, emergency preparedness adaptation in livestock at the regional level; and and response, and effective strategies to improve the (5) channeling lessons learned by the Program into resilience of agriculture and food systems to weather international discussion on agriculture and climate variability. The studies will underpin policy planning change. The program will further help improve and future investments in scaling up CSA, in addition production practices in the evolving livestock to supporting strategies for improving resilient portfolio. outcomes among vulnerable smallholder farmers. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 13 IV. CSA Technologies and Practices in the ACBP Portfolio 47. CSA includes practices and technologies that sustainably increase productivity, support farmers’ 4.1 Improved livestock adaptation to climate change, and reduce levels of production GHGs. Climate-­ smart approaches can include many diverse components from farm-­ level techniques 50. Table  4.1 indicates that improved livestock to policies and finance mechanisms. CSA is not a management is the most prevalent set of CSA prescribed practice or a specific technology that can practices in the portfolio (63 percent). Hitherto, the be universally applied. It is an approach that requires critical contribution of livestock to the CSA agenda site-­ specific assessments of the social, economic, has been underexploited. Livestock production and environmental conditions to identify appropriate systems constitute a major economic sector for Africa agricultural production technologies and practices. (contributing an average of 40 percent of agriculture gross domestic product [GDP]), with small farms 48. CSA can be significantly scaled up using a contributing most of the production in Africa11 variety of technologies, most of which rely on (Herrero et  al. 2017). Hence the sector is important formulated and administered policies and well-­ for reducing rural and peri-­urban poverty. The sector enabling environments and investment climates. also is critical for food security not only because of The prevalence of CSA technologies in the ACBP the income benefits but because of the nutritional agriculture portfolio was assessed for 49 projects for benefits—­ animal source foods are protein dense which relevant information is available in the project and contain key micronutrients not found in plant-­ documents (table 4.1). The adaptation and mitigation based foods (HLPE 2016). The growing demand for benefits of the technologies are highlighted together livestock products needs to be managed so that the with the time frame and challenges in implementing production is as sustainable as possible, avoiding them. known negative environmental impacts of livestock, especially GHG emissions from enteric fermentation, 49. The adoption of CSA practices can face a variety nitrous oxide emissions from manure management, of socioeconomic and institutional barriers. and GHG emissions caused by land use and land use These include the need for significant up-­ front change for feed and forage production. expenditures on the part of poorer farmers, the non-­availability of some inputs in the local markets, 51. Improved livestock management focuses on four lack of information about the potential of improved key elements. The first element is improved feed and techniques, and often limited capacity to implement nutrition by planting better grasses and legumes and the techniques. Certain techniques associated with the incorporation of dietary supplements in livestock CSA can be incompatible with traditional practices. feeds. The second element is animal breeding and In some instances, the diffusion of new technologies health care involving a range of practices that increase relies on a level of social capital and experience with the resilience of animals and pastoral livelihoods. collective action that farmers simply do not yet have Such practices include introduction of heat-­ tolerant (World Bank 2012). In discussing the adopted CSA breeds; production and distribution of drought-­ technologies, this chapter highlights strategies to tolerant feeds; adoption of modern reproductive break some of the adoption barriers. management technologies targeting increased 11 Across Sub-Saharan Africa, 25 percent of livestock production happens on farms less than 2 ha and 80 percent happens on farms less than 20 ha. (Herrero et al. 2017). Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 15 TABLE 4.1: PREVALENCE OF CSA TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ACBP PORTFOLIO 16 No. CSA Features Adaptation benefits Mitigation benefits Time frame for Implementation Number Relative technologies implementation challenges of proportion projects (%) 1 Improved Improved feed and Improved livestock breeds Interventions to make Improved livestock varies Inadequate public and 31 63 livestock nutrition, animal are more tolerant of heat or the livestock sector from six months to a private partnership, production breeding and health drought. Improved fodder more resilient deliver year; community-­based awareness for care, and land species diversify the fodder benefits for positive co-­ breeding programs require access to improved management. source, help stabilize low carbon development. 2 years minimum to train high- ­quality drugs ecosystem services, improve Interventions related to farmers to select for better and vaccines, soil’s ability to retain water, feed improvement reduce adapted animals; disease unreliable artificial hence, resilience to drought; emissions intensities; that surveillance programs insemination services, and contribute to increase of is, emissions per kilogram require one to two years low awareness manure management efforts of meat and milk. Improved to establish and sustain. about techniques and, hence, nutrition outcomes. grazing management Integrating private/public for improved In regions already marginal for increases carbon health service providers local breeding Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa crop production, as climate sequestration in the soil into disease surveillance to management; continues to warm, farmers may and manure management make health inputs more underdeveloped feed have to adapt more radically and reduces emissions readily available takes 6 and fodder value by abandoning cropping for from the sector. Manure months to a year. chain, and small land livestock production. also can be captured for size also constrains energy production. farmers’ ability to grow fodder crops. 2 Improved Improved water Enhances resilience to droughts Irrigation strategies that Provided water is available, Farmers need 28 57 water management is rooted and temperature increases. reduce the amount of the conception and better information management in efficient water use. A Improved water management water required can reduce planning of improvements on the benefits of warming climate reduces helps in bridging dry spells, energy consumption for can be achieved either the technology water availability. opening opportunities pumping, thereby reducing with or by farmers and early warning Farmers need strategies for additional dry season emissions. Rainwater themselves; can build on systems to optimize that help reduce water agricultural production. harvesting sequester existing farming systems benefits of improved use, while maintaining more carbon compared to (rather than revolutionize water management income and food practices such as residue them); can draw on technologies. New production. This will management, cover crops, local knowledge about short message service require a shift from manure and rotation resources, climate, and (SMS) systems to flood irrigation to drip diversification (World Bank farming; and can be flexibly deliver field specific irrigation, sprinkler, 2012). adapted to conditions information and and water-­harvesting during implementation and advice for irrigation techniques. operation. scheduling are required. 3 Conservation CA has its roots in CA can increase options of CA is 20 to 50 percent less CA is based on restoring CA is highly labor and 26 53 agriculture the principles of crop-­livestock integration labor intensive and, thus, naturally occurring knowledge intensive, (CA) providing permanent and integration of trees and contributes to reducing processes and, therefore, requiring training and soil cover, minimizing pastures into agricultural greenhouse gas emissions needs a conversion period practical experience soil disturbance, landscapes; crop residue through lower energy before the CA system of those promoting. and rotating crops. retention reduces weed growth, inputs and improved is established and the Therefore, its Central elements reduces moisture nutrient use efficiency. It natural balances are adoption levels are TABLE 4.1: (Continued) No. CSA Features Adaptation benefits Mitigation benefits Time frame for Implementation Number Relative technologies implementation challenges of proportion projects (%) include minimum/ loss, keeps the soil cooler, improves soil structure, restored. This will require low across Africa, and 26 53 reduced tillage, no reduces erosion by water and stabilizes and protects soil dedicated capacity-­ farmers often use only tillage, crop residue wind, and restores soil carbon from breaking down and building programs: some components management, cover through decomposition. Cover releasing carbon into the training of extension selectively on small crops, crop rotation, and crops penetrate and break atmosphere. agents, lead farmers, portions of land. diversification. up compacted soil layers; and farmers to diffuse inclusion of legumes in crop the technologies. It is rotations fixes nitrogen, thus, advisable that farmers increasing yields and reducing new to CA consult with expenditures on inorganic practitioners to share fertilizers; Diversification experiences and set increases and builds up soil’s realistic expectations. resilience to climate change. 4 Agroforestry Agroforestry is the Agroforestry fosters more Agroforestry systems Implementation time Agroforestry often 23 47 to diversify integrated approach efficient water utilization, increase carbon stored in frame depends on the includes significant farms, of producing trees and improved microclimate, vegetation and in soils, and initial conditions and upfront expenditure improve food agricultural crops and/ enhanced soil productivity and through the production of can vary from as little as that farmers cannot security, or livestock in a single nutrient cycling, control of pests substitutes for products 6 months to 2–5 years afford. Bridging the and capture farming system on the and diseases, improved farm that have higher emissions. when planting fruit trees time-gap between carbon same piece of land. productivity, and diversified Compared to single crop from seedlings, to a investments in trees Intercropping with trees, and increased farm income. species, agroforestry decade when agroforestry establishment and tree-­based farming, alley Tree shade over crops reduces systems have a higher is viewed as part of natural obtaining returns is cropping, and improved ambient temperature by potential to sequester regeneration processes. In crucial. Maintenance fallow. Some 1.5 billion typically around 2oC; increases because of their greater Gliricidia-based systems, costs can also be ha are suitable for some animal production by reducing ability to capture and it takes as little as 2–3 prohibitive for type of agroforestry in heat stress in silvopastoral utilize light, water, and years for farmers to start smallholder farmers. Africa. systems; reduces bare soil nutrient resources for reaping benefits in the Lack of enabling evaporation and improves growth. The amount form of nitrogen fixation environment in water use efficiency of crops; of carbon sequestered and pruning of trees for respect of markets trees increase water infiltration, depends on environmental firewood. for agroforestry reducing soil erosion and flood conditions and systems of products and policies risk; plays an important role management. that promote, rather in water cycles at landscape Higher soil organic than discourage tree and continental scales; Trees carbon is associated with management also is often complementary to other higher species richness a major factor. Forest components producing fodder and density. Tree-based legislation and land and food and stabilizing income cropping systems store tenure policies should through product diversification more carbon in deeper soil be clearly defined for and nutrition. layers. Agroforestry also agroforestry system helps to reduce pressure to thrive. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa on natural forest, thereby reducing emissions associated with land use 17 change (deforestation). (continued ) TABLE 4.1: (Continued) 18 No. CSA Features Adaptation benefits Mitigation benefits Time frame for Implementation Number Relative technologies implementation challenges of proportion projects (%) 5 Digital Big data analytics, Enables analyses on a More efficient fertilizer and Months of integrating Technical capacity is 19 39 agriculture information and larger scale that can inform other input use matched digital channels with a major constraint. communications adaptation planning across to climatic trends can existing climate services Poor access to good technology applications, landscapes or regions for higher help reduce their carbon and deeper analytics will quality data from agricultural input productivity; combining climate footprint. be required—­ ideally in the providers of climate scheduling and information with good quality, context of an alliance with services and from management, specific data on factors site-­ a provider (e.g., a mobile farm locations; little tailored SMS for such as soil fertility and erosion network operator or value-­ experience leveraging better agronomic risk enables decision making added service provider) the richness of the management, and on the sustainable productive that has an interest in digital economy in climate and market potential of land in the near and taking a solution to scale. their countries; digital advisories for risk long term. service providers Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa management. may also need to be aided to target agriculture. Majority of smallholder farmers live in remote areas, where good, fast internet connectivity reaches a small proportion of the population. 6 Stress tolerant Drought, heat, acidity/ In the short term, crops bred Environments affected by New varieties can be Slow varietal 18 37 varieties salinity, and low soil for greater drought tolerance salinity and droughts are developed and released replacement; fertility tolerance. and shorter-­duration varieties inherently associated with within 5–7 years. need to ensure can both be used for “terminal low methane emissions, complementarity drought escape”. Breeding hence, the propagation among new varieties, for resistance to the pests tolerant and of salinity-­ seed systems, and and diseases induced by drought-­tolerant rice crop management weather events provides varieties for low carbon practices. Political another important source development. Likewise, the and institutional of climate risk reduction. replacement of traditional bottlenecks including In the long term, as climate varieties grown by short-­ restrictive seed continues to warm, planting maturity varieties has policies, limited heat-­tolerant, drought-­ reduced flooding periods number of seed tolerant or salinity-­tolerant and, thus, the amount producers, and crop varieties, or by switching of methane emitted per poor marketing and to crops that have higher season. distribution can tolerance to temperatures restrict smallholder and the greater risk of drought farmers’ access to will be important adaptation new seeds. strategies. Another adaptation strategy is the substitution TABLE 4.1: (Continued) No. CSA Features Adaptation benefits Mitigation benefits Time frame for Implementation Number Relative technologies implementation challenges of proportion projects (%) of potentially vulnerable annual crops with more hardy perennials. In regions which are already marginal for crop production, farmers may well have to adapt more radically by abandoning cropping for livestock production. 7 Integrated Soil fertility Organic inputs (crop ISFM maximizes the Time frame varies. High transaction 18 37 Soil Fertility management technique residues and manure) help use of organic matter To achieve effective costs of input and Management that combines high-­ to increase crop response to that provides nutrients, adoption, there is need for farm produce trading; (ISFM) yielding varieties with mineral fertilizer, replenish sequesters carbon, and farmers to have improved shortage or non-­ organic materials (crop soil organic matter, and enhances water storage to access to quality inputs, availability of credit residue, mulching, improve soil moisture storage minimize GHG emissions takers and information, off-­ facilities for making manure, composting, capacity, thereby increasing through reduced traffic credit. initial investment; and so on) and inorganic agroecosystem resilience. and tillage and efficient use aversion to risks fertilizer. of organic and inorganic surrounding the fertilizers. profitability of inputs; cost and availability of labor; land size and property rights; weak social networks and pervasive distrust; lack of information about soil fertility and rainfall forecasts that leads to optimum benefits; and scarcity of organic residues and competition for residues with livestock. 8 Biogas Capturing biogas from Source of energy for electric Reduces carbon dioxide This will vary depending Labor intensive as 7 14 development anaerobic processes generators, heating, or lighting emissions. Energy on availability of biogas production generated in this way can resources. A small family involves resource offset CO2 emissions from size digester (10 m3 or less) collection and burning fossil fuels. can take about 1–2 months removal of slurry to have a functioning daily. Scarce Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa biogas plant. resources require additional labor for transportation. 19 (continued ) TABLE 4.1: (Continued) 20 No. CSA Features Adaptation benefits Mitigation benefits Time frame for Implementation Number Relative technologies implementation challenges of proportion projects (%) 9 Alternate Periodic drying of rice Water saving potential is AWD has one of the highest AWD can, in most Weed growth may 3 6 wetting field by suspending 15%–40%; facilitates a more GHG mitigation potentials instances, be adopted increase under more and drying irrigation for several equitable distribution of water of all climate actions in immediately. aerobic conditions; (AWD) in rice days. Fields are irrigated resources to areas that typically the agriculture sector change in perception systems again after some time suffer from water shortages; reaching from 30%–70% of and behavior of so that there will be reduces uptake of arsenic in methane emissions under traditional rice sufficient water available contaminated soils. continuous flooding. farmers; and for rice plants. provides only limited incentives as a standalone technology. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 10 Weather An innovative This can enhance farmers’ Mitigation benefits will Time frame for establishing Technical challenges 1 2 index-­based approach to insurance willingness to invest in farm depend on the degree to an index-­based insurance relate to data agricultural provision that pays out productivity by their knowing which insured farmers scheme can vary from unavailability, insurance benefits based on a that the insurance will very are able to invest in 12–24 months depending technical capacity predetermined index (for likely pay out in the event of a technologies and practices on institutional capacity for product design, example, rainfall level) climate shock; increases the that enhance carbon and availability of relevant and pricing. Good for loss of assets and confidence of credit providers sequestration and/or data. weather and crop investments resulting to lend to smallholder farmers; reduce greenhouse gas data are unavailable from weather and enhances adoption of improved emissions. in many countries. catastrophic events. production technologies. Many farmers are not familiar with insurance practices and the basic concepts of insurance transaction. Poor legal and regulatory environment for enforcing contracts that both buyer and seller can trust. Source: Compiled from Dinesh et al. (2017); and World Bank (2012, 2016a) fecundity; promoting artificial insemination (AI) emissions of methane, nitrous oxide, and ammonia, technologies for increased productivity; prevention, or release of nitrate and phosphate into water-­ eradication, and control of livestock diseases; and bodies. Methane also can be captured for domestic selection of low methane-­producing animals. uses, thereby reducing the pressures on woodcutting for firewood and charcoal. 52. The third element is sustainable land management, including silvopastoral practices, a land use system that integrates trees and shrubs into pastures, and rotational grazing of livestock. Silvopastoral systems can effectively promote economic, ecological, and social sustainability of pastoral livelihoods. Shade trees reduce heat stress on animals and help increase productivity. Trees improve the supply and quality of forage, which can help reduce overgrazing and curb land degradation. The last element is integrated manure management, which entails the optimal, site-­ specific handling of livestock manure from collection, through treatment and storage up to application to crops and aquaculture. The main aim is to prevent nutrient losses and, thus, save as many nutrients as possible 53. The mitigation potential of the livestock sector to fertilize crops and improve soil health (figure 4.1). may represent up to 50 percent of the mitigation Nutrient losses from livestock manure can have potential of global agriculture, forestry, and land detrimental effects on the environment in the form of use (Herrero et  al. 2016). Most of this potential is FIGURE 4.1: INTEGRATED MANURE MANAGEMENT CHAIN Cover/Roof Housing Livestock Feed Urine Emission Emission digestion to to Feed & air air fodder Dung Storage Cover/Roof Crop fertilization Bedding Barn floor Transport Application (& aquaculture) Outdoor storage Indoor storage Storage floor Leaching Leaching Leaching Leaching to to to to soil water soil water Emission Treatment & to Processing air Manure • Anaerobic digestion products • Separation • Refining • Composting • Other Biogas Energy Source: Teenstra et al. (2015) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 21 BOX 4.1: LIVESTOCK SECTOR DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT PROJECT IN BURKINA FASO The project supports the Government of Burkina Faso to improve the productivity of dominant sedentary livestock value chains by enhancing producers’ access to essential livestock inputs and the provision of technical support services. The project covers improved animal nutrition and access to genetic materials. It enhances animal feed quality control by developing feed quality standards and animal nutrition guidelines, facilitates the production and distribution of certified and improved forage seeds, strengthens the national genetic improvement program by distributing high performance bulls to selected farmers for breeding purposes, boosts AI services by upgrading the facilities and equipment of the Centre de Multiplication des Animaux Performants (CMAP), and supports the development and implementation of the regulatory and institutional framework for animal genetic resources. The project also supports the introduction of improved fingerlings to promote the production of sustainable fish ponds through the supervision of the General Directorate of Fisheries (DGRH). yet to be realized, due to low rates of adoption and excess water, and maximizing water storage. tradeoffs. Countries with investments in improved Micro-­ irrigation techniques are promising systems livestock production are shown in figure 4.2. for increased water use efficiency. Within micro-­ irrigation, a small volume of water is applied at 54. Complementary to the expanding investments frequent intervals to the spot where the roots are in improved livestock production is the imple- concentrated. Micro-­ irrigation techniques are gain- mentation of the PCSL in Africa through a joint ing popularity among small-­ scale farmers, espe- World Bank-German initiative. The Program aims cially those systems using water harvested in tanks at fostering climate-­ smart livestock management and small ponds. practices, developing monitoring systems and poli- cies, and providing guidance for upscaling climate-­ irrigation system 56. The most common micro-­ smart livestock practices across the continent. The is drip irrigation in which water flows under initiative will assist governments in fulfilling their pressure through a filter into drip pipes with commitments12 to achieve climate change adapta- emitters located at variable spacing. Water is tion and mitigation goals, and ultimately, to attract discharged directly onto the soil near the plants. further national and international investment for Drip lines should be placed close to the plants CSA in general. to avoid salt accumulation in the root zone and minimize water loss. Fertilizers and nutrients can be applied easily, and more precisely, through the system. 4.2 Improved water management 57. Rainwater harvesting is particularly important for rain-­fed agriculture in arid and semiarid 55. Improved water management is present in 57 per- regions. Rainwater harvesting involves collecting cent of the CSA portfolio (figure 4.3). Improved and concentrating rainfall to make it available for water productivity in agriculture is achieved by agricultural or domestic uses in dry areas where reducing water loss, harvesting water, managing moisture deficiency is the primary limiting factor, 12 Specifically, the targets outlined in the NDCs, Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), and other climate change action plans. 22 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 4.2: COUNTRIES WITH IMPROVED LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors mostly in arid and semiarid regions. The practice aims at minimizing the effects of seasonal variations in water availability due to droughts and dry periods and enhancing agricultural production (box 4.2). The benefits of improved water management are maximized by supporting innovations and management practices that improve water use efficiency—­ for example, agronomic practices that identify, update, and disseminate knowledge on critical irrigation for different crops. Figure 4.3 shows countries with investments in improved water management in the CSA portfolio. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 23 BOX 4.2: WATER HARVESTING IN MALAWI Guided by the Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) Drought Recovery strategy for ensuring sustainability of recovery and resilience building in the food sector, the Malawi Drought Recovery and Resilience Project design includes the improvement of agricultural productivity, enhanced cultivated area under assured irrigation, and expanded livelihood options for vulnerable populations. The project aims to strengthen water resource and catchment management through financing the rehabilitation of critical and duly prioritized small earth dams and associated catchments, as well as the construction of new water-­ harvesting structures (excavated tanks) to augment water availability in the drought-­ affected areas. This includes rehabilitation of around 20 small earth dams; construction of around 28 water-­ harvesting structures; water resource catchment rehabilitation and protection for selected hotspot areas; and technical assistance (TA) for feasibility studies, engineering design, and construction supervision. FIGURE 4.3: COUNTRIES WITH IMPROVED WATER MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors 24 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 4.3 Conservation as an entry point to the technology; however, only the simultaneous application of all three results in agriculture (CA) full benefits. However, partial adoption of selected components of the CA technology package is usually 58. CA is present in 53 percent of the projects adopted by farmers due to financial-, land-, and risk-­ portfolio (table 4.1). CA is a farming system that related constraints. conserves, improves, and makes more efficient use of natural resources through integrated management 59. CA has been proven to work in a variety of of soil, water, and biological resources. In this agroecological zones and farming systems, report, CA is recognized as any combination of the including high or low rainfall areas, degraded three fundamental components: minimum soil soils, multiple cropping systems, and in systems disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop with labor shortages or low external-­ input rotation. Each of the components of CA can serve agriculture (figure  4.4). It has good potential in FIGURE 4.4: COUNTRIES WITH CA INTERVENTION IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 25 dry environments due to its water-­ saving ability, though the major challenge here is to grow 4.4 Agroforestry to diversify sufficient vegetation to provide soil cover. CA farms, improve food increases tolerance to changes in temperature and rainfall, reduces soil erosion, helps stabilize security, and capture crop yields, and is, thus, an important technology carbon for increasing agroecosystem resilience. Critical constraints to adoption are competing uses 60. Agroforestry occurs in 47 percent of the CSA for crop residues, increased labor demand for portfolio (table 4.1). Agroforestry is an integrated weeding, and limited access to external inputs. land use system combining trees and shrubs with CSA projects in the ACBP portfolio are addressing crops and livestock. Agroforestry maintains soil these constraints through support for specific organic matter and biological activity at levels material inputs, including minimizing herbicide suitable for soil fertility. Trees in the farming system use and providing training and technical guidance can help increase farm incomes and diversify to increase adoption. Strategies to enhance the production, thus mitigating production and market productivity and climate benefits of CA include risk associated with any one commodity. This will developing cost-­ effective inoculants through be increasingly important as impacts of climate public-­private partnerships. Scaling up the change become more pronounced. Trees and application of nitrogen-­ fixing microbes to boost shrubs can diminish the effects of extreme weather yields, strengthen resilience, and reduce heat, events, such as heavy rains, droughts, and wind stress, and pest infestation associated with climate storms. They prevent erosion, stabilize soils, increase variability also is crucial. infiltration rates, and halt land degradation. They can 26 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa enrich biodiversity in the landscape and increase nitrogen and has the special feature of reversed leaf ecosystem stability. Greater yields and reduced phenology, a characteristic that makes it dormant variability can be expected on adjacent croplands and shed its leaves during the early rainy season and and better rainwater management in the medium-­ to leaf out at the onset of the dry season. This makes to-­ longer term. Agroforestry is a major source of Faidherbia compatible with food crop production carbon sequestration in agricultural landscapes. because it does not compete for light, nutrients, and water. Farmers have frequently reported significant 61. Agroforestry is one of the most conspicuous land crop yield increases for maize, sorghum, millet, use systems across landscapes and agroecological cotton, and groundnut when grown in proximity to zones in Africa. It provides five main benefits: food, Faidherbia. fuel, fertilizer, fiber, and fodder.13 Intercropping with leguminous trees increases yields. A significant 64. It can sometimes take up to five years for proportion of rural households use fuel wood from Faidherbia and other trees in agroforestry systems trees, some of which are derived from improved to generate economic returns. Thus, farmers in the fallows on their farmlands. Fertilizer trees can generate Eastern Province of Zambia are turning to Gliricidia up to 200 kg of nitrogen per hectare annually, thereby sepium that begins to yield benefits within two reducing farmers’ fertilizer expenditure. Farmers years of establishment. Gliricidia is used for many also derive timber for domestic uses from crop purposes, including as shade for plantation crops, fields, while leguminous fodder trees can be used to live fencing, fodder, green manure, intercropping, improve livestock productivity. and firewood. Figure  4.5 indicates countries with agroforestry intervention in the World Bank’s CSA 62. Agroforestry has shown enormous promise for portfolio. co-­delivery of climate adaptation and mitigation benefits in addition to improving food security in Africa. Investing in agroforestry on 25 percent 4.5 Digital agriculture for of cropland (75 million ha) of land in Africa to increase crop yields by an average of 50 percent, increasing productivity would produce 22 million more tons of food per and resilience year. Such a scale-­ up could potentially provide 285 million people with an additional 615 kcal per 65. Digital agriculture entails the use of digital person per day. Savings of more than 6 million tons technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT) of inorganic fertilizer would be generated, in addition and analytic capabilities integrated into one to sequestering 1 Gt of carbon dioxide equivalent per system to make farming more precise, productive, year (World Bank 2012; WRI 2013). Other associated and profitable (figure 4.6). New digital technologies benefits include improved soil structure, diversified make it possible to collect and leverage huge income from wood products, and increased drought amounts of critical data at minimal costs—­ thus resilience from increased water storage. making a farm’s field operations more insight-­driven and potentially more productive and efficient.14 63. The choice of trees is crucial for realizing the full productivity and climate benefits of agroforestry 66. Typical applications of digital agriculture systems. One of the most promising fertilizer tree include variable-­ rate treatments (VRTs),15 species is Faidherbia albida, an acacia species yield prediction through remote sensing, native to Africa and the Middle East. Faidherbia is disseminating improved agronomic information widespread throughout Africa, thrives on a range through an Interactive Voice Response System of soils, and occurs in different ecosystems ranging (IVRS), input voucher system, digitally delivered from dry lands to wet tropical climates. It fixes financial services, and integrated agro-­weather 13 Evergreen Agriculture Partnership. http://evergreenagriculture.net/what-­ evergreen-­ is-­ agriculture/ http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e.pdf. 14 ICRISAT. Digital Agriculture: Pathway to Prosperity. http://www.icrisat.org/digital-­ agriculture/. 15 VRT allows the farmer to utilize field variability information and plan inputs (seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides) so that the best potential of the field is obtained. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 27 FIGURE 4.5: COUNTRIES WITH AGROFORESTRY INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors and market advisories delivery for farmers.16 and resilience. Rural connectivity is vital to providing A major application of digital agriculture in the low-­cost data and access to information for farmers CSA project portfolio is in the design and delivery in Africa. of integrated weather and market advisories to farmers using big data analytics (box 4.3). This helps 67. Application of digital agriculture across the value inform farmers’ decisions about what to grow, when chain has the potential to make agriculture more to plant and harvest, how to allocate their labor, and productive in addition to increasing resilience to where to sell their produce. The resulting combined climate change. More efficient input use matched to data is analyzed and interpreted so that the farmer climatic trends can also help reduce GHG emissions. can make more informed and personally relevant Figure 4.8 indicates countries with digital agriculture decisions (figure 4.7), leading to increased yields in the agriculture portfolio. 16 United Nations Global Compact. Digital Agriculture: Feeding the Future. http://breakthrough.unglobalcompact.org/disruptive-technologies /digital-agriculture/. 28 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 4.6: POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF DIGITAL AGRICULTURE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS Source: Accenture (http://breakthrough.unglobalcompact.org/disruptive-­technologies/digital-­agriculture/) BOX 4.3: DIGITAL AGRICULTURE UNDER THE KENYA CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE PROJECT The Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP) aims to enhance agro-­ weather forecasting and marketing information system and their dissemination tools by improving agrometeorological forecasting and monitoring through mapping existing publicly and privately operated automated weather stations (AWSs), establishing agro-­ meteorological centers in participating counties to improve drought and flood forecasts, installing new automated weather stations to complement existing infrastructure, and developing and upgrading the EWS at the Kenya agro-­ Meteorological Department (KMD) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). The project uses big data for climate-­ weather, and market information systems and advisories by smart, agro-­ segmenting and registering value chain stakeholders, establishing homogenous production zones to support a specific information system and advisories, collecting agricultural statistics, and setting up infrastructure for location-­ “big data” analytics. Big data based on crop/pasture-­weather analytics will help farmers decide what, when, where, and how to plant. The project strengthens the market information system by financing data capture for agricultural outputs (agriculture, livestock, and fisheries), inputs, storage, transport, and also matching producers and buyers; and delivering the integrated weather and market advisory services. Capacity strengthening is provided for Kenya Agriculture Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) to effectively deliver data and information services to various users. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 29 FIGURE 4.7: TYPICAL ADVISORY SERVICES FOR SMALLHOLDER FARMERS Selection of: Pre-cultivation Land Crop (cultivar) Cultivation contract Crop growing Post harvest Cultivation cycle Decisions on: Decisions on: Quality control Soil preparation Storage conditions Sowing rate and time Marketing Fertilization Irrigation Harvest Weed control Pest & disease control Decisions on: Harvest time FIGURE 4.8: COUNTRIES WITH DIGITAL AGRICULTURE INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors 30 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 4.6 Stress-­tolerant varieties fertilizer, and organic inputs. ISFM works best when adapted to local conditions to optimize agronomic for climate adaptation nutrient use efficiency and improve crop productivity (figure 4.11). Genetic resources are critical elements 68. Climate change has led to several stress for increasing the efficiency and resilience of factors—­ increased incidence of drought, heat, agricultural systems. Improved germ plasm refers to and extreme weather events, poor soil fertility, seeds, seedlings, and other planting materials that salinity, livestock, and crop diseases and pests—­ have been bred to meet particular requirements all of which can severely affect smallholders’ of the environment in which they are to be grown, income and livelihood. All of this is compounded including high genetic yield potential, pest and by the high price of inputs beyond the reach of disease resistance, drought resistance, and nutrient tolerant farmers and a lack of credit facility. Stress-­ and water use efficiency. Mineral fertilizers supply crops have increased physiological resistance to essential nutrients to plants in readily available form climatic extremes (figure 4.9). They are developed but should be applied at the fastest crop-growing using innovative breeding tools and techniques stage where they can provide the greatest benefits. to increase the rate of genetic gain for important Organic inputs—­ crop residues and manure—­ help multiple traits, including gender-­ preferred traits increase crop response to mineral fertilizer, replenish by the seed sector. Figure 4.10 indicates countries soil organic matter, and improve soil moisture with drought-­ tolerant crop varieties in the CSA storage capacity, thereby increasing agroecosystem portfolio. resilience. 70. ISFM techniques can restore degraded soils and thereafter maintain soil fertility by using available 4.7 Integrated soil fertility nutrient resources in an efficient and sustainable management (ISFM) way. ISFM aims at making use of techniques without much additional cost to the farmer, such as organic 69. ISFM has 37 percent prevalence in the CSA fixing crops, in fertilizer, crop residues, and nitrogen-­ portfolio. It is a set of soil fertility management combination with seed priming and water harvesting. practices that involve combining improved ISFM can sometimes be practiced in combination germ plasm with judicious quantities of mineral with other CSA practices like CA and agroforestry. TOLERANT MAIZE VARIETIES FIGURE 4.9: POTENTIAL OF DROUGHT-­ Drought-tolerant maize produces 20–30% higher yields in dry conditions. Increase in Maize-growing area might Potential for temperature decrease 40% widespread famine Drought-tolerant maize produces $ 20–30% higher yields Drought- $1 billion USD in dry conditions resistant benefit for maize farmers and consumers Source: Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS 2013)17 17 tolerant Maize Boosting Food Security in 13 African Countries. https://ccafs.cgiar.org/bigfacts/#theme=evidence-­ Drought-­ success&subtheme of-­ =crops&casestudy=cropsCs2. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 31 FIGURE 4.10: COUNTRIES WITH STRESS-TOLERANT CROP INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors FIGURE 4.11: ISFM INTERVENTIONS AND BENEFITS Interventions Outputs Outcomes Impact Rotational/intercrop choice Increased Soil tillage incomes Influence of policy and economic environment Soil conservation Increased soil productivity Yield increase Sustainable productivity imporvement Farmyard manure use Crop residue management Fertilizer source Fertilizer rate Improved yield response Food to fertilizer Production Fertilizer timing security increase Fertilizer splitting Crop variety choice Plant spacing Water management Improved yield response Less area to crop management expansion Lower Weed management food Disease management prices Pest management Source: Africa Soil Health Consortium18 18 Africa Soil Health Consortium. Handbook for Integrated Soil Fertility Management. https://publications.cta.int/media/publications/downloads/1853_PDF​.pdf 32 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa organic waste into a farm resource and is gaining more importance among small-­scale farmers in Sub- Saharan Africa. In addition to supplying nutrients, organic inputs also contribute to crop growth in other ways, by increasing the crop response to mineral fertilizer, improving the soil’s capacity to store moisture, regulating soil chemical and physical properties that affect nutrient storage and availability, as well as root growth, adding nutrients not contained in mineral fertilizers, creating a better rooting environment, improving the availability of phosphorus for plant uptake, ameliorating problems, such as soil acidity, and replenishing soil organic 71. Widespread adoption of ISFM practices is matter. constrained by high prices of seeds and fertilizer, and accessibility and availability of material and 72. ISFM emphasizes the importance of optimizing markets (World Bank 2016a). An example of a low the use of organic resources after exploring their cost ISFM technique is composting, which is the opportunity cost (for example, comparing the natural process of decomposition of organic matter, retention of organic resources in the field with such as crop residues, farmyard manure, and waste their use for livestock feed, mulch, or compost by microorganisms under controlled conditions. production). Figure  4.12 indicates countries with It is an attractive proposition for turning on-­ farm ISFM intervention in the CSA portfolio. FIGURE 4.12: COUNTRIES WITH ISFM INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 33 4.8 Biogas development: dung and urine from a single cow produces 1–2 kWh of electricity or 8–9 kWh of heat. Such a household’s from methane emissions biogas installation can provide sufficient energy for cooking and some lighting. The price of a small-­scale to energy production digester varies widely between US$100–US$1,700. 73. Biodigestion or anaerobic digestion is a biological 75. Experience with biogas plant installation differs process that occurs when organic matter is among countries with biogas systems varying decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen. in scale depending on the characteristics of As the bacteria decompose the organic matter, the livestock production system. In subsistence biogas is released and captured. Biogas consists of farming systems, simple digesters require support approximately 60 percent methane and 40 percent for capital investments, but pay-­ back periods can carbon dioxide. The remaining byproduct (digestate) be relatively short. The biogas is used as a source of is rich in nutrients and can be used to fertilize energy for electric generators, heating, or lighting. agricultural fields (figure 4.13). Biogas digesters Energy generated in this way can offset carbon dioxide (biodigesters or anaerobic digesters) are the systems emissions from burning fossil fuels. Figure  4.14 that process waste into biogas and then channel that indicates countries with biogas development biogas so that the energy can be productively used. intervention in the World Bank’s CSA portfolio. 74. Biogas is an environmentally friendly energy 76. Despite its importance, biogas development is one source because it avoids the release of methane, of the least prevalent technologies (14 percent) a gas that is 25 times more powerful than carbon in the projects portfolio. A major constraint to dioxide in its global warming potential. Biogas adoption is the low level of awareness of the climate also reduces the reliance on fossil fuel to meet and health benefits of biogas. Second, installing energy demand. About one to two cows, or five to a biogas plant entails significant expenditure that eight pigs, can supply adequate daily feedstock for poor farmers cannot afford. The third reason is the household biodigester. The daily input of a single-­ absence of bioenergy policies and incentives to FIGURE 4.13: ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS Heat Electricity Livestock waste Fuel Crops Biomethane Biogas Anaerobic digester • Fertilizer Waste Digestate • Soil water Gas grid amendments • Livestock bedding Food waste Source: Environmental and Energy Study Institute. Fact Sheet–Biogas: Converting Waste to Energy. http://www.eesi.org/papers/view /fact-­sheet-­biogasconverting-­waste-­to-­energy 34 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 4.14: COUNTRIES WITH BIOGAS DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors encourage investment in the technology in many countries. Fourth, skills in the design, construction, 4.9 Alternate wetting and operation, and maintenance of biogas productions drying (AWD) in rice systems are markedly limited. Finally, animal grazing patterns and mixed crop-­ livestock systems present systems challenges in obtaining the necessary feedstock for saving technology applied to 78. AWD is a water-­ anaerobic digestion. reduce irrigation water consumption in rice fields without decreasing yields. In AWD, irrigation water 77. The Burkina Faso Livestock Sector Development is applied a few days after the disappearance of the Support Project addresses some of these ponded water. The field, therefore, gets alternately constraints by providing technical support and flooded and non-­ flooded. The number of days of matching grants for the design and installation of non-­flooded soil between irrigations can vary from biogas plants in selected communities. Consistent 1 to more than 10 days depending on a number of with the country’s NDC priorities, the switch to factors, such as soil type, weather, and crop growth biogas ensures diversification of energy sources with stage. AWD entails monitoring water levels above and a lesser environmental footprint. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 35 FIGURE 4.15: BENEFITS OF AWD RICE CULTIVATION Alternate wetting and drying in rice culitvation reduces water use by up to 30% and methane emissions by 48% CH4 30% reduction 48% reduction in water use in methane emissions, Alternate wetting and drying with no yield loss Source: CCAFS (2013)19 below the soil surface and only irrigating when they have the potential to address these problems by fall below certain levels. At other times, farmers allow helping farmers’ smooth incomes in bad years and the fields to dry. This reduces water use by up to 30 helping governments and relief agencies respond percent and methane emissions by about 50 percent quickly and fully to weather-­related disasters when without affecting yields and helps save farmers’ they occur. Index-­ based insurance links indemnity money on irrigation and pumping costs (figure 4.15). payments to easily observed outcomes—­ such AWD can also increase yields by promoting stronger as rainfall—­instead of to individual farmer yields, root growth in rice plants. With efficient nitrogen typical in traditional insurance. Only one project in use and application of organic inputs to dry soil, the the CSA portfolio includes weather index insurance practice can reduce emissions even further, enhance intervention (box 4.4). nutrient efficiency, and reduce pest infestation. 80. Several factors combine to make the Figure  4.16 indicates intervention areas for AWD in implementation of weather index insurance the ACBP portfolio. challenging. The technical challenges relate to data unavailability, technical capacity for product design, and pricing. Good quality weather and crop data are needed to ensure robust design of the index so that Weather index-­ 4.10  based it sufficiently protects a farmer against the targeted agricultural insurance risk and correlates well with losses. The major socioeconomic challenge relates to the farmers’ low related 79. Despite increasing frequency of weather-­ level of awareness of insurance practices, which can risks, most smallholder farmers, in low income affect their expectations on indemnity payments. countries, rarely have access to formal tools to help Most farmers also have low disposable incomes and them manage the risks. Crop insurance supplied are unwilling to pay premiums. The institutional by the private sector is essentially nonexistent challenge relates to the lack of legal and regulatory in most countries due to large informational environment for enforcing index insurance contracts asymmetries and the high transaction costs of in many countries. Weather index insurance products dealing with smallholder farmers. Farmers often rely show promise including for large-­ scale farmers who on informal approaches to risk management, such have clearly identifiable and insurable losses and as accumulating precautionary savings, planting revenue streams that enable them to pay premiums, lower-­value crops that are less sensitive to weather as a financing tool for social protection against fluctuations, and diversifying their sources of income disasters, and as a portfolio risk management away from the most profitable options. Innovations measure for financial intermediaries who lend to in insurance markets, such as index-­based insurance, farmer groups. 19 tolerant Maize Boosting Food Security in 13 African Countries. https://ccafs.cgiar.org/bigfacts/#theme=evidence-­ Drought-­ success&subtheme=crops&cas of-­ estudy=cropsCs2. 36 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 4.16: COUNTRIES WITH AWD INTERVENTIONS IN THE CSA PORTFOLIO Source: Authors BOX 4.4: WEATHER INDEX INSURANCE IN MOZAMBIQUE A major concern of banks extending agribusiness financing to farmers in Mozambique is the potential for losses because of severe weather events. Severe droughts and floods can have a serious impact of destroying crop production and significantly limiting the capacity of many smallholder farmers to repay their credit. The Mozambique Agriculture and Natural Resources Landscape Management Project includes a component that expands weather index insurance coverage under a pilot operation previously financed by the Global Index Insurance Facility (GIIF) from 43,000 to 102,000 farmers corresponding to about 40 percent of all cotton farmers in Mozambique. It also increases the amount of input cost coverage from 20 percent to 60 percent of the input costs; in addition to exploring additional value chains (for example, soybeans, maize, horticulture, peas, and cashews) for which weather index insurance can be implemented. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 37 FIGURE 4.17: MOZAMBIQUE IS THE ONLY COUNTRY WITH WEATHER INDEX INSURANCE IN THE PROJECT PORTFOLIO Capitalizing on 4.11  challenges related to poverty, food security, environmental degradation, and climate change. synergies and The multiple services provided by land interact in managing trade-­offs complex ways, leading to positive and negative impacts as the production of one ecosystem service increases.20 Synergy results when the production 81. Trade-­ offs are inherent in the attempt to achieve of more of an ecosystem service leads to more of the triple win of food security, resilience, and another. For example, intercropping, the growing mitigation. There is the need for policy makers of food crops near existing trees, provides synergy and resource managers to manage trade-­ offs between productivity and increased soil carbon across space, time and sectors when addressing sequestration. On the other hand, trade-­ off, the 20 Ecosystem services refer to the benefits we derive from nature and functioning ecosystems. They are grouped into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits (http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf). 38 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa more frequent outcome occurs when the production several ecosystems, human activities and institutions of one ecosystem service decreases the supply of managing the landscape. The landscape level is the another. An example of trade-­ off is attempting to scale at which many ecosystem processes operate increase soil carbon storage through afforestation and at which interactions among agriculture, which may reduce agricultural productivity, as environment, and development objectives are afforestation tends to take land out of production for mediated. It entails the integrated planning of land, a significant period of time (figure 4.18). Conversion agriculture, forests, and water at local, watershed, to agricultural land presents a trade-­ off to society, and regional scales to ensure synergies are properly because the same land that is used for providing captured. essential food, feed, fiber, and biofuels, could store large amounts of carbon in soils and biomass in its 83. The landscape approach provides a framework natural state, and thus, mitigate climate change. for the better management of ecosystem services, Globally, the expansion of croplands to satisfy the such as agricultural productivity, carbon storage, needs of a growing population with changing diets fresh water cycling, biodiversity protection, and is causing a costly loss in carbon stocks in natural pollination. It allows trade-­offs to be explicitly vegetation and soils.21 quantified and addressed through negotiated solutions among various stakeholders (World Bank 82. Working at the landscape level is useful for 2012). A multi-­sector approach and coordination addressing food security and rural livelihood across sectors—­ such as agriculture, food security, issues and in responding to the impacts of water, forestry and planning sectors—­ will be climate change and contributing to its mitigation. required. Such collaboration is typically reflected A landscape is an area large enough to produce in watershed or integrated catchment plans that vital ecosystem services, but small enough to be include a range of interventions at both farm and managed by the people using the land that produces catchment level to enhance the climate resilience those services (FAO 2013). A landscape can comprise and GHG mitigation of the farming systems through OFFS BETWEEN CSA PILLARS FIGURE 4.18: TRADE-­ Food security + Adaptation potential: high Food security + Adaptation potential: high Mitigation potential: low Mitigation potential: high Food security + Adaptation potential Inefficient use of nitrogen fertilizer expanding: Restore degraded land (i) cropping on marginal lands Conservation agriculture with agroforestry (ii) energy–intensive irrigation Low emissions diversification (iii) energy–intensive mechanized systems Increase fertilizer efficiency Integrated Soil Fertility Management Food security + Adaptation potential: low Food security + Adaptation potential: low Mitigation potential: low Mitigation potential: high Bare fallow Reforestation/afforestation Continuous cropping without fertilization Restore/maintain organic soils Over-grazing Agroforestry options that yield limited food or income benefits Carbon Sequestration/Mitigation potential Source: Modified from World Bank (2016a) 21 West, P.C.; Gibbs, H.K.; Monfred, C.; Wagner, J.; Barford, C.C.; Carpenter, S.R.; Foley, J.A. Trading carbon for food: Global comparison of carbon stocks vs. crop yields on agricultural land. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 19645–19648. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 39 solutions that enhance water use efficiency and forest management, ecosystem approaches, and productivity, improve soil health, and increase crop sustainable landscape approaches (box 4.5). productivity. Examples of landscape approaches include integrated watershed management, 84. From a CSA perspective, the main objective of a integrated crop-­livestock management, agroforestry, landscape approach is to enhance the synergies improved rangeland management, sustainable between CSA’s triple pillars, while sustaining BOX 4.5: SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE APPROACH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs) The Sustainable Landscape Approach (SLA) is a key bridge connecting agriculture, livestock, forestry, and fisheries with constraints of land, water, and other natural resources. SLA integrates spatial, ecological, and socio-­ economic approaches to manage land, water, and forest resources. It focuses not only on food security, but also on inclusive green growth in temporal and spatial dimensions. Management of various land-­ based ecosystem services is coordinated to prevent land fragmentation. The scaling up of landscape approaches requires knowledge management and institutional capacity and must be backed up by an enabling policy and market environment. Unsustainable land management practices have resulted in severe land degradation. An estimated 40 percent of the world’s agriculture lands are seriously degraded, leading to decreases in productivity, declining resilience to extreme climate events, such as droughts and floods, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. Forest lands have been converted primarily to croplands and grazing lands to satisfy the growing demand for goods. The good news is that more than 2 billion hectares of the world’s cleared and degraded forest lands offer opportunities for landscape restoration. This includes 700 million hectares in Africa, 400 million hectares in Asia, and 500 million hectares in Latin America. Therefore, degraded lands should be viewed as an opportunity for delivering multiple development and climate benefits as shown in the figure below. FIGURE B4.5.1: OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEGRADED LANDS a. Restoration goals b. Restoration opportunity types Today Vision for 2050 Degraded Agriculture Protected Wide-scale restoration primary forest Intensify production primary forest Agriculture opportunities Secondary forest Agroforestry Secondary tion oduc forest e into pr R estor Agroforestry Restore into mixed Permanent pasture Degraded and Degraded lands deforested land systems Mosaic restoration opportunities Permanent pasture Restore into forests Intensive Forest agricultural land Forest Avoid deforestation Source: “Restoring degraded land for more productive and climate resilient development” (World Bank 2016) Restoration of degraded lands not only offers increased productivity and income, while enhancing resilience to climate change for farmers but can also allow countries to target multiple SDGs: SDG 2, zero hunger; SDG 3, good health and being; SDG 6, clean water and sanitation; SDG 13, climate action; and SDG 15, life on land. well-­ 40 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa the ecosystem services provided by land. stakeholders are considered, synergies are identified, Landscape approaches seek to integrate sustainable and trade-­off among different uses is negotiated. management of ecosystems and natural resources A landscape level approach enhances field level with livelihood considerations, recognizing that productivity because it maintains ecosystems landscapes are multifunctional, providing benefits service and creates synergies between different and services for a wide range of ecosystem processes, production systems. It also increases adaptation by species and social actors. Landscape approaches reducing weather, pest, and disease risk through seek to understand the different elements and land use diversity. Lastly, diversified land use related interests in the landscape (e.g.,  water systems incorporating forests, woodland, perennial resources, agricultural production, biodiversity crops, grasslands, and wetlands helps to reduce GHG conservation and forest management) and their emission and promote carbon sequestration. The interdependencies. The main reason for applying Alternatives to Slash-­and-Burn (ASB) program is an landscape approaches is to move away from example of trade-­ off analyses and decision support narrow sectoral approaches with uncoordinated tool for implementing the landscape approach and competing land uses, to integrated planning (box 4.6). and management where the multiple interests of AND-BURN LANDSCAPE APPROACH BOX 4.6: THE ALTERNATIVE TO SLASH-­ The ASB program22 is an example of a relatively well-­ tested landscape approach on eco-­ regions nested within the humid tropical broadleaf forest biome. The benchmark sites are in the Peruvian Amazon, the western Amazon of Brazil, an associated site in the eastern Amazon of Brazil, the Congo Basin of Cameroon, northern Thailand, and the islands of Sumatra in Indonesia and Mindanao in the Philippines. The approach incorporates a range of CSA technologies along gradients of land use intensity and the methodologies to assess and optimize synergies and tradeoffs. The basic goal of ASB is to identify and articulate combinations of policy, institutional, and technological options that can raise productivity and income of rural households without increasing deforestation, land degradation, or undermining essential environmental services. The ASB is built around two overarching issues—the global environmental effects of slash-­and-­burn and the technological and policy options to alleviate those effects. The program assumes that the development of agroforestry-­ based forms of intensified land use as an alternative to slash-­ burn can help and-­ alleviate poverty and improve human welfare. By identifying alternatives to slash-­ burn and providing options and-­ from which farmers can choose, the ASB program aims to provide benefits at a range of scales, from household to global level. Analysis of conditions of the various categories of ecosystems services associated with the different land use systems at the ASB benchmark sites provides a trade-­off matrix (land use systems, global environmental concerns, smallholders’ agronomic concerns, smallholders’ socio-­ economic concerns, and institutional requirements) and the tradeoffs among them. It is a useful tool for multiple stakeholders, often with conflicting interests, in analyzing and negotiating the outcome of certain land-­ use changes. ASB results show that striking an equitable balance between the legitimate interests of development and equally legitimate global concerns over the environmental consequences of tropical deforestation can be challenging. Poverty reduction in most of the tropics depends on finding ways to raise productivity of labor and land through intensification of smallholder production systems. Although there may be opportunities to alleviate poverty while conserving tropical rainforests, it is naïve to expect that productivity increases necessarily slow forest conversion or improve the environment. Deforestation has no single cause but is the outcome of a complex web of factors whose mix varies greatly in time and space. Understanding the factors at work in a given situation is a crucial first step if policymakers are to introduce effective measures to curb deforestation and to do so in ways that reduce poverty. 22 https://www.millenniumassessment.org/ma/ASB-MA_statusreport_ver5.0.pdf Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 41 The stories indicate how countries have combated drought, raised productivity through climate-­smart irri- gation, improved coffee farming through public-­private partnership, improved livestock productivity, better nutrition, animal husbandry and health, and created a more sustainable food system. These initiatives have all paid dividends in terms of boosting the livelihoods and resilience of smallholder farmers and cutting emis- sions. A few examples are discussed below. West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) Success stories: 4.12  86. The World Bank funded WAAPP is making agri- culture more climate smart across 13 West demonstrating impact African countries to ensure that the agricul- of CSA technologies ture sector remains sustainable for future gen- erations. The project supports the adoption of 85. The growing momentum on Climate-Smart Agricul- tolerant crops that increases yields, farmers’ stress-­ ture in high-­ making spaces is being level decision-­ income and resilience to climate change. An assess- increasingly reflected in farmer’s fields around the ment of the potential impacts of the adoption of world. There is growing demand in World Bank cli- Drought-­ Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) indicated ent countries for assistance in putting their food and yield increases of 10 percent to 34 percent over non-­ agriculture sectors onto a more climate-­ smart path. drought-­ tolerant varieties and a cumulative eco- There also is a hunger for practical, implementable nomic benefit of about US$0.9 billion. The DTMA knowledge on CSA. This has led the World Bank to could assist more than 4 million people to escape recently produce a booklet showcasing CSA Suc- poverty, in addition to improving the livelihoods of cess Stories across the continent (Hou et  al. 2016). many millions more (Cooper et al. 2013). 42 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 87. WAAPP’s support to a new generation of local sci- categories as per the crop of interest—­ tea, entists and “national centers of specialization” coffee, sorghum, and maize and beans (maize or research centers focused on commodities that usually intercropped with beans). In Ethiopia, the are a country’s competitive advantage has helped project recruited 1,700 farmers in Ada’a District and develop climate-­ smart varieties of staple crops, was divided into four categories as per the crop of such as rice (Mali), banana plantain (Cote d’Ivoire) interest—­ chickpea, lentil, teff, and wheat. In Kenya, and maize (Benin). Collaboration with a network of the top four most prominent sources of agroweather cooperatives and extension workers is helping deliver information were extension agents, radio, newsletter/ these new varieties to farmers across West Africa. bulletin and cellphones, while in Ethiopia farmers WAAPP has developed and distributed 160 climate-­ most favored radio, cellphone, and bulletins. Low smart crop varieties; provided climate-­ smart tech- literacy rates make printed dissemination pathways nologies, such as post-­ harvest and food processing problematic, especially for early warning systems technologies; and trained farmers on climate-smart in Ethiopia. Significant differences in agricultural practices such as composting and agroforestry. Farm- outcomes were observed between beneficiaries ers also are getting access to technologies like more and non-­ beneficiaries. The multiple sources of efficient water harvesting systems. WAAPP assistance information used by farmers suggested the need for has helped more than 7 million farmers and more a strategy that employs a combination of modern than 4 million hectares of land be more productive, and traditional information and communication resilient, and lower GHG emissions. Productivity has technologies (ICTs). The information was likely to increased by up to 150 percent. Food production has have more value if it was communicated through increased by more than 3 million tons, beneficiary extension agents or contacts the farmers already incomes have grown by an average of 34 percent, know or trust. The beneficiaries of CIS indicated the hunger period has been reduced by half, and that the information provided improved use of staple food availability and nutrition standards have farm resources, changed planting and harvesting increased throughout West Africa. practices, and was effectively used to prevent pest and disease attacks. Agroweather tools for adapting 90. The contrast between project participants and to climate change in East Africa non-­ participants in both countries serves to validate the proof of concept the pilot employed—­ 88. In 2012, the World Bank and its partners launched that smallholder farmers make more informed a pilot project in Ethiopia and Kenya named decisions when they have access to agroweather Agroweather Tools for Adapting to Climate Change tools, both timely weather forecasts and seasonal to determine how climate information services advisories. This advantage held consistently (CIS) can be used to improve the adaptation across the commodities, with dramatic differences response of farmers (Braimoh et  al. 2015). The in the timing of planting, fertilizer applications project aimed to improve farmers’ access to relevant and harvesting. CIS enabled farmers to make information on weather and climate, develop farm appropriate decisions in their choice of varieties. management capabilities in a context of climate It was highly useful in making and complementing change, raise awareness of the practical utility of recommendations on which farm inputs to use. It agroweather information products, and improve was used to good advantage by extension services extension services. While the national agricultural and farmer organizations, resulting in higher rates of meteorology programs in both countries are limited, new varieties and improved practices. And despite a number of international development agencies and the marked differences between participants and non-­government organizations (NGOs) are operating non-­ participants, the interest that CIS stimulated in both countries and have been promoting various among other producers generated benefits that CIS as components of more general initiatives to spilled over into the entire local farming community. increase the resilience and adaptive capacity of smallholders in particular. 91. Another major benefit of the CIS is the remarkable impact on farm income. In Kenya, farmers with 89. In Kenya, the project enlisted 4,500 farmers access to agroweather information recorded in Embu County who were divided into four an income from maize of 9,402 shillings (Kes) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 43 compared to 3,918 Kes for non-­ beneficiaries. The have pursued unsustainable agricultural practices pattern of teff income is similar in Ethiopia where to help them cope, which have spurred several beneficiaries obtained an average income of 19,760 landscape challenges including deforestation, soil Birr compared to 17,878 Birr for non-­ beneficiaries. erosion, nutrient depletion, and biodiversity loss. Access to agroweather information markedly This led to the launch of the Community Markets improved the resilience of project beneficiaries. The for Conservation (COMACO) Landscape Project impacts of drought were more pronounced on non-­ in the Eastern Province. The COMACO Project beneficiaries who were markedly less prepared to illustrates successful partnership in landscape adapt to weather variability. Better farming decisions management involving the private sector (COMACO), resulting from access to agroweather information led the Government of the Republic of Zambia, and the to lower variability in yield and income and less crop World Bank. The project covering 270,000 hectares failure among the beneficiaries. is a model for rural development that uses inputs, technologies, and markets to help smallholders achieve food security and boost incomes, while Carbon payment incentive for delivering conserving the natural resources they rely on. CSA in Zambia COMACO model’s premise is that with the right incentives and training, smallholders will favor CSA 92. Recent years have not been easy for smallholder practices over unsustainable traditional methods, farmers in Eastern Province of Zambia due to especially if basic food and income needs are high weather variability. Traditional farming met. Through contract farming, COMACO offers practices, as well as lack of access to improved above market prices for crops that are produced production technologies and affordable inputs, in compliance with sustainable soil, farming, and have resulted in crop production shortfalls. Farmers conservation agriculture practices. 44 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 93. Farmers are recruited and organized into coop- 94. In 2017, 18,000 smallholder farmers and par- eratives by COMACO. They then receive training ticipating communities received over $800,000 and inputs to implement CSA practices using the in carbon payments from the BioCarbon Fund lead farmers extension approach. CSA practices (https://www.biocarbonfund.org/) for 228,000 disseminated through the project include Agrofor- tons of carbon dioxide equivalent emission reduc- estry: planting crops in alleys of Gliricidia, a fertilizer tions verified by international standards. The proj- tree that fixes nitrogen in soils; mulching and crop res- ect provides evidence that climate mitigation idue retention (no burning of biomass); crop rotation and socioeconomic development can be simul- and diversification with legumes; and composting. taneously achieved through active participation Through contract farming arrangement, COMACO of local communities and policy measures that provides markets for crops produced by farmers. In generate tangible benefit to the communities. The addition, REDD+ activities are being implemented on Zambia Integrated Forest Landscape Program is more than 116,000 hectares of community forests. scaling up this approach and expanding the ben- The project beneficiaries stretch across nine chief- eficiary group to more than 250,000 smallholder doms in the province. Land use plans are developed households over the 14 districts in the Eastern for communities and rules for forest conservation Province with an expected carbon payment of up enforced. COMACO finances farmers’ recruitment, to US$30 million if net results on reducing defor- training, activities monitoring, supervision and other estation are achieved. The ZIFLP will provide sup- implementation costs. The World Bank offers tech- port to rural communities in the Eastern Province nical support in project preparation that include to allow them to better manage the resources emissions reduction feasibility assessment, baseline of their landscapes to reduce deforestation and preparation, and verification and purchase of emis- unsustainable agricultural expansion; enhance sions reduction was generated by the project through benefits they receive from forestry, agriculture, a BioCarbon Trust Fund (Payment for Results). There and wildlife; and reduce their vulnerability to cli- are no upfront investment costs. mate change. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 45 V. Mainstreaming Resilience in CSA Projects 5.1 Building resilience 96. Resilience building was analyzed at the activities level, that is, actions and interventions facilitated capacity through CSA and financed by CSA operations. Project activities were identified in the project documents and 95. A major goal of the ACBP is to deliver on CSA at categorized under nine resilience concepts/ scale to increase the efficiency and resilience of approaches corresponding to absorptive, adaptive, food systems in Africa. To determine how well the and transformative capacities, namely protection, ACBP is contributing to resilience building, this report robustness, preparedness, recovery, diversity, examines resilience consideration in CSA projects’ flexibility, integration, system shift, and livelihood design using the World Bank Resilience Monitoring diversification (World Bank 2017b; table 5.1). & Evaluation (ReM&E) framework (World Bank 2017b). Resilience can be defined as the capacity 97. Table 5.2 shows that 25 out of 43 project activities of social, economic, and environmental systems (58 percent) contribute to building adaptive to cope with a hazardous event or disturbance, capacity, followed by 26 percent that contribute responding or reorganizing in ways that maintain its to building absorptive capacity, while 16 percent essential function, identity, and structure, while also intend to build transformative capacity. The fact maintaining the capacity for adaptation, learning, that developing adaptive capacity predominates and transformation (IPCC 2014). Based on this project activities suggests that projects are definition, resilience building involves strengthening incorporating incremental changes in their systems the following three specific capacities (OECD 2014; to adjust to, better manage, anticipate, and/or World Bank 2017c): mitigate potential future impacts of climate and disaster risks. 1) Absorptive capacity. The ability of people, assets, and systems to prepare for, mitigate, or 98. Figure  5.1 shows that promoting flexibility, prevent negative impacts of hazards so as to for example, through provision of climate preserve and restore essential basic structures advisory services and weather insurance (30 and functions; for example, through protection, percent), and diversifying farm operation, for robustness, preparedness, and/or recovery. instance, through intercropping, crop-­ livestock 2) Adaptive capacity. The ability of people, interactions, and use of stress-­ tolerant species assets, and systems to adjust, modify, or change (26 percent), are the major resilience concepts characteristics and actions to moderate potential applied for building adaptive capacity in the CSA future impacts from hazards so as to continue to project portfolio. Climate-­ resilient irrigation and function without major qualitative changes; for flood control design and provision of better storage example, through diversity, integration, and/or facilities to augment robustness (9 percent) and flexibility. safety nets and forests protection (7 percent) are the major concepts applied for absorptive capacity, 3) Transformative capacity. The ability to create while building transformative capacity largely a fundamentally new system to avoid negative entails promoting resilience through system shift impacts from hazards; for example, through system (17  percent) entailing market system interventions, shift, livelihood diversification, or migration. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 47 TABLE 5.1: RESILIENCE CAPACITIES, CONCEPTS, AND EXAMPLES OF PROJECT ACTIVITIES Resilience capacity Concept Example of project activities Absorptive Protection Erosion protection Social protection system, including shock responsive safety nets Conservation of protected areas, such as forests and watersheds Robustness Maintaining, upgrading or rehabilitating roads Climate-­­resilient irrigation design Climate-­­resilient flood control Better food storage facilities Preparedness Contingency plans EWS development or strengthening disaster risk management (DRM) systems Recovery Provision of emergency or relief food Rehabilitating degraded lands, soil salinity control, and soil acidity control Adaptive Diversity Stress-­­tolerant varieties Intercropping, agroforestry to diversify farms Crop-­­livestock production Conservation agriculture (minimum/no tillage, crop rotation, mulching/crop residue management) ISFM (improved varieties; organic nutrients, such as manure, compost, crop residues; inorganic fertilizers) Micro-­­propagation, macro-­­propagation and establishment of communal nurseries for mass production Surveillance of pests and disease outbreak Integrated dairy production Agroforestry Flexibility Post-­­harvest management Capturing biogas from anaerobic processes Micro-­­irrigation/AWD Water harvesting Provision of quality livestock inputs Weather index insurance Climate and weather-­­informed advisories Agroweather tools Financial inclusion Farmers training Market information system Research Extension services Integration Institutional building, enhancing community institutions, enhancing water user associations, and establishing or promoting farmers’ associations Transformative System shift Shift to higher value agricultural production Exploring new markets for crops Agricultural commercialization Agricultural value chain development Warehouse receipt system Livelihood Alternative livelihoods, such as mushroom production, non-­­timber forest products diversification farm jobs such as handicraft, trading, and wage labor extraction, and non-­­ Source: Authors 48 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa TABLE 5.2: RESILIENCE CAPACITIES DEVELOPED IN CSA PROJECTS Capacity No. of project activities Proportion (%) Absorptive 11 26 Adaptive 25 58 Transformative 7 16 Total 43 100 FIGURE 5.1: FREQUENCIES OF RESILIENCE CONCEPTS APPLIED IN THE CSA PROJECT PORTFOLIO (%) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Preparedness Robustness Integration Diversity Flexibility Livelihood diversification System shift Recovery Protection Absorptive capacity Adaptive capacity Transformative capacity Source: Authors such as agricultural commercialization, agricultural building human and social capital (35 percent). value chain development, and shift to higher value Activities that build these types of capital mainly crop production. contribute to developing adaptive capacity (51 percent). Soils and vegetation are the basic resource assessed 99. Resilience—­ in terms of building and the central elements of most CSA approaches. absorptive, adaptive, and transformative Interventions such as ISFM, agroforestry, and CA capacities—­can be achieved through access to or have the major goal of building natural capital improvement of a range of livelihood resources by increasing soil health and reducing land (assets), namely social, human, physical, and degradation. Efforts to build human capital through natural capital (DFID 2000). Figure  5.2 shows training and skills development will help address that the CSA portfolio mostly focuses on building capacity gap, a critical barrier to the adoption of natural capital (39 percent of project activities) and CSA technologies. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 49 FIGURE 5.2: DISTRIBUTION OF PROJECT ACTIVITIES ACROSS TYPES OF CAPITAL AND CAPACITIES STRENGTHENED 45 40 2 35 30 9 Percent 25 30 20 15 0 21 5 10 5 12 5 2 5 7 0 2 Physical Institutional Human and Natural capital capital social capital capital Absorptive capacity Adaptive capacity Transformative capacity Source: Authors 100. Only 17 percent of the portfolio is devoted to improving the enabling environment for commercial building institutional capital through developing agriculture. absorptive and adaptive capacity. There is a need to invest more in institutional capital through policy development and enhanced private sector 5.2 Pathways for building participation. Market system approach to climate resilience to climate resilience seeks to connect the poor to markets and use the private sector to encourage poverty change reduction and economic growth through a range of 102. In this section, we provide examples (pathways) interventions (box 5.1). of how the CSA projects are increasing the stocks of various forms of capital to build resilience to 101. One such project addressing institutional climate change. Two projects are used to illustrate capital development is the Congo Commercial building absorptive capacity. In the first, the Agriculture Project (box 5.2). In addition to Mozambique Emergency Resilient Recovery Project improving market access for smallholder farmers, strengthen physical capital by rehabilitating existing the project supports the development of policies roads and constructing new roads to improve for improving the legal and regulatory frameworks farmers’ access to farms and markets. The project private for commercial agriculture. It fosters a public-­ also provides climate-­ resilient flood control system partnership and identifies the needed reforms for to reduce flood risks (figure 5.3). 50 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa BOX 5.1: MARKET SYSTEM INTERVENTIONS CAN HELP BUILD RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE A market systems approach seeks to connect the poor to markets and use the private sector to encourage poverty reduction and economic growth. Programs using a market systems approach focus on strengthening value chains and identifying market opportunities for the smallholder farmers. Such approaches aim to mobilize private sector resources for development, rather than relying solely on limited public sources of finance. The greatest potential for expansion lies with private finance and the engagement of private business in the development process tends to be more sustainable than other approaches. FIGURE B5.1.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MARKET SYSTEM INTERVENTIONS AND RESILIENCE OUTCOMES Market system Resilience outcomes interventions • Access to market • Increased acess to food information Pathway • Asset preseveration • Improved market • Asset accumulation incentives for • Increased production • Consumption smoothing production • Increased income • Income smoothing • Agricultural value chain • Diversified livelihood development opportunities • Exploring new market for crops • Reduced risk • Increased market efficiency • Sales of excess production • Shift to higher value crop production • New on-and-off farm income-generating activities • Access to financial services • Warehouse receipt system Source: Modified from Kuhl (2018) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 51 BOX 5.2: CONGO COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE PROJECT ON COMMERCIALIZATION, POLICY DEVELOPMENT, PRIVATE SECTOR ENGAGEMENT, AND MARKET ACCESS The Congo Commercial Agriculture Project aims to improve productivity of farmers and market access for producer groups including micro, small, and medium agribusiness enterprises. The project promotes farmers’ access to market, including the supply of high-­ added products; improves enabling business quality value-­ private dialogue (PPD) to develop the environment through legislation; and creates a framework for public-­ agricultural sector. The project improves the legal and regulatory framework for commercial agriculture by (a) establishing and financing platforms for PPD on commercial agriculture; (b) providing TA to draft the identified legislation and regulations; (c)  supporting policy advocacy with parliamentarians; and (d) conducting sensitization, dissemination, and training activities for ministries and public institutions, producer groups, micro, small, and medium agribusiness enterprises, and other private sector actors. 103. In the second example, the Malawi Drought (such as handicraft, trading, and wage labor). Recovery and Resilience Project introduced soil It also promotes a shift from subsistence to erosion protection measure, conservation of contract farming among farming communities, protected areas, and strengthened safety nets strengthening both human and social capital, and systems (social protection) to strengthen physical institutional capital (figure 5.6). and natural capital (figure 5.4). 106. A mix of absorptive, adaptive, and transformative 104. The West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program capacities is often needed to deliver resilient develops adaptive capacity by augmenting development outcomes, but the proportions in human, social, and institutional capital through the mix depend on the system’s needs and the strengthening research capacity, and enhancing climate change impacts that require increased the capacity of community institutions (farmers’ resilience. Interventions to increase absorptive associations) promoting the adoption of CSA and adaptive capacities are often the first and (figure 5.5). quickest way to increase the climate resilience of smallholder farmers and rural communities. 105. An example of a project developing transformative The Niger Community Action Project develops capacity is the Nigeria Agriculture Production both absorptive and adaptive capacities through and Industrialization project that promotes productive diversification and development of alternative livelihoods such as non-­ timber farmers’ associations that augment natural and forest products extraction, and non-­farm jobs institutional capitals (figure 5.7). FIGURE 5.3: DEVELOPING ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY THROUGH ROBUSTNESS OF PHYSICAL CAPITAL Physical capital (roads, Robustness Absorptive capacity flood control system) 52 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 5.4: DEVELOPING ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY THROUGH PROTECTION OF LIVELIHOOD RESOURCES Physical capital Human and social capital Protection Absorptive capacity Natural capital FIGURE 5.5: DEVELOPING ADAPTIVE CAPACITY BY ENHANCING THE EFFICIENCY OF HUMAN CAPITAL AND COORDINATION OF LOCAL INSTITUTIONS Human and social capital Flexibility (efficiency) Adaptive capacity Institutional capital Integration (coordination) FIGURE 5.6: DEVELOPING TRANSFORMATIVE CAPACITY THROUGH LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION AND CONTRACT FARMING Human and social capital Livelihood diversification System shift (from subsistence Transformative capacity agriculture to contract Institutional capital farming) FIGURE 5.7: DEVELOPING ABSORPTIVE AND ADAPTIVE CAPACITIES THROUGH PRODUCTIVE DIVERSIFICATION AND INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING Diversity (productive Natural capital diversification, crops Absorptive capacity and livestock) Integration (promoting Adaptive capacity Institutional capital farmers’ association) Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 53 FIGURE 5.8: DEVELOPING ADAPTIVE AND TRANSFORMATIVE CAPACITIES THROUGH CROP-LIVESTOCK INTEGRATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION Diversity and flexibility Natural capital (crop-livestock Adaptive capacity integration) Human and social capital System shift (new Transformative capacity markets for crops) FIGURE 5.9: DEVELOPING ABSORPTIVE, ADAPTIVE, AND TRANSFORMATIVE CAPACITIES THROUGH EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS, STRESS TOLERANT VARIETIES, COMMERCIALIZATION, AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS Institutional capital Preparedness Absorptive capacity Natural capital Diversity and flexibility Adaptive capacity Human and social capital Agricultural commercialization Transformative capacity & Livelihood diversification 107. The Burundi Agro-Pastoral Productivity and and respond to weather variability and market Markets Development Project develops both opportunities. The project also promotes the adop- adaptive and transformative capacities through tion of stress-­tolerant crops and crop-­ livestock livestock integration and agricultural crop-­ integration in the farming systems. In addition, it commercialization. These practices strengthen focuses on selected agricultural, livestock, and fish- natural, human, and social capital (figure 5.8). eries commodities for value addition and links to markets. Livelihood diversification interventions—­ 108. Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project devel- such as animal husbandry, beekeeping, and add- ops absorptive, adaptive, and transformative ing value to animal products—­ are specially geared capacities through a range of interventions. Inte- toward female participants. These measures help grated agroweather and market information sys- to strengthen a range of livelihood resources tems are developed to enable farmers to prepare (figure 5.9). 54 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 109. Given the intensity, frequency, and pace of support deep, systemic, and sustainable change with climate change and the extreme vulnerability of the potential for large-­scale impact across the region African agriculture, resilience building needs to (World Bank 2016b). The mechanisms for bringing also include more transformational responses. about such transformational change are discussed Such transformational interventions will need to in the last chapter. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 55 VI. Opportunities for Future Engagements 110. Climate change presents enormous challenges, for substantial TA in some countries to develop and opportunities, for development, making it programs that attract direct co-­ financing from essential that climate and development be tackled governments, development agencies, and the in an integrated way. The World Bank—­ through the private sector. TA can also be instrumental in CSA portfolio of the ACBP—­ is advocating and working indirectly mobilizing finance, by supporting the with stakeholders to foster adoption of CSA policies creation of policy environments and markets and finance investment programs to scale up and that are conducive to climate-­ resilient and low-­ intensify CSA technologies. More governments are carbon development, in addition to generating the now committing to a more sustainable, climate-­ smart evidence-­ based climate-­smart approaches. Five key food system as CSA continues to gain momentum TA activities have been identified for transformative in the region. Experiences in and lessons from Africa scaling up of CSA in Africa. could eventually have an impact beyond the region 1) Develop CSA country profiles. CSA profiles and be instructive for countries around the world. provide concise information about climate-­ agriculture interactions; promising CSA 111. This report reveals progress in mobilizing resources technologies; adoption constraints; and policy, for CSA in Africa. It also indicates substantial institutional, and financial enablers of CSA in a alignment of the World Bank’s CSA portfolio with country. They help in developing the baseline Africa’s NDC priorities. As an implementing partner for initiating discussion both nationally and of the NDC Partnership, the World Bank continues globally, about entry points for investing in CSA to enhance cooperation so that countries have at scale. CSA profiles have been produced or are access to the technical knowledge and financial about to be completed for only 10  countries in support they need to achieve large-­ scale climate Africa, indicating a need to expand the coverage. and sustainable development related targets as quickly and effectively as possible. The World Bank 2) Develop CSA investment plans. The objective also continues to support the Adaptation of African of the CSA investment plan is to identify and Agriculture to Climate Change (AAA),23 an initiative of prioritize key policy actions, investments, the Moroccan Government with the aim of advocating and knowledge gaps. It will provide a deeper for increased funding for agricultural adaptation and understanding of climate challenges facing facilitating access to TA and financing for Africa. the agricultural sector and interdependencies with other sectors to enable policy makers take 112. Two sets of recommendations are presented to forward-­ looking decisions for the development of enhance efforts to scale up CSA for transforma- the agriculture sector. The investment plan builds tional change in Africa. on ongoing stakeholder processes, identifies and fills remaining knowledge gaps, and supports the identification of current and future investment Recommendation 1: Provide TA and capacity priorities by providing a framework for climate smart investment development for climate-­ proofing and resource coordination, leading to 113. Large-­scale systematic investment is needed for robust investment strategies and policies with CSA to be scaled out, but there is still the need resilience and mitigation goals. 23 See http://www.aaainitiative.org/initiative. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 57 3) Strengthen MRV systems for NDC. MRV 4) Promote knowledge sharing, learning, and enables countries to track and report on the capacity enhancement. The importance of implementation and impacts of climate actions offering capacity enhancement and business (mitigation and adaptation) and the finance incubators that provide mentoring in digital used to support these actions. A major challenge solutions should be highlighted as part of when implementing NDCs is the requirement the CSA ecosystem. For example, integrating for MRV in ways that are consistent, transparent, the relevant country and/or sub-­ regional comparable, complete, and accurate. Putting members of the Regional Universities Forum for in place robust MRV systems consistent with Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM)—­ a national circumstances and development consortium of 85 African universities operating priorities requires innovative thinking. It needs within 35 countries spanning the African technical guidance and extensive support for continent—­ will be beneficial for CSA adoption capacity development. Major activities that and implementation. The World Bank is currently countries can take to develop MRV systems involved in the development of a regional project for their NDC include review of current MRV to empower and strengthen the RUFORUM activities with the aim of identifying additional consortium and partnerships to provide the MRV requirements; establishment of institutional human resources needed to accelerate agri-­food arrangements and coordination of MRV systems transformation in Africa. activities; assessment of data gaps and how existing systems can be extended to address the 5) Build capacity to access climate finance. gaps; design of the system and establishment of Smallholder farmers and small and medium data management process; and building of MRV enterprises (SMEs) face numerous constraints capacity and improvement of the system over to access adequate and sufficient finance, and time. financial institutions usually avoid lending 58 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa to the agriculture sector due to perceived that optimize the use of scarce public resources. high risks and high transaction costs, among The Maximizing Finance in Development (MFD) other factors. Blending climate finance with approach is rooted in the Addis Ababa Agenda traditional agriculture finance can help for Action, a global agenda to mobilize additional address some of these challenges and attract resources to achieve ambitious development new domestic and international sources of goals. The MFD approach is focused on deploying private capital to accelerate investments at concessional funds strategically to crowd in scale in the agriculture sector. Climate finance other financing sources, noting that while refers to the flows of capital from both public the largest supply of development resources and private sources that support and finance remains domestic public spending, the greatest climate-­smart investments and aim to achieve potential for expansion lies with private finance climate change adaptation and mitigation and the engagement of private business in the objectives (Sadler et  al. 2016). Climate development process. As shown in figure  6.1, finance can act as a catalyst to (a) unlock the MFD addresses what the private actors additional sources of finance, specifically are currently doing, what they are not doing, private capital; (b) tighten the links between understanding why, and confronting the policy financial institutions and smallholder farmers distortions and lack of conducive enabling and agriculture SMEs; and (c) provide TA to environment that hinder private sector responses build the capacities of players in the financial (World Bank 2018). ecosystem (box 6.1). Africa faces a finance gap in the agriculture sector with low capacity to Recommendation 2: Accelerate the scaling up access climate finance. Critical areas that need of CSA technologies and practices capacity development include identifying 114. Agriculture in Africa can offer a pathway to funding gaps and needs; assessing public and economic development and inclusive growth. private financing options; developing climate-­ More than any other sector in developing countries, smart investment plans, a project pipeline, growth in the agricultural sector is associated with and financing propositions; and developing poverty reduction. The growth in GDP that takes financially viable opportunities for effective place in agriculture is at least twice as effective in private sector engagement. reducing poverty as the growth that takes place in • The World Bank Group is working to help its client other sectors, and its significance to poverty rates countries leverage the private sector in ways increases roughly in proportion to the size of its role BOX 6.1: INNOVATIVE FINANCE FOR CSA IMPLEMENTATION The mainstreaming of climate-­ smart technologies and practices in agriculture in Kenya was promoted by UKAID through the Finance Innovation for Climate Change Fund (FICCF). The fund works by investing microfinance institutions (MFIs) partnering with agribusinesses and smallholder farmers to adopt a range of tools to de-­ risk production and build resilience to climate change. Repayable grants were provided to four MFIs for on-­ lending to farmers and smart commodities, technologies, and practices. Each MFI partnered agribusiness aggregators to invest in climate-­ with farmer aggregators, technical service providers, and insurance companies to contract farmers to produce selected commodities for identified and linked markets. Through matching grants and partnership facilitated by the FICCF, MFIs have learned the importance of climate information services for improving productivity and resilience. Greater productivity and the farm level translated to more ability to borrow and invest, while the MFIs secured additional funding for capacity development and scaling up. FICCF catalyzed a switch to more drought-­ resistant and early-maturing varieties. Herd size reduced while increasing milk yield per herd. Dairy farmers also gained knowledge on fodder-­conservation techniques, while hybrid insurance with a weather index and multi-­ peril cover tested with 156 sorghum farmers resulted in 35 percent of the farmers receiving a payout. Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 59 FIGURE 6.1: MAXIMIZING FINANCE FOR DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE Spectrum of potential actions to promote responsible food and agriculture investments Is the private sector doing it? Yes • Strengthen country capacity to assess and mitigate/regulate environmental and social risks • Promote private sector alignment with the principles of responsible investment • Support inclusive business models to improve linkages among smallholders and NO firms of all sizes Spectrum of potential actions to increase space for private sector investments Is this because of limited space for Yes • Support competition and associated policy reform, including of state-owned private sector activity? enterprises • Strengthen investment policy and dialogue to open space for global investment • Reduce government intervention in agricultural financial markets to open space for NO private financial service providers Spectrum of potential actions to improve the policy and regulatory Is this because of policy environment for private sector investments and to reduce the distortionary and regulatory gaps Yes effects of public spending or weaknesses? • Reduce distortionary effects of public spending policies • Improve incentives and reduce transaction costs • Reduce private sector investment risk NO Spectrum of potential public investments to reduce private sector transaction costs and risk Can public investment help crowd-in private Yes • Improve incentives and reduce transaction costs (e.g., quality assurance, vertical investment? coordination) • Reduce private sector investment risk (e.g., warehouse receipts, risk insurance) NO Use public resources to invest in public or quasi-public goods and services • Invest agricultural public spending in public goods and services (e.g., agricultural Pursue purely public research) financing where there is no Yes viable private sector return • Support complementary public investment in other sectors (e.g., rural roads) Source: World Bank (2018) in the larger economy. With the right policies and transform the entire food system, with major impacts investments, agriculture could unlock an extra US$1 throughout the entire value chain (table 6.1). trillion in rural growth in addition to generating more than 21 million jobs in Africa by 2030 (Business and 116. While the current CSA portfolio already has some Sustainable Development Commission 2016; World elements of the ideas embodied in table 5.2, Bank 2013b). dedicated facilities for agricultural innovation and technology development will be required. 115. To realize these opportunities, agriculture needs Regional projects with emphasis on innovation to be transformed by shifting the food system and technology development, such as Agricultural smart pathway. This shift will onto a climate-­ Productivity Program for Southern Africa (APPSA), 60 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa TABLE 6.1: A MENU OF SOME SHIFTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSFORMING AFRICA’S FOOD SYSTEM Value chain From To area Inputs Basic cross-­­breeding Precision phenotyping to introduce improvement into crops and livestock Industrial fertilizers Microbial fertilizers Chemical pest control Integrated Pest Management private collaboration Limited or no public-­­ New public-­­private partnership focused on adapting technologies to local conditions Production Agricultural extensification leading to Deforestation-­­free commodities through climate-­­smart deforestation approaches (for example, CA and holistic grazing) Forest degradation through unsustainable Agroforestry, afforestation, and reforestation; reduced-­­impact farming practices logging; alternative livelihoods; and forest tenure and rights Low-­­data traditional farming Digital agriculture, big data analytics, and precision agriculture Limited market access for smallholders Improved market access through contract farming, productive alliance, and other partnership models Low-water efficiency agriculture irrigation techniques and AWD in rice fields Micro-­­ Water, energy, and land intensive products (for Focus on selecting species with lower environmental footprint example, beef) Limited monitoring of animal welfare Animal health monitoring and diagnostics Food Thermal processing of food leading to quality Improved food processing using high hydrostatic pressure processing changes in foods, such as the destruction of technology rendering harmful microorganisms inactive vitamins, modifications to food texture and without detrimentally affecting the color, flavor, or nutritional color, and the development of off-­­f lavors value, thus improving the overall quality of foods Unfortified staple crops Biofortification to increase the density of vitamins and minerals in a crop through plant breeding, transgenic techniques, or agronomic practices Logistics Limited data storage systems Dynamic supply chain management through cloud computing Limited traceability Fully traceable product systems Retail and Limited consumer differentiation for products Sustainably sourced and fair-­­trade products disposal Low focus on food safety Food safety as business opportunity High levels of food waste Composting and energy capture West Africa Agricultural Transformation Project the World Bank’s Agriculture Global Practice in (WAATP), and the East and Central Africa Agricultural targeting climate-­ smart interventions in existing Transformation Project (ECAAT) have a role to play and pipeline projects. The Ag Observatory is a in this regard. The focus should be on developing time identification and tracking tool for near real-­ transformational solutions across the value chain of climate events that can trigger food insecurity, and accelerating the adoption of the technologies. thereby facilitating early warning and proactive response actions. The Ag Observatory comprises 117. There also is the need to leverage the big data high resolution agrometeorological data for both and geospatial capabilities of the Agricultural analytical and operational programs. It integrates Intelligence Observatory (Ag Observatory) of currently available public domain agriculture Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa 61 monitoring databases with private sector, open second group entails countries with high rates of access, high resolution (9 km by 9 km) weather data poverty and hunger, but where the World Bank has coupled with local crop calendars and crop models. smaller or no agriculture programs. The last group The integrated platform delivers agriculturally includes countries where although the number of relevant information based on more than 1.5 million rural poor and poverty and hunger rates may not be virtual weather stations distributed across the earth’s the highest in the region, there is strong government agricultural land and updated 4 times daily. The Ag commitment and, in some cases, larger ongoing Observatory and component data platforms will agriculture programs. assist countries in detecting early warning of farming system shocks, undertake famine threshold analyses, 119. Finally, effective scaling up will require crowding and initiate proactive response measures. in investment by increasing the space for private sector activity in agricultural markets, improving 118. Scaling up and replicating effective approaches policy and regulatory environment and support and innovations could be based on criteria, such services needed for successful agricultural value as climate vulnerability, the number of rural chains, leveraging public finance to improve poor, poverty rates, and prevalence of under- private incentives, and managing private nourishment. In figure 6.2, countries are classified investment risks.24 Some examples of private sector into three groups. The first group comprises coun- investment include scaling up new technologies tries with large numbers of rural poor and/or high for agricultural transformation and developing rates of poverty and hunger, where there are larger innovative financing models for actors in the ongoing World Bank agriculture programs. The agricultural value chain. 24 World Bank (2018). Future of food: Maximizing Finance for Development in Agricultural Value Chains. Washington, DC. 62 Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture in Africa FIGURE 6.2: AGRICULTURE INVESTMENTS NEEDS ACROSS SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Group 1: High need, larger program–scale-up Burkina Faso,1 Burundi,1,2 DRC,1,2 Ethiopia,1 Kenya,1 Madagascar,1,2,3 Malawi,1,2 Mali,1,2 Niger,1,2 Nigeria,1,2 Rwanda,1,2,3 Tanzania,1,2,3 Uganda,1,3 Zambia1,2,3 Group 2: High need, smaller program–scale-up /reengagement Benin,2 Central Africa Republic,2,3 Chad,3 Gambia,2 Guinea-Bissau,2 Lesotho,2 Liberia,3 Mozambique,1,2 Sierra Leone,2,3 South Sudan,1 Togo,2 Zimbabwe3 Group 3: Other opportunities: Government commitment + some larger programs Angola, Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Senegal 1Numbers of rural poor. Nigeria, DRC, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Niger, Burundi, Burkina Faso, Rwanda, Zambia, Mali, South Sudan account for most of the rural poor in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2Poverty rates (≥ 45%). 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