Report No. 47829-JO


Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
Country Environmental Analysis

August 18, 2009



Sustainable Development Sector Department (MNSSD)
Middle East and North Africa Region




Document of the World Bank
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF BOXES ........................................................................................................................................ IV
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................................V
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................... VIII
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................... XI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................................... XIII
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. XV
CHAPTER 1.               INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE ......................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2.               KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN JORDAN ........................................................ 4
    2.1     INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 4
    2.2     KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES .......................................................................................................... 5
    2.3     BENCHMARKING JORDAN'S ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE ........................................................ 16
CHAPTER 3.               THE COST OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION .......................................... 20
    3.1     INTRODUCTION AND MAIN FINDINGS ............................................................................................... 20
    3.2     AIR QUALITY................................................................................................................................... 21
    3.3     WATER QUALITY............................................................................................................................. 26
    3.4     LAND DEGRADATION ...................................................................................................................... 28
    3.5     WASTE ............................................................................................................................................ 29
    3.6     COASTAL ZONE ............................................................................................................................... 30
    3.7     CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER 4.               WATER QUALITY ....................................................................................................... 32
    4.1     SUMMARY OF MAIN MESSAGES ....................................................................................................... 32
    4.2     INTRODUCTION: WATER QUALITY AND WATER QUANTITY ............................................................ 33
    4.3     WATER RESOURCES IN JORDAN ...................................................................................................... 36
    4.4     STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES QUALITY ........................................................................................ 40
    4.5     POLLUTION SOURCES ...................................................................................................................... 46
    4.6     INSTITUTIONAL SETUP OF WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT........................................................... 54
    4.7     POLICIES AND MEASURES FOR WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT ...................................................... 58
CHAPTER 5.               AIR POLLUTION AND ROAD TRANSPORT ......................................................... 68
    5.1     INTRODUCTION AND MAIN MESSAGES ............................................................................................. 68
    5.2     LAND TRANSPORT IN JORDAN ......................................................................................................... 69
    5.3     AIR POLLUTION FROM TRANSPORT .................................................................................................. 77
    5.4     PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE........................................................................................................... 84
    5.5     OPTIONS FOR POLICY REFORM ........................................................................................................ 86
    5.6     IMPACT OF POLICIES ........................................................................................................................ 94
    5.7     RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................................101
CHAPTER 6.               INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION.......................................................................................102
    6.1     SUMMARY AND KEY MESSAGES .....................................................................................................102
    6.2     INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................104
    6.3     OVERVIEW OF THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR ........................................................................................105
    6.4     ESTIMATING INDUSTRY'S ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES ................................................................113
    6.5     RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................................128
CHAPTER 7.               INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ASSESSMENT .......................................................131
    7.1     INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................131
    7.2     LEGISLATIVE AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK............................................................................132
    7.3     PICKING UP SIGNALS .....................................................................................................................135


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    7.4     BALANCING INTERESTS .................................................................................................................142
    7.5     EXECUTING DECISIONS ..................................................................................................................147
    7.6     CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................159
CHAPTER 8.               RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................................160
    8.7     SHORT TERM ..................................................................................................................................160
    8.8     MEDIUM TO LONG TERM ................................................................................................................164
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................................168



ANNEXES

Annex 1. Water quality data ..................................................................................................175
Annex 2. Water quality: the institutional set-up ....................................................................179
Annex 3: Transport - pollution model: additional information .............................................191
Annex 4. Public environmental expenditure review ..............................................................196
Annex 5: Review of Jordan's Environment Impact Assessment System ..............................211
Annex 6. List of participants to the CEA final workshop .....................................................221




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LIST OF BOXES

Box 1. Priority issues to be addressed by Jordan protected areas policy.................................13
Box 2. Solid Waste Management: recent progress and remaining challenges ........................15
Box 3. Limitation of available water quality data ...................................................................40
Box 4. Industrial treatment standards in Jordan ......................................................................51
Box 5. Overview of recent water policies and strategies in Jordan .........................................59
Box 6. Jordan's new Transport Strategy and the Environment ...............................................71
Box 7. Classifications of industrial sector in Jordan .............................................................106
Box 8. Mining ........................................................................................................................108
Box 9. Overview of the World Development Report 2003 framework.................................131
Box 10. Environmental law no. 52 / 2006 .............................................................................132
Box 11. The Aarhus convention as benchmark for access to environmental information ....137
Box 12. The World Bank policy on the use of country systems ...........................................156
Box 13. Definition: Classification of Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA) ...........197




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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Annual cost of environmental degradation by category in 2006.......................... xviii
Figure 2. Simplified cost-benefit analysis of macro-level water quality interventions ...........xx
Figure 3. Contributions to air emissions by vehicle type and by pollutant ........................... xxi
Figure 4. Abatement cost curve of air pollution from land transport ................................... xxii
Figure 5. Abatement cost curves for water toxics ............................................................... xxiv
Figure 6. Monthly exceedances of H2S and SO2 monitored .....................................................7
Figure 7. Safe yields and over-abstraction from the eleven non-fossil basins in 2005 .............9
Figure 8. Decline in groundwater level of Amman-Zarqa basin .............................................10
Figure 9. Cumulative area under protection ............................................................................12
Figure 10. Environmental degradation in MENA countries (2006) ........................................19
Figure 11. Annual cost of environmental degradation by category in 2006............................21
Figure 12. Impacts of air pollution ..........................................................................................25
Figure 13. Impacts of water quality degradation .....................................................................28
Figure 14. Impacts of land degradation ...................................................................................29
Figure 15. Impacts of waste collection and disposal ...............................................................30
Figure 16. Water availability in the MENA Region ................................................................34
Figure 17. Current and projected water use in agriculture ......................................................35
Figure 18 Consolidated average annual precipitation in selected meteorological stations .....36
Figure 19 Historical and projected development of Water Resources Supply ........................37
Figure 20 Historical and Projected Development of Water Resources Use ............................37
Figure 21. Streamflow of the Yarmouk river at Adasiya: selected statistics ...........................38
Figure 22 Groundwater Extraction for different uses 1990-2005............................................39
Figure 23. Location of the monitoring stations selected for the analysis ................................41
Figure 24. Electric conductivity in selected surface water monitoring stations (1995-2007) .41
Figure 25. Water resources with different salinity in the Jordan Valley (1995-2007) ............42
Figure 26. E-coli concentrations in selected surface water monitoring stations (1995-2007).43
Figure 27 Section of Zarqa river with King Talal Reservoir and junction with KAC ............43
Figure 28 Groundwater level and electrical conductivity in the Amman-Zarqa basin ............45
Figure 29. Wells with clear nitrate pollution, north-east of Amman .......................................46
Figure 30 Treated wastewater volume and population growth (1994-2006)...........................47
Figure 31 Optimal selection of water saving rates ..................................................................65
Figure 32 Costs and benefits of different policies for improving water quality ......................66


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Figure 33 Structure of the transport sector emission and cost estimation model: ...................78
Figure 34 Emission of CO in exhaust gas, gasoline passenger cars, age 0-35 years ...............80
Figure 35. Contributions to air emissions by vehicle type and by pollutant ...........................82
Figure 36. Abatement cost curve of air pollution from land transport ..................................100
Figure 37. Targets for industry's selected performance indicators over time .......................111
Figure 38. Average MFN import tariffs in the period 2000-2007 (world average=100) ......112
Figure 39. Average MFN import tariffs in Jordan by sector in the period 2000-2007 ..........113
Figure 40. Geographic Distribution of Polluting Industries ..................................................115
Figure 41. Share in total emissions by pollutant type and location .......................................116
Figure 42. Share in total emissions by pollutant type and size of enterprises .......................119
Figure 43. Share of micro enterprises in total pollution in Zarqa and Jordan as a whole......119
Figure 44. Contribution of micro enterprises to water toxics loads (Zarqa and Jordan) .......120
Figure 45. Pollution rank index by industrial sub-sector .......................................................121
Figure 46. Share of emissions for selected grouping of pollutants ........................................122
Figure 47. Standard deviation of pollution shares by pollutant and location ........................123
Figure 48. Air pollution shares by sector in Irbid and Jordan as a whole .............................123
Figure 49. Aggregate pollution ranking of industrial sectors over time ................................125
Figure 50. Cost of achieving a given quality target with different abatement strategies.......126
Figure 51. Abatement cost curves for air pollution ...............................................................127
Figure 52. Abatement cost curves for water toxics ...............................................................128
Figure 53. Water quality: index of dispersion of functions across agencies .........................133
Figure 54. Air quality: index of dispersion of functions across agencies ..............................134
Figure 55. Picking up signal: a conceptual framework .........................................................135
Figure 56. World Values Survey results on general public environmental awareness..........137
Figure 57. Public's confidence in environmental movement ................................................139
Figure 58. ISO 14001 certifications and global compact participants/ 1000 establishments 140
Figure 59. Tariff trends in Jordan ..........................................................................................141
Figure 60. Jordan Air quality limits norms in relation to comparator countries....................143
Figure 61. Index of dispersion of themes across agencies .....................................................144
Figure 62. Governance indicators in Jordan, MENA and the World (2007) .........................148
Figure 63. Public Environmental expenditure as percent of GDP in selected EU countries .149
Figure 64. Total public environmental expenditure by domain for 2002 ­ 2006 ..................150
Figure 65. Average PEE for years 2002 ­ 2006 percent by agency ......................................150



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Figure 66. Comparison of ministries of environment staffing levels per unit of density ......153
Figure 67. Total Public Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006) ......................208




                                               vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Pollutant emissions from vehicles and industries (2004) ............................................6
Table 2. Main sources of emissions and monitoring institutions ..............................................7
Table 3. Typology of protected areas ......................................................................................13
Table 4. Jordan's progress towards environmental sustainability ...........................................17
Table 5. ESI score and rank for MENA countries ...................................................................18
Table 6. Adjusted Net Savings estimated for MENA countries (2006) ..................................19
Table 7. Annual cost of environmental degradation (2006) ....................................................21
Table 8. Estimated PM10 concentrations for the selected urban areas ...................................22
Table 9. Dose-response coefficients for morbidity due to exposure to PM10.........................24
Table 10. DALYs for health effects ........................................................................................24
Table 11. Water Balance by source and use (2005) ................................................................36
Table 12. Groundwater basins in Jordan, sustainable yield, actual extraction (2005).............39
Table 13. Standards for wastewater discharge for a selected number of parameters ..............48
Table 14. Share of total waste water meeting selected water quality norms ...........................48
Table 15. Overview of main effluent characteristics of different types of treatment plants ...49
Table 16. Estimates of wastewater from Industry (2005) ........................................................51
Table 17. Overview of the most important industrial estates in Jordan ..................................53
Table 18. Institutional responsibilities of different ministries involved in water quality ........56
Table 19. Present responsibilities for different types of monitoring .......................................57
Table 20. Preliminary options to reform the water quality monitoring system .......................58
Table 21. Typology of policy instrument for improved water quality ....................................59
Table 22. Overview of key transport sector institutions and their functions ...........................70
Table 23. Passenger car sales tax .............................................................................................72
Table 24. Vehicle fleet and age in Jordan, July 2007 ..............................................................73
Table 25. Estimated annual transport. Million vehicle km/year, 2006 ....................................74
Table 26. Characteristics of road transport fuels in Jordan, 2007 ...........................................75
Table 27. Annual phosphate transport on rail in Jordan. .........................................................76
Table 28. No. of public transport vehicles ...............................................................................77
Table 29. Assumptions on annual mileage by vehicle type .....................................................79
Table 30. Actual and estimated fuel consumption of road transport (tons/year, 2006) ...........81
Table 31. Estimated air emission from road transport, ............................................................82
Table 32. Estimated external costs of road transport air emissions in 2006. Mio EUR/year ..83


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Table 33. Selected estimates of air pollution damage in 2006 (Million JOD/ year) ...............84
Table 34. Selected air emission and air quality targets in National Agenda ...........................85
Table 35. Estimated vehicle fleet in Jordan, 2011/12 ..............................................................85
Table 36. Selected policy options for reducing transport sector air pollution .........................92
Table 37. Estimated emissions per year for different policy scenarios ...................................95
Table 38. Simplified assessment of vehicular emission in Amman (2006).............................96
Table 39. Estimated cost of emissions for different policy scenarios ( million /year) ..........97
Table 40. Activities and associated costs and benefits ............................................................98
Table 41. Distribution of industrial sectors in Jordan ............................................................107
Table 42. Mining's relative contribution to air pollution compared to other sectors ............108
Table 43. Estimated distribution of pollution pressures from industrial sub-sectors ............117
Table 44. Industry ranking in terms of % of pollution at national level ................................124
Table 45. BOD Loads at JIEC Wastewater Treatment Plants ...............................................126
Table 46: Air quality monitoring responsibilities ..................................................................136
Table 47: Total PEE proportion in GDP and total public expenditure ..................................149
Table 48. Summary of the Jordanian EIA Procedures...........................................................156
Table 49. Summary of main strengths and weaknesses.........................................................159
Table 50. Summary of recommendations by theme, time horizon and lead agency .............160
Table 51. Detailed short term recommendations ...................................................................162
Table 52. Detailed medium to long term recommendations ..................................................166
Table 53. Present responsibilities for different types of monitoring .....................................187
Table 54. Revised monitoring system; preliminary proposal ................................................190
Table 55. List of officials consulted for the development of transport model.......................191
Table 56. 2005 emission factors ............................................................................................194
Table 57. 1990 emission factors ............................................................................................194
Table 58. Pre 1990 emission factors ......................................................................................195
Table 59. Rail emission factors .............................................................................................195
Table 60. Jordan Public Expenditures According to Functional Classification ....................198
Table 61: Jordan public environmental protection expectorer (705) vs CEPA ...................198
Table 62: Public Environmental Protection expenditure (2002-2006, current Million JOD)203
Table 63: Total PEE proportion in GDP and total public expenditure (Deflated) ................203
Table 64: Central Government Expenditure on Environmental Protection (2002-2006) ......204
Table 65: Environmental Expenditure by Independent Public Institution (2002-2006)........205



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Table 66: General Government PEE by domain during 2002-2006 ......................................205
Table 67: Environmental Expenditure of Municipalities by domain (2002-2006)................206
Table 68: GAM Expenditure on Environmental Protection by domain (2002-2006) ...........206
Table 69: Public Independent Institutions PEE by domain (2002-2006) ..............................207
Table 70: Total Public Expenditure on Environmental Protection by domain (2002-2006) .207
Table 71: Capital Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006) ...............................209
Table 72: Current Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006) ...............................209
Table 73. Summary of the Jordanian EIA Procedures...........................................................212
Table 74. Gap Analysis..........................................................................................................214
Table 75. Proposed actions to sustain the equivalence and acceptability ..............................219




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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS


AEWA       African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement
AFD        Agence Française de Développement
ANS        Adjusted Net Savings
ARC        Aqaba Railway Corporation
ASEZA      Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority
AWC        Aqaba Water Company
BAT        Best Available Technology
BOD        Biological Oxygen Demand
CAU        Civil Aviation Authority
CBA        Cost Benefit Analysis
COED       Cost of Environmental Degradation
CSC        Common Services Councils
CV         Contingent Valuation
DALYs      Disability Adjusted Life Years
DHS        Jordan Demographic and Health Survey
EIA        Environmental Impact Assessment
DOS        Department of Statistics
EP         Environment Protection
EPA        Environment Protection Act
ER         Environmental Rangers
ESI        Environmental Sustainability Index
ETC        Electrical Training Centre
FAO        Food and Agriculture Organization
GAM        Greater Amman Municipality
GDP        Gross Domestic Product
GEF        Global Environment Facility
GOJ        Government of Jordan
HCA        Human capital approach
HDV        Heavy Duty Vehicle
IIED       International Institute for Environment and Development
IPPC       Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
IPPS       Industrial Pollution Projection System
IWRM       Integrated Water Resources Management
JCO        Jordan Cooperative Organization
JHR        Jordan Hejaz Railway
JHRC       Jordan Hejaz Railways Corporation
JIEM       Jordan Integrated Ecosystem Management in the Jordan Rift Valley project
JISM       Jordan Institution for Standards and Metrology
JMA        Jordan Maritime Authority
JNA        Jordan National Agenda



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JR       Jordan Refinery
JS       Jordanian Standard
JTI      Jordan Transport Institute
JVA      Jordan Valley Authority
JVD      Jordan Valley Development
KAC      King Abdullah Canal
KTR      King Talal Reservoir
LDV      Light Duty Vehicle
LVID     License and Vehicle Inspection Directorate
MDGs     Millennium Development Goals
MEMR     Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
MENA     Middle East and North Africa
MIT      Ministry of Industry and Trade
MoA      Ministry of Agriculture
MoEnv    Ministry of Environment
MoH      Ministry of Health
MoMA     Ministry of Municipal Affairs
MoPIC    Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation
MoPWH    Ministry of Public Works and Housing
MoWI     Ministry of Water and Irrigation
NA       National Agenda
NGWA     Northern Governorates Water Authority
NRA      Natural Resources Authority
NRH      National Rangeland Rehabilitation
NWMP     National Water Master Plan
Pas      Protected Areas
PTRC     Public Transport Regulatory Commission
RSCN     Royal Society for Conservation of Nature
RSS      Royal Scientific Society
SABEQ    Sustainable Achievement of Business Expansion and Quality
SWM      Solid Waste Management
UNFCCC   United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNICEF   United Nations Children's Fund
USAID    US Agency for International Development
VSL      Value of Statistical Life
WAJ      Water Authority of Jordan
WHC      World Heritage Convention
WHO      World Health Organization
WQO      Water Quality Objectives
WTP      Willingness to pay
WUAs     Water User Associations




                                  xii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report was developed on the basis of a full partnership between the Government of Jordan
and the World Bank. USAID joined in the effort by supporting the preparation of the analysis of
the industrial sector.
On the Jordanian side, the work was undertaken under the overall guidance of H.E. Mr. Khaled
Irani (Ministry of Environment), with the support of H.E. Eng. Omar Al-Ma'ani (Mayor of the
Greater Amman Municipality) and with the very valuable institutional leadership of the
Secretaries General in the different Ministries, namely: Eng. Faris Al-Junaidi in the Ministry of
Environment; and, in alphabetical order: Eng. Jamal Abu- Obeid (Ministry of Municipal Affairs),
Eng. Farouq Al- Hyari (Ministry of Energy & Mineral Resources), Eng. Khaldoun Al-Khashman
(former Secretary General of the Ministry of Water & Irrigation), Eng. Muhannad Al-Qudah
(Ministry of Transport), Eng. Farouq Al-Hadidi (Ministry of Tourism & Antiquities), Eng. Musa
Al-Jama'ani (Jordan Valley Authority - JVA), Dr. Montaser Al- Oqleh (Ministry of Industry &
Trade), Eng. Radi Al-Tarawneh (Ministry of Agriculture), Eng. Izz Edden Kanakriah (Ministry of
Finance), Dr. Jannat Merza (Ministry of Health), Eng. Muneer Oweis (Water Authority of Jordan
- WAJ), Eng. Nasser Shraideh (Ministry of Planning & International Cooperation).
A special acknowledgement goes to Ms. Ruba Al Zubi, former Director of Policy at the Ministry
of Environment, who coordinated the activities of the inter-ministerial working group and acted
as lead technical focal point for interaction with the Bank team. Without her competence,
dedication and commitment, this report would not have been possible. Many thanks to Eng.
Ahmed Qatarneh (Assistant Secretary General, Ministry of Environment) who coordinated the
final stages of the CEA report preparation on the Government of Jordan side. Dr. Saleh
Kharabsheh (Ministry of Planning & International Cooperation), acted as main institutional
counterpart of the World Bank. Ms. Lina Khouri provided excellent support to the activities of
Jordan's working group and of the World Bank's missions.
In the spirit of the CEA cross-sector approach to the environment's agenda, the Government
formed an inter-institutional working group to facilitate access to data and provide strategic and
technical feedback during the various stages of the report preparation. The active participation of
the members of the working group, both in terms of process and of substance, was essential for
the completion of the report.
The working group included (in alphabetical order): Eng. Ayman Abu Khyarah (Ministry of
Tourism & Antiquities), Eng. Zaydoon Al- Qasem (Greater Amman Municipality), Eng. Ali Al-
Sobuh (Ministry of Water & Irrigation), Eng. Yosef Arabiat (Ministry of Agriculture),
Eng. Maysoon Bseiso (Ministry of Health), Mr. Mohamad Khaled Daghash (Ministry of Energy
& Mineral Resources), Eng. Abeer Haj Hasan (Ministry of Industry & Trade), Mr. Awwad
Harahsheh (Ministry of Planning & International Cooperation), Dr. Jamal Mahasneh (Ministry of
Industry & Trade), Eng. Saleh Malkawi (Ministry of Water & Irrigation), Eng. Tamara B. Merza
(Ministry of Municipal Affairs), Mr. Ayman Odeinat (Ministry of Finance), Eng. Randa Rabadi
(Ministry of Transport).
Additional important contributions were provided by (in alphabetical order): Ms. Suna Abu Zahra
(Department of Statistics -DOS), Eng. Mohammad Al-Alem (Ministry of Environment),
Ms. Norma Al Hersh (Ministry of Finance), Dr. Saleem Al- Moghrabi (Aqaba Special Economic
Zone Authority - ASEZA), Eng. Husain Badarin (Ministry of Environment), Eng. Jabuer
Daradkah (Ministry of Environment), Mr. Mohammad Khalaf (Department of Statistics-DOS),
Dr. Mohammad Khashashneh (Ministry of Environment), Ms. Suha Mustafa (Jordan Chamber of
Industry -JCI), Dr. Mohammad Saidam (Royal Scientific Society), Ms. Ghadeer Saleh (Zarqa
Chamber of Industry - ZCI), Eng. Rose Smadi (Amman Chamber of Industry (ACI)), Mr. Ahmad
Ulimate (Water Authority of Jordan - WAJ).



                                               xiii
The final report benefited from the comments of the participants to the wrap-up workshop held in
Amman, Jordan on June 24-25, 2009. They represented Government agencies, academia and the
private sector, as well as NGOs and are listed in Annex 6.
The World Bank team was led by Raffaello Cervigni, Senior Economist, and comprised Dahlia
Lotayef, Senior Environmental Specialist, Sherif Arif, Senior Consultant, Lelia Croitoru,
Extended-Term Consultant, Helena Naber, Young Professional, Ahmed Shawky, Senior Water
Resources Specialist, Amer Jabarin, Lead National Consultant, Gert Soer, (Consultant, Water
Quality), Erling Hvid and Henrik Duer (Consultants, Road Transport), Robert Anderson and
Nedal Aloran, (Consultants, Institutional Capacity Assessment), Syvie Creger (Team Assistant).
Additional contributions were provided by Kanta Kumari (Sr Environmental Specialist),
Vladislav Vucetic (Lead Energy Specialist) and Kazi Fateha Ahmed (Consultant). Johanne
Holten helped with proof-reading the final draft of the report and the organization of the wrap-up
workshop. The USAID team included Dr Amal Hijazi (who acted as focal point), Tarek
Tarawneh, Jamal Jaber and Loay Hidmi (Consultants).
The peer reviewers in the World Bank are Aziz Bouzaher, Lead Environmental Specialist, and
Juan Carlos Belausteguigoitia, Lead Environmental Economist.
Financial support from the CEA Trust Fund and from the Danish Consultants Trust fund is
gratefully acknowledged.




                                               xiv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Jordan is a small, middle-income, open economy, with a limited natural resources base and
active trade flows. As the integration of Jordan in the World Economy progresses, enhancing
Jordan's environmental management can not only improve the wellbeing of Jordanians, but
also enable the country to better compete in increasingly environmentally conscious markets.
To date there has not yet been a comprehensive assessment of Jordan's environmental agenda,
particularly in terms of providing indications on how to integrate long-term environmental
concerns into the development process.
Striking a balance between breadth and depth of the analysis, this report intends to help fill
such a gap and to provide insights that can inform the dialogue between the World Bank and
the Government of Jordan on a selected number of areas of particular relevance for continued
sustainable economic and social development. The report has been prepared by a World Bank
team that has worked in full partnership and cooperation with a Jordanian team, led by the
Ministry of Environment, and representing a broad cross-section of Government institutions.
To achieve its core objectives of identifying key strategic priorities for improved
environmental policy across sectoral boundaries, the CEA analyzes sequentially the country's
key environmental concerns and their relative priority; the linkages between development and
environmental pressure in selected themes or sectors (water quality, road transport), and the
capacity of Jordan's institutions to reconcile development and growth objectives.
Most of the data and information used for the report have been collected in the period 2007-
2008, although efforts have been made to take into account selected key developments in
relevant policies occurred since then.

A. FINDINGS

Key environmental issues in Jordan

Over the last decade, the Government of Jordan has made considerable progress in its ability to
reduce environmental degradation, through an improved legislative framework, stronger
institutions, and a number of publicly funded projects. Since its establishment in 2003, the
Ministry of Environment has:

·   Spearheaded efforts to improve treatment of industrial wastewater (establishing recently in
    partnership with the private sector an industrial wastewater treatment plant in Irbid, with
    plans on the way for the construction of another plant in Zarqa); as well as medical and
    hazardous wastes (a plant due to start operation at the end of 2009 will treat some 70% of
    the annual waste flow);
·   Enhanced the inspection system through updated and comprehensive regulations, soon to
    be adopted;
·   Played a key role in the establishment of the environmental rangers department in 2006,
    which has helped improve, among others, the effectiveness of vehicle inspection;
·   Promoted, in partnership with local NGOs, public consultations on a range of
    environmental matters.




                                              xv
Important challenges remain, however.
In spite of the current limits of air quality monitoring, available evidence indicates that in
selected hotspots of industrial activity and vehicular traffic, air quality is poor. Transport,
power generation and industry account for the bulk of air emissions, particularly TSP, SO2 and
NOx. Recent policies on fuel quality (phase-out of leaded gasoline and high sulfur diesel), and
diversification of energy sources (with a stronger role given to gas-fired power plants and
renewable energy) are important steps in the right direction. At the same time, a 7 to 10%
annual growth in the vehicular fleet (where older, more polluting combustion technologies still
dominate) is reason for concern, along with continued pressure on air quality from important
industries such as mining and cement production.
Jordan's chronic water scarcity (available water resources are 133 m3/capita/year including
wastewater reuse) has resulted in mining of renewable groundwater resources (with extraction
currently 50% above safe yields (2005)), increased salinity, declining water table levels and
increasing pumping costs. The 1997 Water Strategy, the 2005 National Water Master Plan
(NWMP 2005) and the 2005 National Agenda call for an increase in water supply (expected -
according to the NWMP 2005- to reach 1.1 billion m3/year in 2020) and an enhanced role for
treated wastewater (expected to reach 200 million m3/year in 2025), especially in agriculture.
These interventions will relax to some extent the water quantity constraint, and probably result
in improved quality. The cost of the policy mix however, is likely to be high, and there are
probably important margins for improvement and cost savings on the demand side, where
average returns to irrigation water are in the order of JOD 0.6/m3, far away from the ambitious
National Agenda target of JOD 5/ m3 for by the year 2017.

Land degradation takes a heavy toll on ecosystem stability and on farmers' income (especially
among the poor). Productivity of rangeland, which is a key source of livelihood for most of
Jordan's rural poor, has dropped about 50% over the last decade and half, due to overgrazing
and the inflow of refugees (and their livestock) from the first Gulf war. The Ministry of
Agriculture is attempting to reverse the problem by establishing 84,000 ha of reserves for
rangeland rehabilitation. More recently, the Government has included an integrated financial
strategy to combat desertification in the Executive Development program 2009 ­ 2011.

Biodiversity conservation is an area of significant progress in Jordan, with rapid growth in the
land area under protection over the last couple of decades, (expected to reach over 6% of total
land area in the country, i.e. double the average of the MENA region), and a model of
decentralized Protected Area (PA) management operated through a partnership with NGOs.
However, legal issues, conflicting attributions on land use planning and funding constraints
will need to be addressed to ensure the longer term viability of Jordan's PA system.

Solid waste management (SWM) has been improving in Jordan, with current collection rates
estimated at 90% and 70% in urban and rural areas, respectively. With the notable exception of
Amman (which accounts for about half of total solid waste generation), safe disposal remains a
concern however, since most of the other municipalities discharge solid waste in open dump
sites with no lining, leachate management, or biogas collection. Management of hazardous and
medical waste is also inadequate, since most of the former (totaling 23,000 tons in 2001 and
expected to increase to 68,000 t/year by 2017) is disposed of with no treatment; whereas half
of the latter is treated in outdated incinerators located in populated areas, and the other half is
mixed with municipal waste in open dump sites. Key issues to be addressed to improve
Jordan's SWM system following Amman's example include the need for a more
comprehensive and detailed legislative framework, as well for a fully formulated sector

                                               xvi
strategy and policy. In addition, cost recovery rates will need to improve to alleviate the
resource constraint that hinders the SWM system in many municipalities.
When benchmarked against standard international indicators of environmental performance,
Jordan fares quite well in comparison to other middle-income countries in the MENA region
and elsewhere. In particular it has achieved progress on attaining target 9 (environmental
sustainability) of the Millennium Development Goals (particularly with respect to access to
potable water), it ranks third in the MENA region in terms of the Environmental Sustainability
Index (ESI), and second in MENA in terms of Adjusted Net Savings (which measure
countries' ability to maintain a balance among natural, physical and human capital). This could
be an indication of favorable conditions for focusing the country's effort on the main present
and future environmental challenges, provided that there is adequate information on relative
priorities across environmental themes, and on key tradeoffs to be addressed to make progress
on those priorities.

The cost of environmental degradation
Environmental degradation inflicts a cost to society, in terms of mortality and morbidity from
air and water pollution, foregone income of activities linked to natural resource use (such as
agriculture, tourism), and cost of "aversive behavior" (e.g., water filtration, purchase of bottled
water to reduce exposure to water-borne diseases). The Cost of Environmental Degradation
(COED) in Jordan is evaluated taking into account both immediate and longer-lived impacts of
degradation that have taken place in a reference year (2006). Using a range of well-established
and internationally accepted methodologies, the total COED is estimated to be in the range of
JOD143-332 million, with an average of JOD237 million, or 2.35% of GDP in 2006. If the
impact of emissions on global environment is added, the total cost to Jordan and the global
community as a whole would be JOD393 million.
Figure 1 illustrates the magnitude of impacts estimated for each environmental theme. The
most important contributor to the overall damage is air pollution, which is highly localized and
accounts for 1.15% of GDP. The impact of inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene is
the second most significant, representing about 0.81% of GDP. The cost of improper disposal
of solid waste ranks third, followed by that of degradation of soil and coastal zone.




                                               xvii
Figure 1. Annual cost of environmental degradation by category in 2006



         1.40%

         1.20%    1.15%                                   Selected hotspots of
                                                          industrial activity and
         1.00%                                            vehicular traffic
                                   0.81%
  % of GDP




         0.80%

         0.60%

         0.40%
                                                       0.23%
         0.20%                                                       0.11%
                                                                                       0.06%
         0.00%
                    Air            Water           Waste               Soil         Coastal zone

Given data limitations, these estimates should be interpreted as rough approximation; they are
likely to be conservative, since several forms of degradation could not be quantified (notably
the possible impacts on health of untreated industrial wastewater). The relatively high cost of
outdoor air pollution should be interpreted as a signal of degradation in selected road traffic
and industrial hotspots (such as downtown Amman, Zarqa, Fuheis, etc.), and not as a
reflection of overall poor air quality at the national level. In particular, air pollution does not
affect tourism poles such as Petra, the Dead Sea, Jerash, etc. The magnitude of the problem in
Jordan is less significant than in comparator countries in the region (e.g., Egypt) or elsewhere
(e.g., Peru).

Water quality
As one of the most water scarce countries in the world, one of Jordan's key priority is
management of water quantity. But water quality matters too: poor water quality is a
significant social concern because of its effects on human health and productive activities;
conversely, water of better quality means that more resources are available to help mitigate the
scarcity problem. These are the main reasons why this chapter focuses on the quality aspect of
Jordan's water agenda, proposing an integrated approach, in terms of resources evaluated
(surface, ground, and treated wastewater), sources of pollution (urban, industrial and
agriculture sectors), and range of impacts considered (human health, income of farmers and
water consumers).
The issue of adequate incentives for better quantity management clearly remains important, but
is not addressed in this report, particularly on account of the fact that after the National
Agenda, it would appear that the reduction of water-related subsidies and the creation of
incentives for allocating water to higher value added uses are being recognized as necessities
that public policies will need to address in the future.




                                               xviii
While significant limitations to data access and availability prevent at the moment a fully
statistically representative assessment of water quality, there are a number of important policy
indications that can be extracted from existing data. In particular:

·   Surface water, which appears to be overall of acceptable quality, presented, at the time of
    data collection, important problems of salinity and bacteriological contamination of a
    localized nature, which due to impacts on human health and agriculture are of strategic
    significance. In particular, levels of E-coli and TDS concentrations at the Zarqa junction of
    the King Abdullah Canal (KAC), - which is located upstream of important irrigation
    schemes in the Jordan valley- have been in recent years well above the respective quality
    norms. Improved quality of effluent from the new As-Samra treatment plant might help
    mitigate the problem. Considering the overall decline of fresh surface water resources
    observed in recent years and due in particular to the drying up of Yarmouk river base flow,
    it is possible that Jordan will experience a more general worsening of average quality of
    surface water.

·   In terms of groundwater, the evidence suggests a simultaneous trend of declining water
    tables and increasing salinity in most aquifers, with resulting higher extraction costs (in
    terms of pumping as well as accelerated well replacement), and the need to use more
    irrigation water for leaching. Higher production costs and declining yields affect farmers'
    income, for a share of some 40% of the 2006 cost of environmental degradation linked to
    poor water quality (not including industrial wastewater impacts). The cost however is
    likely to escalate in the future, as water tables keep declining, and as increased demand for
    potable use in urban areas raises the opportunity costs of the additional water required to
    decrease salinity. Nitrates pollution of aquifers appears of concern mainly in the Amman-
    Zarqa basin.

·   Access to sanitation is relatively high (with some exception in rural areas), and the quantity
    of municipal wastewater collected and treated has been steadily increasing. However, the
    quality of the wastewater effluent is a reason for concern: about half of the total effluent
    does not seem to meet national quality norms for pollutants such as BOD (55% of non-
    compliance) and E-coli (46%). The situation has recently improved with the establishment
    of the new As-Samra treatment plant, which has the potential to increase compliance rates
    to 80%; further progress may be expected if the targets of the National Agenda are met,
    although the cost is likely to be high.

·   In terms of industrial wastewater, only an estimated 28% of the total effluent is treated
    (almost 50% excluding wastewater from potash mining, which is likely to have limited
    environmental impacts). About 40% of industrial wastewater is estimated (net of mining
    effluents) to be discharged to the public sewer network, but the quality of the effluent is of
    concern on account of high rates of discharges without licensing, the rather lenient
    standards for heavy metals and organic toxics, and the considerable rates of non-
    compliance with applicable regulations (over 30% for ammonia and suspended solids). As
    for the 60% of wastewater not disposed of in sewers, monitoring of the effluent quality is
    very limited and does not adequately cover certain toxic substances. Disposal of
    wastewater through tankers is a widespread practice, virtually unmonitored in terms of
    effluent quality, and likely to pose health hazards where wastewater is disposed of in un-
    lined landfills (such as Al-Ekeider), with resulting possible infiltration into groundwater.
    Current policies seem to focus on centralized treatment plants as the strategy of choice to
    address the problem. However, there may be important opportunities for reducing the

                                               xix
          overall public and private cost of treatment by encouraging plant-level interventions (both
          production process and end-of-pipe treatment).

In the face of the combined effects of groundwater mining, dwindling surface resources
population growth, and policies aimed at promoting industrial development, several of the
quality problems reviewed in this report are likely to worsen in the medium to long term, and
result in impacts on human health, income and agriculture outputs, well beyond the 0.8% of
GDP estimated in this CEA for 2006.

The National Agenda establishes a number of targets of increased water supply and enhanced
wastewater treatment, which are likely to reduce water scarcity and deliver water quality
benefits as well. This report however argues that those programs could be complemented and
optimized by considering interventions that could significantly alleviate water quality
problems at relatively low cost. Such interventions could include hygiene programs to reduce
at-recipient exposure; but more importantly water savings policies (especially in irrigation) that
could enable ­if supported by water rights regulation,- on-site increased dilution, bulk-water
arbitrages and reduction of polluting concentrations at larger geographical scales .

A simplified Cost-Benefit analysis at the macro-level suggests that it might be possible to
eliminate up to 80% of the social cost of water degradation (as estimated by the CEA) by
optimally combining hygiene programs, enhanced dilution via water savings, and wastewater
treatment. Under the assumption used in the CEA (and subject to limited information on
baseline concentrations, unit costs and other parameters), this could be achieved by a water
saving program aimed at reducing losses in irrigation at a rate of 3% per year, accompanied by
hygiene programs targeted at some 80,000 households.
Figure 2. Simplified cost-benefit analysis of macro-level water quality interventions

                              120%                                                                    1.2

                                                                                                      1.1

                              100%                                                                    1.0

                                                                                                      0.9
  Share of COED eliminated,
   rate of norm attainment




                              80%                                                                     0.8   Benefit/ cost ratio

                                                                                                      0.7

                              60%                                                                     0.6

                                                                                                      0.5

                              40%                                                                     0.4

                                                                                                      0.3

                              20%                                                                     0.2

                                                                                                      0.1

                               0%                                                                     -
                                 0.0%    1.0%       2.0%       3.0%         4.0%      5.0%         6.0%
                                                    Rate of annual water savings
                                        Share of COED e liminated       Atta inme nt of BOD Norm
                                        Attainm ent of TD S N orm       Ben efit/C ost ratio


Air pollution and road transport


                                                                xx
The transport sector in Jordan accounts for a large share of air emissions (estimated at 80% for
NOx; 20% for SOx, and 40% for TSP). By developing indicative estimates of transport
emissions by vehicle type, fuel and traffic location, both for the reference year (2006) and for a
no-intervention future baseline, the CEA helps identify policy options for reducing the
environmental impacts of road transport.
With a 7 to 10% annual growth of the vehicular fleet, a relatively large share (32%) of older
technology (and thus higher emissions) vehicles, a low rate of replacement of old vehicles, and
­pending implementation of recent reforms - low quality fuels (high sulfur diesel), Jordan's
transport sector is poised to remain a large emitter in the future, unless suitable policy actions
are undertaken. Growth in vehicular emissions might even become more significant if demand
(vehicle-km) increase, and/or occupancy rates decrease: these are likely side-effects of per
capita income growth, as OECD countries experience suggests. In recent times, the
Government has adopted a transport strategy that purports to increase the share of rail in
freight transport. Once implemented, this will help reduce polluting emissions from the sector.
As part of the CEA, a basic traffic-emission model was developed to assess current and future
levels of emissions. The model permits to evaluate the total volume of road transport
emissions, as well the associated social damage, which is estimated to be in order of JOD 130
million per year. In addition, the model permits to identify Light Duty Vehicles (LDV) and
minibuses, as well as Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) as the main sources of PM, NOx, and SO2
emissions (with contribution ranging between 60% and 90% of the total); whereas passenger
cars appear to be the key source of CO and HC emissions (over 80%).
Figure 3. Contributions to air emissions by vehicle type and by pollutant
   100%

    90%

    80%

    70%

    60%

    50%

    40%

    30%

    20%

    10%

     0%

                CO               HC              NOx              SO2               PM

              pass. car           motorcycle           LDV+minibus         HDV
              bus                 transit HDV          transit coach

These results suggest that in order to abate key pollutants such as PM, SO2, HC and NOx, for
which quantification of health impacts effects is readily obtainable, both in physical terms
(increased risk of premature mortality and of morbidity) as well as in monetary terms, policies
should focus on higher emitting vehicles (LDV, minibus, HDV), seeking in the short term to
reduce emissions per unit of traffic, and in the longer term, to decouple growth of traffic from
growth in population and per capita income.
On the other hand, policies to increase the use of public transport or more generally increase
occupancy rates (number of passengers per vehicle-km), will have most of their environment
                                               xxi
benefits in terms of decrease in other pollutants, such as CO, for which monetary estimates of
damage are not available in the literature, and which are thus less amenable to being evaluated
in cost-benefits terms.
The CEA assesses in simple cost-benefit terms the merits of different policy options to reduce,
in the shorter term, "monetizable" emissions (PM, SO2, HC and NOx). These options are:
·                                    Improvement of fuel quality through phasing out high sulfur diesel. While this option has
                                     already been adopted by the Government, the precise phasing out schedule is still subject
                                     to uncertainty, so the analysis might help in the implementation phase of the policy;

·                                    Improvement of vehicle maintenance through workshop certification and staff training;

·                                    Improvement of the environmental quality of the vehicle fleet through stringent
                                     environmental requirements to newly registered vehicles

The results of the analysis suggest (Figure 4) that sequential adoption of these policies can
reduce about 50% of the social cost of air pollution which would occur in a no-intervention
scenario; and that this can be done in a fairly cost-effective manner (i.e. with a cost-benefit
ratio well below 1).

The analysis also indicates that there are wide margins for further, cost-effective, abatement
interventions, such as fiscal incentives (e.g., fuel taxation, road charging); and, in the longer
term, through reduced demand (per capita or per unit of GDP) for use of the more polluting
vehicles (LDVs and HDVs), through modal shifts, improved logistics, etc.) These options were
not further analyzed due to lack of data on freight and passenger demand (ton-km and
passenger-km), which represent a serious hindrance to the design and evaluation of transport
policies, let alone air quality management.
Figure 4. Abatement cost curve of air pollution from land transport

                                      1.0


                                                                                                    Cost-effectiveness
                                                                                                  boundaries of additional
                                      0.8                                                           abatement policies
    Cumulative Cost/ Benefit ratio




                                                   Fuel quality + Improv
                                                        vehic maint.
                                                                                     Fuel quality + Improv
                                      0.5
                                                                                      vehic maint. + New
                                                                                     vehic/ fuel comply EU
                                                   Fuel quality                               norms




                                      0.3




                                      -
                                            0%   10%      20%        30%      40%      50%       60%         70%     80%     90%   100%
                                                                  Percent abatement of value of baseline emissions




                                                                                     xxii
In terms of the other, "non-monetizable" pollutants (such as CO), the CEA also provides a
preliminary evaluation of the emission reduction that can be achieved by increasing the use of
public transport. Based on the goal of increasing the share of public transport in total traffic,
which the Greater Amman Municipality has indicated to be 75% for the year 2020, the CEA
estimates (using 2006 data) that CO and HC emissions could be reduced up to 60%. However,
considering the estimated current level of public ridership is about 40%, the proposed increase
to 75% would represent a step change, which is likely to require high level of institutional,
financial and political commitment.

Industrial pollution

On account of its current importance in Jordan's economy (over 22% of GDP), its fast rate of
annual growth (12% in recent years), and the lack of an adequate regulatory and enforcement
framework, the industrial sector is an important source of environmental pressure in Jordan,
and is likely to become more so in the future, especially if the full implementation of trade
agreements will result in an increase of foreign demand for Jordanian industrial products.

Poor or not easily accessible monitoring data on polluting emissions makes it difficult to
evaluate priorities for pollution abatement across sectors, locations, pollutant types, and
enterprise size. To overcome this obstacle and provide policy makers with broad indications
for action, this chapter proposes to apply international emission coefficients (obtained from the
World Bank's IPPS system) to estimate the structure of industry's pollution. The results are
subject to obvious caveats linked to the limitations of the methodology, and to some data
classification issues, but are found to be in line with the limited empirical evidence available.
The following key findings should be used as first indications of areas of policy interest, but
they should be revisited on the basis of Jordan-specific industrial emission data as soon as they
become available:

·   The bulk of pollution originates from enterprises located in the Amman and Zarqa
    industrial districts; the relatively lower share of total pollution in Irbid and Zarqa is
    associated to advanced forms of localized environmental degradation, which is no less
    important than Amman's.

·   While at the national level most of the pollution comes from (larger) industrial enterprises
    (70% to 90% depending on the pollutant), in Irbid, and particularly Zarqa, micro
    enterprises are an important source of pollution, accounting for up to 60% of some
    emissions (i.e. BOD in Zarqa)

·   At the national level, the chemical, medical and engineering/ electrical sectors account for
    the larger contributions to most polluting emissions. However, the sector ranking is
    different when specific pollutant types are considered. In particular, the food supply sector
    is estimated to be the top air and water polluter; the engineering/ electrical sector has the
    largest share of heavy metal pollution; and the leather/ garment sector is the top contributor
    to toxic emissions (particularly water). For virtually all pollutants, the "cleanest" sector is
    the packing and paper sector.

·   Pollution shares of industrial subsectors vary by location. The ranking of polluting
    industries per medium in Amman and Zarqa is similar to that at the national level. For
    Irbid, however, the ranking is different: leather is the most polluting industry of air and air


                                              xxiii
                                toxics and a relatively important contributor to water pollution (BOD). This suggests that
                                efforts to abate pollution should be site specific and take into account local conditions.

·                               Mining is important in terms of air pollution. However, because it is remotely located with
                                respect to urban areas, it is difficult to determine its importance in terms of health impacts.

·                               Projections of environmental pressures for 2012 and 2017 indicate that top 4 polluting
                                industry will remain the same (chemical, medical, engineering/ electrical and construction
                                sectors). Some of the lower rankings may change however, with the plastic and rubber
                                sector poised to become a more important polluter in 2017.

·                               Because of large variations across sectors in unit abatement costs and relative contribution
                                to total emissions, the cost of abatement policies is likely to be very sensitive to the
                                selection of target sectors. As an example, it is estimated that the cost of reaching a given
                                abatement target for all pollutants (e.g., 50% or better) can vary by a factor of up to 3.5,
                                depending on whether or not the optimal combination of abatement efforts across sub-
                                sectors is selected.

·                               A few abatement cost curves are estimated to further illustrate the importance of carefully
                                targeting abatement efforts. In the case of air pollution, some 80% of total emissions can
                                be abated by focusing on the food, chemicals, medical and plastic sectors, at a cost of
                                $4,000/ ton or less; the unit cost of achieving the remaining 20% is estimated to be in the
                                range of US$8,000-14,000. For water toxics (Figure 5), priority should be given to the
                                leather, food, construction and furniture sectors, which have the lowest unit abatement
                                cost and account for 80% of total emissions. The level of abatement attainable at any given
                                unit cost varies considerably from one industrial location to the other.
Figure 5. Abatement cost curves for water toxics

                                 1,200
                                                                                                                            Therapeutics and Medical
                                                                                                                           Plastic and Rubber

                                                                                                                      Chemical and Cosmetics
                                 1,000
                                                                 Curve for Amman
    Unit abatement cost (US$)




                                  800


                                                                                                                      Packing, Packaging,
                                                                                                                      Paper, cartoon, and
                                  600                                                                                     Stationeries


                                                                                                                    Engineering, Electrical
                                                                                               Construction       Industries and Information
                                                                                                                          Technology
                                  400
                                                                                               Furniture and Wooden
                                                                                              Food, Supplies,
                                          Leather and Garments                           Agricultural and Livestock
                                                 Industry
                                  200
                                                                             Curve for Irbid


                                   -
                                         0%     10%        20%       30%    40%       50%         60%         70%      80%        90%          100%
                                                                           Cumulated pollution abatement




Institutional Assessment


                                                                                     xxiv
The CEA conducts an institutional assessment to evaluate Jordan's environmental governance
system based on the World Development Report 2003 framework. This framework identifies
three main functions that institutions should carry out to promote sustainable environmental
management and long-term human well-being: a) picking up signals on environmental
conditions; b) balance interests, and c) execute decisions. The CEA also benchmarks Jordan
performance against standards of international good practice, such as the Aarhus convention on
access to information, public participation and access to justice; and EU and World Bank
procedures for carrying out Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

While legislation has been assigning over time responsibilities for environment-related matters
to a number of different institutions, it is only with the environmental protection law
(introduced in 2003 and amended in 2006) that Jordan has established an institution (the
Ministry of Environment) entrusted with a broad mandate of policy making and coordination
of the country's environmental agenda

As a result, a complex system of attributions of similar or related functions to different
institutions still remains, which weakens the overall effectiveness of Jordan's environmental
management because of overlaps in roles and responsibilities (particularly in terms of
monitoring, regulation and enforcement).

Picking up signals from society relies on monitoring environmental quality, disseminating
results, and gathering feedback from society. Air and water quality monitoring suffer from
overlapping roles, limited data disclosure and reporting, and particularly in the case of air
monitoring, limited coverage across space and time.

The general public in Jordan shows interest in environmental matters (according to surveys,
more so than in comparator countries in MENA and elsewhere), there are several non-
governmental organizations that are engaged in environmental management, and the media
contribute towards promoting awareness on environmental issues. However, access to
information on environmental quality is limited by lack of comprehensive environmental
database, and is restricted by requirements of justification to access. Also, in spite of increased
individual cases of public consultation, there is a limited degree of institutionalization of public
participation in the development of plans, programs and policies as well as laws, rules and
legally binding norms.

The ability of Jordan's institutions to balance interests is assessed first in terms of its
environmental standards. They compare well to OECD countries for several important air
pollutants, indicating a strong importance attached to the environment vis­à­vis potentially
conflicting development goals. At the same time, there does not seem to be a mechanism for
systematically evaluating trade-offs between economic growth and environmental quality, the
enforcement of standards remains problematic, and little effort has been put so far in
combining standards with market based mechanisms to balance interests.

Integration of environmental concerns into sector strategies has largely consisted in statement
of principle with no clear targets and dedicated resources; a structured system to make
environmental mainstreaming more concrete (such as Strategic Environmental Assessments,
SEAs) would seem warranted.

Executing decisions: since availability of resources is one of the main constraints to executing
decisions of environmental management, the CEA conducted (for the first time in Jordan) a
review of public environmental expenditure (PEER). The PEER showed that public
                                               xxv
expenditure on environment during the period 2002-2006 amounted to an average of 0.8% of
Jordan's total GDP, and formed 2.3% of total government spending. This compares well to a
number of EU countries; however the magnitude of environmental degradation (2.35% of GDP
in 2006 according to the CEA estimate) might indicate that additional environmental
protection efforts are in order. The PEER does not yet provide indications on the quality or
effectiveness of the expenditure. It points to a strong bias of public expenditure in favor of
wastewater treatment (which accounts for at least 40% of the total). This finding is prima facie
at odds with the results of the cost degradation analysis, which suggest that air pollution is a
more serious concern than water quality.

Within the overall amount of resources dedicated to environmental protection, those available
to the Ministry of Environment have particular importance, given the Ministry's strategic role
in policy making, coordination, monitoring and enforcement. The CEA finds that although
improvements have been achieved since its establishment in 2003, the Ministry remains
severely understaffed (as confirmed by international comparisons) and short of equipment.

Apart from the special case of Aqaba Special Economic Zone, where environmental
protection, along with most other functions of Government is transferred to a local entity
(ASEZA), environmental management in Jordan remains quite centralized. Increasing
resources and strengthening the capacity of regional directorates within the MoEnv, enhancing
their mandates and delineating responsibilities vis-à-vis the units at headquarters and
enhancing the environmental capacity of other agencies' local directorates are needed for
stronger environmental management at the local level.

Finally, the implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important
form of executing decision. An equivalence assessment between Jordan's system and
international best practice systems (World Bank and EU) finds that many features of the
Jordanian EA system are compatible with the World Bank and the European EU requirements,
though some moderate and significant gaps remain between the systems; and that effective
application of EIA procedures is limited by staffing constraints in the Ministry.




                                             xxvi
B. RECOMMENDATIONS

The CEA contains (see Chapter 8 for details) a number of recommendations for action on air
quality, water quality and cross-cutting themes, which include the identification of lead and
partner agencies for implementation, and a qualitative assessment of expected impacts and
likely coordination/ transactions costs. Main recommendations ­which take into account
comments and suggestions made by the participants to the CEA wrap-up workshop (see Annex
6)-include:

Short term (up to 18 months)
Air quality

1. The Ministry of Environment, in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality, and
   building on the technical assistance provided by the French development agency, should
   lead national efforts to accelerate the enhancement of the air monitoring system, including
   ambient air quality, as well as emission from stationary (possibly giving priority to the
   likely highest emitting sectors, such as those identified in the chapter on industrial
   pollution), as well as mobile ones. The geographic coverage should include the major
   population and industrial centers in the country.

2. Accelerate the phase-out of high sulfur diesel: the decision has already been made by the
   Ministry of Energy, so it is important to mobilize the resources required for its enactment
   (e.g., refinery upgrade, etc.). This can decisively contribute to the reduction of SO2
   emission, and to a lesser extent, of PM. Options to improve the quality of fuel used by the
   industrial sector should also be considered.

3. Define an action plan for implementing other key policies to reduce emission per unit of
   traffic (i.e. emissions per vehicle/km, ton/km), namely enhancing maintenance of vehicles,
   improving the environmental performance of vehicular fleet through strengthened
   regulation of imports, and promoting the replacement of older vehicles.

4. Establish Jordan-specific emission factors (based on driving-circle measurement or other
   internationally accepted methodologies) so as to improve information on the volume and
   distribution across the vehicular fleet of polluting emissions from road transport. The
   technical capacity and equipment of relevant authorities (e.g., MoEnv, License and Vehicle
   Inspection Directorate, etc.) will need to be adequately strengthened.

Water quality

5. Enhance the monitoring of groundwater resources by synchronizing the quality and
   quantity parameters, so as to better evaluate the impacts of accelerated aquifer use on the
   quality, and availability, of groundwater. This requires establishing a dedicated network of
   observation wells.

6. Revise and strengthen the standard for wastewater discharged from industries
   [JS 202/2007], in particular with respect to TDS, heavy metals and other toxic organic
   materials. Also revise the regulation related to discharging industrial effluents in the
   domestic sewer network.



                                            xxvii
Cross-cutting
7. Policy, strategy and legislation
    ·   Adopt a strategic approach to inspections, defining in a transparent manner priority
        locations/ sectors (as opposed to the current one which is primarily complaint-driven);
    ·   Based on the results of improved air and water quality monitoring, establish a list (or
        improve existing ones) of priority pollution hotspots, particularly in Zarqa;
    ·   Encourage compliance with environmental regulation through public disclosure of
        performance of the polluters by the NGOs and the media;
8. Coordination and mainstreaming:
    ·   Focus the scarce resources of the Ministry of Environment on core functions of
        strategy development and follow-up, policy making, environmental advocacy within
        the cabinet, improved coordination across sectors; limit to the minimum MoEnv direct
        engagement in project implementation activities,
    ·   Improve the decentralization of MoEnv activities and enhance the role of the
        regional directorates.
9. Awareness, public participation, and disclosure
    ·   Improve the application of the EIA system in Jordan, initially through strengthening
        the existing system, through application of the Jordanian Public Law related to public
        consultation and disclosure; and through development of standard Terms of Reference
        (TORs), guidelines for sector EA guidelines and EA reviews, and decision making
        criteria for the Central Licensing Committee and the EIA Review Committee.
10. Technical Support and Capacity Building
   ·    Support compliance with environmental regulation through provisions of advisory
        services and technical assistance to industries (e.g., on cleaner technologies, processes,
        energy efficiency, and EMS implementation).

Medium term (1 to 3 years)
Air quality
1. Establish, as part of the strategic planning of large urban areas (starting with the
   implementation of Amman's Master Plan) traffic models to optimize the design of
   transportation system and the related air pollution and congestion reduction benefits;
2. Define ­ in priority pollution hotspots and where not already available - air pollution
   abatement plans, containing: a) targets for selected environmental improvement objectives,
   b) a clear assignment of roles and responsibilities for the different stakeholders involved;
   and ­subject to criteria of financial sustainability and cost recovery, c) incentive
   mechanisms (including soft loans) to encourage industries to comply with environmental
   regulation.
Water quality
3. Adopt a unified national water law, based on the principles of Integrated Water
   Resources Management (IWRM) and linking water-quality and water-quantity
   sustainability objectives.


                                             xxviii
4. Under the initiative of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, streamline the national water
   quality monitoring system, to avoid duplication of efforts and enhance data
   management.
5. Promote pollution control through a combination of (1) Positive incentives (including soft
   loans and technical assistance) to encourage the use of cleaner production processes; and
   (2) gradual phasing-in of negative incentives (pollution levy for industrial emissions
   exceeding a given standard) to induce firms to meet effluent/ambient standards (e.g., via
   end-of-pipe treatment). Initially the levy could be linked to level of activity/employment,
   and later -once adequate monitoring capacity is in place- to emission levels.
6. Conduct a study to evaluate the potential for reducing the social damage of water quality
   degradation through water saving policies, to be combined with hygiene programs and
   enhanced wastewater treatment. The mix of policy tools would be defined following
   criteria of cost-effectiveness and using analytical such as water quality simulation, multi-
   criteria/economic optimization models, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and water
   Public Expenditure Reviews.
Cross-cutting
7. Policy, strategy and Legislation
   ·   Undertake a rapid assessment (based on environmental audits or other tools) of the
       average and marginal abatement cost by pollutant type and industrial sector, as a basis
       to better inform pollution abatement policies and programs.
   ·   Promote the inclusion of specific targets of environmental improvements in selected
       sector strategies (starting with the implementation with the recently adopted transport
       strategy), as well as the definition of responsibilities for their achievement,
       performance indicators, and the allocation of the required human and financial
       resources.
8. Coordination and Mainstreaming
   ·   Accelerate, through development of the necessary regulation, the adoption of Strategic
       Environmental Assessment (SEAs) as a tool to promote the integration of
       environmental concerns across sectors.
9. Awareness, public participation, and disclosure
   ·   Improve public access to information and participation in environmental matters. To
       that end, the Ministry of Environment, in collaboration with relevant agencies, might
       want to revise the environment law no. 52 / 2006, after a suitable implementation time;
   ·   Institutionalize the practice of disseminating information, holding consultations, and
       instituting the right of access to information without justification. This might require
       amendments to the law regulating access to information (47/2007), to be agreed upon
       at the cabinet level;
   ·   Amend the EIA regulations to allow public consultation and disclosure (starting with
       distribution of scoping statements to relevant stakeholders); environmental audits; and
       outsourcing to qualified third parties the inspection of large polluting installations as
       well as monitoring and follow up of the environment management plans.




                                             xxix
10. Technical Support and Capacity Building
   ·   Establish a system of accounting of public and private expenditure for environmental
       protection in adherence to international statistical standards, and explore ways in which
       the results could be discussed at the cabinet level to evaluate the adequate volume and
       composition of public expenditure for environmental protection.




                                              xxx
CHAPTER .
        1      INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE

Jordan is a small, middle-income, open economy, with a limited natural resources base and active
trade flows, with exports accounting on average for almost 50% of GDP in the period 2000-2005
(compared to about 30% for MENA and the average lower middle-income country). Growth of
exports in Jordan has been twice as fast in the last five years as the MENA average; as the integration
of Jordan in the World Economy progresses, enhancing Jordan's environmental management can not
only improve the wellbeing of Jordanians, but also enable the country to better compete in
increasingly environmentally conscious markets.

Despite significant progress in the last few years on environmental management, there has not yet
been a comprehensive assessment of Jordan's environmental agenda. This Country Environmental
Analysis (CEA) intends to help fill such a gap and to provide analytical insights that can inform the
dialogue between the World Bank and the Government of Jordan on a selected number of areas of
particular relevance for continued sustainable economic and social development.

The Country Environmental Analysis (CEA), which is one of the non-lending activities included in
the Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) for Jordan 2006-2010, is a diagnostic tool aimed at providing
the analytical underpinning for integrating the environment into the development process and
sustainable development assistance, including not only investment lending, but also policy lending,
as mandated by OP 8.60 (Development Policy Lending).
Objectives

The three main objectives for the Jordan CEA are:

            To provide a comprehensive overview of Jordan's environmental agenda and an identification of
            key strategic priorities for policy action;

            To promote mainstreaming of environment issues into selected key sector policies for improving
            development and poverty alleviation;

            To help focus development assistance provided by the World Bank and other development
            partners on key interventions, at the policy and project level, required to address environmental
            priorities.

Structure

This report adopts World Bank CEA corporate guidelines and adapts them to the case of Jordan by
structuring the analysis along the three following modules:
A. State of the environment and environmental priorities: Chapter 2 sets the stage for the rest of
the report by presenting an overview of the current state of the environment in Jordan, discussing
progress, highlighting remaining challenges, and benchmarking Jordan environmental performance
trough use of standard comparative indicators (ESI, MDG, adjusted savings). Chapter 3 evaluates the
cost of environmental degradation for the reference year 2006, thereby providing insights into the
overall magnitude of the problem, as well as the relative importance of different forms of
degradation.
B. Policy analysis. This module undertakes an analysis on current and future pressures on selected
environmental themes of sector development; it also discusses the role of sector policies for

                                                         1
mitigating those pressures, quantifying to the extent possible broad trade-offs in a cost-benefit
framework.
The themes/sectors analyzed within this module are a) Water quality1 (Chapter 4); b) Air pollution
from land transport (Chapter 5); and c) Industrial pollution (Chapter 6).
The reasons why the Bank team and the Government of Jordan have selected these particular areas in
this CEA module are the following:
·   First, relative priority in terms of social impacts: the COED analysis indicates that air and water
    pollution are the two most important forms of environmental degradation. In the case of air
    pollution, the selection of the transport and industry sectors for the analysis is natural, on account
    of the large contribution of these sectors to several key air pollutants (PM, NOx, SO2), and of the
    fast growth of the vehicular fleet (7% over the last few years).
·   Second, opportunities for spurring inter-sectoral dialogue and coordination: this applies for
    example to transport, where several agencies are involved in the regulation of vehicular
    emissions, fuel quality, the design and management of transport infrastructure, the monitoring of
    air quality;
    In the case of water quality, the issue is equally important and perhaps even more challenging: in
    presence of multiple actors responsible for discrete portions of the water quality agenda, it is easy
    to lose sight of the integral nature of the problem (which spans across different water types ­
    surface, ground, treated wastewater), of the need to look at different sources of pressures (urban
    development, agriculture, industry), and more generally to address in an integral manner the
    quantity agenda (that tends to dominate in the public debate and Government programs alike),
    and the quality agenda (which is important for human health and economic productivity,
    particularly in agriculture).
·   Finally, expectations of future growing pressure on the environment. Industry is an important
    sector of Jordan's economy (accounting for almost 20% of value added), growing fast over the
    last few years (12% per year in 2000-2006 against the average of 4% for middle-income
    countries), and poised to sustain or accelerate its growths if the targets of the national agenda are
    to be met. Relatively little is known of the volume and composition of industrial pollution in
    Jordan, and so far efforts to engage the private sector in improving the sector's environmental
    performance have generated limited results.
C. Institutional capacity assessment. This module "closes" the CEA analysis, by evaluating (in
Chapter 7) the country's capacity to address key environmental challenges (as identified under
module A), and to undertake policy actions to enhance environmental sustainability across sectors,
such as those discussed in module B of the CEA. Based on the findings of previous chapters, Chapter
8 proposes a number of short- and medium to longer term recommendations.

Approach and caveats
In the design and preparation of this report, a key concern was how to address the key challenge
which is inherent to the nature of CEAs as diagnostic tool, namely its broad ­encompassing nature.
The report attempts to address this challenge by stringing a balance between breadth and depth of the
analysis, given the time and resource constraints. In particular, on the one hand the report analyzes in



1
  This analysis was intended to complement the Water Sector Update study, a separate non-lending activity
programmed for FY08, which was designed to focus primarily on issues of water quantity, rather than quality. At the
request of the Ministry Planning, the Water sector update has been suspended.
                                                        2
more detail the sector themes includes in section B, proposing where possible simple tools for
evaluating selected trade-offs in quantitative terms.

On the other hand, it purports to cover in a more exhaustive fashion (and thus necessarily less in
depth) issues of priority-setting across environmental themes (Chapter 3), and of integration of
environmental concerns into the rules and behavior of relevant stakeholders, beyond sector and
institutional boundaries (Chapter 7).

It has to be recognized that several of the topics covered by CEA could have deserved a self-standing
study. As a result, the CEA should not be intended as a substitute for issue-specific analyses and
more detailed modeling exercises; but rather as a tool to inform, on the basis of the best evidence that
could be mobilized in the report's timeframe, policy makers, donor communities and the general
public, on the key issues that need to be addressed in the environmental domain, where necessary
through more in-depth and targeted analysis.
Most of the data and information used for the report have been collected in the period 2007-2008,
although efforts have been made to take into account selected key developments in relevant policies
occurred since then.




                                                   3
CHAPTER .
        2      KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN JORDAN

.1
2             Introduction

Over the last decade, Jordan's economy performed above the average of other MENA countries,
achieving macro-economic stability and a gross domestic product (GDP) of about US$2,630 per
capita in 2006 (World Bank, 2007a). The economy is mostly based on services (67 percent of GDP)
and industry and mining (30 percent). The annual growth rate reached 5.8 percent in 2006 - mainly
due to the construction and manufacturing sectors - and is expected to continue at a rate of 6.3
percent in 2007 and 5.7 percent in 2008 (CIA website2, 2008). Economic growth contributed to a
decline of poverty from 21.3 percent in 1997 to 14.2 percent in 20023. Moreover, illiteracy among
the poor dropped by 41 percent due to the Government's literacy campaigns and "Education for All"
strategy, whereas the infant and child mortality among the poor declined by nearly 33 percent4.
The socio-economic record is accompanied by significant progress in the environmental sector. This
includes:
·           The establishment in 2003 of the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv), and its gradual
            strengthening in terms of institutional capacity, legal upgrading, and training;
·           The adoption in 2006 of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) legislation and regulations
            (2006);
·           Efforts to integrate environmental concerns into sector strategies, such as the water strategy and
            National Water Master Plan (1997 and 2005) and the agricultural sector strategy (2001).
·           The introduction in the National Agenda (2005) -the country's roadmap and overarching policy
            framework for the years 2006-2011- of ambitious targets for improved environmental
            performance related to water, energy, transport, and waste.
Despite these positive developments, several pressures remain. A rapidly increasing population
(2.5 percent per year; World Bank, 2007a) puts pressure on natural resources, particularly water and
arable land. Concentration of population and hence of environmental strain, is likely be particularly
acute in urban areas: the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM)'s master plan forecasts a population
increase from 2.2 million today to 6.5 million in 2020 (GAM, 2008). Economic growth, particularly
through the development of transport and industry, has negative effects on water and air quality. The
country's limited water availability often results in unsustainable groundwater use, with consequent
declines in the water table and in water quality, which may be further exacerbated by climate change.
This chapter reviews the current state of the environment and identifies the main environmental
priorities facing Jordan. It analyzes the key accomplishments and challenges for the main
environmental areas and natural resources (Section 2.2), and then benchmarks Jordan's
environmental performance in terms of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the
Environmental Sustainability Index, and Genuine Savings (Section 2.3).



2
  See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
3
  This estimate is based on a poverty line of JOD392/capita/year, or JOD1/capita/day for 2002-2003. It reflects the
calorie requirements for Jordanians and allows for actual expenditure on non-food items (Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan and World Bank, 2004).
4
  Based on Demographic and Health Surveys, 1997 and 2002, as quoted by Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and
World Bank, 2004.
                                                          4
.2
2       Key Environmental Issues

2.2.1   Air Quality
Air pollution is one of the most important environmental challenges faced by Jordan (National
Agenda, 2005). The country adopted regulations aimed at reducing emissions that have a negative
impact on the environment5, setting ambient air quality standards comparable with international
standards6 and limiting values for industrial emissions7. The transport sector strategy addresses
environmental concerns related to different sub-sectors: for example it includes provisions to reduce
impacts from road freight transport and rationalize energy consumption; in the case of air transport
the strategy aims at reducing noise and emissions from aircraft by adopting relevant international
standards and upgrading national legislation. The revised national energy strategy (2007) sets a target
for use of renewable energy of 6 percent by 2020, and emphasizes the need for increased energy
efficiency which would reduce energy requirements by approximately 20 percent.
Jordan has made significant progress in adopting cleaner fuels in the energy and transport sectors. In
recent years, use of natural gas to replace diesel and heavy fuel oil by the power sector increased
substantially, reaching 77 percent of total fuel use in 2006. Moreover, in 2008 Jordan started to phase
out leaded gasoline and high sulfur diesel in an effort to improve fuel quality to meet the European
EURO 4 emission standards 8.
Air quality is a problem in low area, high density hotspots of vehicular traffic and industrial activity.
Most polluting emissions come from vehicles, industries, and residential activities. Table 1 shows
that vehicles represent a significant source of emissions in Jordan. The vehicle fleet is rapidly
increasing, at an annual rate of 7 to 10 percent9. Nevertheless, the vehicle fleet is relatively old, with
about 33 percent of the vehicles produced before 1990. Old cars are still maintained and used,
contributing significantly to emissions10. As Amman and South Amman host about 69 percent of all
Jordanian vehicles (AFD, 2006), they represent a major hot spot for air pollution. Emissions from the
industrial sector mainly originate from the cement plants in Fuheis and Rashidyia, the industrial area
of Hashimyeh near Zarqa, power plants and phosphate and potash industries in Aqaba, and others.
Among these, mining is the most important contributor to air pollution, accounting for about 62
percent of the TSP, 78 percent of the PM10 and 39 percent of the NOx generated by industry11.




5
  Environmental protection law No 1 of 2003
6
  The ambient air quality standards (JS 1140, updated in 2006) provide limits for total suspended particulates (TSP)
and PM10 and gaseous substances SO2, CO, NO2, H2S, and Pb (see Institutional Assessment chapter for more
details).
7
   The standards for emissions from stationary sources (JS 1189, updated in 2006) sets limits for TSP by type of
industry as well as gaseous substances (see Institutional Assessment chapter for more details).
8
  The EURO 4 standard for passenger cars specify per kilometer emissions for diesel of 0.5g of CO, 0.3g of HC and
NOx, 0.25g of NOx and 0.025g of PM; and for gasoline of 1 g of CO, 0.1 g of HC and 0.08g of NOx
(
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_emission_standards)
9
   Based on the information provided by the Licence and vehicle inspection directorate and the Ministry of
Environment
10
   See the Transport chapter for more details on the current fleet.
11
   The estimates are based on Industrial Pollution Projection System (IPPS) methodology. See the Industrial chapter
for more details.
                                                         5
Table 1. Pollutant emissions from vehicles and industries (2004)

Source of emissions                        NOx                     SO2                        TSP
                                                 a                      b
Road transportation (%)                     79                     20                          39
Other diesel (%)                             0                      0                           1
Air transport (%)                            2                      1                          14
Industry (%)                                 7                      30                         18
Electricity production (%)                  11                      48                         29
     Total (t)                            72,900                 123,000                      6,500
Sources: AFD, 2006, except for a Average corresponding to emissions ranging from 53,063t (AFD, 2006) and
62,160t (Transport chapter); a Average corresponding to emissions ranging from 24,240t (AFD, 2006) and 25,994t
(Transport chapter).

Table 2 summarizes the information made available to the World Bank CEA team on the main
sources of pollution, monitoring institutions, and pollutants monitored. Most of this information is
drawn from AFD (2006), completed with data obtained from the MoEnv. It should be noted that
monitoring is undertaken by several institutions, such as MoEnv in Hashimyeh and Ministry of
Health (MoH) in GAM, and that there is no centralized repository of information on ambient air
quality and emissions. The lack of easily available data makes it difficult to arrive at a
comprehensive understanding of the situation.
According to AFD (2006), air quality monitoring in Jordan mostly focuses on large industries. In
Hashimyeh, monitoring of H2S, CO, and SO2 at Ibn Al-Anbari, Um-Shuriak, and the Electrical
Training Centre is performed every hour. Figure 6 illustrates the monthly exceedances relative to
existing standards for H2S and SO2 monitored at Ibn Al-Anbari. Data on H2S exceedances are higher
than SO2 ones, while both peak during August12.
In other areas, however, monitoring is carried out less frequently. For example, it is only performed
once a week for the phosphorous plant of Aqaba and only once a month for the cement plant in
Rashidya. No air quality data appears to be available in other polluted cities, such as Irbid. This
suggests a need for improving ambient air monitoring by making it more systematic where it is now
infrequent, and by initiating it where it is completely lacking.




12
  Available data show that monitoring was undertaken only during 14 days for November and 23 days for
December. This may partly explain the low level of exceedances during these months.
                                                      6
Table 2. Main sources of emissions and monitoring institutions

Location         Main source of       Monitoring institutions           Pollutants                Frequency of
                 emissions            (stations)                        monitored                 monitoring
Fuheis           Cement plant         MoEnv (RSS)                       PM10                      every 2 days
Rashidya         Cement plant         MoEnv (RSS)                       NOx, CO, SO2, TSP         once a month
Hashimyeh        Refinery, power      MoEnv (RSS), through:             SO2, H2S, PM10, CO        every hour at Ibn Al-
(near Zarqa)     plant, steel         - Ibn Al-Anbari school for                                  Anbari school for SO2
                 industries,          SO2, H2S, PM10                                              and H2S a
                 quarries             - Um-Shuriak school for
                                      SO2, H2S, PM10
                                      - Electrical training centre
                                      for SO2, CO, PM10
Remote           Phosphate mines      RSS                               PM10                      n.a.
areasb
Aqaba            Phosphorous          ASEZA (RSS)                       SO2, NOx, CO, HF          once a week
                 acid plant
                 Power plants         n.a.                              n.a.                      n.a.
GAM              Traffic              MoH (RSS), through:               TSP, PM10, Pb             n.a.
                                    - Ean Jalout School/
                                    Shmeisani.
                                    - Civil Defense / Abu Nusair.
                                    - Ali Ben-Abi Taleb Mosque/
                                    Marka
                                    - Al- Husaini Mosque/
                                    Down Town (City Center).
Sources: AFD, 2006, except for a monitored data at Ibn Al-Anbari school.
Notes: bincluding Al-Albiad. n.a. = not available.
Figure 6. Monthly exceedances of H2S and SO2 monitored

  350                                                                          312

  300
                                                       258
  250

  200                                         172                179
                                       161                                           157
  150                           119
                           86                                                                85
  100      74
                                                65
                                                                               71
                  57                                   54              111
                                         46
    50                          22                               22    18            26
            15             16                                                              15
                   8
     0
           Nov- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun-                     Jul- Aug- Sep- Oct-
            05   05   06   06   06   06   06   06                      06    06   06  06

                                               H2S           SO2

Source: Data monitored at Ibn Al-Anbari School for November 2005-October 2006.

                                                             7
2.2.2    Water Resources
With a total renewable water availability of 133 m3/capita13 in 2005, or less than 15 percent of
MENA's average14, Jordan is one of the world's poorest countries in water resources. Balancing
scarce resources with growing demand is at the heart of water policy in Jordan. The water strategy
(1997) and National Water Master Plan (2005) aim at securing a reliable supply of water, particularly
for drinking water and irrigation. The groundwater management policy aims at reducing abstraction
from renewable aquifers to sustainable quantities. Jordan has several water and wastewater quality
standards15 and undertakes three types of monitoring: (i) environmental monitoring of the quality of
surface water and groundwater and of pollution sources; (ii) quality control monitoring of drinking
water supply and sanitation; and (iii) environmental health monitoring, related mainly to the hygienic
control of drinking water and wastewater as well as of other water uses such as bathing and
recreation16.
Despite the high attention given to improving water management, water scarcity remains a major
challenge. Moreover, rapid population growth is increasing water demand, putting additional
pressure on the limited water resources. Overall, water resources are expected to decline to about
90 m3/capita by 2025, putting Jordan in the category of absolute water shortage (Ministry of
Environment, 2006).
Annual water consumption is 941 million m3 (2005 data), of which about 64 percent is used for
irrigation17. Water demand is mostly met by groundwater (54 percent), followed by surface water
(37 percent) and treated wastewater (9 percent). The high water demand is already met by extracting
groundwater well above the safe yields. Total groundwater over-extraction from the eleven non-fossil
basins is 148.8 million m3, which is 50 percent above the safe yield of 293.5 million18.
Figure 7 presents data on the total abstraction and safe yields of the twelve major basins in Jordan. It
can be noted that over-extraction occurs in eight basins and is especially significant in Amman-
Zarqa, Dead Sea, Azraq, and Yarmouk19. In particular:
     ·   Amman-Zarqa is the country's largest renewable groundwater basin. Total extraction is 148.6
         million m3, representing 170 percent of safe yield.
     ·   Yarmouk basin is second in size and is recharged in the relatively high rainfall mountain
         areas in northern Jordan and southern Syria. Total extraction is 51 million m3, or 128 percent
         of safe yield.



13
   Ministry of Water and Irrigation, http://www.mwi.gov.jo/nwmp/index.htm. The amount includes the quantity of
recycled wastewater.
14
   The average water availability in MENA is about 1,200 m3/capita (World Bank, 2003)
15
   These are the Jordanian Standards 2002/1991 on industrial wastewater; 1145/1996 on uses of treated sludge in
agriculture; 286/2001-4th edition concerning drinking water; 893/2002 on water reclaimed domestic wastewater. See
more details in Chapter 6.
16
   See Chapter 4 for more details on water monitoring.
17
   See Chapter 4 for more details.
18
   Other sources report different figures on over-extraction. For example, the Ministry of Environment (2004) reports
that over-extraction of groundwater accounted for 226 million m3 in 2003. JICA (2001) estimated a groundwater
budget deficit of 130-145 million m3 for 1988, and the MoWI National Water Master Plan estimated a deficit of 104
million m3 for 2002. The differences between these figures are likely due in part to the different methods used for
calculation, and in part to the different reference years.
19
    A trend analysis of water consumption during 1998-2002 shows that groundwater abstraction in these basins
reached the peak during 1991-1993, corresponding to the influx of refugees after the first Gulf crisis (Annex 1).
                                                         8
      ·           Azraq basin supplies water to Amman Municipality. Total water extraction is currently 58.2
                  million m3, or more than 240 percent of safe yield.
      ·           Dead Sea basin supplies the highest share of industrial needs, especially for the potash
                  industry in the Dead Sea region. Total extraction from this basin is 91.2 million m3, or about
                  160 percent of the safe yield.
Groundwater over-exploitation leads to declining groundwater levels, decreasing the base flow and
spring discharge and drying up springs. The MoWI monitors groundwater levels through observation
wells20 distributed all over Jordan. Figure 8 shows data on the groundwater level of Amman-Zarqa
basin during 1968-2007. The water table declined from 50 m to about 84 m during this period,
corresponding to about 0.87 m per year. From 1992 to 2007, however, the groundwater table
declined about 23 m, which is equivalent to a drop of 1.5 m per year. This suggests that groundwater
overexploitation has worsened in recent years, an issue which needs to be addressed through an
improved water management.

Figure 7. Safe yields and over-abstraction from the eleven non-fossil basins in 2005

                  160
                  140
                  120
                  100
     million m3




                   80
                   60
                   40
                   20
                    0
                                                                         Jordan River Valley
                                                          Yarmouk




                                                                                                   Jordan River Side
                         Amman-Zarqa




                                                                                                                       South Wadi Araba


                                                                                                                                          North Wadi Araba




                                                                                                                                                                             Sarhan
                                                                                                                                                             Hammad
                                                  Azraq




                                                                                                                                                                      Jafr
                                       Dead Sea




                  -20
                                                                                                        Wadis




                                                                                                   Basins

                                                                    Safe yield                           Over-abstraction

Source: Based on MoWI data quoted in Chapter 4.




20
  According to the National Water Master Plan (NWMP) a total of 117 observation wells are equipped with
automatic recorders. Manual measurements are taken at irregular time interval from 81 well sites, of which 55 wells
are observation wells for static water levels, while 26 are production wells suitable for dynamic level recording. In
2002, there were 198 observation wells in Jordan, of which 80 for the A7/B2 aquifer, while the others for the
remaining aquifers.
                                                                                               9
Figure 8. Decline in groundwater level of Amman-Zarqa basin
                                                                                                                                                               Time
                              0    09/01/1968

                                                09/01/1970

                                                             09/01/1972

                                                                          09/01/1974

                                                                                       09/01/1976

                                                                                                    09/01/1978

                                                                                                                 09/01/1980

                                                                                                                              09/01/1982

                                                                                                                                           09/01/1984

                                                                                                                                                        09/01/1986

                                                                                                                                                                     09/01/1988

                                                                                                                                                                                  09/01/1990

                                                                                                                                                                                               09/01/1992

                                                                                                                                                                                                            09/01/1994

                                                                                                                                                                                                                         09/01/1996

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      09/01/1998

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   09/01/2000

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                09/01/2002

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             09/01/2004

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          09/01/2006
                             -10

                             -20
     Groundwater level (m)




                             -30

                             -40

                             -50

                             -60

                             -70

                             -80

                             -90



Note: the figures refer to Observation well AL1041
Source: based on MoWI data
Another important issue is the deterioration of water quality, which is closely linked to water
scarcity. The high demand for the limited water supply often leads to decreasing water quality: (i) for
domestic use, through an intermittent water supply provided to elevated tanks; and (ii) for
agriculture, due to increasing water salinity caused by groundwater overexploitation. Moreover, the
rapid growth of the industrial sector often results in discharge of untreated water in natural water
bodies. Chapter 4 provides a thorough analysis of water quality aspects and Chapter 6 discusses the
industrial sector, as a major source of water and air pollution.

2.2.3                              Land degradation
Jordan's agricultural area covers about 247,400 ha21, or 3 percent of the country's total land.
Agriculture accounts for 3 percent of the country's GDP (World Bank, 2007a) and employs about 58
percent of the rural population22. In 2002, about 19 percent of the rural population was poor
(Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and World Bank, 2004). As most of the rural poor depend on
agriculture, this sector is critical for socio-economic development in rural areas.
Rangelands, defined as areas receiving less than 200 mm of rainfall annually, cover more than 90
percent of the total land or 8.1 million ha. About 7.1 million ha of this area belong to Badia and the
rest is steppe (FAO, 2001). Most rangelands are located in the arid zone, where livestock is the major
source of income for local communities. Here, lands are usually overgrazed by nomadic and semi-
nomadic flock owners from late winter to midsummer. The most productive rangelands are located
within the 100-250 mm rainfall zone, and are represented by steppe grassland and brush. In this zone,
barley is cultivated for hay, as rainfall is rarely adequate to produce a reasonable crop and limited
vegetative growth is common (Ministry of Environment, 2006).
Sheep and goats form the major part of the country's livestock herd, with 2.5 million heads (DOS,
2006b). Nearly 40 percent are found in Mafraq governorate, which includes the major part of the

21
  Including the area covered by crop fields, vegetables, and trees (DOS, 2006).
22
  The proportion is based on an agricultural population estimated at 560,000 in 2005 (FAOSTAT database) and a
rural population of about 959,000 in the same year (World Bank database).
                                                                                                                                                        10
country's Badia. Unsound management practices such as uncontrolled grazing and inadequate land
tenure have resulted in severe rangeland degradation in Jordan23. Such degradation is reflected
qualitatively through the decrease in the most palatable and nutritious plants and soil degradation;
and quantitatively, through a lower vegetative cover. Most of the rangelands are now characterized
by poor structural stability of soils and vulnerability to erosion (Ministry of Environment, 2006).
Despite the wide consensus concerning rangeland degradation, only a few efforts to estimate the
decrease in rangeland productivity have been undertaken. The Ministry of Environment (2006)
estimates that rangeland carrying capacity decreased by 70 percent over the last seventy years24.
Junaidi and Abu Zant (1993) and AOAD (2006) report data on rangeland productivity in specific
years. A comparison across these studies show that fodder productivity of steppe declined from 200
kg dry matter (DM)/ha in 1990 to 83 kg DM/ha in 2006, meanwhile that of Badia region decreased
from 80 kg DM/ha in 1990 to 40 kg DM/ha in 2006. Moreover, AOAD (2006) reported the actual
productive area of rangelands in Jordan at 4.1 million ha, which is nearly 50 percent of the total area
of rangelands.
Several development projects were undertaken for rangeland rehabilitation. According to FAO
(2006), the Ministry of Agriculture established 29 reserves covering 84,400 ha in all regions, with the
aim of protection, water harvesting, re-planting, re-seeding, and grazing control. The Ministry also
carried out development projects in specific areas, such as the Hamad basin, aiming at water
development for livestock, animal production and health, and range development and management.
The Ministry is implementing the National Rangeland Rehabilitation Program using a participatory
approach involving the stakeholders. The range directorate also implements micro-projects to
encourage private range development, water harvesting and fodder production. In addition, the
Jordan Cooperative Organization is carrying out a program of planting fodder shrubs and improving
grazing in communal lands allocated to those cooperatives by the Ministry of Agriculture.
2.2.4   Biodiversity and protected areas
Jordan covers four different bio-geographical zones: the Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-
Arabian and Sudanian Penetration, which endow the country with a rich variety of plant and animal
life. The country is home to more than 2,500 wild plant species from 700 genera, of which
approximately 100 are endemic, 250 are rare and 125 are very rare (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,
2003; UNEP et al., 2000). The rich biodiversity suggests Jordan's high potential for the development
of nature tourism, as illustrated by a high number of tourists visiting Dana and Azraq nature reserves.
Overall, it is worth noting that tourism is an important sector at national level, accounting for 10% of
Jordan's GDP (Government of Jordan, 2004) and having a positive balance, with receipts 2.6 times
higher than expenditures (Ministry of Tourism, 2007).
Biodiversity is an important element of the country's vision on the environment. At the regional and
international levels, the Government of Jordan has ratified the following conventions: the Convention
on Biological Diversity, the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Ramsar Convention, the
Convention on Migratory Species, the World Heritage Convention, the African Eurasian Waterbird
Agreement (AEWA) and the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf
of Aden Environment. Jordan is also party to the IUCN and UNESCO Man and Biosphere Program
through a national committee.

23
   The damage was intensified by the influx of more than one million refugees in addition to hundreds of thousands
of sheep and goats crossing the borders from Iraq following the Gulf War. As part of the Gulf war compensations,
the United Nations Compensation Committee (UNCC) has awarded Jordan a sum of US$160 million for
rehabilitation of the rangelands of the Badia region which were severely affected by the Gulf war (United Nations
Compensation Committee (UNCC), Governing Council, Claim).
24
   However, the report does not explain how the estimate was calculated.
                                                       11
Biodiversity in Jordan is however exposed to several threats such as an accelerated pace of
development and investment, population growth including forced regional migration (recently from
Iraq), lack of coordinated land use policy, lack of understanding and appreciation of the economic
and social value of biodiversity; and limited financing. These factors are likely leading to declining
biodiversity in certain sites.
Jordan's vision for Protected Areas (PAs) is captured in its Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 2003). There are currently 7 legally constituted PAs extending over
1,143 km2, or 1.3% of Jordan's land area25. Most of this area is located in the desert. The process of
PA establishment has started in the mid 1940s, but it has significantly accelerated over the two
decades (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Cumulative area under protection

           1,400


           1,200


           1,000


            800
     KM2




            600


            400


            200


             -
                 1940   1950   1960   1970    1980     1990      2000     2010
                                         Years


A further 10 PAs, covering about 4,500 km2 are proposed for establishment (Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan, 2003; UNEP et al., 2000). They would increase the PAs to about 6.4% of total land area
country, which would compare favorably with MENA average of 3% (in 2004). Among them, 4 PAs
are expected to be legally designated through the ongoing World-Bank executed and GEF-funded,
Jordan Integrated Ecosystem Management in the Jordan Rift Valley project. These PAs, constituted
as national parks or national wildlife reserves, come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Environment. An additional 23 forests and rangeland reserves extend over 600 km2 and fall under the
ownership of Forestry Administration, Ministry of Agriculture. Table 3 summarizes the different
type of protected areas.




25
  The World Bank (2008a) reports that protected area in Jordan was about 11% of the country's land in 2004, as
opposed to MENA's average of 3% for the same year. The available information does not provide any explanation
on the differences in the estimates for Jordan (11% vs. 1.3%).
                                                     12
Table 3. Typology of protected areas
Type of area                                             Number of areas under          Area (KM2)        % of Jordan
                                                             protection
Legally constituted protected areas                                   7                     1,143             1.30%
Proposed for establishment                                           10                     4,500             5.12%
Forests and rangeland reserves                                       23                      600              0.68%
Non protected areas                                                                         81,680           92.90%
Total                                                                40                     87,923            100%

Jordan is making good progress towards meeting its vision for PAs. In 2004, the Ministry of
Environment accorded the legal remit, approved by the Council of Ministers, to the non-
governmental organization Royal Society for Conservation of Nature (RSCN) to establish, develop,
and manage PAs. RSCN has built on their positive experiences from the Dana and Azraq PAs to
advance the agenda of PAs. These experiences have been the hallmark of the country's fame in
conservation. Overall, Jordan has been very successful in terms of the approaches and methodologies
applied to biodiversity conservation at site level. Key elements of success include:
·       Incorporating scientifically and socially proven methodologies into PA management.
·       Involving local people and other stakeholders from the outset in the designation process of PA
        boundaries, as a means to gain the confidence of the stakeholders.
·       Successfully use an incentive driven approach rather than regulatory approach to PA
        management by using income generation programs in PAs, as a vehicle for engaging local
        communities, and changing their attitudes related to some ecologically damaging practices.
·       Introducing private sector and business planning approaches to the marketing and management
        of its nature-based enterprises ­ particularly the use of ecotourism as a strategy to improve local
        economy and livelihood strategies while conserving biodiversity has been successfully applied
        in PAs.
·       Establishing a database of ecological and biodiversity related data and linking it to PAs
        management through GIS and remote sensing technology.
To consolidate the results achieved and further proceed towards sustainability of the PA system,
Jordan will need to address a number of key issues related to the PA legal status, to land use
planning, clarification of institutional roles, and mobilization of adequate resources. These are
discussed in more detail in Box 1.
Box 1. Priority issues to be addressed by Jordan protected areas policy

     a) Legal and Policy Context for Protected Areas. Jordan does not, as yet, have an officially endorsed policy on
     PAs. There is a draft policy framework that was produced under the auspices of the Ministry of Planning in
     1996. The legal context for PAs is also inadequate. While the Environment Protection Act, through its by-laws,
     guides the legal provisions for PA development and management, there are still significant legal deficiencies
     which are not addressed by these by-laws, particularly related to land-use planning and land tenure26. There is an
     urgent need for a clear set of policies, grounded in legal provisions, to provide a frame of reference for the PAs'
     future. This should provide a context for PAs in relation to development priorities in the country, including
     priorities related to land-use provisions. As part of the policy development, there is also an urgent need for
     awareness and advocacy programs for decision makers to reflect the importance of biodiversity, especially in

26
  This policy work has been initiated by the ongoing World Bank executed and GEF funded Jordan Integrated
Ecosystem Management in the Jordan Rift Valley project.
                                                             13
     terms of the economic and social benefits it provides.
     b) Land use planning and institutional mandates. There is an institutional overlap of mandates with regard to
     land-use and land-use planning, and a lack of clarity with regard to the designation of PAs. This challenge is
     especially evident in the Jordan Rift Valley where much of the critical habitats of importance for biodiversity are
     situated and which is also the major development corridor for the country. Within this valley the mandates,
     priorities and interests of key entities such as the Jordan Valley Authority, Aqaba Special Economic Zone
     Authority (ASEZA), the Natural Resources Authority, Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, and
     Ministry of Environment, sometimes overlap and the demands can be conflicting. While the Government's
     priority to pursue an investment driven agenda may be valid, it is critical that this be undertaken with due regard
     to the natural resources base of the Valley, its carrying capacity and an understanding of the consequences of
     irreversibility associated with habitat conversion or degradation. It is essential that decisions are made on the
     basis of adequate information and within a broader policy and legal context. As a priority, there is a need to
     develop a land use planning system, with particular attention to good public consultation and enforcement
     processes. Such a system would provide a guiding planning framework within which the different institutions
     would operate. There is also need to strengthen the institutional capacities of the Ministry of Environment and
     the challenges facing the longer-term strategic positioning of RSCN to ensure that the long-term stewardship of
     the issues facing PAs is effective.
     c) Budgetary resources. Budgetary resources to manage the PAs and the expansion of the PA network are
     critical to ensure that biodiversity in these parks is conserved. RSCN has already established some financing
     mechanisms, including the endowment fund Jordan Fund for Nature, and ecotourism and other socio-economic
     programs to meet the recurrent costs associated with the management of PAs. For example, the Jordan Fund for
     Nature has about $7 million and is expected to increase to $9 million (World Bank, 2007d). The endowment is
     currently invested in the financial market and the generated revenue stream supports the core expenses of RSCN,
     including the running costs of some PAs. These mechanisms are not however sufficient to meet the needs for
     managing PAs. Additional funds are needed to ensure that biodiversity can be conserved effectively. There
     should be concerted efforts to expand the suite of tools for raising financing, including for example development
     offsets, e.g., debt for nature swaps.



2.2.5       Solid waste
Jordan currently generates an estimated 1.5 million t of municipal solid waste annually27. Due to
population and consumption growth this quantity will grow to about 2.5 million t/year by 2015.
About 55%-70% of waste is organic. Waste collection rates are estimated at 90% in urban areas and
75% in rural areas. About 50% of waste is disposed of in 16 open dump sites without lining or
leachate and biogas connections. The exceptions are Russeifah and El Ghabawi, in Greater Amman
which account for 50% of total waste. Voluntary burning of waste or through aerobic decomposition
(self ignition) in open dumps are common ways of waste disposal. The most significant health
impacts and risks are associated with the open dumps around the large cities of Amman, Zarqa, Irbid,
Madaba, Tafila, Ramtha, Middle Shuma, and Aqaba. Scavengers are permitted to segregate waste
and take away recyclable materials.
Jordan also generated about 23,000 t of hazardous and chemical waste in 2001. This quantity is
expected to increase to about 68,000 t/year in 2017. Hazardous and chemical wastes are currently
disposed untreated with municipal waste in open dumps. Jordan further generated about 5,330 t of
medical waste in 2004. About 53% of this waste, mostly from public health care centers, is treated in
outdated incinerators located in populated areas, while the remaining 47% is also mixed with
municipal and hazardous waste in open dump sites (National Agenda, 2005).
Solid waste management (SWM) is regulated by Environment Protection Law No.1 of 2003 and its
executive regulations: No.27 of 2005 for municipal waste management and No.24 of 2005 on
hazardous waste management. However, these regulations only describe general responsibilities and

27
     The data used in this section is based on World Bank, 2008b, unless otherwise specified.
                                                              14
principles and are disseminated on the MoEnv website. There are gaps in criteria for identifying
municipal and hazardous wastes and the procedures used in various international and legal
instruments such as in Basle Convention. The detailed specifications and standards to establish
sanitary and hazardous landfills are also lacking.
Until the mid 1990s, waste management was not seen as a pressing issue by the Government, which
focused on investments in water resources and wastewater management. There was more emphasis
on waste collection carried by each of the 99 municipalities or by their private contractors. Waste
disposal and management is entrusted to the 21 Common Services Councils (CSC), except in
Russeifah and El Ghabawi in Greater Amman. CSCs were established in 1980 to serve a group of
municipalities and achieve a more controlled management of disposal sites, thus reducing
environmental impacts and public complaints. However, these councils still lack the human,
technical, and financial capacity to be able to manage even the existing open dump sites. With the
approval of the Jordan National Agenda in which waste management is a priority, the situation is
now changing and the Government of Jordan is determined to address solid waste issues on a par
with waste and wastewater issues.
As of April 2008, only a draft policy on municipal waste management had been developed by the
MoEnv. Responding to the five objectives in the Government National Agenda for Sustainable
Development in the waste sector, this draft policy calls for (a) minimizing the generation of
municipal waste; (b) reusing, recycling, and compositing of municipal waste; (c) encouraging the
implementation of pilot projects for sorting and segregating waste and replicating the successful
ones; (d) proper disposing of municipal waste in sanitary landfills; (e) increasing environmental
awareness and capacity building; (e) extending the coverage of waste collection and waste sorting;
and (f) addressing the economics of waste management, enlarging private sector participation in
waste management, and taking advantage of the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism.
Despite the lack of a well-defined policy, a supporting legal and institutional framework, and
necessary waste planning, there have been achievements in many Jordanian cities, and in particular
in the Greater Amman Municipality (GAM). The MoEnv and the Mayor of GAM provide strong
leadership to ensure a successful SWM in GAM, an example to be replicated in other governorates.
A rigorous, but expensive waste collection effort (costing about JOD25/ton in GAM) is improving
the cleanliness of streets in the main Jordanian cities. Jordan has one of the best solid waste cost
recovery rates in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), thanks to an effective system of
collecting household tariffs via electricity bills, and a recent increase in the tariff (from 14 JOD to 20
JOD per household per year). Nevertheless, SWM revenues do not currently cover SWM costs, with
an estimated financing gap of about JOD8 million in 2007. The private sector is now involved in
recycling municipal waste for GAM.
The Government of Jordan is pursuing a number of initiatives aimed at strengthening solid waste
management in Jordan, at the policy and institutional level, as well as on the investment side; to
ensure long-term success, these initiatives will need to be scaled up, extended to better cover issues
such as medical and hazardous waste, and supported by an active cost-recovery policy. Main
initiatives underway and key remaining challenges are further discussed in Box 2.
Box 2. Solid Waste Management: recent progress and remaining challenges

The Government of Jordan is pursuing a number of reforms aimed at establishing an environment conducive to
sound SWM in Jordan, beginning in the GAM and the Middle Region:
At the policy and legal levels: The Ministry of Environment in consultation with representatives of the sector
ministries, CSCs, and civil society is completing the development of a SWM policy. The Ministry is also receiving
technical assistance from the EC to prepare a draft framework law and waste regulations compatible with EU
directives.

                                                       15
At the institutional level, the Government is taking steps to restructure the SWM sector in the municipalities and
CSCs. Such restructuring will be carried out first in the GAM with the assistance of the World Bank through its
forthcoming Amman Solid Waste and Carbon Finance project (see below) and of USAID through its Sustainable
Achievement of Business Expansion and Quality (SABEQ) program.
In terms of investment, the Government is attempting to attract increased private sector investments and foreign
technology and know-how in the collection and disposal of hazardous and medical waste of the Middle Region. A
public­private partnership will be established with an international operator during mid-2008 for a 30 year BOOT
for the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of medical and industrial waste with an investment level of US$
20 million. The operator will be provided with a 3 ha site in El Ghabawi landfill for installation of an incinerator and
for physical, biological and chemical treatment of waste, and with a 6 ha site for hazardous waste landfill in Swaka,
150 km south of Amman. The operator will be responsible for collecting fees from industrial and medical
installations.
The Government also intends to provide a guarantee for a US$18 million World Bank loan to the GAM, which is
expected to be approved in late 2008. The project will enhance GAM capacity to develop private sector participation
in MSWM in Amman; environmentally upgrade and expand the existing municipal solid waste landfill to meet the
city's disposal needs up to 2014 and generate electricity while mitigating GHGs through a waste to energy CDM
project; and improve the cost effectiveness of the existing municipal solid waste collection and transport system and
improve overall cost recovery.

Building on achievements and reform measures to date, the following additional actions will be required:
·    Establishing a comprehensive legal framework that sets up legally binding principles and requirements to
     ensure a gradual adoption of an integrated SWM. Regulatory guidelines and standards for implementation
     should be flexible and adaptable to local conditions with community participation. Incentive systems, cost
     recovery and risk guarantees should be clearly defined.
·    Strengthening the institutional framework with clear roles and responsibilities for action at the regional and
     local level, taking into account the formal sector of private operators and investors, CSCs and municipalities,
     and supported by a strengthened human capacity on SWM. A regulatory function for compliance with the EIA
     provisions and environmental standards should be reinforced at the MoEnv to protect public health, and
     environmental resource quality.
·    Preparing master plans for the collection and disposal of municipal, medical and hazardous waste in the urban
     and peri-urban areas to deliver effective and affordable management services to the local community, using
     simple and efficient technologies.
·    Gradually improving the cost recovery mechanism to cover the financial costs of the existing and upcoming
     SWM contracts, in a socially acceptable way. This will assist the Government of Jordan to successfully progress
     in the integrated SWM approach and to solve the persistent problem of SWM throughout the country.


.3
2       Benchmarking Jordan's environmental performance

2.3.1    The Millennium Development Goals
Adopted by the UN members in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have become a
universal framework for development agreed by all the world's countries and leading development
institutions. The MDG system comprises 8 goals associated with 18 targets and 48 indicators of
sustainable development. Jordan's report on MDGs achievements (MoPIC and UN, 2004) reflects
the country's progress on the environmental sustainability goal, in reference to its 3 targets and 7
indicators (Table 4). Overall, the country achieved the target on access to safe drinking water by
2002. The targets of integrating the sustainable development principles into country's policies and
programs and improving the lives of 100 million slum dwellers can be potentially achieved.
Available data suggest good progress particularly on forested land, areas protected for biodiversity,
and access to improved water source and to safe sanitation.

                                                          16
Table 4. Jordan's progress towards environmental sustainability

Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs
and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Indicator                                       1990   2002       State of goal State                of
                                                                  achievement   supportive
                                                                                environment
Proportion of land area covered by 0.44                0.84       Potentially      Weak             but
forests                                                                            improving
Land area protected to maintain 0.14                   0.44
biodiversity
GDP per unit of energy use (as proxy 0.63              0.56
for energy efficiency)
Carbon dioxide emission per capita              2.2    2.3
Target 10: Halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water
Proportion of population with 92.8%                    97%        Achieved         Well developed
sustainable access to an improved
water source
Target 11: Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum
dwellers
Proportion of people with access to 48%                60.1%      Potentially      Fair
safe sanitation
Proportion of people with access to 72%                76.2%
secure tenure
Source: MoPIC and UN, 2004
2.3.2      Environmental Sustainability Index
It is interesting to compare Jordan's environmental performance with that of other countries. Several
environmental sustainability indices can be used for this purpose. The Environmental Sustainability
Index (ESI) evaluates the environmental sustainability relative to paths developed by other countries.
It was developed by the Yale Center of Environmental Law and Policy in collaboration with CIESIN
at Columbia University. It is a composite index of 21 indicators that cover five broad categories of
environmental pressure: environmental systems, reducing environmental stresses, reducing human
vulnerability to environmental stresses; societal and institutional capacity to respond to
environmental challenges and global stewardship.
One weakness of ESI is that it gives equal weights to all its sub-components, thus assuming a
uniform distribution of environmental pressures across countries28. In reality, countries may be
vulnerable to different pressures: some are vulnerable to water scarcity, while others to ecosystem
losses. Thus, ESI scores are meaningful if used to benchmark the performance of countries facing
similar environmental constraints. Table 5 presents the ESI scores and ranks for MENA countries.
With a few exceptions mentioned in the table notes, these countries have two common features:
(i) desert covers more than 50% of each country's land; and (ii) they are either water stressed or
water scarce. In 2005, Jordan ranked the 84th out of 146 countries in terms of ESI. It occupies the

28
     see more discussion in World Bank, 2005.
                                                       17
third position among MENA countries, after Israel and Oman. The higher ESI score compared to
other MENA countries may suggest the country's relatively greater capacity to address the
environmental stresses it faces.
Table 5. ESI score and rank for MENA countries

Country                                                                         Score               Rank
Israel                                                                          50.90                62
Oman                                                                            47.90                83
Jordan                                                                          47.80                84
Algeria                                                                         46.00                96
Morocco                                                                         44.80               105
United Arab Emirates                                                            44.60               110
Egypt                                                                           44.00               115
Syria                                                                           43.80               117
Libya                                                                           42.30               126
Lebanon                                                                         40.50               129
Iran                                                                            39.80               132
Saudi Arabia                                                                    37.80               136
Yemen                                                                           37.30               137
Kuwait                                                                          36.60               138
Source: Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy at Yale University and Centre for International Earth
Science Information Network at Columbia University, 2005.
Notes: The desert covers more than 50% of the land in all countries except for Syria and Lebanon.
2.3.3     Adjusted Net Savings
Adjusted Net Savings (ANS), known also as genuine savings, is another sustainability indicator.
Building on the concepts of green national accounts, it measures the true rate of savings in an
economy after taking into account investments in human capital, depletion of natural resources and
damage caused by pollution29. First, estimates of capital consumption of produced assets are
deducted to obtain national savings. Current expenditures of education are then added to net domestic
savings as an appropriate value of investments in human capital. Next, estimates of the depletion of a
variety of natural resource are deducted to reflect the decline in asset values associated with their
extraction. Finally, pollution damages ­ mainly health damages due to urban air pollution - are
deducted.
Genuine Savings = Gross national savings ­ Depreciation of Fixed Capital + Education expenditure ­
Depletion of natural resources ­ Pollution damages
The World Bank estimated ANS for six MENA countries. Table 5 shows that Jordan ranks second in
MENA, after Morocco. Jordan's good performance is mainly due to a very low value of natural
resource depletion and a relatively high expenditure in human capital. The ANS estimate is negative
for the other countries. This is mainly because Egypt, Iran and Syria have a high level of energy
depletion (Table 6) while Lebanon has a negative value of gross national savings.
29
     World Bank website: go.worldbank.org/3AWKN2ZOY0
                                                        18
Table 6. Adjusted Net Savings estimated for MENA countries (2006)
Country            Gross National             Consumption of         Education          Depletion of       Adjusted
                    Savings (1)                Fixed Capital        Expenditure      natural resources    net savings
                                                    (2)                 (3)            and pollution       (1-2+3-4)
                                                                                        damages (4)
Morocco                      35.0                   10.5                   6.5              1.5               29.4
Jordan                       13.8                   10.2                   5.6              2.1               7.1
Egypt                        22.1                    9.8                   4.4             26.9              -10.2
Lebanon                      -4.5                   11.9                   2.5              1.5              -15.4
Iran                         40.7                   11.0                   4.4             57.3              -23.2
Syria                        17.6                   10.3                   2.6             33.8              -24.0
Figure 10. Environmental degradation in MENA countries (2006)

           70.0

           60.0

           50.0

           40.0
   % GNI




           30.0

           20.0


           10.0

            0.0
                      Iran            Syria          Egypt          Jordan        Lebanon       Morocco

           Energy Depletion     Mineral Depletion   Net Forest Depletion     CO2 damage     PM10 damage


The fairly good environmental performance of Jordan when measured through the indicators
reviewed above can be interpreted that, compared to other countries in MENA and elsewhere, there
are favorable conditions for focusing the country's effort on the main present and future
environmental challenges. What is likely to be needed is adequate information on relative priorities
across environmental themes; and good insights on how to best address priority issues through cost
effective policy interventions across relevant sectors. The rest of the CEA addresses these issues,
starting in Chapter 3 with the analysis of the Cost of Environmental Degradation.




                                                               19
CHAPTER .
        3    THE COST OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
.1
3           Introduction and main findings

This chapter estimates the Cost of Environmental Degradation (COED) from anthropogenic sources
in Jordan, focusing on water, air, land, waste and coastal zone30. The overall COED is estimated
within a range of JOD143-332 million, with an average of JOD237 million, or 2.35% of GDP in
2006. It is recognized that natural factors also contribute to deteriorating environmental quality (as in
the case, for example, of seasonal winds contributing to the concentration of particulate matter in the
air); however the report does not analyze these factors.
Figure 11 and Figure 12 illustrate the magnitude of impacts estimated for each environmental
category. The most important contributor to the overall damage is air pollution, which is highly
localized and accounts for 1.15% of GDP. The impact of inadequate water supply, sanitation and
hygiene is the second most significant, representing about 0.81% of GDP. The cost of improper
disposal of solid waste ranks third, followed by that of degradation of soil and coastal zone. Annex 2
provides detailed calculations for each category of damage.
It should be noted that several estimates suffer from data constraints. In some cases, the absence of
local information imposed the use of benefits transfer from international studies. This is the case of
valuing the impact of urban air pollution on the quality of life, the impact of forest degradation on
tourism, the effect of improper waste collection and the degradation of the Aqaba gulf. In other cases,
data limitations were so severe that some losses could not be estimated at all. The major issues not
covered by this study include: the impact of pollutants other than PM2.5, PM10 and SO2 on health;
the impact of PM2.5 and PM10 on health in polluted areas other than Amman, Zarqa, Fuhais,
Rashadeia; the impacts of SO2 in polluted areas other than Zarqa; and the impacts of untreated
wastewater in areas other than Zarqa and Rimal El Zahabia El-Hassan on environment and health.
Because of these reasons, the overall COED estimate should be regarded as an order of magnitude,
which most likely underestimates the true value of damage. It would be desirable that the exercise be
repeated at regular intervals of time, to make use of new data as it becomes available and to
capitalize on accumulated knowledge.




30
   An earlier study (World Bank, 2005) estimated the COED in Jordan at JOD205 million, or 3.13% of GDP in
2002. Important methodological and empirical differences between the two studies make a direct comparison of
their results difficult.
                                                    20
Figure 11. Annual cost of environmental degradation by category in 2006


        1.40%

        1.20%         1.15%

        1.00%
                                 0.81%
 % of GDP




        0.80%

        0.60%

        0.40%
                                                0.23%
        0.20%                                                     0.11%
                                                                                   0.06%
        0.00%
                          Air    Water         Waste              Soil      Coastal zone



Table 7. Annual cost of environmental degradation (2006)
Sector                          Minimum               Maximum              Mean            % of GDP
                                (mil JOD)             (mil JOD)          (mil JOD)

Air                               29.1                  200.3              114.8             1.15
Water                             76.8                   89.2               83.1             0.81
Waste                             20.6                   25.2               22.9             0.23
Soil                              10.7                   10.7               10.7             0.11
Coastal zone                       5.9                    5.9                5.9             0.06
Total                            143.1                  331.3             237.4              2.36

.2
3           Air quality

In selected areas such as downtown Amman, Zarqa, Aqaba, Fuhais, and Rashadeia, degradation of
air quality is an important problem. While particulates of less than 10 microns (PM10) are thought to
cause substantial health damages, Pope and others (2002) show that even smaller particulates
(PM2.5) have the largest health effects. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (Nox) may also
have important consequences, as they can react with other substances in the atmosphere to form
particulates. This section estimates the costs associated with:
      - adult mortality related to cardiopulmonary diseases and lung cancer caused by long-term
        exposure to PM2.5;
      - infant and child mortality related to respiratory diseases caused by short-term exposure to
        PM10;
      - all-age mortality related to exposure to SO2;



                                                 21
            - all-age morbidity related to exposure to PM10, such as chronic bronchitis, hospital
              admissions of patients with respiratory problems, emergency room visits, restricted activity
              days, lower respiratory infections in children, and general respiratory symptoms.

    The above impacts are estimated for GAM, Zarqa, Aqaba, Fuheis and Rashadeia; exception is SO2
    which impact is estimated for Zarqa only. Valuation is based on the following steps:

        1. Identification of pollutants and measurements of concentration

    Table 8 presents the average PM10 concentration estimated for the selected areas and the main
    sources of information. As GAM accounts for about half of the country's population, we illustrate
    below the main steps to estimate the average PM10 concentration for this area:
(i)          The Al-Husseini station in downtown Amman is selected as a reference for what is likely to be
             the highest concentration of PM10 throughout Amman. Downtown Amman corresponds to
             Al-Madeenah which is only one of the 27 districts of the GAM. The Ministry of Health has
             been conducting measurements of PM10 concentration at Al-Husseini over the period 2002-
             2007. The average annual concentration of PM10 over this period is estimated at 124 g/m3.
(ii)         The PM10 concentrations for the other districts are estimated by using the PM10
             concentration in Al-Madeenah and a specific scaling factor (varying between 0 and 100%),
             reflecting the potential impact on reference PM10 concentration (i.e. concentration measured
             at the Al-Husseini station) of wind, topography and traffic in each district, based on local
             expert opinion (staff of the MoEnv and GAM).
(iii)        The average PM10 concentration in GAM is calculated based on the PM10 concentration and
             the population density in each district. The weighted average concentration for GAM as a
             whole is estimated at 67 g/m3.

    Table 8. Estimated PM10 concentrations for the selected urban areas

    Location               Estimated average                               Notes/Sources
                          PM10 concentration
                                  (g/m3)
    GAM                              67                MoH for data in Al-Husseini, annual average 2002-2007
    Zarqa                            95                RSS for MoEnv for 2003-2004*
    Fuheis                           58                MoEnv, annual average 2004-2006
    Rashadeia                        54                MoEnv, annual average 2003-2006
*
    based on observations taken every other day, as reported by MoEnv.

        2. Estimating the population exposed

    For each GAM district, exposed population is estimated by multiplying total resident population by a
    coefficient of exposure. The latter reflects the proportion of total population which spends most of
    the time in the district where they reside and is based on expert local opinion (staff of the MoEnv and
    GAM). The average total exposed population in GAM is the sum of the exposed population in each
    district and accounts for 64% of the total GAM population. In absence of more information, the
    proportion of exposed population in the other areas is assumed to be equal to that in GAM.

                                                          22
     3. Establishing dose-response coefficient

The impacts of PM10 and PM2.5 on mortality are estimated by using the following relative risk (RR)
functions provided below (Ostro, 2004). The impacts of PM10 on morbidity are based on dose
response coefficients from Ostro (1994) and Abbey (1995)31 which are presented in Table 9. As
PM2.5 data are not available for Jordan, we approximate them by converting PM10 levels using a
factor of 0.6 (Cohen and others, 2004). We use a threshold level (baseline concentration) of 10 g/m3
for PM2.5 and of 20 g/m3 for PM10, given by the WHO air quality guidelines (WHO, 2005).

a. For mortality related to short-term exposure of children under 5 years:

                                            RR = exp[ (x-x0)],

        where  ranges between 0.0006 and 0.0010;
              x = current annual mean concentration of PM10 (g/m3);
              x0 = baseline concentration of PM10 (g/m3).

b. For cardiopulmonary mortality related to long-term exposure of adults over 30 years (Pope and
others, 2002):

                                          RR = [(x + 1)/(x0+1)] 

        where  ranges between 0.0562 and 0.2541;
              x = current annual mean concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3);
              x0 = baseline concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3).

c. For lung cancer mortality related to long-term exposure of adults over 30 years (Pope and others,
2002):

                                          RR = [(x + 1)/(x0+1)] 

        where  ranges between 0.08563 and 0.37873;
              x = current annual mean concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3);
              x0 = baseline concentration of PM2.5 (g/m3).


The morbidity health endpoints considered are chronic bronchitis, hospital admissions of patients
with respiratory problems, emergency room visits, restricted activity days, lower respiratory
infections in children, and general respiratory symptoms.




31
  Ostro (1994) reviews air pollution studies worldwide and Abbey and others (1995) provide estimates of chronic
bronchitis associated with PM10.
                                                      23
Table 9. Dose-response coefficients for morbidity due to exposure to PM10
Annual Health Effect                                            Dose-response               per 1 ug/m3
                                                                 coefficients           annual average ambient
                                                                                           concentration of:
Chronic bronchitis                                                     0.9                     PM10
(per 100,000 adults)
Respiratory hospital admissions                                        1.2                      PM10
(per 100,000 population)
Emergency room visits                                                 23.5                      PM10
(per 100,000 population)
Restricted activity days                                              5,750                     PM10
(per 100,000 adults)
Lower respiratory illness in children (per 100,000                     169                      PM10
children)
Respiratory symptoms                                                 18,300                     PM10
(per 100,000 adults)
Source: Ostro (1994) and Abbey (1994) for morbidity coefficients.


     4. Estimating the health effects

The health effects of air pollution are converted to Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) to
facilitate comparisons with health effects from other environmental factors and between mortality
and morbidity using a common indicator. Table 10 presents the number of DALYs per 10,000 cases
of various health end-points. Based on the total number of cases estimated in the areas considered,
morbidity accounts for 5,634 DALYs and mortality for 7,557 DALYs, totaling 13,191 DALYs.

Table 10. DALYs for health effects
Annual Health Effect                                     DALY lost per 10,000 Total DALYs
                                                         cases a
Mortality                                                80,000               7,557
Chronic bronchitis (adults)                              22,000               1,892
Respiratory hospital admissions                          160                  29
Emergency room visits                                    45                   162
Restricted activity days                                 3                    1,649
Lower respiratory illness in children                    65                   590
Respiratory symptoms                                     0.75                 1,312
Total                                                                         13,191
Source: a World Bank (2005) for mortality and Larsen (2004) for morbidity

The cost of adult mortality is based on the human capital approach (HCA) as a lower bound and the
Value of Statistical Life (VSL)32 as an upper bound, thus obtaining a wide range. The cost of
morbidity and that of child mortality under five is estimated based on HCA only, due to data scarcity

32
   The valuation uses a VSL of US$3.5 million, adjusted for GDP per capita differences at PPP between US and
Jordan, based on an earlier study of Gayer, Hamilton and Viscusi (2000) who estimated the VSL to avoid a
statistical cancer case in US within the range of US$3.2-3.7 million. More recently, Viscusi and Aldy (2003)
conducted a meta-analysis of more than 60 studies estimating mortality risk premiums and 40 studies of injury risk
premiums and estimated the VSL within the range of US$4-9 million in US, using labor markets data. Thus, the
VSL estimate applied in this study can be considered conservative.
                                                       24
in Jordan concerning the willingness to pay (WTP) of individuals to avoid pain and discomfort. Thus,
the cost of mortality and morbidity associated with PM2.5 and PM10 lies within JOD15-158 million.
In addition, the cost of treating illnesses and the value of lost work days is estimated at JOD7 million.
Overall, the total cost associated with PM2.5 and PM10 lies within JOD22-166 million (1). The cost
of mortality due to exposure to SO2 ranges within JOD4-32 million33 (2). Adding up (1) and (2), the
value of health impacts associated with PM10, PM2.5 and SO2 is estimated at JOD26-198 million,
averaging to JOD112 million.

Impacts on landscape value. In addition to its impacts on health, air pollution also reduces visibility
and the aesthetic value of landscapes. Data on such impacts are not available in Jordan. A Contingent
Valuation (CV) study of urban households in Rabat-Salé, Morocco, found a WTP for a 50%
reduction in air pollution of about 67- 82 Dirhams/hh/month (Belhaj, 2003; quoted by World Bank,
2005). About 10% of this figure is thought to reflect the cost of discomfort from air pollution (the
rest being impacts on health). Adjusting for GDP per capita differentials between Morocco and
Jordan, the cost of discomfort in the urban areas of Jordan reaches JOD2.7-3.3 million, averaging to
JOD3 million. Overall, the damage costs associated to air pollution average to JOD115 million, or
1.15% of GDP.

Figure 12. Impacts of air pollution




33
     See Annex 2 for the detailed calculation.
                                                   25
.3
3      Water quality

With very limited water availability and a steadily growing population, Jordan faces the challenge of
unsustainable water use with consequent decline in water table and water quality. This section
estimates the impacts of inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene on health and avertive
behavior, and the effects of surface water pollution and of groundwater overexploitation.

Impacts on health. Inadequate water supply, sanitation, and hygiene cause health damages in terms
of mortality and morbidity cases due to water-borne diseases, such as diarrhea. Valuation uses the
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) approach, assuming that a death of a child under the age of
five represents a loss of 33 DALYs (WHO, 2006).
-    Mortality (children under five). The total number of child deaths in 2006 was 4,112 (UNICEF
     website34). The Ministry of Health (MoH) reports no child deaths due to diarrhea in Jordan. A
     recent MoH initiative aimed at accurately collecting health data through local dependencies in
     each governorate reported 1,886 under five deaths, or 45% of the total under five deaths at
     national level. The significant sample size suggests that the results of this initiative are quite
     representative for the overall country. The data also reported that intestinal diseases represented
     just 26 cases, or 1% of the reported under five deaths. Applying the same rate at the national
     level35 and considering that 88% of total cases are due to inadequate water supply, sanitation, and
     hygiene (Hutton and Haller, 2004; WHO, 2002), we obtain 47 child deaths, or about 1,500
     DALYs.
-    Morbidity (all ages). The population of children under five totals about 714,000 (DOS, 2006),
     with a diarrheal prevalence of 2.12-3.12 episodes per child per year (DHS, 2002). Given an
     average duration of diarrhea of 4 days, an avoidance ratio of 88% (Hutton and Haller, 2004;
     WHO, 2002) and a severity weight of 0.12 (WHO, 2006), the losses due to under five child
     morbidity correspond to about 1,700 ­ 2,500 DALYs. The diarrheal incidence reported for the
     rest of the population is quite low (see Annex). The total loss due to water-borne diarrheal
     morbidity is estimated at 1,800-2,600 DALYs.

Based on the Human Capital Approach (assuming that 1 DALY is equal to GDP/capita), the total
damage cost of mortality and morbidity is about JOD 6.7 million. In addition, the medical cost of
treating diarrhea and the time spent by caregivers are estimated at JOD19.2-27.8 million36. Overall,
the impact of inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene on health is about JOD25.9-33.5
million, averaging JOD30 million.

Bottled water. To avoid or reduce the impacts of inadequate water supply, sanitation, and hygiene,
some households purchase bottled water. The total quantity of bottled water annually purchased is
estimated at 42 million liters. The net cost of bottled water is considered a conservative proxy for the

34
   http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/jordan_statistics.html
35
    WHO database reports that under five diarrhea mortality accounted for 10.7 per thousand live births in 2000. At
the same time, the under five mortality rate declined from 30 to 27 per thousand births from 2000 to 2006.
Assuming that diarrhea-caused mortality rate declined at the same proportion, it would be 9.6 in 2006. This would
correspond to about 1,462 deaths, or 36% of the total under five deaths at national level. Despite the likelihood of
unreported cases, this figure seems considerably overestimated. Because of that, we choose to rely on the MOH
estimate.
36
    It includes the cost of hospital visits (based on unsubsidized cost at private hospitals of JOD8/visit), the cost of
medicines and Oral Rehydration Therapy (JOD11/episode), and the opportunity cost of caregivers time (JOD8/ day).
More details are provided in the Annex.
                                                          26
damage to health that would otherwise occur. It is assumed that only 75% of the bottled water is
consumed to avoid such damage, while the rest is due to other preferences (Sarraf and others, 2004).
Using the local market price of JOD0.2-0.3/liter, the annual expenses made to avoid health damages
reach JOD11.2 million.

Filtering and cleaning equipment. As with bottled water, the value of the imported water filtering
and cleaning equipment is assumed as a conservative proxy for the potential damage to health. Based
on DOS (2006), the annual cost of such equipment is JOD7.2 million.

Overexploitation of groundwater. The overexploitation of groundwater in 2006 leads to a declining
water table and an increased risk of groundwater salinisation in future years. The cost of the
declining water table is measured through the incremental cost of pumping from a deeper level and
the cost of well replacement37. Based on the actual groundwater exploitation of 414 million m3 and a
decline of water table of 1.13 m/year, the increased cost of pumping water from a deeper level is
JOD170,000/year, with a present value of JOD2.7 million (t = 25 years, r = 4%). The cost of building
public and private wells to replace those affected by overexploitation is JOD4.9 million. Overall, the
estimated cost of groundwater overexploitation is JOD7.6 million.

Reduction in agricultural yields in the Jordan Valley. Data from the FORWARD38 project indicate
the economic losses per dunum (0.1 ha) of agricultural land due to the deterioration of water quality.
Based on a total agricultural area of 200,000 dunum and an average loss of JOD58/du, the losses in
irrigated agricultural production reach JOD12.3 million.

Pollution of springs and wells. There are 17 unprotected sources for municipal drinking water
supply in Jordan, of which 9 have experienced bacteriological pollution problems, mainly from septic
tanks and poor sanitation. Using the cost of water treatment of JOD0.13/m3 and a total yield of wells
and springs of39 22 million m3, the total cost of water pollution is estimated at JOD2.9 million.

Pollution from industrial wastewater. Data reflecting the impacts of untreated industrial wastewater
from Zarqa and Rimal El Zahabia QIZ are not available in Jordan. We thus assume that the cost of
treating wastewater reflects partially the real damage caused by industrial wastewater. Overall, the
annual cost of establishing and operating industrial wastewater treatment plants is estimated at
JOD9.2 million.

Soil erosion in King Talal Reservoir. The sedimentation has reduced the storage capacity of the
King Talal Reservoir by 625,000 m3 per year (Numayr, 1999). In turn, this reduces the capacity to
optimally regulate inflows and outflows according to water availability and water needs in the Jordan
Rift Valley. Based on the lost storage capacity and a cost of downstream water salinization of JOD
0.2-0.3/m3, the Present Value of the annual loss due to reservoir sedimentation in 2006 (t = 25 years,
r = 4%) is about JOD2.4 million.

Overall, the damage costs associated to water pollution, groundwater overexploitation and inadequate
water supply, sanitation, and hygiene average to JOD83 million, or 0.81% of GDP.

37
   It should be noted that the cumulated impact of groundwater overexploitation carried out each year contribute to
reducing water availability for future generations, hence to water resource depletion. However, the objective of this
section is to estimate the impacts on present and future generations of water overexploitation occurring in 2006 only.
Thus, the valuation does not incorporate the opportunity costs of water depletion.
38
   Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Jordan Valley Authority, Water Quality in the Jordan Valley, Volume V:
Economic Analysis, Crop Budget Spreadsheets by Stage Office and Water Quality, 2000.
39
   Data provided by RHD, Ministry of Health and WAJ.
                                                         27
Figure 13. Impacts of water quality degradation



                                                             King Talal Reservoir
                                    Industrial                        3%
                               wastewater pollution
                                       11%


                                                                                        Impacts on health
                                                                                              36%
                        Reduced
                   agricultural yields
                           15%




                     Groundwater
                    overexploitation
                          9%

                                         Springs and wells                  Avertive behaviour
                                              pollution                             22%
                                                 4%




.4
3      Land degradation

This section estimates the annual costs of rangeland and forest degradation. These estimates are
based on conservative assumptions used in absence of accurate data.

Rangeland degradation. Rangelands in Jordan have suffered continuous deterioration and
denudation as a result of unsound management practices and socioeconomic pressures. The growing
demand for animal products led to overgrazing which is mostly responsible for decreasing fodder
productivity. In theory, reduced fodder productivity may lead to reduced feed for livestock as well as
to displacement of rural population to other areas. Available data do not suggest however that
overgrazing is responsible for any major displacement from rural areas in Jordan40. Therefore, this
section is limited only to valuing the impact of rangeland degradation on fodder losses for livestock.
It is estimated that about 17,705 t of forage (barley equivalents) is annually lost to overgrazing41.
Valued at a price of JOD200/t of barley, the annual cost of forage loss is about JOD3.5 million.

Forest degradation. The limited areas of Jordan's forests are valuable for recreation and tourism.
More than 2 million residents visit them every year (Jordan Agenda 21). Large areas of forests are
still threatened by pests, misuse and pressures resulting from energy shortages in rural areas. No
study related to the WTP of local tourists for improved environmental quality is available in Jordan.
However, Huybers and Bennett (2000) found that British tourists are willing to pay a premium of
around US$70 per day for "unspoiled" versus "somewhat spoiled" destinations and "somewhat

40
   Despite the decreasing fodder productivity, FAOSTAT data indicate that agricultural employment rose by 15%
during 1990-2000 (from 491,000 to 567,000 people) and declined by only 1% during 2000-2005 (from 567,000 to
560,000 people). As agricultural employment accounts for only 9% of the total population - i.e. 58% of rural
population, which represents 17% of the total population in 2006 (World Bank database) - the decline in agricultural
employment during 2000-2005 does not suggest any significant displacement of rural population due to rangeland
degradation. Even if such displacement had taken place, it is most likely that it was driven by other factors such as
better job opportunities in urban areas.
41
   See Annex 2 provides for detailed calculations.
                                                                           28
spoiled" versus "very spoiled" destinations. Adjusting this result for GDP per capita differentials and
applying it to the 2 million local tourists visiting Jordan's forests, the cost of forest degradation is
estimated at JOD7.2 million.

Overall, the damage costs associated with soil degradation average to JOD11 million, or 0.11% of
GDP.

Figure 14. Impacts of land degradation



                                            Rangeland
                                            degradation
                                               33%




            Forest
          degradation
             67%




.5
3     Waste

Municipal waste collection. The cost of inadequate waste collection is usually estimated through the
individuals' WTP for improved waste collection. No such study has yet been conducted in Jordan.
However, Altaf and Deshazo (1996) estimate the mean WTP for improved waste collection in
Pakistan at about 8.14 rupee/household/month. Blore and Nunan (1996) estimate a similar WTP for
eliminating the drawbacks of living near a solid waste landfill in Bangkok, Thailand. Applying Altaf
and Deshazo's estimate to about 25% of households in Jordan by adjusting for GDP per capita
differentials gives a total cost of JOD2.4-3.1 million.

Improved disposal practices. The volume of municipal waste generated annually in Jordan is
estimated at 2 million t. About 60% of it is disposed in the Ghabawi landfill, and the rest is assumed
to be improperly disposed of. At a unit cost of proper disposal of JOD8.4/t, the total cost to dispose
properly the waste is estimated at JOD6.8 million.

Hazardous waste in Tuba. The degradation cost due to untreated hazardous waste is estimated
through the cost of treating this waste in Tuba (cost-based approach). The annual production of
hazardous waste in Tuba is about 27,500 t. At a cost of JOD300-440/t of waste, the annual cost of
treatment varies within JOD11.5- 15.3 million.


                                                  29
Overall, the damage costs associated to waste average to JOD22.9 million, or 0.23% of GDP.

Figure 15. Impacts of waste collection and disposal

                                          Waste
                                         collection
                                           12%




                                                 Improper
                                                  disposal
     Hazardous                                    practices
      waste in                                      30%
       Tuba
       58%



.6
3      Coastal zone


Aqaba is Jordan's only access to the open sea. The shoreline of Aqaba supports a highly diverse
marine environment including coral reefs of global importance. They represent a very diverse
ecosystem, where more than 150 species of hard corals are flourishing (Jordan country study on
biological diversity, 1998). The development of shipping, industry, and urban centers along the coast
threatens to degrade significantly the environment in which this ecosystem thrives and negatively
affect tourism. There is no study assessing the impacts of development on the marine environmental
quality in Aqaba. Applying once again Huybers and Bennett (2000)' estimate the 152,000
international tourists in Aqaba leads to a degradation cost of marine environment of about JOD5.9
million, or 0.06% of GDP.

.7
3      Conclusions

This chapter identifies air pollution and water quality as the main environmental priority areas at
national level. Air pollution in urban areas such as GAM and Zarqa, represents a challenge, mostly as
a result of high emissions level from transport and industry. Addressing this problem should be based
on a clear understanding of these sectors. Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive overview of the
pollution impacts of the transport sector.

Inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene are the second most significant priority, mainly
reflected through groundwater overexploitation, pollution from industrial wastewater and high
avertive expenditures. The analysis suggests that there is a strong relationship between the country's
water scarcity and the deterioration of water quality. A thorough analysis of the major issues related
to water quality in Jordan is provided in Chapter 4.


                                                 30
There is need to address these environmental issues through policies and institutional reforms that
create the right incentives for administrators to effectively enforce policies and for polluters to
comply with regulations. This would not only reduce the environmental degradation, but would
contribute to sustaining the economic growth in the country. For example, improved biodiversity
conservation in protected areas could increase tourism revenues, while a better rangeland
management could improve the livelihood of rural population depending on livestock agriculture.
Chapter 6 provides a comprehensive assessment of institutions and policies linked to environment
and suggests recommendations to improve sustainable development and growth in Jordan.




                                                31
CHAPTER .
        4       WATER QUALITY
.1
4             Summary of main messages
As one of the most water scarce countries in the world, one of Jordan's key priorities is management
of water quantity. But water quality matters too: poor water quality is a significant social concern (as
discussed in Chapter 3), because of its effects on human health and productive activities; conversely,
water of better quality means that more resources are available to help mitigate the scarcity problem.
These are the main reasons why this chapter focuses on the quality aspect of Jordan's water agenda,
proposing an integrated approach, in terms of resources evaluated (surface, ground, and treated
wastewater), sources of pollution (urban, industrial and agriculture sectors), and range of impacts
considered (human health, income of farmers and water consumers).
The issue of adequate incentives for better quantity management clearly remains important, but is not
addressed here, particularly on account of the fact that after the National Agenda, it would appear
that the reduction of water related subsidies and the creation of incentives for allocating water to
higher value added uses are being recognized as necessities that public policies will not be able to
avoid in the future. The main messages of this chapter are as follows:
·           Surface water, which appears to be overall of acceptable quality, presents important problems of
            salinity and bacteriological contamination of a localized nature but possibly with a strategic
            significance, particularly at the Zarqa junction of the King Abdullah Canal (KAC), which is
            located upstream of important irrigation schemes in the Jordan valley. The overall decline of
            fresh surface water resources observed in recent years (and due in particular to the drying up of
            Yarmouk river baseflow) might have significant implications for quality of surface water.
·           In terms of groundwater, the evidence suggests a simultaneous trend of declining water tables
            and increasing salinity in most aquifers, with resulting higher extraction costs (in terms of
            pumping as well as accelerated well replacement), and the need to use more irrigation water for
            leaching. Moreover, the salinity of many groundwater resources is rapidly approaching the limits
            for drinking water supply, making the provision of drinking water more expensive in future
            because of the additional desalination required. Higher production costs and declining yields
            affect farmers' income, for a share of some 40% of the 2006 cost of environmental degradation -
            estimated in Chapter 3- linked to poor water quality (not including industrial wastewater
            impacts). The cost however is likely to escalate in the future, as water tables keep declining, and
            as increase demand for potable use in urban areas raises the opportunity costs of the additional
            water required to lower salinity.
·           Access to sanitation is relatively high (with some exception in rural areas), and the quantity of
            municipal wastewater collected and treated has been steadily increasing. However, the quality of
            treated wastewater is a reason for concern: about 50% of total wastewater treated does not seem
            to meet national quality norms for pollutants such as BOD and E-coli. The situation has recently
            improved with the establishment of new As-Samra treatment plant; further progress may be
            expected if the targets of the National Agenda are to be met, although the cost is likely to be high.
·           In terms of industrial wastewater, only 28% of the total effluent is treated (50% excluding
            wastewater from potash mining, which is likely to have limited environmental impacts). About
            25% of industrial wastewater is estimated to be discharged in the sewer network, but the quality
            of the effluent is of concern on account of high rates of discharges without licensing, and low
            rates of compliance with applicable regulations (over 30% for ammonia and suspended solids).
            As for the 30% of wastewater not disposed of in sewers, monitoring of the effluent quality is
            limited and does not include important toxic substances. Disposal of wastewater through tankers
            is a widespread practice, virtually unmonitored in terms of effluent quality, and likely to pose
                                                           32
        health hazards where wastewater is disposed of in un-lined landfills (such as Al-Ekeider), with
        resulting possible infiltration in groundwater. Current policies seem to focus on centralized
        treatment plant as the strategy of choice to address the problem. However, there may be
        important opportunities for reducing the overall public and private cost of treatment by
        encouraging plant-level interventions (both production process and end-of-pipe treatment).
·       In the face of the combined effects of groundwater mining, dwindling surface resources,
        population growth, and policies aimed at promoting industrial development, several of these
        quality problems are likely to worsen in the medium to long term, and result in impacts on human
        health, income and agriculture outputs, well beyond the 0.8% of GDP estimated in this CEA for
        2006.
·       The National Agenda establishes a number of targets of increased water supply and enhanced
        wastewater treatment, which are expected to reduce water quantity pressures and deliver water
        quality benefits as well. This report however argues that those programs could be complemented
        and optimized by considering interventions that could significantly alleviate water quality
        problems at relatively low cost. Such interventions could include hygiene programs to reduce at-
        recipient exposure; and particularly water savings policies (especially in irrigation) that could
        enable on-site increased dilution, and, if accompanied by water rights regulation- bulk-water
        arbitrages and reduction of polluting concentrations at larger geographical scales.
·       A simplified Cost-Benefit analysis at the macro-level suggests that it might be possible to
        eliminate up to 80% of the social cost of water degradation (as estimated by the CEA) by
        optimally combining hygiene programs, enhanced dilution via water savings, and wastewater
        treatment. Under the assumption used in the CEA (and subject to limited information on baseline
        concentrations, unit costs and other parameters), this could be achieved by a water saving
        program aimed at reducing losses in irrigation at a rate of 3% per year, accompanied by hygiene
        programs targeted at some 80,000 households.
·       There are a some key institutional constraints that will need to be overcome to design and
        implement cost-effective water quality polices:
        o First, the legislative and regulatory framework could become far more effective if organized
          and systematized in a comprehensive framework ("water code") that would resolve
          conflicting attributions of roles and responsibilities, and cover strategic areas currently not
          adequately regulated (such as integrated water resource planning and definition of quantity
          and quality objectives);
        o Second, monitoring of water quality should be improved, both in terms of organizing and
          sharing the information already available (essential for properly establishing baselines and
          trends), and, looking forward, in terms of rationalizing the current system where several
          agencies collect similar or related information, but with limited or no scope for integrated
          analysis, reporting and provision of input for policy design and evaluation. In addition, water
          quality monitoring should be fully extended to toxic substances (e.g., pesticides, endocrine
          substances, toxic industrial effluents), which are currently measured in a very incomplete
          manner or not at all.

.
4   2     INTRODUCTION: WATER QUALITY AND WATER QUANTITY

With a total of renewable water resources (including recycled wastewater) of 133 m3/inhabitant,
Jordan is the most water scarce lower middle income country in the world, and one the water-poorest
countries in the MENA region (Figure 16).



                                                     33
Figure 16. Water availability in the MENA Region




Source: World Bank, 2007
This severe scarcity implies that adequate management of water quantity is a key issue in Jordan's
overall development agenda. In environmental terms, water scarcity is an issue of great significance
because it might generate pressure on renewable (surface water and shallow aquifers) and non-
renewable resources (fossil aquifers), thereby jeopardizing in the long term the environmental
sustainability of the development process.
The topic of Jordan's water quantity management has of course been heavily researched, and is the
subject of a large number of reports by the World Bank and other institutions. Some of the factors
that have been leading to increasing pressure on scarce water resources (such as pricing policies that
might discourage water savings in agriculture) have been the subject of intense debates.
In recent times, the National Agenda has recognized the need to modify such an incentive structure
and gradually decrease subsidies to agriculture (from an estimated 2.7% of GDP in 2004 to 1.5% in
2012, and 0.5% in 2017), while at the same time increasing their productivity (with targets, in 2012
and 2017 respectively, of JOD 2.5 and 3.5 in agriculture GDP for each JOD spent in agriculture
subsidies ­against the level of JOD 0.81 in 2005), and enhancing the returns of agriculture per unit of
water (from less than 0.5 JOD/ M3 to JOD 3.6 and 5 in 2012 and 2017). Since water-related
subsidies are estimated to account for about 50% of total agriculture subsidies, achievement of the
National Agenda's target will presumably entail a significant reduction of water subsidies; and, to be
sure, a sizeable reduction of the expected share of agriculture in water use -particularly in
comparison with the estimates obtained from MoWI and based on the National Water Master Plan
(Figure 17).




                                                  34
Figure 17. Current and projected water use in agriculture

                         700


                         600


                         500
  Million Cubic Meters




                         400


                         300


                         200


                         100


                           0
                               2005                       2012                             2017

                                      National Agenda          Water Masterplan
Note: the National Agenda (NA) figures have been calculated by combining the NA's targets for the reduction in the
agriculture subsidies to agriculture GDP ratio, the increase in the returns per unit of water, and the growth of GDP.
The figures associated to the water master plan have been obtained by exponential interpolation (R2=0.93) of the
irrigation water use projected for 2010, 2015 and 2020.

The present report focuses on a different environmental dimension of water management, namely
water quality, which appears to be a topic less heavily researched than water quantity, and where
therefore there is a wider scope to add value to the existing stock of knowledge. Nevertheless, it is
very clear that there are strong linkages between the quality and the quantity aspects of water
management. On the one hand, overuse of water leads to deteriorating quality as there is less
resource to dilute the concentration of substances harmful to human health, to productive activities
and to the environment in general. On the other hand, management of water quality might alleviate
the quantity problem (for example through treatment practices that enable re-use of waste water); or
it can exacerbate it, insofar as poor quality water creates incentives for increasing pressure on
cleaner, but vulnerable water bodies such as fossil aquifers.
This chapter will not address directly the causes of water scarcity, or the policy options to ameliorate
it. It will however emphasize the ways in which inadequate water quantity management contributes
to the quality problem, and, conversely, how improved water quantity policies (particularly on the
demand side) can improve water quality, and along with it, the health, income and overall well-being
of Jordan's people.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.3 briefly summarizes key features of the
water resource situation in Jordan, in terms of climate, hydrology, and current and projected water
balance. Section 4.4 reviews the available evidence on current status and recent trends of quality of
surface, ground, and treated wastewater. Section 4.5 discusses the significance of different sources of
water pollution. Section 4.6 analyzes Jordan's legal and institutional set up for water quality
management; finally, section 4.7 discusses policy options to improve water quality.




                                                         35
.3
4       WATER RESOURCES IN JORDAN

Jordan's climate is characterized by low average precipitation (104 mm per year), highly irregular
distribution of rainfall throughout the year, and a relatively large variability of yearly precipitation
events (the coefficient of variation of at a sample of 25 meteo stations varies between 30 and 45%).
Figure 18 Consolidated average annual precipitation in selected meteorological stations

     700
                            mm/year
     600


     500


     400


     300


     200


     100


        0
            1937
                   1939
                          1941
                                 1943
                                        1945
                                               1947
                                                      1949
                                                             1951
                                                                    1953
                                                                           1955
                                                                                  1957
                                                                                         1959
                                                                                                1961
                                                                                                       1963
                                                                                                              1965
                                                                                                                     1967
                                                                                                                            1969
                                                                                                                                   1971
                                                                                                                                          1973
                                                                                                                                                 1975
                                                                                                                                                        1977
                                                                                                                                                               1979
                                                                                                                                                                      1981
                                                                                                                                                                             1983
                                                                                                                                                                                    1985
                                                                                                                                                                                           1987
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1989
                                                                                                                                                                                                         1991
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1993
                                                                                                                                                                                                                       1995
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1997
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     1999
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2001
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   2003
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2005
Note: the figure displays the consolidated average annual precipitation of 25 meteo stations. The negative trend is
visually evident in all but two of the stations, and is statistically significant in eight stations (source JMD and WAJ).

Potential evaporation largely exceeds precipitation, and streamflow of wadis and rivers is often
intermittent, with only a permanent spring-fed baseflow in a number of wadis in the Western part of
the highlands. All this makes it for semi-arid conditions and poses challenges for both water quantity
and quality management. In the face of an historical trend of declining rainfall (Figure 18), climate
change is expected to result in increasing temperatures (up to 4 ºC for the Mediterranean area by end
of the century) which are likely to increase evaporation and further exacerbate Jordan's main water
management challenge, namely a chronic scarcity of resources available.
4.3.1       Water Balance

The largest source of water is groundwater (more than half of the total), and the most important user
(over 60%) is agriculture. Table 11 provides an aggregated water balance for the year 2005:
Table 11. Water Balance by source and use (2005)
                                                                                  Municipal                                   Industrial                                 Irrigation                                           Others                               Total
Surface water                                                                                   74,700                                      4,500                               265,200                                              7,000                       351,400
Groundwater                                                                               209,600                                         33,800                                254,800                                              7,900                       506,100
Treated wastewater                                                                                            0                                         0                           83,545                                                    0                   83,545
Total                                                                                     284,300                                         38,300                                603,545                                       14,900                             941,045
Source: MoWI

The historical development of water resources supply is presented in Figure 19, along with
projections for 2010, 2015 and 2020 (MoWI, 2007). The graph shows an almost constant use of
groundwater resources at a level close to 500 million m3/year. Projections of future water supply
entail a significant decrease of groundwater extraction, in order to reduce over-extraction and
deterioration of aquifers. To compensate for a decline in groundwater use, surface water use is
supposed to increase from about 350 million m3/year to somewhat more than 400 million m3/year.
                                                                                                                                    36
However, the persistent decline of the baseflow of Yarmouk river may make it difficult to reach such
a target. Additionally the total of treated wastewater and desalination resources will need to increase
from 85 million m3/year in 2005 to 300 million m3/year in 2020. This will have a considerable
impact on the general quality of water resources.
Figure 19 Historical and projected development of Water Resources Supply
                        1,200


                        1,000


                         800
                                                                                 desalinized water
                                                                                 wastewater
                         600
                                                                                 groundwater
   illio 3 ear




                                                                                 surface water
                         400
  m n m /y




                         200


                              0
                                   1995    2005         2015            2020


Source: MoWI

Figure 20 shows the historical development of water resources use for different water use categories
and the predictions of use until the year 2020 (yearly reports on water resources MoWI, MoWI
website).
Figure 20 Historical and Projected Development of Water Resources Use

                    1,200

                    1,000


                        800
                                                                                       others
                                                                                       industrial
                        600
                                                                                       municipal
               3/year




                                                                                       irrigation
                        400
        illionm




                        200
       m




                          0
                                  1995    2005         2015           2020


Source: MoWI

Municipal water use has remained constant at a level of about 240 million m3/year until the end of
last century and has been steadily increasing since then; a further increase towards 400 million
m3/year in 2020 is expected. Industrial use is expected to increase from almost 40 million m3/year at

                                                  37
present towards 100 million m3/year in 2020. Agricultural water use will remain constant at a level
between 500 and 600 million m3/year. It should be noted that agricultural use is climate dependent; in
wet years agricultural use will increase, in dry years it will decrease.

Actual per capita municipal water use is not exactly known as available data on unaccounted for
water (WAJ website) does not differentiate between leakage losses and administrative losses.
Assuming that leakage losses represent half of the unaccounted for water, per capita municipal water
use has been fairly constant during the last 10 years. It was 115 l/capita/day in 1995 and 113
l/capita/day in 2005.
4.3.2               Key features of surface and groundwater

Surface water: the discharge of the Yarmouk river, traditionally by far the largest source of fresh
surface water in Jordan, has been declining (Figure 21) from about 375 million m3/year 40 years ago
to less than 100 million m3/year at present. This decline is expected to continue as confirmed by the
data of the last two years. The main reasons for this decline are the growing exploitation of surface
and groundwater resources in the upstream areas, particularly in Syria, but also in Jordan.
Figure 21. Streamflow of the Yarmouk River at Adasiya: selected statistics

                            Total Yearly Flow of Yarmouk River at Adasiya
                                                                            total yearly flow
                   600                                                600   trend line
                   500                                                500
  million m3/yea




                   400                                                400
                                                                              25.0 m3/s
                   300                                                300
                                                                              20.0
                   200                                                200
                                                                              15.0
                   100                                                100
                                                                              10.0
                    0                                                 0        5.0
                     1964   1971   1977   1983   1989   1996   2005
                                                                               0.0
                                                                                 se g


                                                                                 dev
                                                                                    ay
                                                                                     n


                                                                                 m r

                                                                                     n


                                                                                     p
                                                                                  apr




                                                                                     c
                                                                                 au l
                                                                                 mb




                                                                                 not
                                                                                   ju


                                                                                 oc
                                                                                    a
                                                                                  ja




                                                                                  ju
                                                                                 fe




Source: MoWI

Groundwater basins and aquifers

Table 12 presents the different groundwater basins and indicates the maximum sustainable yield and
the actual water extraction from the eleven basins for each of the four main categories of water uses
(municipal, industry, agriculture and others) for the year 2005.




                                                               38
Table 12. Groundwater basins in Jordan, sustainable yield, actual extraction (2005)
Basin                             Municipal    Industrial    Irrigation   Others       Total       Safe Yield   Rate of
                                                                                                                over-
                                                                                                                extraction
Yarmouk                           8.8          0.2           41.4         0.6          51.0        40.0         27%
Jordan River Side Wadis           24.4         0.0           1.8          0.0          26.2        15.0         75%
Jordan River Valley               7.4          0.3           20.5         0.5          28.7        21.0         37%
Amman-Zarqa                       77.8         7.1           60.4         3.3          148.6       87.5         70%
Dead Sea                          49.8         13.2          26.1         2.1          91.2        57.0         60%
North Wadi Araba                  0.4          1.2           3.7          0.2          5.5         3.5          57%
South Wadi Araba                  0.0          0.2           8.7          0.0          8.9         5.5          62%
Azraq                             22.4         0.3           35.2         0.3          58.2        24.0         143%
Sarhan                            0.0          0.0           0.9          0.1          1.0         5.0          -80%
Hammad                            0.6          0.0           0.0          0.2          0.8         8.0          -90%
Jafr                              6.5          6.2           9.0          0.5          22.2        27.0         -18%
Mudawara & Disi                   11.5         5.2           47.1         0.0          63.8        n.a          n.a
Total                             209.6        33.8          254.8        7.9          506.1       418.5

Source: MoWI

It is clear from the table that over-extraction takes place in all non-fossil groundwater basins except
the smaller Sarhan, Hammad and Jafr basins; the weighted average of the over-extraction rate is
50%, with peaks of 70% and 143% in the Amman-Zarqa, and Azraq basins, respectively; over-
extraction is leading to a rapid lowering of the groundwater table and subsequent deterioration of
groundwater quality. This will be further discussed in section 4.4.2:
Figure 22 Groundwater Extraction for different uses 1990-2005
                     600



                     500
   illio u ic e rs




                     400
  M nC b M te




                     300


                           65%
                     200                              57%
                                                                                53%
                                                                                                          50%


                     100



                       0
                           1990                       1995                      2000                    2005

                                         irrigation     municipal         industrial           others

Source: MoWI

The historical development of groundwater extraction for different uses is presented in Figure 22.
The total amount of groundwater extraction has remained fairly constant at around 500 million
m3/year. Groundwater extraction for municipal use increased from around 140 million m3/year in
1989 to around 210 million m3/year in 2005. Groundwater extraction for agricultural use (mainly on

                                                               39
the highlands) decreased in the same period from around 320 to around 250 million m3/year, i.e. from
65% to 50% of the total.

.4
4       STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES QUALITY
This section provides an overview of current conditions and recent trends in water quality, based on
the data that it was possible to mobilize within the CEA preparation time frame. While the quantity
and the quality of the data acquired is broadly sufficient to provide indicative information to policy
makers, the dataset built for the study does not have the coverage of relevant variables across space
and time that would be needed to formulate more detailed recommendations for action at the specific
project level (see Box 3 for details).
Box 3. Limitation of available water quality data

The information utilized in this chapter largely relies on data extracted from databases handled by MoWI (WIS,
LIMS) and RSS. Access to the underlying raw data has been very limited, due to the disclosure policies of these
institutions, which are at present quite restrictive. Some of the historic data does not exist in electronic format and
could only be acquired after a cumbersome researching of (not-well-organized) paper archives.
Another limitation is the fact that ­perhaps due to the insufficient number of trained staff- reporting of water data
does not typically include the application of standard statistical methodologies, such as seasonality, trend analysis,
and spatial analysis.
Regarding surface water, data on quality has been measured since the start of the development of the Jordan Valley
in the early 70s and the construction of the King Talal Reservoir (KTR) in 1977. However, there is no properly
organized central database that collects all the available information on surface water quality. Also, a large part of
the data is not available electronically. As a result, for the CEA surface water quality data has been collected from
different sources, the laboratories of the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) and the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ),
the yearly reports prepared by the Royal Scientific Society (RSS) for the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv) and for
the JVA, and from the EMARCU real time network. Within the limited CEA timeframe, it was not possible to fully
cross-validate information coming from these different sources.
Groundwater: in addition to the general issue of limited access to raw data (discussed above), in the case of
groundwater a further constraint is the layout of the groundwater observation network. In very few observation wells
data is available on both groundwater quality and water levels. Selection of neighboring wells can, for the present
purposes, overcome these limitations and help illustrate the relationship between water extraction, water level and
groundwater quality. However, a more complete analysis of causes and effects and of detailed management
implications would require simulation models that include water quality. Such models are not operational until now;
or at least there is no publication documenting their use.


4.4.1    Surface water

While overall quality of surface water appears to be acceptable, there appear to be important
problems of salinity and bacteriological contamination of a localized nature.
The data provided over the last 4 years by RSS for the Ministry of Environment and the JVA,
together with the data from the EMARCU real time observation network, are the most regularly
measured and complete, and seem to be the best option for data analysis. However, most of the
relevant measurements started only in 2002 or later. The data available from the earlier periods is
not complete and less adequate for statistical analysis.
The data used for the analysis is presented in tabular form in Annex 1. Figure 24 and Figure 26 show
the historical behavior of the two most important parameters for water management, the electric
conductivity and the E-coli concentrations for a selection of 6 stations, the location of which is
illustrated in Figure 23.



                                                          40
Figure 23. Location of the monitoring stations selected for the analysis
                                                     Surface-water salinity
                                                     Figure 24 clearly shows that the salinity of
                                                     fresh water resources (KAC tunnel, KAC
                                                     Deir Alla, Wadi Hasa) has only increased
                                                     slightly during the period 1995-2007. On the
                                                     contrary, the graph shows a clear increase in
                                                     salinity of the water flowing into KTR for
                                                     the last 4 years42. Obviously this has its
                                                     consequences as well for the salinity of the
                                                     KTR outflow and the salinity in the southern
                                                     part of the King Abdullah Canal (KAC). The
                                                     main origin/cause of this increase in salinity
                                                     is not clearly known. Possible causes may
                                                     include: (A) a dry weather spell (less rainfall
                                                     runoff to mix with wastewater effluent), (B)
                                                     increased salinity of groundwater feeding the
                                                     baseflow of the Zarqa river, and (C)
                                                     increased discharge of saline industrial
                                                     wastewater into the sewerage system.
Figure 24. Electric conductivity in selected surface water monitoring stations (1995-2007)

           S/cm
 3000

 2500
                                                                        101 KAC tunnel
 2000
                                                                        105 KAC Deir Alla
                                                                        107 KAC Zarqa junction
 1500
                                                                        100 KTR inlet
                                                                        600 KTR outlet
 1000
                                                                        515 Wadi Hasa
     500

      0
          96
          97

          98
          99



          01
          02
          03



          05
          06
         95




         00




         04




          07
       19
       19
       19

       19
       19



       20
       20
       20

       20
       20
       20

       20
       20




Source: combined data of MoEnv, WAJ and JVA)

The graph also shows that with the exception of wet periods, such as 1996-1997 and 2002-2003, the
salinity of the southern part of the KAC (KAC Zarqa junction) comes very close to the salinity of the
water flowing out of the KTR. Due to the lack of fresh water resources in the Northern part of the
Jordan Valley, the water coming from KTR is not mixed anymore with fresh water, as was the case
in the early 90s.


42
   The inflow of KTR is for the larger part treated wastewater originating from As-Samra WWTP, blended with
rainfall runoff.
                                                    41
Even though the overall salinity may not have increased much for most surface fresh water resources,
the impact of salinity on irrigation is considerable. This is mainly due to the repartition of different
sources of fresh water and mixed wastewater effluent, which has consequently been changing
towards a higher contribution from more saline water resources. This is well illustrated by the
example of the Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea (Figure 25).
Figure 25. Water resources with different salinity in the Jordan Valley (1995-2007)

      250
            million m3
      200
                                                                                   Yarmouk river
      150
                                                                                   Mukheiba wells
      100                                                                          from Lake Tiberias

       50                                                                          side wadis

                                                                                   King Talal Reservoir
        0
            1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007       fresh water resources
      -50                                                                          for irrigation
                                                                                   pumped to Zai
     -100


Source: JVA
The figure clearly shows that the contribution of fresh water resources is declining and the
contribution of blended wastewater effluent (KTR) is slightly increasing43.
At the national level, expectations are that the contribution of fresh water will further decline. A
realistic scenario will be that in 2020, maximum 35% of the irrigation water will be fresh water and
the average salinity will mount to 1,800 S/cm, coming close to the internationally-accepted
standard for irrigation water (1,500 mg/l  2,350 S/cm).
The relatively high salinity of irrigation water has two important implications: a) a number of high
value added and salinity-sensitive crops (e.g., strawberry, beans, onion, banana) may not be grown,
and b) for the remaining, more salinity-tolerant crops, higher salinity requires more leaching water
and hence lower output per cubic meter (for example, an increase in salinity from 1000 S/cm to
2000 S/cm might cause some 20% reduction of gross margins and even larger reductions in farm
income).

Surface-water bacteriological pollution

Figure 26 shows the historical development of E-coli concentrations during the period 1995-2007 for
5 different stations. It is noteworthy that concentrations have reached high values during the period
1996-2000 in various stations. After the year 2000, E-coli concentrations have remained, with the
important exception of the KAC Zarqa junction station, largely within the ambient standards for
discharge of wastewater into streams, wadis or water bodies (JS 893/2002) and also within the
standards for re-use of wastewater for irrigation of fruit trees.


43
  The proportion of fresh water for irrigation was 66% in 1995 and declined to 55% in 2007. Combined with the
increase in salinity of the various sources, the average salinity of irrigation water was 1,630 µS/cm in 2007,
compared with 1,310 µS/cm in 1995. Expectations are that the contribution of fresh water will further decline.
                                                     42
Figure 26. E-coli concentrations in selected surface water monitoring stations (1995-2007)

 1.0E+06   MPN/100 ml


 1.0E+05

 1.0E+04                                                             101 KAC tunnel
                                                                     105 KAC Deir Alla
 1.0E+03                                                             107 KAC Zarqa junction
                                                                     100 KTR inlet
 1.0E+02                                                             600 KTR outlet

 1.0E+01

 1.0E+00




        05

        06

        07
        00

        01

        02

        03

        04
        95

        96

        97

        98

        99




      20

      20

      20

      20

      20
      20
      19

      19

      20

      20
      19

      19

      19




Source: combined data from MoEnv, WAJ and JVA
Figure 27 Section of Zarqa river with King Talal Reservoir and junction with KAC



             Local contamination            King Talal reservoir




                 King Abdullah
                 Canal




With the notable exception of the station KAC Zarqa junction, the observed water quality is well
within the standards for re-use for irrigation of cooked vegetables. In particular, the E-coli
concentration in KAC Zarqa junction is more than 10 times higher than the E-coli concentration at
the outlet of KTR, even though this is basically the same water source. This indicates strong
contamination of the water on the way from KTR outlet to the observation point in the KAC. The
connection between KTR and KAC is an open channel, and hence several types of wastes (cesspit
sludge, household grey water, dead animals, etc.) are dumped in the canal (see Figure 27).
There are a number of important implications of poor bacteriological quality at the KAC Zarqa
junction: since water is used downstream for irrigation of the southern part of the Jordan Valley
(about 8,000 ha), a) farm workers may be exposed to health hazards; and b) the quality of vegetable
grown in the area (tomato, aubergine, cucumber, etc.) may be negatively affected, although it was not

                                                 43
possible to find data corroborating such hypotheses. To prevent any further risks, the authorities may
want to consider building a pipeline from KTR to KAC.

Other pollutants
There is no indication of pollution with heavy metals, pesticides and other organic pollutants in the
surface waters; measurements of such pollutants, when done, yield results consistently below the
applicable quality norms. Other chemical components of interest, mainly for irrigation, such as
boron, do not exhibit values above the acceptable limits. It should be taken into account however
that the present monitoring system is mainly focusing on measuring standard components/pollutants,
such as chemical composition, nutrients, microbiological parameters and physical parameters, and
not on toxic pollutants. Very few measurements have been done on toxic substances (pesticides,
others) in groundwater and surface water. This is partly due to the limited laboratory capacity in
Jordan; in particular, some of the chemical components that are considered in Europe to be priority
hazards (whose emissions should be completely banned) cannot be measured (or not with a sufficient
  g accuracy) in the Jordanian state laboratories (WAJ, MoH, RSS).
4.4.2      Groundwater

The available evidence indicates a simultaneous trend of declining water tables and increasing
salinity in most aquifers, with resulting higher extraction costs (pumping, well replacement) and
hence lower revenues for agriculture. Nitrates pollution appears of concerns mainly in the Amman-
Zarqa basin.

In order to overcome the limitations of the available groundwater data (see Box 3 on page 40 for
details), the status of the groundwater in Jordan and the development of water quality over the last 15
years has been evaluated by analyzing the water level and water quality data of 26 representative
wells, which cover the most important aquifers and groundwater basins of Jordan. The wells and
their location are listed in Annex 1.
As mentioned in Box 3, of these 26 wells, only two have both water quality and water level
measurements; the problem was overcome by choosing wells close to each other, which delivered at
the end seven combinations of wells (one for each relevant groundwater basin), where water level
and quality could be analyzed jointly.
Salinity
A trend analysis of water levels and electric conductivity is presented in Annex 1 for selected wells
in the Amman-Zarqa basin (AL), the Dead Sea basin (CD), the South Wadi Araba basin (EA), the
Disi basin (ED), the Azraq basin (F) and the Jafr basin (G). The level data provided for the Hammad
basin was rejected as there were doubts about its quality.
All selected basins, with the exception of the South Wadi Araba basin, show a marked clear decline
of groundwater levels, accompanied by an equally clear increase in electric conductivity. Incidental
checks with other observation wells in the same basins show that the picture presented in Annex 1 is
indicative for the general situation in the analyzed basins. Level changes are different in the different
groundwater basins and on different locations, increases in electric conductivity are more or less
strongly related to the decline in groundwater level, but the trend is clearly visible in all (apart from
one) investigated basins.
Due to dearth of accessible data, it was not possible to quantify the trend properly for the complete
area of all groundwater basins in Jordan, but the measured changes in water level in some basins (35-
45 m in the Amman-Zarqa basin and 60-70 m in the Dead Sea basin) and the measured changes in
electric conductivity (in the worst observed case in the Amman Zarqa basin, the electric conductivity
                                                   44
changed from around 800 to around 5,400 S/cm in just 25 years; the changes in the Dead Sea basin
are less dramatic) are quite impressive and are reasons for due concern (see Figure 28 for an
illustration in the Amman-Zara basin). It is obvious that groundwater resources are being depleted
rapidly and indisputably because of that the quality of groundwater resources is undergoing a
worrisome deterioration. This may spread over a large part of the available resources.
Figure 28 Groundwater level and electrical conductivity in the Amman-Zarqa basin
                                           1968

                                                  1970

                                                         1972

                                                                1974

                                                                       1976

                                                                              1978

                                                                                      1980

                                                                                             1982

                                                                                                    1984

                                                                                                           1986

                                                                                                                  1988

                                                                                                                         1990

                                                                                                                                1992

                                                                                                                                       1994

                                                                                                                                                1996

                                                                                                                                                         1998

                                                                                                                                                                2000

                                                                                                                                                                       2002

                                                                                                                                                                              2004

                                                                                                                                                                                     2006
                                      0                                                                                                                                                     4,000



                                     -10
                                                                                                                                                                                            3,500




                                                                                                                                                                                                    Electrical conductivity (proxy for salinity), µS/ cm
                                                                                                                                       9E-05x
                                                                                                                         y = 108.45e
                                                                                                                             2
                                                                                                                           R = 0.9032
                                     -20
                                                                                                                                                                                            3,000
  Ground water table level, meters




                                     -30
                                                                                                                                                                                            2,500

                                     -40

                                                                                                                                                                                            2,000

                                     -50

                                                                                                                                                                                            1,500
                                     -60


                                                                                                                                                                                            1,000
                                     -70


                                                                                                                                                                                            500
                                     -80
                                                                                                                                                                  2
                                                                                                                                                       y = -2E-07x + 0.0108x - 193.35
                                                                                                                                                                  2
                                                                                                                                                                 R = 0.9737
                                     -90                                                                                                                                                    -

                                                   AL1041 LEVEL                      AL1230 EC               Expon. (AL1230 EC)                           Poly. (AL1041 LEVEL)


Note: the trend lines are only meant to enhance the readability of the diagram; but do not entail any suggestion that
future values of salinity or groundwater table level can be obtained by simple extrapolation

The average decline in the groundwater table from the 16 wells for which level data were provided
has been 1.13 m/year. The average electric conductivity of the 12 wells for which quality data were
provided was 760 S/cm in 1975 and 1,660 S/cm in 2005. While the limited size of the sample
does not permit a full-blown, statistically representative analysis at the national level, the evidence
shown clearly indicates the magnitude of the problem, and its foreseeable future trend.
Because of the decrease in groundwater level and the increase in salinity, groundwater wells may
become either unproductive, or salinity may rend the abstracted water unusable. In its yearly report of
2006 (WAJ, 2006), WAJ reports approximately 100 private wells that needed rehabilitation (other
than simple cleaning and replacement of screens). Of these wells, approximately 75% needed
deepening as the dynamic groundwater level dropped below the bottom of the well. The loss of well
capacity is stronger in the private sector than in the public sector, as public-sector wells are
developed over the whole depth of the aquifer, contrary to most private wells which are just drilled
over the minimum possible length.
Nitrates
Additionally an analysis has been made of the nitrate content in the different wells. In the wells
analyzed for the Amman-Zarqa basin, nitrate contents can be significant and in some wells surpass

                                                                                                                          45
the limits for drinking water quality (values op to 140 mg/l). In all of the other analyzed wells, nitrate
contents are between 0 and 45 mg/l, with a geometric mean of about 10 mg/l, and hence are fully
within the aforementioned limits and are relatively stable. Apart from the Amman-Zarqa basin, there
is no reason for immediate concern.
Figure 29. Wells with clear nitrate pollution, north-east of Amman




With regard to the Amman-Zarqa basin, the map in Figure 29 shows that some of the observed wells
(green stars on the map) are close to the As-Samra WWTP. Their high nitrate content is most
probably caused by a leakage from the treatment plant. Further toward the east the figure shows
another well with high nitrate concentrations, but the satellite images do not indicate its source of
pollution. The extent and the trend of the nitrate problem are not clear, but where the Amman-Zarqa
basin contains semi-confined aquifers, and since it has more than 3 million inhabitants, the nitrate
pollution should be a reason for concern and should be properly monitored.
.5
4        Pollution sources

4.5.1      Urban Wastewater
Access to sanitation is relatively high (with some exception in rural areas), and the quantity of
municipal wastewater has been steadily increasing. However, the quality of the treated water is a
reason for concern: about 50% of total wastewater treated does not meet national quality norms for
pollutants such as BOD, E-coli. The situation has recently improved with the establishment of new
As-Samra treatment plant; further progress may be expected if the targets of the National Agenda are
to be met, although the cost is likely to be high.

A rather large percentage of the urban population, around 94%, has access to sanitation (WHO,
UNICEF, 2003). For the rural area the percentage is 85%. According to the same report, around 63%
of the total population has access to centralized public wastewater collection and treatment systems44.
However, this applies mainly to the urban population; only a limited percentage (3%) of the rural
population is connected to sewerage networks. In rural areas, wastewater is discharged to septic
tanks, cesspits, latrines, etc. or directly to natural water bodies and the soil, in case there is no form of
sanitation.
Treated urban wastewater is in general discharged to open water bodies (wadis) (94%) and collected
in reservoirs (85%) or is directly reused for irrigation close to the treatment plants (6%) (FAO/RNE
and WHO/EMRO, 2003). Most of the wastewater discharged to the wadis collects in the relevant

44
     Statements in the National Action Plan 2007 on the increase of connection rates suggest that this is only 58%.
                                                           46
dams/reservoirs, but a smaller-yet-significant part is pumped directly from the wadis for (legal and
illegal) reuse in irrigation along the wadis. Water resources contamination is caused by: a)
insufficient treatment of wastewater discharged to the wadis; b) leakage of sewerage networks; c)
septic tanks with improper design (single chamber) and insufficient maintenance; d) open- bottom
cesspits that leak to groundwater; e) direct-and-illegal discharge of wastewater (by the vacuum
tankers) to adjacent water bodies and wadis; and f) direct-and-illegal reuse of treated wastewater.
No data is available on the modality of sanitation for those areas that are not connected to central
sewerage systems. It is believed that cesspits and latrines, because of their relatively low costs, are
the most widespread systems in these areas.
Despite an average population growth of 2.5%, the total production of water for municipal uses (not
including industry and tourism) has been fairly constant during the period 1995-2004, at a yearly
level of approx. 240 million m3. Only in the last two years, production has increased. Background
studies to this report estimate that a maximum of 70% of the municipal water use may return as
treated wastewater, an amount equal to almost 200 million m3 (year 2005). When water use increases
(due to population increases), more wastewater will be produced accordingly.
By mid 2007, Jordan had 22 functional municipal (public) wastewater treatment plants, with a total
installed capacity of 312,000 m3/day. Fourteen of these plants were older than 10 years. In total, the
22 mentioned plants treated about 107 million m3 of wastewater in 2006. After the new As-Samra
treatment plant has come into operation at the end of 2007, it is estimated that the amount of
wastewater collected and treated should have increased to approx. 120 million m3 per year, but the
exact data on its performance is not yet available45.
In addition to the 23 public plants currently in operation, there are at least 13 other (usually smaller)
domestic wastewater treatment plants operating, mainly at/for hospitals, universities, Queen Alia
airport, industrial estates, etc. Their total installed capacity was of around 12,000 m3/day in 2006:
only a fraction (around 4%) of the capacity of the municipal plants.
Figure 30 Treated wastewater volume and population growth (1994-2006)

                  6,000,000                       120
                                                        million m3/year

                  5,000,000                       100

                  4,000,000                       80
     population




                  3,000,000                       60

                  2,000,000                       40

                  1,000,000                       20

                         0                        0
                                                      population
                            94
                            95
                            96
                            97
                           98
                           99
                            00
                           01
                           02
                           03
                           04
                            05
                         19
                         19
                         19
                         19
                         19
                         19
                         20
                         20
                         20
                         20
                         20
                         20




                                                      wastewater treated

Source: WAJ
The amount of wastewater collected and treated in the municipal WWTPs has steadily increased
(Figure 30), and at a rate exceeding population growth: i.e. from 14.3 m3/capita/year in 1994 to 19.6
45
   The total capacity of the new As Samra WWTP is 267,000 m3/day, enough to treat all wastewater from the
Amman-Zarqa area. The plant is at the moment only used half capacity (two of the four production lines). The
reason is not exactly known, but may be related to operational costs or other operational issues. It seems that
MoWI/WAJ has not yet established a clear policy on phasing out the old As-Samra WWTP.
                                                        47
m3/capita/year (which is equivalent to 54 l/capita/day, about half of the estimated per capita daily
water consumption). The increase in per-capita wastewater collected and treated briefly stagnated in
the early 2000s, but has been more significant during the last 4-5 years due to increased investments.
Data from 2005 and 2006 (MoEnv, 2005; MoEnv, 2006) show that the quality of the effluent is
generally unsatisfactory. According to JS893/2002, the performance of all the older biofiltration
(trickling filter) treatment plants is deficient with respect to BOD, suspended solids and E-coli. Two
of the four relevant plants are largely overloaded, unacceptably shortening the reaction time; the
other two work below design capacity, but it is unclear if the design of the plants is optimal. Of the
eight treatment plants that work with waste stabilization ponds, only two, Aqaba and New Aqaba are
working well, the other six perform unsatisfactorily with regard to BOD (average of around 170 mg/l
BOD5), suspended solids and E-coli (geometric mean of 37,000 MPN/100 ml). Two of these plants
((old) As-Samra and Mafraq) are heavily overloaded, but maintenance is deficient as well (ponds are
not properly cleaned, etc. (field visits made in November-December 2007)). Of the nine activated
sludge treatment plants, eight produce effluent with good (<25 mg/l BOD5) and one with reasonable
(25-60 mg/l BOD5) BOD contents (all meet the relevant standards). Three of the activated sludge
treatment plants do not reduce sufficiently pathogens; the average E-coli values of their effluent are
considerably larger (geometric mean of 28,000 MPN/100 ml) than the norm. Also three of these
plants do not respect the TSS norms. Table 13 gives a brief overview of the most important standards
for wastewater discharge.
Table 13. Standards for wastewater discharge for a selected number of parameters
  parameter          Unit    discharge to    groundwater   cooked vege-      fruit trees,   field crops,
                            streams, wadis     recharge    tables, parks,    roadsides       industrial
                            & water bodies                  playgrounds     outside city     crops and
                                                           and roadsides     limits and     forest trees
                                                             within city    landscapes
                                                               limits
BOD5             mg/l             60              15              30            200             300
TDS              mg/l           1500            1500            1500           1500            1500
TSS              mg/l          60-120             50              50            150             150
phenols          mg/l           0.002           0.002           0.002          0.002           0.002
Total-N          mg/l             70              45              45             70              70
E-Coli         MPN/100 ml       1000             2.2             100           1000               -


Table 14 evaluates the share of treated waste water that does not meet selected national standards:
this is 45% in the case of BOD, and 60% in the case of E-coli (for cooking vegetables).
Table 14. Share of total waste water meeting selected water quality norms
                                                BOD                          E-Coli
                                                                             (for cooked vegetables)
Share meeting norm                              45%                          61%
Share not meeting norm                          55%                          39%
Total                                           100%                         100%

It should be noted that the Jordanian Standard for BOD (60 mg/l BOD5) is less restrictive than for
example the EU standard which allows only 25 mg/l BOD5; where in 2006, 70% of the treatment
plants met the Jordanian standard for BOD, only 45% met the EU standard for BOD.
When the new As-Samra treatment plant will fully replace the old one, more than 80% of Jordan's
treated wastewater would comply with the relevant standards; however, in the absence of recent
measurements of the effluent quality of new and old As Samra wastewater treatment plants, it is
difficult to assess the degree to which such quality targets are being attained.

                                                  48
There is also some concern about the presence of high phenol concentrations in all treated
wastewater. Phenols in (too) high concentrations can damage irrigated crops. It is usually considered
to be an indicator of uncontrolled semi-diffuse pollution from a multitude of industrial and
commercial sources (iron industry, smithies, and car wash installations). It could also be related to
washing out of the air of phenol in vehicle exhaust gasses or be related to burning of organic
materials in general. No investigations are known for Jordan that determines the origin of phenols in
wastewater. This warrants efforts for cause attribution and possible mitigation.
Looking forward, there are two avenues to improve the relatively poor quality of treated wastewater.
First, the situation is likely to improve considerably once the new As-Samra activated sludge
wastewater treatment plant will be fully operational. The plant currently collects 40% of the
wastewater of the Amman-Zarqa area, treats the wastewater up to modern standards (below EU
norms) and is expected to reduce salinity of the wastewater reaching King Talal reservoir by 14%
according to its design. Monitoring data are not available yet, but the new plant is expected to make a
significant difference as to the wastewater situation in Jordan and as to the reuse potential. The
violation of environmental norms will be reduced as the new treatment plant is supposed to deliver
low E-coli concentrations in its effluent. This is important for the quality of water in the Zarqa River,
which (as the largest perennial stream close to Amman) enjoys constant public attention.
Secondly, the situation might further improve by re-considering the mix of treatment technologies
currently in use (rather than only expanding the overall treatment capacity). At present approximately
52% of Jordan's wastewater is treated by conventional methods (47% activated sludge and 5%
biofiltration) and 48% by using some form of waste stabilization ponds. The results of treatment with
respect to effluent quality (average selected parameters in 2006) are summarized in the following
table, sorted by type of treatment and concerning public WWTPs.
Table 15. Overview of main effluent characteristics of different types of treatment plants
                           BOD5          EC          phenol        TSS         total N        E-coli
                           mg/l         µS/cm         µg/l         mg/l         mg/l       MPN/100ml
stabilization ponds         148         1,689          44          163           83         1.26E+04
activated sludge            32          1,641          40           56           49         8.72E+02
biofiltration               63          1,476          44           85           71         3.06E+05
extended aeration            6          1,364          51           15            7         7.20E+00

Source: MoEnv

While the effluent quality of activated sludge and extended aeration plants meets by and large
applicable Jordanian standards, there are important problems with the other technologies. On the one
hand, the mostly older biofiltration (trickling filter) plants do not perform well with respect to BOD,
TSS, total N and E-coli (the latter should at least be below 1000 MPN/100 ml).

More importantly, the performance of the stabilization ponds is dismal in general (particularly with
respect to BOD and suspended solids, but also E-coli which such plants are supposed to tackle well),
with only a few exceptions, mainly because of overloading, but also because of inadequate design
and lack of maintenance of these plants. The amount of suspended solids indicates that most of the
BOD is in insoluble forms and that the treated water is therefore not directly suitable for irrigation.
On the other hand, O&M costs of the stabilization ponds are very low, from 0.02-0.13 JOD/m3,
contrary to 0.08-2.20 JOD/m3 for activated sludge and biofiltration plants (WHO-CEHA, 2005; data
for the year 2001), mainly depending on the size of the plant.
In addition to poor quality of the treated water, waste stabilization ponds are also subject to
considerable water losses due to evaporation and leakage. Such losses in the (old) As-Samra
treatment plant are estimated by WAJ at 35%, although it should theoretically be less, rather around

                                                   49
15% (Kunz, Radke & Jaar, 2007). Activated sludge treatment plants normally do not loose more than
5% of the treated water. It can be calculated that the water saving potential by eventually replacing
the stabilization ponds by activated sludge treatment plants is as much as 20 million m3 per year.
Such savings will also in general lower the average salt content of the effluent (average around 1,035
mg/l, which is high per the international standards) by approx. 15%.
On account of poor performance on both counts (poor treatment quality and high evaporation losses),
the general policy in Jordan is now to abandon waste stabilization ponds and replace them by
activated sludge treatment plants. In general, this policy appears reasonable, although -on account of
relatively high O&M costs (especially when energy prices are high) and frequent advances in
treatment technology, it should be periodically revisited. Whatever technological improvement will
be adopted, it will be essential that new treatment plants will not be overloaded again and will be
properly maintained and operated. Only under these conditions it will be possible to obtain effluents
with considerable lower BOD, suspended solids and pathogen content; and as a result, less
eutrophication in receiving water bodies and (as most effluent is used again for irrigation), a better
performance of modern trickle irrigation systems and a wider potential for reuse for (supplemental)
irrigation. Activated sludge systems produce more sludge than waste stabilization ponds, and reuse of
this sludge in agriculture (after composting) can be a valuable option, provided that the industrial
pollution is better controlled (preferably at source) to ensure that the sludge is not loaded with heavy
metals and organic toxic pollutants.

4.5.2   Industrial wastewater
As discussed in more detail in chapter 6 of this report, mining, manufacturing and construction
industry contribute to some 20% of Jordan's GDP, employ 16% of the Jordanian work force and
accounts for a sizeable portion of total exports. In 2006 there were almost 13,000 industrial
enterprises in Jordan, of which 2% are medium and big enterprises, 6% are small enterprises and
92% are micro enterprises.
The likely impacts on human health and the environment in Jordan's industrial hotspots (especially
along the Zarqa river) have been reasons for concern for the Government, NGOs and the general
public for quite some time. Although there is limited analysis to quantify those impacts, abundantly
available literature on similar situations in other countries indicate that the cost of uncontrolled
industrial pollution can be very high.
Table 16 provides indicative estimates of the distribution across sectors and disposal modes of
industrial wastewater. Of the approximately 26 million m3 of wastewater produced by industry in
2005, about 30% is treated before discharge. In terms of modality of disposal, 17% is released into
the sewer network, 32% into irrigation canals, and a small fraction (6%) is disposed of using tankers
or other methods. The bulk of industrial wastewater comes from mining activities, which however, as
observed later in the chapter, are unlikely to constitute a major health hazard. Enterprises located in
Zarqa account for 65% of the remaining wastewater.




                                                  50
Table 16. Estimates of wastewater from Industry (2005)
Type of Industry                      Water      Wastewater       Share of             Disposal of wastewater
                                   consumption                   treated in
                                    (million m3/ (million m3/       total        sea      sewers   irrigation   other
                                       year)        year)       wastewater
Mining
 Dead Sea Potash Company                10.8           10.8         0%          100%        0%        0%         0%
 Other Mining                            9.6            4.8         0%           0%         0%       100%        0%
Aqaba fertilizer complex                 3.2            1.6        100%(a)      100%        0%        0%         0%
Zarqa industrial zones                  15.0            7.5        65%           0%        52%       31%        17%
Other industrial zones                   2.3            1.2        80%           0%        17%       83%        20%
Cement                                   0.4            0.2         0%           0%         0%       100%        0%
Power Generation                         1.9            1.0         0%           0%        60%       40%         0%
TOTAL                                   43.2           27.0        32%          46%        17%       32%        6%
Note: the table assumes that an average of 50% of water consumed by industry is returned as wastewater, except for
the Dead Sea Potash Company
(a): According to information provided by ASEZA, in compliance to environmental protection regulation nr 21 and
to the requirement of the international treaties signed by the GOJ, no wastewater of Aqaba's phosphate company is
disposed of in the sea
Sources: WAJ, MoEnv, Water Data Bank Project, USAID
In general, wastewater discharged from industries should comply with Jordanian Standard 202/1991
(JS 202/1991), which is however extremely lenient. It allows for example discharging water to the
environment with up to 3000 mg/l TDS and is not linked to the quality and other characteristics of
the receiving body. It also only sets (rather lenient) limits for heavy metals and does not set limits to
endocrine substances and other toxic organic materials. Moreover the standard has intrinsic internal
conflicts. For instance it says that the quality of receiving water bodies should not be negatively
impacted and at the same time allows a TDS value in the effluent of 3,000 mg/l. The standard is
obsolete and need to be thoroughly revised. It only applies to discharges to the environment and does
not seem to apply to discharges to the sewerage system.
To better address different wastewater quality issues, it is useful to analyze the manufacturing
enterprises which discharge in the public sewerage network, separately from those which do not.
Other industrial activities of significance for water pollution are mining and power generation.
Industries discharging into the public sewerage network
Pollution from this group is of concern for at least three reasons: a) considerable rates of
discharges in the sewers without licensing; b) significant rates of non-compliance with discharge
regulations; c) inadequacies of those regulations.
As the entity in charge of the public sewerage network, WAJ is responsible for licensing industries
that discharge into the network. The quality of all discharges needs to respond to the norms fixed in
the "Instruction for disposal of commercial and industrial wastewater to the public sewerage system
of the year 1998, Water Authority of Jordan". This instruction does not have the status of Jordanian
Standard, but is similar in its set-up (see Box 4).
Box 4. Industrial treatment standards in Jordan

In Jordan there are no official pretreatment standards; the only legal instrument is the "Instructions for disposal of
commercial and industrial wastewater to public sewerage network of the year 1998, Water Authority of Jordan".
This instruction falls short of being a standard; however it contains clear instructions on prohibited substances (solid
objects, limits for all relevant parameters such as inflammable or explosive substances, any toxic material that could
interfere with the treatment process, solids or liquids with a pH out of the range of 5.5 to 9.5, liquids with a
temperature higher than 65oC, etc.).
It also gives the maximum allowed concentrations for a number of substances/parameters, such as oil & grease,
                                                          51
cyanide, phenol compounds, sulfuric compounds, chlorinated organic solvents, chemical cleaning compounds,
heavy metals and radioactive substances. Any commerce or industry discharging to the sewerage network will need
a license and need to submit certain details on the treatment and production process. The relevant company can be
obligated to install end-of-the-pipe treatment facility when the standards per this instruction are not being met.


There are some 46 industries licensed by WAJ to discharge wastewater into the public sewerage
system. These include 25 food industries, seven textile and clothing industries, four pharmaceutical
industries, three cleaning industries, three chemical industries, two mineral industries, one leather
tanning plant, and Jordan's oldest large power plant, the Al-Hussein Power Station.
While the WAJ-licensed enterprises are considered to be the most important in this category, there is
evidence suggesting that they represent only a fraction of the total. In particular, a USAID-financed
study (CDM, 2005) indicates that in Zarqa 96 enterprises discharge into the public sewerage
network, which is a significantly larger number than the 46 licensed by WAJ, and which suggests
that of the 5,000 enterprises present in the area there are probably even more discharging without a
license.
WAJ itself reports that the minimum requirements mentioned in Box 4 are often violated in the 46
licensed industries. As an example, percentages of non-compliance with aforementioned indicative
pH standards are around 20%, non-compliance with ammonia 33% and with suspended solids 30%.
Moreover, the higher-bound values occasionally reach numbers several orders of magnitude above
what is acceptable. This is not an acceptable situation from an environmental and health point of
views and an effort should be made to enforce simple rules and methods of treatment on industries.
In this context it should be remarked that the situation may even be worse than indicated above; for
instance, dangerous substances completely banned by the EU under its Water Framework Directive
(meaning zero effluent concentration) are not even measured/monitored (let alone tackled) in Jordan.
It should be noted that there are programs underway to reduce industrial pollution at the source.
However, due the (lack of) monitoring data it is not clear if these programs have started to yield
positive results.
Whatever the doubtless good intentions of the `Instructions'; these are mainly meant to protect the
sewerage network and the functioning of the public wastewater treatment plants. Although the strict
implementation of the `Instructions' would alleviate some environmental and health hazards, these
"Instructions" are not explicitly meant to reduce pollution of the environment or protect water
resources. A typical example is the salinity of wastewater discharged to the public sewerage network.
There is no limitation in the instructions for salinity, even though increased salinity would make the
final effluent of the wastewater treatment plants less suitable for use in irrigation. It should also be
noted that the "Instructions" may need to be based on monitoring both the water usage of the facility
as well as the effluent concentrations, so as to avoid a situation where the facility abides by the
effluent standards simply by using more water to dilute the effluent.
Industries not connected to the public sewerage network
The companies included in this group comprise large size manufacturing enterprises (potash and
fertilizers), three cement factories and the Jordan petroleum refinery, as well as mining and power
generation activities (further discussed below). In addition, the group includes a number of industrial
estates assembling several enterprises. Considering that the industrial estates for which data is
available (Table 17) are estimated to discharge some 0.7 million m3 of waste water (over 10% of the
total effluents discharged out of the sewer network, excluding mining), industrial estates as a whole
(i.e. including those for which discharge data is not available) are probably a non-negligible
component of this group.


                                                       52
Table 17. Overview of the most important industrial estates in Jordan




Source: CDM, 2005

Most of the industrial estates have wastewater treatment plants or plan to build one soon.
Consolidating a number of industries into industrial estates has many advantages from the
environmental point of view, because it becomes easier to control pollution (although for larger
factories, control at source tends to be more cost-effective).
In the past WAJ was responsible for the licensing and monitoring of some 150 industries not
connected to the sewerage network and believed to be discharging industrial wastewater in other
recipient media. A few years ago, this responsibility was transferred to the Ministry of Environment
(MoEnv). However, MoEnv seemed not to be ready for this task at that time and has only recently
started to make an inventory of all relevant Jordanian industries in the framework of an upcoming
integrated environmental licensing. As a result, industries in Jordan are only partially stored in a
MoEnv database; for the time being this covers 130 industries in the Zarqa area and 20 in the Al
Hassan Industrial estate (a small fraction of the total 20,000 establishments, but a more significant
share of the 2,000 establishment with more than 9 employees).
MoEnv started monitoring 20 larger industries (not discharging to the public sewerage network) on
compliance with industrial wastewater discharge norms. Results of this monitoring have not yet been
published. These will be tested on standard chemical and physical parameters, nutrients (N, P, BOD,
COD, etc.), microbiological parameters, and heavy metals.
A considerable problem is reported for industries not connected to the public sewerage system that
dispose of their wastewater using tankers. The USAID-financed study mentioned above (CDM,
2005) suggests that such wastewater disposal is fully uncontrolled. As far as not recycled on site, the
wastewaters are either transported to one of the two sites in Jordan that receive industrial wastewater
(Ein Ghazal pre-treatment facility on the border of Amman and Zarqa, and the Al Ekaider waste
disposal site, northeast of Amman close to the Syrian border) or are disposed of illegally.
Although the quantity and origin of the wastewater is registered at these sites, the quality of the
disposed wastewater is never measured. From Ein Ghazal, the water flows largely untreated (the
plant basically removes larger solids only, hence primary treatment) towards the old As-Samra
treatment plant. In the Al Ekaider waste disposal site there is no treatment at all; water is let into
unlined basins where it either evaporates or joins the groundwater (Nawar, 2006). As far as known,
there is no clear investigation of the effect on the treatment process in As Samra. Groundwater and
soil in Al Ekaider are expected to be polluted, but no observations are available.


                                                  53
Mining and power generation
With a 2% share of GDP, phosphate mining is the single most important industrial branch in Jordan,
and is also a very large generator of wastewater (9.6 million m3 from the Eshidiya, Hasa & Abiad,
and Al-Ruseifa mining locations). There is little information nevertheless on the effluent quality,
other than indication of contamination stemming from solid waste in Russeifa (now dormant).
Also of importance and by far the largest water user in Jordan is the Arab Potash Company. The
Company, operating since 1982, takes concentrated brine (the sodium chloride in the Dead Sea water
is deposited during the evaporation process and potassium chloride remains in the brine) from
specially-constructed compartments in the southern part of the Dead Sea and processes the brine to
potash which is mainly used to produce fertilizers. The fresh water used for the processing is
discharged to the Dead Sea.
The power sector is estimated to generate some 2 million m3 of wastewater per year (or 7% of the
total industrial wastewater). A significant share of that (about 25%) comes from the Hussein Thermal
Power Station; a fifth of its discharge is RO brine water with a conductivity of 13,000 S/cm (CDM,
2006), channeled into public sewerage system and contributing significantly to the salt content of the
As-Samra WWTP effluent. The plant is in the process of upgrading its treatment plant to produce
effluent up to Jordanian Standard 202/1991 and reuses or evaporates the remaining effluent. No
information is available for the other power stations.
4.5.3    Other sources of water pollution
Two other sources contribute to a lesser extent to contamination of water resources. In agriculture,
the per-hectare use of fertilizers and pesticides is estimated to be relatively low (12 kg/ha in the case
of pesticides) in comparison to international averages, and there is no strong evidence of residues of
pesticides in surface and underground water, and no violation of the acceptable limits for drinking
water supply. However, given persistent rumors that pesticides are present in drainage water in the
Jordan Valley, further scrutiny of the issue may be warranted.
In the case of solid waste, the fact that most disposal sites are not lined suggest that leachate may
infiltrate into aquifers that provide groundwater for drinking and irrigation use. There is evidence in
the literature of increased levels of dioxin and furan in human milk samples. A statistically
significant relationship with the location of the land-fill sites has been found (Alawi, 1996b). It seems
that a more thorough investigation of the impact of solid waste disposal practices on groundwater
quality is justified.

.6
4       Institutional Setup of Water Quality Management

4.6.1    Legal Background
The effectiveness of Jordan' water quality management is hampered by the lack a
comprehensive and over-arching legal framework.
Jordan's system of water quality management is characterized by a large number of legal provisions
(see Annex 2 for details) that have been adopted often on ad-hoc basis, i.e. whenever a specific
problem arose and needed to be solved. In general the existing regulations are adequate, even though
they may need some upgrading in individual cases. In particular:
·    The Underground Water Control By-Law of 2002 is a by-law with the character of a regulation.
     It is directed towards the control of extraction only; yet the chapters on groundwater protection
     are missing in this by-law. It is advisable to include such chapters and give the by-law the status


                                                   54
    of regulation, preferably under a to-be-launched Water Code that would give legal substance to
    such a regulation.
·   The Criminal Code articles referred to in Annex 2 seem superfluous; with regards to penalties
    there is enough to hold on in the other legislation;
·   In general, most regulations are weak on reporting and self-monitoring, which are indispensable
    tools to control potential pollution.
A more systemic and far-reaching problem is the lack of a uniform framework law for water (Water
Code) that should regulate issues such as property of water resources; restrictions to private rights;
the definition of water uses; water rights and water use and discharge permits; cadastre of water users
and polluters; protection of water resources, aquifers and river banks; execution of construction
works related to water resources; penalties; the role and rights of water users; institutional
responsibilities for the implementation of the law and regulations, etc. Such a law would make the
institutional responsibilities of different government entities and their inherent tasks more clear and
set a framework for adequate water (quantity and quality) management.
Apart from the aforementioned functions, a Water Code would be of great value to establish a
planning framework for water resources quantity and quality management. This would include
making an inventory of environmental pressures, defining the status of water quality, defining water
(resources) quality objectives and preparing planning documents (strategies and action plans) to
improve water quality, and redefine roles and responsibilities of the three main institutions in charge
of water management, namely MoWI, WAJ, and JVA.
Industrial discharges are governed by the Industrial Wastewater Standard of 1991 and the
aforementioned WAJ instruction for discharge of commercial and industrial wastewater to the
sewerage system (and to some extent by the Water-Reclaimed Domestic Wastewater Standard). The
WAJ Instruction should acquire the status of standard. The Instruction adequately covers prohibited
substances (inflammable and explosive materials, materials that block the sewerage system, etc.),
ranges of physical properties (e.g., pH) and allowable concentrations of a number of chemical
substances that can be discharged to the public sewerage system. The instruction is far less precise
where it comes to toxic/dangerous substances in the wastewater that can influence the treatment
process or otherwise will pass through the wastewater treatment plants and be emitted to the
environment. It is mentioned that emissions should not harm the treatment process or otherwise
endanger the environment, but this is not worked out quantitatively.
For the control of such substances, Water Quality Objectives (WQO) should be defined as was
mentioned before in the Section on the Water Code. Such WQO can be achieved by applying Best
Available Technology (BAT) in industries with regard to effluent control processes. As further
discussed in section 4.7.1, the application of BAT should take place in the framework of Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), where water, solid wastes and air emissions are controlled
in an integrated manner.
In terms of standards, the Drinking Water Standards are up to date; the Water-reclaimed Domestic
Wastewater Standards are in themselves adequate. However, where properly operated wastewater
treatment plants with secondary treatment would usually produce effluent with BOD5 values below
15-20 mg/l, the limit of 60 mg/l in the standard is unnecessarily high and discourages proper
operation of the treatment plants. This is in particular the case for the waste stabilization ponds
treatment plants; field observations show that quite a few of them are heavily neglected.
The required monitoring of the treatment process does not distinguish between large and small
treatment plants; for small treatment plants, the costs of the required monitoring are prohibitive and


                                                  55
could amount to 5 JOD/m3 wastewater treated. An adaptation of the monitoring requirements is
necessary.
4.6.2       Institutions and Responsibilities
At least four institutions have institutional attributions related to water quality management: the
Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MoWI), the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ), the Jordan Valley
Authority (JVA), the Ministry of Health (MoH) and the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv). The roles
and responsibilities of the different ministries are described in detail in Annex 2, and have been
summarized in Table 18.
Table 18. Institutional responsibilities of different ministries involved in water quality
Competences with respect to water quality management           Council of    MoWI         WAJ         JVA         MoH   MoEnv
                                                               Ministers

Legislation and other regulatory aspects
 prepare water (quality) legislation
 elaborate regulatory documents
 establish water quality standards and norms
 exercise international co-operation
Water quality policy
 prepare policies
 approve policies
 supervise implementation of policies
 implement policies
Licensing and control
 establish limits of water use per user
 issue licenses for water use
 issue licenses for water discharge                                                                                      2
 establish boundaries of sanitary protection areas
 control compliance with licenses and illegal discharge
 take legal action in case of non-compliance
Planning and implementation of plans
 prepare plans
   analyse the state of the environment
   define water quality objectives
   prepare list of measures
   define priority measures
   prepare implementation plan
 approve plans
 supervise implementation of programmes
 implement plans
 decide on incentives for pollution alleviation measures
Operation
 operation of wastewater treatment plants
 operation of other emission measures
Monitoring, data management en dissemination
 plan and supervise monitoring activities
 collect data and information
 process and store data
 synthesize data and prepare reports
 disseminate information and promote public partiicaption

the respective entity has full responsibility
the respective entity is involved
                                                              only for discharge to public sewerage system
                                                            2 should for discharge others than public sewerage system


It is clear from the table that there are several overlaps in responsibilities and some necessary
responsibilities are not assigned to any of the mentioned entities. In particular, the presence of
multiple black dots on any given row suggests that the responsibilities overlap and that they should
be clarified/ separated. The main areas of overlap include:
1.      The preparation of legal and regulatory documents. This overlap of responsibilities has most
        probably resulted in not having a Water Code and a regulation for water resources protection.
2.      Licensing and control of licensing. In the framework of IPPC, licensing should rather be under
        MoEnv with obligatory consultations of MoWI bodies.



                                                                          56
3.      Planning and implementation of measures has some overlapping functions; these should be
        coordinated; there should be a National Master Plan for the Abatement of Water Resources
        Pollution with one government entity in charge and full involvement of other entities.
4.      Particularly serious is the issue of overlapping monitoring. It is not per definition wrong that
        all involved entities are executing part of the required monitoring, but for efficiency reasons,
        data should be properly exchanged, not measured twice or several times by different entities.
4.6.3     The monitoring system

An extensive overview of the water quality monitoring system is given in Annex 2. The main issues
for the annex are briefly discussed here. There are basically three types of monitoring in Jordan, the
environmental monitoring of the quality of water resources and of pollution sources, including the
monitoring of wastewater returning to the environment; the quality control monitoring
implemented by the agencies responsible for water supply and sanitation; and the monitoring related
to environmental health issues.
Environmental monitoring is executed by those entities that are responsible for the water resources,
such as HSC, WAJ, JVA and MoEnv. Part of this monitoring is outsourced to RSS which has
appropriate research capacity to do so. There is a certain overlap between the different monitoring
programs; coordination between the different entities has just started and still needs to score effect.
The monitoring system is rather simple in the sense that a limited number of parameters are
measured every time monitoring takes place; there are no adapted frequencies for different
parameters and the concept of baseline surveys followed by limited specific monitoring has never
been applied. Moreover, the number of parameters is rather limited, up to maximum 20.
The quality control monitoring (of the production process) is executed by WAJ and the other public
or private entities responsible for the operation of the drinking water supply and sanitation system.
With regard to water resources there seems to be some confusion within the responsible entities on
whether certain monitoring belongs to environmental monitoring of water resources, environmental
health monitoring, or quality control monitoring. A better demarcation between these types of
monitoring seems necessary.
Environmental health monitoring is mainly the responsibility of by MoH. However, MoEnv does
have monitoring elements in its program that come close to environmental health monitoring (control
of drinking water at the tap and control of wastewater effluent) that should rather be the
responsibility of MoH. It is necessary to drawn a more clear line here between environmental
monitoring and environmental health monitoring.
The responsibilities for the different types of monitoring are presented in Table 19.
Table 19. Present responsibilities for different types of monitoring




                                                    57
Clear overlaps exist in monitoring of surface water resources, quality control monitoring, and
environmental health monitoring. A simplified and more effective monitoring system could be
considered, along the lines presented in Table 20, and discussed in further detail in Annex 2. Clearly
this reform proposal is preliminary; it would need more investigation and, above all, discussions
among the different monitoring entities.

Table 20. Preliminary options to reform the water quality monitoring system




.7
4       Policies and measures for water quality management

4.7.1    Policy instruments
Interventions to improve water quality can be classified in three broad groups (Table 21). First, there
are interventions that reduce polluting concentrations by treating effluent water or controlling their
disposal; these include the collection and treatment of wastewater from municipal and industrial
discharges, the improvement of landfill management to prevent infiltration into groundwater of
wastewater discharged from tankers, and the treatment of spring water.

Next, there are interventions that reduce concentrations by increasing the amount of water available
for dilution. These include policies to increase supply (water storage, desalinization of sea water,
conveyance schemes), as well as policies that encourage, through improved demand management,
the re-allocation of existing water for increased dilution. Finally, there are "at-recipient"
interventions that do not affect the quality of the water available for different uses, but reduce the
exposure of potential users to contaminated water through behavioral change.




                                                  58
Table 21. Typology of policy instrument for improved water quality
                                              Delivery mechanism for quality           Unit costs        Ease      of
                                              enhancement                                                targeting
A. Effluent removal
     Wastewater collection and treatment      Reduction of polluting concentration     High              Easy
                                              through transformation of the load
     Industrial pollution control             Same                                     High              Medium
     Treatment of spring water                Same                                     Medium            Medium
     Improved landfill management             Prevention of leachate infiltration      Medium            Easy
                                              into groundwater
B. Increased dilution
     Mobilization of additional water         Reduction of polluting concentration     High              Medium
     resources                                through increased water dilution
     Water savings/ demand management         Same                                     Low          to   Medium
                                                                                       medium
C. At recipient interventions
     Hygiene programs                         Prevention of water-borne diseases       Low               Medium
                                              through behavioral change

Water policies in Jordan have been using over time different mixes of these instruments, but with a
strong focus on interventions to increase supply (Box 5). While mainly motivated by the priority of
reducing Jordan's chronic water scarcity problem, these interventions also tend to deliver water
quality benefits. In several cases, however, water policies have not addressed explicitly the strategic
linkages between water quantity and water quality.

Box 5. Overview of recent water policies and strategies in Jordan
Water policies in Jordan have traditionally been concentrating almost exclusively on what is perceived as the biggest
problem: the balancing of scarce but relatively constant water resources and the ever growing demand for water. A
Water Strategy was adopted in 1997 by MoWI and supplemented with different water policies for irrigation,
groundwater management, water utilities and wastewater management.
The Water Strategy aims at securing a reliable supply of water (in quantity and quality terms) mainly for drinking
water supply and irrigation in Jordan. In general this is thought to be met thru maximum augmentation of water
resources, protection of existing water resources, and improvement of the distribution and allocation efficiency in
both the water supply and the irrigation systems. It equally formulates proposals to ensure Jordan's international
rights on water resources shared with its neighbors.
The Groundwater Management Policy mainly aims at reducing abstraction from renewable aquifers to sustainable
quantities. There are some paragraphs on protecting the groundwater by means of protection zones, but the policy
fails to make the link between water quantity and water quality and does not envisage an integrated quantity-quality
management.
The Irrigation Management Policy details the long-term objectives laid down in the Water Strategy. It has a number
of chapters that set policies for the role of Irrigated Agriculture, its sustainability, the development of water
resources, adaptation to modern technology, on-farm water management, irrigation water quality, administrative
issues, public awareness, water pricing, regulations and research and development. With regard to water quality it is
stated that wastewater should be treated to the extent that is fully reusable in agriculture, and salinity should be
adequately monitored.
The Wastewater Management Policy sets the framework for the development of adequate wastewater collection and
treatment. It declares wastewater as a water resource to be used for irrigation and aims at treatment processes that
enable unrestricted reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. It also provides directives for end-of pipe treatment of

                                                          59
industrial wastewater, charging wastewater treatment costs to the producer of wastewater, separation of collection
systems, identification of point sources of pollution, use of river basin management approaches and a number of
other wastewater related issues.
With respect to water quality management, the existing policies do not entail modern concepts such as Integrated
Water Resources Management (IRWM) and Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC). An upgrade of
policies and strategies within the framework of a new Water Code, National Water Master Plan and River Basin
Management Plans is recommended.


This Section discusses the potential for applying these different interventions in Jordan, as a way to
introduce the discussion of their comparative merits conducted in section 4.7.2 below through a
simplified cost benefit analysis.

Wastewater collection systems and treatment plants
The National Agenda envisages a total investment of 363 million JOD for urban wastewater
collection and treatment. This will allow connecting 12% more of the population to centralized
sewerage systems (up from 58% to 70% of the population), and produce an extra 20-25 million m3
(treated) wastewater per year. At the same time efficiency of collection and treatment will be
improved significantly (reduction of evaporation, leaking losses, etc.), which may deliver another 20
million m3/year. The investment will therefore be around 8-9 JOD/m3. On top of that, the
considerable improvement to the wastewater effluent quality would improve the suitability for reuse
in irrigation and also would reduce the adverse health effects.
Improvement of wastewater collection and treatment will increase the availability of water resources
mainly for irrigation. Where at this moment approx. 120 million m3/year of treated wastewater is
produced, this amount is estimated to increase to 200 million m3/year in the year 2025.
Reaching the aforementioned figure of 70% of the population connected to centralized sewerage
systems, the options of collecting and treating wastewater in the conventional centralized way may
have been largely exhausted. It is estimated that, due to economic feasibility, a maximum connection
percentage for centralized sewerage and treatment systems in Jordan would be close46 to 75%.
Industrial pollution control
The direction that seems to prevail on industrial pollution control is to promote centralized collection
and treatment. However it has long been proven that control at source - through in-factory
technology switch (cleaner production), or through end-of-pipe treatment - is typically more cost-
effective and there is no reason to believe that this would be different for Jordan. It appears that
existing plans to build centralized wastewater treatment plants for a number of more or less adjacent
industries (CDM, 2005) might have overlooked the potential of at source treatment, which of course
would entail addressing issues of willingness to pay and incentives (i.e., incremental economic
benefits) for industries.
Of course, such pollution prevention needs a policy framework and technical regulations. It is
strongly advised to adopt the principles of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) and of

46
   The remaining wastewater is however by no ways lost, but could be captured and reused locally through
decentralized approaches of wastewater separation, "grey water" treatment and reuse (so called "dual networks"),
etc. These can be developed through a decentralized modality involving a Public-Private Partnership, with major
participation of the end-beneficiary communities (benefiting from the reduced pollution and/or from the increased
useable water). Recent studies in Germany clearly indicate that this is an option for peri-urban areas as well; in this
context, the Jordanian Government would be well advised to seriously study the issue of centralized vs.
decentralized and corporatized wastewater collection and treatment, in the form of a National Sanitation Master
Plan.
                                                          60
Best Available Technologies (BAT) as they are used in Europe47. The advantage of using IPPC is
that the effluent is not transferred from one sink to another; the advantage of BAT, provided it is
constantly upgraded, is that it helps avoid that ­as industrial output increases-, pollution increases in
the same proportion. IPPC and BAT should be properly embedded in new industrial pollution
abatement regulations.
Without having more information on the existing industries, their outputs, their production
technology/process and their financial arrangements, it is difficult to predict the costs of introducing
IPPC and BAT for the industrial sector. Further studies are therefore needed, in particular to identify
cases where BAT might induce excessive costs, and where therefore exceptions may be warranted
(provided that the resulting environmental damage is acceptable).
An important issue is to prevent the increase in wastewater salinity beyond what is technically
necessary. This is of particular importance for Jordan as, due to the general water scarcity, all
wastewater is supposed to be reused, mainly for irrigation. This is not an issue of quantities of water
(industrial wastewater with high salinity is only a small fraction of the total amount of wastewater
produced), but rather of quality. As was estimated above, the salinity of the wastewater produced in
the Amman-Zarqa area can be reduced by at least 10% if desalination brines are not discharged to the
sewerage system or open water bodies, but disposed of in an alternative way. The extra costs of this
will most probably be largely offset by the higher outputs from agriculture. BAT could also include
the avoidance of salinity accumulation and the use of process water desalination before discharging
wastewater to the environment or to public sewerage systems.
Additional treatment of spring water
In a number of groundwater basins, groundwater is contaminated due to lack of proper sanitation and
infiltration of domestic wastewater into the aquifer (The Jerash area is known for this, but the
problem is not limited to this area). This manifests itself in insufficient bacteriological quality of
spring water (for instance, inferred by the increased trends of E-Coli). At the recipient side, there are
two remedies/solutions to this problem: (i) tackling the sanitation issues through improved hygiene,
in the framework of community action/participation; and (when this delivers insufficient results); (ii)
the application of extra water treatment in the form of ultra- or nanofiltration. Such filtration would
cost about 0.20-0.30 JOD/m3, on top of the already existing exploitation costs. In the Jerash Pilot
Area of the USAID Pollution Prevention for Environmental Health Protection (P2EHP) Project, the
improvement of hygiene has proved to be cost- effective.
Upgrading of landfills
Measures need to be taken to ensure that landfills do not pose potential pollution risks. The
Government of Jordan has already started to upgrade the landfills as such. The new landfills will
need protection against leakage into the soil and towards the groundwater, and groundwater
observation wells need to be installed to validate the absence of such leakage. All newly planned
landfills meet these conditions, whereas the existing landfills that do not, will/should be gradually
closed.
Another important issue is to close existing landfills for depositing wastewater trucked in by tankers
(such as Al Ekaider waste disposal site). All wastewater should be treated properly before
discharging it to the environment, before evaporating it, before discharging to the public sewer or
before reusing it in irrigation, under reigning systems of standards and instructions.


47
  The EU concept of BAT includes considerations on the affordability of the technology in the context of the
country to which BAT is applied. In this sense, BAT in Jordan could mean something different from BAT in
Western Europe or the USA.
                                                    61
Exploitation of additional water resources
As water resources are scarce in Jordan, maximum increase augmentation of water resources is an
important instrument in the water policy and could have a positive impact on water quality as well. It
should be stressed however, that the possibilities to further increase the conventional water resources
at an economically-acceptable cost are very limited. The most promising option is to further increase
the quantity of good quality treated wastewater, which will over a longer period of time yield 50-100
million m3/year, also depending on the population growth. Another option is to develop the Red Sea-
Dead Sea Canal which will most probably yield another 600 million m3/year of fresh water
resources, but this option will take at least 15 years to realize. Furthermore there are limited options
to desalinize brackish groundwater (60 million m3/year) or desalinize water from Karameh dam (30-
40 million m3/year). When such measures are fully exhausted, desalination of seawater will be the
only available augmentation option.
Water demand management
Where the development of new water resources has, with exception of large scale projects such as the
Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal, almost come to an end in Jordan, water demand management becomes an
ever more important issue.
In irrigation, large savings on water (losses) are still possible, thus increasing the economic output
per each m3 of water used. The formation and empowerment of Water User Associations (WUAs),
and developing and scaling up the "Irrigation Advisory Services", are two key instruments toward
reducing the irrigation-water demand without compromising the agricultural output.
Irrigation efficiency (output/ m3 of water), particularly for seasonal crops, is still low and experiences
in a number of ongoing projects prove that it can be improved by 30-40%. Soil-less cultures can
further improve irrigation efficiency and savings of as much as 60% are feasible.
With regard to economic performance (expressed as gross margin per m3 of water used), at present
the average is around 0.60 JOD. The National Agenda establishes for 2017 the fairly ambitious target
of 5 JOD/m3.Data collected from different types of farms in the Jordan Valley suggest that indeed
higher outputs are feasible, at least 1 JOD and in some cases more (3-4 JOD/m3).
Such improvements can only be reached through institutional changes that include among others the
formation of WUAs and efforts to increase farmers' knowledge of the irrigation technologies through
research, extension and knowledge transfer. To increase the gross margin at a rate of 5% per year
from the present 0.60 JOD/m3 as envisaged here, it is estimated that an intensive R&E (coupling the
notion of "Irrigation Advisory" with the notion of "Agronomic Advisory") would be needed, i.e. at
least one well trained extension agent per 50 farmers. Assuming that there are around 10,000
farmers in Jordan, at least 200 extension agents are needed at an estimated annual cost of 4 million
JOD, including research and logistics. With approx. 400 million m3 water used in agriculture, this
would add up to 12 million JOD/year.
With regard to drinking water supply, large savings are possible as well. The unaccounted-for-water
was still at 45% in 2005, and could (according to experiences in other countries) be reduced to 25%
over time, provided that the due investments are made in network rehabilitation, and O&M is
improved. Where half of the unaccounted-for-water may be administrative, a saving of 10% is
feasible on the middle/long run.
It is estimated that a complete rehabilitation of leaking networks may request investments amounting
to roughly 30% of the average investments in drinking water supply made over the last decade or so.
In addition, O&M costs need to be increased by at least 20% to maintain properly what has been
achieved with the rehabilitation.


                                                   62
Another option for water demand management is the in-house recycling of water resources.
Separation of "black, yellow and grey" water and the reuse of the latter could (when applied to all
households) generate water savings of about 50%. It is difficult however to determine the exact costs
of such a measure. Given the large initial investment cost, the Government would probably need to
provide households with adequate financial or fiscal incentives.

4.7.2    A macro-scale cost-benefit analysis of alternative options
Provisional cost-benefit analysis at the macro-scale indicate that it might be possible to
eliminate up to 80% of the social cost of water degradation by optimally combining hygiene
programs, enhanced dilution via water savings, and wastewater treatment.
The evaluation of the cost environmental degradation conducted in Chapter 3 indicates that poor
water quality inflicts to society an annual cost of about JOD 82 million/year (or 0.8% of GDP). This
cost is likely to increase in the future, on account of population growth, dwindling surface water and
escalating cost of extracting groundwater of acceptable quality. For example, preliminary estimates
conducted in the CEA background report indicate that over the next decade the annual degradation
cost linked to increased groundwater and surface water salinity might double with respect to the
value estimated in Chapter 3 COED analysis.
Since the options for improving water quality reviewed previously (section 4.7.1 above) differ widely
in terms of unit costs and of their ability to deliver benefits in terms of human health, agriculture
income, etc, this section proposes a simplified evaluation of the optimal mix of interventions that
could reduce over time the cost of water quality degradation.
A detailed analysis of specific interventions would have required an amount of data which is
currently not readily accessible in Jordan (see Box 3 above), as well as the use of dedicated water
modeling tools that go beyond the scope of a CEA. Instead, this section proposes the use of a
simplified analysis that could deliver useful, albeit approximate, insights to policy makers.
The proposed approach couches the problem in terms of a few parameters indicative of water quality
conditions of relevance for human health and agriculture (e.g., BOD, TDS), and evaluates the
optimal mix (i.e., featuring an aggregate Benefit-Cost ratio higher than 1) of a few key interventions
(hygiene programs, increased dilution via water savings, and treatment), which would help reduce
baseline concentrations towards the existing water quality norms, thereby reducing the cost of water
degradation estimated in Chapter 3.
More specifically, the macro level analysis consists of the following elements:
·    A mass balance of the pollutants load (product of flow and concentration) was carried out in
     order to obtain the average, across water bodies of different qualities, of in-stream concentrations
     of BOD and TDS. In the no-intervention baseline, those averages exceed the relevant quality
     norms, and this was assumed to be explaining the bulk48 of the water degradation cost evaluated
     in Chapter 3;
·    A simple water saving program -implemented through enhanced irrigation efficiency- was
     introduced in the analysis, using the unit costs discussed in section 4.7.1 above, and assuming
     that the water resources thus "freed-up" could become available to increase dilution (i.e. reducing
     average concentrations);
·    The mass-balance approach was re-applied to the new composition of water flows resulting from
     the program, to estimate the resulting reduction in concentration;

48
   On account of the very limited information on its health impacts, pollution from industrial sources was not
included in the analysis.
                                                     63
·    A simple, linear "dose-response" function was assumed to quantify the benefits obtained as a
     result of the decrease in concentration; as a first approximation, it was assumed that the reduction
     on the different types of social costs (health impacts, consumption of bottled water, decline in
     agriculture productivity, etc.) is proportional to the reduction in the gap between actual BOD and
     TDS concentrations, and their respective norms.
·    Where concentrations after increased dilution still exceeded the norm, the residual loads were
     removed through treatment, using unit costs indicative of an upgrade from primary to secondary
     treatment technology, and giving priority to the population already connected to the sewer
     network;
·    Finally, on account of the their low unit (per household) costs, and of their ability to deliver
     results specifically in terms of reduced mortality and morbidity from poor water, sanitation and
     hygiene, at recipient hygiene programs were introduced in the analysis, adopting unit costs
     figures derived from international experience
Results
The results of the analysis indicate (Figure 2) that a program supporting average water savings of 3%
per year, implemented over a 10 years period, and accompanied by at recipient hygiene programs49,
could eliminate up to 80% of the 2006 cost of water degradation at favorable Benefit Cost ratios (i.e.
exceeding 1).
With a cost of some JOD50-60 million, such a program would save water losses (particularly from
irrigation uses) for some 100 to 150 million m3/year (a final target gradually achievable over 10
years), and would yield a "triple dividend":
·    limiting the current mining of groundwater,
·    enabling in-stream dilution through "water-quality arbitrage", thus diluting salinity loads (TDS)
     and reducing the gap between actual concentration and TDS norms;
·    enabling full attainment of BOD norm




49
  With an assumed cost of $10/ household, an targeted on the basis of current levels household exposure to
morbidity related to water, sanitation and hygiene
                                                   64
Figure 31 Optimal selection of water saving rates

                              120%                                                                        1.2

                                                                                                          1.1

                              100%                                                                        1.0

                                                                                                          0.9
  Share of COED eliminated,
   rate of norm attainment




                              80%                                                                         0.8




                                                                                                                Benefit/ cost ratio
                                                                                                          0.7

                              60%                                                                         0.6

                                                                                                          0.5

                              40%                                                                         0.4

                                                                                                          0.3

                              20%                                                                         0.2

                                                                                                          0.1

                               0%                                                                         -
                                 0.0%       1.0%        2.0%        3.0%         4.0%      5.0%       6.0%
                                                         Rate of annual water savings
                                           Share of COED eliminated          Attainment of BOD Norm
                                           Attainment of TDS Norm            Benefit/Cost ratio

At the estimated optimal solution (rate of saving of 3% of the irrigation water demand/year),
marginal benefits (avoided COED) equal marginal costs (hygiene plus water savings), whereas:
          ·                   with lower rates of water savings/year (e.g., 1%), the forgone benefits (i.e., a high residual
                              cost of water degradation) will exceed the cost of the program;
          ·                   with higher water savings/year (e.g., 5%), the program costs will be prohibitively high and
                              hence will not be offset by the accrued benefits (i.e., the reduced COED)
In the present analysis, the optimal combination of interventions includes hygiene and water savings,
but not enhanced wastewater treatment, which ­if included- would push the cost benefit ratio above 1
(see Figure 32 for an illustration). Adding water savings to hygiene helps reduce the cost water
degradation from 10 to over 80%, at a small marginal cost (measured by the increase in the cost/
benefit ratio). On the other hand, further reductions of the cost of degradation might be possible, but
the required expansion of wastewater treatment would be too costly in comparison to the benefits
accrued.




                                                                        65
Figure 32 Costs and benefits of different policies for improving water quality

                          2




                                                                                                     Hygiene Programs +
    Cost/ Benefit Ratio




                                                                                                     Dilution + Treatment

                          1


                               Hygiene Programs                                                  Hygiene Programs +
                                                                                                       Dilution




                          0
            0%                10%    20%      30%          40%        50%        60%       70%       80%      90%       100%
        Inaction                                            Share of COED abated
                                                  Assuming a 3.0% annual rate of water savings



Caveats and follow-up step
The exercise presented in this section is clearly a simplification of reality, in so far as it does not take
into explicit account the spatial dimension (or the political economy) of water management and water
re-allocation across uses. It also relies on a limited amount of information on water quality, and of its
relationship with human health and agriculture income.
The main message, however still holds: namely that, along with ambitious (and costly) programs of
water supply increase and enhancement of wastewater treatment, the Government might want to
consider water savings as an effective alternative to deliver water quality benefits.
To provide policy makers with more specific and robust indications, the exercise conducted in the
present context as a pilot could be enhanced and expanded along the following lines:
·                A "water quality model" would need to be developed, calibrated and validated, in order to duly
                 simulate the water quality processes in space and in time (especially for "non-conservative
                 parameters" such as BOD and E-Coli for which a simplified mass balance cannot be precise), and
                 including a detailed simulation of the linkages with changes in the volume of different water
                 bodies;
·                The relationships between changes in polluting concentrations and impacts such as health,
                 agriculture productivity, and cost of groundwater pumping need to be evaluated in more detail;
·                The Cost-Benefit analyses could be expanded by using more precise information on unit costs,
                 and by including an explicit algorithm (i.e. linear programming) to determine both the selection
                 of alternative interventions and their "dosage" (i.e. how much water saving, how much treatment,
                 how many households receiving hygiene programs, etc.), so as to maximize net social benefits
                 with respect to a no-intervention baseline, and subject to the constraints of technology, water
                 balance and public funds available.
                                                                           66
4.7.3   Institutional measures
Whatever the policy mix selected for improving water quality, it is important that this be supported
by adequate action on the legislative, regulatory and institutional front, ideally within an over-arching
management framework (Water Code) along the lines indicated earlier (section 4.6.1 above).
In particular, water arbitrages and re-allocation of water across uses requires an improved legal
framework regulating use, particular groundwater.
The implementation of the Underground Water By-Law 85-2002 has slightly improved the
overexploitation of groundwater resources by approx. 20 million m3/year. However, as this is only a
fraction of the total overexploitation ­ which is close to 140 million m3/year ­ the impact on the
decline of groundwater level and quality is minor. Some aquifers are already nearing depletion and
much of the groundwater in it is becoming unsuitable for drinking without expensive treatment. To
avoid the escalating costs and management problems due to groundwater over-extraction a radical
change in the groundwater-extraction policy is needed. There are basically three ways of achieving
this.
The first is to radically banish groundwater extraction above the safe yield and hence reduce the
present extractions to sustainable levels. This needs additional regulation (the present regulation
prohibits new drilling and extraction but has no handle to reduce extraction to safe-yield levels) and
strong enforcement. The formation and empowerment of Water User Associations can be a potent
enforcement tool, although it might be more challenging in the highland, where farms typically have
individual (ground-)water resources.
The second is to let groundwater consumers pay not only the service and private-exploitation costs of
water abstraction, but also bear (as a conservation signal) the scarcity/social cost of the water
resource50. This social cost is one order of magnitude higher than the current highest tariffs (0.06
JOD/m3). Such costs may be prohibitive for agriculture and therefore politically not viable.
The third is to develop and scale up the "Irrigation Advisory Services", as needed to support the
farmers on how to reduce the irrigation water losses (namely: non-beneficial evapotranspiration plus
non-recoverable return runoff/seepage/percolation waters), thus rationing the on-farm groundwater
diverted without compromising the crop output. This third option can be a win-win from the
farmers' perspective, because saving the water losses could be translated in saved pumping costs
(being a private gain).
None of the three aforementioned approaches will probably solve the groundwater over-extraction in
the highlands on its own. A well-targeted combination of the three may reduce the use of
groundwater in irrigation on the highlands by as much as 60%. With the exception of the third
option (which can be a "win-win pragmatic" remedy), the two other options are of a "normative"
notion, hence essentially requiring stringent enforcement.




50
   That "social cost" is as least as high as the cost needed to replace one m3 of groundwater with an alternative
source such as desalinated sea water, brought to the same location, to which the damage caused by overextraction
(including from increased salinity) should be added as well.
                                                       67
CHAPTER .
        5      AIR POLLUTION AND ROAD TRANSPORT

.1
5             Introduction and main messages

The transport sector in Jordan accounts for a large share of air emissions (estimated at 80% for NOx;
20% for SOx, and 40% for TSP). By developing indicative estimates of emissions by fuel type, fleet
component and traffic location, both for the reference year (2006) and for a no-intervention future
baseline, this chapter helps identify policy options for reducing the environmental impacts of road
transport.
With a 7 to 10% annual growth of the vehicular fleet, a relatively large share (32%) of older
technology (and thus higher emissions) vehicles, a low rate of replacement of old vehicles, and ­
pending implementation of recent reforms - low quality fuels (high sulfur diesel), Jordan's transport
sector is poised to remain a large emitter in the future, unless suitable policy actions are undertaken.
Growth in vehicular emissions might even become more significant if demand (vehicle-km) increase,
and/or occupancy rates decrease: these are likely side-effects of per capita income growth, as OECD
countries experience suggests.
A simple traffic-emission model is used to estimate the total volume of road transport emissions, and
indicates that the resulting social damage is in the order of JOD130 million per year. In addition, the
model permits to identify Light Duty Vehicles (LDV) and minibuses, as well as Heavy Duty
Vehicles (HDV) as the main sources of PM, NOx, and SO2 emissions (with contribution ranging
between 60% and 90% of the total); whereas passengers cars appear to be the key source of CO and
HC emissions (over 80%).
These results suggest that in order to abate key pollutants such as PM, SO2, and NOx, for which
quantification of health impacts effects is readily obtainable, both in physical terms (increased risk of
premature mortality and of morbidity) as well as in monetary terms, policies should focus on higher
emitting vehicles (LDV, minibus, HDV), seeking in the short terms to reduce emissions per unit of
traffic, and in the longer term, to decouple growth of traffic from growth in population and per capita
income.
On the other hand, policies to increase the use of public transport or more generally increase
occupancy rates (number of passengers per vehicle-km), will have most of their environment benefits
in terms of decrease in other pollutants, such as CO and HC, for which monetary estimates of
damage are not available in the literature, and which are thus less amenable to be evaluated in cost-
benefits terms.
While recognizing that the government is developing a wider range of policies and actions that will
improve the environmental performance of road transport (including GAM's recent establishment of
a company to promote public transport), the CEA evaluates in simple cost-benefit a subset policy
options which could reduce, in the shorter term, "monetizable" emissions (PM, SO2 and NOx). These
options are:
·           Improvement of fuel quality through phasing out high sulfur diesel. While this option has already
            been adopted by the Government, the precise phasing out schedule is still subject to uncertainty,
            so the analysis might help in the implementation phase of the policy;
·           Improvement of vehicle maintenance through workshop certification and staff training;
·           Establishment of the light rail Zarqa-Amman



                                                         68
·    Improvement of the environmental quality of the vehicle fleet through stringent environmental
     requirements to newly registered vehicles
The results of the analysis suggest that a sequential adoption of these policies can reduce about 50%
of the social cost of air pollution which would occur in a no-intervention scenario; and that they can
do so in a fairly cost-effective manner (i.e. with a cost-benefit ratio well below 1).
The analysis also indicates there are wide margins for further, cost-effective, abatement
interventions, such as fiscal incentives (e.g., fuel taxation, road charging); and, in the longer term,
through reduced demand (per capita or per unit of GDP) for use of the more polluting vehicles
(LDVs and HDVs), through modal shifts, improved logistics, etc. These option are not further
analyzed due to lack of data on freight and passenger demand (ton-km and passenger-km), which
represent a serious hindrance to the design and evaluation of transport policies, let alone air quality
management.
In terms of the other, "non-monetizable" pollutants (such as CO), the CEA also provides a
preliminary evaluation of the emission reduction that can be achieved by increasing the use of public
transport. Based on the goal of increasing the share of public transport in total traffic, that the Greater
Amman Municipality has indicated to be 75% for the year 2020, the CEA estimates (using 2006
data) that CO and HC emissions could be reduced up to 60%. However, considering the estimated
current level of public riderships is about 40%, the proposed increase to 75% would represent a
major change, which is likely to require high level of institutional, financial and political
commitment.

.2
5      Land transport in Jordan

5.2.1 Key institutions
Transport in Jordan is to a large extent undertaken by private operators and private companies.
Private car ownership is rapidly increasing, and private operators are present both in public passenger
transport and in freight transport. The framework for the transport sector is strongly regulated by
Government.
At state level a number of institutions are responsible for transport research, legislation and
regulation, monitoring and enforcement, infrastructure planning and implementation and public
transport. Municipalities are responsible for municipal infrastructure and traffic management. The
main actors in the transport sector and their functions are presented in Table 22 below.




                                                    69
 Table 22. Overview of key transport sector institutions and their functions

Institution              Functions

Ministry of Transport     ·    Devising the general policy for transport and overseeing its implementation in
                               coordination and cooperation with all related parties.
                          ·    Regulating and monitoring the road freight transport sector and its services, as well
                               as issuance of necessary permits for individuals and companies operating in the
                               sector.
                          ·    Regulating and monitoring the freight transport by rail sector and its services as well
                               as issuance of necessary permits for operating in the sector.
                          ·    Setting freight transports' fares and tariffs until the sector was liberalized from the
                               tariff system.
                          ·    Following up on the implementation of technical rules, and approved specifications,
                               measurements and standards, in accordance with enacted legislation.
                          ·    Following up on the implementation of bilateral transport agreements concluded
                               between the Kingdom and other states as well as international treaties to which the
                               Kingdom is party.
                          ·    Representing the Kingdom at regional and international bodies concerned with
                               transport issues, and keeping up with their activities.
                          ·    Preparing the necessary researches and studies for developing the sector, and issuing
                               periodic bulletins and reports on its activities.
                          ·    Establishing a databank for transport sector.
                          ·    Handing of all other functions related to the sector
Public Transport          ·    Implementing the Governments public transport policy;
Regulatory Commission     ·    Organizing public transport network;
                          ·    Grating licenses and cancelling them if the law is violated;
                          ·    Designating the locations for public transport facilities;
                          ·    Upgrading public transport services;
                          ·    Conducting studies to determine public transport needs.
                          PTRC was established on 16/11/2001 under the Public Transport Temporary Law for
                          Passengers No. (48) for the year 2001. The law was revised and became No.(39) for the
                          year 2006.
Ministry of Energy and   Principal role of MEMR is to define and assist in implementing national energy
Mineral Resources        policy and MEMR has the responsibility of securing the countries energy needs
                         from different foreign sources.
                         The procedural policy of MEMR is aimed at attracting private sector (international
                         or local) involvement in the form of either direct investment or through the
                         implementation of projects on a BOO or BOT basis.
                         The main objective of MEMR is promoting and developing different energy
                         resources and overseeing the energy sector operating companies.
                         http://www.memr.gov.jo/menus.htm

Ministry of Public       Responsible for planning, designing and maintaining public, rural and agricultural roads,
Works and Housing        including ensuring road safety measures.

Aqaba Special            Among other things attract and facilitates investments in infrastructure, ports etc. in the

                                                         70
Institution                Functions
Economic Zone              Aqaba Special Economic Zone
Authority (ASEZA)

Jordan Transport           Conducting transport sector research, particularly on traffic safety
Institute
Ministry of Environment
                           Vehicle emission monitoring campaigns
                           Road transport standards and regulations
                           Trainers program for Environmental Rangers

Environmental Rangers      Enforcement of environmental regulation, including vehicle emissions

Drivers and Vehicle        Drivers and vehicle licensing
Licensing Directorate
                           Vehicle inspection

Municipalities (e.g.,      Municipal infrastructure and traffic management
GAM)

Jordan Institution for      Responsible for standardization, metrology, conformity assessment, market surveillance,
Standards and               accreditation, information and related areas, including vehicle emission standards
Metrology

Aqaba Railway              Public rail operating corporation
Corporation,

Jordan Hejaz         Public rail operating company
Railways Corporation

Civil aviation             Civil Aviation regulator
authority

Jordan Maritime            Marine transport regulator
Authority

 With respect to air emissions from the transport sector key regulation includes fuel quality
 requirements and vehicle emission standards. The fuel quality is regulated by the Ministry of Energy
 and Mineral Resources. The vehicle emission standards are regulated by Jordan Institution for
 Standards and Metrology and enforced through Drivers and vehicle licensing directorate. In recent
 times the Ministry of Transport has adopted a new sector strategy that contains important provisions
 aimed at improving the sector's environmental performance (Box 6).

 Box 6. Jordan's new Transport Strategy and the Environment

 Jordan has recently adopted a new transport strategy (2009-2011) which contains a number of objectives of
 relevance for the improvement of the sector's environmental performance, including:
 a) Develop the institutional and regulatory framework for the road freight sub-sector;
 b) Promote the efficiency and quality of the trucking industry (logistics and operations)



                                                           71
 c) Increase the share of public transport in total road traffic
 d) Promote (including through incentives to public transport companies) the modernization of the bus fleet and
 evaluate technological options for clean public transport
 e) Encourage the phase-out of small scale public service to save fuel and reduce traffic congestion.
 As part of the implementation of the strategy, the Government envisages several specific projects which are likely to
 generate important environmental benefits, such as
 ·      The establishment of a service center in the Amman Development Corridor, aiming at lowering congestion and
        reducing the entry of heavy trucks into downtown Amman;
 ·      The creation of a light rail system between Amman and Zarqa to promote mobility among these two key
        economic areas in an efficient and environmentally friendly manner

 Source: Ministry of Transport
 The size and composition of the vehicle fleet is influenced by the costs of vehicles, including
 taxation. This includes import duty, sales tax, registration fee and the annual license fee.
 Private passenger cars are heavily taxed, particularly through import duties. Import duties range
 from 100-200 percent of the pre duty value, depending on the value of the car and the specific
 accessories, including active and passive safety equipment, AC and others. The sales tax depends of
 the size of the engine.

 Table 23. Passenger car sales tax

Size of engine in cc                                           Tax in % of car value

< 1000                                                         0%

1001-1500                                                      4%

1501-2000                                                      7%

2001-2500                                                      10%

2501-3000                                                      13%

>3001                                                          16%

 Source: PTRC, interview July 2007
 Commercial heavy duty vehicles is levied a custom duty of 30% of the estimated price and 16% of
 the total value including customs duty as sales tax.
 5.2.2      Road transport
 The vehicle fleet
 Jordan is experiencing a rapid growth in the vehicle fleet, and currently the annual growth rate in the
 fleet is 7 to 10%51. The car ownership is around 100 cars/1000 inhabitants, which is almost double
 than the average of comparable MENA countries (Morocco, Tunisia, Syria), although still quite
 lower than the OECD average (about 500 cars/1000 inhabitants in 2003). The composition of the
 vehicle fleet is presented below.

 51
      Information provided by the Licence and vehicle inspection directorate
                                                             72
Table 24. Vehicle fleet and age in Jordan, July 2007
Fleet data   Passenger     Public     Other       Light         Heavy       Public    Other   Motor      Total
                cars     transport   Minibuse      duty          duty     transport   buses   Cycles
                         Minibuse       s        vehicles      vehicles     Buses
                             s
Car model
year

2000-
Gasoline      142,284                                                                         1,963     144,247
Diesel                     1,863      3,436      44,441         6,430       456       810               57,436
1990-1999
Gasoline      215,515                                                                          345      215,860
Diesel                     2,143      3,952      77,464        15,006       249       442               99,256

-1989
Gasoline      157,565                                                                          513      158,078
Diesel                     1,332      2,457      63,077        25,672       345       614               93,497

Total         515,364      5,338      9,845      184,982       47,108      1,050      1,866   2,821     768,374

Source: Information provided by the License and vehicle inspection directorate
The vehicle fleet in Jordan is relatively old, approximately 1/3 of the vehicles are produced before
1990.
According to information provided by the License and Vehicle Inspection Directorate the withdrawal
of old vehicles is very low, and old vehicles are being repaired and kept in an operational standard.
Because of the dry and warm climate there seems to be virtually no limitation to the technical life of
vehicles, and as repair and basic maintenance costs are low compared to the price of younger vehicle,
cars keep being repaired52.
This means that even though the fleet is rapidly increasing, old cars are generally not being scrapped
and are expected to be around for many years.
According to the License and Vehicle Inspection Directorate maintenance of vehicles is rudimentary
as many workshops are not qualified to undertake thorough maintenance of modern cars, and many
mechanics lack formal training. Vehicles are often only maintained to keep them running, while
proper adjustment of the engine is not undertaken. This has strong bearing on emissions
5.2.3 Road infrastructure
There is little information on traffic volumes on the road network. The main road network in Jordan
is functioning and allows for efficient road freight transport north-south and between the main ports
and border entries. Within the large cities traffic is however regularly congested during peak hours,
indicating that the road capacity is reaching its limits.
It is however not clear to what extent the congestion problems are due to inefficient traffic
management and regulation. The widespread use of small roundabouts and shortage of traffic lights
is likely to cause cues in intersections even at fairly low traffic volumes. Improved traffic regulation
and management might significantly increase the capacity of parts of the urban road network in the
large cities.

52
  Approximately 200-250 newly imported vehicles are registered daily, whereas only approximately 15 vehicles are
cancelled. Information provided by the Licence and vehicle inspection directorate, July 2007
                                                          73
5.2.4 Road transport
There is no regular monitoring of the road transport in Jordan. Based on vehicle fleet data and
indicative information about the average annual kilometers per vehicle the road transport can
however be assessed in terms of vehicle km/year.
Table 25. Estimated annual transport. Million vehicle km/year, 2006

Model   Passenger Public    Other       Light      Heavy     Public    Other      MC         Total
        car       transport             Duty       Duty      transport bus
                            minibus
                  minibus               Vehicle    Vehicle   bus

 1990 7.156          601         296    3.657      1.286     78         75        23         13.171

 1989 3.151          200         98     1.892      1.540     38         37        5          6.962

Total   10.307       801         394    5.549      2.826     116        112       28         20.133

Source: Table 24 and own calculations
These estimates are based on assumptions on the annual km per vehicle and should therefore be
regarded as indicative rather than exact. Passenger cars are assumed to drive 20.000 km/year, light
duty vehicles 30.000 km/y, Public transport minibuses 150.000 km/y, other minibuses 40.000 km/y,
public transport busses 110.000 km/y, other busses 60.000 km/y and heavy duty vehicles 60.000
km/y. These assumptions have been discussed with the vehicle inspection (passenger cars), GAM,
PTRC and selected bus and minibus drivers (p.t. busses and minibuses) and a large transport
company (HDV).
5.2.5 Transport fuels
The main part of Jordan's fuel for the transport sector is produced on Jordan Refinery. A minor share
of gasoline and diesel is imported.
The domestic production has a fairly low quality in the sense that only leaded gasoline and diesel
with high sulfur content (0.85%) is produced.




                                                  74
 Table 26. Characteristics of road transport fuels in Jordan, 2007

Fuel                Quality                    Octane         Amount sold in    Price,        Comment
                                                              2006 (in tons)    JOD/liter

Gasoline

Regular leaded      0,1 g lead/liter ,         87             517,000 t         0.43          Produced in Jordan
                    0,06% S

Super leaded        0,2 g lead/liter,          95             178,000 t         0.604         Produced in Jordan
                    0,026% S

Unleaded                                       95             48,000 t          0.64          Imported

Diesel

Normal diesel       0,85% S                                   845,000 t         0.315         Produced in Jordan

Light diesel        0,05% S                                   510,000 t         0.315         Imported

 Sources: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources: meeting July 3, 2007 and "Energy 2007 - Facts and figures".
 Pb and S content: Jordan refinery laboratory tests, April and May 2007, provided by Ministry of Energy and Mineral
 Resources. Diesel fuel sales data for 2006 provided by PTRC. Please note that difference in data sources results in
 difference in fuel sales estimates in table 2.5 and table 3.1, respectively.


 Oil products are priced according the following principles:
 ·     Heavy fuel and jet petroleum is not regulated but priced according to market principles

 ·     Diesel, kerosene, LPG and heavy fuel for electricity generation is subsidies

 ·     Currently the petroleum products are regulated on a cost plus basis, meaning that the whole
       production on Jordan refinery is cost plus based. The specific prices ensure that a cross subsidy
       is provided from gasoline to the subsidized oil products.

 Since February 2008 all fuel stations have phased out leaded gasoline and fuel price regulation has
 been abolished.

 5.2.6 Rail transport
 There are two existing railways in Jordan, the Jordan Hedzan Railway, and the Aqaba Railway
 Corporation. Both are publicly owned.
 Jordan Hedzan Railway is narrow-gauged and run a few weekly passenger trains between Amman
 and Damascus, and freight trains upon request. Furthermore the company offers tourist and school
 trains upon request.
 The Aqaba Railway Corporation is transporting phosphate from Jordan's three phosphate mines to
 Aqaba harbour.
 By far most of the rail transport takes place on the Aqaba rail, and the main activity concerns
 phosphate transport and is presented in the table below.

                                                         75
Table 27. Annual phosphate transport on rail in Jordan.
                                                               Mines
                                           Sheidyeh            Abiad            Hassa             Total

No. of trains/year                              1025             182               649             1856

Phosphate 1000 t /year                          1066             391             1010              2467

Source: Ministry of Transport
Ministry of Transport wants to vitalise the rail sector in Jordan, and several rail development projects
have been investigated, including
·    A new light rail system between Zarqa-Amman for passenger transport between the three cities
·    Upgrading rail from Amman to the Syrian border with a branch from Mafraq via Irbid to the
     Israeli border
·    Rail from Zarqa to the Iraqi border
·    Upgrading of the rail from Zarqa to Aqaba

5.2.7 Public transport
Public passenger transport on road is based on three modes of transport:
·    Public transport by buses
·    Public transport by minibus, which are busses with less than 30 passengers
·    Service cars, which are ordinary passenger cars which operate defined routes and carry
     passengers on these routes according to fixed rates

All of these public transport modes operate lines in cities, between cities or to destinations in
neighboring countries. The designing of routes and the licensing of the operators of the individual is
the responsibility of the PTRC; bus fares for buses, minibuses and service cars are also regulated by
the PTRC; however as far as Amman's public transport is concerned, a reform of the regulatory
system is being introduced. The number of public transport vehicles is presented in Table 28.




                                                  76
 Table 28. No. of public transport vehicles

                                               Service cars        Minibuses            Buses

Jordan total
Operating urban lines                          591                 1487                 714
Operating inter -city lines                    3676                2941                 295
Operating international lines                  1075                2                    39

Amman Governorate
Operating urban lines                          349                 548                  404
Operating inter-city lines                     3211                542                  232
Operating international lines                  624                 0                    33

Irbid Governorate
Operating urban lines                          154                 131                  63
Operating inter-city lines                     245                 820                  18
Operating international lines                  193                 0                    3

Zarqa Governorate
Operating urban lines                          55                  232                  121
Operating inter-city lines                     96                  519                  1
Operating international lines                  185                 2                    2

 Source: PTRC, July 2007

 .3
 5        Air pollution from transport

 Detailed estimation of emission of different pollutants from transport is a very demanding task. It
 requires detailed mapping of transport and traffic patterns, and detailed information about emission
 factors from different vehicle categories and other transport modes, which are not available for
 Jordan. Such an estimation of emissions is outside the scope of this report, and a relatively simple
 model has therefore been developed to provide a rough estimate of the air emissions from the
 transport sector.
 The purpose of developing this model is twofold:
 · To estimate the current air emissions from land transport
 ·      To estimate the effects of selected policies on the reduction of emission levels.

 In this chapter the calculation tool is presented, followed by the main findings. This analysis
 complements previous estimations undertaken in Jordan in the context of the first national
 communication of the UN Climate Change convention (the second communication is being
 finalized), as well as other technical analyses53.




 53
      ETI, August 2006
                                                       77
 5.3.1 Estimation model of air pollutants from transport
 A simple spreadsheet model has been developed for estimation of emission of air pollutants from
 road and rail transport in the whole of Jordan and in the large governorates. The estimation of
 emissions is based on international emission factors, selected to obtain a fair representation for
 Jordan. The purpose of this exercise is to establish a tool that can link the activities in the transport
 sector, in terms of number and quality of vehicles and their use, to the air pollution from the sector,
 and also to provide indications of the emissions in the largest cities/governorates. Existing
 estimations of transport sector emissions (e.g., for the national reporting under the UNFCCC) have
 been based on fuel sales, and are not linked to the specific vehicle fleet and its activity. The linking
 of vehicle fleet and transport activities to the emissions allows the model tool to provide estimations
 of the environmental impacts of selected policy options.
 The model is kept as simple as possible for practical reasons, to ensure transparency and to allow for
 simple analyses of policy measures. The model structure is illustrated in Figure 33:
 Figure 33 Structure of the transport sector emission and cost estimation model:

A. Input data

A.1 Transport data:                                         A.2 Emission data:
1. Data on average road transport in                        1. Emission factors for vehicles distributed on
km/year/vehicle, distributed on modes of transport          modes (car, bus, truck etc.), fuel (gasoline or diesel)
(car, bus, truck etc.).                                     and vehicle age
2. Data on the vehicle fleet distributed on vehicle         2. Emission factors for rail
types (car, bus, truck etc.), fuel (gasoline or diesel),
                                                            3. Alternative emission factors reflecting improved
and grouped according to age
                                                            fuel quality (lead, sulfur), alternative fuels, specific
3. Data on rail transport in ton km.                        vehicle technologies (filter)
                                                            4. Valuation of emissions, USD/kg of pollutant

                                                            

B. Calculations:
Calculation of total emissions and associated costs



C. Results:
- Annual transport in vehicle km. and estimated fuel consumption
- Annual emissions of pollutants: CO2, CO, HC, NOx, SO2 and Particles
- Valuation of annual emission in EUR/year


 The model allows assessment of the effects of changes in a few key parameters, for instance:
 ·    the fuel quality (lead, sulfur content)
 ·    the emission characteristics of the vehicle fleet, e.g., reflecting the age of the fleet
 ·    the growth rate of the vehicle fleet

                                                           78
5.3.2 Main assumptions
The existing gasoline cars are generally assumed not to be equipped with catalytic converters, and
likewise are existing diesel vehicles assumed not to be able to meet present EU emission norms. An
important reason for this being the relatively low quality of diesel fuel and the leaded gasoline that
dominated until February 2008. The different types of vehicles are assumed to drive annual distances
indicated in Table 29:
Table 29. Assumptions on annual mileage by vehicle type

                  Passenger car       Minibus            LDV                HDV                 Bus

Km/year           20,000              40-150,000         30,000              60,000             60-110,000

Note. Buses and minibuses distinguishes between public transport (high mileage) and other use (low mileage)
These assumptions are based on information provided in discussions with the Drivers and Vehicle
Licensing Directorate on passenger cars, GAM and a number of selected bus and mini-bus drivers on
the annual km. for public transport busses and mini-buses and the Nabresco transport company on
HDV annual kilometers.
Emission per kilometer driven is estimated on the basis of pollutant- and vehicle-specific emission
factors (see Annex 3 for details). The age of a vehicle does not in itself determine its emissions, as
this to a large extent is determined also by the level of maintenance of the vehicle.
In the estimation of emissions it is assumed that vehicles of models from 1990 and onwards (post
1990) on average have the same emission factors as European vehicles from 1990, i.e. before
catalytic converters became mandatory. Vehicles older than 1990 (pre 1990 models) are assumed to
have 20% larger emission on average on selected emissions than the post 1990 models.
This relationship is assumed for CO, HC and PM emission and is founded on a simplified analysis of
a selection of the Drivers and Vehicle Licensing Directorates monitoring data from vehicle
inspection. Based on the monitoring results the relationship between age and emission does not seem
to be very strong, but a linear regression of selected pollutants reveals a correlation. This is illustrated
for CO emissions monitored by the vehicle inspection from gasoline passenger cars of different age
(0-35 years). The result is presented in the figure below.




                                                       79
Figure 34 Emission of CO in exhaust gas, gasoline passenger cars, age 0-35 years

  12



  10



   8


                                          y = 0,1593x + 0,2386              CO
   6
                                               R2 = 0,2441                  Linear (CO)


   4



   2



   0
       0     5      10      15      20      25       30          35   40


Source: Data provided by Drivers and Vehicle Licensing Directorate, June 2007
The future air emission from the transport sector consists of the emission from the present fleet
(minus the cars that are scrapped) plus the emission caused by new vehicles to be registered.
Emissions from these newly registered vehicles will depend on the environmental requirements for
these vehicles, e.g., that all new vehicles should meet present EU standards.
The methodology applied in this estimation is simple and the result subject to uncertainty. While data
on the vehicle fleet is fairly detailed, Jordan traffic data and emission factors are lacking, giving rise
to uncertainty. However, the results can be compared to a study undertaken by ETI in 2006. The ETI
study assessed the air emission from transport in Jordan, using the COPERT III model, which base
the estimation of emissions on the fuel consumption. Comparing the results of these two different
methodologies (fuel consumption versus number of vehicle-kilometers) provides an indication of the
uncertainty involved. The results are presented in Table 31 below.
5.3.3 Modeling results
The model estimates the fuel consumption and the emissions of selected air pollutants by using
standard factors for fuel consumption and emissions for different vehicle types per vehicle km.
Fuel consumption for road transport
The model calculations are based on a number of assumptions, and the results should therefore be
used with some caution. The realism of the model results, however, can be tested by comparing the
real data on fuel sales with the estimated fuel consumption. This will offer an indication on the
reliability of the results, also to some extent for the results on air emissions.
In table 3.1 the actual sales of diesel and gasoline in 2006 in Jordan and in the selected Governorates
is presented. In table 3.2 the fuel consumption in 2006 estimated by the COWI model is presented to
allow comparison.




                                                          80
Table 30. Actual and estimated fuel consumption of road transport (tons/year, 2006)

                               Amman                  Irbid               Zarqa              Jordan
                               Governorate            Governorate         Governorate

ACTUAL SALES

Diesel                                      719,092             161,805           170,289             1,440,581

Gasoline                                    456,766              81,844             66,454             717,063

ESTIMATED
CONSUMPTION

Diesel                                      667,807             160,274            133,561            1,442,860

Gasoline                                    364,833              87,546             72,967              729,665

Source: Source: PTRC, 2007; own calculation
The estimated fuel consumption seems to be fairly accurate compared to the actual fuel sales of for
the whole of Jordan. The difference is larger when looking at individual governorates. There may be
several reasons for this, partly because the fuel is not necessarily used in the governorate where it is
sold (the vehicle may be on route to another city), partly because there are no exact data on the
number of vehicles operating in each governorate and their annual kilometers.
Air emission from road transport
Air emissions from road transport have been estimated by use of international emission factors and
estimated transport in vehicle km. per year for different modes of transport. Emission factors from
vehicles in a driving circle is not available for Jordan. Only measurements on emissions from
vehicles in idle mode is available, but such data provides little or no information about the emissions
from the vehicles when driving and the engine loaded.
The German Ministry of Environment publish generally recognized emission factor for vehicles in
European countries, specified according to the age and type of vehicle and the fuel used. These
emission factors have been used for Jordan54. To reflect the conditions in Jordan the German
emission factors for vehicles produced before 1990 have been used for the existing fleet55. For the
oldest 30% of the vehicle fleet 20% higher emissions of CO, HC and PM has been assumed.
For new vehicle equipped with catalytic converters the European 2005 emission factors have been
used. These emission factors assume that the new vehicles use unleaded gasoline and that diesel
vehicles have access to low sulfur diesel. Annex 3 contains the specific emission factors used in the
model. The estimated emission of selected air pollutants is presented in Table 31.




54
  The German emission factors have zero emission for PM for gasoline cars. There are large uncertainties on PM
emission from gasoline cars, but generally low or no emission factors are assumed. This may however underestimate
the real emissions of PM in Jordan, in view of the age of the present fleet.
55
   There may be a risk or exaggerated emissions if vehicles produced after 1990 have better environmental
performance even without being equipped with catalytic converters, and for diesel vehicles even when using low
quality diesel.
                                                       81
Table 31. Estimated air emission from road transport,

                    CO             HC             NOx             PM             SO2            Pb

                    t/year         t/year         t/year          t/year         t/year         t/year

COWI estimate       160,000        37,950         62,160          5,450          24,240         122

ETI Air Quality     -              -              50,014          3,053          25,241         -
Monitoring
Program

Sources: own estimates and Air Quality Monitoring Program in Jordan, Ministry of Environment. ETI 2006
In addition to the overall volume of emissions, the model permits to identify the relative contribution,
by pollutant, of each vehicle type. The results indicate (Figure 34) that Light Duty Vehicles (LDV)
and minibuses, as well as Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) are the main sources of PM, NOx, and SO2
emissions (with contribution ranging between 60% and 90% of the total); whereas passengers cars
appear to be the key source of CO and HC emissions (over 80%). This finding has important
implications for the design of abatement policies, as it will be discussed in section 5.5.
Figure 35. Contributions to air emissions by vehicle type and by pollutant

    100%

        90%

        80%

        70%

        60%

        50%

        40%

        30%

        20%

        10%

        0%

                   CO                  HC                  NOx              SO2                 PM

                  pass. car             motorcycle               LDV+minibus           HDV
                  bus                   transit HDV              transit coach

As the calculated emissions rely heavily on the emission factors used the specific results should be
used with some caution. Comparison with the ETI study indicates results within the same order of
magnitude, bus at the same time also that there are significant uncertainties.

5.3.4     Economic impact of air pollution
Estimation based on "Heatco" values


                                                     82
 The economic impact of air pollution from the transport sector is not included in market prices -
 these costs are called external costs - and therefore not included in GDP and other economic
 indicators. This does not mean that the costs are not real - it means that the costs have not been
 internalized in market prices and therefore must be assessed separately.
 The external costs are estimated by use of emission values, which attach an external socioeconomic
 cost to each ton of pollutant emitted. No emission values specific for Jordan have been identified,
 and other sources have therefore been used. The main source on transport sector emission valuations
 used in this study is EU "Heatco"56 study. The Heatco values include human health costs, loss of crop
 and material damage caused by air pollution. The values presented for European countries have been
 adjusted to the situation in Jordan based on GDP57. World Bank estimates for 2004 GDP in Jordan
 and EU countries have been used.
 The value of lead (Pb) pollution is not included in the Heatco study as Pb has been phased out in
 European gasoline for approximately 20 years. In order to be able to include Pb emission a Danish
 source on the value of Pb pollution from power plants has been identified and used58. The results are
 presented in Table 32, and suggest an annual value of some 140 million euro/ year (or JOD130
 million).
 Table 32. Estimated external costs of road transport air emissions in 2006. Mio EUR/year

Emission                       Jordan                  Amman                Irbid           Zarqa

HC                             3,0                     1,5                  0,4             0,3

NOx                            13,8                    6,3                  1,5             1,3

PM Urban                       83,7                    39,7                 9,5             7,9

PM Rural                       15,6                    7,4                  1,8             1,5

SO2                            7,8                     3,6                  0,9             0,7

Pb low value                   0,3                     0,2                  0,0             0,0

Pb high value                  8,4                     4,2                  1,0             0,8

Total costs, low Pb value      134,0                   63,3                 15,2            12,7

Total costs, high Pb value     142,1                   67,3                 16,2            13,5

 Note: Pb low only include direct affects, Pb high include accumulative effects.
 Source: consultants' calculations
 The socioeconomic costs of emissions from railway transport are estimated 3 mio EUR/year, i.e. less
 than 1% of the total cost of emissions from the transport sector.


 56
    Developing Harmonised European Approaches for Transport Costing and Project Assessment, deliverable 5,
 February 2006. See http://heatco.ier.uni-stuttgart.de/
 57
    Monetization is likely to rely on transferred estimates adjusted by use of Purchasing Power Parity. See Ken
 Gwilliam et al. Reducing Air Pollution from Urban Transport, World Bank 2004, p. 159
 58
    EVA -a non-linear Eulerian approach for health-cost externalities of air pollution. M.S.Andersen et al., NERI,
 2007, p.18
                                                          83
These results are sensitive, among other factors, to the valuation coefficients59 used, and to the way
in which European values are transferred to Jordan60; nevertheless, they are broadly consistent with
the order of magnitude of air pollution damage estimated in Chapter 3, although through a different
methodology. Considering that the latter refer only to a subset of pollutants (PM, SO2) and of
geographic locations, the HEATCO-based figures , once adjusted as appropriate and expressed in
terms of purchasing power parity (Table 33), are similar, although some 15% higher than Chapter 3
estimates. This suggests that COED estimates are likely to be conservative, since they are supposed
to quantify the impact of all emission sources, not just transport.
Table 33. Selected estimates of air pollution damage in 2006 (Million JOD/ year)
                                                                        Jordan as a          Selected
                                                                          whole              hotspots
Heatco values Based on GNI (only road transport emissions)
     All pollutants                                                       127.89              80.80
     PM, SO2 only                                                         107.10              60.80
Heatco values Based on PPP (only road transport emissions)
     All pollutants                                                       306.00             193.33
     PM, SO2 only                                                         256.26             145.48
Cost of Air Pollution (COED analysis, all sectors)                                           126.80

5.3.5 Need for improved data
This study clearly reveals that there is a need for improved data on Jordan transport sector in order to
enable more precise estimates of the air emissions from the transport sector. Such data would also
allow for other important transport sector analyses (e.g., on congestion and transport economics). The
most important information concerns:
·    Transport data, including traffic counting, data on modal split etc., and the development of
     transport models that can estimate transport and traffic in Jordan and in the large cities

·    Emission factors for Jordan, reflecting the specific conditions of the vehicle fleet in Jordan and
     monitored in realistic driving cycles. Specific Jordan valuation factors would also be beneficial.

A more developed transport modeling environment and preparation of realistic emission factors
would enable municipal and governmental authorities to asses with higher precision the current
emissions and the effects of alternative policies and measures, e.g., to mitigate the emissions,
improve public transport and reduce congestion.
.4
5     Prospects for the future

The Government of Jordan aims to reduce the air pollution from the transport sector, and the
National Agenda outlines selected objectives. The objectives that there will be an improvement of
diesel and gasoline quality in the coming years, and that an increasing share of the vehicle fleet will
have better emission performance than the present fleet. Furthermore, great emphasis has been put on
reducing the emission of particulate matters.

59
   For example, a well know EU study undertaken in the context of the CAFE program (which focuses on air
emissions in general, not only from the transport sector, provide a different set of coefficients. See:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/cafe/activities/pdf/cafe_cba_externalities.pdf
60
   Table 32 transfers European values to Jordan taking into account differences in per capita GDP, but not
differences in purchasing power parity (PPP).
                                                   84
 Table 34. Selected air emission and air quality targets in National Agenda

                                                Current                Target 2012              Target 2017

CO                       Concentration in      4,32                    3,0                      2,0
                         vehicle emission, pct
                         volume

HC                       PPM in vehicle         520                    400                      300
                         emission

Diesel S                 Sulfur level in PPM    1500                   350                      200

PM                       Microgram per m3       165                    60                       20
                         in downtown
                         Amman
 Source: National Agenda
 Some of the key expected developments relevant to the air emission from the transport sector are
 presented in this section.
 5.4.1 Transport sector development
 Based on the present 7% annual growth in the vehicle fleet a simple scenario for the vehicle fleet in
 Jordan by the end of 2011 has been prepared. The table below presents the key figures.
 Table 35. Estimated vehicle fleet in Jordan, 2011/12

            Passenger      Public         Other       LDV        HDV       Public      Other     MC          Total
            car            transport      minibus                          transport   bus
                           minibus                                         bus

Existing vehicle fleet

Gasoline       515,364                                                                               2,821    518,185

Diesel                         5,338        9,845      184,982   47,108       1,050     1,866                 250,189

Vehicles registered 2007-2011

Gasoline       207,461                                                                               1,136    208,596

Diesel                         2,149        3,963      7,4465    18,963        423       751                  100,714

                                            Estimated vehicle fleet 2011/12

               722,825         7,487       13,808      259,447   66,071       1,473     2,617        3,957    1,077,684

 Source: License and Vehicle Inspection directorate and own calculations
 The present vehicle fleet growth rate in Jordan indicates a rapid growth in road transport, and thus in
 the emissions of pollutants from the transport sector unless changes take place.




                                                          85
5.4.2 Fuel quality improvement
The Government of Jordan has decided to ensure that the fuel quality is gradually improved over the
coming years.
After the 4'th expansion of the Jordan Petroleum Refinery all Jordan diesel and gasoline must meet
the quality standards required for meeting EURO 4 norms. Phase 4 is expected to be completed by
2012. In the meantime the fuel quality will gradually be improved, partly through liberalization of the
marketing of petroleum products. On June 5, 2007, the Government of Jordan decided to prioritize
light diesel for the transport sector.
In March 2008 the present concession for the Jordan Petroleum Refinery Company was terminated
and a liberalization of the sector will take place:
·    4 competing petroleum product marketing (purchase, storage and wholesales) companies and
     one company for LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) will initially be allowed. Distribution of oil
     products is already liberalized. These companies can import products and purchase products
     from the Jordan refinery. More companies may enter the market after an interim period (e.g.,3-4
     years).

·    A strategic partner will be identified and help to modernize and develop the refinery following a
     tendering procedure. The strategic partner will be selected by December 2008.

·    After licensing and modernization of the refinery the product quality should be improved during
     the coming 4 years.

·    All filling stations started from 2008 to offer unleaded gasoline only.

If these decisions are implemented according to plans, the quality of fuels will gradually improve and
ultimately meet European standard. If sufficient low sulfur diesel is provided at the filling stations,
the improved quality will allow new diesel vehicle with particle filters to function properly in Jordan.
Since March 2008 leaded gasoline has been phased out, allowing new gasoline cars with catalytic
converters to function.

.5
5     Options for policy reform

5.5.1 Key transport air pollution challenges
The main challenges for the reduction of transport air pollution in Jordan can be summarized as
follows:
Fuel quality is poor. The leaded gasoline and the high sulfur content in diesel causes emissions of
   SO2, particulates and lead, but is also an obstacle to cleaner vehicles as adequate operation of
   these require unleaded gasoline and better diesel quality.

Rapid growth in vehicle fleet and traffic levels. Jordan is experiencing a rapid increase in car
    ownership and in road traffic, and particularly Amman and other large cities will face increasing
    congestion and air pollution problems. This rapid increase in car ownership is taking place even
    though car taxation is high compared to most other countries. At national level car ownership is
    100/1000 inhabitants and must be expected to increase with growing GDP. OECD experience
    suggests that a further effect of GDP growth might be the increase in passenger-km and/or the
    reduction of occupancy rates, which will further increase, ceteris paribus, air emissions from
    road transport;

                                                   86
Existing vehicle fleet is relatively old and has high emissions. The average lifetime of a vehicle is
    long due to the climate in Jordan, relatively low maintenance and repair costs and high costs for
    new vehicles. The Renewal of the existing vehicle fleet will therefore be very slow (only around
    3000-4500 vehicles are scrapped annually according to the vehicle inspection).

Low quality of car maintenance. Most auto workshops are not staffed with trained mechanics and do
   not possess the necessary equipment and knowledge for ensuring proper control and
   maintenance of vehicles. Only the basic maintenance is undertaken, ensuring that the engine
   works, but not that the engine is adjusted correctly to minimize fuel consumption and emissions.

Lack of awareness of air pollution. The public awareness of transport air pollution is limited, and
    neither workshop or vehicle owners are aware of the importance of proper maintenance to
    reduce pollution. Increased awareness is a precondition for public acceptance and participation
    in mitigating measures, particularly as these often will come at a cost.

Transport management could be improved. Traffic management, particularly in Amman and in and
    between other large cities, could be improved to optimize the flow of the traffic and to reduce
    congestion. Improved public transport could also help to limit the growth of transport by private
    car.

5.5.2    Key policy options
The results of the traffic-pollution modeling reported in section 5.3.3 suggest that in order to abate
key pollutants such as PM, SO2, HC and NOx, for which quantification of health impacts effects is
readily obtainable, both in physical terms (increased risk of premature mortality and of morbidity) as
well as in monetary terms, policies should focus on higher emitting vehicles (LDV, minibus, HDV),
seeking in the short terms to reduce emissions per unit of traffic, and in the longer term, to decouple
growth of traffic from growth in population and per capita income.
A wide range of policy measures that could meet those objectives could be considered. While
recognizing that, with the new transport strategy, the government is developing a wider range of
policy directions that will reduce emissions from road transport (see Box 6 for details), this section
focuses on a sub-set policy options which could in the shorter term, "monetizable" emissions (PM,
SO2 and NOx). These options are61:
0. Improvement of fuel quality through phasing out high sulfur diesel. While this option has already
been adopted by the Government, the precise phasing-out schedule is still subject to uncertainty, so
the analysis might help in the implementation phase of the policy;
1. Improvement of vehicle maintenance through workshop certification and staff training;
2. Improvement of the environmental quality of the vehicle fleet through stringent environmental
requirements to newly registered vehicles
These options are further discussed below.
Improvement of fuel quality to meet international fuel quality standards



61
   Another option which could be considered is the use of compressed natural gas for transport. This will normally
result in lower emission of most pollutants, including NOx, CO, CO2 and PM61, whereas HC emission is likely to be
at the same level or even higher than for diesel and gasoline vehicles. Due to data constrained, this opportunity is not
assessed here.
                                                          87
Implementation of the decisions on improvement of the fuel quality will by itself reduce emission of
selected pollutants and is a pre-requisite for significant emission reductions in the long term.
Reducing the sulfur content in diesel will reduce the emission of SO2 and the emission of particulate
matter from diesel vehicles will also be reduced. Furthermore low sulfur diesel is a precondition for
the use of particle filters on diesel vehicles.
The widespread introduction of unleaded gasoline will reduce lead pollution and allow large scale
introduction of gasoline vehicles equipped with catalytic converters.
The Government has established a 4 year plan which will ensure gradual implementation of cleaner
diesel during the period 2008-12. A very important aspect of the plan is that even though high sulfur
diesel will continue to be dominating for a period of time, low sulfur diesel are planned to be
available on all filling stations from 2008, and thus allow cleaner vehicles with particle filters to
operate without restrictions on fuel supply. Unleaded gasoline is available and substituting leaded
gasoline on all filling stations from March 2008.
Improvement of vehicle maintenance
To establish an auto workshop the staff is required to be trained and certified mechanics. High staff
turn over, as well as changes in workshop ownership, however, is in practical terms undermining the
formal staff qualification requirement. According to the Drivers and Vehicles Licensing Directorate
and other sources the reality is that many workshops are staffed with untrained mechanics, and that
most workshops only offer rudimentary maintenance.
The key task of the workshops is to repair vehicle and keep them running, not to fine-tune the engine
to minimize fuel consumption and emissions.
The objective of this proposed policy measure is to improve vehicle maintenance by upgrading
workshops and improving the qualifications of the workshop staffs. This will be obtained by
introducing:
·   a renewed workshop certification system, and
·   mandatory training programs for workshop owners and mechanics.
This will ensure that all registered workshops comply with certain minimum standards, and that the
staff has sufficient qualifications to properly maintain and adjust the vehicles.
The training program should be developed in detail, but initially it is expected to be of 1 week
duration. Development and implementation of training courses could be undertaken within the
framework of existing vocational training institutions.
The workshop certification and the staff training requirement should be mandatory, and compliance
ensured within e.g., 3-5 years. To ensure rapid implementation, the training courses could be offered
for free during the first 2 years, after which participants would be required a fee.
Improvement of the environmental quality of the vehicle fleet
Most of the newly registered vehicles are used vehicles, imported from other countries. The new
vehicles typically do not meet existing EU emission standard and are not equipped with catalytic
converters or particle filters as this will require better fuel quality.
In view of the rapid growth of the vehicle fleet there is a strong need to improve the environmental
performance at least of the new registered vehicles. It is difficult to improve significantly the
environmental performance of the existing vehicle fleet, even though some improvements can be
obtained by better fuels and better maintenance. It is easier to obtain significant improvements for the
imported new vehicles. With the current growth rate the newly registered vehicle will become a large

                                                  88
share of the fleet - e.g., more than 50% in 6 years, and an important contributor to air emission if
nothing is done.
The objective of this proposed policy is to ensure that newly registered vehicles have less emission
than the existing fleet in order to:
·      slow down the growth of emission arising from the vehicle fleet growth, and
·      in the long term reduce emissions if and when old vehicles are scrapped in larger numbers.
This is obtained by introducing strict environmental requirements on vehicles that are to be registered
in Jordan. Only fairly new vehicles should be imported, e.g., only vehicle less than 10 years old and
the vehicles should meet the EU norms valid for the model. This means that a 1997 car should meet
the EURO II norms and a 2001 car should meet the EURO III norm. Generally this could be
controlled by testing whether the catalytic converter is functioning before the car is registered. It
should be noted that a precondition for this policy measure is that sufficient amounts of low sulfur
diesel and unleaded gasoline is available to meet the demand from the newer vehicles.
To speed up the scrapping of the oldest parts of the vehicle fleet a scrapping premium could be
offered to vehicle owners scrapping vehicle of more than 20-25 years of age. This would provide an
incentive to remove the oldest and probably most polluting, vehicles. This option will however be
very costly to the vehicle owners and may be difficult to implement politically. Is has therefore not
been analyzed further.
In addition to this first set of policies, other can be considered, which aim at reducing emissions via
improved traffic management or and through reduction of volume of traffic per capita or per unit of
GDP. Based on the previous discussion (section 5.3.3 above), it is likely that these policies will yield
much of their benefits in terms of the other, "non-monetizable" pollutants (such as CO). This set of
policies includes:
3. Strengthening of transport management and planning
4. Promotion of public transport
Strengthening of transport management and planning
Amman and other large cities are increasingly faced with congestion problems, particularly during
peak hours. Congestion results in in-efficient traffic flows and increased pollution. Energy
consumption and emission in urban areas may be reduced by means of traffic management measures.
For the public transport this mainly involves introduction of bus priority measures, and for the car
traffic optimization of traffic signal systems may have a substantial impact. Also the improvement of
traffic flows through regulation of on-street parking, network re-organization, improved signing and
marking etc. may contribute to the improvement of efficiency and to the reduction of emissions. For
example, the MoEnv has conducted an assessment of the effects on traffic of replacing roundabouts
with underpasses and found the resulting reduction in emissions to be significant.
Based on international experience, bus priority measures may reduce the energy consumption and
emission by around 5%62, and optimization of traffic signals in urban areas may reduce energy
consumption and emissions in road traffic by around 10%.
Currently the authority on road and road transport is distributed between Government agencies and
the municipalities. For instance are municipalities responsible for road infrastructure development
and maintenance, whereas public transport is the responsibility of the PTRC, which is a state body.



62
     Reducing Air Pollution from Urban Transport, Ken Gwilliam, Masami Kojimand Todd Johnson 2004
                                                      89
This may make it more complicated to develop and implement integrated transport planning, which
include issues ranging from infrastructure and traffic management to public transport provision.
Generally with better traffic management and more efficient traffic flow and with larger shares of the
passenger transport covered by public transport energy consumption for transport is reduced.
However, and at the same time, if more capacity is available on the roads more people tend to use
their cars and thus increase car traffic. The net result of these effects can be estimated by traffic
modeling, which is currently not available in Jordan; thus, this option has not been assessed in
quantitative terms.
Promotion of public transport
Experience from other cities show that the modal split between private cars and public transport may
be affected by a number of measures, including:
· Improvement of the public transport (additional services, higher frequencies, public transport
     priority, improved service quality, improved correspondence between lines, efficient mass
     transit lines in main corridors etc.)
· Restrictions/ pricing of travel by private cars (parking restrictions, road/parking pricing etc.)
In order to achieve significant modal shift a comprehensive package of such measures is required. In
some cities (such as Stockholm and London) a reduction in private car traffic has been achieved in
the central areas of around 20% by a package of measures.
Several public transport rail projects have been developed. Particularly the proposed light rail for
Greater Amman area might contribute to the transfer of passengers from car to rail. There is,
however, still a great potential for improving the public transport. Experience from other cities show
that the development of high-quality public transport - combined with the supporting regulation -
may result in a significant increase in the use of public transport. The energy consumption per
passenger kilometer in public transport is normally substantially lower than in individual car traffic -
typically around one third - and cities with a high share of public transport therefore consume
substantially less energy in the transport sector. In addition, light rail or other electricity-based means
of public transport do not contribute to the local in-street emissions and may therefore have an
important impact on urban air quality.
The GAM is currently preparing a master plan for the city which includes ambitious modal shifts
from private cars to public transport. The study team was in April 2008 informed about key
objectives on this issue, namely to reduce the private car share of passenger transportation from
current 60% to 25% and to increase public transport from present 40% to 75%. Without the
availability of a detailed and complex traffic model for Amman it is not possible to assess in detail
how such a modal shift could be obtained and what the effects in terms of traffic, congestion and
environmental impacts would be.
It should be noted that such a major modal shift will require a very strong package of measures,
including strong restrictions on private car usage, to be successfully implemented. In the absence
of any traffic modeling results about the master plan, the effect of attaining GAM's targets on air
emissions has been assessed through were simple and indicative calculations (Table 37). Finally,
significant emission reduction can be achieved through policies promoting
5. Information and awareness.
Information and awareness of the air pollution from transport, and the social costs that this inflict on
Jordan, is important to ensure that the relevant actors are engaged in mitigating the problem and
accept the policy actions taken by Government.
Most policy measures to reduce the emissions from the transport sector will come at a cost to state
Government, municipalities, industries or households. To implement regulation and policy measures

                                                    90
that induces costs to the population or other stakeholders it is important to ensure at least some
understanding of the reason behind the policies. The effects of increased information and awareness
have not been assessed. The main features of the policy options discussed above are summarized in
Table 36.




                                                91
 Table 36. Selected policy options for reducing transport sector air pollution

Policy option      Implementation steps                                                                           Costs                     Benefits

0. Improved fuel   Time schedule for Import liberalization, Require unleaded             Implementation of   Increased costs for            Reduced
quality            meeting EU fuel   specification of import gasoline and light          the planned         imported fuels,                environmental costs,
                   quality standard  fuel quality.           diesel available on all     upgrading of Jordan increased refinery costs       reduced maintenance
                                                             filling stations            refinery                                           costs of diesel
                                                                                                                                            engines

1. Improved        Establish plan and   Develop vocational       Offer free training     Establish regular        Training course           Reduced
vehicle            procedure for        training program incl.   course for a three      inspection procedure     development, training     environmental costs,
maintenance        renewed auto         curriculum for           year period and         for control of           courses, upgrading of     better operation,
                   workshop             mechanics                mandatory               workshop                 workshops, higher rates   lower fuel costs and
                   certification                                 certification in 5      certification            for regular maintenance   longer life for
                                                                 years                                                                      vehicles

2. Improvement     Only allow import    Vehicles must meet       Premium for           Extension of the           Increased costs for       Reduced
of the vehicle     of vehicles          reasonable emission      scrapping of pre 1990 truck tax exemption        import of more and        environmental costs,
fleet              meeting relevant     standards to pass bi-    passenger cars        statement                  better vehicles, public   lower fuel and
                   EURO emission        annual inspection                                                         funding of tax            maintenance costs
                   norms                                                                                          incentives                for vehicles

3. Strengthen      Traffic              Implementation of        Restriction on private Long term                 Prepare traffic           Reduced
transport          management plan      traffic management       car usage (parking     infrastructure plan       management, public        environmental costs,
management and     for Amman            plan                     and road charging)     (both road, rail, light   transport , and           reduced congestion
planning           (GAM) for better                                                     rail) (MoT)               infrastructure plans,     and travel time
                   traffic flow                                                                                   implementation of
                                                                                                                  plans

4. Promotion of    Public transport Assessment of present Implementation of              Introduction of          Purchasing and            Reduced congestion
public transport   plan for Amman   structure (service cars) improved public             better quality busses    possibly subsidizing      and environmental
                   (GAM), including                          transport network           and other public         public transport          costs, revenue from
                                                                                         transport modes          equipment and usage       parking and road
                                                                                                                                            charges

5. Information     Develop a public     Information campaign     Include                                          Costs of developing   Reduced
and awareness      awareness and        on vehicle               environmental driver                             and implementing      environmental costs,
                   information          maintenance and          behavior in drivers                              Information campaigns improved vehicle
                   campaign about       pollution directed to    licensing training                                                     maintenance

                                                                              92
transport air   vehicle owners and   courses
pollution       workshop




                                               93
.6
5     Impact of policies

The environmental impacts and costs and benefits related to the selected policy measures are
discussed in this section and assessed in quantitative terms to the extent possible.
5.6.1 Environmental impacts of policies
The expected environmental effects of the selected policies is estimated by comparing a baseline
situation in 2011/2012 without any policies implemented (Business as usual) with the situation if the
specific policy is implemented. In the table below, the 2006 emissions from the transport sector as
estimated in this study is presented, followed by the 2011/12 baseline forecast. This time horizon has
been selected as this is the time frame for the implementation of the single most important policy
measure, the improvement of the fuel quality.
Each of the 5 suggested policies are then presented, assuming that the preceding policy is
implemented. This for instance means that policy 2, Improved maintenance of old vehicles, is
introduced on top of policy 1, Improved fuel quality. In this way it is possible to see the emission
reductions obtained by each policy measure individually.
The emission reductions obtained by introducing the individual policies are in most cases estimated
conservatively, i.e. under-estimating the potential emission reduction. Basically the reason for this is
lack of detailed information about the situation in the transport sector and to avoid over-optimistic
policy assessments.
The specific assumptions used for the estimations presented in the table include:
Policy 0, Improved fuel quality: all gasoline is assume unleaded, all diesel is assumed low sulfur
(0,035%)
Policy 1, Improved maintenance: Only the vehicles produced before 1990 are assumed to benefit
from improved maintenance. However, in reality also younger vehicle models might reduce emission
if better maintained.
Policy 2, Improvement of the vehicle fleet: Only the effect of introducing environmental
requirements to new registered vehicles is included. The possibility and the effects of speeding up
fleet renewal e.g., by offering a premium to the scrapping of old vehicles is not taken into account
Policy 3, Strengthen transport management and planning: Only the effects of introducing a Light Rail
System in Greater Amman Area (Zarqa-Amman) is included, as the specific effects of better traffic
management has not been assessed.
Policy 4, Promotion of public transport: Only a very simplified assessment of the likely effects of
reducing current car usage and increase bus usage to reach 25%/75% distribution of modes between
cars and public transport.
Policy 5, Information and awareness: The effects of this policy have not been assessed in quantitative
terms. However, the importance of this measure should not be under estimated as awareness often is
a precondition for acceptance and successful implementation of more specific environmental
measures.




                                                  94
 Table 37. Estimated emissions per year for different policy scenarios

                       CO              HC              NOx            PM             SO2      Pb

                       t/year          t/year          t/year         t/year         t/year   t/year

COWI estimate for      160,000         37,950          62,160         5,450          24,240   122
2006

No policy baseline     224,000         52,080          85,270         7,380          32,270   171
(Business as usual)

Year 2011/2012

0. Improved fuel       224,000         52,080          85,270         5,820          1,370    0
quality

1. Improved            214,000         49,800          85,270         5,540          1,370    0
maintenance of old
vehicles

2. New vehicles and 167,000            37,000          73,900         4,300          1,000    0
fuel quality comply
with EU norms

3. Light rail Zarqa-   165,000         36,700          73,600         4,000          1,000    0
Amman1

4. Promotion of        Not assessed, see Table 38
public transport

5. Information and     Not assessed
awareness

 1: Assessment of the effects of the light rail is based on CDM PDD, MoT of Jordan, 2005



 Using 2006 data, Table 38 evaluates the likely effects of promoting public transport in Amman from
 the present share of 40% of the passenger transport to 75% of the passenger transport. The share of
 transport by private cars is reduced from present 60% to 25% as indicated in the draft master-plan of
 Amman. This should be regarded as a simplified "what-if" calculation, and not an assessment of the
 objective or realistic phasing-in of the public transport. The modal shift will result in reduced car
 transport in Amman and increased bus transport. In the calculations presented in Table 6.2 all new
 buses are assumed to meet European 2005 emission standards. Furthermore it is assumed that for
 each passenger km. transferred from passenger car to public transport the energy consumption is
 reduced by 2/3.




                                                        95
Table 38. Simplified assessment of vehicular emission in Amman (2006)

                                                 CO                 HC                NOx

Emission from busses and cars                    t/year             t/year            t/year

COWI estimate for Amman 2006                     68.800             15.450            10.040

75% public transport in Amman 2006               29.350             6.600             7.000

Source: Own calculations.
The table indicates that significant reductions of the emissions can be obtained if a large share of the
passenger transport is shifted from cars to busses, and if the quality of the new busses needed to meet
the increased demand is of a high environmental quality.
As there is no traffic model data available the specific results should be take with caution and only be
regarded as indicative.


5.6.2 Costs and benefits of policies
The external costs associated with the emissions indicated in Table 36 are presented in Table 39.




                                                  96
 Table 39. Estimated cost of emissions for different policy scenarios ( million /year)

                       Total          HC         NOx           PM            SO2          Pb



COWI estimate for      134-142,1      3,0        13,82         99,3          7,8          0,3-8,4
2006

Year 2011/2012

No policy baseline     182-193,3      4,1        18,9          134,3         10,7         0,4-11,8
(Business as usual)

0. Improved fuel       142,9          4,1        18,9          105,9         0,4          0
quality

1. Improved            137,5          3,9        18,9          100,8         0,3          0
maintenance of old
vehicles

2. New vehicles and 105,8             2,9        16,3          73,1          0,3          0
fuel quality comply
with EU norms

3. Light rail Zarqa-   105,4          2,9        16,3          72,8          0,3          0
Amman

4. Promotion of        Not assessed
public transport

5. Information and     Not assessed
awareness



 The emission reductions obtained by the different policy measures will reduce the external costs
 caused by the emissions. The policy measures may also give rise to other benefits, for instance in the
 form of reduced maintenance costs for vehicles or reduced congestion in the large cities.
 On the other hand the proposed policies will also have a cost side, in terms of public or private
 investment or operation costs.
 The activities and the associated costs and benefits are briefly presented in the table below. To the
 extent that quantification of costs and benefits is outside the scope of this project only qualitative
 indications are provided.




                                                  97
Table 40. Activities and associated costs and benefits

Policy option      Costs, quantified                      Other costs, not quantified                Benefits quantified   Benefits not quantified

0. Improved fuel   General assessment       General                                  Specific        Environmental                          Reduced
quality (0,05% S   of additional costs      assessment of                            refinery        benefits:                              maintenance
in diesel and      for unleaded             additional costs                         upgrading                                              costs of diesel
                                                                                                     39-50 million
0,005 g lead/l     gasoline: 0,01-0,02      for low sulfur                           costs in                                               engines because
                                                                                                     JOD/year fully
gasoline           USD/l13 :                diesel: 0,005-0,01                       Jordan                                                 of low sulfur
                                                                                                     implemented
                                            USD/l63 :                                                                                       content
                   10-20 million
                   JOD/year fully           10-20 million
                   implemented              JOD/year fully
                                            implemented

1. Improved        Development of           Training courses:    Increased man-                      Environmental                          Better
vehicle            vocational auto          1500 participants    hours at workshop                   benefits by                            operation,
maintenance        workshop                 a year, 250 JOD      for improved                        upgrading pre 1990                     lower fuel costs
                   certification training   (fee plus time)      service ½ man-                      vehicles:                              and longer life
                   courses + Regular        each:                hour/ vehicle/                                                             for vehicles
                   inspection of                                 year:
                                            0,4 million
                   certified workshop:                                                               5,4 million.
                                            JOD/year             5 million
                                                                                                     JOD/year
                   0,2 mio. JOD                                  JOD/year


2. Improvement     Higher purchase                                                   Extension of    Environmental                          Lower fuel and
of the vehicle     price for newer                                                   the truck tax   benefits by                            maintenance
fleet              vehicles: Average                                                 exemption       importing only                         costs for
                   300 JOD/ imported                                                 statement.      vehicles produced                      vehicles
                   passenger car and                                                                 after 1997 and
                                                                                     Premium for
                   LDV, 1000                                                                         complying with EU
                                                                                     scrapping of
                   JOD/imported HDV:                                                                 norms
                                                                                     pre 1990
                   18 million JOD/year                                               passenger       31,7 million


63
  Refining Strategies and Options for Lead Phase-out and Sulfur reduction, World Bank 2003, p. 15, see http://www.unep.org/pcfv/PDF/SSAMayorgaPres.pdf , and
Removal of lead from gasoline: Technical considerations. WB 1998

                                                                               98
Policy option      Costs, quantified                   Other costs, not quantified                Benefits quantified   Benefits not quantified
                                                                                  cars.           JOD/year
                                                                                  State
                                                                                  expenditure

3. Strengthen      Prepare transport     Prepare public        Prepare long term Investment       Reduced             Revenues from Reduced
transport          management plan for   transport plans for   infrastructure plan costs          environmental costs parking and   congestion and
management and     Amman and other       Amman and other       ( road, rail, light                by implementation   road charging travel time
planning           large cities:         large cities:         rail):                             of the Zarqa-Amman
                                                                                                  light rails
                   0,1 million JOD       0,1 million JOD       0,1 million JOD
                                                                                                  0,4 million JOD

4. Promotion of                                                Purchase of new    Regulation of                         Reduced          Reduced
public transport                                               busses,            private car                           environmental    congestion and
                                                               operational        usage                                 costs            travel time
                                                               subsidies

5. Information     Develop a public      Information           Include            Implement                             Reduced          Improved
and awareness      awareness and         campaign on           environmental      campaigns                             environmental    vehicle
                   information           vehicle               driver behavior in                                       costs            maintenance
                   campaign about        maintenance and       drivers licensing                                                         and improved
                   transport air         pollution directed    training courses   0,2 million                                            traffic flow
                   pollution:            to vehicle owners                        JOD
                                         and workshop
                   0,1 million JOD
                                         0,1 million JOD

 Source: COWI assessment




                                                                             99
The first three of the policy options considered are easier to evaluate in benefit-cost terms, since they
deliver much of their benefits in terms of reduction of pollutants for which monetary valuation
coefficients are readily available (PM, NOx, SO2, HC). By combining the information on benefits
(value of emission reduction, Table 39) and on costs (Table 40) of these options, it is possible to
construct an abatement cost curve, which plots the cumulative cost-benefit ratio in relation to the
share of baseline (no-interventions) emissions progressively eliminated.
The results of the analysis suggest (Figure 36) that sequential adoption of these policies can reduce
about 50% of the social cost of air pollution which would occur in a no-intervention scenario; and
that they can do so in a fairly cost-effective manner (i.e. with a cost-benefit ratio well below 1).
The analysis also indicates there are wide margins (shaded area in the figure) for further, cost-
effective, abatement interventions, such as fiscal incentives (e.g., fuel taxation, road charging); and,
in the longer term, through reduced demand (per capita or per unit of GDP) for use of the more
polluting vehicles (LDVs and HDVs), through modal shifts, improved logistics, etc. These option
were not further analyzed due to lack of data on freight and passenger demand (ton-km and
passenger-km), which represent a serious hindrance to the design and evaluation of transport policies,
let alone air quality management.

Figure 36. Abatement cost curve of air pollution from land transport

                                   1.0


                                                                                                 Cost-effectiveness
                                                                                               boundaries of additional
                                   0.8                                                           abatement policies
  Cumulative Cost/ Benefit ratio




                                                Fuel quality + Improv
                                                     vehic maint.
                                                                                  Fuel quality + Improv
                                   0.5
                                                                                   vehic maint. + New
                                                                                  vehic/ fuel comply EU
                                                Fuel quality                               norms




                                   0.3




                                   -
                                         0%   10%      20%        30%      40%      50%       60%         70%     80%     90%   100%
                                                               Percent abatement of value of baseline emissions




                                                                                 100
.7
5        Recommendations

Based on the findings of the analysis illustrated in this chapter, in this study the following key
recommendations are in order:
·    Improved information and data, to allow better assessment of transport activities and transport
     emissions, particularly

     -    implement monitoring and counting of traffic in key transport corridors and areas,
     -    develop new emission factors for Jordan vehicle fleet or assess existing emission factors for
          applicability to Jordan
     -    develop new valuation factors for emissions from Jordan's transport sector or assess existing
          valuation factors from other countries for their applicability to Jordan

·    Focus pollution abatement efforts on the components of the vehicular fleet that are likely to
     contribute the most to core pollutants (PM, NOx, SO2): these are LDV, HDV and minibus.

·    Implement the five policies discussed in this chapter to achieve significant emission reductions.
     Most importantly, the phase-out of "dirty diesel" should be accelerated.

·    Increase awareness and information about transport sector air pollution: even though the benefits
     of these actions are not estimated, they are likely to be an essential precondition for other policy
     measures to mitigate transport sector air pollution.

·    Environmental benefits often go along with benefits in terms of reduced congestion and faster
     transport. These benefits play at least as important a role and should be taken into account. It is
     outside the scope of this chapter study to assess these benefits, but experience shows that by the
     largest benefits obtained by measures that increase transport sector efficiency through better
     public transport and better traffic management is the reduced congestion and saved travel time.
     Also reduced numbers of accidents significantly can contribute to the benefits of such measures.

·    Better coordination between public authorities involved in the transport sector is needed to help
     efficient transport planning and implementation of plans. Since more authorities are involved a
     close cooperation is needed to ensure that plans are founded within the relevant organizations,
     which plans are implemented and that continuity is provided.




                                                   101
CHAPTER .
        6    INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
.
6   1       Summary and key messages

On account of its current importance to Jordan's economy (over 22% of GDP), its fast rate of
annual growth (12% in recent years), and the lack of an adequate regulatory and enforcement
framework, the industrial sector is an important source of environmental pressure in Jordan, and
is likely to become more so in the future, especially if the full implementation of trade
agreements results in an increase of foreign demand for Jordanian industrial products.
Poor or not easily accessible monitoring data on polluting emissions makes it difficult to evaluate
priorities for pollution abatement across sectors, locations, pollutant types, and enterprise size. To
overcome this obstacle and provide policy makers with broad indications for action, this chapter
proposes to apply international emission coefficients (obtained from the World Bank's Industrial
Pollution Protection System ­ see Hettige et al (1995) to estimate the structure of industry's
pollution. The results are subject to obvious caveats linked to the limitations of the methodology,
and to some data classification issues, but are found to be in line with the limited empirical
evidence available. The following key findings should be used as first indications of areas of
policy interest, but they should be revisited on the basis of Jordan-specific industrial emission
data as soon as they become available:
1. The bulk of pollution originates from enterprises located in the Amman and Zarqa industrial
   districts; the relatively lower share of total pollution in Irbid and Zarqa is associated to
   advanced forms of localized environmental degradation, which is no less important than
   Amman's.
2. While at the national level most of the pollution comes from (larger) industrial enterprises
   (70% to 90% depending on the pollutant), in Irbid, and particularly Zarqa, micro
   enterprises are an important source of pollution, accounting for up to 60% of some
   emissions (i.e. Biological Oxygen Demand, BOD, in Zarqa).
3. At the national level, the chemical, medical and engineering/ electrical sectors account for
   the larger contributions to most polluting emissions. However, the sector ranking is
   different when specific pollutant types are considered. In particular, the food supply sector is
   estimated to be the top air and water polluter; the engineering/ electrical sector has the largest
   share of heavy metal pollution; and the leather/ garment sector is the top contributor to toxic
   emissions (particularly water). For virtually all pollutants, the "cleanest" sector is the packing
   and paper sector.
4. Pollution shares of industrial subsectors vary by location. The ranking of polluting
   industries per medium in Amman and Zarqa is similar to that at the national level. For Irbid,
   however, the ranking is different: leather is the most polluting industry of air and air toxics
   and a relatively important contributor to water pollution (BOD). This suggests that efforts to
   abate pollution should be site specific and take into account local conditions.
5. Mining is important in terms of air pollution. However, because it is remotely located with
   respect to urban areas, it is difficult to determine its importance in terms of health impacts.
6. Projections of environmental pressures for 2012 and 2017 indicate that top 4 polluting
   industry will remain the same (chemical, medical, engineering/ electrical and construction
   sectors). Some of the lower rankings may change however, with the plastic and rubber sector
   poised to become a more important polluter by 2017.
7. Because of large variations across sectors in unit abatement costs and relative contribution to
   total emissions, the cost of abatement policies is likely to be very sensitive to the selection
   of target sectors. As an example, it is estimated that the cost of reaching a given abatement


                                                102
    target for all pollutants (e.g., 50% or better) can vary by a factor of up to 3.5, depending on
    whether or not the optimal combination of abatement efforts across sub-sectors is selected.
8. A few national abatement cost curves are estimated to further illustrate the importance of
   carefully targeting abatement efforts. In the case of air pollution, some 80% of total
   emissions can be abated by focusing on the food, chemicals, medical and plastic sectors, at
   a cost of $4,000/ ton or less; the unit cost of achieving the remaining 20% is estimated to be
   in the range of US$ 8,000-14,000. For water toxics, priority should be given to the leather,
   food, construction and furniture sectors, which have the lowest unit abatement cost and
   account for 80% of total emissions. The level of abatement attainable at any given unit cost
   varies considerably from one industrial location to the other.
Recommendations. The government may want to consider the following recommendations
(further details, including on implementing agencies) are provided in section 6.5 and in Chapter
8). In the short term:
·   WAJ may want to revise and strengthen ­using a cost of regulation" analysis- the standard for
    wastewater discharged from industries (JS 202/1991), in particular with respect to TDS,
    heavy metals and endocrine substances and other toxic organic materials (see Chapter 4 for
    further details).
·   WAJ and MoEnv may consider enhancing the information and knowledge base on industry's
    environmental impacts, by strengthening existing emission monitoring systems; MoEnv in
    particular could consider as introducing ­where absent- stack emission monitoring for air
    pollutants, in priority sectors such as food, chemicals, and leather/ garments.
·   MoEnv's inspections could be focused on priority sectors for the different type of pollutants
    (such as those identified in this report), rather than being primarily complaint-driven.
·   MoEnv could prepare and issue pollution abatement guidelines, with priority given to top
    polluting sectors, such as food supplies (for air and water emissions), the engineering/
    electrical sector (for heavy metal pollution); and the leather/ garment sector (for toxic
    emissions)
In the medium term, it is recommended that:
·   The Ministry of Environment leads a concerted effort towards developing for each industrial
    district (Amman, Zarqa, Irbid), an air and water pollution abatement plan, which would aim
    at minimizing, by adequate selection of target industries, the cost of reaching selected
    environmental improvement objectives.
·   To help meet the targets of the pollution abatement plans, the Government could consider a
    combination of (1) Positive incentives (including soft loans and technical assistance) to
    encourage the use of cleaner production processes; and (2) gradual phasing-in of negative
    incentives (pollution levy for industrial emissions exceeding a given standard) to induce firms
    to meet effluent/ambient standards (e.g., via end-of-pipe treatment). Initially the levy could be
    linked to level of activity/employment, and later -once adequate monitoring capacity is in
    place- to emission levels.
·   Revisit and modify the current structure of fiscal and trade incentives (tariffs), to ensure that
    some of the most polluting industries are not favored in comparison to other, relatively
    "cleaner" industrial activities.
·   Finally, the establishment of new industrial activities should be subject to strict licensing
    requirements, in line with Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) principles, and
    discouraged in existing pollution hotspots.




                                                103
.2
6     Introduction

The industrial sector is one of the main pillars of Jordan's economy. It accounts for 15% of the
total workforce, and -with about 22.5% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (JCI, 2007)- is also
the single largest contributor to GDP, followed by finance, real estate, and businesses (18.6%),
transport and communications (18.1%), the Governmental services sector (14%), and the trade,
restaurants and hotels sector (11%). The last three decades witnessed a remarkable growth of the
industrial sector, from less than 500 registered industrial factories ­ mostly small, family-owned
enterprises - to about 20,000 establishments nowadays. Manufacturing is the main sub-sector,
accounting for 19% of GDP.
In recent times, industry has been one of the main engines of growth: it grew by 21.4% in 2000
and 25.8% in 2006 (MoIT, 2008), primarily thanks to the manufacturing sub-sector, which grew
by about 12% per year - an extremely high rate compared to other countries in the region, such as
Lebanon (4%), Morocco (4%) and Egypt (3%) (UNIDO database). This growth was strongly
supported by the Government's three-track policy, including: protection of manufacturing
enterprises by a combination of low tariffs on inputs and high tariffs on imported final products;
substantial public expenditures to build and maintain infrastructure in support of small and
medium industries, such as industrial estates, roads, power and the Port of Aqaba; and
encouragement of industrial exports by promoting bilateral agreements with neighboring
countries.
However, industrial development has been accompanied by several problems. Many production
processes still lack the necessary technological and technical know-how, and it is common
practice to import used or written-off machinery, plants, and spare parts from Europe and
Southeast Asia. There is also little recognition among the management of companies and
organizations in various sectors, of the importance of clean production, energy thrift, and
environmental protection and of the economy's vulnerability to the availability of commercial
energy sources. Industrial pollution has become an area of growing public concern in Jordan,
especially with respect to air emissions from the cement industry in Fuheis and Rashidyia, the oil
refinery and power generation station near Zarqa, power plants, and phosphate and potash
industries in Aqaba, among others. There is already indirect evidence that industry is one of the
main contributors to overall polluting emissions; as discussed in Chapter 2, industrial activities
are estimated to account for some 30% and 20% of national SO2 and TSP emission, respectively.
In addition, localized forms of severe environmental degradation (air, and particularly water) are
largely the result of industrial activities, as in the case of Zarqa or Irbid.
Currently, pollution monitoring is either undertaken unsystematically or not at all, limiting
understanding of the magnitude of the problem (see chapter 2 for further details). In addition,
institutional enforcement of environmental regulations in industrial activities is weak, being
undertaken on a complaint basis, instead of being priority-based. Since further expansion of the
industrial sector is likely to increase pollution levels even further, it will be increasingly
important to provide policy makers with information on the overall magnitude of industry's
environmental pressures, and on the relative contribution of different subsectors to total pollution
(at the national and local levels), and to find cost-effective pollution control options. This chapter
aims to bridge this gap by: proposing a methodology to quantify the main environmental
pressures from industry at the national and local levels in Jordan; providing estimates of relative
contributions to pollution; and proposing ways to evaluate cost-effective options for pollution
reduction. As a first-time effort to quantify the environmental pressures at national and local
levels, the estimates obtained are subject to several methodological and empirical limitations. As
such, they should be regarded as indicative measures of environmental pressures, and perhaps
more importantly, as illustrations of an overall approach to policy making based on priority
setting and economic reasoning. The results obtained should clearly be further refined and
validated to better inform decision making.


                                                 104
The reminder of the chapter starts with an overview of the industrial sector and the associated
policy context (Section 6.3). It then provides indicative estimates of the current and projected
pollution pressures from the main industries based on the Industrial Pollution Projection System
(IPPS) model and analyses the most polluting sub-sectors, their relative ranking and general
trends; estimates the pollution abatement costs and discusses the most cost-effective options for
pollution reduction (Section 6.4). Finally, it provides some recommendations to enhance
industrial pollution control and reduce environmental pollution (Section 6.5). This information
should help decision-makers to prioritize their monitoring activities and pollution abatement
efforts, and help promote a more efficient allocation of resources.

.3
6       Overview of the industrial sector

6.3.1    Sector description
The industrial sector consists of a heterogeneous mixture of manufacturing and conversion
activities, ranging from transforming raw materials into refined products such as phosphate,
cement, plastics and glass, to those with highly finished end-products, such as food processing
and chemical industries. According to MoIT, the industrial sector currently counts about 20,600
establishments and employs around 190,100 workers. Amman, Zarqa and Irbid account for about
82% of total establishments and 91% of the workforce employed by industrial enterprises
nationwide. In terms of number of establishments, the bulk of Jordan's industrial sector consists
in small family-owned enterprises. During 1998-2006, employment in the sector has grown by
about 10% annually, with highest peaks exceeding 20% in 2003 and 2004.
The industrial sector in Jordan can be classified according to the nature of activity and the size of
industry (Box 7). Table 41 provides the distribution of the main industrial sub-sectors in Jordan
(except for mining) in terms of number of enterprises, registered capital, employment and
exports. According to the JCI (2007), the industry counts about 12,800 enterprises, with a total
registered capital of JOD2.2 billion and about 176,000 employees64. Micro enterprises generally
dominate the sector (87% of the total number), with the Engineering, Electrical and IT having the
largest representation, followed by furniture and wood, and construction. As expected, industrial
enterprises dominate in all the other aspects, with Leather and Garments leading in terms of
employment (31% of total employment) and exports value (37%), and Engineering, Electrical
and IT in terms of registered capital (35% of total).
JCI does not provide any information on the mining sector, because it is not geographically in
Amman, Zarqa or Irbid and it is not classified according to the same size categories. Thus, this
sector cannot be compared to the others according to the criteria mentioned in Table 41. Mining
is however crucial when assessing the overall volume of pollution loads, and more specifically air
pollutants (Box 8, on page 108).




64
  According to MoIT, the industry involves about 190,100 workers. The source of discrepancy between the JCI
and MoIT estimates is twofold: (1) the MoIT databases include electricity and water related industries while the
JCI's does not; (2) all enterprises must register with the MoIT, but not necessarily with the chambers of
commerce, suggesting that the JCI's figure is an underestimate.


                                                      105
Box 7. Classifications of industrial sector in Jordan

In Jordan, the national classification of industrial sub-sectors has been determined by a decree issued by the
Jordan Cabinet on August 13, 2005 to cover all industrial enterprises operating in one or more industrial
activity. This classification is partly different from the United Nations international standard industrial
classification - the International Standards for Industrial Categories (ISIC) - that provides a standard set of
economic activities classifying entities according to the activity they undertake. The ISIC categorizes industries
into mining, transformational industries and power generating industry. The Jordanian industrial classification
system combined some of the International Industrial Categories based on certain similarities. The result was
the following national industrial categorization system:
                 1. Leather and Garments
                 2. Therapeutics and Medical
                 3. Chemical and Cosmetics
                 4. Plastic and Rubber
                 5. Engineering, Electrical Industries and Information Technology
                 6. Furniture and Wooden
                 7. Construction
                 8. Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
                 9. Packing, Packaging, Paper, Cardboard and Stationeries
                 10. Mining
The Jordan Chamber of Industry's65 Law for the year 2005 adopted a formal definition of the size categories of
industrial enterprises working in industry solely based on the registered capital size and the labor size. The law
defines and classifies enterprises according to the following types:
Industrial Enterprises: any enterprise that employs 10 or more Jordanian employees subscribed to the Social
Security Corporation, and has a registered capital of JOD30,000 or more;
Micro Enterprises: any enterprise that employs less than 10 Jordanian employees subscribed to the Social
Security Corporation or has a registered capital less than JOD30,000.
A committee with representation from the public and private sectors was formed to further study this issue based
on the Trade and Industry Law No. 18 for the year 1998, and the Chamber of Industry Law No. 10 for the year
2005. This committee developed size categorization criteria that are also based on the registered capital size and
the labor size; however, it defined two additional categories. In September 2005, Cabinet of Ministers approved
the categories summarized below (Ministry of Industry and Trade's The General Framework of National
Industrial Policy-2008):
       Type of industrial establishments              Labor             Registered Capital
         Handicrafts                                  1-9               less than JOD30,000
         Small                                        10-49             more than JOD30,000
         Medium                                       50-249            more than JOD30,000
         Big                                          more than 250     more than JOD30,000




                                                       106
Table 41. Distribution of industrial sectors in Jordan
                                                                                                                                                              Exports
                                                                                                                                                              Value
                           No. of Enterprises                          Registered Capital (million JOD)           No. of Employeesb (000)                     (million JOD)
                                                     All       % of                             All       % of                              All       % of            % of
Sub-Sectora                Industrial   Micro    enterprises   total   Industrial   Micro   enterprises   total   Industrial   Micro    enterprises   total   2006    total

Leather and Garments          244        864        1108        9         164        11        175          8        55             9         64       36      925     37

Therapeutics and               53          46        99         1         162         3        165          7           6           0         6         3      255     10
Medical
Chemical and Cosmetics        188        207        395         3         314        10        324         15        11             1         12        7      297     12

Plastic and Rubber            116        151        267         2         52          7         59          3           4           1         5         3      32       1

Engineering, Electrical       323        4053       4376        34        769        28        797         36        25             9         34       19      459     18
Industries and IT
Furniture and Wooden           85        2556       2641        21        12         26         38          2           4           6         10        6      31       1

Construction                  152        2002       2154        17        165        23        188          8           8           7         15        8      52       2

Food, Supplies,               334        798        1132        9         338        17        355         16        15             3         18       10      333     13
Agricultural and
Livestock
Packing, Packaging,           185        430        615         5         110        12        122          5           9           2         11        6      148      6
Paper, Cartoon
Total                      1,680        11,107   12,787        100     2,088        136     2,224         100     137          38       176           100     2,531   100

Source: Jordan Chamber of Industry, 2007
Notes: a. JCI study did not provide details on the mining sector; b. includes both Jordanian and non-Jordanian workforce




                                                                                    107
Box 8. Mining

Mining and quarrying contribute about 3.3% of GDP (year 2005). Mining is based on extraction of vast reserves
of raw phosphates and potash and, more recently, on their semi-processing. Jordan's main exports are primarily
mineral-based resources and their derivatives, such as fertilizers, bromine, and magnesia. They generate more
than 30 percent of total export earnings. Exports of phosphates, potash, fertilizers, and related products
amounted to $412 million in 2001. With production in 2001 of some 5.9 million tons, Jordan is the world's
third-largest supplier of raw phosphates.
Phosphate mining is controlled by a joint stock monopoly, the Jordan Phosphate Mines Company (JPMC),
established in 1935. Production of rock phosphates averages about 3.7 million t per year. Known reserves are
adequate for decades of production at current or even higher levels. The phosphate export earnings of JPMC in
2001 reached $189 million. JPMC has also achieved some success in developing downstream activities, such as
fertilizer production. The Arab Potash Company (APC) has grown steadily since its inception in 1956, boosting
its basic potash production (2 million t in 2001), expanding its downstream activities and foreign exchange
earnings ($192 million in 2001). Both as APC and through its holding company, Jordan Dead Sea Industries
Company (JODICO), the company is developing fertilizers and chemical projects.
The mining sector is not geographically located in Amman, Zarqa, or Irbid and so could not be compared with
the other sectors in terms of water, toxics, and metals pollution. However, the sector appears to be an important
one in terms of air pollution. Using the IPPS methodology, we estimated mining's contribution to air pollution
in terms of TSP, PM10, CO, NOx, SO2, and VOC (Table 42). Mining appears to be the major polluter in terms of
TSP, SO2 and NO2 and PM10.
Mining is generally remotely located from major residential centers or human activities. It is thus difficult to
determine how much the sector's contribution to air pollution affects urban centers. Mining centers located
relatively close to urban centers include Nippon Jordan Fertilisers Company (NJFC) in Aqaba, the Eshidiya
mines (125 km north-east of Aqaba) and the Jordan Phosphate Complex (15 km south of Aqaba). Available
data on employment by mine indicate that Eshidiya mines alone employ about 1250 people, accounting for
about 12.5% of total employment in mining at national level. On a proportional basis, we can then attribute a
similar share of the total air pollution from mining as affecting the urban centers.
Table 42. Mining's relative contribution to air pollution compared to other sectors
       Pollutants          Mining            Other sectors a            Total
       TSP                  65%                      35%                 100%
       CO                    2%                      98%                 100%
       SO2                  50%                      50%                 100%
       NO2                  51%                      49%                 100%
       VOC                   3%                      97%                 100%
       PM10                 78%                      22%                 100%
a
  including Leather and garments, Therapeutics and medical, Chemical and cosmetics, Plastic and rubber,
Engineering, electrical Industries and IT, Furniture and wood, Construction, Food, supplies, agriculture and
livestock, Packaging and paper.


6.3.2 Institutions and stakeholders
This section provides a summary of the main institutions and other actors with a stake in
industrial development and policy. A broader discussion of the institutional, legislative and
governance framework relevant to the environment (including the roles of the general public,
NGOs, etc.) is contained in the institutional assessment chapter of the CEA (Chapter 7).

Ministry of Environment
The Ministry has different departments in charge of inspection, legislations, policies, licensing
and permitting. Of main relevance to Industrial Pollution Control are the Directorates of Policy
and Development, the Directorate of Monitoring and Assessment, the Directorate of Management
of Waste and Hazardous Substances, the Directorate of Licensing and Guidance, and the
Directorate of Inspections and Control.


                                                      108
The Cleaner Production and Best Available Technologies Unit, affiliated to the Licensing and
Guidance Directorate has a mandate for coordinating with the various directorates as it relates to
support licensing and permitting based on better technologies according to international practices
resulting from applied research conducted by a variety of organizations. The department is also
responsible for verifying that permit applications contain proposed guidelines for the utilization
of water, power, and other natural resources including the proposed techniques for the
minimization of waste generation and disposal, and for preparing and availing documents related
to cleaner production and the best available technologies from the relevant sources such as the
EU, BREF, UNIDO, USEMPA and other. This Unit represents the Ministry on the management
board of the Cleaner Production Program.
The Licensing and Guidance, Inspection and Control and, Monitoring and Assessment were only
recently established based on the recommendations of the EU Funded Institutional Support to the
Ministry of Environment on Environmental Management and Legislation Project, and do not
have the capacity nor the necessary resources to function properly and play the role they were
established to play.
Ministry of Industry and Trade
According to Government of Jordan's law number 18 for the year 1998, the Ministry takes on the
responsibilities of regulating the industry by type, classifying it, registering it according to an
internal regulation, and preparing the programs and studies that work on developing the industry
and increasing its competitiveness. The Ministry also takes on the task of regulating the internal
and external trade, monitoring it, and preparing the studies and the agreements that protect the
interest of the country and the citizen. The Industrial Development Directorate of the Ministry has
no environmental responsibilities per se, but it does however set the industrial policy in terms of
growth and development, which has a direct impact on industrial pollution.
Jordan Industrial Estate Corporation
The JIEC is a quasi-governmental corporation established in 1984 with public and private
ownership. Its role is to contribute to the development of Small & Medium Industries (SMIs) by
providing comprehensive and integrated industrial estates, to increase support and encourage the
sector, and to increase investment opportunities in industry. One of its main goals is to promote
Jordan's industrial development by providing a suitable home for both local and foreign
industries. JIEC owns and manages 5 industrial estates.
Given their pollution monitoring capacity, it is vital that the Ministry of Environment better
coordinate data management with the JIEC. It is evident that current coordination between the
two entities is minimal. The Sampling and Analysis Section at the Ministry could benefit
significantly from the data available at the JIEC, and both entities could cooperate in formulating
actions for industrial pollution control given the technical capacity that is available at the
Ministry.

Jordan Enterprise Development Corporation
Jordan Enterprise Development Corporation (JEDCO) was established by a decree of the council
of ministers in 2003 to legally replace the Jordan Export Development and Commercial Centers
Corporation. The overall goals of JEDCO are: Trade Promotion, Export Development, and
Enterprises and Companies Development.

Jordan Investment Board
The Investment Laws of 2003 and Investment Promotion Law of 1995 established the Jordan
Investment Board as a governmental body enjoying both financial and administrative
independence. The creation of this organization came about as a result of the Government's
realization of the importance of increasing foreign direct investment to Jordan, and enhancing


                                               109
local investment in a bid to create new job opportunities, increase national exports, and the need
for the transfer of technology.

Industry Sector Non-Governmental Organizations
The key non-governmental players in the industrial sector are the various Chambers of Industry,
namely the Jordan, Amman, Zarqa, and Irbid Chambers of Industry. In general, the Chambers of
Industry are more concerned with the sector from a private sector and investment context. Of all
the Chambers in Jordan, only one has made reference to environmental issues in its mission
statement. Being a key player in the sector, environment has to be given a more significant
weight in the Chambers' roles and responsibilities and in terms of providing support to the
Ministry of Environment. The significance of the various chambers is that they could be a very
effective tool in the implementation of any industrial pollution control mechanism and/or policy
to be adopted by the Ministry. They can be viewed as the link between the governmental bodies
and the industries themselves, and should be effectively utilized in the implementation of any
national plans for pollution control.

Jordanian Association of Manufacturers of Pharmaceuticals and Medical Appliances (JAPM)
The Jordanian Association of Manufacturers of Pharmaceuticals and Medical Appliances (JAPM)
was established in 1996 as a dedicated sector-specific association and is the representative body
of the unanimity of manufacturers of pharmaceuticals and medical appliances which is one of the
key sectors of the Jordanian economy. JAPM is a voluntary non- profit association which has a
member base of almost all pharmaceutical companies in Jordan. The Jordanian pharmaceutical
industry which is primarily an export driven industry provides quality, safe and effective
pharmaceuticals at affordable prices for millions of people worldwide.

Jordan Furniture Exporters and manufacturers Association
JFEMA is a non-profit association established with the core purpose of being the sole
representative of the Jordanian furniture exporters and manufacturers on the local, regional and
international levels through delivering a wide spectrum of needed services including: Sector
promotion and marketing, export readiness consultation, networking, work force training, and
maintaining information systems.

Jordan Investors Association of Amman Industrial Estate
Investors Association of Amman Industrial Estate was established as a private, independent and
non-profit organization whose aim is to expand, support and encourage economic, industrial and
investment opportunities at the Industrial City, Sahab and at other Industrial Cities.

6.3.3   National Agenda and policy context
The National Agenda (NA) outlines the Government vision for Jordan's economic development
in the next decade. The NA first phase (2007-2012) focuses on creating employment
opportunities by promoting export-oriented and labor intensive industries, education,
infrastructure and legislation regulating political life. The second phase (2012-2017) focuses on
gradually upgrading and strengthening the industrial base, and preparing the ground for the
development of high value-added sectors in the knowledge economy. The National Agenda
proposes also target performance indicators for the development of the following sub-sectors:
apparel, pharmaceuticals, minerals, iron and steel, furniture, food and beverage, tourism,
healthcare and IT services.
Overall, Figure 37 suggests that the year 2017 will witness a sharp rise in the industrial sector
output (2 times compared to the current situation), export value (2.8 times) and cumulative
employment (1.5 times). Most of the increase in the sector output and exports are due to the
development of the `apparel' sub-sector, while the surge in employment is mostly a result of


                                               110
`apparel' and `tourism'. In fact, while employment in most sub-sectors is increasing, it is
declining in `minerals', and stagnating in `iron and steel'.
Figure 37. Targets for industry's selected performance indicators over time

              450%
                                                                                  383%
              400%

              350%
                                                                                    296%
              300%
   % change




              250%                                   202%                             250%

              200%
                                                           153%
              150%

              100%                                     146%
                          100%
              50%

               0%
                             Current                  2012                       2017

                           Sector Output (JD)   Exports (JD)       Cumulative employment


Source: National Agenda (2007).
Note: The percentages are calculated based on cumulated values of outputs, exports and employment for the
sub- sectors considered by National Agenda.

The National Industrial Policy (NIP), currently under preparation by the Ministry of Industry
and Trade, aims at boosting the competitiveness of the industrial sector locally and
internationally. The NIP goals are:
      ·        to develop the industrial sector by 7-9% annually, during the period 2008-2012;
      ·        to increase the volume of exports by 10%;
      ·        to increase employment opportunities available in the sector by 8% annually.
The NIP comprises 11 axes meant to represent an integrated system of policies leading to a more
sustainable economic development. One of these axes specifically lays down a general
environmental policy, aiming at:
      ·        preserving the environment
      ·        contributing to achieving sustainable development
      ·        urging industrial institutions to abide by environmental legislations, measures, and
               standards,
      ·        adopting environment-friendly practices and policies,
      ·        offering financial and technical support for these enterprises to implement the programs
               that would improve its environmental performance.
The main proposed mechanisms to achieve these objectives include (1) providing technical
support in treating water and industrial waste, (2) providing the necessary legislative and
institutional framework to benefit from the environment fund yet to be established, (3) laying
down policies and legislations that enable the private sector to develop and implement programs


                                                     111
and techniques to protect and improve the environment, (4) encouraging the establishment of
clean development projects, (5) promote national industries' competitiveness by adopting
environmental practices and policies, (6) activating the role of the industrial sector in the national
and environment trade committee, and (7) enhancing the participation of the industrial sector in
various technical committees. No specific targets of improved environmental performance have
however been set by the proposed policy, and no institutional responsibilities have been defined.
Trade Policy. Jordan is a relatively high trade-protected country, compared to the average of low-
middle income countries, although its average tariff level in the period 2000-2007 has been lower
than in the rest of the MENA region (Figure 38); the average tariff on manufacturing has been
over 2 and half times and over 3 times larger than the low-middle income average, in Jordan and
in MENA, respectively. The manufacturing sector has enjoyed higher levels of protection than
the Jordan's economy as a whole, with (un-weighted) average of 17% compared to 10%.
Figure 38. Average MFN import tariffs in the period 2000-2007 (world average=100)

                                                   350%
  MFN, Weidghted Average (2000-2007), Worrld=100




                                                   300%



                                                   250%



                                                   200%



                                                   150%



                                                   100%



                                                   50%



                                                    0%

                                                          MENA   Jordan           Low and middle   All countries
                                                                                income economies

                                                                 Total Trade    Manufacturing

Source: Calculation on Most Favored Nation (MFN) tariff data from UNCTAD, Trade Analysis and Information
System
It is noteworthy that manufacturing tariffs have been significantly higher (Figure 39) than the
average (both in Jordan and in low-middle income countries in general), in sectors that account
for two thirds of Jordan's manufacturing employment and exports, such as leather/ garment,
electrical products and food; and probably for a large share of polluting emissions as well (see the
estimates contained in section 6.4).




                                                                          112
Figure 39. Average MFN import tariffs in Jordan by sector in the period 2000-2007

                                                         -   10.00   20.00      30.00    40.00   50.00   60.00   70.00   80.00

                                     TOBACCO PRODUCTS

                    TANNING AND DRESSING OF LEATHER; LU

                   WEARING APPAREL; DRESSING AND DYEIN

                        FURNITURE; MANUFACTURING N.E.C.

                  OTHER NON-METALLIC MINERAL PRODUCTS

                  COKE, REFINED PETROLEUM PRODUCTS AN

                   FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS, EXCEPT M

                   ELECTRICAL MACHINERY AND APPARATUS

                    MOTOR VEHICLES, TRAILERS AND SEMI-T

                         RUBBER AND PLASTICS PRODUCTS

                         FOOD PRODUCTS AND BEVERAGES

                             PAPER AND PAPER PRODUCTS

                    RADIO, TELEVISION AND COMMUNICATION

                                               TEXTILES

                         MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT N.E.C.                        Jordan
                            OTHER TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
                                                                               Manufacturing
                                                                               Average
                                           BASIC METALS

     PUBLISHING, PRINTING AND REPRODUCTION OF RECORDED

                 WOOD AND OF PRODUCTS OF WOOD AND CO

                      CHEMICALS AND CHEMICAL PRODUCTS                        Low-Middle
                                                                             Income
                     MEDICAL, PRECISION AND OPTICAL INST                     Manufacturing
                   OFFICE, ACCOUNTING AND COMPUTING MA                       Average




As part of the Government's economic openness policy, the situation is poised to change. Jordan
signed several trade agreements, such as the Great Arab Free Trade Agreement (GAFTA), the
Agreement on the establishment of Qualifying Industrial Zones in Jordan and the US-Jordan Free
Trade Zone Agreement. In spite of differences among these agreements, they all aim at
establishing free trade zones, reducing customs to the lowest levels, and broadening the scope of
trade.
While implementation so far appears to have been slow66, these agreements will create a new
climate for the Jordanian industrial sector and place it in a free competitive environment. Signing
these agreements can be considered a success, but will also pose a number of challenges related
to establishing the appropriate legislative environment, providing the sector with the necessary
technical and financial support to restructure itself and face international competition; and
enhancing the sector's environmental performance.
.4
6         Estimating industry's environmental pressures

6.4.1       Methodology
Quantifying the pollutant loads from industry encountered several problems. First, no complete
list of pollutants emitted in Jordan is available. Therefore, this chapter estimates the pollution
load for a selected group of air, water, and land pollutants for which sufficient information is
available. Second, pollution monitoring is not carried out on a systematic and comprehensive
basis. For example, except for the wastewater quality data taken by the Water Authority of Jordan
and Jordan Industrial Estates Corporation, available information is based on surveys rather than
comprehensive field measurements. Third, monitoring equipment is either not available or
obsolete and trained personnel on industrial sites is usually lacking. Fourth, the air quality data
reported by the Royal Scientific Society and the Ministry of Health are ambient air measurements
and not stack emissions. Although such readings can give indications of pollution in areas close


66
  In the manufacturing sector, in 2007 -i.e. three years from the 2010 phase-out deadline MFN tariffs were on
average some 50% of their 2000 level

                                                             113
to industries compared to more distant areas, they cannot be attributed to industry alone, as they
represent the cumulative result of emissions from all sectors (e.g., industry, transport, etc.).
Given the lack of a complete set of actual pollution measurements, this chapter uses the Industrial
Pollution Projection System (IPPS) developed by the World Bank (Hettige et al (1995) to provide
initial insights on relative priorities for pollution abatement. IPPS is a rapid assessment tool for
estimating pollution loads to help develop appropriate policies for industrial pollution control.
The IPPS estimates and rankings provide the relative contribution of the industrial sub-sectors to
the overall volume of pollution per medium (e.g., air, water, land).
The IPPS model combines data from industrial activity (such as production and employment)
with information on pollution emissions to calculate pollution intensity coefficients per unit of
industrial activity67. We apply this model to project the evolution of pollutant loads for 2012 and
2017, based on the estimated employment growth during these periods. The IPPS coefficients are
available for the following pollutants:
     ·   Air pollutants. Sulfur dioxide (SO2); nitrogen dioxide (NO2); volatile organic compounds
         (VOC); and particulate matter, both total suspended particulates (TSP) and particulate
         matter smaller than 10 microns (PM10).
     ·   Water pollutants. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS);
     ·   Toxic substances (released in air, water and land);
     ·   Heavy metals (released in air, water and land).
To estimate the pollution load for each industrial sub-sector, this chapter uses employment data
and the Lower Bound (LB) pollution intensities by medium, after merging the intensities of the
major categories according to the ISIC code, to conform to the 10 major sectors in Jordan. An
aggregated pollution load for air was estimated through a weighted average of four pollutants
only, with weights reflecting relative contribution to health damages and other externalities, and
obtained from the EC "Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) Program68"­ that is, SO2 (with a weight of
16%), NO2 (14%), VOC (2%) and PM10 (68%). The aggregated pollution intensities were then
used to estimate pollution loads using the formula:

                                                     PI *TEM
                                            PL =
                                                   1000 * 2204.6
where
         PL                =        Pollution load in t/year
         TEM               =        Total number of employees
         PI                =        Pollution intensity in pounds per thousands employees per year
         2204.6            =        Conversion factor from pounds to tons




67
   Pollution intensities have initially been calculated with data available in the United States from the U.S.
Manufacturing Census and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The basic calculation took
manufacturing information on output value, value-added, and employment, then matched it with the USEPA
database on pollution releases on a plant-by plant basis. Pollution intensities were then calculated as the total
amount of releases divided by the manufacturing indicator (i.e., output value, value added, or employment). The
employment-based indicator (kilograms of pollutant per unit of employment) has been shown to be the most
stable across different technologies and across both developed and developing countries (Dasgupta and others,
2002).
68
   http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/cafe/general/keydocs.htm

                                                      114
6.4.2   Classification challenges

Figure 40 shows the geographic distribution of polluting industries in Jordan. It should be noted
that the quantification process was subject not only to data scarcity problems, but also to
classification discrepancies. Because the JCI categories do not include the power generation and
the water and wastewater treatment plants, these sub-sectors were not included in the analysis.
As several power stations, such as Al-Hussein Thermal Power Station, Rihab and Samra are
located in Zarqa, the estimates tend to underestimate the real pollution pressure in this region.
Figure 40. Geographic Distribution of Polluting Industries




Another problem is that some of the larger industries (e.g., the Jordan Petroleum Refinery,
Intermediate Petrochemical Industries, and others) are located in Zarqa but registered in the
Amman Chamber of Industry. Ideally, the analysis should attribute their pollution to their actual
location. This was only possible for some of these industries, however. Some large industries ­
such as the potash and the phosphate industries ­ could be removed from Amman estimates but
could not be added anywhere else, for lack of specific information. This resulted in
underestimating pollution loads in areas were these industries are actually located.



                                              115
Third, the JCI classification system for industries includes the refining sector as part of the
chemicals and cosmetics sectors. To better understand the role of the refining sector, the IPPS
was re-run after separating "petroleum refineries" (ISIC code 353) from "chemicals industries"
(ISIC code 352). The estimated pollution load produced from the refineries was then added to the
pollution loads in Zarqa area.
Fourth, for the reasons indicated in Box 8 on page 106 emissions from mining were estimated
separately, and not included in the results presented below. This should not be interpreted as
implying that emissions from mining are unimportant (in fact in the case of air pollution they
account for the bulk of it); but simply that on account of most mining plants' remote location they
are unlikely to be part of priority setting problems in the industrial hotspots of Amman, Zarqa or
Irbid.

6.4.3   Results: the estimated composition of industrial pollution
Table 43 presents the estimates of the relative contribution of each sector to pollution, by location
and medium. These results permit to analyze the structure of industrial pollution in a number of
different ways, and in particular to answer the following questions.
a) What are the industrial locations that contribute the most to pollution?
Enterprises located in Amman contribute the most to pollution (the un-weighted average is 77%);
Zarqa ranks second, and Irbid third (Figure 41). This confirms that several highly polluting
industries concentrate in Zarqa, resulting in shares of total emissions higher than the
corresponding employment share, particularly in the case of heavy metal emissions in air and
land; and in general in an (un-weighted) average share of emission of 14%, compared to 9% of
Irbid, in spite of the fact that the latter has a larger share in employment (about 17% against 13%
of Zarqa).
Figure 41. Share in total emissions by pollutant type and location

         100%                                                                                     100%


  Expexted90%                                                                                     90%
     Zarqa
      share80%                                                                                    80%


           70%                                                                                    70%
   Expected
 Irbid Share
           60%                                                                                    60%


          50%                                                                                     50%


          40%                                                                                     40%


          30%                                                                                     30%


          20%                                                                                     20%


          10%                                                                                     10%


           0%                                                                                     0%
                 BOD     TSS      ToxLand   MetWat     Air   ToxAir   MetAir   MetLand   ToxWat

             Amman        Irbid       Zarqa          Amman empl share          Irbid empl share


Note: the figure indicates the band of "expected" emission share of Irbid and Zarqa based on the respective
share in total industrial employment
It is important to emphasize that the methodology utilized provides estimates of pollution
emissions, and not concentrations. Hence the relatively smaller share of total pollution attributed
to Zarqa and Irbid does not imply a lower priority for pollution control action in these areas: in
fact in these locations there are particularly serious situations of environmental degradation which
are linked to higher concentration of pollutants in air, water or land, and .which demand
immediate policy attention.

                                                       116
Table 43. Estimated distribution of pollution pressures from industrial sub-sectors
 Region                         Sectors                                                       All Enterprises
                                                       Air (a)          Water                      Toxics                     Metals
                                                                 BOD            TSS     Air         Water       Land    Air   Water    Land
          Leather and Garments Industry                13%       2%             1%     11%          43%         6%     0%      0%      0%
          Therapeutics and Medical Sector              14%       1%             27%    17%          10%         19%    8%      17%     5%
          Chemical and Cosmetics Sector                25%       2%             46%    29%          18%         33%    15%     30%     9%
          Plastic and Rubber Sector                    10%       1%             19%    12%           8%         14%    6%      13%     4%
          Engineering, Electrical Industries and
          Information Technology Sector                 6%       1%             0%     16%           4%         15%    43%     12%     50%
 Amman
          Furniture and Wooden Sector                   2%       0%             0%     7%            0%         1%     2%      0%      0%
          Construction Sector                           1%       0%             1%     7%            8%         8%     26%     23%     31%
          Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
          Sector                                       28%       92%            5%     1%            8%         5%     0%      5%      1%
          Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and
          Stationeries Sector                           0%       0%             0%     1%            0%         0%     0%      0%      0%
          Total                                        100%      100%           100%   100%         100%        100%   100%   100%     100%
          Leather and Garments Industry                21%       4%             1%     14%          49%         8%     0%      0%      0%
          Therapeutics and Medical Sector               6%       1%             11%    5%            3%         6%     2%      5%      1%
          Chemical and Cosmetics Sector                29%       3%             57%    29%          16%         33%    9%      25%     5%
          Plastic and Rubber Sector                    11%       1%             22%    11%           6%         12%    5%      9%      3%
          Engineering, Electrical Industries and
          Information Technology Sector                 7%       2%             1%     17%           3%         17%    33%     11%     36%
  Zarqa
          Furniture and Wooden Sector                   0%       0%             0%     1%            0%         0%     3%      0%      0%
          Construction Sector                           4%       1%             5%     18%          18%         20%    49%     48%     54%
          Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
          Sector                                       21%       88%            4%     1%            5%         3%     0%      2%      0%
          Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and
          Stationeries Sector                           0%       0%             0%     3%            0%         0%     0%      0%      0%
          Total                                        100%      100%           100%   100%         100%        100%   100%   100%     100%



                                                                            117
  Region                           Sectors                                                              All Enterprises
                                                            Air (a)          Water                           Toxics                                Metals
                                                                      BOD            TSS          Air         Water        Land          Air        Water        Land
               Leather and Garments Industry                73%       43%            10%          60%         91%          47%           0%          0%           0%
               Therapeutics and Medical Sector               2%       0%             7%           2%          0%           3%            2%          4%           1%
               Chemical and Cosmetics Sector                12%       4%             57%          14%         3%           21%          12%         29%           7%
               Plastic and Rubber Sector                     4%       1%             20%          5%          1%           7%            4%         10%           2%
               Engineering, Electrical Industries and
               Information Technology Sector                 3%       3%             1%           9%           1%          11%          39%         13%          43%
   Irbid
               Furniture and Wooden Sector                   1%       0%             0%           3%           0%          0%            1%          0%          0%
               Construction Sector                           1%       1%             3%           7%           3%          10%          42%         43%          46%
               Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
               Sector                                        4%       48%            2%           0%           0%          1%           0%           1%           0%
               Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and
               Stationeries Sector                           0%       0%             0%           0%           0%          0%           0%           0%           0%
               Total                                        100%      100%           100%        100%         100%        100%         100%         100%        100%
               Leather and Garments Industry                21%        4%             1%          17%          56%         10%          0%           0%          0%
               Therapeutics and Medical Sector              12%        1%            24%          14%          7%          16%          6%          14%          4%
               Chemical and Cosmetics Sector                24%        2%            48%          27%          14%         32%         13%          29%          8%
               Plastic and Rubber Sector                    10%        1%            20%          11%          6%          13%          6%          12%          3%
               Engineering, Electrical Industries and
               Information Technology Sector                 5%       1%             0%           15%          3%          15%          40%         12%          46%
Jordan Total
               Furniture and Wooden Sector                   2%       0%             0%           6%           0%          1%            2%          0%          0%
               Construction Sector                           2%       0%             2%           8%           8%          10%          33%         28%          38%
               Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
               Sector                                       25%       90%            5%           1%           6%          5%           0%           4%           1%
               Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and
               Stationeries Sector                           0%       0%             0%           1%           0%          0%           0%           0%           0%
               Total                                        100%      100%           100%        100%         100%        100%         100%        100%         100%
Source: percentages calculated based on IPSS model.
Note: (a): estimates of air pollution shares refer to a weighted average of 4 polluting emissions (PM10, VOC, NO2, SO2), using weights obtained from the EU Clean Air for
Europe (CAFÉ) program.




                                                                                  118
b) What segments of the industrial sector contribute the most to pollution?
Industrial enterprises account for the bulk of polluting emissions, ranging from 70% to 90% of
the total, depending on the type of pollutant (Figure 42). This is not surprising, since they account
for almost 80% of employment. It is worth noting that in the case of heavy metal emissions into
air and land, micro enterprises account for some 30% of the total, which is considerably larger
than their share in total employment.
Figure 42. Share in total emissions by pollutant type and size of enterprises

   100%                                                                                                          100%


     90%                                                                                                         90%


     80%                                                                                                         80%


     70%                                                                                                         70%


     60%                                                                                                         60%


     50%                                                                                                         50%


     40%                                                                                                         40%


     30%                                                                                                         30%


     20%                                                                                                         20%


     10%                                                                                                         10%


         0%                                                                                                      0%
              TSS         BOD        Air      ToxLand        ToxWat     ToxAir    MetWat      MetAir   MetLand

                          Ind Enterprises          Micro       Share of empl in industrial enterprises


c) Does the contribution to pollution of micro enterprises vary across locations?
While at the national level micro-enterprises contribute relatively little to pollution (the un-
weighted average of shares across pollutant is less than 20%), in Zarqa they play a much more
important role, with an un-weighted average close to 40%, and a significantly larger share -
compared to the national average- of emissions of BOD, toxic pollutants in water, and ordinary
air pollutants (Figure 43).
Figure 43. Share of micro enterprises in total pollution in Zarqa and Jordan as a whole

                                                             BOD


                                                           ToxWat


                                                              Air


                                                        ToxLand


                                                           ToxAir


                                                        MetLand


                                                           MetAir


                                                           MetWat


                                                             TSS


 70.0%    60.0%   50.0%   40.0%   30.0%    20.0%     10.0%     0.0%   10.0%   20.0%   30.0%   40.0%

                                          Zarqa      National




                                                              119
Note: pollutants are sorted in decreasing order of difference -between Zarqa and the national average- of the
share of micro enterprises in emissions
The larger role played by Zarqa's micro-enterprises in pollution is clearly linked to differences in
its industrial structure, where in general micro-enterprises account for over 50% of total
employment (the national average is about 20%); in the case of water toxic emissions, micro-
enterprises in the top emitting sector (leather and garment), account for 40% of total emissions
(compared to 10% at the national level ­ see Figure 44).

Figure 44. Contribution of micro enterprises to water toxics loads (Zarqa and Jordan)

                                 80.0%   60.0%     40.0%     20.0%        0.0%     20.0%       40.0%     60.0%


    Leather and Garments Industry



                Construction Sector



   Chemical and Cosmetics Sector

                                           National                                           Zarqa
         Plastic and Rubber Sector         Average

  Engineering, Electrical Industries
 and Information Technology Sector


    Food, Supplies, Agricultural and
           Livestock Sector


   Therapeutics and Medical Sector



      Furniture and Wooden Sector


     Packing, Packaging, Paper,
   cartoon, and Stationeries Sector


                                         Zarqa Micro   National Micro    National Large    Zarqa Large


d) What are the sectors that contribute the most to pollution?
In general the answer will depend on the type of polluting emission being considered: different
sectors will be the most important contributors to air, water or land pollution. However, some
preliminary information on the overall environmental pressures exerted by different subsectors
might be obtained by constructing a simple ranking index, normalized to vary between 0 and 1,
which measures the frequency of high polluting rankings in the score of each subsector. The
closer the index is to 1, the higher the number of times a given subsector is among the top
polluters for all media (air, water, land, etc.;); the closer the index is to 0, the lower the number of
times that the subsector is a significant polluter for the different media. Such an indicator can
provide information on the overall polluting ranking of subsectors, but not on how much any
subsector is more polluting than another.




                                                                   120
Figure 45. Pollution rank index by industrial sub-sector

                                                    Normalized Rank Index
                                -   0.10   0.20   0.30         0.40   0.50   0.60   0.70   0.80   0.90


   Chemical and Cosmetics


  Therapeutics and Medical


      Engineering, Electrical
          Industries , IT


               Construction


      Leather and Garments


  Plastic and Rubber Sector


 Food, Supplies, Agricultural
       and Livestock


        Furniture and Wood


 Packing, Packaging, Paper,
  cartoon, and Stationeries




Figure 45 illustrates the results of estimating such an overall ranking index. The chemicals,
therapeutics and engineering sectors tend to have high polluting ranking across the different
media; conversely, the food, furniture and paper sub-sectors tend to have relatively lower
pollution rankings in the different media.

In terms of contributions to the different media, Figure 46 suggests that the food and chemical
sectors are the top air and water polluters (accounting for some 50% and 75% of the total,
respectively), that engineering and construction are the top emitters of heavy metals in the
different media (with an un-weighted average of over 60% of the total); and that the leather,
chemical and therapeutic sectors are the most important contributors to toxic emissions (with an
un-weighted average of over 60% of the total). Packing and packaging appear to be the "cleanest"
industry across all media.




                                                         121
Figure 46. Share of emissions for selected grouping of pollutants
                                                               Air                                                                                                                                      Water


  30%                                                                                                                                  50%

                                                                                                                                       45%
  25%
                                                                                                                                       40%

                                                                                                                                       35%
  20%
                                                                                                                                       30%

  15%                                                                                                                                  25%

                                                                                                                                       20%
  10%
                                                                                                                                       15%

                                                                                                                                       10%
  5%
                                                                                                                                           5%

  0%                                                                                                                                       0%
          Food,         Chemical    Leather and Therapeutics   Plastic and   Engineering, Construction Furniture and   Packing,                   Food,         Chemical   Therapeutics   Plastic and    Leather and Construction Engineering,   Packing,   Furniture and
         Supplies,        and        Garments   and Medical     Rubber         Electrical                Wooden       Packaging,                 Supplies,        and      and Medical     Rubber         Garments                  Electrical  Packaging,    Wooden
        Agricultural   Cosmetics     Industry                                 Industries                                Paper,                  Agricultural   Cosmetics                                  Industry                 Industries     Paper,
            and                                                                   and                                cartoon, and                   and                                                                                and     cartoon, and
        Livestock                                                            Information                             Stationeries               Livestock                                                                         Information Stationeries
                                                                             Technology                                                                                                                                           Technology




                                                       Heavy Metals                                                                                                                                     Toxics

  40%                                                                                                                                  30%

  35%
                                                                                                                                       25%
  30%

                                                                                                                                       20%
  25%


  20%                                                                                                                                  15%

  15%
                                                                                                                                       10%
  10%

                                                                                                                                           5%
  5%


  0%                                                                                                                                       0%
        Engineering, Construction    Chemical   Therapeutics   Plastic and     Food,      Furniture and   Packing,     Leather and              Leather and     Chemical   Therapeutics Engineering,     Plastic and   Construction     Food,      Furniture and   Packing,
          Electrical                   and      and Medical     Rubber        Supplies,     Wooden       Packaging,     Garments                 Garments         and      and Medical    Electrical      Rubber                       Supplies,     Wooden       Packaging,
         Industries                 Cosmetics                                Agricultural                  Paper,       Industry                 Industry      Cosmetics                 Industries                                   Agricultural                  Paper,
             and                                                                 and                    cartoon, and                                                                         and                                          and                    cartoon, and
        Information                                                          Livestock                  Stationeries                                                                    Information                                   Livestock                  Stationeries
        Technology                                                                                                                                                                      Technology



Note: the charts present a weighted average of sector contributions to air emissions (see Table 43 for details) and un-weighted averages of contributions to toxic emissions (into
air, land and water), water pollutants (BOD, TSS), and heavy metals emissions (into air, land and water).



                                                                                                                                     122
e) Does the relative contribution to emissions of sectors vary across locations?
By analyzing the differences, in relation to the national average, of pollution shares of the different
sub-sectors, it is possible to conclude (Figure 47) that Irbid has a significantly different composition
of pollution emissions compared to Zarqa and Amman. The standard deviation of emission shares
across sectors (vis-à-vis the national average) is particularly high in the case of air emissions, BOD
and toxic emissions (into air, land and water).
Figure 47. Standard deviation of pollution shares by pollutant and location
                                          25%
   tandard deviation fromJordan average




                                          20%




                                          15%




                                          10%




                                          5%
  S




                                          0%
                                                Air        BOD        Air Tox    Land Tox        Water     TSS    Water    Air Metal   Land
                                                                                                  Tox             Metal                Metal

                                                                                   Irbid        Zarqa     Amman


In particular, in the case of air emissions (Figure 48), most of the difference is explained by the much
larger share (over 70% compared to a national average of 20%) of emissions attributable to the
leather and garment sub-sector.
Figure 48. Air pollution shares by sector in Irbid and Jordan as a whole
 80.0%                                             60.0%             40.0%              20.0%            0.0%      20.0%          40.0%

                                                   Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock Sector


                                                                    Chemical and Cosmetics Sector


                                                                     Leather and Garments Industry


                                                                    Therapeutics and Medical Sector


                                                                          Plastic and Rubber Sector

                                                   Engineering, Electrical Industries and Information
                                                                  Technology Sector

                                                                                 Construction Sector


                                                                       Furniture and Wooden Sector

                                                Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and Stationeries
                                                                      Sector

                                                                                Irbid    Jordan Total




                                                                                                   123
f) Will the relative contribution of sectors to polluting emissions vary over time?
Table 44 presents the projected environmental pressures, based on the employment growth rates
planned by the National Agenda for 2007-2012 and 2012-201769. For the sectors for which the
National Agenda did not specify any figures, the average employment growth rate of the industrial
sector as a whole was taken: 14.2% for the first period and 4.9% for the second period.
Table 44. Industry ranking in terms of % of pollution at national level
                                        Air                        Water (BOD)                  Water (TSS)
                              Current   2012      2017   Current        2012      2017   Current      2012       2017
 Leather and Garments            3        3        3           2         2         2        6           6         6
 Therapeutics and Medical       4         4        3           4         3         3       2            2         2
 Chemical and Cosmetics          2        2        2           3         3         3        1           1         1
 Plastic and Rubber Sector       5        5        5           4         3         3        3           3         3
 Engineering, Electric., IT      6        6        4           4         3         2        7           6         6
 Furniture and Wood              7        7        6           5         4         4        7           7         7
 Construction                    7        8        7           5         4         4        5           5         5
 Food, agric., livestock        1         1        1           1         1         1       4            4         4
 Packing, Packaging, Paper       8        9        8           5         4         4        7           7         7
 Total
                                     Toxics air                    Toxics water                    Toxics land
                              Current   2012      2017   Current        2012      2017   Current      2012       2017
 Leather and Garments            2        3        4           1         1         1        5           5         5
 Therapeutics and Medical       4         3        3           4         5         3       2            3         3
 Chemical and Cosmetics          1        1        2           2         2         2        1           1         2
 Plastic and Rubber Sector       5        4        5           5         6         7        4           4         4
 Engineering, Electric., IT      3        2        1           6         7         6        3           2         1
 Furniture and Wood              7        5        6           7         8         8        7           8         7
 Construction                    6        6        7           3         4         5        5           6         5
 Food, agric., livestock         8        7        8           5         3         4        6           7         6
 Packing, Packaging, Paper       8        8        8           7         8         8        8           9         8
 Total
                                     Metals air                    Metals water                    Metals land
                              Current   2012      2017   Current        2012      2017   Current      2012       2017
 Leather and Garments            6        7        7           6         7         7        7           7         6
 Therapeutics and Medical       4         4        4           3         4         4       4            4         3
 Chemical and Cosmetics          3        3        2           1         1         2        3           3         3
 Plastic and Rubber Sector       4        5        5           4         5         5        5           5         4
 Engineering, Electric., IT      1        1        1           4         3         1        1           1         1
 Furniture and Wood              5        6        7           6         7         7        7           7         6
 Construction                    2        2        3           2         2         3        2           2         2
 Food, agric., livestock        6         7        6           5         6         6       6            6         5
 Packing, Packaging, Paper       6        7        7           6         7         7        7           7         6
 Total



69
   These are: therapeutics and medical (1.3 for 2007-2012 and 1.6 for 2012-2017), engineering (1.7 and 1.8),
furniture and wood (1.9 and 1.1) and food industries (1.9 and 1.1).

                                                         124
By applying the same aggregate ranking index to the projected evolution of polluting emissions, one
can obtain information about the change in overall relative pollution importance of the different
subsectors. Figure 49 suggests that overall there will be no change in the 4 top ranking polluting
subsectors, which will continue to be ­throughout 2017- chemicals, therapeutics, engineering, and
construction sectors.
Figure 49. Aggregate pollution ranking of industrial sectors over time
                                            2005                                   2012                          2017
                      0

                      1

                      2

                      3
                ank




                      4
      ggregate R




                      5

                      6
     A




                      7

                      8

                      9

                      10

                           Chemical and Cosmetics                                    Therapeutics and Medical
                           Engineering, Electrical Industries , IT                   Construction
                           Leather and Garments                                      Plastic and Rubber Sector
                           Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock                Furniture and Wood
                           Packing, Packaging, Paper, cartoon, and Stationeries



6.4.4                      Validation of results
To validate the IPPS analysis, the IPPS estimates for BOD loads were compared with the
measurements made by the Jordan Industrial Estates Corporation (JIEC) of BOD loads at its
wastewater treatment plants. JIEC has a biological water treatment plant (Activated ­ Sludge) in each
estate to treat and reuse water in restricted agriculture (see Table 45). The total biological load per
day is approximately 2 t/day, or about 720 t/year, most of which is due to the high concentration of
food enterprises. Given the 47 enterprises employ about 5000 people, this is equivalent to about
0.14t/employee. The IPPS methodology applied to the Food, Supplies, Agricultural and Livestock
Sector resulted in an estimated 2,637t BOD load associated to some 16,200 employees, averaging
about 0.16 t/employee. It thus appears that the actual measurements are in the same range as the IPPS
estimates.
Some results can also be compared with estimates from other studies. For example, the 2002 study
for "Tuba Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Central Facility" estimated the
hazardous liquid waste70 at 18,530 t/year. For comparison, the aggregated liquid pollutants (i.e. BOD,
TSS, ToxWat, and MetWat) estimated using the IPPS are 17,500 t/year. Here, too, the IPPS estimates
can be seen to be comparable.




70
  It represents the total load of waste oil from refineries collection, emulsions, halogenated oils, wastewater organic
pollutants, laboratory wastes, flammable wastes, solvents, halogenated solvents, chemical waste and oil from army
and public transport.

                                                                             125
Table 45. BOD Loads at JIEC Wastewater Treatment Plants

                                           Designed Hydraulic           Designed Biological          Actual Biological
Industrial Estate
                                                  Load                        Load                        Load

Abdullah II                                      670 m3/day                  990 kg/day                    1346 kg/day
                                                         3
Al-Hassan                                        500 m /day                  285 kg/day                    255 kg/day
Al-Hussein                                       670 m3/day                  450 kg/day                    368 kg/day

Source: Jordan Industrial Estates Corporation

6.4.5   Prioritizing pollution abatement efforts
The pollution estimates presented above provide a number of clues which can help the Government
prioritize pollution abatement efforts. Depending on the environmental quality objective at hand, the
Government could focus efforts on selected sectors and enterprise sizes. For example, reduction of
water toxics emissions in Zarqa will most likely require action on the leather and garment sub-sector,
with emphasis on micro-enterprises.
Naturally, a further key element that needs to be taken into account, in addition to the relative share
of emission by location and pollutant, is the cost of abatement, which is likely to vary across types of
emission and industrial sub-sectors. Here again, Jordan-specific unit abatement costs were not readily
available within the CEA time frame. As a result, the IPPS abatement cost coefficients were used to
obtain some preliminary indication on cost-effective strategies for pollution control.
A first type of analysis (Figure 50) was undertaken to evaluate the overall cost of reaching a given
environmental quality objectives under different abatement strategies. For illustration purposes, the
quality objective was expressed as reduction by 50% of emissions across a sub-set of pollutants for
which unit abatement costs available in the IPPS dataset (PM, VOC, Sox, NOX ­combined in a
single "air pollution" aggregate- BOD, TSS, Water Toxics, Air Toxics, Water Heavy Metals).
Figure 50. Cost of achieving a given quality target with different abatement strategies
 400%


 350%


 300%


 250%


 200%


 150%


 100%


  50%


   0%
            Best           Worst   Best          Worst        Best       Worst      Best           Worst

                   Zarqa                  National                   Amman                 Irbid




                                                             126
With a simple linear programming model, the least cost combination of abatement effort across sub-
sectors was identified (the "best" strategy), and then compared to a strategy that achieves the same
objectives but at the highest cost. This "worst" strategy is up to 3.5 times (in the case of Zarqa) more
expensive that the best strategy, suggesting a wide range of cost savings that could be seized by
selecting "smarter" pollution abatement strategy.
To illustrate in more specific terms the importance of adequate selection of pollution control
strategies, national and local level abatement cost curves for air pollution (weighted average of PM,
VOC, SO2 and NOx emissions, Figure 51) and water toxics (Figure 52) were estimated.
Figure 51. Abatement cost curves for air pollution

                                                            14,000
                                                                          Curve for                                                                                        Furniture and Wooden
                                                                          Irbid                                                                Packing, Packaging,
                                                                                                                                               Paper, cartoon, and
                                                                                                                                                                           Leather and Garments
                                                            12,000                                                                                 Stationeries
                                                                                                                                                                                  Industry
  Abatement cost per unit of weighted air pollution (US$)




                                                            10,000




                                                             8,000                                                                                     Construction




                                                             6,000



                                                                                                                                          Plastic and Rubber
                                                                                                       Chemical and Cosmetics                                   Engineering, Electrical
                                                             4,000
                                                                                                                                                                     Industries and
                                                                                                                                Therapeutics and Medical        Information Technology

                                                                               Food, Supplies,
                                                             2,000        Agricultural and Livestock
                                                                                                                       Curve for
                                                                                                                       Amman

                                                               -
                                                                     0%         10%         20%           30%       40%           50%       60%        70%           80%       90%        100%




In the case of air pollution, at the national level some 80% of total emissions can be abated by
focusing on the food, chemicals, medical and plastic sectors, at a cost of $4,000/ ton or less; the unit
cost of achieving the remaining 20% is estimated to be in the range of US$ 8,000-14,000 (i.e. 2-3
times more expensive). However, to confirm the location specific nature of optimal abatement
efforts, for Irbid only some 30% of total emissions can be abated for costs in the lower end of the
range (US$ 2-4,000/ ton); higher levels of emission reduction are likely to cost considerably more
than the average national cost. The abatement cost curve for Amman lies below the national curve,
suggesting more potential to abate at lower costs.

For water toxics, priority should be given to the leather, food, construction and furniture sectors,
which have the lowest unit abatement cost and account (at the national level) for 80% of total
emissions. In Irbid, lower cost abatement undertaken in the leather sector would reduce some 90% of
emissions; less than what could be obtained in Amman (about 60%).


                                                                                                                          127
Such abatement cost curves, which could be refined on the basis of field surveys of actual abatement
cost and developed in greater detail (e.g., at the level of single subsector if technology is highly
variable from one firm to another) represent a useful tool for decision making. The actual level of
pollution control could be determined on the basis of an estimate of the marginal cost of pollution, so
that the optimal level of abatement would be the one where marginal benefits equates marginal cost.
Alternatively, given a fixed abatement budget (public or private), the optimal strategy would be to
finance pollution reduction projects along the abatement cost curve (i.e. selecting first the projects ­
or sectors, as in the case illustrated above-with lower unit abatement cost), until the budget is
exhausted.
Figure 52. Abatement cost curves for water toxics

                                 1,200
                                                                                                                             Therapeutics and Medical
                                                                                                                            Plastic and Rubber

                                                                                                                       Chemical and Cosmetics
                                 1,000
                                                                 Curve for Amman
     Unit abatement cost (US$)




                                  800


                                                                                                                       Packing, Packaging,
                                                                                                                       Paper, cartoon, and
                                  600                                                                                      Stationeries


                                                                                                                     Engineering, Electrical
                                                                                                Construction       Industries and Information
                                                                                                                           Technology
                                  400
                                                                                                Furniture and Wooden
                                                                                               Food, Supplies,
                                          Leather and Garments                            Agricultural and Livestock
                                                 Industry
                                  200
                                                                             Curve for Irbid


                                   -
                                         0%     10%        20%       30%    40%          50%       60%         70%      80%        90%          100%
                                                                           Cumulated pollution abatement




.5
6                                Recommendations

As a rapidly growing, insufficiently monitored, and incompletely regulated sector, industry is likely
to increase, in the absence of adequate policy action, its impact on Jordan's air, water and soil. The
Government may consider the following actions to help industry improve its environmental
performance.
6.5.1                              Short term

·                       Information base. Enhance the information and knowledge base on industry's environmental
                        impacts. This would include the upgrading or expansion of existing emission monitoring systems
                        (e.g., the water emission monitoring system managed by WAJ and the Ministry of Environment);
                        as well as introducing ­where absent- stack emission monitoring for air pollutants, gradually, and


                                                                                   128
    starting with sectors that are likely to contribute the most to air pollution, such as food,
    chemicals, and leather/ garments. Key implementing agencies would be MoEnv and WAJ

·   Standards. For the reasons discussed in the water quality chapter, WAJ may want to revise and
    strengthen the standard for wastewater discharged from industries (JS 202/1991), in particular
    with respect to TDS, heavy metals and endocrine substances and other toxic organic materials
    (see water quality chapter for further details). The process of introducing new quality norm (to be
    led by WAJ in partnership with MoEnv and with the Chambers of Commerce) should be based
    on a "cost of regulation" analysis, to evaluate the cost that different industries would incur to
    meet the proposed standards.
·   Inspections. The Ministry of Environment could consider scaling and especially focusing its
    inspection efforts, adopting ­if necessary through amendments to the inspections regulations- a
    strategic approach that would target priority sectors for the different type of pollutants (such as
    those identified in this report), rather than being primarily complaint-driven.
·   Guidelines. MoEnv could prepare and issue pollution abatement guidelines, with priority given
    to sectors that in the previous analysis have been found to be important contributors to total
    pollution, such as food supplies (for air and water emissions), the engineering/ electrical sector
    (for heavy metal pollution); and the leather/ garment sector (for toxic emissions).

6.5.2   Medium term
Pollution Abatement in Priority Industrial Sectors
This report has provided preliminary indications on pollution abatement priorities across sectors,
pollution types, locations, and enterprise size. Using such indications as starting point, the Ministry
of Environment, in partnership with the Ministry of Industry and with the Chambers of Industry
could establish a targeted, and location-specific, program to support pollution abatement, which
could entail the following steps:
·   Consolidate the information already available on the concentrations of different pollutant types
    (and integrate it with rapid assessment where lacking), in order to define a list of hotspots in each
    industrial districts of Amman, Irbid and Zarqa;
·   Estimate current ranges of emissions by pollutant type, based on information already available in
    the Ministry of Environment, WAJ, and other institutions, to be integrated as needed by targeted
    surveys to ensure representativeness across locations and industrial sub-sectors;
·   Undertake a rapid assessment (based on environmental audits or other tools) of the average and
    marginal abatement cost by pollutant type and sector;
·   With those elements, define, for each industrial district, an air and water pollution abatement
    plan, which would aim at minimizing, by adequate selection of target industries, the cost of
    reaching selected environmental improvement objectives (e.g., reduce by 50% emissions of toxic
    substances in water by a target year).
The objectives of the pollution abatement plan could be attained through a number of different
means, including:
·   Enhanced enforcement of existing standards for emissions of different pollutants, such as the
    WAJ instructions for disposal of industrial wastewater into the public sewerage network (see the
    water quality chapter for details); or Jordanian standards 1189/2006 (air emissions from
    stationary sources); as well as expansion of standards (based on a "cost of regulation" analysis) to
    currently unregulated pollutants, industrial subsectors, or manufacturing process.

                                                  129
·   Provision ­through the Environmental Fund being implemented by the MoEnv or other sources-
    of grant or concessional financing to pollution abatement investments meeting priority
    requirements (in terms of location, target pollutant, industrial sub-sector) defined in the pollution
    abatement plan.
·   Promote pollution abatement through a combination of (1) Positive incentives (including soft
    loans and technical assistance) to encourage the use of cleaner production processes; and (2)
    gradual phasing-in of negative incentives (pollution levy for industrial emissions exceeding a
    given standard) to induce firms to meet effluent/ambient standards (e.g., via end-of-pipe
    treatment). Initially the levy could be linked to level of activity/employment, and later -once
    adequate monitoring capacity is in place- to emission levels. For water pollution, the levy could
    be charged by WAJ (in the case of emissions in the sewerage network), or by MoEnv (for
    emission into other recipients).
·   Establishing a program of voluntary compliance, possibly to be associated with tax deductions
    for enterprises meeting the objectives of firm-specific environmental improvement plans (to be
    certified by an independent third party);
·   Setting up a color-coded system of mandatory disclosure of selected polluting emissions, with the
    aim to create public pressure towards improved environmental performance of non-complying
    enterprises.
    Either of the programs suggested above (voluntary compliance and mandatory disclosure) could
    be led by the MoEnv in partnership with the Chambers of Commerce.
·   Revisit and modify the current structure of fiscal and trade incentives (tariffs), to ensure that
    some of the most polluting industries are not favored in comparison to other, relatively "cleaner"
    industrial activities. This process should be based on a comprehensive assessment undertaken by
    MoEnv in partnership with the Chambers of Commerce, Ministry of Industry and Ministry of
    Finance.

Licensing of new industrial establishments
To prevent further environmental deterioration in industrial hotspots, licensing of new industrial
establishment should be subject to strict licensing requirements, in line with Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control (IPPC) principles, as laid out in the EU program "Institutional Support to the
Ministry of Environment", and carefully weighing environmental costs against employment or
income benefits.
For some particularly serious situations (such as parts of the Zarqa industrial district), the
Government could consider establishing a moratorium on new licenses, until certain targets of
environmental improvements are met.




                                                  130
CHAPTER .
        7    INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
.1
7           Introduction

This chapter evaluates Jordan's capacity to address key environmental challenges and undertake
policy actions to enhance environmental sustainability across sectors, by:
i)           Assessing the environmental governance system in Jordan based upon the World
             Development Report 2003 (WDR) framework (see Box 9 for details).
ii)          Benchmarking Jordan's environmental governance system and institutional capacity vis a vis
             comparator countries, and with a particular emphasis on international systems (such as the
             World Bank's) as yardstick for the EIA process.
iii)         Developing recommendations for improving the effectiveness of governance structure and
             strengthening the institutional capacity as needed.
The methodology for conducting the institutional assessment included reviewing key documents and
legislation, and holding consultations with stakeholders during a two weeks field visit, with
additional follow up email interviews conducted in the ensuing few weeks. A public environmental
expenditure review was also undertaken to evaluate the amount and composition of resources for
environmental protection, and a review of environmental assessment process was carried out.
Box 9. Overview of the World Development Report 2003 framework

          The WDR 2003, "Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World: Transforming Institutions, Growth and
Quality of Life" identifies three main functions that public sector institutions should carry out to promote sustainable
development. First, institutions should be able "to pick up signals" from society on preference for environmental
quality. Picking up signals includes activities such as monitoring environmental quality and setting priorities for
action; public disclosure of information; mechanisms for public participation; and the effectiveness with which these
mechanisms inform policymaking; and assessing demand for effective management of environmental priorities. The
second function of environmental institutions is "balancing interests" of different stakeholders in order to come up
with decisions. Finally, institutions are responsible for "executing decisions": this third function refers to the public
sector's ability to follow through on mandates and commitments in order to improve environmental outcomes.


The rest of the chapter is structured as follows. Section 7.2 sets the stage by presenting an overview
of the main governmental institutions responsible for environmental protection and the laws and
regulations under which they operate.
Section 7.3 analyses the ability of institutional setting to pick up signals from society about
environmental needs and problems through monitoring of environmental quality, public disclosure of
information, and participation of the general public, non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector in environmental management.
Section 7.4 discusses the mechanisms for balancing interests including environmental standards in
effect in Jordan, environmental management at the sub-national level, horizontal and vertical
coordination issues between institutions, and the ability of sector strategies to reconcile
environmental and development objectives.
The last function of institutions­ executing decisions ­ is reviewed in Section 7.5. The section
presents the results of the public environmental expenditure review for Jordan. It also discusses the
human and financial resources of the ministry of environment, the role of judiciary in the institutional
setting, and reviews the environmental assessment process in Jordan and benchmarks it against two
widely accepted systems of environmental assessment: the World Bank and the EU.


                                                          131
Finally Section 7.6 contains the main conclusions and recommendations of the institutional
assessment component of the CEA.

.2
7         Legislative and institutional framework

7.2.1 Legislative Framework
Jordan has an extensive web of laws and regulations pertaining to environmental protection
and management. Jordan's first law pertaining to environmental protection was issued in 1995, and
establishes the General Corporation for Environmental Protection (GCEP), an autonomous body
reporting to the ministry of municipal and rural affairs and the environment. In 2003, interim law no.
1/2003 was issued and led to the replacement of GCEP by the ministry of environment, and it was
ratified in 2006 as law no. 52 with a few modifications (see Box 10 for an overview of law no.
52/2006).
Box 10. Environmental law no. 52 / 2006

     The environmental protection law no. 52/2006 sets the definitions and outlines the main responsibilities and
     functions of the ministry of environment. As per the law, the ministry is responsible for setting Jordan's
     environmental protection policy, monitoring activities, coordinating national efforts for environmental
     protection, and preparing environmental contingency plans. Article 7 of the law assigns the ministry of
     environment with the environmental monitoring and inspection responsibilities, and grants its employees the
     right to enter any facility for inspection needs. Articles 8, 9, 10 relate to marine environment. Article 13 sets the
     requirements for conducting environmental impact assessment for projects.
     The law also calls for the establishment of environmental protection fund (articles 16 and 17); and sets fees for
     violation of its provision, terms for delegation of authority, and the operation of environmental non-
     governmental organizations in Jordan. Finally it lists the regulations that should be issued in accordance to the
     law. Of the required 12 regulations set by law; the following regulations have already been issued: marine and
     coastal environment; environment protection from pollution in emergency cases; air protection; nature reserves
     and national parks; management, transport and handling of harmful and hazardous substances; management of
     solid wastes; environmental impact assessment; and soil protection.


Before 1995, environmental matters were regulated by a number of sectoral legislation
pertaining to agriculture, health, water, and energy. The majority of these articles stayed in
force after issuance of Jordan's environmental protection laws, even though by legal tradition in
Jordan the articles of a new law supersede those of a previous one unless the older is a special law.
For example, articles in agriculture law no. 44/2002 regulate the protection and utilization of forestry
resources; public health law no. 54/2002 assigns the ministry of health with the responsibility to
monitor and regulate potable water and wastewater treatment and disposal; and the municipalities'
law no. 14/2007 assigns the municipalities with the responsibility of solid waste collection.
The multiplicity of legal provisions governing different elements of environmental agenda
attributes responsibilities to different actors, and this weakens the system as a whole.
Inconsistencies and rapid changes in the regulatory framework indicate a response-driven
management style. Most of the regulations and institutions reflect a sectoral approach in
environmental management, while environmental management policies do not always complement
policies within other sectors. In the case of Aqaba Special Economic Zone, the environmental legal
framework is clearer due to the special status of the ASEZ law and the memoranda of understanding
between ASEZA and various national agencies.
Overlap in roles and responsibility is significant, especially in the domains of water and air
quality. The historical sedimentation of legislation on environmental matters has led to a situation

                                                             132
where multiple agencies carry out similar or related activities in the same domain. The point can be
graphically illustrated by computing a simple "attribution dispersion index", normalized to vary
between 0 and 1. The index is based on a review of the applicable laws and regulations, conducted to
identify the attribution of water and air quality functions to different Government agencies. When all
agencies are involved in any given function, dispersion is highest, and the index is equal to one.
When the function is concentrated in only one agency, there is no dispersion, and the index is equal
to zero.
Figure 53 and Figure 54 illustrate the results of the analysis for water and air quality, respectively. In
the case of water quality there is high dispersion of roles for monitoring, sanctions and standard
settings; in the case of air quality, for monitoring and regulation. On the other hand there is no
dispersion in the case of water service provision (the sole responsibility of WAJ), and of standard
setting in the case of air quality (which is attributed to the MoEnv).
Figure 53. Water quality: index of dispersion of functions across agencies


            Sanctions

           Monitoring

    Standard Settings

            Financing

     Service provision

                 R&D

           Regulation

        Policy making

           Inspection

               Public
               Awar.
        Infrastructure
            constr.

                         0%   10%    20%       30%      40%      50%      60%      70%      80%




Note: if responsibilities are concentrated in one agency = 0%, if dispersed across all agencies = 100%




                                                       133
Figure 54. Air quality: index of dispersion of functions across agencies

                     0%     20%          40%         60%          80%         100%        120%


        Monitoring



        Regulation



        Reporting



        Sanctions



 Public Awareness



     Policy making



 Standard Settings




Note: functions concentrated in one agency = 0%, functions dispersed across all agencies = 100%


Upgrading of the legal framework is under way, but the process should be extended beyond the
scope of action of the Ministry of Environment. The ministry of environment has recently
conducted a legal framework gap analysis and a legal master plan was developed with assistance
from EU to enhance Jordan's environmental legislative framework. The gap analysis noted weakness
in the quality of existing legislation including conflicting articles, deficient internal structure of laws,
insufficient use of proper and precise legal language, and non-compliance with fundamental rule-of-
law principles. A review of the regulations confirmed the need for a legal upgrade, as most of the
regulations proved general in nature and lacking the specificity required to enable transparent and
predictable enforcement.
The legal master plan sets a timeframe for a number of relevant regulations to be issued by the
MoEnv, including: updated environmental impact assessment, strategic environmental assessment,
access to environmental information, environmental liability and integrated permitting, among
others. It presents a schedule for drafting the regulations based on their priority and available
resources. The planned regulations reflect the identified legal gaps and are anchored in the National
Agenda and the environmental strategy implementation plan of the Ministry of Environment. If
properly developed, they would result in stronger environmental management framework; however,
most of the tasks included in the legal master plan have medium or high priority, which may not
make for a simple sequencing of activities and prioritization of regulatory efforts.
The issuance of the above regulations will require coordination with the relevant institutions.
Moreover, the ministry of environment has initiated public consultation on its most recent regulations
that are in draft form, and it would be desirable that such practice continues as additional regulations
are prepared. Jordan should strive towards achieving integrated environmental legislative system,
through the introduction, as discussed in Chapter 4 above, of framework legislation such as a water
code. However, such a step will require coordinated effort by the Government agencies with
responsibilities in water management.




                                                      134
7.2.2    Institutional Framework
The ministry of environment was established in 2003 as Jordan's lead institution for
environmental management, with one of its responsibilities to coordinate national efforts to protect
the environment (see Box 10 for details of the MoEnv's responsibilities as per EPL 52/2006).
However, the coordination and policy setting responsibilities are not precisely defined, and reliance
is made on issuance of regulations to further define these responsibilities, especially in terms of the
processes to be followed for coordination and policy setting purposes.
In spite of law 52/2006 attributing to the MoEnv's primary responsibility for environmental
protection, many other agencies retain their environmental responsibilities and structures.
Environmental sections and departments are present in a number of institutions such as the Ministry
of Water and Irrigation, Water Authority of Jordan, and Ministry of Health, among others. However,
full advantage is not being made of these departments for wider environmental mainstreaming, and
there is a risk that environmental issues get concentrated within these departments and do not reach
other areas of the agencies' work.
Institutions that do not have dedicated environmental departments often resort to naming
environmental focal points, whose responsibilities are often not sustainable. Those Government
agencies that do not have a dedicated environment section or department (such as ministries of
industry and trade, tourism and antiquities, transport, education) resort, upon need, to naming a focal
point for environment ­ whose responsibilities often include liaising with institutions on issues that
pertain to both their respective agencies' mandate and the environment. In several cases, the
responsibilities of environmental focal points need to be clarified and/or strengthened.
.3
7       Picking Up Signals

The first function of institutions according to the WDR (2003) framework is picking up signals on
environmental issues and priorities. As illustrated in Figure 55, this entails a circular process of
exchange of information between stakeholders, in particular between citizens and the Government.
Both acquire information on environmental conditions, either through direct observation or by means
of scientific monitoring. Citizens need access to data collected by the Government to improve their
understanding of environmental issue, so that they can provide feedback on priorities and voice their
concerns.
Figure 55. Picking up signal: a conceptual framework




This section looks at the institutional framework in Jordan in terms of its ability and effectiveness in
picking up signals: through monitoring (using as examples air and water quality), and from society,
by discussing the roles of the general public, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector
in environmental management. Good practices established by the World Development Report (2003),
as well as Aarhus Convention for Access to Information, Public Participation, and Justice are used as

                                                  135
international benchmarks for public participation, while monitoring practices are compared to EU
and other international experiences.
7.3.1   Water quality monitoring
Water quality monitoring suffers from some confusion over types of monitoring as well as
overlap in responsibilities on the ground. Monitoring is performed at different levels and for
diverse purposes by the institutions involved, which shows clear overlap in monitoring of surface
water resources. The different types of monitoring (environmental, quality control and health
monitoring) have already been discussed in Chapter 4, along with the significant degree of overlap
in roles and responsibilities among institutions.
Overlap in responsibilities leads to some gaps in environmental monitoring of surface and
ground water resources. Despite the large involvement of all potential monitoring entities, the
monitoring of surface water resources has some shortcomings, including deficiencies and overlaps in
the monitoring program that consume scarce funds. For example, there is repetition in monitoring of
well-known standard chemical and physical parameters that does not contribute towards additional
gains in water resources management and protection, as well as a lack of flexible measurement of
toxic parameters such as heavy metals in reservoir sediments and toxic organic components. Also,
monitoring of the environmental status of surface waters (biodiversity, saprobic indices), which may
be of interest for a limited number of water resources is not carried out. Finally, groundwater quality
monitoring is not well integrated with quantitative monitoring.
There is limited dissemination of results of monitoring program and the multiplicity of agencies
and databases further complicates access to information by the general public. The water
authority of Jordan publishes annual report with aggregated results of its monitoring efforts, the same
is true of JVA, and some monitoring results are channeled through the department of statistics. The
Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Health offer limited dissemination of information to the
general public. Requesting information from the monitoring agencies is made more difficult by the
lack of a harmonized database for environmental monitoring, thus data is kept in varying formats at
the monitoring institutions.
7.3.2   Air quality monitoring
There are several types of monitoring for air quality that are performed to various degrees and in
different locations by various institutions. See Table 46 for overview of the monitoring
responsibilities for ambient air quality and air emissions, as well as air quality monitoring in ASEZA.

Table 46: Air quality monitoring responsibilities
Monitoring Type               MoEnv           MoH     ASEZA     RSS         DVLD*       Environmental
                                                                                        Rangers
1. Ambient air quality        X               X       X         X
2. Air Emissions monitoring from:
2.1 Stationary sources        X               X       X         X
2.2 Mobile Sources            X                       X                     X           X

* Drivers and Vehicles Licensing Department

Air quality monitoring is limited in scope and geographic extent. Chapter 3 suggested that air
quality is one of the top environmental issues facing Jordan. Despite the relatively large number of
institutions nominally in charge, actual air pollution monitoring focuses primarily on ambient air

                                                    136
quality in industrial and vehicular traffic hotspots and has limited coverage over space and time,
particularly in Amman were there are few air monitoring stations with sparse records and short time
series. The Ministry of Environment with support from the French Development Agency is
embarking on developing a network for air quality monitoring. This would be an excellent
opportunity to review the institutional responsibilities on the ground ­ who is doing what ­ in terms
of monitoring, to avoid overlaps and ensure cost effectiveness of resources used.
7.3.3     General public
The public in Jordan shows interest in environmental matters; however, its ability to access
information and participate in decisions on the environment is limited. According to the World
Values Survey, the general public in Jordan has a positive attitude towards environmental protection.
As illustrated in Figure 56, approximately half of the respondents (51%) elected to give priority to
environmental protection even if it resulted in slower economic growth, a higher proportion than in
comparator countries in MENA and the Mediterranean regions.
Figure 56. World Values Survey results on general public environmental awareness
    100%

        90%

        80%

        70%

        60%

        50%

        40%

        30%

        20%

        10%

        0%
              Turkey     Canada       Jordan      Spain       Egypt     Morocco    Iran [2000]    Saudi      Algeria
              [2001]     [2000]       [2001]      [2000]      [2000]     [2001]                   Arabia     [2002]
                                                                                                  [2003]

                    Protecting environment         Economy growth and creating jobs              Other answer

Source: World Values Survey (2001) (http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/)

Access of the public to environmental information and public participation in Jordan is
improving but falls still short of meeting the standards (Box 11) of the Aarhus convention.
Box 11. The Aarhus convention as benchmark for access to environmental information

The Aarhus Convention provides the framework for benchmarking Jordan's access to information and public
participation progress which are discussed in this section. The Convention's access-to-information pillar consists of
two portions: the first one concerns the right of the public to seek information from public authorities and the
obligation of public authorities to provide information in response to a request, and the second part concerns the
right of the public to receive information and the obligation of authorities to collect and disseminate information of
public interest without the need for a specific request.
The public participation pillar is divided into three parts: i) participation by the public that may be affected by or is
otherwise interested in decision-making on a specific activity; ii) public participation in the development of plans,
programs and policies relating to the environment; and iii) public participation in the preparation of laws, rules and
legally binding norms.




                                                           137
Right to seek information from public authorities
In 2007, Jordan issued an access to information law, though it deviates from best practices
established by the Aarhus Convention. Law no. 47/2007 gives the right to every Jordanian to access
information available with the public sector. The law sets a time limit of 31 days for a response
following the submission of the information request, defines categories of information that may not
be accessed, and calls for issuance of regulations pertaining to the different articles of this law ­
which are still to be issued. However, unlike the Aarhus Convention, which explicitly states that no
justification for the information access should be requested, the law requires that requests for
information be justified.
The Ministry of Environment has plans to develop an access to information law which may be an
opportunity to bring access to environmental information closer to best practice established by the
Aarhus Convention. The legal master plan document, developed by the Ministry of Environment to
guide its legal upgrading effort, acknowledges the benefits of public participation towards
environmental management, as well as the right of the Ministry of Environment to prepare an access
to information regulation according to its environmental law and separate from Law no. 47/2007. It
notes at the same time that any such regulation will refer solely to the information for which the
Ministry of Environment is a holder (this will exclude environmental information held by other
ministries such as MoWI's water quality data).
Obligation of authorities to collect and disseminate information
The availability of publications varies across environmental themes and institutions, and requires
strengthening. Several institutions issue regular publications detailing their work and providing
environmental information, such as the Water Authority of Jordan annual report, and the department
of statistics' environment in figures booklet with data provided from relevant institutions. The
Ministry of Environment has not issued such publications, and publications detailing air quality data
and real time data availability are limited, though ASEZA is implementing a monitoring program
which will include provision of real-time information to the public on air quality through monitors in
downtown Aqaba.
Public participation
There are shortcomings in the three components of public participation process as defined by the
Aarhus Convention. Regarding the first part, the institutionalization of the EIA process has provided
more opportunities than previously available for public participation. However, as discussed in
section 7.5.4 below on environmental impact assessment, the process has its limitations since public
consultations are limited to the scoping sessions which themselves are often by invitation, and there
is no dissemination of scoping statements or environment impact statements, even though it is a legal
requirement in ASEZA.
Public participation in the development of plans, programs and policies as well as laws, and
regulations is increasing; however, it requires institutionalization. There are a few recent examples of
public participation in the development of policies and legislation, for example: the Greater Amman
Municipality and the Ministry of Environment have recently resorted to posting their key documents
and legislation on the internet for public comment, and the Legislation and Opinion Bureau launched
in 2007 a site for gathering feedback on legal drafts. The Ministry of Environment recently
developed its internal procedures for developing or updating environmental strategies, which could
be a good entry point for public consultation ­ by including the requirement within the procedures
for disclosing the drafted new or updated policy for public consultation and comment.




                                                    138
7.3.4    Non-Governmental organizations
Jordan's public has confidence in its environmental movement, as indicated by the results of the
World Values Survey, with over 60% of respondents indicating confidence in the environmental
movement (Figure 57), a larger share than in comparator countries such as Morocco, Iran or Spain.
This suggests the existence of a favorable climate for further expanding the work of NGOs.
However, key conditions need to be met to enhance the NGO effectiveness in contributing towards
Jordan's environmental agenda, such as capacity, funding, and most importantly access to
information and public participation (as discussed in previous section). In addition, NGOs may be
strengthened by institutionalizing their relationship with the Ministry of Environment through more
systematic outsourcing of activities such as awareness raising and education campaigns.
Figure 57. Public's confidence in environmental movement

   100%

    90%

    80%

    70%

    60%

    50%

    40%

    30%

    20%

    10%

        0%
             Egypt [2000]   Turkey    Jordan      Canada      Morocco   Spain [2000]   Saudi    Iran [2000]
                            [2001]    [2001]       [2000]      [2001]                  Arabia
                                                                                       [2003]

                                A great deal or quite a lot   Not very much or not at all

Source: World Values Survey

Jordan has a varied environmental non-governmental sector and significant grass-root
environmental activity. There are eighteen environmental NGOs in Jordan that vary in their size,
capacity, membership, and environmental theme of choice. Most of these work at the national level,
though a few also work with local communities. In addition, many community based organizations
are involved in environmental issues as evidenced by data from the UNDP-GEF Small Grants
Program which, since its inception in Jordan in 1992, funded 145 projects with an average financing
of $30,000. Of these, 53% were implemented by local cooperatives.
Jordan's non-governmental sector contributes towards the environmental agenda. NGOs in
Jordan work towards raising environmental awareness, mobilizing funds and providing technical
assistance to communities and industries. In recent years, NGOs played a role in mobilizing public
opinion to influence policy. Some NGOs are represented on Government committees such as the EIA
technical review committee. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) is mandated
by the Government to manage nature reserves.
The Ministry of Environment is reaching out to NGOs. Even though all of the NGOs are
registered with the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Environment issues special regulations that
mandate licensing environmental NGOs as such and regulates their operation. In recent steps, the

                                                            139
Ministry of Environment has been holding regular meeting with representatives from NGOs working
in the environment. Though positive, any such relationship with NGOs should be institutionalized in
order to ensure its sustainability.
Academia and research sector in Jordan also contributes towards its environmental agenda;
however, their participation needs to be institutionalized. Academia and research institutions
contribute towards the environmental agenda through their research facilities, and some institutions
have memoranda of understanding to provide services to Government agencies. They are also often
represented in various committees established by the Government which allows them to contribute to
strategic and policy setting; however, this process is not always consistent.
Media contribute towards promoting awareness on environmental issues in Jordan. The daily
newspapers regularly publish articles pertaining to environmental issues, and press releases by
environmental agencies. The most prominent topic is water; however, air pollution, biodiversity,
climate change and other environmental issues are represented.
7.3.5                                     Private sector
Private sector entities are showing increasing interest in the environment, but they are likely to
be a small minority. For example, the Jordan Industrial Estate Corporation (JIEC), home to over
450 industrial enterprises, set environmental objectives within its institutional strategy and issued an
environmental guide for its industries. There has also been an increase in the number of ISO 14001
certifications and the number of enterprises participants in UN Global Compact. ISO survey showed
that by December 2006, 39 establishments in Jordan have been ISO 14001 certified71, and nine
entities in Jordan are participants in the Global Compact. Nevertheless, the ratio of ISO 14001
certified establishments compared to total number of establishments in Jordan is small. Similar
comparison across the region, places Jordan in middle ranking, with Morocco, Qatar and Tunisia
leading in the ratio of ISO 14001 certified enterprises (Figure 58).
Figure 58. ISO 14001 certifications and global compact participants/ 1000 establishments

                                     80
                              ents




                                     70
     No. per 10,000 establishm




                                     60
                                     50
                                     40
                                     30
                                     20
                                     10
                                     0
                                            Algeria   Lebanon   Syria      Jordan     Kuw ait     Tunisia   Qatar   Morocco

                                                                        ISO 14001         Global Compact



Note: Data for number of establishments is extracted from UNIDO: INDSTAT3 ISIC Rev.2 database.

Studies indicate deficiencies in legislative framework, lack of incentives, and limited
environmental awareness efforts as main factors contributing towards limited environmental
initiative by the private sector. A study conducted within the chemical sector in Jordan showed that
environmental regulation had a negative effect on firms' adoption of environmental innovation
strategies, and an assessment of corporate environmental responsibility in Jordan indicated an




71
         International Organization for Standardization. 2007. The ISO Survey of Certifications ­ 2006. ISO, Switzerland.

                                                                                140
absence of pressures on firms from the media, stakeholders, and consumers to improve their
environmental performance.72, 73
Tariffs on environmental goods are higher in Jordan than the world/developing country
averages; however they are lower than the overall national average. Since most developing
countries typically depend on imports for increasing their use of clean technologies, import tariffs
might be a significant factor in determining private sector's attitude towards investments in
environmental protection.
In 2005, Jordan average tariffs for environmental products74 averaged 7%, while those for climate
friendly technology were 12%, against an overall average of 8% for Jordan's total imports. While
Jordan's tariffs on environmental goods followed the overall national trend of decreased tariff
protection (Figure 59), they remain higher than the average for developing countries (5%), OECD
(1%) and the world (3%). In the MENA region, Jordan ranks mid-range, charging lower tariffs than
Algeria and Morocco, but higher than Egypt and Tunisia.
Figure 59. Tariff trends in Jordan

                                        25




                                        20
     Tariff rates (percentage points)




                                        15
                                                                                                            Climate Friendly Technology


                                        10




                                        5




                                        0
                                             2000            2001            2002             2003          2004            2005

                                                    Envrionmental Products          Climate Friendly Technology      Total Trade

Source: Data on tariffs were provided by UNCTAD and the WTO through the World Integrated Trade Solution
system.
Further decrease in tariffs on environmental products might help remove barriers towards wider
adoption of clean technology by Jordan's private sector. However, additional incentives are likely to
be necessary to affect private sector behavior in a significant manner (through regulation or market
mechanisms). The use of non-punitive instruments (such as using public disclosure of performance
of the polluter by NGOs and media) may improve private sector performance and encourage
implementation of environmental management systems (EMS).


72
   Hindiyeh M. 2007. Assessment of corporate environmental responsibility in Jordan. Prepared for UNDP project
"Launching the UN Global Compact".
73
   Eiadat Y, Kelly A, Roche F, Eyadat H. 2008. Green and competitive? An empirical test of the mediating role of
environmental innovation strategy. Journal of World Business. 43: 131 ­ 145
74
   The present analysis is based on the definition of environmental products resulting from combining the OECD and
APEC list. See: http://www.unctad.org/trade_env/test1/meetings/egs/crp.pdf

                                                                                      141
.4
7       Balancing Interests

This section analyzes the ability of Jordan's institutions and organizations to balance competing
interest in environmental management. First, it looks at standards which are one way to summarize in
a few numbers trade-offs between environment and development objectives. Next, it discusses the
ability of institutions in charge of different sector development agendas to cooperate towards better
environmental sustainability (thereby balancing diverging interests), particularly by looking at the
way in which sector strategies address environmental concerns.
7.4.1    Environmental standards
Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology (JISM) is the main agency responsible for
issuing standards in accordance to standards and metrology law no. 22/2000. Technical
committees consisting of relevant agencies and experts are established by JISM to develop specific
standards, and the draft standards are shared with all relevant organizations for comment before its
final approval. Often affected sectors are represented in the technical committee, such as
representatives from the industrial sector being part of committee for setting standards on air
emission limits. The committee approach contributes towards balancing interests of different parties;
however, draft standards are not published for public feedback.
Several environmental standards cover issues pertaining to water and air quality in Jordan.
There are four main standards pertaining to water and wastewater:
1. Jordanian Standard 286/2008. Technical Regulations on Drinking Water.
2. Jordanian Standard 893/2006. Reclaimed Domestic Wastewater.
3. Jordanian Standard 202/1991. Industrial Wastewater. The standard sets norms for the release of
   industrial wastewater to the environment
4. Jordanian Standard 1145/2006. Uses of Treated Sludge in Agriculture.
In addition to the above, although not a formal standard, WAJ issued instructions for disposal of
commercial and industrial wastewater to the public sewerage system (1998).
In terms of air quality, there are two sets of standards:
1. Jordanian Standard 1189/2006: maximum allowable limits of air pollutants emitted from
   stationary sources. These standards set emission limits for total suspended particulates by type of
   industry as well as gaseous substances, and define acceptable measurement methods.
2. Jordanian Standard 1140/2006: Ambient air quality standards provide limits for ambient air
   quality for particulates (TSP and PM10) as well as gaseous substances (SO2, CO, NO2, H2S, and
   Pb).
A comparison between Jordanian ambient air quality standards and those of other countries,
show that Jordanian standards are comparable in terms of stringency with those of Europe,
US, Japan and China. Figure 60 shows a comparison of ambient quality standards for main
parameters with selected countries. The index used for comparison is based on ranking of individual
parameters according to stringency, i.e. for a parameter that is the most stringent in the group of
countries, the index takes the value of 1; if the standard is the least stringent, the index takes the
value of 0.
The overall un-weighted average for Jordan is 0.4; i.e., there are 60% of the norms analyzed that are
less stringent in Jordan than in the other countries considered. However, Jordanian standards are
quite stringent for pollutants with strong health impacts, such as lead, PM2.5, and CO. Jordan's
standards tend to be less stringent for SO2 and NO2 at 94% percentile rank (indicating that 94% of

                                                    142
standards compared are stricter than those of Jordan). The implications that can be drawn from the
exercise are: a) in establishing air quality standards, Jordan seems to have accorded high priority to
the environmental health impacts of air pollution; b) it is not clear, however, that the implications in
terms of cost of compliance for emitting sectors (i.e. transport, power, industry) have been taken into
account in the "balancing interests" process.
Figure 60. Jordan Air quality limits norms in relation to comparator countries




Notes: 1 = Jordan standard is most stringent of the group, 0= Jordan's standard is the least stringent.
Standards used for comparison: EU, US, Japan, WHO, China (residential, commercial and industrial areas)
Sources: Study no. 1 A comparison of EU air quality pollution policies and legislation with other countries. Series:
Environmental measures and enterprise policy. European commission. January 2004 (with modifications) and
Jordanian Standards JS 1140: 2006.
Even though the standards for air and water quality are adequate, monitoring and
enforcement systems require improvement. As discussed in the sections on water and air
monitoring, there are overlapping institutional responsibilities that lead to deficiencies in monitoring.
Such overlap exists also in the enforcement of the standards. The standards themselves do not specify
the institution that is responsible for monitoring and enforcement; rather these responsibilities are
specified in relevant institutional and sectoral laws. Standards for air and water quality have been
updated periodically since their introduction; however, they need to be also responsive to new
developments and country needs.
Fragmentation at the national and regional levels results in no single institution being able to
take enforcement actions effectively. The directorate of inspection and enforcement as well and the
environment regional directorates conduct separate inspections, issue warnings and enforce
temporary closure through the environment rangers. In view of lack of measuring equipment and
inspection manuals, inspections are based on ad-hoc complaints and are usually conducted visually.
Inspection at the national and local level resulted in temporary closure of 66 installations in 2007 and
13 in 2006 for small and medium enterprises for lack of compliance.

Jordan's legislative framework focuses on command and control instruments to achieve these
standards, with limited opportunity for use of economic and community based instruments.
The use of economic and community incentives have been instrumental for attaining environmental
quality in a number of countries (Switzerland, Czech Republic, Sweden, Denmark and USA).
Evidence suggests that economic instruments have lower costs to industry (in the USA NOx and SO2
trading schemes resulted in 40% emissions' reduction and in savings estimated at 43% of the
compliance costs that would have been incurred under a uniform plan), and minimal impacts on
significant competitiveness effects. EU experience suggests that good legislation is the start in

                                                        143
lowering emissions, although a number of other drivers contribute towards lower emissions as well,
including: voluntary agreements; best practice; integrated technology; and resource consumption and
economic considerations.

7.4.2   Institutional Coordination
Another dimension of the "balancing interest process" is the ability to reconcile sector development
priorities with the objective of managing the resulting pressures on the environment. One way to look
at it is to examine the coordination of Government entities on environmental topics; the second is to
look at how sector ministries internalize environmental concerns into their activities.
Concerning coordination, the issue is of particular significance in Jordan, on account of the high
dispersion of environmental responsibilities across institutions, already discussed in section 7.2
above and further illustrated in Figure 61, which shows the index of dispersion of themes across
agencies. The index answers the question: "how many agencies are working on a particular theme?",
if all agencies are involved on a given theme, the index scores 100% (i.e. maximum dispersion of
agencies across this theme), if only one agency is working on a given theme, then the index scores
0% (i.e. minimum dispersion).
Figure 61. Index of dispersion of themes across agencies



    Water quality/Resources

                  Air Quality

         Hazardous material

                 Solid Waste

            Industrial sector

                       Noise

                 Biodiversity

              Medical Waste

             Protected areas

        Soil / desertification

  Environmental emergency

        Marine environment

                                 0%        10%          20%           30%          40%          50%           60%

Note: if responsibility of an environmental theme is concentrated in one agency the index is = 0%; if dispersed
across all agencies =100%. The degree of dispersion was measured for the institutions whose work is relevant to the
environment (ASEZA, ministries of environment, water and irrigation, agriculture, health, Jordan Valley authority,
and water authority of Jordan) by reviewing their relevant legislation and counting the themes and functions for
which they are legally assigned responsibilities.
Water resources and water quality, followed by air quality and hazardous material seem to be the
most dispersed themes across the reviewed institutions. The high dispersion of water theme across
agencies may be a reflection of the importance that is accorded by the Government towards this


                                                       144
theme. At the same time, it increases the need for coordination between the institutions to ensure a
cost effective resource use and decrease any areas of overlap.
Current mechanisms for coordination largely rely on inter-agency committees and memoranda
of understanding. In the face of such a strong need to harmonize actions of many different actors,
the environment protection law assigns to the Ministry of Environment the role to coordinate national
environmental protection effort. In practice, institutional coordination in Jordan has been mostly
taking the form of multi-agency committees established for specific purposes (e.g., updating a
strategy). Given that they are by definition temporary, committees do no guarantee longer term
institutional commitment. In terms of the specific tasks, their effectiveness largely depends upon the
skills, commitment, and particularly, the level of seniority (and hence of decision making authority)
of the persons attending.
Memoranda of understanding (MOUs) might help formalize cooperation arrangements for
environmental protection, thereby increasing its stability and effectiveness. Their use could be
expanded, although they are unlikely to guarantee the same type of institutional coordination
incentives that would derive from legislation or regulation.

7.4.3 Environmental and sectoral strategies
Strategies might be important vehicles for integrating environment across sectors, to the extent that
they include a solid analysis of the problem, a shared vision and objectives, targets for enhanced
environmental performance, and allocation of resources to reach such targets. This section briefly
reviews selected strategies, first those explicitly aimed at promoting the environmental agenda; and
then the strategies of sectors that have important implications for environmental sustainability.
Environment Strategies
Environmental strategies developed by Jordan over the past twenty years have been
instrumental to articulate the country's vision and objectives; their impact on the ground
remains to be evaluated. The initial strategies (e.g., National Environmental Strategy (1992) and
National Environmental Action Plan (1995)), tried to identify and list the environmental issues facing
Jordan, and guide the Government's environmental policy. Jordan also developed a number of
strategies and action plans as a result of its global commitments, such as the National Agenda 21
(2001), National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2003), the National Strategy and Action Plan
to Combat Desertification (2006), and National Implementation Plan for Persistent Organic
Pollutants (2006). A main issue that faces Jordan is prioritizing across the various issues identified in
the various environmental strategies.
In 2007, the MoEnv through a process of internal deliberations and consensus, developed its
Environmental Strategy Implementation Plan 2007 ­ 2010 (ESIP), which builds on the ministry's
strategic objectives and its functional areas, it also links and derives its program/activities from the
National Agenda and the previously developed environmental strategies and efforts. For each of the
seven strategic objectives of the MoEnv, the ESIP spells out policies, program/activities for each
policy, and performance indicators. However, outcome based targets are not set, and the performance
indicators are more output than outcome based, which is a result of the ESIP project based approach.

Sector development strategies
Most sector strategies acknowledge the importance of environmental mainstreaming, but few
of them define measurable targets, assign responsibilities, or create defined institutional
coordination mechanisms for addressing environmental concerns. Sector development strategies
have direct and indirect impacts on the environment; balancing interests would require that they take
the environmental dimensions into consideration. Many of Jordan's recent strategies recognize the

                                                  145
significance of the linkages between sector development and the environment. However, most of
them typically set the general direction and define broad action plans, but they do not set measurable
targets and indicators for environmental mainstreaming. A notable exception is the National Agenda
document, which sets specific targets for environmental quality; however, for some parameters, the
indicators and targets might be too ambitious and may require a revision.
7.4.4   Mainstreaming environment into sectoral development
Previous sections have argued that up to now efforts to integrate the environment into the
development process have had limited results: coordination mechanisms tend to be ad-hoc, and
sector strategies define principles rather than specific instruments for mainstreaming.
In the face of limited results of previous environmental mainstreaming efforts, Jordan would
benefit from more systematic and formalized processes, such as strategic environmental
assessment (SEA). As Jordan is facing increased environmental challenges, integrating
environmental concerns into national development plans and sector strategies is gaining utmost
urgency. The ministry of environment, as the agency legally designated with the protection of
Jordan's environmental resources, needs to find ways to work closely with other sectoral institutions,
for many of which environment is not a main priority in comparison to their direct areas of influence
and work.
Strategic environmental assessment has been identified as one of the tools for mainstreaming
environment and ensuring public participation in the development of strategies and plans. An
overview of several EU countries shows that SEA is a legal requirement in many of them, with the
term being widely used to refer to a systematic process to analyze the environmental effects of
policies, plans and programs. SEA could be used in combination with other tools to achieve optimal
results in mainstreaming environment.
The Ministry of Environment is developing with assistance from the EU a Strategic
Environmental Assessment Framework (SEA). This framework would enhance the environmental
mainstreaming process and further strengthen the role of MoEnv as a coordinating institution for
environmental protection and promoting sustainability. Applying the SEA helps to promote
integrated environment and development decision-making and increases and formalizes coordination
across sectors, thereby helping Jordan move away from the ad-hoc approach to environmental
integration which currently characterizes much of the interaction between MoEnv and other
ministries.
Application of SEA system in Jordan would bring it in line with the international best
practices, established by the Aarhus Convention, since the SEA process is recognized as one of the
means to give expression to the requirement of the convention to public participation with regard to
plans, programs and policies, as well as with the provisions of protocol on strategic environmental
assessment (SEA) to the UNECE convention on EIA in a transboundary context, a protocol which is
open to all United Nations members.
The Ministry of Environment should take the lead in applying SEA system in Jordan, and
should build demand for environmental quality to enhance its application. Building demand for
environmental quality could be achieved through systematic monitoring, analysis and public
disclosure of environmental information and establishment of indicators with associated monitoring
and evaluation that could be easily monitored on a regular basis and which would be relevant within
the Jordanian context in order to establish continuity and have the ability to monitor changes in
quality over time. Efficient application of SEA in Jordan requires capacity development within the
ministry of environment as well as the country for carrying out the SEA, data availability, and
funding.


                                                 146
.5
7        Executing Decisions

Executing decisions is the last function of environmental institutions, which follows the picking up
signals from society and balancing interests. Decisions are executed through regulations, taxes and
enforcement. This section discusses the executing decisions aspects of the environmental
management framework in Jordan. First, it presents the results of the public environmental
expenditure review as a way to assess the volume and composition of public resources assigned to
execute environmental protection decisions. Second, it discusses the resources assigned to the
Ministry of Environment and the constraints to their effective use. Next, it analyzes the effectiveness
of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, since this is a key vehicle for executing
decisions on environmental quality. Finally, the role of the judiciary in enforcement and conflict
resolution is discussed.
The enabling environment: the quality of public sector action
The effectiveness of environmental management in any country is influenced by its broader
institutional and governance framework. In Jordan, the quality of public sector action compares well
with the rest of the MENA region, thereby creating a favorable context for environmental
management.
According to a recent World Bank study on structural reform indicators75, Jordan fares well on the
two aggregated governance indicators: quality of public administration and public sector
accountability. Figure 62 shows that Jordan has the highest score in the region (34%) in terms of
public sector accountability (against a MENA average of 20%), and scored 54%, well above the
MENA average of 47%, in terms of quality of public administration.




75
     World Bank. 2008. MENA Economic developments and prospects 2007: job creation in an era of high growth.

                                                       147
Figure 62. Governance indicators in Jordan, MENA and the World (2007)


                                           Public sector accountability index (percentile rank, 2007)                                            World
    50




    40


            Jordan
                               Morocco
                      Kuwait

    30
                                       Algeria
                                              Bahrain
                                                          Egypt
                                                                    Iran
                                                                           MENATunisia UAE
    20                                                                                         Yemen
                                                                                                         Oman
                                                                                                                Qatar


    10                                                                                                                   Syria
                                                                                                                             Saudi Arabia

                                                                                                                                         Libya
      0




   80
                                                  Quality of administration index (percentile rank, 2007)
   70



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Note: the figures are expressed in percentile rank
Source: World Bank (2008)
The performance of Jordan's public sector as a whole represents an opportunity for improved
environmental management; but it also points to the need for getting the relatively younger
environmental institutions up to speed with the rest of the public sector.
7.5.1        Public environmental expenditure review

Jordan's public expenditure on environmental protection is significant, but concentrated on
wastewater management, and handled by relatively few institutions. A review of the public
environmental expenditure ­PEE (conducted for the first time in Jordan in the context of this CEA)
shows that total PEE during the period 2002-2006 amounted to an average of 0.8% of Jordan's GDP
at real prices, and 2.3% of total government spending (see Table 47). Annex 4 provides the
methodology of the public environmental expenditure review.




                                                                                148
Table 47: Total PEE proportion in GDP and total public expenditure
Variable                                                       2002    2003      2004       2005      2006
GDP at market prices (JOD bn)                                  6.879   7.354     8.32      9.231     10.409
Inflation rate as measured by % change in GDP deflator          0.9     2.1       3.1        3.2      5.18
Deflated GDP (JOD bn) using GDP deflator                       6.818   7.203     8.070     8.945      9.896
Total PEE at market prices (JOD bn)*                           0.042   0.090     0.071     0.076      0.075
Deflated PEE (JOD bn)                                          0.042   0.088     0.068     0.074      0.072
% of PE of the GDP (%)                                         0.61%   1.23%    0.85%      0.83%     0.72%
Total government expenditure at market prices (JOD bn)         2.396   2.810     3.181     3.539      3.912
Deflated government budget (JOD bn)                            2.375   2.752     3.085     3.429      3.720
PEE as % of government spending                                1.7%    3.2%      2.2%       2.2%      1.9%
* PEE includes central Government finance, public independent institutions, municipalities, and Greater Amman
Municipality.
Differences in classification systems warrant caution in cross-country comparison; however the first
indications from the PEER exercise would suggest that Jordan's public environmental
expenditure as percent of GDP compares well to the EU. For a selected group of EU countries in
2005 the PEE represented 0.5% of GDP (Eurostat 2008), though some countries showed a higher
public environmental expenditure as percent of GDP such as Denmark which from 1994-2005 had
public environmental expenditure of over 1% of GDP (see Figure 63). In spite of the fact that efforts
were made to organize the Jordan PEER as much as possible in accordance to EUROSTAT
guidelines (see Annex 4 for details), a fully fledged comparison would require that all public
expenditure be classified according to the CEPA nomenclature, which is only partially mirrored by
the way in which environmental expenditure is defined by the Government Financial Statistics
Manual adopted in 2001 by the Government of Jordan.
Figure 63. Public Environmental expenditure as percent of GDP in selected EU countries




In spite of the wide array of environmental priorities identified in environmental and sector
strategies, a large share of public environmental expenditure is related to wastewater
management. Figure 64 indicates that expenditure classified as wastewater management accounts
for 40% of the period's total PEE; however, the actual share is likely to be higher: due to differences
in the level of details applied by different ministries to the classification of their expenditure, MoPIC
(which accounts for 24% of total PEE), classifies 90% of its own PEE as "nec" (not otherwise
classified). Casual inspection of MoPIC detailed budget data suggest that most of the expenditure
                                                         149
handled by MoPIC (which consists of loan or grants from international development agencies) is in
fact related to waste water treatment.
Figure 64. Total public environmental expenditure by domain for 2002 ­ 2006

                    Waste water Management


             Environnemental Protection n.e.c.


                          Waste management


       Protection of biodiversity and landscape


                           Pollution abatement


                R&D Environmental Protection


                                                  0   20   40         60       80      100   120    140   160
                                                                              Mn JD



Source: calculation based on records of the MoF, GBD, GAM and CVB (2000-2007)
Average expenditures for 2002-2006 show that the Water Authority of Jordan has the highest
proportion of environmental expenditures (41%), where expenditure is mainly on wastewater
networks and treatment (see Figure 64). For the same reasons summarized above, the real share is
likely to be higher, since the PEE attributed to the ministry of planning and international cooperation
(24%), are typically executed by the relevant sector agency, which would be WAJ in the case of
wastewater treatment. Average annual expenditure for GAM formed 20% of all Jordan's average
PEE, of which over 90% is on solid waste management. The ministry of environment and ASEZA
accounted for 2% each of total Jordan's public environmental expenditure on environment.
Figure 65. Average PEE for years 2002 ­ 2006 percent by agency
                                                           ASEZA MOE                MOMA
                                                            2%   2%                  5%      MOAg
                                                                                              6%

       WAJ
       41%




                                                                                                          GAM
                                                                                                          20%




                                                                      MOPIC
                                                                       24%


Notes: 1. Total for above is 99%, average PEE for the Higher Council for Youth, JVA, Petra Regional Authority,
and MoF support to NGOs account for the remaining 1%. 2. PEE for GCEP (2002) was combined with PEE for
MoEnv (2003-2006) as the institution that succeeded GCEP.
These results contrast with data from EU, where major expenditures are on non-core domains.
Non-core domains include: energy, transport, agriculture, civil protection, consumers protection, and
urban areas. Wastewater constitutes less than 10% of total public environmental expenditures.


                                                                150
Public environmental expenditure contribution to research and development is low at less than
1%, leading to a more limited role of research institutions in environmental policy setting. In
contrast, the average contribution of EU member states in 1997 to research and development formed
8% of all expenditures on environmental domains (Eurostat 2008).
The vast majority of the environmental expenditure in Jordan (87% between 2002 and 2006) is
capital expenditures: in other words, the majority of environmental expenditure in Jordan is
intended to lay the ground for future prosperity, since current expenditure generates "well-being" in
the present while capital expenditure lays the groundwork for future prosperity.
The results of cost of environmental degradation identify the issues of air quality and water
quality as priority environmental issues. This does not contradict the results of the PEER, since the
high expenditure on environmental protection can be related with low environmental quality (the
situation makes expenditure necessary) and also with high environmental quality (that has improved
over time as a result of the public environmental expenditure). As such, it is possible that the reason
behind the low contribution towards degradation of solid waste and wastewater issues is the high
public expenditure that has been accorded to these issues.
Jordan's public environmental expenditure is in line with the Government national priorities
as indicated in the National Agenda and in the different plans of the key agencies such as the MWI,
MoEnv as well as GAM.
Interpretation of PEER results
The first PEER conducted in Jordan in the context of the present CEA should be considered as an
initial step towards a system of more structured (and internationally comparable) accounting of
national efforts for environmental protection. Such a more comprehensive system could provide
important information on the adequacy and effectiveness of resources mobilized for the environment,
but it should include, in addition to the PEER:
·   An estimate of private expenditure for the environment: not all efforts to improve environmental
    quality are (or should be) undertaken by the public sector. End-of-pipe or process investment
    undertaken by industries to reduce air or water emissions are an obvious example;
·   A set of headline indicators of environmental quality at the national level, measured at regular
    intervals, made available to the public, and presented in easily understandable ways. Even if
    cause-effect relationships might be difficult (or inappropriate) to establish, a trend of increased
    environmental expenditure (private and public) accompanied by deteriorating or not improving
    environmental quality would provide broad indications that public and/or private efforts should
    be scaled up, restructured in terms of composition across themes, or improved in terms of quality
    or cost-effectiveness.
What the present PEER can already indicate is that:
·   Jordan's public expenditure as percentage of GDP is sizeable, especially considering that it is at
    the high end of the range of EU PEE: this confirms the Government's commitment to improving
    environmental quality (although it does not demonstrate the cost effectiveness of the intervention
    financed);
·   The large share of PEE assigned to wastewater management suggests that the Government has
    given priority to treatment as a strategy to improve water quality. As discussed in Table 66, there
    may be options (such as water saving policies) with lower unit costs and multiple social
    dividends, that could be explored to increase the environmental benefits per JOD spent;
·   Looking at the results of the COED analysis (Table 68), the national Government and GAM will
    probably need to scale up their efforts to improve air quality. While good progress can be made
                                                 151
     with interventions at zero or low cost for the public budget (e.g., in the case of transport, better
     regulating vehicular inspection and fleet quality), it is likely that at least in the early stages the
     process of reducing emissions will need to be incentivized and sped up with public funds.
     Ultimately the mix between public and private funds will be the result of political decisions, but
     some re-allocation or environmental spending in favor of air quality management might be
     unavoidable.
7.5.2    Resources available to the Ministry of Environment
The Ministry of Environment has demanding tasks but limited resources to carry them out.
Previous sections of this chapter have highlighted that the current institutional set up requires a great
deal of coordination across ministries to improve environmental quality. In the face of a sizeable
amount of public funds mobilized for environmental protection (section 7.5.1 above), the
effectiveness of their use is likely to depend upon the ability to coordinate different actors, and more
generally, to provide overall policy direction to Government action on the environment.
The question is then: does the Ministry of Environment -as entity charged with those coordination
and policy direction functions- have enough human and financial resources to carry them out
effectively?
Since its establishment in 2003 the Ministry of Environment underwent an institutional capacity
development and reform process. The MoEnv institutional review recently conducted with EU
assistance (2006-2007) identified several priority areas for further institutional growth and
effectiveness, including strengthening its leadership and management role and the core functions of
the ministry, build capacity of new directorates, reorganization and strengthening of regional
directorates, and cooperation with local government, private sector, and NGOs.
The ministry is currently in the process of implementing those actions, and it is too soon to expect
tangible results. However, the constraints imposed by resources available are significant.
In particular, MoEnv is understaffed when compared to countries with similar GDP per capita.
A cross-country review of staffing levels at ministries of environment (Figure 66) shows that, after
controlling for relevant factors such as per capita GDP, population, and land areas, the Ministry of
Environment in Jordan is highly understaffed. This is particularly striking if one considers that the
staffing levels in the comparator countries are typically inadequate as well76.




76
   Such comparison provides a rough picture as it does not take into consideration the numbers of professional
versus administrative staff, as well as the environmental management framework within the countries i.e. the
responsibilities of other institutions with environmental mandates.

                                                     152
Figure 66. Comparison of ministries of environment staffing levels per unit of density




Sources: World Bank data, CEAs for (Bangladesh, Pakistan, El Salvador, Colombia and Peru), New Zealand
Ministry of Environment website, EU Institutional Strengthening project for Jordan. The figures are expressed in
terms of number of staff per unit of density (population/ land area).
The institutional strengthening component of the EU capacity strengthening project reviewed the
staffing levels at the Ministry of Environment, and recommended to increase staffing levels by 50
employees to reach 150 staff. The ministry received approval for recruiting 31 additional staff which
will ease to some extent the under-staffing situation.
The Ministry of Environment budget for capital expenses has increased, as well as its
predictability since it is based on National Agenda action plans. A review of the MoEnv budget
for year 2007 ­ 2010 shows that the Ministry of Environment devotes a significant portion of its
budget to environmental quality monitoring, support of the environmental rangers department, waste
management, protection of biodiversity, pollution abatement, and wastewater management issues.
Internal coordination within MoEnv could be improved. Another constraint that appears to
hamper MoEnv effectiveness is the limited internal coordination between units within the ministry,
particularly among the licensing, monitoring and inspection directorates, and also between the
regional directorates and headquarters.
In an effort to improve coordination the MoEnv instituted planning and monitoring meetings which
allow for directors of different directorates to share information. Additional steps that could be
undertaken to improve coordination include: issuing internal processes that provide details of
coordination linking more units horizontally; including detailed coordination requirements in staff
job descriptions; increasing and involving to a larger extent regional directorates in MoEnv activities;
and promoting the formation of task forces involving multiple directorates as a way to better address
issues and tasks that cut across strict unit boundaries (for example air quality).
7.5.3   Environmental management at sub-national level
Environmental management framework in Jordan is centralized, with most of the decisions
emanating from institutions located in Amman, though ASEZA is an example of local level
environmental management, since ASEZA has powers comparable to those of the MoEnv.



                                                      153
Limited resources and centralized processes contribute towards weak local environmental
management capacity at the governorate and municipal levels. In Jordan's governorates,
environmental management is undertaken by the regional directorates of the MoEnv, local
municipalities and the environmental rangers' regional directorates. MoEnv's six regional
directorates have limited role in environmental management at the local level due to lack of staff and
need for additional capacity and equipment including information technology and monitoring and
inspection equipment. For example, there is 5 staff in Zarqa Governorate's regional directorate ­ a
major industrial hotspot, 7 staff in Balqa and 11 in Irbid governorates.
Capacity of municipalities varies in terms of environmental management. Municipalities are
responsible for solid waste collection, pest control, public health, slaughterhouse monitoring and
management of urban green areas. Different municipalities vary in their environmental management
capacity: Greater Amman Municipality has an environmental department and an environmental
section in each of its 27 districts, and is responsible for operating Jordan's largest solid waste landfill,
while smaller municipalities have limited environmental capacity due to lack of staff and resources.
Establishment of environmental rangers will strengthen the environmental management
framework and the enforcement capacity, but makes the need for coordination and
environmental legislation review more acute. The environmental rangers department, which forms
a separate division under the public security directorate, was established in 2006, and currently has
400 staff. A memorandum of understanding between MoEnv and the public security directorate
governs the operation of environmental rangers, and will stay in force until a law or regulation
governing their operation is issued. Since the environmental rangers are responsible for the
implementation of all environmental legislation ­ not specific to the environmental protection law ­
it is essential that legal articles are revised to eliminate any potential conflict or contradiction.
Coordination should be strengthened between regional directorates of different ministries and
local NGOs. Coordination of MoEnv directorates in governorates with governorate level authorities
and municipalities seems to be in general rather limited. The MoEnv could assist with the capacity
development for the municipalities.
7.5.4   Environmental Impact Assessment review
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a key tool to ensure that decisions taken at the
legislative and regulatory level are actually executed and built into the design and implementation of
development projects. The purpose of the EIA review conducted as part of the CEA is to: i) assess
the current status of EIA procedure and practice in Jordan; ii) carry out a diagnostic review of the
national EIA system, determining the similarities and difference between the national EIA system on
one hand and the World Bank and the European Commission (EC) on the other; and iii) propose
recommendations and an action plan to improve the national EIA system to make it compatible with
the World Bank EIA requirements.
The reason for comparing Jordan's EIA system to those of the World Bank and the EU is motivated
by the intention to benchmark Jordan's system against two widely accepted EIA systems at the
international level, and measure the acceptability of the national EIA system to be applied on the
ground using the 11 operational principles approved by the World Bank Board of Directors in its
Operational      Policy     4.01      for    the       use     of     country     systems     (see




                                                    154
Box 12 on OP 4.01 and use of country systems). A complete report on this assessment is attached in
Annex 5.




                                               155
Box 12. The World Bank policy on the use of country systems

The Bank's environmental and social policies are designed to avoid, mitigate or minimize adverse environmental
and social impacts of projects supported by the Bank. However, the specificity of these policies creates difficulties
for borrowers attempting to mainstream them within their own legal and administrative frameworks and their own
development programs. In 2002, recognizing the importance of country ownership and institutional capacity
building, the Bank shifted its focus towards increasingly integrating environmental and social safeguards into
country systems to facilitate their application and build local capacities. In 2005, the Operational Policy (OP) 4.00:
piloting the use of borrower systems to address environmental and social safeguard issues in Bank-supported
projects was approved. Over the past two years, the Bank piloted the use of borrower systems in Bank-supported
projects, and initial results indicate successful application of country systems for environmental assessments for
three cases in Egypt and for one in Tunisia.


The legal basis for EIA is established in the environment protection law (EPL) no. 52/2006. It is
implemented through its EIA regulations no. 37/2006 and its five annexes. These require that the
project proponent would hire a national consulting firm to conduct the EIA and prepare an EIA
report. It also assigns full authority to the Ministry the Environment through its department of
Licensing and Guidance (which included the EIA section) to arrange for screening, control and
follow up on the EIA process and its implementation. The approval of an EIA is a pre-requisite for
any subsequent license or permit by any or all other relevant authorities that may be required prior to
construction. All development projects, regardless of EIA classification, must adhere to the air
emission, water, wastewater reuse; industrial and municipal discharges' Jordanian standards. The
essential elements of the Jordanian procedures are summarized in Table 48.
The results of the equivalence assessment showed that many features of the Jordanian EA
system are compatible with the World Bank EA Policy (OP 4.01) and the European
Commission (EC) EIA Regulations no. 97/11. These features are in (i) screening, (ii) scoping; (iii)
the EIA report content, (iv) the content of the environment management plan, (v) provisions for
appeal; and (vi) requirements for monitoring and follow up. The assessment also showed that the
parallel EIA system established by ASEZA is very similar to OP 4.01, and includes the provisions
for public consultation and disclosure of EIA reports.
Table 48. Summary of the Jordanian EIA Procedures

Stage             Activity
Initial  Filing   ·   The Project Proponent completes a Project Information Form (PIF) of the intended project
and Screening         and submits it to the Ministry of Environment for screening.
                  · An Inter-ministerial Central Licensing Committee reviews the PIF, and after conducting site
                      surveys determines if the project is classified as:
                      o Category I projects for which an EIA report is required
                      o Category II projects for which an initial EIA is only required
                      o Category III for which no environment analysis is required
                  · The decision is publicly displayed for 2 weeks.
Scoping            The Ministry issues legally binding guidance on the scope of the Assessment
                  · Proponent prepares a ToR, after a mandatory public consultation.
                  · An Inter-Ministerial Technical Review Committee (TRC)77 reviews and approves the ToR.

77
   As per the EIA regulation no. 37/2005, the Technical Review Committee consists of the representatives of the
following agencies: ministries of environment, planning and international cooperation, municipal affairs, health,
agriculture, industry and trade, energy and mineral resources, water and irrigation, tourism and antiquities, and
public works and housing, in addition, to representatives from NGO and academia.


                                                         156
Stage              Activity
Technical          ·   A complete EIA is submitted to the Technical Evaluation Committee which evaluates:
Evaluation             o Its general conformity to the ToR;
                       o The methodologies used, the scientific validity and legal value of the evidence presented;
                       o The soundness and compatibility of the impacts with respect to environmental
                            protection, the content of the environment management plan (EMP), standards, and other
                            references.
                   ·   The TEC reports its finding to the Minister of Environment.
Decision     and   ·   The Minister reviews the Committee's report and notifies its decision to the Proponent and
Approval               publishes it within 45 days. After this period, or if no decision is posted, the EIA is deemed to
                       have been accepted.
                   ·   If the EIA is rejected, the proponent has 15 days to appeal to the Minister of Environment
                       which establishes a three person independent committee to review the decision.
Licensing          ·   Upon approval of the EIA report, the proponent receives an environment license to proceed.
Monitoring         ·   The Ministry of Environment is required to follow up on the implementation of the
                       Environment Management Plan and reporting the results of monitoring.

Disclosure    of   ·   The Ministry can make available to the concerned parties and upon their request the (non
EIA                    confidential) information related to the EIA

There are however significant and moderate gaps between the national EIA system and the
Environment Assessment Policy (OP 4.01). The significant differences are that the national EIA
system does not (i) assess indirect, cumulative and associated impacts (ii) use regional or sectoral
environment assessment, (iii) require the involvement of the stakeholders (affected groups and
NGOs) and continued consultations throughout EIA preparation and (v) carry out disclosure and
accessibility of the EIA reports to the public. There are also moderate gaps such as: (vi) addressing
trans-boundary and global concerns is not required; (vii) requirements for compliance with
international agreements is not included in the EIA regulations though Jordan is signatory to a
number of international treaties and conventions, (viii) National standards and guidelines do not
explicitly reflect international good practice (such as the World Bank's Pollution Prevention and
Abatement Handbook); (ix) and there are no requirements for the use of independent advisory panels
for highly risky and contentious projects.
The MoEnv is currently developing a set of new regulations to improve its overall EIA process
and content through a new organizations structure, and a review of its EIA executive
regulations and the enactment of new regulations for environmental compliance and control.
However, the EIA system suffers from administrative, technical and management shortcomings.
There is a serious shortage of trained human resources in the MoEnv and in the six regional
environmental directorates for EIA administration and management. There are no established criteria,
guidelines and rules for reviewing EIA and making decisions on approval/disapproval of the EIA
reports. There are neither standard terms of references (TOR) for preparing EIA reports in specific
nor comprehensive sector guidelines and the content and quality of the EIA reports indicate generally
that the requirements in the EIA regulations no. 37 are not often met, and that the quality of these
reports is variable. There is no follow up on the implementation of the EMP as required by the EIA
regulation, because of lack of staff, resources and manuals for inspections, and there are no fines for
not conducting an EIA. Furthermore, the track record for monitoring and enforcement is still
evolving. There is fragmentation at the national and regional levels to the effect that no single
institution can take enforcement actions effectively.


                                                         157
Despite its recent establishment, the MoEnv continues to make considerable progress towards
institutionalizing the EIA system in Jordan. USAID and the EC are providing technical assistance
to the MoEnv on environmental management which also include strengthening the EIA system. One
of the major shortcomings is the limitation of consultation to only the scoping stage, and the
disclosure of the EIA reports is limited to the project proponents and specifically authorized by the
Minister of Environment. In ASEZA, public consultation is required even after scoping and the EIA
reports are supposed to be made public though ASEZA management does not disclose the reports for
fear that national consulting firms will resort to plagiarizing existing reports rather than conduct the
needed research and analysis required. Public consultation and disclosure are however permitted in
Jordanian legislation, namely Town and Country Planning law no. 79/1966 and its amendment,
allows consultation and disclosure of local and regional master plans. Projects co-financed by the
international financial institutions and donors require full consultation and dissemination of the EIA
reports to public locations in country. The MoEnv has also expressed its full support to amend the
EIA regulations in order to require public consultations throughout the EIA process and widely
disclose the EIA reports.
The improvement of the EIA process should be realistically implemented over the short and
medium terms, taking into consideration MoEnv's limited human and financial resources. The
first recommendation is to consolidate and strengthen the present EIA system using existing laws and
regulations followed by changes and reforms of these regulations once the consolidation phase is
successfully implemented and verified.
Annex 5 includes a proposed action plan to address the identified gaps to achieve equivalence and
acceptability for using the national EIA system in the World Bank operations. USAID has agreed
through its Sustainable Mechanism of Business Expansion and Quality Program (SABEQ) to support
the preparation of sector EIA guidelines and generic TORs for key sectors, develop format, criteria
and guidelines for reviewing EIA reports and improve compliance monitoring through training and
preparing inspection manuals. The MoEnv will take the necessary measures to amend the EIA
regulations to allow public consultation and public disclosure, environmental audits, and to modify
the list of projects for which an EIA is required as to include construction and operation of landfills,
wastewater treatment plants and desalination plants. The MoEnv has requested that the World Bank
continues to provide overall guidance and quality control to strengthen the EIA system as to achieve
full compatibility with the World Bank EA policy.
7.5.5    Role of the judiciary
Jordan has an independent and impartial judiciary system on par with some EU countries, as
evidenced by the Judicial/Legal Effectiveness Index78 (JLEI) in which Jordan's score of 67% is the
highest among Arab countries measured, as well as on par and in some cases higher than the average
for non-OECD and European countries.
Legislation stipulates the role of courts in the settlement of environmental cases. Environment
protection law no. 52/2006 specifies the cases for which violators may be referred to court for legal
action, while Aqaba's environmental regulation no. 21/2001 specifies the Aqaba court of first
instances as the court responsible for environmental issues in addition to its authorities and is
responsible for adjudicating environmental offences. Nevertheless, recourse to judiciary for
upholding environmental rights by citizens and NGOs is limited.



78
  JLEI (Judicial/Legal Effectiveness Index): Percentage firms in the country giving satisfactory ratings to questions
on judicial independence, judicial bribery, quality of legal framework, property protection, parliament and police
effectiveness.

                                                        158
Jordan's access to justice could be improved following good practice defined in the context of
the Aarhus Convention. Access to justice is the third pillar of the Aarhus Convention, and it
provides a mechanism for the public to enforce environmental law directly, by recommending a
number of actions that countries should achieve to ensure access to justice in environmental matters,
including: ensuring availability of independent and impartial review bodies; developing clear rules
concerning rights of individuals and NGOs to judiciary access for environmental violations; and
establishing mechanisms to provide public with information on access-to-justice procedures.
.6
7     Conclusions

This chapter has analyzed the way in which Jordan's institutions pick up signals, balance interest and
execute decisions on environmental management, highlighting progress and remaining challenges,
and has identified the main strengths and weaknesses of the system, which could be summarized in
Table 49.

Table 49. Summary of main strengths and weaknesses
                 Strengths                                         Weaknesses
Legal      and   · Existing environmental legal framework that     · Gaps in formal laws accompanied by
institutional      continues to evolve and improve.                  multiplicity of sometimes conflicting
set up           · Establishment of MoEnv with clear role to         legislation.
                   set policies and coordinate action to protect   · Emphasis on command and control
                   the environment.                                  instruments with little legal framework for
                                                                     applying economic incentives.
Picking     up   · Increase in seeking public feedback on key      · Lack of a system of homogeneous, results-
signals            documents, and the GOJ drive towards e-           focused indicators of environmental quality.
                   government.                                     · Weakness in environmental monitoring
                 · Public interest in environmental matters and      systems.
                   positive attitude towards the environmental     · Lack of meta-database of monitoring
                   movement.                                         information that is easily accessible to the
                 · Varied environmental NGO and CBO base.            public.
Balancing        · Good base of standards for environmental        · Lack of mechanism to determine priorities
interests          quality and established participatory             among the environmental sectors.
                   mechanism led by JISM for issuance and          · Lack of sustainable and systematic
                   updating standards.                               mechanism for mainstreaming environment
                 · Several non-environmental ministries have         into sectoral and developmental plans and
                   environmental      sections within     their      strategies; lack of target of improved
                   organizational structure.                         environmental performance in sector
                 · Strong planning tradition and current             policies/ strategies
                   emphasis on linking government action plans     · Weak coordination mechanism between
                   to ministries budgets.                            institutions responsible for environmental
                                                                     management.
Executing        · Favorable environment as measured by            · Centralized governance system compounded
decisions          governance indicators on quality of public        with top down organizational culture
                   administration      and     public  sector      · Limited human and financial resources in
                   accountability and an independent and             Ministryof environment
                   impartial judiciary system.
                                                                   · EIA process, though well established, suffers
                 · MoEnv's willingness and capacity to               from     administrative,   technical     and
                   improve its performance.                          management shortcomings.




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CHAPTER .
        8    RECOMMENDATIONS
The present concluding chapter proposes selected priority recommendations to enhance the overall
effectiveness of Jordan environmental management. Recommendations are classified (Table 50) in
accordance to their time horizon (short term, i.e. actionable within 18 months and medium to long
term -actionable within 1 to 3 years); environmental theme (air quality, water quality, cross-cutting);
and according to the agency which is likely to lead the implementation of the proposed action
(Ministry of Environment or other agencies).
The recommendations­which take into account comments and suggestions made by the participants
to the CEA wrap-up workshop (see Annex 6) - are evenly split between single theme and cross-
cutting; and between lead implementation responsibility (with the Ministry of Environment as leader
in about half the cases).

Table 50. Summary of recommendations by theme, time horizon and lead agency
                                         Short Term                  Medium- long term          Total
Theme                              MoEnv            Other         MoEnv             Other
                                                 Institutions                    Institutions
1. Air quality                       2                  2            1                1            6
2. Water quality                                        2                             4            6
3. Cross-cutting                     7                               6                2            13
Total                                9                  4            7                7            27

The rest of this chapter discusses the specific recommendations proposed for the short (section 8.7)
and the medium to long term (section 8.8). The key features of each of the recommendations
(including roles and responsibilities, as well as qualitative assessments of coordination costs and
expected impacts) are summarized in tables at the end of each section.

.7
8           Short term

8.7.1        Air quality

Enhance air quality monitoring, including improved coordination arrangements
· The Ministry of Environment, in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality, and building
   on the technical assistance provided by the French development agency, should lead national
   efforts to accelerate the enhancement of the air monitoring system, including ambient air quality,
   as well as emission from stationary (possibly giving priority to the likely highest emitting sectors,
   such as those identified in the chapter on industrial pollution), as well as mobile ones. The
   geographic coverage should include the major population and industrial centers in the country.

Promote integration of the environment in development processes
· Accelerate the phase-out of high sulfur diesel: the decision has already been made by the
   Ministry of Energy, so it is important to mobilize the resources required for its enactment (e.g.,
   refinery upgrade, etc.). This can decisively contribute to the reduction of SO2 emission, and to a
   lesser extent, of PM. Options to improve the quality of fuel used by the industrial sector should
   also be considered.


                                                  160
·   Define an action plan for implementing other key policies to reduce emission per unit of traffic
    (i.e. emissions per vehicle/km, ton/km), namely enhancing maintenance of vehicles, improving
    the environmental performance of vehicular fleet through strengthened regulation of imports, and
    promoting the replacement of older vehicles.
·   Establish Jordan-specific emission factors (based on driving-circle measurement or other
    internationally accepted methodologies) so as to improve information on the volume and
    distribution across the vehicular fleet of polluting emissions from road transport. The technical
    capacity and equipment of relevant authorities (e.g., MoEnv, Driver and Vehicle Licensing
    Department, etc.) will need to be adequately strengthened.
8.7.2   Water quality
·   Enhance the monitoring of groundwater resources by synchronizing the quality and quantity
    parameters, so as to better evaluate the impacts of accelerated aquifer use on the quality, and
    availability, of groundwater. This requires establishing a dedicated network of observation wells.
·   Revise and strengthen the standard for wastewater discharged from industries [JS 202/2007], in
    particular with respect to TDS, heavy metals and other toxic organic materials. Also revise the
    regulation related to discharging industrial effluents in the domestic sewer network.
8.7.3   Cross-cutting

Focus the action of the Ministry of Environment given the limited financial and human resources,
and enhance the effectiveness of its action
·   Focus the scarce resources of the Ministry of Environment on core functions of strategy
    development and follow-up, policy making, environmental advocacy within the cabinet,
    improved coordination across sectors; limit to the minimum MoEnv direct engagement in project
    implementation activities;
·   Adopt a strategic approach to inspections, defining in a transparent manner priority locations/
    sectors (as opposed to the current one which is primarily complaint-driven);
·   Improve the decentralization of the MoEnv activities and enhance the role of the regional
    directorates;
·   Support compliance with environmental regulation through provisions of advisory services and
    technical assistance to industries (e.g., on cleaner technologies, processes, energy efficiency, and
    EMS implementation).
Improve public participation and develop guidelines to improve the EIA process
·   Improve the application of the EIA system in Jordan, initially through strengthening the existing
    system, through application of the Jordanian Public Law related to public consultation and
    disclosure; and through development of standard Terms of Reference (TORs), guidelines for
    sector EA guidelines and EA reviews, and decision making criteria for the Central Licensing
    Committee and the EIA Review Committee.

Encourage the fuller integration of air and water quality improvement objectives into sector
policies
·   Based on the results of improved air and water quality monitoring, establish a list (or improve
    existing ones) of priority pollution hotspots, particularly in Zarqa.




                                                  161
Table 51. Detailed short term recommendations
      Theme                  Area                                   Recommendation                                  Lead         Participating   Coordination     Expected
                                                                                                                   Agency          agencies         costs         Impacts
1. Air quality     Enhance air quality       Accelerate the implementation of the air quality monitoring         MoEnv         MoEnv, MoH,       High           High
                   monitoring, including     system, in cooperation with GAM and building on technical                         GAM and
                   improved coordination     assistance by the AFD, including ambient air quality, as well                     relevant
                   arrangements              as emission from stationary and mobile sources (possibly                          municipalities.
                                             giving priority to the likely highest emitting sectors, such as
                                             those identified in the chapter on industrial pollution). The
                                             geographic coverage should include the major population and
                                             industrial centers
                   Promote integration of    Accelerate the phase-out of high sulfur diesel: the decision has    Ministry of   MOPIC, MoEnv,     Low            High
                   environment in            already been made by the Ministry of Energy, so it is important     Energy        Ministry of
                   development processes     to mobilize the resources required for its enactment. This can                    Finance
                                             decisively contribute to the reduction of SO2 emission, and to
                                             a lesser extent, of PM. Options to improve the quality of fuel
                                             used by the industrial sector should also be considered.
                                             Define an action plan for implementing other key policies to        MoEnv         Ministry of       Medium         High
                                             reduce emission per unit of traffic, namely enhancing                             Transport,
                                             maintenance of vehicles, improving the environmental                              Drivers and
                                             performance of vehicular fleet through strengthened regulation                    Vehicles
                                             of imports, and promoting the replacement of older vehicles.                      Licensing
                                                                                                                               Directorate
                                             Establish Jordan-specific emission factors (based on driving-       Drivers and   MoEnv, Ministry   Low            Medium
                                             circle measurement or other internationally accepted                Vehicle       of Transport
                                             methodologies) so as to improve information on the volume           Licensing
                                             and distribution across the vehicular fleet of polluting            department
                                             emissions from road transport. The technical capacity and
                                             equipment of relevant authorities (e.g., MoEnv, License and
                                             Vehicle Inspection Directorate, etc.) will need to be adequately
                                             strengthened
2. Water quality   Enhance environmental     Enhance the monitoring of groundwater resources by                  MoWI          WAJ, MoEnv,       Medium         High
                   monitoring and tools to   synchronizing the quality and quantity parameters, so as to                       JVA
                   support decisions         better evaluate the impacts of accelerated aquifer use on the
                                             quality, and availability, of groundwater. This requires
                                             establishing a dedicated network of observation wells
                   Promote integration of    Revise and strengthen the standard for wastewater discharged        WAJ           MoEnv, Ministry   Medium         High
                   environment in            from industries [JS 202/2007], in particular with respect to                      of Industry,
                   development processes     TDS, heavy metals and other toxic organic materials. Also                         Chambers of
                                             revise the regulation related to discharging industrial effluents                 Commerce




                                                                                       162
     Theme                    Area                                       Recommendation                               Lead     Participating    Coordination     Expected
                                                                                                                     Agency      agencies          costs         Impacts
                                                  in the domestic sewer network.
3. Cross-cutting   Focus the action of the        Focus the scarce resources of the Ministry of Environment on      MoEnv     MoEnv             Low            High
                   Ministry of Environment        core functions of strategy development and follow-up, policy
                   given the limited financial    making, environmental advocacy within the cabinet, and
                   and human resources, and       improved coordination across sectors; limit to the minimum
                   enhance the effectiveness      MoEnv direct engagement in project implementation activities.
                   of its action.
                                                  Adopt a strategic approach to inspections, defining in a          MoEnv     MoEnv, MoH        Low            High
                                                  transparent manner priority locations/ sectors (as opposed to
                                                  the current one which is primarily complaint-driven);
                                                  Improve the decentralization of the MoEnv activities and          MoEnv     MoEnv             Low            Medium
                                                  enhance the role of the regional directorates.


                                                  Support compliance with environmental regulation through          MoEnv     MoEnv, RSS, JCI   Medium         High
                                                  provisions of advisory services and technical assistance to
                                                  industries (e.g., on cleaner technologies, processes, energy
                                                  efficiency, and EMS implementation).
                   Improve public                 Improve the application of the EIA system in Jordan, initially    MoEnv     MoEnv, ASEZA      Low            High
                   participation and develop      through strengthening the existing system, through application
                   guidelines to improve the      of the Jordanian Public Law related to public consultation and
                   EIA process                    disclosure; and through development of standard Terms of
                                                  Reference (TORs), guidelines for sector EA guidelines and EA
                                                  reviews, and decision making criteria for the Central Licensing
                                                  Committee and the EIA Review Committee.
                   Encourage the fuller           Based on the results of improved air and water quality            MoEnv     Ministry of       High           High
                   integration of air and water   monitoring, establish a list (or improve existing ones) of                  Industry,
                   quality improvement            priority pollution hotspots, particularly in Zarqa.                         Chambers of
                   objectives into sector                                                                                     Commerce
                   policies




                                                                                           163
.8
8       Medium to long Term

8.8.1    Air quality

Enhance environmental monitoring and develop tools to better analyze the environmental
implications of development policies

·    Establish, as part of the strategic planning of large urban areas (starting with the implementation
     of Amman's Master Plan) traffic models to optimize the design of transportation system and the
     related air pollution and congestion reduction benefits;

·    Define ­ in priority pollution hotspots and where not already available - air pollution abatement
     plans, including targets for selected environmental improvement objectives, and containing a
     clear assignment of roles and responsibilities for the different stakeholders involved; and ­subject
     to criteria of financial sustainability and cost recovery, incentive mechanisms to encourage
     industries to comply with environmental regulation.
8.8.2    Water quality

Enhance environmental monitoring and develop tools to better analyze the environmental
implications of development policies
·    Under the initiative of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, streamline the national water
     quality monitoring system, to avoid duplication of efforts and enhance data management (a
     simplified preliminary suggested monitoring schedule is presented in Chapter 4 and further
     discussed in Annex 2).
·    Conduct a study to evaluate the potential for reducing the social damage of water quality
     degradation through water saving policies, to be combined with hygiene programs and enhanced
     wastewater treatment. The mix of policy tools would be defined following criteria of cost-
     effectiveness and using analytical such as water quality simulation, multi-criteria/economic
     optimization models, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and water Public Expenditure
     Reviews.

Promote integration of the environment in development processes
·    Adopt a unified national water law, based on the principles of Integrated Water Resources
     Management (IWRM) and linking water-quality and water-quantity sustainability objectives;
·    Promote pollution control through a combination of (1) Positive incentives (including soft loans
     and technical assistance) to encourage the use of cleaner production processes; and (2) gradual
     phasing-in of negative incentives (pollution levy for industrial emissions exceeding a given
     standard) to induce firms to meet effluent/ambient standards (e.g., via end-of-pipe treatment).
     Initially the levy could be linked to level of activity/employment, and later -once adequate
     monitoring capacity is in place- to emission levels.
8.8.3    Cross-cutting

Enhance environmental monitoring and tools to support decisions

·    Undertake a rapid assessment (based on environmental audits or other tools) of the average and
     marginal abatement cost by pollutant type and industrial sector, as a basis to better inform
     pollution abatement policies and programs.

                                                   164
Improve public access to information and participation in environmental matters

·   Improve public access to information and participation in environmental matters. To that end, the
    Ministry of Environment, in collaboration with relevant agencies, might want to revise the
    environment law no. 52 / 2006, after a suitable implementation time.

·   Institutionalize the practice of disseminating information, holding consultations, and instituting
    the right of access to information without justification. This might require amendments to the
    law regulating access to information (47/2007).
Further consolidate and strengthen the EIA process to approximate it further to international best
(such as the EU and World Bank OP4.00)

·   Amend the EIA regulations to allow public consultation and disclosure (starting with distribution
    of scoping statements to relevant stakeholders); environmental audits; and outsourcing to
    qualified third parties the inspection of large polluting installations as well as monitoring and
    follow up of the environment management plans (as illustrated in further detail in Chapter 7 and
    Annex 5).

Enhance mainstreaming of the environment in the development processes and establish a
mechanism for determining environmental theme priorities and monitoring their progress of
achievement
·   Accelerate, through development of the necessary regulation, the adoption of Strategic
    Environmental Assessment (SEAs) as a tool to promote the integration of environmental
    concerns across sectors.
·   Promote the inclusion of specific targets of environmental improvements in selected sector
    strategies (starting with the implementation with the newly adopted transport strategy), as well as
    the definition of responsibilities for their achievement, performance indicators, and the allocation
    of the required human and financial resources.
·   Establish a system of accounting of public and private expenditure for environmental protection
    in adherence to international statistical standards, and explore ways in which the results could be
    discussed at the cabinet level to evaluate the adequate volume and composition of public
    expenditure for environmental protection.




                                                  165
Table 52. Detailed medium to long term recommendations
     Theme                  Area                                  Recommendation                               Lead    Participating agencies    Coordination     Expected
                                                                                                              Agency                                Costs          Impact
1. Air quality     Enhance environmental     Establish, as part of the strategic planning of large urban     GAM       Ministry of Transport,    Low            Medium
                   monitoring and develop    areas (starting with the implementation of Amman's                        Public Transport
                   tools to better analyze   Master Plan) traffic models to optimize the design of                     Regulatory Commission
                   the environmental         transportation system and the related air pollution and
                   implications of           congestion reduction benefits.
                   development policies
                                             Define ­ in priority pollution hotspots and where not           MoEnv     Ministry of Industry &    High           High
                                             already available - air pollution abatement plans,                        Trade, Chambers of
                                             containing: a) targets for selected environmental                         Industries, Development
                                             improvement objectives, b) a clear assignment of roles and                Zones Commission
                                             responsibilities for the different stakeholders involved; and
                                             ­subject to criteria of financial sustainability and cost
                                             recovery, c) incentive mechanisms (including soft loans) to
                                             encourage industries to comply with environmental
                                             regulation.
2. Water quality   Enhance environmental     Streamline the national water quality monitoring system, to     MoWI      WAJ, MoEnv, JVA,          High           High
                   monitoring and develop    avoid duplication of efforts and enhance data management                  MoWI, MoH
                   tools to better analyze   (a simplified preliminary suggested monitoring schedule is
                   the environmental         presented in Chapter 4 and further discussed in Annex 2).
                   implications of
                                             Conduct a study to evaluate the potential for reducing the      MoWI      MoEnv, WAJ, JVA           Low            Medium
                   development policies
                                             social damage of water quality degradation through water
                                             saving policies, to be combined with hygiene programs and
                                             enhanced wastewater treatment. The mix of policy tools
                                             would be defined following criteria of cost-effectiveness
                                             and using analytical such as water quality simulation,
                                             multi-criteria/economic optimization models, Geographic
                                             Information Systems (GIS), and water Public Expenditure
                                             Reviews.
                   Promote integration of    Adopt a unified national water law, based on the principles     MoWI      MoEnv, WAJ, JVA           High           High
                   environment in            of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and
                   development processes     linking water-quality and water-quantity sustainability
                                             objectives
                                             Promote pollution control through a combination of (1)          WAJ       MoEnv, Ministry of        High           High
                                             Positive incentives (including soft loans and technical                   Industry, Chambers of
                                             assistance) to encourage the use of cleaner production                    Commerce
                                             processes; and (2) gradual phasing-in of negative
                                             incentives (pollution levy for industrial emissions
                                             exceeding a given standard) to induce firms to meet
                                             effluent/ambient standards (e.g., via end-of-pipe
                                             treatment). Initially the levy could be linked to level of
                                             activity/employment, and later -once adequate monitoring

                                                                                          166
     Theme                  Area                                   Recommendation                                Lead        Participating agencies   Coordination     Expected
                                                                                                                Agency                                   Costs          Impact
                                              capacity is in place- to emission levels.
3. Cross-cutting   Enhance environmental      Undertake a rapid assessment (based on environmental            MoEnv          Ministry of Industry,    Medium         High
                   monitoring and tools to    audits or other tools) of the average and marginal                             Chambers of
                   support decisions          abatement cost by pollutant type and industrial sector, as a                   Commerce, DOS
                                              basis to better inform pollution abatement policies and
                                              programs.
                   Improve public             Revise the environment law no. 52 / 2006, after a suitable      MoEnv          Gov. and non-gov.        Medium         High
                   participation and access   implementation time                                                            stakeholders
                   to information
                                              Institutionalize the practice of disseminating information,     Information    MoEnv                    Medium         High
                                              holding consultations, and instituting the right of access to   Council
                                              information without justification. This might require           (when
                                              amendments to the law regulating access to information          established)
                                              (47/2007).
                   Strengthen EIA process     Amend the EIA regulations to allow public consultation          MoEnv          -                        Low            High
                                              and disclosure (starting with distribution of scoping
                                              statements to relevant stakeholders); environmental audits;
                                              and outsourcing to qualified third parties the inspection of
                                              large polluting installations as well as monitoring and
                                              follow up of the environment management plans
                   Enhance                    Accelerate, through development of the necessary                MoEnv          Inter-ministerial        Medium         High
                   Mainstreaming              regulation, the adoption of Strategic Environmental                            committee
                   environment in the         Assessment (SEAs) as a tool to promote the integration of
                   development processes      environmental concerns across sectors.
                   and establish a
                                              Promote the inclusion of specific targets of environmental      MoEnv          MoEnv, MoWI, MoH,        High           Medium
                   mechanism for
                                              improvements in selected sector strategies (starting with                      MoT, MIT, MoMA
                   determining
                                              the implementation with the newly adopted transport
                   environmental theme
                                              strategy), as well as the definition of responsibilities for
                   priorities and
                                              their achievement, performance indicators, and the
                   monitoring their
                                              allocation of the required human and financial resources.
                   progress and
                   achievement                Establish a system of accounting of public and private          DOS            DOS, MoEnv, MoH,         High           Medium
                                              expenditure for environmental protection in adherence to                       MoWI, ASEZA, MoF,
                                              international statistical standards, and explore ways in                       MoPIC, MoA, MoMA,
                                              which the results could be discussed at the cabinet level to                   GAM, WAJ, JVA
                                              evaluate the adequate volume and composition of public
                                              expenditure for environmental protection.




                                                                                           167
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Annex 1. Water quality data
Tabular overview of surface water quality over the period 1995-2007
Below is a choice of 10 monitoring stations out of a total amount of approximately 25
where water quality has been measured. Some of these stations are close to each other and
basically measure almost the same water at relatively short distances, other stations measure
only a limited amount of parameters (e.g., no microbiological). The first six stations are the
most important stations with regard to irrigation water quality; the two stations on the
Jordan River are added for statistical purposes only; the water is not used because of its
high salinity and relatively minor quantity; the last two stations are examples of wadis more
to the south that are assumed to have unquestionable bacteriological quality.
The table below is a composition of data from the Jordan Valley Authority, the Water
Authority, the EMARCU real time network and the data measured by RSS for MoEnv.
The numbers in red are reconstructed, using relations between the three different
bacteriological measurements of total coliform, fecal coliform and E-coli. It is considered
that E-coli is the most adequate parameter as indicator for bacteriological pollution. It is
also related to the various Jordanian standards.




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Water quality data for 10 main monitoring stations in Jordan - average annual values (arithmetic mean, geometric mean for coli data)

station                parameter         1995      1996       1997      1998       1999       2000      2001       2002       2003      2004      2005      2006      2007
101 KAC tunnel         EC                822        919         955       967       1024       1002      1104       1000       804        969      965       972       1150
                       pH                8.32       8.18       8.42      8.13       8.46       8.38      8.30       8.21      8.16       8.40      8.00      8.36      8.20
                       total coli                            9.2E+03   1.2E+04    9.4E+03    9.3E+03   1.3E+03    1.0E+03   3.5E+03    1.6E+03   2.8E+03   7.9E+01   2.2E+03
                       fecal coli                            2.1E+03   1.3E+03    5.2E+03    1.1E+03   6.6E+02    6.6E+02   7.5E+02    4.6E+02   9.9E+02   7.9E+01   3.5E+02
                       E-coli                                1.4E+03   1.7E+03    1.4E+03    1.4E+03   2.8E+02    3.4E+02   7.4E+02    2.5E+02   4.9E+02   1.9E+02   1.7E+02
105 KAC Deir Alla      EC                 940        927        961       970       1039       1066      1130       1109       978        909      1026      974       1059
                       pH                8.25       8.20       8.70      8.19       8.24       8.38      8.32       7.73      8.29       8.06      8.18      8.28      8.30
                       total coli      6.7E+03    2.3E+04    8.8E+03   1.9E+03    1.1E+03    1.6E+03   2.2E+03    9.0E+03   4.5E+03    2.4E+03   2.3E+03   2.1E+03
                       fecal coli      1.5E+03    2.3E+03    1.9E+03   2.6E+02    2.4E+02    2.1E+02   3.1E+02    2.4E+02   1.1E+03    5.0E+02
                       E-coli          2.0E+02    1.8E+02    2.0E+02   2.1E+02    2.1E+02    2.1E+02   2.1E+02    1.6E+02   3.4E+02    1.7E+02   2.9E+02   8.6E+01   3.0E+02
107 KAC Zarqa junction EC                2003       1927       1415      1514       2190       1919      2028       1710      1830       1490      2131      2428      2390
                       pH                8.03       9.00       8.39      8.04       8.30       8.33      8.39       8.18      8.30       8.21      8.15      8.19      8.19
                       total coli      5.3E+04    2.8E+04    1.5E+04   1.5E+04    5.0E+04    7.4E+04   2.7E+03    1.5E+04   7.9E+03    1.6E+04   7.4E+03   1.3E+04
                       fecal coli      4.0E+03    2.2E+03    4.5E+03   1.8E+03    4.9E+03    2.1E+03   3.3E+03    2.5E+03   2.0E+03    9.0E+03   1.3E+03   1.4E+03
                       E-coli          1.6E+03    2.4E+03    2.8E+03   2.8E+03    1.7E+03    8.4E+02   3.2E+03    2.8E+03   5.0E+03    3.6E+03   1.7E+03   1.5E+03   1.0E+04
203 KTR Hwarat         EC                1646       2112       1793      1952       2342       2391      2385       1873      1726       1999      2221      2450      2440
                       pH                8.10       8.11       8.05      8.14       8.29       8.27      8.30       8.24      8.20       8.22      8.18      8.33      8.20
                       total coli      5.1E+04    3.1E+04    9.2E+03   2.9E+04    2.2E+04    2.2E+04   1.5E+03    1.7E+04   1.7E+04    1.4E+04   4.9E+03   2.5E+04   2.2E+04
                       fecal coli      6.9E+02    4.8E+02    2.0E+03   9.7E+02    9.3E+02    1.8E+03   1.5E+03    3.3E+03   1.7E+03    5.0E+03   9.2E+02   3.9E+03   2.8E+03
                       E-coli                                                                                               1.6E+03    2.7E+03                       1.6E+03
100 KTR inlet          EC                2035       2003       1767      1974       2207       2030      1930                 2010       2664      2677                2460
                       pH                7.79       8.10       8.36      7.98       8.12       8.16      8.11       7.89      7.91       8.02      8.04      7.99      8.01
                       total coli                 2.2E+04    4.7E+04   1.3E+05    6.5E+04    2.2E+05   2.0E+03    1.2E+04   6.5E+03    4.2E+03   2.5E+03   2.6E+03
                       fecal coli      6.3E+03    3.2E+04    5.7E+03   1.3E+04    3.4E+03    6.4E+03   1.1E+03    2.4E+03                        8.0E+03
                       E-coli                     9.3E+03    2.2E+04   6.4E+04    3.1E+04    1.1E+05   5.9E+02    5.0E+03   3.1E+02    1.4E+02   1.9E+02   2.4E+02
600 KTR outlet         EC                2043       2065       2050      1905       2031       2003      1982       2100      1607       2067      2264      2429      2340
                       pH                7.77       7.84       8.16      7.71       8.10       7.99      7.83       7.73      7.86       7.84      7.79      7.73      7.73
                       total coli      7.0E+04    3.4E+03    1.6E+03   5.5E+03    1.6E+05    7.5E+05   2.8E+03    9.0E+03   3.0E+03    3.8E+03   2.4E+03   1.3E+03   1.5E+04
                       fecal coli      2.7E+03    1.4E+02    2.0E+02   2.2E+02    1.6E+05    1.0E+04   1.2E+02    3.0E+01              6.8E+02   7.5E+02   1.6E+02   4.6E+03
                       E-coli          5.6E+03    2.1E+02    6.1E+01   3.8E+02    1.3E+04    6.1E+04   1.6E+02    4.9E+02   2.1E+02    1.7E+02   1.2E+02   1.6E+02   1.2E+03
401 JR Majame          EC                5223       7143       6690      6659       7573       6896      6322       6963      5691       5884      5647      5518      4940
                       pH                7.86       7.86       7.90      7.87       7.64       7.69      7.53       7.60      7.81       7.89      7.82      8.05      7.26
                       total coli                                                                                           6.4E+03    1.6E+04
                       fecal coli                                                                                                                          5.1E+02
                       E-coli                                                                                               1.1E+03    4.8E+02
409 JR KH bridge       EC                6220      7110       7120       6270      8810       7460       7575       8092      5583       6483      7900      9745     8300
                       pH                7.86      7.85       7.90       7.87      7.64       7.69       7.53       7.60      8.02       7.90      8.08      8.02     8.02
                       total coli                                                                      1.1E+04    1.3E+04   8.0E+03    2.1E+03   2.4E+03   2.4E+02
                       fecal coli                                                                      4.4E+02    4.5E+02                                  4.9E+01
                       E-coli                                                                          4.6E+03    5.4E+03   3.2E+03    8.0E+02   5.0E+02   4.9E+01
510 wadi Ibn Hammad    EC                1006      1049       1009       1010      1000       978        1015       1020      1021       954       982       1003     1010
                       pH                7.66      7.91       8.12       8.14      7.89       7.64       7.72       7.89      7.89       8.02      7.84      7.70     7.68
                       total coli                                                                                             1361
                       fecal coli
                       E-coli                                                                                                 101
515 Wadi Hasa          EC                642        748       762        746        693       692        725       725        836       763       740       754       820
                       pH                8.26       8.26      8.27       8.45       8.54      8.32       8.25      8.26       8.18      8.37      8.43      8.35      8.15
                       total coli                                                                                           1.0E+03
                       fecal coli
                       E-coli                                                                                               1.4E+02




                                                                                       176
Overview of groundwater wells used for the analysis of groundwater quality
According to the Ministry of water and Irrigation, the wells are representative for the respective
groundwater basins (with are marked in the station code with the first two letters). This does not
mean that they represent exactly the average condition of the aquifer or groundwater basin.
                                                               DATA
      Station                  Station_Name
                                                           Level  Quality
     AL 1005     DP4 Farouq Shlaif (PP144)                   x
     AL 1022     DP16 NRA (PP144)                            x
     AL 1037     DP_30 (Amman-Zarqa Basin)                          x
     AL 1041     Wadi Dhulai_TW6 Observation Well            x
     AL 1230     Hashimiya_3                                 x      x
     AL 1926     A'qib Dam_1 (Khaldiyeh)                     x
     AL 2715     Hashimiya_2                                        x
     AM 1027     Jreya_3                                            x
     CD 1075     Qastal_7 Observation Well                   x
     CD 1085     Qastal_17                                          x
     CD 1119     Suwaqa_6                                           x
     CD 1132     Suwaqa_2 Observation Well                   x
     CD 3305     Suwaqa Dam_1 Observation Well               x
     EA 1004     Rahma_3                                            x
     EA 3009     S. Wadi Araba Basin                         x
     ED 1204     Q'a el Disi MW-4 Observation Well           x
     ED 1307     Qa'alGhal S-7                                      x
     ED 1515     Qwaira_3                                           x
     ED 3070     CW6 Observation Well                        x
     ED 3071     CW11 Observation Well                       x
      F 1029     Awsa_2                                             x
      F 1043     Azraq_12 Observation Well                   x
      G 1038     Jafer_19                                           x
      G 3081     Jafer_1 Observation Well                    x
      H 1012     Ruwayshed_2                                 x      x
      H 2017     Iraqi Armi M2 (H4)                          x




                                                     177
Trend analysis of selected groundwater observation wells
                          Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the Amman-Zarqa basin                                                                                                              Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the Dead Sea basin
                                                                                                                                                                                          0                                                                                                                    1,250
   0                                                                                                                                    7000 Electric conductivity                                                                                                                                                 Electric conductivity




                                                                                                                                                                                                    Jan-68



                                                                                                                                                                                                               Jan-73



                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-78



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Jan-83



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Jan-88



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Jan-93



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               Jan-98



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-03
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         (mS/cm)
         Jan-68


                           Jan-73


                                         Jan-78


                                                     Jan-83


                                                                 Jan-88


                                                                              Jan-93


                                                                                                Jan-98


                                                                                                                   Jan-03
                                                                                                                                                   (µS/cm)
 -10
                                                                                                                                        6000                                            -50                                                                                                                    1,000
 -20
                                                                                                                                        5000
 -30
                                                                                                                                                                                       -100                                                                                                                    750
 -40                                                                                                                                    4000

 -50                                                                                                                                                     AL1041 LEVEL
                                                                                                                                        3000                                           -150                                                                                                                    500        CD1075 LEVEL
 -60                                                                                                                                                     AL1230 EC
                                                                                                                                        2000                                                                                                                                                                              CD1132 LEVEL
 -70                                                                                                                                                                                   -200                                                                                                                    250
                                                                                                                                        1000                                                                                                                                                                              CD1085 EC
-80
water level (m below                                                                                                                                                                   water level (m below
-90 surface)                                                                                                                            0                                              -250 surface)                                                                                                           0


                          Electric conductivity and nitrate content in the JV Side Wadis basin                                                                                                                    Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the Azraq basin
1,500                                                                                                                                       50                                          0                                                                                                                       750
                                                                                                                                                             Nitrate                                                                                                                                                  Electric conductivity




                                                                                                                                                                                                 Jan-68



                                                                                                                                                                                                             Jan-73



                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Jan-78



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Jan-83



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Jan-88



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Jan-93



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Jan-98



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Jan-03
                Jan-68


                              Jan-73


                                            Jan-78


                                                        Jan-83


                                                                    Jan-88


                                                                                 Jan-93


                                                                                                   Jan-98


                                                                                                                      Jan-03



                                                                                                                                                       concentration (mg/l)                                                                                                                                                 (µS/cm)

1,200                                                                                                                                       40                                          -5                                                                                                                      600



  900                                                                                                                                       30                                         -10                                                                                                                      450



  600                                                                                                                                       20                                         -15                                                                                                                      300
                                                                                                                                                         AM1027 EC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            F1043 LEVEL
                                                                                                                                                         AM1027 NO3
  300                                                                                                                                       10                                         -20                                                                                                                      150
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            F1029 EC
 Electric conductivity
                                                                                                                                                                                       water level (m below
       (µS/cm)
     0                                                                                                                                      0                                          -25 surface)                                                                                                             0


                         Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the S.Wadi Araba basin                                                                                                                        Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the Disi basin
  0                                                                                                                                              1500                                        0                                                                                                                 1500
                                                                                                                                                         Electric conductivity                                                                                                                                    Electric conductivity
       Jan-68



                          Jan-73



                                          Jan-78



                                                       Jan-83



                                                                     Jan-88



                                                                                       Jan-93



                                                                                                          Jan-98



                                                                                                                               Jan-03




                                                                                                                                                                                                    Jan-68



                                                                                                                                                                                                               Jan-73



                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-78



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Jan-83



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Jan-88



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Jan-93



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               Jan-98



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-03
                                                                                                                                                                (µS/cm)                                                                                                                                                  (µS/cm)

 -2                                                                                                                                              1200                                   -20                                                                                                                    1200


 -4                                                                                                                                              900                                    -40                                                                                                                    900


 -6                                                                                                                                              600                                    -60                                                                                                                    600
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          E1406 LEVEL

 -8                                                                                                                                              300                                    -80                                                                                                                    300        E1307 EC
                                                                                                                                                            EA3009 LEVEL
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          E1515 EC
water level (m below                                                                                                                                                                   water level (m below
                                                                                                                                                            EA1004 EC
-10 surface)                                                                                                                                     0                                     -100 surface)                                                                                                           0


                                    Groundwater levels and electric conductivity in the Jafr basin                                                                                                           Groundwater levels and nitrate content in the Amman-Zarqa basin
  0                                                                                                                                              3000                                    0                                                                                                                 140
                                                                                                                                                         Electric conductivity                                                                                                                                              Nitrate
       Jan-68



                          Jan-73



                                         Jan-78



                                                       Jan-83



                                                                    Jan-88



                                                                                   Jan-93



                                                                                                         Jan-98



                                                                                                                            Jan-03




                                                                                                                                                                                                   Jan-68


                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-73


                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Jan-78


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Jan-83


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Jan-88


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Jan-93


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Jan-98


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Jan-03




                                                                                                                                                                (µS/cm)                                                                                                                                               concentration (mg/l)
                                                                                                                                                                                       -10
 -4                                                                                                                                              2500                                                                                                                                                      120
                                                                                                                                                                                       -20
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           100
 -8                                                                                                                                              2000                                  -30

                                                                                                                                                                                       -40                                                                                                                 80
-12                                                                                                                                              1500                                                                                                                                                                    AL1041 LEVEL
                                                                                                                                                                                       -50                                                                                                                 60
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         AL1037 NO3
-16                                                                                                                                              1000                                  -60
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           40            AL1230 NO3
                                                                                                                                                              G3081 LEVEL
                                                                                                                                                                                       -70
-20                                                                                                                                              500          G1038 EC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           20
                                                                                                                                                                                       -80
water level (m below                                                                                                                                                                   water level (m below
-24 surface)                                                                                                                                     0                                     -90 surface)                                                                                                        0




                                                                                                                                                                                 178
 Annex 2. Water quality: the institutional set-up
 Legislation and standard governing water quality management in Jordan
  The core legislation that governs water quality management is the following:
  Institutional aspects:
    i) The WAJ Law  18 of 1988 that defines the mandate of the Water Authority of Jordan. The law
       is implemented by WAJ. With respect to water quality,
   ii) The Jordan Valley Development Law  19 of 1988, amended by Law  30 of 2001, which
       defines the mandate of the Jordan Valley Authority. The law is implemented by JVA.
 iii) The MoWI Bylaw  54 of 1992 that defines the functions and organization of the Ministry of
       Water and Irrigation. The law is implemented by MoWI.
  iv) (Temporary) Public Health Law  54 of 2002, which defines the mandate of the Ministry of
       Health with respect to the monitoring the environmental health aspects of water resources,
       drinking water supply and wastewater collection and treatment. The law is implemented by MoH.
   v) The Environmental Protection Law  52 of 2006 that sets the framework for environmental
       management. It also defines responsibilities of the Ministry of Environment and can therefore
       equally be considered as an institutional regulation. The law is implemented by MoEnv.
  Implementation laws and regulations:
  vi) The Underground Water Control By-Law  85 of 2002 which was later adopted as
       Temporary Environment Law  12 of 2003. The law confirms that the underground water is
       property of the state and regulates all uses of underground water, including the drilling of
       extraction wells. The law does not have any provisions related to water quality (protection zones,
       etc.). The law is implemented by MoWI.
 vii) The Criminal Code, article 457 and 458, which instigate punishment for those who contaminate
       water. It seems that there is an overlap with the relevant chapter of the new Environmental
       Protection Law of 2006.
viii) The Wastewater Regulation  66 of 1994, which regulates the modalities of connecting
       households and estates to the public sewerage system. The regulation is implemented by WAJ.
  ix) The Management, Transportation and Handling of Harmful and Hazardous Substances
       Regulation  24 of 2005. The regulation authorizes the Ministry of Environment to establish an
       inter-ministerial commission that sets rules for permitting and handling of hazardous substances.
       It will improve emission of such substances to the environment, including water. The regulation
       is implemented by MoEnv.
   x) The Soil Protection Regulation  25 of 2005. The Regulation gives the Ministry of
       Environment (in consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture) the authority to provide
       instructions that prevent pollution and degradation of soils. The implementation of the
       Regulation will indirectly contribute to the protection of (underground) water resources through
       avoidance of pollution through the soil vector and impacting on groundwater recharge. The
       regulation is implemented by MoEnv.
  xi) The Management of Solid Waste Regulation  27 of 2005. The Regulation gives the Ministry
       of Environment the authority to provide instructions for the establishment and management of
       solid waste dumps and exercise control on its implementation, which could be very beneficial for
       the protection of underground water resources. The regulation is implemented by MoEnv.
 xii) The Natural Reserves and National Parks Regulation  29 of 2005. The regulation gives an
       opportunity to enhance conservation of water resources in special restricted areas. The regulation
       is implemented by MoEnv.



                                                   179
xiii) The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation  37 of 2005. The Regulation assesses the
      risk of (water) pollution for construction projects and other developments and therefore enables
      the prevention of pollution of water resources. The regulation is implemented by MoEnv.
 Standards:
 · Jordanian Standard 202/1991. Industrial Wastewater. The standard sets norms for the release of
      industrial wastewater to the environment.
 · Jordanian Standard 1145/1996. Uses of Treated Sludge in Agriculture.
 · Jordanian Standard 286/2001-4th edition. Technical Regulation Drinking Water.
 · Jordanian Standard 893/2002. Water-Reclaimed Domestic Wastewater.
 · The Instruction for disposal of commercial and industrial wastewater to the public
      sewerage system of the year 1998, Water Authority of Jordan, which gives guidelines for
      industries on what they can discharge to the public sewerage system and what not. The
      Instruction is not an official Jordanian Standard but in practice serves as such.

 Roles and Responsibilities in water management
 The MoWI Bylaw of 1992 very briefly mentions that the Ministry of Water and Irrigation shall
 take full responsibility for water and sewage; it refers to the WAJ Law of 1988 and the Jordan Valley
 Development Law of 1988 and its amendments and gives the Ministry the supervising responsibility
 on all authority given to WAJ and JVA in aforementioned laws. This authority includes planning,
 projects and water policy. There are no further details on these responsibilities in the general articles,
 but the articles on the functions of the respective directorates give some further indications of the
 Ministry functions. These functions include:
 · To prepare a strategy for the water sector and formulate long term plans and programs to secure
     the Kingdom's water requirements at all times and for various uses.
 · To conduct studies pertaining to the development of water resources and its preservation and
     protection from pollution, to the quality of water and emissions and solutions for the treatment,
     and to economic, social and demographic feasibilities related to the water strategy, plans and
     programs.
 · To collect and store water-relevant data and establish a computerized Water Information System
     in order to analyze the information pertaining to the water sector and its development.
 · To prepare and execute projects for improvement of water availability and quality, prepare
     relevant budgets, follow up on water expenditures, and follow up on disbursements from local
     and foreign loans, grants and technical aid.
 · Prepare draft laws, regulations and instructions pertaining to the Ministry's tasks.
 · Educate and inform the population with regard to the conservation of water consumption at
     houses, factories and agricultural fields, as well as the preservation of the environment.
 The WAJ Law of 1988 & Amendments vests the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) with a clear
 mandate to manage the water resources for drinking water supply and protect them from
 contamination by establishing sewerage systems. In particular, the WAJ should:
 · Survey the different water resources, conserve them, and determine ways, means and priorities
     for their implementation and use, except for the irrigation uses.
 · Plan and program the development of municipal water use and sanitation and develop and exploit
     water resources for this purpose, including digging of wells, desalination, etc.



                                                    180
·   Direct and regulate the construction of public and private wells and the extraction of water from
    these.
· Develop and operate public wastewater collection and treatment systems.
· Develop standards and other regulations to preserve and protect water resources and supervise
    their implementation.
· Develop and implement technical specifications for construction of drinking water supply and
    wastewater treatment systems.
· Issue permits for professionals working in the water supply and wastewater business and assist in
    their qualification.
· Regulate the uses of water, prevent its waste, and conserve its consumption.
According to the Jordan Valley Development Law of 2001, the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) is
responsible for the development of all water resources in the Jordan Valley, including its protection
and conservation and the carrying out of all works to realize these tasks. More in particular, JVA
should:
· Carry out studies required for the evaluation of the water resources including hydrological,
    hydro-geological and geological studies, drilling of exploratory wells and the establishment of
    observational stations.
· Plan, design, construct, operate and maintain irrigation projects and related structures and works
    of all types and purposes including dams, hydropower stations and related works, wells, pumping
    stations, reservoirs and water delivery and distribution networks, as well as surface and
    subsurface drainage works, flood protection works, and roads and buildings, needed for operation
    and maintenance.
· Settle disputes arising from the use of water resources.
· Organize and direct the construction of private and public wells.
· Develop, protect and improve the environment in the Valley and perform necessary works to
    achieve this objective, to prepare plans (both Master and Detailed Plans) for the lands outside the
    planning boundaries of the municipalities.
The Temporary Public Health Law of 2002 mandates the Ministry of Health (MoH) to monitor
potable water on its health aspects. This monitoring extends to the water resources used for drinking
(water in the distribution network and water at the tap). The Ministry also has a control task with
respect to the technology used in the water supply system. Moreover, the Ministry should control the
quality of treatment-plant effluent water and the technology used for the sewerage system.
The Environmental Protection Law of 2006 gives the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv) the
executive authority to protect the environment in all aspects. In the general articles of the Law, water
is not explicitly mentioned as a responsibility of the Ministry, but it is defined as part of the
environment (soil, water and air), and thus these articles apply to water as well. The Ministry will
therefore have the following tasks with respect to water:
    · To prepare standards and specifications related to water resources.
    · To monitor the status of water resources.
    · To issue instructions with respect to the protection of water resources, related to a multitude
         of human activities.
    · To monitor public and private corporations for compliance with set standards and
         instructions.



                                                  181
   ·    To coordinate national efforts for environmental protection, make awareness, prepare
        emergency plans, issue publications, etc.
The Law forbids the dumping of harmful substances in any form into the waters of the Kingdom and
the storage of such substances in the vicinity of water resources and invests the Ministry with police
functions, executed by a special branch of the Ministry, the Environmental Police.
Moreover, the Law enables levying environmental fees by the Ministry related to any form of
emission and opens the possibility to enforce adequate pollution abatement technology to public and
private companies. A regulation for the protection of water resources is foreseen in the Law, but has
not yet been prepared by the Ministry.




                                                 182
Description of the water quality monitoring system
Existing monitoring networks
An overview of the existing monitoring networks is given in the table below.
     object                       number of                      parameters                      number of            operator          remarks
                                   stations                                                      samples in
                                                                                                   2006
1A   environmental monitoring of water resources
     surface water, KAC,           6 KAC                 chemical, physical, nutrients,             250                 WAJ             sources of DW supply,
     wadis, reservoirs            6 wadis                      microbiological                                                          effects of effluent
                                2 reservoirs                                                                                            discharge
     surface water, rivers           30                  chemical, physical, nutrients,              ?          RSS, on behalf of JVA   monthly frequency,
                                                                microbiological                                                         actually less
     surface water, rivers            30                 chemical, physical, nutrients,              ?                  JVA             monthly frequency,
                                                                microbiological                                                         actually less
     surface water, rivers            13           8 in-situ parameters: temp., pH, EC, DO,      continuous;            RSS             EMARCU network
                                                          Turbidity, TP, TN and COD,            transmission
                                                                                                once per hour
                                                                                                   possible
     surface water rivers             22              chemical, physical, microbiological            120        RSS on behalf of MOE    sampling every two
                                                                                                                                        months
     surface water rivers             ?            chemical, physical, microbiological. heavy        ?                  MoH             surface water used for
                                                                    metals                                                              drinking water supply
     surface water, dams              10              chemical, physical, microbiological            57         RSS on behalf of MOE    sampling every two
                                                                                                                                        months
     surface water, dams              25            chemical, physical, nutrients, pathogens         ?                  JVA
     surface water, dams              15            chemical, physical, nutrients, pathogens         ?          RSS, on behalf of JVA
     groundwater                       ?                 chemical, physical, nutrients,              ?                  WAJ             wells and springs
                                                                microbiological
     groundwater                      10              chemical, physical, microbiological,           60                 MoE             drinking water production
                                                             chlorinated pesticides                                                     wells
     groundwater                      ?                  chemical, physical, nutrients,              ?                  MoH             wells used for drinking
                                                         microbiological, heavy metals                                                  water supply
1B   environmental monitoring of pollution sources
     (treated) industrial            55          chemical, physical, As, B, nutrients, NH4,         330                 WAJ
     wastewater discharged                                 COD, BOD, TDS, TSS
     to the public sewage
     network
     treated industrial              20             chemical, physical, microbiological,             80         RSS on behalf of MOE    WAJ monitored before but
     wastewater discharged                             phenols, heavy metals, nutrients                                                 stopped the monitoring
     to the environment or
     reused
     effluent of urban               33             chemical, physical, microbiological,            131         RSS on behalf of MOE
     wastewater treatment                              phenols, heavy metals, nutrients
     plants
2B   operational monitoring of drinking water supply
     drinking water in the            ?              chemical, physical, microbiological           31,000               WAJ             tap water sampling stations
     pumping stations,                                                                                                                  are random
     rerservoirs, network and
     at the tap
     drinking water in the            ?              chemical, physical, microbiological           6,800              NGWA              tap water sampling stations
     network and at the tap                                                                                                             change
     drinking water in the            ?              chemical, physical, microbiological          108,893            Miyahouna          tap water sampling stations
     network and at the tap                                                                                                             are random
     DW treatment stations                                                                                                              many samples for DW
                                                                                                                                        treatment stations
     drinking water at the           18         chemical, physical, microbiological, VOCs,          400                AWC
     wells, in the network                               heavy metals, pesticides
     and at the tap
2C   operational monitoring of wastewater treatment plants
     influent and effluent of     20 WAJ               BOD, COD, basic chemical,                    500                 WAJ
     urban wastewater            20 private             microbiological, nutrients
     treatment plants
     influent and effluent of         1            BOD, COD, basic physical-chemical,                48               NGWA              Irbid WWTP
     urban wastewater                                   microbiological, nutrients
     treatment plants
     influent and effluent of         2            BOD, COD, basic physical-chemical,                72                AWC              Aqaba WWTP
     urban wastewater                                   microbiological, nutrients
     treatment plants
3    environmental health monitoring
     drinking water                  20         chemical, physical, microbiological, heavy          120         RSS on behalf of MOE    frequency between 1-6
                                                            metals, pesticides                                                          times per year, depending
                                                                                                                                        on parameter
     drinking water                   ?                           pathogens                        20,000              MOH
     water tankers                    ?                           pathogens                        10,000              MOH
     surface water, tourist           5                chemical, physical, heavy metals,             20         RSS on behalf of MOE    sampling 4 times per year,
     resorts                                                   microbiological                                                          summer season
     effluent wastewater              22                          pathogens                         360                MOH
     treatment plants




                                                                                 183
The table is divided into three parts. The first part represents the environmental monitoring of the
quality of water resources and of pollution sources, including the monitoring of wastewater returning
to the environment, regardless whether this environment are surface waters, open water, irrigation
fields or evaporation ponds. The second part represents the quality control monitoring executed by
the water supply and sanitation operators to control drinking water quality, the influx of wastewater
into the public sewerage network, and the functioning of wastewater treatment plants. The third part
represents the monitoring related to environmental health issues (as far as water is concerned).
Operational monitoring necessary to control the processes of drinking water treatment, storage,
distribution and wastewater collection and treatment is considered to be part of the industrial process
and is not discussed here. It may include as many as two hour measurements of a number of
parameters in the larger drinking water treatment plants and in a number of sites within the larger
mechanical wastewater treatment plants. One larger plant can easily generate 40,000 analyses per
year.
The three branches of monitoring are discussed separately hereafter.

Environmental monitoring of water resources and sources of pollution

Environmental monitoring of water resources is implemented by a number of different agencies.
Surface waters, rivers, wadis, canals and dams are monitored by the Water Authority of Jordan
(WAJ), the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA), the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv) and the Ministry
of Health (MoH). MoEnv and JVA (partly) have their monitoring programs outsourced to the Royal
Scientific Society (RSS), mainly because MoEnv has no laboratory capacity and the laboratory
capacity of JVA is limited. The aforementioned monitoring networks exist of approximately 60
different stations, the majority of them in the Jordan Valley and its side wadis. The typical
monitoring frequency is between 4 and 12 times per year. The data in the different databases indicate
that the monitoring of some of the networks is rather irregular, not according to the planned schedule
and below the planned frequency. The contracted monitoring programs executed by RSS are the most
regular in this sense. Typical parameters include the standard chemical and physical parameter sets,
microbiological parameters, nutrients and in some cases heavy metals. Apart from aforementioned
monitoring, RSS operates a real time monitoring network of 13 stations, which, on the basis on
continuous sampling, produces data on 8 in-situ parameters with a frequency of once per hour (less
when parameters do not change significantly).
Despite the large involvement of literally all potential monitoring entities, the monitoring of surface
water resources is deficient. The programs with the higher frequencies in theory (WAJ, JVA) lack
funds and usually skip quite some of the planned measurements, long-term historical data series
(longer than 10 years) are not available in electronic form and existing bases of raw data are not
accessible for third parties, even not for those who pay for the execution of the monitoring programs
(MoEnv, JVA). There are also large overlaps and redundancies that unnecessary consume scarce
funds and there are clear deficiencies in the design of the programs (endless repetition of well-known
standard chemical and physical parameters that does not contribute anything to neither the
management nor the protection of the resources and a lack of (flexible) measurement of toxic
parameters such as heavy metals in reservoir sediments and toxic organic components (pesticides,
others). Also, monitoring of the environmental status of surface waters (biodiversity, saprobic
indices), which may be of interest for a limited number of water resources, lacks completely.




                                                 184
Groundwater is monitored by WAJ, MoH and MoEnv. The main institution that monitors
groundwater on a large scale is WAJ. MoH and MoEnv make health control and environmental
checks respectively on the groundwater resources, but their monitoring program is limited to the
main wells used for drinking water supply.
WAJ registers the basic water quality analysis of each well that is drilled in Jordan at the moment of
drilling. However, most of this data is not stored in an electronic database and regular follow-up
measurements of water quality only takes place in about 200-220 wells, roughly twice yearly.
Monitoring takes place at varying intervals; some wells are monitored once a year, others more
frequently. Parameters are usually limited to the standards chemical composition, pH, EC or TDS,
nitrates. Pesticides and other organic toxics are measured occasionally, but there concentrations are
usually lower than the standards for drinking water supply. The same holds for heavy metals.
From investigations in the database (WIS) it is clear that groundwater quality monitoring is not well
integrated with quantitative monitoring. Where in groundwater there is a strong relation between
groundwater extraction, levels and groundwater quality; these parameters should be measured in an
integrated way. This is particularly true for water levels and water quality parameters; these should
basically be measured at the same location and observation well. This is however hardly the case; it
is difficult to find wells that have at the same time water level and water quality observations. This
hampers the analysis of the development of water quality
MoH measures groundwater quality in 120 selected wells that are used for drinking water supply. A
set of chemical-physical parameters is measured, as well as microbiological parameters and heavy
metals.
Also MoEnv measures the groundwater quality in 10 selected wells; these wells represent important
groundwater extraction well fields, serving drinking water supply; parameters measured a set of
chemical-physical parameters, microbiological parameters, nitrates and chlorinated pesticides.

Quality control monitoring of drinking water supply and sanitation
Quality Control Monitoring of drinking water supply is executed by WAJ, as responsible legal
entity for drinking water supply and sanitation. Some of the monitoring is also implemented by the
public or private entities responsible for the water supply of Irbid (Northern Governorates Water
Authority (NGWA)), Amman (Miyahouna) and Aqaba (Aqaba Water Company (AWC)). These
entities all have their own laboratories, but some of them also outsource laboratory analyses to WAJ.
To control water quality for the consumer, WAJ analyzed almost 31,000 samples in 2006, mainly for
pathogenic germs. Of these samples, 98.8% complies with the Jordanian water quality standards.
This is a respectable result, amply above the norm set by WHO at 95%. Pathogenic germs included
in the analysis in the WAJ laboratory are (among others): Total coliforms, Fecal coliforms, E-coli,
Pseudomonas, Fecal streptococcus, Clostridium, Nematodes, Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Helminth
eggs. Moreover, WAJ analyzed the physical-chemical characteristics of almost 30,000 samples of
water before and after treatment (WAJ, 2006). The physical-chemical parameters include i.a.
Chlorophyll-a, odor, BOD5, COD, PO4, P-tot, NH4, NO3, N-tot, EC, DO, pH, a series of heavy
metals, TDS, TSS, turbidity, temperature and residual chlorine. Occasionally pesticides, VOCs and
herbicides are analyzed. The number of samples seems to be in excess by a factor two of what is
required by the Jordanian Standard 286/2001 [JS 286/2001]. It is therefore assumed that some of the
monitoring reported by WAJ is operational monitoring.
NGWA is responsible for the water supply of the city of Irbid. It monitors water resources (wells and
springs), the distribution network, process stages of the treatment plants, and the effluent of



                                                 185
wastewater treatment plants. In the year 2006, almost 1500 samples were taken for chemical analysis,
5100 samples for microbiological analysis and 200 for biochemical analysis. Again the number of
samples seems larger than required by Jordanian Standard 286/2001, which would amount to approx.
700-800 samples per year. Operational monitoring is probably included in this sampling as well.
Miyahouna is responsible for the water supply and wastewater collection in the Amman Governorate.
It monitors raw water sources, such as the King Abdullah Canal at different locations and the wells
and springs used for the drinking water supply of Amman. It also monitors the drinking water
treatment process at the 3 treatment plants (Zai, Wadi Al-Seer and Russeifa, and the water quality in
different parts of the distribution system. All together, Miyahouna collects and analyses more than
100,000 samples per year. Miyahouna reports as main problems with the monitoring system (MoWI
et al, 2007); overlaps with WAJ monitoring, locations are not sufficiently prepared for sampling,
frequencies and type of testing is not well regulated in the respective regulations, and there is a lack
of cooperation from customers in issues of access to sampling points. The large amount of samples
reported by Miyahouna, makes believe that this is mainly operational monitoring, not quality control
monitoring. There is no information available that separates these two types of monitoring.
AWC is responsible for drinking water supply and sanitation in the Aqaba Special Economic Zone,
which mainly comprises the city of Aqaba with approx. 100,000 inhabitants. It takes approximately
400 samples per year of drinking water in the distribution network and at the tap. Analysis of E-coli,
Helminth eggs, of a large number of physical-chemical parameters as well as heavy metals,
pesticides, herbicides and VOCs are all included.
As almost all wastewater in Jordan is being reused the quality control monitoring of wastewater
treatment plants normally takes place according to the Jordanian Standard 893/2002 (JS 893/2002)
which sets minimal quality control monitoring requirements for operating and monitoring parties.
Depending on whether the plant is mechanical or biological, operating parties are required to monitor
most parameters eight times or four times per month. For monitoring parties this is two or one time
per month.
All operating parties (WAJ, NGWA and AWC) are executing their monitoring as if they where
monitoring, not operating parties (and therefore do not take sufficient samples). There seems to be no
clear idea about the difference between operating and monitoring parties. The required parameters
are in general respected.
From the information acquired, it seems that there is sufficient quality control monitoring of drinking
water supply, but that quality control monitoring of treated wastewater needs readjustment.

Environmental health monitoring
With respect to water, environmental health monitoring relates mainly to the hygienic control of
produced drinking water and to direct use by the population of water resources, such as bathing and
recreation.
Due to a high degree of drinking water supply to the population (In the year 2005, 97% of the
households in Jordan was directly connected to the public drinking water system (WAJ, 2006)),
control of the drinking water supply on hygienic aspects takes mainly place by sampling from the
sources, the distribution network and the tap. Apart from quality control monitoring by the drinking
water supply companies (operators), the main responsible for this type of monitoring is the Ministry
of Health (MoH). Approximately 20,000 samples are taken every year to exercise this function
(WAJ, 2006). The Ministry reports less than 1% not compliant with Jordanian standards, a better
figure than WAJ reports.



                                                  186
Another aspect of this monitoring is due to the intermittent character of the drinking water supply in
Jordan. With very few exceptions in the winter period only, water supply in Jordan is intermittent;
water comes for approx. 8 hours once or twice a week. Due to this, particularly for households where
the frequency is even less and those who cannot afford to build large storage reservoirs, water is
often supplied by tankers. MoH does frequent sampling of these tankers; approximately 10,000
samples are taken each year. Approx. 2% of the samples doe not comply with the Jordanian
standards for microbiological parameters.
Apart from aforementioned, MoH also controls the quality of the effluent of treatment plants. It takes
one sample per month from treatment plants that use stabilization ponds and two samples per month
from mechanical treatment plants, conform the Jordanian standard for reclaimed domestic
wastewater JS893/2002 (as monitoring party!). Next to this there are visual inspections on the well-
functioning of treatment plants and the use of reclaimed wastewater for certain types of crops.
The responsibility for the quality control of bathing and recreation water is with MoEnv. Five
traditional bathing places are monitored on chemical-physical and microbiological parameters once
per month in the summer (bathing) season.
Apart from this MoEnv also exercises quality control of drinking water and of treatment plants
effluents. The amount of samples for drinking water supply (120) is very modest compared to the
amount of samples collected by MoH (20,000). The monitoring program for wastewater is about the
same order of magnitude: 114 (MoEnv) vs. 360 (MoH) samples.
Validation of the national water quality monitoring system
Responsibilities
From the aforementioned, it is clear that there is a considerable overlap, but also redundancy, in
water quality monitoring activities. This is partly due to a somewhat chaotic institutional
development of the water quality sector over the last 10-15 years, partly to unclear or misunderstood
institutional mandates and partly to unclear objectives as for the justification of monitoring programs,
parameters and frequencies. The three causes are obviously interrelated. The overlap in monitoring
becomes even clearer from Table 53:

Table 53. Present responsibilities for different types of monitoring




Clear overlaps exist in monitoring of surface water resources, quality control monitoring, and
environmental health monitoring.




                                                  187
In order to discuss who should be involved in what monitoring, a short overview needs to be given of
core responsibilities of the different ministries and entities.
MoWI is responsible for the management of water resources. It should therefore dispose of adequate
information on quantities of available water resources and its quality aspects. In this sense it is
logical that MoWI executes the main monitoring on water resources. This said, it should be noted
that MoWI has an institutional weakness in the sense that it confides water quality monitoring to
WAJ and to a less extent to JVA, which are both executive water supply agencies that manage, use
and pollute water resources. This presents a well-known conflict in the sense that worldwide
experience shows that the adequate stewardship of water resources is difficult to combine with water
industry functions of WAJ and JVA. For the sake of water quality it might therefore be wiser to trust
water quality monitoring to an independent (of any water use) third party such as MoEnv. A separate
water resources body would also be a good monitoring entity, but it does not exist in Jordan.
In the case of Jordan, control functions regarding the water industry (drinking water supply and
wastewater treatment should in general not be entrusted to the same Ministry (MoWI) that is
responsible for the water industry, but rather to independent Ministries, such as MoH and MoEnv. To
some extent this is already the case, but WAJ (part of MoWI) still plays a double role; on the one
hand it is still drinking water supplier and operator for all but the largest three cities, on the other
hand it controls the quality of water supply; the same holds for wastewater treatment. The role of
WAJ would become clearer if all operation of drinking water supply and wastewater collection and
treatment would be outsourced to third parties (private companies, private-public partnerships or
municipalities) and WAJ would resume the role of supervising body.
The operators assigned by the Government for the operation of drinking water supply and wastewater
collection and treatment (NGWA, Miyahouna, AWC, the future private-public operator of the new
As-Samra WWTP, etc.) should limit themselves to purely operational monitoring. It is not clear if
this principle is at the moment well understood.
MoWI/WAJ is also clearly responsible for the monitoring of industrial effluents that enter the public
sewerage network under responsibility of WAJ.
MoH is responsible for all monitoring that concerns health aspects. This clearly applies to the
monitoring of drinking water before it is consumed by the population, regardless whether it is
distributed by the respective drinking water supply operators or delivered by water tankers. It should
also apply to bathing waters, where MoH is however not active.
It is doubtful whether MoH monitoring should also extend to groundwater and surface water
resources themselves; there seems to be a large overlap here and it seems sufficient that MoH
monitors drinking water after it has past treatment, i.e. directly before it is delivered to the consumers
and in important storage reservoirs on its way.
Also the role of MoH in the control of WWTP effluent should be reconsidered. Where the
responsibility for wastewater treatment and its quality control is the responsibility of MoWI/WAJ
and almost all wastewater is reused, the role of MoH would be much more effective in controlling
whether the water is indeed used for the purposes indicated in the Jordanian Standard 893/2002 and
is properly handled by those responsible for its re-use. Partly this is already done, but it should be
more clearly become a major responsibility of MoH.
MoEnv is responsible for all monitoring that is linked to environmental issues. This includes the
general quality of water resources (groundwater and surface water), wastewater returning to the
environment and all pollution sources that emit to the environment. The definition of emission to the



                                                   188
environment should eventually include industrial wastewater that is reused on the industrial
compound for irrigation purposes.
Regarding the monitoring of the quality of water resources there is definitely a (responsibility) grey
zone that may be very difficult to resolve. On the one hand, MoWI needs certain information to
enable proper management of quantity and quality aspects of water resources; on the other hand
MoEnv needs a detailed overview of the existing quality and its trends to enable environmental
policy-making. In EU countries this problem has largely been solved by the integration of
environmental and water ministries that took place over the last 10-20 years. In the Middle East, with
its scarce water resources, such integration is not likely and other solutions have to be found. A major
component of any solution is however to co-ordinate properly, avoid overlaps and fully exchange
data. Even though a start has been made in 2007 through the Royal Commission on Water, much
remains to be done.
With regard to the monitoring of WWTP effluent, a strong overlap exists between WAJ, MoH and
MoEnv. This needs to be sorted out in order to increase the efficiency of the monitoring system.
Basically WAJ should take the quality control monitoring of the urban WWTPs, but only for those it
does not operate itself. One could imagine a division of tasks between MoH and MoEnv, where MoH
concentrates on microbiological parameters and MoEnv on the other parameters. This should also be
properly discussed.
Other considerations, such as existing monitoring systems that work more or less adequate,
knowledge of staff in the different institutions, existing laboratory capacity and quality, should also
be reviewed when discussing the required monitoring system. Due to the fact that Jordan is a country
of limited financial resources, in any case overlap of monitoring should be avoided!
Monitoring parameters
Most probably due to the ease with which such parameters can be measured (no sophisticated
laboratory or field equipment is needed), standard chemical and physical parameters form the bulk of
the monitoring observations. For most water resources and effluents, there is obviously no need to
repeat measurements of chemical composition and a number of physical parameters (pH for
instance), every time a sample is taken.
Also, where certain parameters score consequently below the limit of detection (heavy metals,
pesticides), or below the limit of concern (SO4, boron, CU, Fe, Mn, etc.), there is obviously no reason
to repeat them all the time and they can be left out or the frequency of their measurement can be
reduced.
Monitoring frequency
Following the aforementioned, monitoring frequency should be maintained more flexible.
It is necessary to introduce the concept of baseline survey. These are extended surveys that cover
eventually up to hundred parameters, but are executed only every five years or so over all monitoring
sites; as a vertical element, the baseline survey can eventually include seasonality as well where this
is relevant (surface water e.g.). Based on the outcome of the baseline survey, the parameters to be
measured in each monitoring point and their frequency will be set.
The best examples of this way of working are at the moment the monitoring requirements of
Jordanian Standard 893/2002, where rather different frequencies are used for different parameters
and the monitoring program executed by RSS on behalf of MoEnv, where there are different
frequencies for different parameter sets and for different stations. The latter lacks however the basis
of a baseline study and more diversity could be introduced (like leaving out certain parameter for a


                                                  189
longer period, etc. All this needs to be studied in more detail, but it is estimated that in this way at
least half of the present monitoring costs could be saved without disposing of less essential
information, saved money which then could be used to increase the quality of the monitoring (extra
parameters, less data gaps, etc.
All the above considerations should lead to a revision of the present monitoring system. Such a
system could take the form as briefly described in Table 54. Please note that the schedule is
preliminary it needs more investigations and above all discussion between the different monitoring
entities.

Table 54. Revised monitoring system; preliminary proposal




Laboratory facilities

A review of laboratory facilities is not subject of this study. It is sufficient to indicate that basically
seven (groups of) laboratories are at this moment available (and being used) for water quality
analysis. The groups usually exist of a central laboratory and a number of small regional laboratories
(except in the case of JVA and RSS which have only a central laboratory. Three of these are
operational control laboratories (Miyahouna, NGWA, AWC), the other four are used for measuring
the quality of water resources, for quality control and for the control of pollution sources. These are
the laboratories of WAJ, JVA, MoH and RSS. MoEnv does not dispose of own laboratories but uses
the laboratory of RSS.

All mentioned laboratories have quality control systems in place that include exchange of samples
with external laboratories as well. The grade of sophistication is somewhat different between the
laboratories, but all seem to have reasonable to good working conditions (physical space, training of
staff, management, etc.). None of the mentioned laboratories dominates the complete range of all
possible water quality analysis, but all are able to make measurements of standard physical-chemical
parameters, microbiological parameters, heavy metals and the most common types of organic toxic
pollutant.



                                                   190
Annex 3: Transport - pollution model: additional information
Table 55. List of officials consulted for the development of transport model

Name                          Title, Affiliation                             Institution
Abdel Majeed Khabour          Director of Zarqa Directorate                  MoEnv
Adnan Zawahreh                Director of Inspection and Enforcement         MoEnv
Ahmad Rusan                   Director of Administrative Services            MoEnv
Ahmed Qatarneh                Director of Licensing and Guidance             MoEnv
Ahmed Uleimat                 Head Environmental Monitoring &Impact          Water Authority of Jordan
                              Assessment Division
Ali Abadi                     USAID funded Jordan Industrial Manifest        MoEnv
                              Project
Ali Suboh                     Environment protection directorate             MoWI
Al-Sharifeh Nawzat Bint Ali   UNCC Project Legal Advisor                     MoEnv
Ayman Sulaiman                                                               ASEZA
                              Coordinator, Air Quality Monitoring
Bashar Abbadi,                Head of Planning and Studies                   GAM
Bassam Hayek                  Director of Environment Research Center        RSS
Batir Wardam                  Assistant manager- Environmental Claims Unit   MoEnv
Danuta El Ghuff               Task Manager Development and Regional          EC Delegation Jordan
                              Cooperation
Eman Balqar                   Local development and investment department    MoMA
Eng. Enas Ahed                MoEnv Salt regional directorate                MoEnv
Esam Al-Faqir                 Director of Financial Services                 MoEnv
Fadi Sharaiha                 Executive Director                             Royal Marine     Conservation
                                                                             Society
Faisal Abu Sondus                                                            JREDS
                              Projects Manager
Faraj Fayad                   Directorate of Monitoring and Assessment       MoEnv
HE Bilal Bashir                                                              ASEZA
                              Commissioner for environment
HE Faris Al-Junaidi           Secretary General                              MoEnv
HE Khaled Irani               Minister of Environment                        MoEnv
Heinz Schweinbenz             Director of Transport                          Greater Amman Municipality
Henri Masson                  Team Leader - Institutional Strengthening of   MoEnv
                              the Environmental Directorates in the
                              Governorates of Jordan ­ EU project
Hussein Badarin               Director of Monitoring and Assessment          MoEnv
Hussein Shahin                Nature protection directorate                  MoEnv
Islam Maghayreh                                                              JSCDBD
                              Secretary General
Issa Shboul                   Media advisor                                  MoEnv
Khalaf Al-Oglah               Director of Irbid MoEnv Directorate            MoEnv



                                                      191
Name                      Title, Affiliation                                Institution
                                                                            MoEnv
Khaled Majali             Project Management directorate
Khaled Nassar                                                               JSSD
                          Director General
Lt. Colonel Mohammad al   Deputy                                            Environmental Rangers
Majali
Major Fawaz Elfayez       Chief of Administration and Personnel             Environmental Rangers
Mazen Khalel                                                                ASEZA
                          Director, Directorate of environment
Mohammad Alam             Monitoring and Assessment Directorate             MoEnv
                          Director of Environment and General Sanitary      GAM
Mohammad Amayreh
                          Dept (EGSD)/
Mohammed Amawi            Component leader: removal of Government           Sustainable Achievement of
                          constraints on private sector competitiveness     Business    Expansion  and
                                                                            Quality (SABEQ) ­ USAID
                                                                            funded program
Mohammed Khashashneh      Director of Waste Management and Hazardous        MoEnv
                          Substances
Munjed Al-Sharif          Director of Queen Rania Al-Abdullah Center        Jordan University of Science
                          for Environmental Science and Technology          and Technology
Nayef Rawshdeh            Head of Multi-Transport                           Ministry of transport
Omar Abu-Eid              Environment and Energy Focal Point                EC Delegation Jordan
Omar Shabsough            Cities, villages and central buildings planning   MoMA
                          department
Ra'eda Ouran              Regional planning department                      MoMA
Raji Hattar               Chief Projects Officer                            Aramex
Randa Rabadi              Head of Road Freight Transport                    Ministry of transport
Raouf Dabbas              Advisor                                           MoEnv
Ruba Al-Zoubi             Director of Policy and Development                MoEnv
Saleh Jaradat             Planning department                               MoMA
Saleh Kharabsheh          Director of Projects Department                   MoPIC
Salim Moughrabi           Head of the Environment Impact Assessment         ASEZA
Sana'a Labadi             Director of Outreach                              MoEnv
Talat al Dabbas           Director of Salt regional directorate             MoEnv
Tamara Bakir              Head of environment department                    MoMA
                          Head of Environment section                       GAM
Thaer Abbadi;
Wijdan Rabadi             Director of Cost and Pricing Department           Ministry of Energy and
                                                                            Mineral Resources
Yehya Khaled              Director General                                  Royal    Society    for  the
                                                                            Conservation of Nature
Zaidoun El-Qasem          Eng., Amman Master Plan Department                Greater Amman Municipality
Zaki El-Ayoubi            Director General                                  Jordan Chamber of Industry




                                                   192
List of Data used in Transport model

Fuel sales in Governorates, 2006. PTRC 2007
Number and age of public transport vehicles, PTRC 2007
Public transport vehicles distributed on routes, PTRC 2007
Phosphate transport by train and diesel consumption 2006, Ministry of Transport 2007
Vehicle statistics according to registration year and vehicle category, Drivers and Vehicle Licensing
Directorate, 2007
Vehicle inspection emission data, Drivers and Vehicle Licensing Directorate, 2007
Distribution of Jordan population by Governorates by end 2004, Department of Statistics, Population and
housing censes 2004
The Transport Sector in Jordan. Ministry of Transport, Annual Report 2005.




                                                    193
Emission factors used in the Transport model


Road emission
Table 56. 2005 emission factors
                 Emission        Fuel           pass. Car     LDV            HDV           urban bus          coach            motorcycle
Germany          CO              diesel         0,275         0,318          1,303         2,401              1,557                            [g/VehKm]
Germany          CO              gas            2,716         10,787                                                           11,064          [g/VehKm]
Germany          CO2             diesel         170,969       245,997        685,63        951,946            869,188                          [g/VehKm]
Germany          CO2             gas            185,583       250,959                                                          98,71           [g/VehKm]
Germany          Fuel            diesel         53,848        77,479         215,946       299,826            273,76                           [g/VehKm]
Germany          Fuel            gas            58,451        79,042                                                           31,09           [g/VehKm]
Germany          HC              diesel         0,053         0,058          0,36          0,708              0,47                             [g/VehKm]
Germany          HC              gas            0,181         0,538                                                            1,865           [g/VehKm]
Germany          NOx             diesel         0,519         0,715          7,03          9,906              8,796                            [g/VehKm]
Germany          NOx             gas            0,214         0,786                                                            0,328           [g/VehKm]
Germany          PM              diesel         0,04          0,071          0,161         0,28               0,203                            [g/VehKm]
Germany          PM              gas            0             0                                                                0               [g/VehKm]


Table 57. 1990 emission factors
Country   Emission      Fuel      pass. Car            LDV         HDV     urban bus      coach      motorcycle
Germany   CO            diesel          0,513         1,149        2,216         7,009     2,239                  [g/VehKm]
Germany   CO             gas            13,19        34,109                                          15,21        [g/VehKm]
Germany   CO2           diesel      207,54          280,109    753,526      974,722      937,573                  [g/VehKm]
Germany   CO2            gas       224,476          298,764                                          104,682      [g/VehKm]
Germany   Fuel          diesel      65,367           88,223    237,331      306,999      295,299                  [g/VehKm]
Germany   Fuel           gas        70,701           94,099                                          32,971       [g/VehKm]
Germany   HC            diesel          0,102         0,233        0,934         2,574     0,764                  [g/VehKm]
Germany   HC             gas            2,941         4,643                                          5,303        [g/VehKm]
Germany   NOx           diesel          0,622         1,074       10,639     12,718       12,419                  [g/VehKm]
Germany   NOx            gas            1,668         2,673                                          0,177        [g/VehKm]
Germany   PM            diesel   0,172425            0,3762   0,656925     1,682925       0,6726     0            [g/VehKm]
Germany   PM             gas               0              0            0            0         0      0            [g/VehKm]
Jordan    SO2           diesel          14,28         14,28        14,28         14,28     14,28     14,28        g/l diesel       S%   0,85 Jordan refinery
Jordan    SO2            gas                                                                                      g/l gasoline
Jordan    Pb            diesel             0                                                                      g/l diesel
Jordan    Pb             gas       0,12561                                                           0,12561      g/l gasoline Pb% 0,12561
Source: HBEFA Handbuch, German Ministry of Environment Http://www.hbefa.net/Tools/EN/MainSite.asp




                                                                           194
Table 58. Pre 1990 emission factors
Country     Emission    Fuel      pass. Car      LDV        HDV        urban bus         coach    motorcycle
Germany     CO          diesel      0,6156     1,3788     2,6592            8,4108      2,6868                 [g/VehKm]      CO Factor   1,2
Germany     CO          gas         15,828    40,9308                                               18,252     [g/VehKm]
Germany     CO2         diesel      207,54    280,109    753,526           974,722     937,573                 [g/VehKm]
Germany     CO2         gas        224,476    298,764                                             104,682      [g/VehKm]
Germany     Fuel        diesel      65,367     88,223    237,331           306,999     295,299                 [g/VehKm]
Germany     Fuel        gas         70,701     94,099                                               32,971     [g/VehKm]
Germany     HC          diesel      0,1224     0,2796     1,1208            3,0888      0,9168                 [g/VehKm]      HC factor   1,2
Germany     HC          gas         3,5292     5,5716                                               6,3636     [g/VehKm]
Germany     NOx         diesel       0,622      1,074     10,639            12,718      12,419                 [g/VehKm]
Germany     NOx         gas          1,668      2,673                                                0,177     [g/VehKm]
Germany     PM          diesel     0,20691    0,45144    0,78831           2,01951     0,80712           0     [g/VehKm]      PM factor   1,2
Germany     PM          gas              0          0            0                 0         0           0     [g/VehKm]
Jordan      SO2         diesel       14,28      14,28      14,28             14,28       14,28       14,28     g/l diesel
Jordan      SO2         gas              0          0            0                 0         0           0     g/l gasoline
Jordan      Pb          diesel           0          0            0                 0         0           0     g/l diesel
Jordan      Pb          gas        0,12561          0            0                 0         0    0,12561      g/l diesel
Source: HBEFA handbuch, German Ministry of Environment           Http://www.hbefa.net/Tools/EN/MainSite.asp




Table 59. Rail emission factors
                                                     Passenger             Freight
Emission                 Fuel
                                                     g/pass.km             g/tonne km

CO2                      diesel                          20,83             21,08
CO2                      elect                           58,30             60,70
NOx                      diesel                           0,40             0,40
NOx                      elect                            0,24             0,25
VOC                      diesel                           0,13             0,13
VOC                      elect                            0,06             0,06        VOC is assumed to be a proxi for HC
PM                       diesel                           0,23             0,19
PM                       elect                            0,31             0,26
SO2                      diesel                           0,09             0,09        SO2 estimated as for road transport
SO2                      elect
Source: External costs of transport in Central and Eastern Europe, OECD 27-28 May 2003, p 76-77




                                                                     195
Annex 4. Public environmental expenditure review
According to the World Bank Environment Strategy Paper (Lundethors & Swanson, 2003), the
public environmental expenditure is defined as expenditure by public institutions for purposeful
activities aimed directly at the prevention, reduction, and elimination of pollution or any other
degradation of the environment resulting from human activities, as well as natural resource
management activities not aimed at resource exploitation or production.

In 2003, five international organizations namely: the United Nations, European Commission,
International Monetary Fund, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the
World Bank has circulated the final draft for the "Handbook of National Accounting for Integrated
Environmental and Economic Accounting 2003". The handbook contained detailed revision of the
United Nations Handbook of National Accounting known as ­ System of Integrated Environmental
and Economic Accounting (SEEA). The main feature of the handbook is the provision of a common
framework for economic and environmental information, allowing a consistent analysis of the
contribution of the environment to the economy and of the impact of the economy on the
environment. The main purpose of the handbook is to meet the needs of policy makers by providing
indicators and descriptive statistics to monitor the interaction between the economy and the
environment as well as serving as a tool for strategic planning and policy analysis to identify more
sustainable development paths (UN, 2003).

The environmental protection accounts aim to measure what is being done to protect the
environment, in terms of environmental protection and management activities, products to protect the
environment and expenditure on these goods and services. These types of environmental protection
activities intended to restore the environment are defined in details in the classification of
environmental protection activities and expenditure (CEPA 2000). The full classification of
environmental protection activities (CEPA) generally classifies these activities into environmental
"domains" which are protected for example air, water, soil and groundwater, biodiversity and
landscape. In other words, the CEPA is a generic, multi-purpose, functional classification for
environmental protection. It is used for classifying activities but also products, actual expenditure and
other transactions. The classification unit is often determined by the units of the primary data sources
that are being classified and by the presentation formats used for results.

The compilation of environmental expenditure accounts requires determining environmental
protection activities and their output of environmental protection services by categories of CEPA.
Environmental protection activities are production activities in the sense of national accounts. The
CEPA is designed to classify transactions and activities whose primary purpose is environmental
protection. The management of natural resources (for example, water supply) and the prevention of
natural hazards (landslides, floods, etc.) are not included in CEPA. Resource management and
prevention of natural hazards are covered in broader frameworks (for example, SERIEE (Eurostat,
1994) or the OECD/Eurostat (1999) environment industry manual). Separate classifications (for
resource management for example) should be set up which, together with the CEPA, would be part
of a family of environment-related classifications. Box 1 shows the Classification of Environmental
Protection Activities (CEPA) for environmental protection expenditure domains. A major part of this
part of the study was devoted to the explanation of these definitions.




                                                  196
Box 13. Definition: Classification of Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA)
1. Protection of ambient air and climate
2. Wastewater management
3. Waste management
4. Protection and remediation of soil, groundwater and surface water
5. Noise and vibration abatement
6. Protection of biodiversity and landscape
7. Protection against radiation
8. Research and development
9. Other environmental protection activities
9.1 General environmental administration and management
9.2 Education, training and information
9.3 Activities leading to indivisible expenditure
9.4 Activities not elsewhere specified


Jordan Environmental Expenditure

The public environmental expenditure in Jordan has been reported in the "General Government
Finance Bulletins" for the years 2002-2005. It has been prepared according to the functional
classification definitions stated in the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS) adopted by the
Government of Jordan in the year 2001.

The Jordan environmental protection functional classification is based on the European system of
collecting economic data on environment which was issued by the EUROSTAT. The improved
version of the European statisticians and accountants that adopted a common classification of
environmental protection activities was replaced in 2000. The EUROSTAT functional classification
which has been adopted by Jordanian Government in 2001 is referred to as "the Classification of
Functions of Government (COFOG)". The European (COFOG) is a central classification of national
accounts. It classifies General Government transactions according to purpose and thus permits the
identification of actual or imputed expenditure made in connection with particular functions or to
achieve particular purposes. The function of environmental protection in the COFOG is based upon
the Classification of Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA). The COFOG includes a full
division dedicated to environmental protection. Within this division 6 groups are distinguished:

    ·   05.1: Waste management
    ·   05.2: Wastewater management
    ·   05.3: Pollution abatement
    ·   05.4: Protection of biodiversity and landscape
    ·   05.5: R&D environmental protection
    ·   05.6: Environmental protection not elsewhere classified

Table 60 shows the functional division of the public environmental expenditure in Jordan coded
based on the functional groups of expenditure which correspondence to the above mentioned
COFOG which is also based on the Classification of Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA).
The table also shows the division of the 6 groups of expenditure into current and capital.




                                                  197
Table 60. Jordan Public Expenditures According to Functional Classification
code        Functional               Code         Functional Group            Current          Capital          Total
            Division                                                        Expenditures     Expenditures
705         Environmental            7051         Waste
            protection                            management
                                     7052         Wastewater
                                                  Management
                                     7053         Pollution
                                                  abatement
                                     7054         Protection        of
                                                  biodiversity     and
                                                  landscape
                                     7055         R&D
                                                  Environmental
                                                  Protection
                                     7056         Environmental
                                                  Protection n.e.c.
                                 Total
706         Housing          and 7061             Housing
            community                             development
            Amenities                7063         Water supply
                                     Total
710         Social Protection        7106         Housing
                                     Total

As indicated above, the above breakdown in table 1 of the COFOG is based upon the EUROSTAT
system and the CEPA 2000. The links between the classification system and the categories of
expenditures used in COFOG and CEPA are presented in Table 61. The comparison in the table
helps to understand which expenditures are included. It can be concluded from the comparison that
all domains in Jordan PEE is included in the CEPA. However, Jordan PEE lacks the kind of details
included in the CEPA. The lack of details in the Jordan PEE resulted in filing many items of
expenditures on environmental protection into category 705.6 not elsewhere classified (n.e.c.)

Table 61: Jordan public environmental protection expectorer (705) vs CEPA

                                                                      Corresponding domains in Classification of
Jordanian functional classification definitions as stated
                                                                      Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA 2000)
in the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS)
adopted by the Government of Jordan in the year 2001
7051 Waste management:                                                3. Waste management
This group covers the collection and treating waste. Which
includes the following:                                               3.1    Prevention of pollution through in-process
· The collection and treatment of waste, including                           modifications
     monitoring and regulation activities.                            3.2 Collection and transport
· The recycling and composting, the collection and                    3.3 Treatment and disposal of hazardous waste
     treatment of low level radioactive waste, street                      3.3.1 Thermal treatment
     cleaning and the collection of public litter. The                     3.3.2 Landfill
     collection of litter includes all types of litter either it is        3.3.3 Other treatment and disposal
                                                                      3.4 Treatment and disposal of non-hazardous waste



                                                               198
                                                              Corresponding domains in Classification of
Jordanian functional classification definitions as stated
                                                              Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA 2000)
in the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS)
adopted by the Government of Jordan in the year 2001
    performed selectively or collectively. It also includes       3.4.1 Incineration
    the transportation to treatment and disposable                3.4.2 Landfill
    locations;                                                    3.4.3 Other treatment and disposal
· Treatment of waste refers to any process designed to        3.5 Measurement, control, laboratories and the like
    change the physical, chemical, or biological character    3.6 Other activities
    or composition of any waste to neutralize it, render it
    non-hazardous, safer for transport, amenable for
    recovery or storage, or to reduce it in volume. A
    particular waste may undergo more than one treatment
    process;
· Activities and measures aimed at eliminating or
    reducing the generation of solid waste;
· Activities related to treatment of hazardous waste
    which comprises the processes of physical/chemical
    treatment, thermal treatment, biological treatment,
    conditioning of wastes, and any other relevant
    treatment method. Disposal of hazardous waste
    comprises landfill, containment, underground
    disposal, dumping at sea, and any other relevant
    disposal method.
7052 Wastewater management                                    2. Wastewater management

This domain consists of activities and measures aimed at         2.1   Prevention of pollution through in-process
operating sewage systems and treating wastewater. This                 modifications
includes the following:                                          2.2   Sewerage networks
· The prevention of pollution of surface water through           2.3   Wastewater treatment
     the reduction of the release of wastewater into inland      2.4   Treatment of cooling water
     surface water and seawater;
                                                                 2.5   Measurement, control, laboratories and the
· The collection and treatment of wastewater including
                                                                       like
     monitoring and regulation activities. Septic tanks are
                                                                 2.6   Other activities
     also included;
· Activities aimed at the operation of sewerage
     networks, i.e. the collection and transport of
     wastewater from one or several users, and also
     rainwater, by means of sewerage networks, collectors,
     tanks and other means of transport (sewage vehicles,
     etc.), including maintenance and repair.
· Wastewater treatment to reclaim wastewater to a level
     that meets applicable environmental standards or other
     quality norms. This may include the different types of
     treatment (mechanical, biological, and advanced
     treatment)

7053 Pollution abatement (Protection of ambient air, soil,    1. Protection of ambient air and climate
water and climate)
                                                                 1.1    Prevention of pollution through in-process
·   This domain consists of activities and measures aimed               modifications
    at protection and remediation of air, climate, soil,               1.1.1   for the protection of ambient air
    groundwater, reduction of noise, vibration and                     1.1.2   for the protection of climate and
    protection from harmful radiation. These activities                       ozone layer



                                                        199
                                                               Corresponding domains in Classification of
Jordanian functional classification definitions as stated
                                                               Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA 2000)
in the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS)
adopted by the Government of Jordan in the year 2001
    also include activities and measures aimed at the             1.2     Treatment of exhaust gases and ventilation
    installation and management of anti-noise facilities.                 air
    These may be screens, embankments or hedges. They                    1.1.3 for the protection of ambient air
    may consist of covering sections of urban motorways                  1.1.4 for the protection of climate and
    or railroads.
                                                                                ozone layer
·   Activities and measures aimed at controlling the level
    of noise and vibration: installation and operation of
                                                                  1.3    Measurement, control, laboratories and the
    stationary measurement and monitoring sites or
    mobile equipment in urban areas, observation                         like
    networks, etc.                                                1.4    Other activities
·   Grants, loans and assistants to support activities aimed
    at pollution abatement.                                    4. Protection     and     remediation       of  soil,
                                                               groundwater and surface water
                                                                  4.1 Prevention of pollutant infiltration
                                                                  4.2 Cleaning up of soil and water bodies
                                                                  4.3    Protection of soil from erosion and other
                                                                       physical degradation
                                                                  4.4 Prevention and remediation of soil salinity
                                                                  4.5 Measurement, control, laboratories and the
                                                                       like
                                                                  4.6 Other activities

                                                               5. Noise and vibration abatement (excluding workplace
                                                               protection)
                                                                   5.1 Preventive in-process modifications at the
                                                                        source
                                                                          5.1.1   Road and rail traffic
                                                                          5.1.2   Air traffic
                                                                          5.1.3   Industrial and other noise
                                                                   5.2 Construction of anti noise/vibration facilities
                                                                           5.2.1   Road and rail traffic
                                                                           5.2.2   Air traffic
                                                                           5.2.3   Industrial and other noise

                                                                  5.3     Measurement, control, laboratories and the
                                                                  like
                                                                  5.4        Other activities


                                                               7. Protection against radiation (excluding
                                                               external safety)
                                                                  7.1        Protection of ambient media
                                                                  7.2        Transport and treatment of high level
                                                                             radioactive waste
                                                                  7.3        Measurement, control, laboratories and
                                                                             the like
                                                                  7.4        Other activities




                                                         200
                                                                 Corresponding domains in Classification of
Jordanian functional classification definitions as stated
                                                                 Environmental Protection Activities (CEPA 2000)
in the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS)
adopted by the Government of Jordan in the year 2001
7054 Protection of biodiversity and landscapes                   6. Protection of biodiversity and landscape

·   This domain covers activities for protection of                 6.1    Protection and rehabilitation of species and
    biodiversity and landscape. This includes measures                    habitats
    and activities aimed at the protection and                      6.2    Protection of natural and semi-natural
    rehabilitation of fauna and flora species, ecosystems                 landscapes
    and habitats in addition to the protection and
                                                                    6.3    Measurement, control, laboratories and the
    rehabilitation of natural and semi-natural landscapes.
                                                                          like
·   Measurement, monitoring, analysis activities which
    are related to protecting biodiversity not classified           6.4    Other activities
    under the preceding items.
·   Maintaining or establishing certain landscape types,
    biotopes, eco-zones and related issues (hedgerows,
    lines of trees to re-establish `natural corridors') have a
    clear link to biodiversity preservation
·   Grants, loans and assistants to support activities aimed
    at protecting biodiversity and landscapes.

7055. Research and development                                   8. Research and development
· This domain covers activities related to management
    and operation of public institutions in the areas of            8.1    Protection of ambient air and climate
    applied and experimental research targeted towards                    8.1.1    Protection of ambient air
    the protection of environment                                         8.1.2    Protection of atmosphere          and
· Grants, loans and assistants for supporting applied and                       climate
    experimental research targeted towards the protection           8.2    Protection of water
    of environment which are implemented by non-                    8.3    Waste
    governmental institutions such as universities and
                                                                    8.4    Protection of soil and groundwater
    research institutes.
                                                                    8.5    Abatement of noise and vibration
· Basic research identified under article 04107 is
    excluded                                                        8.6    Protection of species and habitats
                                                                    8.7    Protection against radiation
                                                                    8.8    Other research on the environment

7056     Environmental       Protection     n.e.c-    Other      9. Other environmental protection activities
environmental protection activities
· Activities refers to all environmental protection                 9.1    General environmental administration and
    activities which take the form of general                              management
    environmental administration, management, operation,                  9.1.1    General administration, regulation
    support and supervision on activities like public policy                       and the like
    formulation, coordination, planning and budget                        9.1.2    Environmental management
    preparation related to environmental protection.
· This domain also include implementation and                       9.2    Education, training and information
    preparation special standards related to founding
                                                                    9.3    Activities leading to indivisible expenditure
    services for environmental protection; and
                                                                    9.4    Activities not elsewhere classified
· Producing and disseminating public information and
    technical documents and statistics related to
    environmental protection.




                                                           201
Presentation and interpretation of PEER analysis

Governments' spending on environmental protection varies from time to time as a result of several
factors including environmental priorities, budgetary constraints, emergence etc. Despite the
existence of the public expenditure directory in Jordan since 2001, public environmental expenditure
has been reported in summary only as part of the general Government finance bulletin for the period
2002-2006. Thus the MOF team in full collaboration with the consultant staff reclassified the General
Government Expenditure of the public independent institutions and the municipalities for the period
2000-2006 using the budgetary classification that classifies public expenditures based on its
functions as portrayed in Table 60 above.

The purpose of conducting the PEER analysis is to show how the extracted results can be used on an
aggregate level and how important and useful are the different variables, different environmental
domains and the sectors concerned. The analysis and interpretation can also improve the approach to
the information that the decision-maker can use to take a decision.

The following analysis of PEE covers three types of public environmental expenditure according to
the spending agency:
1. Public expenditure of the central Government finance;
2. Public expenditure of the "public independent institutions"; and
3. Public expenditure of municipalities all over Jordan including Greater Municipality of Amman
   (GAM).

The analysis of data produced on environmental expenditure accounts is presented according to:
1. Total Public Environmental Expenditure as a percentage of GDP;
2. Analysis by individual sector: public expenditure for environmental protection in relation to total
   public expenditure;
3. Comparison of the different sectors: this covers the percentage distribution of the financial
   burden for environmental protection amongst the different Government sectors;
4. Comparison of the different environmental domains: for example, the percentage distribution of
   the financial burden of environmental protection amongst waste management, wastewater
   treatment, etc.;
5. Analysis by environmental expenditure variable: for example, capital expenditure for
   environmental protection versus current expenditure

Total Public Environmental Expenditure as a percentage of GDP

A relevant figure in the PEE analysis is the proportion of public expenditure for environmental
protection from the total of gross domestic product GDP. Table 62 shows the proportion of total
public environmental expenditures (PEE) to the total Government expenditures (TGE) at current
prices during the period 2002-2006. The ratio of the PEE to TGE over the five-year period varied
from a minimum of 1.4 percent to a maximum of 2.6 percent in 2003.




                                                 202
Table 62: Public Environmental Protection expenditure (2002-2006, current Million JOD)
Public Bodies                                            2002          2003            2004               2005                2006
Central Government Finance                          16,643,790    19,697,810      19,527,840        29,921,881          40,330,438
Public Independent Institutions                     14,108,743    58,490,879      34,342,933        22,059,170          13,027,794
Municipalities                                       2,952,468     3,507,401       2,362,524             4,415,806       4,453,667
Greater Amman Municipality*                          7,588,650     8,320,550      14,486,300        18,932,020          16,437,000
TOTAL Public Environmental Expenditure              41,293,651    90,016,640      70,719,597        75,328,877          74,248,899
(PEE)
Total Government Expenditure (TGE)               2,977,826,500   3,457,445,00   3,852,437,70       4,270,459,80        4,712,500,00
                                                                            0              0                  0                   0
Ratio of PEE to TGE                                      1.4%           2.6%              1.8%               1.8%             1.6%
Source: Ministry of Finance, except data from Greater Amman Municipality

However, to have a real sense of the expenditure figures, the values in Table 63 were adjusted to
inflation rates published by the Central Bank of Jordan (deflated). The ratios depicted in Table 63
show that the total PEE during the period 2002-2006 amounted to an average of 0.8 percent of the
total GDP at real prices (deflated prices). While for the same period the PEE formed 2.3 percent of
the total Government spending as indicated in Table 63.

Table 63: Total PEE proportion in GDP and total public expenditure (Deflated)
Years                                                                 2002        2003           2004          2005          2006
GDP at Market Prices (JOD bn)                                        6.879        7.354           8.32         9.231       10.409
Inflation rate as measured by % change in GDP deflator                 0.9          2.1            3.1           3.2         5.18
Deflated GDP (JOD bn) using GDP deflator                             6.818        7.203          8.070         8.945        9.896
Total PEE at Market Prices (JOD bn)                                  0.042        0.090          0.071         0.076        0.075
Deflated PEE (JOD bn)                                                0.042        0.088          0.068         0.074        0.072
% of PE of the GDP (%)                                              0.61%       1.23%        0.85%            0.83%        0.72%
Total Government Expenditure at Market Prices (JOD bn)               2.396        2.810          3.181         3.539        3.912
Deflated Government Budget (JOD bn)                                  2.375        2.752          3.085         3.429        3.720
PEE as % of Gov. spending                                            1.7%         3.2%           2.2%          2.2%          1.9%

Source: Central Bank of Jordan, Monthly Statistical Bulletins, different issues

There are no statistics on the proportion of PEE to the GDP in the neighboring countries in order to
make comparisons. However, available statistics from other countries show that the ratio of PEE as a
proportion of the GDP in some of the EU countries is slightly above 1% of the GDP, while in
countries like Magnolia the average expenditure represented less than 0.5% 79 (Magnolia
Environment Monitor, 2002). Some countries made a real progress in term of spending such as
Poland. Environmental expenditures in Poland have increased from 0.5 % of the GDP in. 1985 to
1.1 % in 199580. However, the reference does not specify the types of environmental activities of
which the expenditures increased.




79
     World Bank, Mongolia Environment Monitor, 2002
80
     Päivi Keskitalo, Electronic Publications of Pan-European Institute 5/2006. www.tukkk.fi/pei/pub


                                                           203
Analysis by individual sector

Table 64 shows the actual spending on environmental protection according to the records of the
Ministry of Finance for the period 2002-2006. In terms of total spending during the studied period,
the table shows that the highest spending was by the Ministry of Planning and International
Cooperation which amounted to 63 percent of the total spending on environmental protection
followed by the spending made by the Ministry of Agriculture which reached to 16 percent and the
Ministry of Municipalities at 14 percent. The table also shows that the total value of spending on
environmental protection was increasing during the studied period. In nominal terms, the
environmental expenditure of the general Government increased by 59 percent from 2002 to 2006.

Table 64: Central Government Expenditure on Environmental Protection (2002-2006)
                          Ministry                           2002            2003            2004            2005            2006
Ministry of Environment                                              -         770,447         971,584         952,044       2,993,012
Ministry of Municipalities                                   2,797,990       3,477,745       3,147,201       4,663,932       4,010,564
Ministry of Agriculture                                      3,460,707       3,610,063       3,667,217       4,098,111       5,568,524
Jordan Valley Authority/Environmental Studies                   90,637          62,464          61,629          75,679          78,355
MOF support to Jordan Environment Society                       20,000          25,000          20,000          20,000          20,000
MOF support to Jordan Combating Desert Society                  20,000          20,000          16,000          16,000          10,000
MOF support to Royal Society for Conservation of Nature         20,000         200,000         180,000         180,000         240,000
MOF support to GCEP                                            450,000               -               -               -               -
MOF support to Royal Society for Marine Conservation                 -               -          16,000          24,000          25,000
Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation           9,784,456      11,532,091      11,448,209      19,892,115      27,384,983
                          TOTAL                             16,643,790      19,697,810      19,527,840      29,921,881      40,330,438
         Total Government Expenditure (TGE)               2,396,200,000   2,809,800,000   3,180,500,000   3,538,900,000   3,912,200,000
 % of Expenditure on Env. Protection by Central Gov.          0.7%            0.7%            0.6%            0.8%            1.0%


Source: MOF, General Government Finance Bulletins, 2002-2007

In 2007, there were forty one independent public institutions in Jordan each having its own
independent budget. A separate budget bulletin is issued every year for these institutions that
contains all the expenditures under the different domains. These bulletins follow the traditional
budgetary classifications but it does not include a functional classification for environmental
protection spending by these institutions as in the case of the general Government finance. According
to the General Budgetary Department (GBD), the standard environmental functional classification
according to the Government Financial Statistics Manual (GFS) of 2001 will be adapted starting the
current financial year of 2008. For the purpose of CEA, the MOF reclassified the actual expenditures
of these institutions based on the functional classification included in the directory of 2001. Table 65
includes the main five public independent institutions that have a significant spending on
environmental protection. The table shows that the total spending on environmental protection by
these institutions amounted to JOD 144.6 million representing 6 percent of the total spending by all
independent institutions in the country. The Water Authority was the leading institution in terms of
spending on environmental protection. The figures show that 95 percent of the environmental
spending was on water authority projects such as wastewater networks and wastewater treatment
followed by spending of the Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority which amounted to 4 percent
of the total spending.




                                                             204
Table 65: Environmental Expenditure by Independent Public Institution (2002-2006)
Institution                                               2002         2003            2004        2005         2006
Water Authority                                      12,295,003   57,307,627    32,642,733    21,834,860   12,853,917
Authority of Petra Region                              145,000      202,432        142,200       129,750      99,000
Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority                 1,093,740     980,820      1,558,000     1,170,000    1,372,000
General Corporation for Environment Protection         575,000             -              -            -              -
(GCEP)
The Higher Council for Youth                                  -            -              -       94,560      74,877
Total Environmental Expenditure (PEE) by Indep       14,108,743   58,490,879    34,342,933    23,229,170   14,399,794
Inst.
Total Expenditure by Independent Institutions        418,926,50   476,945,00    498,537,70    529,659,80   541,800,00
                                                              0            0             0             0            0
Proportion of PEE to total expenditure Indep Inst.        3.4%        12.3%            6.9%        4.4%         2.7%

Source: Calculation from the General Budgetary Bulletins for Public Independent Institutions, 2000-2007
The Greater Municipality of Amman (GAM) is one of the major public independent institutions that
has its own budget and not included in the bulletins issued by GBD. The GAM records show that the
total spending on environmental protection for the studied period 2002-2006 amounted to JOD65.8
million which was mainly spent on solid waste collection and processing. In addition to support from
the MOF, other municipalities and villages around the country also obtain significant support from
the Bank of Cities and Villages for different types of activities. The total support provided by the
Bank for covering environmental protection expenses amounted to JOD17.7 million during the
period 2002-2006.
Comparison of the different domains
Reporting the expenditures by environmental domain provides a general indication of a country's
financial efforts directed towards that domain. This type of classification can give an indication of
the type and level of service that the country provides for the different environmental domains (for
example, wastewater and waste management) and the relative importance that it assigns to the
domain in relation to other services. Table 66 shows that the total expenditure by the general
Government on environmental protection on the six domains amounted to 126 million JOD during
2002-2006 of which 77 percent of the expenditure is classified under domain 705.6 (not elsewhere
classified).

Table 66: General Government PEE by domain during 2002-2006
Functional classification                              Code       2002         2003      2004      2005       2006
Waste management                                       7051        0.80         1.55      1.48      1.21      1.81
Wastewater Management                                  7052          -            -         -         -         -
Pollution abatement                                    7053          -          0.02      0.06      0.07      0.07
Protection of biodiversity and landscape               7054        3.48         3.64      3.68      4.11      5.58
R&D Environmental Protection                           7055          -          0.14      0.25      0.30      0.24
Environmental Protection n.e.c.                        7056       12.36        14.34     14.06     24.23      32.64
Total                                                             16.64        19.70     19.53     29.92      40.33
Source: Abstracted from the General Government Finance Bulletins, 2002-2007

As indicated earlier, municipalities also receive support from the Cities and Villages Bank (CVB).
This support is considered as a transfer from the central budget to all municipalities in Jordan. Table


                                                        205
67 shows the functional classification of environmental expenditure by all municipalities received
from the CVB. The table shows that out of a total of 18 million JOD received from the CVB over
the studied period, 52 percent were spent on waste management and 22 percent on wastewater
management.

Table 67: Environmental Expenditure of Municipalities by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                   Code         2002        2003           2004       2005     2006
Waste management                            7051         1.65        1.52           1.43        2.32     2.52
Wastewater Management                       7052            -        0.70           0.41       1.49      1.33
Pollution abatement                         7053            -           -              -           -        -
Protection    of    biodiversity      and   7054         0.79        1.09           0.32        0.40     0.38
landscape
R&D Environmental Protection                 7055              -         -             -          -         -
Environmental Protection n.e.c.              7056           0.62      0.28          0.27       0.29      0.28
Total                                                       3.06      3.59          2.43       4.50      4.51
Source: Calculation from the records of the Cities and Villages Bank (CVB) 2000-2007

The Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) has an independent budget from other municipalities.
Table 68 shows the major domains of spending on environmental protection made by GAM. The
table shows that the total spending of GAM on environmental protection during 2002-2006 amounted
to JOD65.8 million of which 93 percent was spent on waste management in terms of waste
collection, landfills, incineration and other treatments.

Table 68: GAM Expenditure on Environmental Protection by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                               Code       2002      2003      2004     2005    2006
Waste management                                        7051       6.84      7.33      13.60    17.87   15.29
Wastewater Management                                   7052          -         -          -        -       -
Pollution abatement                                     7053       0.43      0.53       0.60     0.65    0.70
Protection of biodiversity and landscape                7054       0.33      0.47       0.29     0.41    0.45
R&D Environmental Protection                            7055          -         -          -        -       -
Environmental Protection n.e.c.                         7056          -         -          -        -       -
Total                                                              7.59      8.32      14.49    18.93   16.44
Source: Calculation from the records of GAM 2000-2007

Table 69 shows that the total expenditure on environmental protection by the major five public
independent institutions during 2002-2006 amounted to 144.2 million JOD of which 96 percent was
spent on wastewater management mainly by the Jordan Water Authority (WAJ). According to the
latest annual report issued by WAJ, the Authority spent a sum of JOD 104 million on wastewater
projects during the period 2000-2006. The report states that this spending on wastewater projects has
raised the percentage of served population from 55 % in 2000 to 61% in 2006.




                                                      206
Table 69: Public Independent Institutions PEE by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                               Code      2002       2003      2004      2005    2006
Waste management                                        7051       0.67       1.01      1.30      1.07    1.20
Wastewater Management                                   7052      13.34      57.18     32.64     21.83   12.69
Pollution abatement                                     7053          -          -         -         -       -
Protection of biodiversity and landscape                7054       0.12       0.17      0.14      0.13    0.07
R&D Environmental Protection                            7055       0.15       0.13         -         -       -
Environmental Protection n.e.c.                         7056       0.32          -         -         -       -
Total                                                             14.60      58.49     34.08     23.03   13.96
Source: Abstracted from the General Budgetary Bulletins for Public Independent Institutions, 2000-2007

Table 70 shows the total PEE by all public institutions in Jordan classified by domain during 2002-
2006. The table indicates that the total PEE on all domains during the studied period amounted to
JOD354.14 million. The expenditure over this period has increased by 44 percent from JOD 41.9
million in 2002 to JOD75.24 million in 2006. The table shows that spending on waste management
and on other environmental protection services has increased significantly over the period.

Table 70: Total Public Expenditure on Environmental Protection by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                   Code        2002         2003         2004         2005      2006
Waste management                            7051         4.17         5.27        11.32        15.63     13.61
Wastewater Management                       7052        13.34        57.89        33.05        23.32     14.02
Pollution abatement                         7053         0.43         0.55         0.66         0.72      0.77
Protection of biodiversity           and    7054         4.71         5.37         4.44         5.05      6.48
landscape
R&D Environmental Protection                7055         0.15         0.27         0.25         0.30      0.24
Environmental Protection n.e.c.             7056        19.11        20.76        20.81        31.37     40.12
Total                                                   41.90        90.10        70.52        76.38     75.24
Source: Abstracted from the General Government Finance Bulletins, 2002-2007

Figure 67 indicates that of the total of the total JOD354 million spent on environmental protection by
all public institutions 40 percent were spent on wastewater management followed by environmental
protection items not elsewhere classified (37 percent) and then waste management (14 percent). The
three domains that received the lowest expenditure were Protection of biodiversity and landscape (7
percent), pollution abatement (1 percent) and research and development (less than 1 percent).




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Figure 67. Total Public Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006)


 Wastewater Management



  Environmental Protection
          n.e.c.



      Waste management



  Protection of biodiversity
       and landscape



      Pollution abatement



       R&D Environmental
          Protection

                               0   20   40     60         80       100   120   140     160
                                                     Million JOD

Source: Calculated from the records of the MOF, GBD, GAM and CVB (2000-2007)

Analysis of environmental expenditure variables

One of the main objectives of the PEER is to investigate the demand and supply of environmental
protection services. The way the PEER is structured allows several indicators to be derived from the
accounts. In addition to the above analyzed indicators, two main basic aggregates of the expenditure
on environmental protection, namely the current and capital expenditure, are also compared. The two
aggregates can also be related to national accounts aggregates such as GDP and gross fixed capital.
These relationships indicate the importance of environmental protection expenditure as a share of the
overall resources and uses of the economy, and thereby the efforts made by the society to reduce
pollution.

Table 71 and Table 72 below, present the capital and current environmental protection expenditures
per domain of all public institutions in Jordan. The importance of studying both types of expenditure
is that the current expenditure generates "well-being" in the present time while capital expenditure
lays the groundwork for future prosperity. It is clear from the comparison that the vast majority of the
environmental expenditure on Jordan was on capital or investment. In other words, the majority of
environmental expenditure in Jordan is intended in laying the grounds for future prosperity of the
coming generations.




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Table 71: Capital Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                  Code       2002       2003          2004    2005       2006
Waste management                           7051        2.27       3.87          9.60   11.08      12.09
Wastewater Management                      7052       11.62      53.02         27.35   17.92       7.51
Pollution abatement                        7053           -       0.02          0.06    0.07       0.07
Protection of biodiversity and landscape   7054        2.99       3.47          2.70    3.05       4.41
R&D Environmental Protection               7055        0.15       0.27          0.25    0.30       0.24
Environmental Protection n.e.c.            7056       15.87      17.47         17.46   28.07      36.65
Total                                                 32.91      78.13         57.42   60.48      60.96
Source: Abstracted from the records of the MoF, GBD, GAM and CVB (2000-2007)

Table 72: Current Environmental Expenditure by domain (2002-2006)
Functional classification                  Code         2002     2003          2004    2005       2006
Waste management                           7051         1.89      1.39          1.72    4.55       1.53
Wastewater Management                      7052         1.72      4.87          5.69    5.41       6.51
Pollution abatement                        7053         0.43      0.53          0.60    0.65       0.70
Protection of biodiversity and landscape   7054         1.72      1.90          1.74    2.00       2.07
R&D Environmental Protection               7055            -         -             -       -          -
Environmental Protection n.e.c.            7056         3.24      3.29          3.35    3.30       3.47
Total                                                   8.99     11.97         13.10   15.90      14.28
Source: Abstracted from the records of the MoF, GBD, GAM and CVB (2000-2007)

Conclusions and recommendations

·   The PEER can be a useful tool to establish the relationship between expenditure and the state of
    the environment which can be investigated with supplementary information on the overall
    context of a country. High expenditure on environmental protection can be related with low
    environmental quality (the situation makes expenditure necessary) and also with high
    environmental quality (that has improved over time as a result of the PEE).
·   Due to the absence of statistics on environmental protection expenditure in the MENA region, it
    is hard to compare Jordan' position in expenditure on environmental protection in comparison to
    the other countries. However, available statistics on the ratio of PEE as a proportion of the GDP
    in some of the EU countries shows that the ratio is slightly above 1%. In other words, Jordan's
    spending as a ratio of GDP has been higher than some countries of the EU.
·   The trend in PEE should be interpreted with caution: if, at some point in time, all areas of Jordan
    is covered with wastewater networks then no further environmental protection on that item will
    be required for years to come. Therefore, in the long run the trend in environmental expenditure
    may be downward sloping.
·   Since the GOJ will apply the functional classification system for environmental expenditure
    starting this year, it is recommend to classify the expected expenditures into two digits to allow
    for considering further details in environmental expenditure. This will help in providing a clearer
    image of PEE and therefore improves the accuracy of the analysis and the decision making
    process. It is worth mentioning here that many difficulties faced the team in preparing the PEER
    due to the lack of the proper and detailed classification of environmental expenditure. In addition,
    there is a lack of capacity in conducting this kind of analysis properly at almost all of the



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    different involved public institutions. This calls for designing a special training program for all
    public institutions involved in environmental protection in the country. The program should
    benefit from the experience of the European System and the new UN system that can be adapted
    to Jordan.
·   The above analysis shows that the public environmental expenditure is in line with the
    Government national priorities as indicated in the National Agenda and in the different plans of
    the key ministries such as the MoWI and the Ministry of Environment as well as GAM. As a
    result, Jordan's Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) rank has improved over the last six
    years from 4.99 in 2001 to 6.36 in 2006 on a scale of 10. The new rank puts Jordan at a highest
    position in the MENA region after Oman despite the fact that many of the MENA countries
    suffers from the same environmental challenges especially water scarcity.




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Annex 5: Review of Jordan's Environment Impact Assessment System

I.     Introduction:

1.      As part of the third pillar of the CEA, an assessment of the national EIA system in Jordan
was performed whose purpose was to (a) assess the current status of EIA procedure and practice in
Jordan; (b) carry our an EIA diagnostic review of the national EIA system, determining the
similarities and difference between the national EIA system in one hand and the World Bank and the
European Commission (EC) on the other; and (c) propose recommendations and an action plan to
improve the national EIA system so that it can be made compatible with the World Bank EIA
requirements.

II.    Assessment of the National EIA System

2        The legal basis for the EIA is established in the Environment Protection law #52 (EPL) for
the year 2006 which superseded an interim EPL #1 of 2003 creating the Ministry of Environment.
The later also abolished the General Corporation for Environment Protection (GCEP) which was
created by EPL 12 of 1995. All these laws are considered framework laws under which regulations,
directives and other environmental legislation should be subsequently prepared. An essential
provision of Laws #1 of 2003 and #52 of 2006 is that "The Ministry shall be considered as the
competent authority for the protection of environment in the Kingdom, and the official and national
authorities shall be bound to implement the instructions and resolutions issued under the provisions
of this law and the regulations issued in accordance therewith, under penalty of legal responsibility
provided for therein and in any other legislation." In this regard the Ministry of Environment has two
concurrent mandates: a conventional mandate for policy and legal development and coordination,
and a regulatory agency for follow up monitoring and control of the environmental regulations
through the Environment Police which was renamed as environmental rangers. A major change
between the activities of GCEP and that of the Ministry of Environment is that the former primarily
concerned itself with the promotion of environmental protection, whereas the Ministry aims to have a
much stronger and proactive role in policy and legal formulation as well as monitoring and
enforcement.

3.      Procedures for Environmental Impact Assessment in Jordan were initiated by GCEP under
Article 15 of the 1995 EPL and completed by the Ministry under Article 4 of EPL#1 of 2003, and
subsequently by EPL #52. This article empowered the General Corporation for Environmental
Protection (GCEP) to develop procedures and measures for EIA. An EIA Directorate was established
within GCEP. This Directorate was responsible for administering the EIA system, and for
coordinating the licensing of development activities. EIA studies were conducted on an ad hoc basis,
primarily under the requirements of international agencies, and there were no guidelines, regulations
and standards governing the EIA process. This situation was reversed with the enactment of
subsequent EPLs and there was a remarkable progress since 2003 in order to institutionalize the EIA
system in Jordan

4.      The EIA regulations #37 of 2006 and its five annexes were enacted in response to EPL #1 of
2003 and subsequently to EPL #52 of 2006. These require that the project proponent would contract
with a national consulting firm to conduct the EIA and prepare an EIA report. It also provides full
authority to the Ministry of Environment through its department of Licensing and Guidance (which
included the EIA section) to arrange for screening, control and follow up on the EIA process and its
implementation. The approval of an EIA is a pre-requisite for any subsequent license or permit by

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any or all other relevant authorities that may be required prior to construction. All development
projects, regardless of EIA classification, must adhere to the air emission, water, wastewater reuse;
industrial and municipal discharges stipulated by the Jordanian Institute for Standards and
Metrology. The essential elements of the Jordanian procedures are summarized in table 1 below:
Table 73. Summary of the Jordanian EIA Procedures
Stage              Activity
                   -The Project Proponent completes a Project Information Form (PIF) of the intended project and
                   submits it the Ministry of Environment for screening.
                   -An Inter-ministerial Central Licensing Committee reviews the PIF, and after conducting site
Initial  Filing    surveys determines if the project is classified among:
and Screening          1. Category I projects for which an EIA report is required
                       2. Category II projects for which an initial EIA is only required
                       3. Category III for which no environment analysis is required
                   -The decision is publicly displayed for 2 weeks.
                    The Ministry issues legally binding guidance on the scope of the Assessment
Scoping            -Proponent prepares a ToR, after a mandatory public consultation.
                   - An Inter-Ministerial Technical Review Committee (TRC) review and approve the ToR.
                   - A complete EIA is submitted to the Technical Evaluation Committee which evaluates:
                        · its general conformity to the ToR;
                        · the methodologies used, the scientific validity and legal value
Technical
Evaluation                 of the evidence presented;
                        · the soundness and compatibility of the impacts with respect to environmental protection,
                           the content of the environment management plan(EMP), standards, and other references.
                   - The TEC reports its finding to the Minister of e Environment.
                   -The Minister reviews the Committee's report and notifies its decision to the Proponent and
                   publishes it within 45 days. After this period, or if no decision is posted, the EIA is deemed to
Decision     and   have been accepted.
Approval
                   -If the EIA is rejected, the proponent has 15 days to appeal to the Minister of Environment which
                   establishes a three person independent committee to review the decision.
Licensing          Upon approval of the EIA report, the proponent receives an environment license to proceed.

                   The Ministry of Environment is required to follow up on the implementation of the Environment
Monitoring
                   Management Plan and reporting the results of monitoring.

Disclosure    of   The Ministry can make available to the concerned parties and upon their request the (non
EIA                confidential) information related to the EIA

5.      Although not required by the EIA legislation, complementary measures were also taken in
practice to strengthen further the national EIA system. These measures included (a) the requirements
for most projects in category II to prepare an EIA report similar to Category I projects; (b) the
enlargement of the 10 members of the technical review committee to include four additional
members from universities and NGOs as de facto permanent members; (c) the approval of the
Technical Review Committee of the TOR of the EIA before and after scoping and (d) consultation
with the stakeholders after scoping and during the preparation of the EIA.

III.      Assessment of the ASEZA EIA System.
6.    In parallel to the national EIA system, a similar EIA system is in place for the Aqaba Special
Economic Zone Authority (ASEZA) which was established by Law No. (32) of the year 2000, to

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manage the economic and social development of the Aqaba region. This Law assumes the powers of
the Ministry of Environment for the protection of the environment and a special environmental
protection regulation No 21 of 2001 was developed with the assistance of the World Bank as an
executing agency for the GEF financed Gulf Environment Action programme which includes articles
on EIA. ASEZA EIA procedures are similar to the national one in Table 1, except that the ASEZA
Environment Regulation Directorate substitutes for the Central Licensing Committee and the
Technical Review committee respectively for screening, scoping and the technical reviews of the
EIA process, and that the ASEZA Commissioner for the Environment is responsible for the approval
of the EIA and providing the environment license. One distinguishing feature between the ASEZA
and the National EIA systems is that the former requires consultation with the stakeholders during
the EIA preparation process while the later only limits consultation to scoping. Also the disclosure
and dissemination of the EIA report is allowed in ASEZA regulations (but is not practiced), whereas
disclosure is only limited to the concerned parties and upon request by the project proponent for the
national EIA system.

IV.      Diagnostic Review of the National EIA System
7.In order to elevate the image of Jordan in the international arena for environmental protection in
general and for establishing a harmonized platform on EIA in particular to facilitate foreign direct
investment and donor support, two mutually compatible assessments were undertaken. The first one
was to determine the similarities and difference between the national EIA system in one hand and the
World Bank operational policy (OP 4.01) on environment assessment and EIA guidelines in
European Council Directive 97/11/EC, on the other. This was necessary in view of the Jordan's
Association Agreement with the EU which requires several measures for harmonizing the national
environmental management system with the one of the EU. Such an assessment is an update of a
study undertaken by METAP in 2000 and complements also a study financed by the EC on the
"Concordance on Environmental Legislation in Jordan Compared with the EU legislation". The
second assessment was a safeguard diagnostic review to assess the ability of the national EIA system
to deliver the World Bank's requirements from the equivalence between the two systems (World
Bank and Jordan's EIA systems), and acceptability of the national EIA system to be applied on the
ground. This assessment used the 11 operational principles approved by the World Bank Board of
Directors in its Policy 4.0 for the use of country systems in EIA and in line with the Paris Declaration
on Aid Effectiveness of March 2005.

8.    A comparison between the Jordan EIA system and the system of the World Bank and the EC
showed that:

·     Many features of the Jordanian EA system are compatible with the World Bank EA Policy (OP
      4.01) and EC 97/11, namely in (i) screening, (ii) scoping; (iii) the EIA report content, (iv) the
      content of the Environment Management Plan, (v) Provisions for Appeal; (vi) Requirements for
      monitoring and follow up.
·     The EIA regulations for both the national and ASEZA systems describe the screening methods
      on the basis of three categories of project types: Category I for which an EIA is mandatory and is
      similar to category A projects of OP 4.01 provided that additional projects such as water and
      wastewater and solid waste are added. Category II which may result in less severe environmental
      impact and requires an initial EIA whose description is not fully defined. This category of
      projects resembles category B projects of OP 4.01 and Category III projects with minor
      environmental impacts which do not require an environment analysis.



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o The regulations #21 /2001 for the EIA and Environment Audit for the Aqaba Special Economic
  Zone (ASEZA) is compatible with World Bank OP 4.01 (Environment Assessment) with minor
  modifications. However the EIA regulation #37 pertaining to the national EIA system requires
  additional features to be compatible with the two systems. Some guidelines and sector guidelines
  and criteria for screening and for EIA reviews other than those which exist, are required.
·    The most important difference is in the public consultation during the EIA process and in
     publicly disclosing the EIA reports. There is limited consultation during EIA process beyond
     scoping (except with ASEZA) and there is an absence of documentation for public consultations.
     Furthermore, there is a limited disclosure of the EIA report, and in the case of ASEZA in which
     the EIA regulations require full disclosure of the EIA report, this is not implemented for fear of
     plagiarism by the national consulting firms.

A.      Equivalence Assessment
9.      Table 74 summarizes the results of the gap analysis between the national EIA system and the
operational principles of the World Bank Operational Policy for the use of country systems in EIA.

Table 74. Gap Analysis
Rating of Gaps between     Operational Principles of the World Bank Operational Policy (OP 4.00) on the Use
the National/ASEZA         of Country Systems
EIA systems and the
OP 4.00
No Gaps exist for the      ·   Environment and social soundness of projects, and integration of environmental
corresponding principles       and social aspects of projects
                           ·   Assessment of potential impacts (physical, biological, socio economic, human
                               health and safety).
                           ·   Analysis of Alternatives
                           ·   Analysis of positive and negative impacts and preparation of environment
                               management plan
                           ·   Use of independent expertise for the preparation and review of the EIA
                           ·   Linking environmental measures with economic and financial feasibility
                           ·   Use screening for sub-projects in programs
Moderate Gaps exist for    ·    Trans-boundary and global concerns are not required
the corresponding          ·    No specific requirements for compliance with International Agreements although
principles                     Jordan is signatory of International Treaties and Conventions, are part of the
                               Constitution
                           ·   National standards and guidelines were not based on the Pollution Prevention and
                               Abatement Handbook of the World Bank
                           ·   No specific requirements for the use of independent advisory panels for highly
                               risky and contentious projects
Significant Gaps exist     ·    Screening of projects does not include indirect, cumulative and associated impacts
for the following              (except with ASEZA) and use of regional or sectoral environment assessment is not
principles                     required.
                           ·   No involvement of stakeholders (affected groups and NGOs) and continued
                               consultations are required throughout project preparation (except with ASEZA)
                           ·    Public Disclosure and Accessibility of the EIA report are not required (except with
                               ASEZA)

B.      MoEnv's Current and Proposed Measures to Improve the EIA System

10.    The MoEnv is currently developing a set of new policy and regulations to improve its overall
EIA process and content. The proposed changes included:


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     ·   A recently new organization structure was developed in collaboration with the EC funded
         institutional Support to the MoEnv 81 in which three new directorates were established and
         provide inputs to the EIA process:
             ­ Directorate of Licensing and Guidance consisting of the 7 staff and which includes
                  the EIA department consisting of 2 staff only. This directorate is responsible for
                  undertaking environmental impact assessment studies and implementing an
                  integrated and single media licensing for applicable enterprises in line with the new
                  proposed Regulations on EIA and Licensing. The EIA section manages the EIA
                  process on behalf of the MoEnv, prepares the necessary documentation required for
                  the project proponent for EIA, organize and follow up on the review of the Central
                  Licensing Committee and the Technical Review Committee and maintains permanent
                  contacts between the project proponent, and prepare the environmental clearances to
                  be signed by the Minister
             ­ Directorate of Monitoring and Assessment consisting of 4 staff. This directorate is
                  responsible for monitoring the impact of pollutants (air, water, groundwater, soil and
                  waste) and providing information about the current environmental status and to
                  ensure its availability for decision making processes. The directory could provide
                  valuable information on the base line date for project proponents and for the central
                  licensing committee in which the director is a member and for the technical review
                  committee (see recommendations).
             ­ Directorate of Inspection and Enforcement consists of 4 staff members. Its
                  responsibility is to verify the compliance and penalize violators for non compliance
                  of installations with the environmental laws and regulations. The Directorate is also
                  required to coordinate directly with the Licensing and Guidance directorate regarding
                  the EIA and licensing conditions, though this has not occurred yet.

     ·   Draft revisions of the following regulations were also prepared on the basis of pertinent
         aspects of EU directives, Regulations and Decisions for the following two pieces of
         legislation:
             ­ Revising EIA regulations #37 into EIA regulations and licensing to ensure effective
                  preventive environmental protection. The revised regulation is based on an integrated
                  licensing of all major polluting activities in Jordan in harmonization with the EU
                  IPPC Directive (96/61/EC) and provided a revision the entire process with a revised
                  list of licensable activities) through the EIA stage (developmental) and licensing
                  stage (operational).
             ­ Regulations for Environmental Compliance Control to regulate the monitoring,
                  inspection and enforcement rights as to ensure compliance of installations and
                  industrial vehicles with environmental standards and obligations

11.     In order to further strengthen the EIA and licensing system, the MoEnv signed in February
2008 a memorandum of Understanding with the USAID -funded Sustainable Mechanism of Business
Expansion and Quality programme (SABEQ) to (a) develop and implement an integrated
environment and licensing system; (b) Identify and document the current environment and licensing
system; (c) Study best international practice for Environment and Licensing; and (d) Develop and
support the implementation of the new licensing system. It is expected that SABEQ will develop the
integrated environment and licensing system based on the recommendations of the CEA and taking

81
  Support to the Implementation of the EU-Jordan Association Agreement Programme- Institutional Support to the Ministry of
Environment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on Environmental management and Legislation., PM documents No 30047-
06-RP-006(A), November 2005-2007

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into consideration the draft revised regulations supported by the EU. This will ensure that the MoEnv
will receive technical support from SABEQ to remove over time the moderate and significant gaps
described in table 2 above.

C.      Acceptability Assessment

12.   In reviewing the implementation practices, track record and institutional capacity of the
MoEnv, its regional directorates and ASEZA, the EIA system suffers from administrative, technical
and management shortcomings.

13.     There is a serious shortage of trained human resources in the MoEnv and in the six regional
environmental directorates for EIA administration and management. MoEnv has 2 staff members in
its EIA section, to process 1000 applications annually for screening by the Central Licensing
Committee, and 25 EIA reports for review by the Technical Review Committee. This is in clear
contrast with ASEZA, in which 4 environment specialists process 15-20 EIAs annually. The EIA
section of the inspection and guidance department has a budget limited to JOD 60,000 per year to
pay for honorarium for members of the Central Licensing System and for the Technical Review
Committee. It also collects the following fees for screening and EA review which are transferred to
the Ministry of Finance JOD 750 for Category I projects, JOD 50 for Category II projects and JOD
25 for Category III projects

14.      The screening and review process are based on the expert opinion of its committee members.
There are no established criteria, guidelines and rules for reviewing EIA and making decisions on
approval/disapproval of the EIA reports. The screening guidelines of 2007 for the "selection of the
sites for development activities" is mostly based on determining allowable distances for specific
installations, and taking also into consideration in article 21 other regulations and legislation (such as
water resources) without specifying the necessary requirements in these regulations.

14.    There are neither standard terms of references (TOR) for preparing EIA reports in specific
nor comprehensive sector guidelines, as each proponent submits its own TOR for approval to the
Central Licensing Committee. This has led to poor quality of EIA reports, encouraged project
proponents to pay less for the preparation of EIA reports using consulting firms that provide the
cheapest financial offers and forced experienced consulting firms to sacrifice quality and
performance at the expense of low price and of not losing EIA contracts.

15.     A review of sample of scoping and EIA reports of their content and quality indicate generally
that the requirements in the EIA regulations # 37 are not often met, and that the quality of these
reports are variable. For example, while the project description in the EIA report is adequate, the
environmental impacts and their mitigating measures are qualitatively described; there are several
shortcomings on the quantitative treatment of alternatives, which are often not analyzed from
economic and financial point. In addition the EMP lacks costs for implementing mitigating measures;
monitoring and institutional measures are often neglected. The EIA reports are also variable in
quality. The overall quality of EIA reports for energy and cement projects are reasonably good. EIA
reports in the industrial sectors (such as fertilizers) are generally weaker and there is also emphasis
on «thick Annexes» of textbook types, mostly to impress the project proponent and the MoEnv. The
comprehensiveness and quality of the EIA reports improve whenever the project is co-financed with
international organizations or the project is for large infrastructure and financed by the Government.
One of the possible reasons is that the EIA costs for project co-financed by international
organizations are higher, whereas local industries tend to finance EIA reports with consulting firms
that would price the lowest costs. The technical review committee has refused EIA reports because

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of poor quality such as the EIA report for the cement factory in Karak. Similarly ASEZA has rejected
an EIA report on energy in Aqaba.

16.     The track record for monitoring and enforcement is still evolving. There is fragmentation at
the national and regional levels to the effect that no single institution can take enforcement actions
effectively. The directorate of Inspection and Enforcement as well and the 6 environment regional
directorates conduct separate inspections, issue warnings and enforce temporary closure through the
Environment Rangers. In view of lack of measuring equipment and inspection manuals, inspections
are based on ad-hoc complaints and are usually conducted visually. Inspection at the national and
local level resulted in temporary closure of 66 installations in 2007 and 13 in 2006 for small and
medium enterprises belonging to the private sector for lack of compliance with the environmental
law # 52 of 2006. Written warnings were provided to 154 installations in 2007 and 28 in 2006 mostly
to SME, hospitals and industries mostly from the private sector. Fines vary from JOD 100-500 (or 1
week-30 days in prison) for non compliance with noise levels (Article 12 of law 52/2006) and from
JOD 100-1000 (1 week -30 days in prison) for emission of pollutants (Article 19), however fines are
not collected because the Environment Fund is not functional yet. There is no follow up on the
implementation of the EMP as required by the EIA regulation, because of lack of staff, resources and
manuals for inspections, and there are no fines for not conducting an EIA.

V.     Local Mechanism for Redressing Grievances

17.     A positive aspect of the Environmental law is that it allows any citizen and/or any
organization to report to the MoEnv and its regional directorates violations regarding emissions and
nuisances. MoEnv has established a hot line (# 552- 8563) in the department of Inspection and
Enforcement which receives, follows up on complaints and dispatches them to the necessary
authorities. Complaints are resolved within 1-2 weeks by the MoEnv or within 1-2 months by sector
ministries. In the case of EIA reviews, there is a three member appeal committee appointed by the
Minister to review the decision in case the EIA report is rejected by the Technical Review
Committee.

18.     The general public in Jordan is becoming increasingly active in the environmental field, as a
result of its increased awareness about environmental issues. Also, the media is also contributing
largely to this increased awareness and to change in behavior. All the major newspapers carry out
reports on environmental activities, and do not hesitate to bring to the public the major violations
undertaken by the Government or by the private sector.

19.     There are 25 local NGOs that are increasing involved in environmental and natural resources
protection. Two of these NGOs are actively involved in the EIA process namely the Jordan
Environment Society (JES) and the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN), the
former is also a member of the technical review committee. Both NGOs have successfully used the
EIA process to challenge Government projects that would negatively impact the environment and
nature reserves

20.      There has been several instances where the NGOs and in particular the JES, succeeded in
retracting the MoEnv decision for approving EIA's reports and for issuing the environmental permit.
For example, upon public pressure, the environment permit for the cement factory in Fuhais was
retracted, because of the use of shale oil as a source of fuel. Also JES succeeded in stopping the
import of slags from Iraq because it may have contained hazardous materials. Two years ago, the
permit for the construction of a hospital was stopped by the Prime Minister because the hospital was
situated in the "Scandinavian Forest" in Baqaa governorate.

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21.      There have been cases where the EIA reports were approved and environment permits issued
despite objections from NGOs and the press. One of these cases was the Dibeen Tourist Project to be
financed by the Jordan Dubai Capital at a capital cost of JOD 142 million. This project was to be
erected on lands belonging to the Social Security Corporation, and which were used as a park with
facilities including lodging, restaurant, shops, and children's playground. The project with an initial
area of 48.3 ha, borders the Dibeen Nature Reserve which was established with assistance from GEF
funds. The EIA was prepared by a national consulting firm on the basis of an MOU signed between
the RSCN and the Jordan Dubai Capital, and subsequently approved by the Technical Review
Committee and the environment permit was issued. As a result of 16 NGOs objection and press
campaigns, the master plan was revised after negotiations with RSCN. The project area was reduced
to 25.7 ha and the capital cost was accordingly decreased to JOD 70 million to build a 50 room hotel
and 80 residential units. However the hotel will still be located in Dibeen forest area neighboring the
nature reserve, which according to some NGOs, is not in compliance with the Jordan's law for
agriculture no. 44 for year 2002.

VI.    Public Consultation and Disclosure

22.      As stated in paragraph 8, the EIA regulations require public consultation only at the scoping
stage, and the disclosure of the EIA reports is limited to the project proponents and specifically
authorized by the Minister of the Environment. In ASEZA, public consultation is required even after
scoping and the EIA reports are supposed to be made public though ASEZA management does not
disclose the reports for fear that national consulting firms "cut and paste" EIA reports. Public
consultation and disclosure are permitted in the Jordanian legislation, namely Public Law # No 79 of
1966 related to Town and Country Planning and its amendment # 29/1979 which allows consultation
and disclosure of local and regional master plans. Projects co financed by the International Financial
Institutions and donors require full consultation and dissemination of the EIA reports to public
locations in country. MoEnv expressed its full support to amend the EIA regulations in order to
require public consultations throughout the EIA process and widely disclose the TEC decision and
the EIA reports.

VII.    Recommendations

23.      Despite its recent establishment, the MoEnv continues to make considerable progress towards
institutionalizing the EIA system in Jordan. However improvement of the EIA process should be
realistically implemented over short and medium term, taking into consideration MoEnv's limited
human and financial resources. The recommendations proposed would be based first on the
consolidation and strengthening of the existing EIA system using existing EIA laws and regulations
followed by changes and reforms of these regulations once the consolidation phase is successfully
implemented and verified. The following general recommendations are proposed for the
consolidation phase. They were discussed at a consultation workshop on March 10, 2008 which
included 23 representatives from the MoEnv, ASEZA, sector ministries, private consulting firms,
NGOs, and the EU and USAID.




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    a. Apply the Jordanian Public Law related to public consultation and disclosure.
    b. Upgrade the regulations of the Jordanian EIA system to the ASEZA EIA standards, including
       environmental audits
    c. Prepare standard TORs, comprehensive sector EA guidelines and EA reviews, and decision
       making criteria for the Central Licensing Committee and the Technical Review Committee
    d. Establish concrete working procedures and guidelines so that the three departments of
       Licensing and Guidance, Monitoring and Assessment and Inspection and Enforcement
       collaborate together and coordinate with the regional environmental directorates so that
       environmental assessment procedures are complied with at the national and local levels
    e. Be strategic in prioritizing the inspection and control program at the national and local levels,
       using risk health assessment and degradation of water resources as primary objectives
    f. Outsource the inspection of large polluting installations as well as monitoring and follow up
       of the Environment Management Plans to a third qualified party in the same manner as the
       MoEnv is outsourcing the water quality monitoring to the Royal Scientific Society (RSS), the
       natural reserves to the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature and the EIA training to
       the Jordan Environment Society (JES).

VIII.    Proposed Action Plan for the Gaps Filling Measures

24.    The following actions are proposed to address the weaknesses (gaps) to achieve equivalence
and acceptability for using the national EIA system in the World Bank operations:

Table 75. Proposed actions to sustain the equivalence and acceptability
Actions to be taken                                               Legal basis                     By Whom
Develop sector EIA guidelines and generic TORs that will          Article #2 of the EIA           SABEQ, Department
include the analysis of cumulative, indirect, trans-              regulations #37 allows          of Licensing and
boundary and global impacts, methods for public                   issuance of a MoEnv             Guidance (DLG) and
consultation and the use of the World Bank PPAH                   instruction                     Minister of
Handbook. TOR should be developed first for the                   (Taalimat).                     Environment
following sectors: solid waste, water and wastewater
treatment, power plants, transport and industrial state,
natural resources and biodiversity protection

Prepare a sample format for the content of the EIA report         Annex 4 of ASEZA                ASEZA and DLG
for Category II project using the ASEZA model                     regulations #21/2001
Modify the list of projects for category I screening to           Article 4 B of the EIA          Minister of
include : landfills, water and wastewater treatment plants,       regulations allows the          Environment and DLG
large hotels, desalination                                        Minister of the Environment
                                                                  to require the project
                                                                  proponent to conduct and
                                                                  EIA for projects not
                                                                  specified in categories I and
                                                                  II
Amend Articles 9 B and Article 18 of the Environmental            Use as interim, article 12 of   MoEnv legal office,
Regulations to allow public consultation and public               the EIA regulations which       DLG, Minister of
disclosure                                                        allows the MoEnv to require     Environment and
                                                                  additional conditionalities     Council of Ministers
                                                                  after the EIA is approved
Develop environmental criteria in addition to siting, for         Article #2 of the EIA           SABEQ, Department
screening and licensing                                           regulations #37 allows          of Licensing and
                                                                  issuance of a MoEnv             Guidance (DLG) and

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Actions to be taken                                             Legal basis                      By Whom
                                                                instruction (Taalimat)           Minister of
                                                                                                 Environment
Develop a format, criteria and guidelines for reviewing         Article #2 of the EIA            SABEQ, DLG and
EIA reports for revised Categories I and II projects            regulations #37 allows           MOE
                                                                issuance of a MoEnv
                                                                instruction (Taalimat)
Require the project proponent operator after the EIA            Article 12 of the EIA            SABEQ, DLG and
approval to: (a) submit to the department of enforcement        regulations allows the           MoEnv
and control, an annual progress report of the                   MoEnv to require additional
implementation of the EMP and (b) collaborate with a            conditionalities after the EIA
third party verificator (to be contracted by MoEnv) for a       is approved
spot check review of the EMP during construction and
operation

Sustain the progress made and continue to improve the                                            DLG assisted by a
EIA process.                                                                                     team of independent
    a. Carry out annual review of the quality of EIA for                                         consultants and a core
         category I projects introduce corrective measures                                       group of trainers from
         for sustaining the improved EIA process;                                                the local universities
    b. Train a core group of EIA trainers (local EIA                                             and research institutes
         consultants and EIA reviewers at MoEnv) and                                             in Jordan and
                                                                                                 supported by USAID
    c. Train MoEnv, regional environment directorates,
                                                                                                 and the EU
         EIA consultants and reviewers, media, and sector
         ministries
Improve compliance monitoring:                                                                   SABEQ with
    a. Prepare inspection manuals for the Inspection                                             assistance from the
        and Enforcement department as well as for the                                            department of
        regional environment directorates                                                        Inspection and
    b. Train the Department of Inspection and                                                    Enforcement and the
        Enforcement (I&E) as well as the regional                                                Minister of the
        environment directorates on the use of the                                               Environment
        inspection manuals for SME
    c. Prepare TOR for outsourcing the inspection of
        the large polluting industries as well for
        monitoring the follow up on the EMP, and
        contract to a national firm accordingly
    d. Develop a database on compliance status on:
        (i) maintenance of environmental registers,
        (ii) implementation of agreed compliance
        actions; and (iii) monitoring actions taken
        against those who are not in compliance




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Annex 6. List of participants to the CEA final workshop
Name                                         Institution
Rose Smadi                                   Amman Chamber of Industry
Ahmad Barqawi                                Assabil Newspaper
Munther Badiyad                              Department of Statistics
Rami Dabbas                                  Drivers and Vehicles Licensing Department
Danuta El-Ghuff                              European Commission Delegation
Zaydoun Nsour                                Greater Amman Municipality
Mohammed Jarrah                              Irbid District Electricity Company
Ghaida Abu Rumman                            Isra University
Abdallah Attieh                              Jordan Chamber of Commerce
H.E. Mohammed Al Rajeb                       Jordan Chamber of Commerce
Anas Khasawneh                               Jordan Chamber of Industry
Sayyed Khattri                               Jordan Environment Society
Adnan Khdair                                 Jordan University for Science and Technology
Jamal Abu-Ashour                             Jordan University for Science and Technology
Ala'a A. Rezeq                               JREDS
Danika Hijazi                                MEDSTAT
Lubna Qaryouti                               Ministry of Agriculture
Mahmud Abu Sitta                             Ministry of Agriculture
Nedal Gharaiebeh                             Ministry of Agriculture
Roal Issa Ateyat                             Ministry of Agriculture
Suleiman Abbadi                              Ministry of Agriculture
Mohammed Dabbas                              Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
Mohammed Daghash                             Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
Dua'a Anani                                  Ministry of Environment
Mohammed Afaneh                              Ministry of Environment
Abdullah Hyassat                             Ministry of Health
Reem Al Riwees                               Ministry of Health
Abeer Haj Hasan                              Ministry of Industry and Trade
Mahmoud Shiyyab                              Ministry of Interior
Ahmad Al Jazzar                              Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation
Awad Hararsheh                               Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation
Saleh Kharabsheh                             Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation
Sahar Al-Barari                              Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
Asma Hwary                                   Ministry of Transport
H.E. Mohammed Qudah                          Ministry of Transport
Naghem Soub                                  Ministry of Transport
Mohammed Al Momani                           Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Saleh Al Ouran                               Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Sami abri Baj                                Rangers
Mohammad Mosa                                Royal Scientific Society
Mohammed Yousef                              Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature
Dr. Amal Hijazi                              USAID
Iman Rifai                                   Vocational Training
Susan Kilani                                 Water Authority of Jordan
Adnan Budeiri                                Water Conservation Society
Ahmed Shawky                                 World Bank
Gert Soer                                    World Bank
Hussein Shafa'Amri                           Zarqa Chamber of Industry




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